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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 4, Part 3, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 4, Part 3
+       "Brescia" to "Bulgaria"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: November 2, 2006 [EBook #19699]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, Keith Edkins and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note: A few typographical errors have been corrected: they
+are listed at the end of the text. Volume and page numbers have been
+incorporated into the text of each page as: v.04 p.0001.
+
+[v.04 p.0498] volumes x.-xiv., the preface to vol. xi. containing important
+researches into the French communes. To the _Table chronologique des
+diplômes, chartes, lettres, et actes imprimés concernant l'histoire de
+France_ he contributed three volumes in collaboration with Mouchet
+(1769-1783). Charged with the supervision of a large collection of
+documents bearing on French history, analogous to Rymer's _Foedera_, he
+published the first volume (_Diplomatat. Chartae_, &c., 1791). The
+Revolution interrupted him in his collection of _Mémoires concernant
+l'histoire, les sciences, les lettres, et les arts des Chinois_, begun in
+1776 at the instance of the minister Bertin, when fifteen volumes had
+appeared.
+
+See the note on Bréquigny at the end of vol. i. of the _Mémoires de
+l'Académie des Inscriptions_ (1808); the Introduction to vol. iv. of the
+_Table chronologique des diplômes_ (1836); Champollion-Figeac's preface to
+the _Lettres des rois et reines_; the _Comité des travaux historiques_, by
+X. Charmes, vol. i. _passim_; N. Oursel, _Nouvelle biographie normande_
+(1886); and the _Catalogue des manuscrits des collections Duchesne et
+Bréquigny_ (in the Bibliothèque Nationale), by René Poupardin (1905).
+
+(C. B.*)
+
+BRESCIA (anc. _Brixia_), a city and episcopal see of Lombardy, Italy, the
+capital of the province of Brescia, finely situated at the foot of the
+Alps, 52 m. E. of Milan and 40 m. W. of Verona by rail. Pop. (1901) town,
+42,495; commune, 72,731. The plan of the city is rectangular, and the
+streets intersect at right angles, a peculiarity handed down from Roman
+times, though the area enclosed by the medieval walls is larger than that
+of the Roman town, which occupied the eastern portion of the present one.
+The Piazza del Museo marks the site of the forum, and the museum on its
+north side is ensconced in a Corinthian temple with three _cellae_, by some
+attributed to Hercules, but more probably the Capitolium of the city,
+erected by Vespasian in A.D. 73 (if the inscription really belongs to the
+building; cf. Th. Mommsen in _Corp. Inscrip. Lat._ v. No. 4312, Berlin,
+1872), and excavated in 1823. It contains a famous bronze statue of
+Victory, found in 1826. Scanty remains of a building on the south side of
+the forum, called the _curia_, but which may be a basilica, and of the
+theatre, on the east of the temple, still exist.
+
+Brescia contains many interesting medieval buildings. The castle, at the
+north-east angle of the town, commands a fine view. It is now a military
+prison. The old cathedral is a round domed structure of the 10th (?)
+century erected over an early Christian basilica, which has forty-two
+ancient columns; and the Broletto, adjoining the new cathedral (a building
+of 1604) on the north, is a massive building of the 12th and 13th centuries
+(the original town hall, now the prefecture and law courts), with a lofty
+tower. There are also remains of the convent of S. Salvatore, founded by
+Desiderius, king of Lombardy, including three churches, two of which now
+contain the fine medieval museum, which possesses good ivories. The church
+of S. Francesco has a Gothic façade and cloisters. There are also some good
+Renaissance palaces and other buildings, including the Municipio, begun in
+1492 and completed by Jacopo Sansovino in 1554-1574. This is a magnificent
+structure, with fine ornamentation. The church of S. Maria dei Miracoli
+(1488-1523) is also noteworthy for its general effect and for the richness
+of its details, especially of the reliefs on the façade. Many other
+churches, and the picture gallery (Galleria Martinengo), contain fine works
+of the painters of the Brescian school, Alessandro Bonvicino (generally
+known as Moretto), Girolamo Romanino and Moretto's pupil, Giovanni Battista
+Moroni. The Biblioteca Queriniana contains early MSS., a 14th-century MS.
+of Dante, &c., and some rare incunabula. The city is well supplied with
+water, and has no less than seventy-two public fountains. Brescia has
+considerable factories of iron ware, particularly fire-arms and weapons
+(one of the government small arms factories being situated here), also of
+woollens, linens and silks, matches, candles, &c. The stone quarries of
+Mazzano, 8 m. east of Brescia, supplied material for the monument to Victor
+Emmanuel II. and other buildings in Rome. Brescia is situated on the main
+railway line between Milan and Verona, and has branch railways to Iseo,
+Parma, Cremona and (via Rovato) to Bergamo, and steam tramways to Mantua,
+Soncino, Ponte Toscolano and Cardone Valtrompia.
+
+The ancient Celtic Brixia, a town of the Cenomani, became Roman in 225
+B.C., when the Cenomani submitted to Rome. Augustus founded a civil (not a
+military) colony here in 27 B.C., and he and Tiberius constructed an
+aqueduct to supply it. In 452 it was plundered by Attila, but was the seat
+of a duchy in the Lombard period. From 1167 it was one of the most active
+members of the Lombard League. In 1258 it fell into the hands of Eccelino
+of Verona, and belonged to the Scaligers (della Scala) until 1421, when it
+came under the Visconti of Milan, and in 1426 under Venice. Early in the
+16th century it was one of the wealthiest cities of Lombardy, but has never
+recovered from its sack by the French under Gaston de Foix in 1512. It
+belonged to Venice until 1797, when it came under Austrian dominion; it
+revolted in 1848, and again in 1849, being the only Lombard town to rally
+to Charles Albert in the latter year, but was taken after ten days'
+obstinate street fighting by the Austrians under Haynau.
+
+See _Museo Bresciano Illustrato_ (Brescia, 1838).
+
+(T. AS.)
+
+BRESLAU (Polish _Wraclaw_), a city of Germany, capital of the Prussian
+province of Silesia, and an episcopal see, situated in a wide and fertile
+plain on both banks of the navigable Oder, 350 m. from its mouth, at the
+influx of the Ohle, and 202 m. from Berlin on the railway to Vienna. Pop.
+(1867) 171,926; (1880) 272,912; (1885) 299,640; (1890) 335,186; (1905)
+470,751, about 60% being Protestants, 35% Roman Catholics and nearly 5%
+Jews. The Oder, which here breaks into several arms, divides the city into
+two unequal halves, crossed by numerous bridges. The larger portion, on the
+left bank, includes the old or inner town, surrounded by beautiful
+promenades, on the site of the ramparts, dismantled after 1813, from an
+eminence within which, the Liebichs Höhe, a fine view is obtained of the
+surrounding country. Outside, as well as across the Oder, lies the new town
+with extensive suburbs, containing, especially in the Schweidnitz quarter
+in the south, and the Oder quarter in the north, many handsome streets and
+spacious squares. The inner town, in contrast to the suburbs, still retains
+with its narrow streets much of its ancient characters, and contains
+several medieval buildings, both religious and secular, of great beauty and
+interest. The cathedral, dedicated to St John the Baptist, was begun in
+1148 and completed at the close of the 15th century, enlarged in the 17th
+and 18th centuries, and restored between 1873 and 1875; it is rich in
+notable treasures, especially the high altar of beaten silver, and in
+beautiful paintings and sculptures. The Kreuzkirche (church of the Holy
+Cross), dating from the 13th and 14th centuries, is an interesting brick
+building, remarkable for its stained glass and its historical monuments,
+among which is the tomb of Henry IV., duke of Silesia. The Sandkirche, so
+called from its dedication to Our Lady on the Sand, dates from the 14th
+century, and was until 1810 the church of the Augustinian canons. The
+Dorotheenor Minoritenkirche, remarkable for its high-pitched roof, was
+founded by the emperor Charles IV. in 1351. These are the most notable of
+the Roman Catholic churches. Of the Evangelical churches the most important
+is that of St Elizabeth, founded about 1250, rebuilt in the 14th and 15th
+centuries, and restored in 1857. Its lofty tower contains the largest bell
+in Silesia, and the church possesses a celebrated organ, fine stained
+glass, a magnificent stone pyx (erected in 1455) over 52 ft. high, and
+portraits of Luther and Melanchthon by Lucas Cranach. The church of St Mary
+Magdalen, built in the 14th century on the model of the cathedral, has two
+lofty Gothic towers connected by a bridge, and is interesting as having
+been the church in which, in 1523, the reformation in Silesia was first
+proclaimed. Other noteworthy ecclesiastical buildings are the graceful
+Gothic church of St Michael built in 1871, the bishop's palace and the
+Jewish synagogue, the finest in Germany after that in Berlin.
+
+The business streets of the city converge upon the Ring, the market square,
+in which is the town-hall, a fine Gothic building, begun in the middle of
+the 14th and completed in the 16th century. Within is the Fürstensaal, in
+which the diets of Silesia were formerly held, while beneath is the famous
+Schweidnitzer Keller, used continuously since 1355 as a beer and wine
+house. [v.04 p.0499] The university, a spacious Gothic building facing the
+Oder, is a striking edifice. It was built (1728-1736) as a college by the
+Jesuits, on the site of the former imperial castle presented to them by the
+emperor Leopold I., and contains a magnificent hall (Aula Leopoldina),
+richly ornamented with frescoes and capable of holding 1200 persons.
+Breslau possesses a large number of other important public buildings: the
+Stadthaus (civic hall), the royal palace, the government offices (a
+handsome pile erected in 1887), the provincial House of Assembly, the
+municipal archives, the courts of law, the Silesian museum of arts and
+crafts and antiquities, stored in the former assembly hall of the estates
+(Ständehaus), which was rebuilt for the purpose, the museum of fine arts,
+the exchange, the Stadt and Lobe theatres, the post office and central
+railway station. There are also numerous hospitals and schools. Breslau is
+exceedingly rich in fine monuments; the most noteworthy being the
+equestrian statues of Frederick the Great and Frederick William III., both
+by Kiss; the statue of Blücher by Rauch; a marble statue of General
+Tauentzien by Langhans and Schadow; a bronze statue of Karl Gottlieb Svarez
+(1746-1798), the Prussian jurist, a monument to Schleiermacher, born here
+in 1768, and statues of the emperor William I., Bismarck and Moltke. There
+are also several handsome fountains. Foremost among the educational
+establishments stands the university, founded in 1702 by the emperor
+Leopold I. as a Jesuit college, and greatly extended by the incorporation
+of the university of Frankfort-on-Oder in 1811. Its library contains
+306,000 volumes and 4000 MSS., and has in the so-called _Bibliotheca
+Habichtiana_ a valuable collection of oriental literature. Among its
+auxiliary establishments are botanical gardens, an observatory, and
+anatomical, physiological and kindred institutions. There are eight
+classical and four modern schools, two higher girls' schools, a Roman
+Catholic normal school, a Jewish theological seminary, a school of arts and
+crafts, and numerous literary and charitable foundations. It is, however,
+as a commercial and industrial city that Breslau is most widely known. Its
+situation, close to the extensive coal and iron fields of Upper Silesia, in
+proximity to the Austrian and Russian frontiers, at the centre of a network
+of railways directly communicating both with these countries and with the
+chief towns of northern and central Germany, and on a deep waterway
+connecting with the Elbe and the Vistula, facilitates its very considerable
+transit and export trade in the products of the province and of the
+neighbouring countries. These embrace coal, sugar, cereals, spirits,
+petroleum and timber. The local industries comprise machinery and tools,
+railway and tramway carriages, furniture, cast-iron goods, gold and silver
+work, carpets, furs, cloth and cottons, paper, musical instruments, glass
+and china. Breslau is the headquarters of the VI. German army corps and
+contains a large garrison of troops of all arms.
+
+_History._--Breslau (Lat. _Vratislavia_) is first mentioned by the
+chronicler Thietmar, bishop of Merseburg, in A.D. 1000, and was probably
+founded some years before this date. Early in the 11th century it was made
+the seat of a bishop, and after having formed part of Poland, became the
+capital of an independent duchy in 1163. Destroyed by the Mongols in 1241,
+it soon recovered its former prosperity and received a large influx of
+German colonists. The bishop obtained the title of a prince of the Empire
+in 1290.[1] When Henry VI., the last duke of Breslau, died in 1335, the
+city came by purchase to John, king of Bohemia, whose successors retained
+it until about 1460. The Bohemian kings bestowed various privileges on
+Breslau, which soon began to extend its commerce in all directions, while
+owing to increasing wealth the citizens took up a more independent
+attitude. Disliking the Hussites, Breslau placed itself under the
+protection of Pope Pius II. in 1463, and a few years afterwards came under
+the rule of the Hungarian king, Matthias Corvinus. After his death in 1490
+it again became subject to Bohemia, passing with the rest of Silesia to the
+Habsburgs when in 1526 Ferdinand, afterwards emperor, was chosen king of
+Bohemia. Having passed almost undisturbed through the periods of the
+Reformation and the Thirty Years' War, Breslau was compelled to own the
+authority of Frederick the Great in 1741. It was, however, recovered by the
+Austrians in 1757, but was regained by Frederick after his victory at
+Leuthen in the same year, and has since belonged to Prussia, although it
+was held for a few days by the French in 1807 after the battle of Jena, and
+again in 1813 after the battle of Bautzen. The sites of the fortifications,
+dismantled by the French in 1807, were given to the civic authorities by
+King Frederick William III., and converted into promenades. In March 1813
+this monarch issued from Breslau his stirring appeals to the Prussians, _An
+mein Volk_ and _An mein Kriegesheer_, and the city was the centre of the
+Prussian preparations for the campaign which ended at Leipzig. After the
+Prussian victory at Sadowa in 1866, William I. made a triumphant and
+complimentary entry into the city, which since the days of Frederick the
+Great has been only less loyal to the royal house than Berlin itself.
+
+See Bürkner and Stein, _Geschichte der Stadt Breslau_ (Bresl. 1851-1853);
+J-Stein, _Geschichte der Stadt Breslau im 19ten Jahrhundert_ (1884); O
+Frenzel, _Breslauer Stadtbuch_ ("Codex dipl. Silisiae," vol. ii. 1882);
+Luchs, _Breslau, ein Führer durch die Stadt_ (12th ed., Bresl. 1904).
+
+[1] In 1195 Jaroslaw, son of Boleslaus I. of Lower Silesia, who became
+bishop of Breslau in 1198, inherited the duchy of Neisse, which at his
+death (1201) he bequeathed to his successors in the see. The Austrian part
+of Neisse still belongs to the bishop of Breslau, who also still bears the
+title of prince bishop.
+
+BRESSANT, JEAN BAPTISTE PROSPER (1815-1886), French actor, was born at
+Chalon-sur-Saône on the 23rd of October 1815, and began his stage career at
+the Variétés in Paris in 1833. In 1838 he went to the French theatre at St
+Petersburg, where for eight years he played important parts with
+ever-increasing reputation. His success was confirmed at the Gymnase when
+he returned to Paris in 1846, and he made his _début_ at the Comédie
+Française as a full-fledged _sociétaire_ in 1854. From playing the ardent
+young lover, he turned to leading rôles both in modern plays and in the
+classical répertoire. His Richelieu in _Mlle de Belle-Isle_, his Octave in
+Alfred de Musset's _Les Caprices de Marianne_, and his appearance in de
+Musset's _Il faut qu'une porte soit ouverte ou fermée_ and _Un caprice_
+were followed by _Tartuffe_, _Le Misanthrope_ and _Don Juan_. Bressant
+retired in 1875, and died on the 23rd of January 1886. During his
+professorship at the Conservatoire, Mounet-Sully was one of his pupils.
+
+BRESSE, a district of eastern France embracing portions of the departments
+of Ain, Saône-et-Loire and Jura. The Bresse extends from the Dombes on the
+south to the river Doubs on the north, and from the Saône eastwards to the
+Jura, measuring some 60 m. in the former, and 20 m. in the latter
+direction. It is a plain varying from 600 to 800 ft. above the sea, with
+few eminences and a slight inclination westwards. Heaths and coppice
+alternate with pastures and arable land; pools and marshes are numerous,
+especially in the north. Its chief rivers are the Veyle, the Reyssouze and
+the Seille, all tributaries of the Saône. The soil is a gravelly clay but
+moderately fertile, and cattle-raising is largely carried on. The region
+is, however, more especially celebrated for its table poultry. The
+inhabitants preserve a distinctive but almost obsolete costume, with a
+curious head-dress. The Bresse proper, called the _Bresse Bressane_,
+comprises the northern portion of the department of Ain. The greater part
+of the district belonged in the middle ages to the lords of Bâgé, from whom
+it passed in 1272 to the house of Savoy. It was not till the first half of
+the 15th century that the province, with Bourg as its capital, was founded
+as such. In 1601 it was ceded to France by the treaty of Lyons, after which
+it formed (together with the province of Bugey) first a separate government
+and afterwards part of the government of Burgundy.
+
+BRESSUIRE, a town of western France, capital of an arrondissement in the
+department of Deux-Sèvres, 48 m. N. of Niort by rail. Pop. (1906) 4561. The
+town is situated on an eminence overlooking the Dolo, a tributary of the
+Argenton. It is the centre of a cattle-rearing and agricultural region, and
+has important markets; the manufacture of wooden type and woollen goods is
+carried on. Bressuire has two buildings of interest: the church of
+Notre-Dame, which, dating chiefly from the 12th and 15th centuries, has an
+imposing tower of the Renaissance period; and the castle, built by the
+lords of [v.04 p.0500] Beaumont, vassals of the viscount of Thouars. The
+latter is now in ruins, and a portion of the site is occupied by a modern
+château, but an inner and outer line of fortifications are still to be
+seen. The whole forms the finest assemblage of feudal ruins in Poitou.
+Bressuire is the seat of a sub-prefect and has a tribunal of first
+instance. Among the disasters suffered at various times by the town, its
+capture from the English and subsequent pillage by French troops under du
+Guesclin in 1370 is the most memorable.
+
+BREST, a fortified seaport of western France, capital of an arrondissement
+in the department of Finistère, 155 m. W.N.W. of Rennes by rail. Population
+(1906) town, 71,163; commune, 85,294. It is situated to the north of a
+magnificent landlocked bay, and occupies the slopes of two hills divided by
+the river Penfeld,--the part of the town on the left bank being regarded as
+Brest proper, while the part on the right is known as Recouvrance. There
+are also extensive suburbs to the east of the town. The hill-sides are in
+some places so steep that the ascent from the lower to the upper town has
+to be effected by flights of steps and the second or third storey of one
+house is often on a level with the ground storey of the next. The chief
+street of Brest bears the name of rue de Siam, in honour of the Siamese
+embassy sent to Louis XIV., and terminates at the remarkable swing-bridge,
+constructed in 1861, which crosses the mouth of the Penfeld. Running along
+the shore to the south of the town is the Cours d'Ajot, one of the finest
+promenades of its kind in France, named after the engineer who constructed
+it. It is planted with trees and adorned with marble statues of Neptune and
+Abundance by Antoine Coysevox. The castle with its donjon and seven towers
+(12th to the 16th centuries), commanding the entrance to the river, is the
+only interesting building in the town. Brest is the capital of one of the
+five naval arrondissements of France. The naval port, which is in great
+part excavated in the rock, extends along both banks of the Penfeld; it
+comprises gun-foundries and workshops, magazines, shipbuilding yards and
+repairing docks, and employs about 7000 workmen. There are also large naval
+barracks, training ships and naval schools of various kinds, and an
+important naval hospital. Brest is the seat of a sub-prefect and has
+tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a chamber of commerce, a board
+of trade-arbitrators, two naval tribunals, and a tribunal of maritime
+commerce. There are also lycées for boys and girls and a school of commerce
+and industry. The commercial port, which is separated from the town itself
+by the Cours d'Ajot, comprises a tidal port with docks and an outer
+harbour; it is protected by jetties to the east and west and by a
+breakwater on the south. In 1905 the number of vessels entered was 202 with
+a tonnage of 67,755, and cleared 160 with a tonnage of 61,012. The total
+value of the imports in 1905 was £244,000. The chief were wine, coal,
+timber, mineral tar, fertilizers and lobsters and crayfish. Exports, of
+which the chief were wheat-flour, fruit and superphosphates, were valued at
+£40,000. Besides its sardine and mackerel fishing industry, the town has
+flour-mills, breweries, foundries, forges, engineering works, and
+manufactures of blocks, candles, chemicals (from sea-weed), boots, shoes
+and linen. Brest communicates by submarine cable with America and French
+West Africa. The roadstead consists of a deep indentation with a maximum
+length of 14 m. and an average width of 4 m., the mouth being barred by the
+peninsula of Quélern, leaving a passage from 1 to 2 m. broad, known as the
+Goulet. The outline of the bay is broken by numerous smaller bays or arms,
+formed by the embouchures of streams, the most important being the Anse de
+Quélern, the Anse de Poulmie, and the mouths of the Châteaulin and the
+Landerneau. Brest is a fortress of the first class. The fortifications of
+the town and the harbour fall into four groups: (1) the very numerous forts
+and batteries guarding the approaches to and the channel of the Goulet; (2)
+the batteries and forts directed upon the roads; (3) a group of works
+preventing access to the peninsula of Quélern and commanding the ground to
+the south of the peninsula from which many of the works of group (2) could
+be taken in reverse; (4) the defences of Brest itself, consisting of an
+old-fashioned _enceinte_ possessing little military value and a chain of
+detached forts to the west of the town.
+
+Nothing definite is known of Brest till about 1240, when it was ceded by a
+count of Léon to John I., duke of Brittany. In 1342 John of Montfort gave
+it up to the English, and it did not finally leave their hands till 1397.
+Its medieval importance was great enough to give rise to the saying, "He is
+not duke of Brittany who is not lord of Brest." By the marriage of Francis
+I. with Claude, daughter of Anne of Brittany, Brest with the rest of the
+duchy definitely passed to the French crown. The advantages of the
+situation for a seaport town were first recognized by Richelieu, who in
+1631 constructed a harbour with wooden wharves, which soon became a station
+of the French navy. Colbert changed the wooden wharves for masonry and
+otherwise improved the post, and Vauban's fortifications followed in
+1680-1688. During the 18th century the fortifications and the naval
+importance of the town continued to develop. In 1694 an English squadron
+under John, 3rd Lord Berkeley, was miserably defeated in attempting a
+landing; but in 1794, during the revolutionary war, the French fleet, under
+Villaret de Joyeuse, was as thoroughly beaten in the same place by the
+English admiral Howe.
+
+BREST-LITOVSK (Polish _Brzesc-Litevski_; and in the Chron. _Berestie_ and
+_Berestov_), a strongly fortified town of Russia, in the government of
+Grodno, 137 m. by rail S. from the city of Grodno, in 52° 5' N. lat. and
+23° 39' E. long., at the junction of the navigable river Mukhovets with the
+Bug, and at the intersection of railways from Warsaw, Kiev, Moscow and East
+Prussia. Pop. (1867) 22,493; (1901) 42,812, of whom more than one-half were
+Jews. It contains a Jewish synagogue, which was regarded in the 16th
+century as the first in Europe, and is the seat of an Armenian and of a
+Greek Catholic bishop; the former has authority over the Armenians
+throughout the whole country. The town carries on an extensive trade in
+grain, flax, hemp, wood, tar and leather. First mentioned in the beginning
+of the 11th century, Brest-Litovsk was in 1241 laid waste by the Mongols
+and was not rebuilt till 1275; its suburbs were burned by the Teutonic
+Knights in 1379; and in the end of the 15th century the whole town met a
+similar fate at the hands of the khan of the Crimea. In the reign of the
+Polish king Sigismund III. diets were held there; and in 1594 and 1596 it
+was the meeting-place of two remarkable councils of the bishops of western
+Russia. In 1657, and again in 1706, the town was captured by the Swedes; in
+1794 it was the scene of Suvarov's victory over the Polish general
+Sierakowski; in 1795 it was added to the Russian empire. The Brest-Litovsk
+or King's canal (50 m. long), utilizing the Mukhovets-Bug rivers, forms a
+link in the waterways that connect the Dnieper with the Vistula.
+
+BRETEUIL, LOUIS CHARLES AUGUSTE LE TONNELIER, BARON DE (1730-1807), French
+diplomatist, was born at the chateau of Azay-le-Féron (Indre) on the 7th of
+March 1730. He was only twenty-eight when he was appointed by Louis XV.
+ambassador to the elector of Cologne, and two years later he was sent to St
+Petersburg. He arranged to be temporarily absent from his post at the time
+of the palace revolution by which Catherine II. was placed on the throne.
+In 1769 he was sent to Stockholm, and subsequently represented his
+government at Vienna, Naples, and again at Vienna until 1783, when he was
+recalled to become minister of the king's household. In this capacity he
+introduced considerable reforms in prison administration. A close friend of
+Marie Antoinette, he presently came into collision with Calonne, who
+demanded his dismissal in 1787. His influence with the king and queen,
+especially with the latter, remained unshaken, and on Necker's dismissal on
+the 11th of July 1789, Breteuil succeeded him as chief minister. The fall
+of the Bastille three days later put an end to the new ministry, and
+Breteuil made his way to Switzerland with the first party of _émigrés_. At
+Soleure, in November 1790, he received from Louis XVI. exclusive powers to
+negotiate with the European courts, and in his efforts to check the
+ill-advised diplomacy of the _émigré_ princes, he soon brought himself into
+opposition with his old rival Calonne, who held a chief place in their
+councils. [v.04 p.0501] After the failure of the flight to Varennes, in the
+arrangement of which he had a share, Breteuil received instructions from
+Louis XVI., designed to restore amicable relations with the princes. His
+distrust of the king's brothers and his defence of Louis XVI.'s prerogative
+were to some extent justified, but his intransigeant attitude towards these
+princes emphasized the dissensions of the royal family in the eyes of
+foreign sovereigns, who looked on the comte de Provence as the natural
+representative of his brother and found a pretext for non-interference on
+Louis's behalf in the contradictory statements of the negotiators. Breteuil
+himself was the object of violent attacks from the party of the princes,
+who asserted that he persisted in exercising powers which had been revoked
+by Louis XVI. After the execution of Marie Antoinette he retired into
+private life near Hamburg, only returning to France in 1802. He died in
+Paris on the 2nd of November 1807.
+
+See the memoirs of Bertrand de Molleville (2 vols., Paris, 1816) and of the
+marquis de Bouillé (2 vols., Paris, 1884); and E. Daudet, _Coblentz,
+1789-1793_ (1889), forming part of his _Hist. de l'émigration._
+
+BRÉTIGNY, a French town (dept. Eure-et-Loir, arrondissement and canton of
+Chartres, commune of Sours), which gave its name to a celebrated treaty
+concluded there on the 8th of May 1360, between Edward III. of England and
+John II., surnamed the Good, of France. The exactions of the English, who
+wished to yield as few as possible of the advantages claimed by them in the
+treaty of London, made negotiations difficult, and the discussion of terms
+begun early in April lasted more than a month. By virtue of this treaty
+Edward III. obtained, besides Guienne and Gascony, Poitou, Saintonge and
+Aunis, Agenais, Périgord, Limousin, Quercy, Bigorre, the countship of
+Gaure, Angoumois, Rouergue, Montreuil-sur-mer, Ponthieu, Calais, Sangatte,
+Ham and the countship of Guines. John II. had, moreover, to pay three
+millions of gold crowns for his ransom. On his side the king of England
+gave up the duchies of Normandy and Touraine, the countships of Anjou and
+Maine, and the suzerainty of Brittany and of Flanders. As a guarantee for
+the payment of his ransom, John the Good gave as hostages two of his sons,
+several princes and nobles, four inhabitants of Paris, and two citizens
+from each of the nineteen principal towns of France. This treaty was
+ratified and sworn to by the two kings and by their eldest sons on the 24th
+of October 1360, at Calais. At the same time were signed the special
+conditions relating to each important article of the treaty, and the
+renunciatory clauses in which the kings abandoned their rights over the
+territory they had yielded to one another.
+
+See Rymer's _Foedera_, vol. iii; Dumont, _Corps diplomatique_, vol. ii.;
+Froissart, ed. Luce, vol. vi.; _Les Grandes Chroniques de France_, ed. P.
+Paris, vol. vi.; E. Cosneau, _Les Grands Traités de la guerre de cent ans_
+(1889).
+
+BRETON, JULES ADOLPHE AIMÉ LOUIS (1827- ), French painter, was born on the
+1st of May 1827, at Courrières, Pas de Calais, France. His artistic gifts
+being manifest at an early age, he was sent in 1843 to Ghent, to study
+under the historical painter de Vigne, and in 1846 to Baron Wappers at
+Antwerp. Finally he worked in Paris under Drolling. His first efforts were
+in historical subjects: "Saint Piat preaching in Gaul"; then, under the
+influence of the revolution of 1848, he represented "Misery and Despair."
+But Breton soon discovered that he was not born to be a historical painter,
+and he returned to the memories of nature and of the country which were
+impressed on him in early youth. In 1853 he exhibited the "Return of the
+Harvesters" at the Paris Salon, and the "Little Gleaner" at Brussels.
+Thenceforward he was essentially a painter of rustic life, especially in
+the province of Artois, which he quitted only three times for short
+excursions: in 1864 to Provence, and in 1865 and 1873 to Brittany, whence
+he derived some of his happiest studies of religious scenes. His numerous
+subjects may be divided generally into four classes: labour, rest, rural
+festivals and religious festivals. Among his more important works may be
+named "Women Gleaning," and "The Day after St Sebastian's Day" (1855),
+which gained him a third-class medal; "Blessing the Fields" (1857), a
+second-class medal; "Erecting a Calvary" (1859), now in the Lille gallery;
+"The Return of the Gleaners" (1859), now in the Luxembourg; "Evening" and
+"Women Weeding" (1861), a first-class medal; "Grandfather's Birthday"
+(1862); "The Close of Day" (1865); "Harvest" (1867); "Potato Gatherers"
+(1868); "A Pardon, Brittany" (1869); "The Fountain" (1872), medal of
+honour; "The Bonfires of St John" (1875); "Women mending Nets" (1876), in
+the Douai museum; "A Gleaner" (1877), Luxembourg; "Evening, Finistère"
+(1881); "The Song of the Lark" (1884); "The Last Sunbeam" (1885); "The
+Shepherd's Star" (1888); "The Call Home" (1889); "The Last Gleanings"
+(1895); "Gathering Poppies" (1897); "The Alarm Cry" (1899); "Twilight
+Glory" (1900). Breton was elected to the Institut in 1886 on the death of
+Baudry. In 1889 he was made commander of the Legion of Honour, and in 1899
+foreign member of the Royal Academy of London. He also wrote several books,
+among them _Les Champs et la mer_ (1876), _Nos peintres du siècle_ (1900),
+"Jeanne," a poem, _Delphine Bernard_ (1902), and _La Peinture_ (1904).
+
+See Jules Breton, _Vie d'un artiste, art et nature_ (autobiographical),
+(Paris, 1890); Marius Vachon, _Jules Breton_ (1899).
+
+BRETON, BRITTON OR BRITTAINE, NICHOLAS (1545?-1626), English poet, belonged
+to an old family settled at Layer-Breton, Essex. His father, William
+Breton, who had made a considerable fortune by trade, died in 1559, and the
+widow (née Elizabeth Bacon) married the poet George Gascoigne before her
+sons had attained their majority. Nicholas Breton was probably born at the
+"capitall mansion house" in Red Cross Street, in the parish of St Giles
+without Cripplegate, mentioned in his father's will. There is no official
+record of his residence at the university, but the diary of the Rev.
+Richard Madox tells us that he was at Antwerp in 1583 and was "once of
+Oriel College." He married Ann Sutton in 1593, and had a family. He is
+supposed to have died shortly after the publication of his last work,
+_Fantastickes_ (1626). Breton found a patron in Mary, countess of Pembroke,
+and wrote much in her honour until 1601, when she seems to have withdrawn
+her favour. It is probably safe to supplement the meagre record of his life
+by accepting as autobiographical some of the letters signed N.B. in _A
+Poste with a Packet of Mad Letters_ (1603, enlarged 1637); the 19th letter
+of the second part contains a general complaint of many griefs, and
+proceeds as follows: "hath another been wounded in the warres, fared hard,
+lain in a cold bed many a bitter storme, and beene at many a hard banquet?
+all these have I; another imprisoned? so have I; another long been sicke?
+so have I; another plagued with an unquiet life? so have I; another
+indebted to his hearts griefe, and fame would pay and cannot? so am I."
+Breton was a facile writer, popular with his contemporaries, and forgotten
+by the next generation. His work consists of religious and pastoral poems,
+satires, and a number of miscellaneous prose tracts. His religious poems
+are sometimes wearisome by their excess of fluency and sweetness, but they
+are evidently the expression of a devout and earnest mind. His praise of
+the Virgin and his references to Mary Magdalene have suggested that he was
+a Catholic, but his prose writings abundantly prove that he was an ardent
+Protestant. Breton had little gift for satire, and his best work is to be
+found in his pastoral poetry. His _Passionate Shepheard_ (1604) is full of
+sunshine and fresh air, and of unaffected gaiety. The third pastoral in
+this book--"Who can live in heart so glad As the merrie country lad"--is
+well known; with some other of Breton's daintiest poems, among them the
+lullaby, "Come little babe, come silly soule,"[1]--it is incorporated in
+A.H. Bullen's _Lyrics from Elizabethan Romances_ (1890). His keen
+observation of country life appears also in his prose idyll, _Wits
+Trenchmour_, "a conference betwixt a scholler and an angler," and in his
+_Fantastickes_, a series of short prose pictures of the months, the
+Christian festivals and the hours, which throw much light on the customs of
+the times. Most of Breton's books are very rare and have great
+bibliographical value. His works, with the exception of some belonging to
+private owners, were collected by Dr A.B. Grosart in the [v.04 p.0502]
+_Chertsey Worthies Library_ in 1879, with an elaborate introduction quoting
+the documents for the poet's history.
+
+Breton's poetical works, the titles of which are here somewhat abbreviated,
+include _The Workes of a Young Wit_ (1577); _A Floorish upon Fancie_
+(1577); _The Pilgrimage to Paradise_ (1592); _The Countess of Penbrook's
+Passion_ (MS.), first printed by J.O. Halliwell Phillipps in 1853;
+_Pasquil's Fooles cappe_, entered at Stationers' Hall in 1600; _Pasquil's
+Mistresse_ (1600); _Pasquil's Passe and Passeth Not_ (1600); _Melancholike
+Humours_ (1600); _Marie Magdalen's Love: a Solemne Passion of the Soules
+Love_ (1595), the first part of which, a prose treatise, is probably by
+another hand; the second part, a poem in six-lined stanza, is certainly by
+Breton; _A Divine Poem_, including "The Ravisht Soul" and "The Blessed
+Weeper" (1601); _An Excellent Poem, upon the Longing of a Blessed Heart_
+(1601); _The Soules Heavenly Exercise_ (1601); _The Soules Harmony_ (1602);
+_Olde Madcappe newe Gaily mawfrey_ (1602); _The Mother's Blessing_ (1602);
+_A True Description of Unthankfulnesse_ (1602); _The Passionate Shepheard_
+(1604); _The Soules Immortall Crowne_ (1605); _The Honour of Valour_
+(1605); _An Invective against Treason; I would and I would not_ (1614);
+_Bryton's Bowre of Delights_ (1591), edited by Dr Grosart in 1893, an
+unauthorized publication which contained some poems disclaimed by Breton;
+_The Arbor of Amorous Devises_ (entered at Stationers' Hall, 1594), only in
+part Breton's; and contributions to _England's Helicon_ and other
+miscellanies of verse. Of his twenty-two prose tracts may be mentioned
+_Wit's Trenchmour_ (1597), _The Wil of Wit_ (1599), _A Poste with a Packet
+of Mad Letters_ (1603). _Sir Philip Sidney's Ourania by N.B._ (1606); _Mary
+Magdalen's Lamentations_ (1604), and _The Passion of a Discontented Mind_
+(1601), are sometimes, but erroneously, ascribed to Breton.
+
+[1]  This poem, however, comes from _The Arbor of Amorous Devises_, which
+is only in part Breton's work.
+
+BRETÓN DE LOS HERREROS, MANUEL (1796-1873), Spanish dramatist, was born at
+Quel (Logroño) on the 19th of December 1796 and was educated at Madrid.
+Enlisting on the 24th of May 1812, he served against the French in Valencia
+and Catalonia, and retired with the rank of corporal on the 8th of March
+1822. He obtained a minor post in the civil service under the liberal
+government, and on his discharge determined to earn his living by writing
+for the stage. His first piece, _Á la vejez viruelas_, was produced on the
+14th of October 1824, and proved the writer to be the legitimate successor
+of the younger Moratin. His industry was astonishing: between October 1824
+and November 1828, he composed thirty-nine plays, six of them original, the
+rest being translations or recasts of classic masterpieces. In 1831 he
+published a translation of Tibullus, and acquired by it an unmerited
+reputation for scholarship which secured for him an appointment as
+sub-librarian at the national library. But the theatre claimed him for its
+own, and with the exception of _Elena_ and a few other pieces in the
+fashionable romantic vein, his plays were a long series of successes. His
+only serious check occurred in 1840; the former liberal had grown
+conservative with age, and in _La Ponchada_ he ridiculed the National
+Guard. He was dismissed from the national library, and for a short time was
+so unpopular that he seriously thought of emigrating to America; but the
+storm blew over, and within two years Bretón de los Herreros had regained
+his supremacy on the stage. He became secretary to the Spanish Academy,
+quarrelled with his fellow-members, and died at Madrid on the 8th of
+November 1873. He is the author of some three hundred and sixty original
+plays, twenty-three of which are in prose. No Spanish dramatist of the
+nineteenth century approaches him in comic power, in festive invention, and
+in the humorous presentation of character, while his metrical dexterity is
+unique. _Marcela o a cual de los trés?_ (1831), _Muérete; y verás!_ (1837)
+and _La Escuela del matrimonio_ (1852) still hold the stage, and are likely
+to hold it so long as Spanish is spoken.
+
+See Marqués de Molíns, _Bretón de los Herreros, recuerdos de su vida y de
+sus obras_ (Madrid, 1883); _Obras de Bretón de Herreros_ (5 vols., Madrid,
+1883); E. Piñeyro, _El Romanticismo en España_ (Paris, 1904).
+
+(J. F.-K.)
+
+BRETSCHNEIDER, KARL GOTTLIEB (1776-1848), German scholar and theologian,
+was born at Gersdorf in Saxony. In 1794 he entered the university of
+Leipzig, where he studied theology for four years. After some years of
+hesitation he resolved to be ordained, and in 1802 he passed with great
+distinction the examination for _candidatus theologiae_, and attracted the
+regard of F.V. Reinhard, author of the _System der christlichen Moral_
+(1788-1815), then court-preacher at Dresden, who became his warm friend and
+patron during the remainder of his life. In 1804-1806 Bretschneider was
+_Privat-docent_ at the university of Wittenberg, where he lectured on
+philosophy and theology. During this time he wrote his work on the
+development of dogma, _Systematische Entwickelung aller in der Dogmatik
+vorkommenden Begriffe nach den symbolischen Schriften der
+evangelisch-lutherischen und reformirten Kirche_ (1805, 4th ed. 1841),
+which was followed by others, including an edition of Ecclesiasticus with a
+Latin commentary. On the advance of the French army under Napoleon into
+Prussia, he determined to leave Wittenberg and abandon his university
+career. Through the good offices of Reinhard, he became pastor of
+Schneeberg in Saxony (1807). In 1808 he was promoted to the office of
+superintendent of the church of Annaberg, in which capacity he had to
+decide, in accordance with the canon law of Saxony, many matters belonging
+to the department of ecclesiastical law. But the climate did not agree with
+him, and his official duties interfered with his theological studies. With
+a view to a change he took the degree of doctor of theology in Wittenberg
+in August 1812. In 1816 he was appointed general superintendent at Gotha,
+where he remained until his death in 1848. This was the great period of his
+literary activity.
+
+In 1820 was published his treatise on the gospel of St John, entitled
+_Probabilia de Evangelii el Epistolarum Joannis Apostoli indole et
+origine_, which attracted much attention. In it he collected with great
+fulness and discussed with marked moderation the arguments against
+Johannine authorship. This called forth a number of replies. To the
+astonishment of every one, Bretschneider announced in the preface to the
+second edition of his _Dogmatik_ in 1822, that he had never doubted the
+authenticity of the gospel, and had published his _Probabilia_ only to draw
+attention to the subject, and to call forth a more complete defence of its
+genuineness. Bretschneider remarks in his autobiography that the
+publication of this work had the effect of preventing his appointment as
+successor to Karl C. Tittmann in Dresden, the minister Detlev von Einsiedel
+(1773-1861) denouncing him as the "slanderer of John" (_Johannisschänder_).
+His greatest contribution to the science of exegesis was his _Lexicon
+Manuale Graeco-Latinum in libros Novi Testamenti_ (1824, 3rd ed. 1840).
+This work was valuable for the use which its author made of the Greek of
+the Septuagint, of the Old and New Testament Apocrypha, of Josephus, and of
+the apostolic fathers, in illustration of the language of the New
+Testament. In 1826 he published _Apologie der neuern Theologie des
+evangelischen Deutschlands_. Hugh James Rose had published in England
+(1825) a volume of sermons on the rationalist movement (_The State of the
+Protestant Religion in Germany_), in which he classed Bretschneider with
+the rationalists; and Bretschneider contended that he himself was not a
+rationalist in the ordinary sense of the term, but a "rational
+supernaturalist." Some of his numerous dogmatic writings passed through
+several editions. An English translation of his _Manual of the Religion and
+History of the Christian Church_ appeared in 1857. His dogmatic position
+seems to be intermediate between the extreme school of naturalists, such as
+Heinrich Paulus, J.F. Röhr and Julius Wegscheider on the one hand, and D.F.
+Strauss and F.C. Baur on the other. Recognizing a supernatural element in
+the Bible, he nevertheless allowed to the full the critical exercise of
+reason in the interpretation of its dogmas (cp. Otto Pfleiderer,
+_Development of Theology_, pp. 89 ff.).
+
+See his autobiography, _Aus meinem Leben: Selbstbiographie von K.G.
+Bretschneider_ (Gotha, 1851), of which a translation, with notes, by
+Professor George E. Day, appeared in the _Bibliotheca Sacra and American
+Biblical Repository_, Nos. 36 and 38 (1852, 1853); Neudecker in _Die
+allgemeine Kirchenzeitung_ (1848), No. 38; Wüstemann, _Bretschneideri
+Memoria_ (1848); A.G. Farrar, _Critical History of Free Thought_ (Bampton
+Lectures, 1862); Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_ (ed. 1897).
+
+BRETTEN, a town of Germany, in the grand duchy of Baden, on the Saalbach, 9
+m. S.E. of Bruchsal by rail. Pop. (1900) 4781. It has some manufactories of
+machinery and japanned goods, and a considerable trade in timber and
+livestock. Bretten was the birthplace of Melanchthon (1497), and in
+addition to a [v.04 p.0503] statue of him by Drake, a memorial hall,
+containing a collection of his writings and busts and pictures of his
+famous contemporaries, has been erected.
+
+BRETWALDA, a word used in the _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_ under the date 827,
+and also in a charter of Æthelstan, king of the English. It appears in
+several variant forms (_brytenwalda_, _bretenanwealda_, &c.), and means
+most probably "lord of the Britons" or "lord of Britain"; for although the
+derivation of the word is uncertain, its earlier syllable seems to be
+cognate with the words Briton and Britannia. In the _Chronicle_ the title
+is given to Ecgbert, king of the English, "the eighth king that was
+Bretwalda," and retrospectively to seven kings who ruled over one or other
+of the English kingdoms. The seven names are copied from Bede's _Historia
+Ecclesiastica_, and it is interesting to note that the last king named,
+Oswiu of Northumbria, lived 150 years before Ecgbert. It has been assumed
+that these seven kings exercised a certain superiority over a large part of
+England, but if such superiority existed it is certain that it was
+extremely vague and was unaccompanied by any unity of organization. Another
+theory is that Bretwalda refers to a war-leadership, or _imperium_, over
+the English south of the Humber, and has nothing to do with Britons or
+Britannia. In support of this explanation it is urged that the title is
+given in the _Chronicle_ to Ecgbert in the year in which he "conquered the
+kingdom of the Mercians and all that was south of the Humber." Less likely
+is the theory of Palgrave that the Bretwaldas were the successors of the
+pseudo-emperors, Maximus and Carausius, and claimed to share the imperial
+dignity of Rome; or that of Kemble, who derives Bretwalda from the British
+word _breotan_, to distribute, and translates it "widely ruling." With
+regard to Ecgbert the word is doubtless given as a title in imitation of
+its earlier use, and the same remark applies to its use in Æthelstan's
+charter.
+
+See E.A. Freeman, _History of the Norman Conquest_, vol. i. (Oxford, 1877);
+W. Stubbs, _Constitutional History_, vol. i. (Oxford, 1897); J.R. Green,
+_The Making of England_, vol. ii. (London, 1897); F. Palgrave, _The Rise
+and Progress of the English Commonwealth_ (London, 1832); J. M. Kemble,
+_The Saxons in England_ (London, 1876); J. Rhys, _Celtic Britain_ (London,
+1884).
+
+BREUGHEL (or BRUEGHEL), PIETER, Flemish painter, was the son of a peasant
+residing in the village of Breughel near Breda. After receiving instruction
+in painting from Koek, whose daughter he married, he spent some time in
+France and Italy, and then went to Antwerp, where he was elected into the
+Academy in 1551. He finally settled at Brussels and died there. The
+subjects of his pictures are chiefly humorous figures, like those of D.
+Teniers; and if he wants the delicate touch and silvery clearness of that
+master, he has abundant spirit and comic power. He is said to have died
+about the year 1570 at the age of sixty; other accounts give 1590 as the
+date of his death.
+
+His son PIETER, the younger (1564-1637), known as "Hell" Breughel, was born
+in Brussels and died at Antwerp, where his "Christ bearing the Cross" is in
+the museum.
+
+Another son JAN (c. 1569-1642), known as "Velvet" Breughel, was born at
+Brussels. He first applied himself to painting flowers and fruits, and
+afterwards acquired considerable reputation by his landscapes and
+sea-pieces. After residing long at Cologne he travelled into Italy, where
+his landscapes, adorned with small figures, were greatly admired. He left a
+large number of pictures, chiefly landscapes, which are executed with great
+skill. Rubens made use of Breughel's hand in the landscape part of several
+of his small pictures--such as his "Vertumnus and Pomona," the "Satyr
+viewing the Sleeping Nymph," and the "Terrestrial Paradise."
+
+BREVET (a diminutive of the Fr. _bref_), a short writing, originally an
+official writing or letter, with the particular meaning of a papal
+indulgence. The use of the word is mainly confined to a commission, or
+official document, giving to an officer in the army a permanent, as opposed
+to a local and temporary, rank in the service higher than that he holds
+substantively in his corps. In the British army "brevet rank" exists only
+above the rank of captain, but in the United States army it is possible to
+obtain a brevet as first lieutenant. In France the term _breveté_ is
+particularly used with respect to the General Staff, to express the
+equivalent of the English "passed Staff College" (p.s.c.).
+
+BREVIARY (Lat. _breviarium_, abridgment, epitome), the book which contains
+the offices for the canonical hours, _i.e._ the daily service of the Roman
+Catholic Church. As compared with the Anglican Book of Common Prayer it is
+both more and less comprehensive; more, in that it includes lessons and
+hymns for every day in the year; less, because it excludes the Eucharistic
+office (contained in the Missal), and the special offices connected with
+baptism, marriage, burial, ordination, &c., which are found in the Ritual
+or the Pontifical. In the early days of Christian worship, when Jewish
+custom was followed, the Bible furnished all that was thought necessary,
+containing as it did the books from which the lessons were read and the
+psalms that were recited. The first step in the evolution of the Breviary
+was the separation of the Psalter into a choir-book. At first the president
+of the local church (bishop) or the leader of the choir chose a particular
+psalm as he thought appropriate. From about the 4th century certain psalms
+began to be grouped together, a process that was furthered by the monastic
+practice of daily reciting the 150 psalms. This took so much time that the
+monks began to spread it over a week, dividing each day into hours, and
+allotting to each hour its portion of the Psalter. St Benedict in the 6th
+century drew up such an arrangement, probably, though not certainly, on the
+basis of an older Roman division which, though not so skilful, is the one
+in general use. Gradually there were added to these psalter choir-books
+additions in the form of antiphons, responses, collects or short prayers,
+for the use of those not skilful at improvisation and metrical
+compositions. Jean Beleth, a 12th-century liturgical author, gives the
+following list of books necessary for the right conduct of the canonical
+office:--the _Antiphonarium_, the Old and New Testaments, the
+_Passionarius_ (_liber_) and the _Legendarius_ (dealing respectively with
+martyrs and saints), the _Homiliarius_ (homilies on the Gospels), the
+_Sermologus_ (collection of sermons) and the works of the Fathers, besides,
+of course, the _Psalterium_ and the _Collectarium_. To overcome the
+inconvenience of using such a library the Breviary came into existence and
+use. Already in the 8th century Prudentius, bishop of Troyes, had in a
+_Breviarium Psalterii_ made an abridgment of the Psalter for the laity,
+giving a few psalms for each day, and Alcuin had rendered a similar service
+by including a prayer for each day and some other prayers, but no lessons
+or homilies. The Breviary rightly so called, however, only dates from the
+11th century; the earliest MS. containing the whole canonical office is of
+the year 1099 and is in the Mazarin library. Gregory VII. (pope 1073-1085),
+too, simplified the liturgy as performed at the Roman court, and gave his
+abridgment the name of Breviary, which thus came to denote a work which
+from another point of view might be called a Plenary, involving as it did
+the collection of several works into one. There are several extant
+specimens of 12th-century Breviaries, all Benedictine, but under Innocent
+III. (pope 1198-1216) their use was extended, especially by the newly
+founded and active Franciscan order. These preaching friars, with the
+authorization of Gregory IX., adopted (with some modifications, _e.g._ the
+substitution of the "Gallican" for the "Roman" version of the Psalter) the
+Breviary hitherto used exclusively by the Roman court, and with it
+gradually swept out of Europe all the earlier partial books (Legendaries,
+Responsories), &c., and to some extent the local Breviaries, like that of
+Sarum. Finally, Nicholas III. (pope 1277-1280) adopted this version both
+for the curia and for the basilicas of Rome, and thus made its position
+secure. The Benedictines and Dominicans have Breviaries of their own. The
+only other types that merit notice are:--(1) the Mozarabic Breviary, once
+in use throughout all Spain, but now confined to a single foundation at
+Toledo; it is remarkable for the number and length of its hymns, and for
+the fact that the majority of its collects are addressed to God the Son;
+(2) the Ambrosian, now confined to Milan, where it owes its retention to
+the attachment of the clergy and people to their traditionary rites, which
+they derive from St Ambrose (see LITURGY).
+
+[v.04 p.0504] Till the council of Trent every bishop had full power to
+regulate the Breviary of his own diocese; and this was acted upon almost
+everywhere. Each monastic community, also, had one of its own. Pius V.
+(pope 1566-1572), however, while sanctioning those which could show at
+least 200 years of existence, made the Roman obligatory in all other
+places. But the influence of the court of Rome has gradually gone much
+beyond this, and has superseded almost all the local "uses." The Roman has
+thus become nearly universal, with the allowance only of additional offices
+for saints specially venerated in each particular diocese. The Roman
+Breviary has undergone several revisions: The most remarkable of these is
+that by Francis Quignonez, cardinal of Santa Croce in Gerusalemme (1536),
+which, though not accepted by Rome,[1] formed the model for the still more
+thorough reform made in 1549 by the Church of England, whose daily morning
+and evening services are but a condensation and simplification of the
+Breviary offices. Some parts of the prefaces at the beginning of the
+English Prayer-Book are free translations of those of Quignonez. The Pian
+Breviary was again altered by Sixtus V. in 1588, who introduced the revised
+Vulgate text; by Clement VIII. in 1602 (through Baronius and Bellarmine),
+especially as concerns the rubrics; and by Urban VIII. (1623-1644), a
+purist who unfortunately tampered with the text of the hymns, injuring both
+their literary charm and their historic worth.
+
+In the 17th and 18th centuries a movement of revision took place in France,
+and succeeded in modifying about half the Breviaries of that country.
+Historically, this proceeded from the labours of Jean de Launoy
+(1603-1678), "le dénicheur des saints," and Louis Sébastien le Nain de
+Tillemont, who had shown the falsity of numerous lives of the saints; while
+theologically it was produced by the Port Royal school, which led men to
+dwell more on communion with God as contrasted with the invocation of the
+saints. This was mainly carried out by the adoption of a rule that all
+antiphons and responses should be in the exact words of Scripture, which,
+of course, cut out the whole class of appeals to created beings. The
+services were at the same time simplified and shortened, and the use of the
+whole Psalter every week (which had become a mere theory in the Roman
+Breviary, owing to its frequent supersession by saints' day services) was
+made a reality. These reformed French Breviaries--_e.g._ the Paris Breviary
+of 1680 by Archbishop François de Harlay (1625-1695) and that of 1736 by
+Archbishop Charles Gaspard Guillaume de Vintimille (1655-1746)--show a deep
+knowledge of Holy Scripture, and much careful adaptation of different
+texts; but during the pontificate of Pius IX. a strong Ultramontane
+movement arose against them. This was inaugurated by Montalembert, but its
+literary advocates were chiefly Dom Gueranger, a learned Benedictine monk,
+abbot of Solesmes, and Louis François Veuillot (1813-1883) of the
+_Univers_; and it succeeded in suppressing them everywhere, the last
+diocese to surrender being Orleans in 1875. The Jansenist and Gallican
+influence was also strongly felt in Italy and in Germany, where Breviaries
+based on the French models were published at Cologne, Münster, Mainz and
+other towns. Meanwhile, under the direction of Benedict XIV. (pope
+1740-1758), a special congregation collected many materials for an official
+revision, but nothing was published. Subsequent changes have been very few
+and minute. In 1902, under Leo XIII., a commission under the presidency of
+Monsignor Louis Duchesne was appointed to consider the Breviary, the
+Missal, the Pontifical and the Ritual.
+
+The beauty and value of many of the Latin Breviaries were brought to the
+notice of English churchmen by one of the numbers of the Oxford _Tracts for
+the Times_, since which time they have been much more studied, both for
+their own sake and for the light they throw upon the English Prayer-Book.
+
+From a bibliographical point of view some of the early printed Breviaries
+are among the rarest of literary curiosities, being merely local. The
+copies were not spread far, and were soon worn out by the daily use made of
+them. Doubtless many editions have perished without leaving a trace of
+their existence, while others are known by unique copies. In Scotland the
+only one which has survived the convulsions of the 16th century is that of
+Aberdeen, a Scottish form of the Sarum Office,[2] revised by William
+Elphinstone (bishop 1483-1514), and printed at Edinburgh by Walter Chapman
+and Andrew Myllar in 1509-1510. Four copies have been preserved of it, of
+which only one is complete; but it was reprinted in facsimile in 1854 for
+the Bannatyne Club by the munificence of the duke of Buccleuch. It is
+particularly valuable for the trustworthy notices of the early history of
+Scotland which are embedded in the lives of the national saints. Though
+enjoined by royal mandate in 1501 for general use within the realm of
+Scotland, it was probably never widely adopted. The new Scottish _Proprium_
+sanctioned for the Roman Catholic province of St Andrews in 1903 contains
+many of the old Aberdeen collects and antiphons.
+
+The Sarum or Salisbury Breviary itself was very widely used. The first
+edition was printed at Venice in 1483 by Raynald de Novimagio in folio; the
+latest at Paris, 1556, 1557. While modern Breviaries are nearly always
+printed in four volumes, one for each season of the year, the editions of
+the Sarum never exceeded two parts.
+
+_Contents of the Roman Breviary_.--At the beginning stands the usual
+introductory matter, such as the tables for determining the date of Easter,
+the calendar, and the general rubrics. The Breviary itself is divided into
+four seasonal parts--winter, spring, summer, autumn--and comprises under
+each part (1) the Psalter; (2) _Proprium de Tempore_ (the special office of
+the season); (3) _Proprium Sanctorum_ (special offices of saints); (4)
+_Commune Sanctorum_ (general offices for saints); (5) Extra Services. These
+parts are often published separately.
+
+1. _The Psalter_.--This is the very backbone of the Breviary, the
+groundwork of the Catholic prayer-book; out of it have grown the antiphons,
+responsories and versicles. In the Breviary the psalms are arranged
+according to a disposition dating from the 8th century, as follows. Psalms
+i.-cviii., with some omissions, are recited at Matins, twelve each day from
+Monday to Saturday, and eighteen on Sunday. The omissions are said at
+Lauds, Prime and Compline. Psalms cix.-cxlvii. (except cxvii., cxviii. and
+cxlii.) are said at Vespers, five each day. Psalms cxlviii.-cl. are always
+used at Lauds, and give that hour its name. The text of this Psalter is
+that commonly known as the Gallican. The name is misleading, for it is
+simply the second revision (A.D. 392) made by Jerome of the old _Itala_
+version originally used in Rome. Jerome's first revision of the _Itala_
+(A.D. 383), known as the Roman, is still used at St Peter's in Rome, but
+the "Gallican," thanks especially to St Gregory of Tours, who introduced it
+into Gaul in the 6th century, has ousted it everywhere else. The
+Antiphonary of Bangor proves that Ireland accepted the Gallican version in
+the 7th century, and the English Church did so in the 10th.
+
+2. The _Proprium de Tempore_ contains the office of the seasons of the
+Christian year (Advent to Trinity), a conception that only gradually grew
+up. There is here given the whole service for every Sunday and week-day,
+the proper antiphons, responsories, hymns, and especially the course of
+daily Scripture-reading, averaging about twenty verses a day, and (roughly)
+arranged thus: for Advent, Isaiah; Epiphany to Septuagesima, Pauline
+Epistles; Lent, patristic homilies (Genesis on Sundays); Passion-tide,
+Jeremiah; Easter to Whitsun, Acts, Catholic epistles and Apocalypse;
+Whitsun to August, Samuel and Kings; August to Advent, Wisdom books,
+Maccabees, Prophets. The extracts are often scrappy and torn out of their
+context.
+
+3. The _Proprium Sanctorum_ contains the lessons, psalms and liturgical
+formularies for saints' festivals, and depends on the days of the secular
+month. Most of the material here is hagiological biography, occasionally
+revised as by Leo XIII. in view of archaeological and other discoveries,
+but still largely uncritical. Covering a great stretch of time and space,
+they do for the worshipper in the field of church history what the
+Scripture readings do in that of biblical history. As something like 90% of
+the days in the year have, during the course of centuries, been allotted to
+some saint or other, it is easy to see how this section of the Breviary has
+encroached upon the _Proprium de Tempore_, and this is the chief problem
+that confronts any who are concerned for a revision of the Breviary.
+
+4. The _Commune Sanctorum_ comprises psalms, antiphons, lessons, &c., for
+feasts of various groups or classes (twelve in all); _e.g._ apostles,
+martyrs, confessors, virgins, and the Blessed Virgin Mary. These offices
+are of very ancient date, and many of them were probably [v.04 p.0505] in
+origin proper to individual saints. They contain passages of great literary
+beauty. The lessons read at the third nocturn are patristic homilies on the
+Gospels, and together form a rough summary of theological instruction.
+
+5. _Extra Services_.--Here are found the Little Office of the Blessed
+Virgin Mary, the Office of the Dead (obligatory on All Souls' Day), and
+offices peculiar to each diocese.
+
+It has already been indicated, by reference to Matins, Lauds, &c., that not
+only each day, but each part of the day, has its own office, the day being
+divided into liturgical "hours." A detailed account of these will be found
+in the article HOURS, CANONICAL. Each of the hours of the office is
+composed of the same elements, and something must be said now of the nature
+of these constituent parts, of which mention has here and there been
+already made. They are: psalms (including canticles), antiphons,
+responsories, hymns, lessons, little chapters, versicles and collects.
+
+The _psalms_ have already been dealt with, but it may be noted again how
+the multiplication of saints' festivals, with practically the same special
+psalms, tends in practice to constant repetition of about one-third of the
+Psalter, and correspondingly rare recital of the remaining two-thirds,
+whereas the _Proprium de Tempore_, could it be adhered to, would provide
+equal opportunities for every psalm. As in the Greek usage and in the
+Benedictine, certain canticles like the Song of Moses (Exodus xv.), the
+Song of Hannah (1 Sam. ii.), the prayer of Habakkuk (iii.), the prayer of
+Hezekiah (Isaiah xxxviii.) and other similar Old Testament passages, and,
+from the New Testament, the Magnificat, the Benedictus and the Nunc
+dimittis, are admitted as psalms.
+
+The _antiphons_ are short liturgical forms, sometimes of biblical,
+sometimes of patristic origin, used to introduce a psalm. The term
+originally signified a chant by alternate choirs, but has quite lost this
+meaning in the Breviary.
+
+The _responsories_ are similar in form to the antiphons, but come at the
+end of the psalm, being originally the reply of the choir or congregation
+to the precentor who recited the psalm.
+
+The _hymns_ are short poems going back in part to the days of Prudentius,
+Synesius, Gregory of Nazianzus and Ambrose (4th and 5th centuries), but
+mainly the work of medieval authors. Together they make a fine collection,
+and it is a pity that Urban VIII. in his mistaken humanistic zeal tried to
+improve them.
+
+The _lessons_, as has been seen, are drawn variously from the Bible, the
+Acts of the Saints and the Fathers of the Church. In the primitive church,
+books afterwards excluded from the canon were often read, _e.g._ the
+letters of Clement of Rome and the _Shepherd of Hermas_. In later days the
+churches of Africa, having rich memorials of martyrdom, used them to
+supplement the reading of Scripture. Monastic influence accounts for the
+practice of adding to the reading of a biblical passage some patristic
+commentary or exposition. Books of homilies were compiled from the writings
+of SS. Augustine, Hilary, Athanasius, Isidore, Gregory the Great and
+others, and formed part of the library of which the Breviary was the
+ultimate compendium. In the lessons, as in the psalms, the order for
+special days breaks in upon the normal order of ferial offices and
+dislocates the scheme for consecutive reading. The lessons are read at
+Matins (which is subdivided into three nocturns).
+
+The _little chapters_ are very short lessons read at the other "hours."
+
+The _versicles_ are short responsories used after the little chapters.
+
+The _collects_ come at the close of the office and are short prayers
+summing up the supplications of the congregation. They arise out of a
+primitive practice on the part of the bishop (local president), examples of
+which are found in the _Didache_ (Teaching of the Apostles) and in the
+letters of Clement of Rome and Cyprian. With the crystallization of church
+order improvisation in prayer largely gave place to set forms, and
+collections of prayers were made which later developed into Sacramentaries
+and Orationals. The collects of the Breviary are largely drawn from the
+Gelasian and other Sacramentaries, and they are used to sum up the dominant
+idea of the festival in connexion with which they happen to be used.
+
+The difficulty of harmonizing the _Proprium de Tempore_ and the _Proprium
+Sanctorum_, to which reference has been made, is only partly met in the
+thirty-seven chapters of general rubrics. Additional help is given by a
+kind of Catholic Churchman's Almanack, called the _Ordo Recitandi Divini
+Officii_, published in different countries and dioceses, and giving, under
+every day, minute directions for proper reading.
+
+Every clerk in orders and every member of a religious order must publicly
+join in or privately read aloud (_i.e._ using the lips as well as the
+eyes--it takes about two hours in this way) the whole of the Breviary
+services allotted for each day. In large churches the services are usually
+grouped; _e.g._ Matins and Lauds (about 7.30 A.M.); Prime, Terce (High
+Mass), Sext, and None (about 10 A.M.); Vespers and Compline (4 P.M.); and
+from four to eight hours (depending on the amount of music and the number
+of high masses) are thus spent in choir. Laymen do not use the Breviary as
+a manual of devotion to any great extent.
+
+The Roman Breviary has been translated into English (by the marquess of
+Bute in 1879; new ed. with a trans, of the Martyrology, 1908), French and
+German. The English version is noteworthy for its inclusion of the skilful
+renderings of the ancient hymns by J.H. Newman, J.M. Neale and others.
+
+AUTHORITIES.--F. Cabrol, _Introduction aux études liturgiques_; Probst,
+_Kirchenlex_. ii., _s.v._ "Brevier"; Bäumer, _Geschichte des Breviers_
+(Freiburg, 1895); P. Batiffol, _L'Histoire du bréviaire romain_ (Paris,
+1893; Eng. tr.); Baudot, _Le Bréviaire romain_ (1907). A complete
+bibliography is appended to the article by F. Cabrol in the _Catholic
+Encyclopaedia_, vol. ii. (1908).
+
+[1] It was approved by Clement VII. and Paul III., and permitted as a
+substitute for the unrevised Breviary, until Pius V. in 1568 excluded it as
+too short and too modern, and issued a reformed edition (_Breviarium
+Pianum_, Pian Breviary) of the old Breviary.
+
+[2] The Sarum Rite was much favoured in Scotland as a kind of protest
+against the jurisdiction claimed by the church of York.
+
+BREVIARY OF ALARIC (_Breviarium Alaricanum_), a collection of Roman law,
+compiled by order of Alaric II., king of the Visigoths, with the advice of
+his bishops and nobles, in the twenty-second year of his reign (A.D. 506).
+It comprises sixteen books of the Theodosian code; the Novels of Theodosius
+II., Valentinian III., Marcian, Majorianus and Severus; the Institutes of
+Gaius; five books of the _Sententiae Receptae_ of Julius Paulus; thirteen
+titles of the Gregorian code; two titles of the Hermogenian code; and a
+fragment of the first book of the _Responsa Papiniani_. It is termed a code
+(codex), in the certificate of Anianus, the king's referendary, but unlike
+the code of Justinian, from which the writings of jurists were excluded, it
+comprises both imperial constitutions (_leges_) and juridical treatises
+(_jura_). From the circumstance that the Breviarium has prefixed to it a
+royal rescript (_commonitorium_) directing that copies of it, certified
+under the hand of Anianus, should be received exclusively as law throughout
+the kingdom of the Visigoths, the compilation of the code has been
+attributed to Anianus by many writers, and it is frequently designated the
+Breviary of Anianus (Breviarium Aniani). The code, however, appears to have
+been known amongst the Visigoths by the title of "Lex Romana," or "Lex
+Theodosii," and it was not until the 16th century that the title of
+"Breviarium" was introduced to distinguish it from a recast of the code,
+which was introduced into northern Italy in the 9th century for the use of
+the Romans in Lombardy. This recast of the Visigothic code has been
+preserved in a MS. known as the Codex Utinensis, which was formerly kept in
+the archives of the cathedral of Udine, but is now lost; and it was
+published in the 18th century for the first time by P. Canciani in his
+collection of ancient laws entitled _Barbarorum Leges Antiquae_. Another
+MS. of this Lombard recast of the Visigothic code was discovered by Hänel
+in the library of St Gall. The chief value of the Visigothic code consists
+in the fact that it is the only collection of Roman Law in which the five
+first books of the Theodosian code and five books of the _Sententiae
+Receptae_ of Julius Paulus have been preserved, and until the discovery of
+a MS. in the chapter library in Verona, which contained the greater part of
+the Institutes of Gaius, it was the only work in which any portion of the
+institutional writings of that great jurist had come down to us.
+
+The most complete edition of the Breviarium will be found in the collection
+of Roman law published under the title of _Jus Civile Ante-Justinianum_
+(Berlin, 1815). See also G. Hänel's _Lex Romana Visigothorum_ (Berlin,
+1847-1849).
+
+BREWER, JOHN SHERREN (1810-1879), English historian, was born in Norwich in
+1810, the son of a Baptist schoolmaster. He was educated at Queen's
+College, Oxford, was ordained in the Church of England in 1837, and became
+chaplain to a central London workhouse. In 1839 he was appointed lecturer
+in classical literature at King's College, London, and in 1855 he became
+professor of English language and literature and lecturer in modern
+history, succeeding F.D. Maurice. Meanwhile from 1854 onwards he was also
+engaged in journalistic work on the _Morning Herald_, _Morning Post_ and
+_Standard_. In 1856 he was commissioned by the master of the rolls to
+prepare a calendar of the state papers of Henry VIII., a work demanding a
+vast amount of research. He was also made reader at the Rolls, and
+subsequently preacher. In 1877 Disraeli secured for him the crown living of
+Toppesfield, Essex. There he had time to continue his task of preparing his
+_Letters and Papers of the Reign of King Henry VIII_., the Introductions to
+which (published separately, under the title _The Reign of Henry VIII_., in
+1884) form a scholarly and authoritative history of Henry VIII.'s reign.
+New editions of several standard historical works were also produced under
+Brewer's direction. He died at Toppesfield in February 1879.
+
+[v.04 p.0506] BREWING, in the modern acceptation of the term, a series of
+operations the object of which is to prepare an alcoholic beverage of a
+certain kind--to wit, beer--mainly from cereals (chiefly malted barley),
+hops and water. Although the art of preparing beer (_q.v._) or ale is a
+very ancient one, there is very little information in the literature of the
+subject as to the apparatus and methods employed in early times. It seems
+fairly certain, however, that up to the 18th century these were of the most
+primitive kind. With regard to _materials_, we know that prior to the
+general introduction of the hop (see ALE) as a preservative and astringent,
+a number of other bitter and aromatic plants had been employed with this
+end in view. Thus J.L. Baker (_The Brewing Industry_) points out that the
+Cimbri used the _Tamarix germanica_, the Scandinavians the fruit of the
+sweet gale (_Myrica gale_), the Cauchi the fruit and the twigs of the
+chaste tree (_Vitex agrius castus_), and the Icelanders the yarrow
+(_Achillea millefolium_).
+
+The preparation of beer on anything approaching to a manufacturing scale
+appears, until about the 12th or 13th century, to have been carried on in
+England chiefly in the monasteries; but as the brewers of London combined
+to form an association in the reign of Henry IV., and were granted a
+charter in 1445, it is evident that brewing as a special trade or industry
+must have developed with some rapidity. After the Reformation the ranks of
+the trade brewers were swelled by numbers of monks from the expropriated
+monasteries. Until the 18th century the professional brewers, or brewers
+for sale, as they are now called, brewed chiefly for the masses, the
+wealthier classes preparing their own beer, but it then became gradually
+apparent to the latter (owing no doubt to improved methods of brewing, and
+for others reasons) that it was more economical and less troublesome to
+have their beer brewed for them at a regular brewery. The usual charge was
+30s. per barrel for bitter ale, and 8s. or so for small beer. This tendency
+to centralize brewing operations became more and more marked with each
+succeeding decade. Thus during 1895-1905 the number of private brewers
+declined from 17,041 to 9930. Of the private brewers still existing, about
+four-fifths were in the class exempted from beer duty, _i.e._ farmers
+occupying houses not exceeding £10 annual value who brew for their
+labourers, and other persons occupying houses not exceeding £15 annual
+value. The private houses subject to both beer and licence duty produced
+less than 20,000 barrels annually. There are no official figures as to the
+number of "cottage brewers," that is, occupiers of dwellings not exceeding
+£8 annual value; but taking everything into consideration it is probable
+that more than 99% of the beer produced in the United Kingdom is brewed by
+public brewers (brewers for sale). The disappearance of the smaller public
+brewers or their absorption by the larger concerns has gone hand-in-hand
+with the gradual extinction of the private brewer. In the year 1894-1895
+8863 licences were issued to brewers for sale, and by 1904-1905 this number
+had been reduced to 5164. There are numerous reasons for these changes in
+the constitution of the brewing industry, chief among them being (a) the
+increasing difficulty, owing partly to licensing legislation and its
+administration, and partly to the competition of the great breweries, of
+obtaining an adequate outlet for retail sale in the shape of licensed
+houses; and (b) the fact that brewing has continuously become a more
+scientific and specialized industry, requiring costly and complicated plant
+and expert manipulation. It is only by employing the most up-to-date
+machinery and expert knowledge that the modern brewer can hope to produce
+good beer in the short time which competition and high taxation, &c., have
+forced upon him. Under these conditions the small brewer tends to
+extinction, and the public are ultimately the gainers. The relatively
+non-alcoholic, lightly hopped and bright modern beers, which the small
+brewer has not the means of producing, are a great advance on the muddy,
+highly hopped and alcoholized beverages to which our ancestors were
+accustomed.
+
+The brewing trade has reached vast proportions in the United Kingdom. The
+maximum production was 37,090,986 barrels in 1900, and while there has been
+a steady decline since that year, the figures for 1905-1906--34,109,263
+barrels--were in excess of those for any year preceding 1897. It is
+interesting in this connexion to note that the writer of the article on
+Brewing in the 9th edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ was of the
+opinion that the brewing industry--which was then (1875) producing,
+roughly, 25,000,000 barrels--had attained its maximum development. In the
+year ending 30th September 1905 the beer duty received by the exchequer
+amounted to £13,156,053. The number of brewers for sale was 5180. Of these
+one firm, namely, Messrs Guinness, owning the largest brewery in the world,
+brewed upwards of two million barrels, paying a sum of, roughly, one
+million sterling to the revenue. Three other firms brewed close on a
+million barrels or upwards. The quantity of malt used was 51,818,697
+bushels; of unmalted corn, 125,671 bushels; of rice, flaked maize and
+similar materials, 1,348,558 cwt.; of sugar, 2,746,615 cwt.; of hops,
+62,360,817 lb; and of hop substitutes, 49,202 lb. The average specific
+gravity of the beer produced in 1905-1906 was 1053.24. The quantity of beer
+exported was 520,826; of beer imported, 57,194 barrels. It is curious to
+note that the figures for exports and imports had remained almost
+stationary for the last thirty years. By far the greater part of the beer
+brewed is consumed in England. Thus of the total quantity retained for
+consumption in 1905-1906, 28,590,563 barrels were consumed in England,
+1,648,463 in Scotland, and 3,265,084 in Ireland. In 1871 it was calculated
+by Professor Leone Levi that the capital invested in the liquor trade in
+the United Kingdom was £117,000,000. In 1908 this figure might be safely
+doubled. A writer in the _Brewers' Almanack_ for 1906 placed the capital
+invested in limited liability breweries alone at £185,000,000. If we allow
+for over-capitalization, it seems fairly safe to say that, prior to the
+introduction of the Licensing Bill of 1908, the market value of the
+breweries in the United Kingdom, together with their licensed property, was
+in the neighbourhood of £120,000,000, to which might be added another
+£20,000,000 for the value of licences not included in the above
+calculation; the total capital actually sunk in the whole liquor trade
+(including the wine and spirit industries and trades) being probably not
+far short of £250,000,000, and the number of persons directly engaged in or
+dependent on the liquor trade being under-estimated at 2,000,000. (For
+comparative production and consumption see BEER.)
+
+_Taxation and Regulations_.--The development of the brewing industry in
+England is intimately interwoven with the history of its taxation, and the
+regulations which have from time to time been formed for the safeguarding
+of the revenue. The first duty on beer in the United Kingdom was imposed in
+the reign of Charles II. (1660), namely 2s. 6d. per barrel on strong and
+6d. per barrel on weak beer. This was gradually increased, amounting to 4s.
+9d. on strong and 1s. 3d. on weak beer in the last decade of the 17th
+century, and to 8s. to 10s. in the year 1800, at which rate it continued
+until the repeal of the beer duty in 1830. A duty on malt was first imposed
+in the reign of William III. (1697), and from that date until 1830 both
+beer duty and malt tax were charged. The rate at first was under 7d. per
+bushel, but this was increased up to 2s. 7d. prior to the first repeal of
+the beer duty (1830), and to 4s. 6d. after the repeal. In 1829 the joint
+beer and malt taxes amounted to no less than 13s. 8d. per barrel, or 4½d.
+per gallon, as against 2½d. at the present day. From 1856 until the
+abolition of the malt tax, the latter remained constant at a fraction under
+2s. 8½d. A _hop duty_ varying from 1d. to 2½d. per pound was in existence
+between 1711 and 1862. One of the main reasons for the abolition of the hop
+duty was the fact that, owing to the uncertainty of the crop, the amount
+paid to the revenue was subject to wide fluctuations. Thus in 1855 the
+revenue from this source amounted to £728,183, in 1861 to only £149,700.
+
+It was not until 1847 that the use of sugar in brewing was permitted, and
+in 1850 the first sugar tax, amounting to 1s. 4d. per cwt., was imposed. It
+varied from this figure up to 6s. 6d. in 1854, and in 1874, when the
+general duty on sugar was repealed, it was raised to 11s. 6d., at which
+rate it remained until 1880, when it was repealed simultaneously with the
+malt duty. In 1901 a general sugar tax of 4s. 2d. and under (according to
+the percentage of actual sugar contained) was imposed, but no drawback was
+allowed to brewers using sugar, and therefore--and this obtains at the
+present day--sugar used in brewing pays the general tax and also the beer
+duty.
+
+By the Free Mash-Tun Act of 1880, the duty was taken off the malt and
+placed on the beer, or, more properly speaking, on the wort; maltsters' and
+brewers' licences were repealed, and in lieu thereof an annual licence duty
+of £1 payable by every brewer for sale was [v.04 p.0507] imposed. The chief
+feature of this act was that, on and after the 1st of October 1880, a beer
+duty was imposed in lieu of the old malt tax, at the rate of 6s. 3d. per
+barrel of 36 gallons, at a specific gravity of 1.057, and the regulations
+for charging the duty were so framed as to leave the brewer practically
+unrestricted as to the description of malt or corn and sugar, or other
+description of saccharine substitutes (other than deleterious articles or
+drugs), which he might use in the manufacture or colouring of beer. This
+freedom in the choice of materials has continued down to the present time,
+except that the use of "saccharin" (a product derived from coal-tar) was
+prohibited in 1888, the reason being that this substance gives an apparent
+palate-fulness to beer equal to roughly 4° in excess of its real gravity,
+the revenue suffering thereby. In 1889 the duty on beer was increased by a
+reduction in the standard of gravity from 1.057 to 1.055, and in 1894 a
+further 6d. per barrel was added. The duty thus became 6s. 9d. per barrel,
+at a gravity of 1.055, which was further increased to 7s. 9d. per barrel by
+the war budget of 1900, at which figure it stood in 1909. (See also LIQUOR
+LAWS.)
+
+Prior to 1896, rice, flaked maize (see below), and other similar
+preparations had been classed as malt or corn in reference to their
+wort-producing powers, but after that date they were deemed sugar[1] in
+that regard. By the new act (1880) 42 lb weight of corn, or 28 lb weight of
+sugar, were to be deemed the equivalent of a bushel of malt, and a brewer
+was expected by one of the modes of charge to have brewed at least a barrel
+(36 gallons) of worts (less 4% allowed for wastage) at the standard gravity
+for every two bushels of malt (or its equivalents) used by him in brewing;
+but where, owing to lack of skill or inferior machinery, a brewer cannot
+obtain the standard quantity of wort from the standard equivalent of
+material, the charge is made not on the wort, but directly on the material.
+By the new act, licences at the annual duty of £1 on brewers for sale, and
+of 6s. (subsequently modified by 44 Vict. c. 12, and 48 and 49 Vict. c. 5,
+&c., to 4s.) or 9s., as the case might be, on any other brewers, were
+required. The regulations dealing with the mashing operations are very
+stringent. Twenty-four hours at least before mashing the brewer must enter
+in his brewing book (provided by the Inland Revenue) the day and hour for
+commencing to mash malt, corn, &c., or to dissolve sugar; and the date of
+making such entry; and also, two hours at least before the notice hour for
+mashing, the quantity of malt, corn, &c., and sugar to be used, and the day
+and hour when all the worts will be drawn off the grains in the mash-tun.
+The worts of each brewing must be collected within twelve hours of the
+commencement of the collection, and the brewer must within a given time
+enter in his book the quantity and gravity of the worts before
+fermentation, the number and name of the vessel, and the date of the entry.
+The worts must remain in the same vessel undisturbed for twelve hours after
+being collected, unless previously taken account of by the officer. There
+are other regulations, _e.g._ those prohibiting the mixing of worts of
+different brewings unless account has been taken of each separately, the
+alteration of the size or shape of any gauged vessel without notice, and so
+on.
+
+_Taxation of Beer in Foreign Countries_.--The following table shows the
+nature of the tax and the amount of the same calculated to English barrels.
+
+      Country.        Nature of Tax.    Amount per English
+                                          Barrel (round
+                                             numbers)
+United States            Beer tax            5s. 9d.
+Germany --
+N. German Customs        Malt tax             1s. 6d
+Union
+Bavaria                  Malt tax      3s. 5d. to 4s. 8d.,
+                                           according to
+                                        quantity produced
+Belgium                  Malt tax            2s. 9d.
+France                    On Wort            4s. 1d.
+Holland                  On cubic      About 1s. 9d. to 3s.
+                        contents of     3d., according to
+                      Mash-Tun or on         quality
+                           Malt
+Austro-Hungarian          On Wort            6s. 8d.
+Empire
+Russia                   Malt tax         5s. to 6s. 8d.
+
+MATERIALS USED IN BREWING.--These are water, malt (_q.v._), hops (_q.v._),
+various substitutes for the two latter, and preservatives.
+
+_Water_.--A satisfactory supply of water--which, it may here be mentioned,
+is always called _liquor_ in the brewery--is a matter of great importance
+to the brewer. Certain waters, for instance, those contaminated to any
+extent with organic matter, cannot be used at all in brewing, as they give
+rise to unsatisfactory fermentation, cloudiness and abnormal flavour.
+Others again, although suited to the production of one type of beer, are
+quite unfit for the brewing of another. For black beers a soft water is a
+desideratum, for ales of the Burton type a hard water is a necessity. For
+the brewing of mild ales, again, a water containing a certain proportion of
+chlorides is required. The presence or absence of certain mineral
+substances as such in the finished beer is not, apparently, a matter of any
+moment as regards flavour or appearance, but the importance of the rôle
+played by these substances in the brewing process is due to the influence
+which they exert on the solvent action of the water on the various
+constituents of the malt, and possibly of the hops. The excellent quality
+of the Burton ales was long ago surmised to be due mainly to the well water
+obtainable in that town. On analysing Burton water it was found to contain
+a considerable quantity of calcium sulphate--gypsum--and of other calcium
+and magnesium salts, and it is now a well-known fact that good bitter ales
+cannot be brewed except with waters containing these substances in
+sufficient quantities. Similarly, good mild ale waters should contain a
+certain quantity of sodium chloride, and waters for stout very little
+mineral matter, excepting perhaps the carbonates of the alkaline earths,
+which are precipitated on boiling.
+
+The following analyses (from W.J. Sykes, _The Principles and Practice of
+Brewing_) are fairly illustrative of typical brewing waters.
+
+      _Burton Water_ (Pale Ale)
+                    Grains per Gallon
+Sodium Chloride                  3.90
+Potassium Sulphate               1.59
+Sodium Nitrate                   1.97
+Calcium Sulphate                77.87
+Calcium Carbonate                7.62
+Magnesium Carbonate             21.31
+Silica and Alumina               0.98
+       _Dublin Water_ (Stout).
+Sodium Chloride                  1.83
+Calcium Sulphate                 4.45
+Calcium Carbonate               14.21
+Magnesium Carbonate              0.90
+Iron Oxide and                   0.24
+Alumina
+Silica                           0.26
+          _Mild Ale Water_.
+Sodium Chloride                 35.14
+Calcium Chloride                 3.88
+Calcium Sulphate                 6.23
+Calcium Carbonate                4.01
+Iron Oxide and                   0.24
+Alumina
+Silica                           0.22
+
+Our knowledge of the essential chemical constituents of brewing waters
+enables brewers in many cases to treat an unsatisfactory supply
+artificially in such a manner as to modify its character in a favourable
+sense. Thus, if a soft water only is to hand, and it is desired to brew a
+bitter ale, all that is necessary is to add a sufficiency of gypsum,
+magnesium sulphate and calcium chloride. If it is desired to convert a soft
+water lacking in chlorides into a satisfactory mild ale liquor, the
+addition of 30-40 grains of sodium chloride will be necessary. On the other
+hand, to convert a hard water into a soft supply is scarcely feasible for
+brewing purposes. To the substances used for treating brewing liquors
+already mentioned we may add kainite, a naturally deposited composite salt
+containing potassium and magnesium sulphates and magnesium chloride.
+
+_Malt Substitutes._--Prior to the repeal of the Malt Acts, the only
+substitute for malt allowed in the United Kingdom was sugar. The quantity
+of the latter employed was 295,865 cwt. in 1870, 1,136,434 cwt. in 1880,
+and 2,746,615 cwt. in 1905; that is to say, that the quantity used had been
+practically trebled during the last twenty-five years, although the
+quantity of malt employed had not materially increased. At the same time
+other substitutes, such as unmalted corn and preparations of rice and
+maize, had come into favour, the quantity of these substances used being in
+1905 125,671 bushels of unmalted corn and 1,348,558 cwt. of rice, maize,
+&c.
+
+The following statistics with regard to the use of malt substitutes in the
+United Kingdom are not without interest.
+
+[v.04 p.0508]
+
+Year.    Quantities of    Quantities of   Percentage
+         Malt and Corn    Sugar, Rice,        of
+            used in      Maize, &c. used  Substitutes
+           Brewing.        in Brewing.     to Total
+                                          Material.
+           Bushels.         Bushels.
+ 1878        59,388,905        3,825,148        6.05
+ 1883     51,331,451[2]     4,503,680[3]        8.06
+ 1890     55,359,964[2]     7,904,708[3]       12.48
+ 1895        53,731,177       10,754,510       16.66
+ 1905        51,942,368       15,706,413       23.22
+
+The causes which have led to the largely increased use of substitutes in
+the United Kingdom are of a somewhat complex nature. In the first place, it
+was not until the malt tax was repealed that the brewer was able to avail
+himself of the surplus diastatic energy present in malt, for the purpose of
+transforming starch (other than that in malted grain) into sugar. The
+diastatic enzyme or ferment (see below, under _Mashing_) of malted barley
+is present in that material in great excess, and a part of this surplus
+energy may be usefully employed in converting the starch of unmalted grain
+into sugar. The brewer has found also that brewing operations are
+simplified and accelerated by the use of a certain proportion of
+substitutes, and that he is thereby enabled appreciably to increase his
+turn-over, _i.e._ he can make more beer in a given time from the same
+plant. Certain classes of substitutes, too, are somewhat cheaper than malt,
+and in view of the keenness of modern competition it is not to be wondered
+at that the brewer should resort to every legitimate means at his disposal
+to keep down costs. It has been contended, and apparently with much reason,
+that if the use of substitutes were prohibited this would not lead to an
+increased use of domestic barley, inasmuch as the supply of home barley
+suitable for malting purposes is of a limited nature. A return to the
+policy of "malt and hops only" would therefore lead to an increased use of
+foreign barley, and to a diminution in the demand for home barley, inasmuch
+as sugar and prepared cereals, containing as they do less nitrogen, &c.
+than even the well-cured, sun-dried foreign barleys, are better diluents
+than the latter. At the same time, it is an undoubted fact that an
+excessive use of substitutes leads to the production of beer of poor
+quality. The better class of brewer rarely uses more than 15-20%, knowing
+that beyond that point the loss of flavour and quality will in the long run
+become a more serious item than any increased profits which he might
+temporarily gain.
+
+With regard to the nature of the substitutes or adjuncts for barley malt
+more generally employed, raw grain (unmalted barley, wheat, rice, maize,
+&c.) is not used extensively in Great Britain, but in America brewers
+employ as much as 50%, and even more, of maize, rice or similar materials.
+The maize and rice preparations mostly used in England are practically
+starch pure and simple, substantially the whole of the oil, water, and
+other subsidiary constituents of the grain being removed. The germ of maize
+contains a considerable proportion of an oil of somewhat unpleasant
+flavour, which has to be eliminated before the material is fit for use in
+the mash-tun. After degerming, the maize is unhusked, wetted, submitted to
+a temperature sufficient to rupture the starch cells, dried, and finally
+rolled out in a flaky condition. Rice is similarly treated.
+
+The _sugars_ used are chiefly cane sugar, glucose and invert sugar--the
+latter commonly known as "saccharum." Cane sugar is mostly used for the
+preparation of heavy mild ales and stouts, as it gives a peculiarly sweet
+and full flavour to the beer, to which, no doubt, the popularity of this
+class of beverage is largely due. _Invert sugar_ is prepared by the action
+either of acid or of yeast on cane sugar. The chemical equation
+representing the conversion (or inversion) of cane sugar is:--
+
+  C12H22O11  +  H2O  =  C6H12O6   +  C6H12O6.
+  cane sugar   water    glucose      fructose
+                        ----invert sugar----
+
+Invert sugar is so called because the mixture of glucose and fructose which
+forms the "invert" is laevo-rotatory, whereas cane sugar is dextro-rotatory
+to the plane of polarized light. The preparation of invert sugar by the
+acid process consists in treating the cane sugar in solution with a little
+mineral acid, removing the excess of the latter by means of chalk, and
+concentrating to a thick syrup. The yeast process (Tompson's), which makes
+use of the inverting power of one of the enzymes (invertase) contained in
+ordinary yeast, is interesting. The cane sugar solution is pitched with
+yeast at about 55° C., and at this comparatively high temperature the
+inversion proceeds rapidly, and fermentation is practically impossible.
+When this operation is completed, the whole liquid (including the yeast) is
+run into the boiling contents of the copper. This method is more suited to
+the preparation of invert in the brewery itself than the acid process,
+which is almost exclusively used in special sugar works. Glucose, which is
+one of the constituents of invert sugar, is largely used by itself in
+brewing. It is, however, never prepared from invert sugar for this purpose,
+but directly from starch by means of acid. By the action of dilute boiling
+acid on starch the latter is rapidly converted first into a mixture of
+dextrine and maltose and then into glucose. The proportions of glucose,
+dextrine and maltose present in a commercial glucose depend very much on
+the duration of the boiling, the strength of the acid, and the extent of
+the pressure at which the starch is converted. In England the materials
+from which glucose is manufactured are generally sago, rice and purified
+maize. In Germany potatoes form the most common raw material, and in
+America purified Indian corn is ordinarily employed.
+
+_Hop substitutes_, as a rule, are very little used. They mostly consist of
+quassia, gentian and camomile, and these substitutes are quite harmless
+_per se_, but impart an unpleasantly rough and bitter taste to the beer.
+
+_Preservatives_.--These are generally, in fact almost universally, employed
+nowadays for draught ales; to a smaller extent for stock ales. The light
+beers in vogue to-day are less alcoholic, more lightly hopped, and more
+quickly brewed than the beers of the last generation, and in this respect
+are somewhat less stable and more likely to deteriorate than the latter
+were. The preservative in part replaces the alcohol and the hop extract,
+and shortens the brewing time. The preservatives mostly used are the
+bisulphites of lime and potash, and these, when employed in small
+quantities, are generally held to be harmless.
+
+BREWING OPERATIONS.--The general scheme of operations in an English brewery
+will be readily understood if reference be made to fig. 1, which represents
+an 8-quarter brewery on the _gravitation system_, the principle of which is
+that all materials to be employed are pumped or hoisted to the highest
+point required, to start with, and that subsequently no further pumping or
+hoisting is required, the materials (in the shape of water, malt, wort or
+hops, &c.) being conveyed from one point to another by the force of
+gravity.
+
+The malt, which is hoisted to the top floor, after cleaning and grading is
+conveyed to the _Malt Mill_, where it is crushed. Thence the ground malt,
+or "grist" as it is now called, passes to the _Grist Hopper_, and from the
+latter to the _Mashing Machine_, in which it is intimately mixed with hot
+water from the _Hot Liquor Vessel_. From the mashing machine the mixed
+grist and "liquor" pass to the _Mash-Tun_, where the starch of the malt is
+rendered soluble. From the mash-tun the clear wort passes to the _Copper_,
+where it is boiled with hops. From the copper the boiled wort passes to the
+_Hop Back_, where the insoluble hop constituents are separated from the
+wort. From the hop back the wort passes to the _Cooler_, from the latter to
+the _Refrigerator_, thence (for the purpose of enabling the revenue
+officers to assess the duty) to the _Collecting Vessel_,[4] and finally to
+the _Fermenting Vessels_, in which the wort is transformed into "green"
+beer. The latter is then cleansed, and finally racked and stored.
+
+It will be seen from the above that brewing consists of seven distinct main
+processes, which may be classed as follows: (1) Grinding; (2) Mashing; (3)
+Boiling; (4) Cooling; (5) Fermenting; (6) Cleansing; (7) Racking and
+Storing.
+
+_Grinding_.--In most modern breweries the malt passes, on its way [v.04
+p.0509] from the bins to the mill, through a cleaning and grading
+apparatus, and then through an automatic measuring machine. The mills,
+which exist in a variety of designs, are of the smooth roller type, and are
+so arranged that the malt is _crushed_ rather than ground. If the malt is
+ground too fine, difficulties arise in regard to efficient drainage in the
+mash-tun and subsequent clarification. On the other hand, if the crushing
+is too coarse the subsequent extraction of soluble matter in the mash-tun
+is incomplete, and an inadequate yield results.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--An 8-quarter Brewery (Messrs. L. Lumley & Co.,
+Ltd.).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Mash-tun with mashing machine.]
+
+_Mashing_ is a process which consists mainly in extracting, by means of
+water at an adequate temperature, the soluble matters pre-existent in the
+malt, and in converting the insoluble starch and a great part of the
+insoluble nitrogenous compounds into soluble and partly fermentable
+products. Mashing is, without a doubt, the most important of the brewing
+processes, for it is largely in the mash-tun that the character of the beer
+to be brewed is determined. In modern practice the malt and the mashing
+"liquor" (_i.e._ water) are introduced into the mash-tun simultaneously, by
+means of the mashing machine (fig. 2, A). This is generally a cylindrical
+metal vessel, commanding the mash-tun and provided with a central shaft and
+screw. The grist (as the crushed malt is called) enters the mashing machine
+from the grist case above, and the liquor is introduced at the back. The
+screw is rotated rapidly, and so a thorough mixture of the grist and liquor
+takes place as they travel along the mashing machine. The mash-tun (fig. 2)
+is a large metal or wooden vessel, fitted with a false bottom composed of
+plates perforated with numerous small holes or slits (C). This arrangement
+is necessary in order to obtain a proper separation of the "wort" (as the
+liquid portion of the finished mash is called) from the spent grains. The
+mash-tun is also provided with a stirring apparatus (the _rakes_) so that
+the grist and liquor may be intimately mixed (D), and an automatic
+sprinkler, the _sparger_ (fig. 2, B, and fig. 3), which is employed in
+order to wash out the wort remaining in the grains. The sparger consists of
+a number of hollow arms radiating from a common centre and pierced by a
+number of small perforations. The common central vessel from which the
+sparge-arms radiate is mounted in such a manner that it rotates
+automatically when a stream of water is admitted, so that a constant fine
+spray covers the whole tun when the sparger is in operation. There are also
+pipes for admitting "liquor" to the bottom of the tun, and for carrying the
+wort from the latter to the "underback" or "copper."
+
+The grist and liquor having been introduced into the tun (either by means
+of the mashing machine or separately), the rakes are set going, so that the
+mash may become thoroughly homogeneous, and after a short time the rakes
+are stopped and the mash allowed to rest, usually for a period of about two
+hours. After this, "taps are set"--_i.e._ communication is established
+between the mash-tun and the vessel into which the wort runs--and the
+sparger is started. In this manner the whole of the wort or extract is
+separated from the grains. The quantity of water employed is, in all, from
+two to three barrels to the quarter (336 lb) of malt.
+
+In considering the process of mashing, one might almost say the process of
+brewing, it is essential to remember that the type and quality of the beer
+to be produced (see MALT) depends almost entirely (a) on the kind of malt
+employed, and (b) on the mashing temperature. In other words, quality may
+be controlled on the kiln or in the mash-tun, or both. Viewed in this
+light, the following theoretical methods for preparing different types of
+beer are possible:--(1) high kiln heats and high mashing temperatures; (2)
+high kiln heats and low mashing temperatures; (3) low kiln heats and high
+mashing temperatures; and (4) low kiln heats and low mashing temperatures.
+In practice all these combinations, together with many intermediate ones,
+are met with, and it is not too much to say that the whole science of
+modern brewing is based upon them. It is plain, then, that the mashing
+temperature will depend on the kind of beer that is to be produced, and on
+the kind of malt employed. For stouts and black beers generally, a mashing
+temperature of 148° to 150° F. is most usual; for pale or stock ales, 150°
+to 154° F.; and for mild running beers, 154° to 149° F. The range of
+temperatures employed in brewing English beers is a very limited one as
+compared with foreign mashing methods, and does not range further,
+practically speaking, than from 140° to 160° F. The effect of higher
+temperatures is chiefly to cripple the enzyme or "ferment" diastase, which,
+as already said, is the agent which converts the insoluble starch into
+soluble dextrin, sugar and intermediate products. The higher the mashing
+temperature, the more the diastase will be crippled in its action, and the
+more dextrinous (non-fermentable) matter as compared with maltose
+(fermentable sugar) will be formed. A pale or stock ale, which is a type of
+beer that must be "dry" and that will keep, requires to contain a
+relatively high proportion of dextrin and little maltose, and, in its
+preparation, therefore, a high mashing temperature will be employed. On the
+other hand, a mild running ale, which is a full, sweet beer, intended for
+rapid consumption, will be obtained by means of low mashing temperatures,
+which produce relatively little dextrin, but a good deal of maltose, _i.e._
+sweet and readily fermentable matter.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Sparger.]
+
+Diastase is not the only enzyme present in malt. There is also a ferment
+which renders a part of the nitrogenous matter soluble. This again is
+affected by temperature in much the same way as diastase. Low heats tend to
+produce much non-coagulable [v.04 p.0510] nitrogenous matter, which is
+undesirable in a stock beer, as it tends to produce fret and side
+fermentations. With regard to the kind of malt and other materials employed
+in producing various types of beer, pale ales are made either from pale
+malt (generally a mixture of English and fine foreign, such as Smyrna,
+California) only, or from pale malt and a little flaked maize, rice, invert
+sugar or glucose. Running beers (mild ale) are made from a mixture of pale
+and amber malts, sugar and flaked goods; stout, from a mixture of pale,
+amber and roasted (black) malts only, or with the addition of a little
+sugar or flaked maize.
+
+When raw grain is employed, the process of mashing is slightly modified.
+The maize, rice or other grain is usually gelatinized in a vessel (called a
+_converter_ or _cooker_) entirely separated from the mash-tun, by means of
+steam at a relatively high temperature, mostly with, but occasionally
+without, the addition of some malt meal. After about half an hour the
+gelatinized mass is mixed with the main mash, and this takes place shortly
+before taps are set. This is possible inasmuch as the starch, being already
+in a highly disintegrated condition, is very rapidly converted. By working
+on the limited-decoction system (see below), it is possible to make use of
+a fair percentage of raw grain in the mash-tun proper, thus doing away with
+the "converter" entirely.
+
+_The Filter Press Process._--The ordinary mash-tun process, as described
+above, possesses the disadvantage that only coarse grists can be employed.
+This entails loss of extract in several ways. To begin with, the sparging
+process is at best a somewhat inefficient method for washing out the last
+portions of the wort, and again, when the malt is at all hard or "steely,"
+starch conversion is by no means complete. These disadvantages are overcome
+by the filter press process, which was first introduced into Great Britain
+by the Belgian engineer P. Meura. The malt, in this method of brewing, is
+ground quite fine, and although an ordinary mash-tun may be used for
+mashing, the separation of the clear wort from the solid matter takes place
+in the filter press, which retains the very finest particles with ease. It
+is also a simple matter to wash out the wort from the filter cake in the
+presses, and experience has shown that markedly increased yields are thus
+obtained. In the writer's opinion, there is little doubt that in the future
+this, or a similar process, will find a very wide application.
+
+_Boiling_.--From the mash-tun the wort passes to the _copper_. If it is not
+possible to arrange the plant so that the coppers are situated beneath the
+mash-tuns (as is the case in breweries arranged on the _gravitation
+system_), an intermediate collecting vessel (the underback) is interposed,
+and from this the wort is pumped into the copper. The latter is a large
+copper vessel heated by direct fire or steam. Modern coppers are generally
+closed in with a dome-shaped head, but many old-fashioned open coppers are
+still to be met with, in fact pale-ale brewers prefer open coppers. In the
+closed type the wort is frequently boiled under slight pressure. When the
+wort has been raised to the boil, the hops or a part thereof are added, and
+the boiling is continued generally from an hour to three hours, according
+to the type of beer. The objects of boiling, briefly put, are: (1)
+sterilization of the wort; (2) extraction from the hops of substances that
+give flavour and aroma to the beer; (3) the coagulation and precipitation
+of a part of the nitrogenous matter (the coagulable albuminoids), which, if
+left in, would cause cloudiness and fret, &c., in the finished beer; (4)
+the concentration of the wort. At least three distinct substances are
+extracted from the hops in boiling. First, the _hop tannin_, which,
+combining with a part of the proteids derived from the malt, precipitates
+them; second, the _hop resin_, which acts as a preservative and bitter;
+third, the _hop oil_, to which much of the fine aroma of beer is due. The
+latter is volatile, and it is customary, therefore, not to add the whole of
+the hops to the wort when it commences to boil, but to reserve about a
+third until near the end of the copper stage. The quantity of hops employed
+varies according to the type of beer, from about 3 lb to 15 lb per quarter
+(336 lb) of malt. For mild ales and porters about 3 to 4 lb, for light pale
+ales and light stouts 6 to 10 lb, and for strong ales and stouts 9 to 15 lb
+of hops are employed.
+
+_Cooling_.--When the wort has boiled the necessary time, it is turned into
+the _hop back_ to settle. A hop back is a wooden or metal vessel, fitted
+with a false bottom of perforated plates; the latter retain the spent hops,
+the wort being drawn off into the coolers. After resting for a brief period
+in the hop back, the bright wort is run into the _coolers_. The cooler is a
+very shallow vessel of great area, and the result of the exposure of the
+hot wort to a comparatively large volume of air is that a part of the hop
+constituents and other substances contained in the wort are rendered
+insoluble and are precipitated. It was formerly considered absolutely
+essential that this hot aeration should take place, but in many breweries
+nowadays coolers are not used, the wort being run direct from the hop back
+to the refrigerator. There is much to be said for this procedure, as the
+exposure of hot wort in the cooler is attended with much danger of
+bacterial and wild yeast infection, but it is still a moot point whether
+the cooler or its equivalent can be entirely dispensed with for all classes
+of beers. A rational alteration would appear to be to place the cooler in
+an air-tight chamber supplied with purified and sterilized air. This
+principle has already been applied to the refrigerator, and apparently with
+success. In America the cooler is frequently replaced by a cooling tank, an
+enclosed vessel of some depth, capable of artificial aeration. It is not
+practicable, in any case, to cool the wort sufficiently on the cooler to
+bring it to the proper temperature for the fermentation stage, and for this
+purpose, therefore, the _refrigerator_ is employed. There are several kinds
+of refrigerators, the main distinction being that some are vertical, others
+horizontal; but the principle in each case is much the same, and consists
+in allowing a thin film or stream of wort to trickle over a series of pipes
+through which cold water circulates. Fig. 5, Plate I., shows refrigerators,
+employed in Messrs Allsopp's lager beer brewery, at work.
+
+_Fermenting_.--By the process of fermentation the wort is converted into
+beer. By the action of living yeast cells (see FERMENTATION) the sugar
+contained in the wort is split up into alcohol and carbonic acid, and a
+number of subsidiary reactions occur. There are two main systems of
+fermentation, the _top fermentation_ system, which is that employed in the
+United Kingdom, and the _bottom fermentation_ system, which is that used
+for the production of beers of the continental ("lager") type. The wort,
+generally at a temperature of about 60° F. (this applies to all the systems
+excepting B [see below], in which the temperature is higher), is "pitched"
+with liquid yeast (or "barm," as it is often called) at the rate of,
+according to the type and strength of the beer to be made, 1 to 4 lb to the
+barrel. After a few hours a slight froth or scum makes its appearance on
+the surface of the liquid. At the end of a further short period this
+develops into a light curly mass (_cauliflower_ or _curly head_), which
+gradually becomes lighter and more solid in appearance, and is then known
+as _rocky head_. This in its turn shrinks to a compact mass--the _yeasty
+head_--which emits great bubbles of gas with a hissing sound. At this point
+the _cleansing_ of the beer--_i.e._ the separation of the yeast from the
+liquid--has fairly commenced, and it is let down (except in the skimming
+and Yorkshire systems [see below]) into the pontos or unions, as the case
+may be. During fermentation the temperature rises considerably, and in
+order to prevent an excessive temperature being obtained (70-75° F. should
+be the maximum) the fermenting vessels are fitted with "attemperators,"
+_i.e._ a system of pipes through which cold water may be run.
+
+_Cleansing_.--In England the methods of applying the top fermentation
+system may be classified as follows: (A) _The Cleansing System_: (a)
+Skimming System, (b) Dropping System (pontos or ordinary dropping system),
+(c) Burton Union System. (B) _The Yorkshire Stone Square System_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Fermenting Round.
+A, Skimmer; B, Parachute; C, Attemperator.]
+
+(A) In (a) the _Skimming System_ the fermentation from start to finish
+takes place in wooden vessels (termed "squares" or "rounds"), fitted with
+an attemperator and a parachute or other similar skimming device for
+removing or "skimming" the yeast at the end of the fermentation (fig. 4).
+The principle of (b) the _Dropping System_ is that the beer undergoes only
+the main fermentation in the "round" or "square," and is then dropped down
+into a second vessel or vessels, in which fermentation and cleansing are
+completed. The _ponto_ system of dropping, which is now somewhat
+old-fashioned, consists in discharging the beer into a series of vat-like
+vessels, fitted with a peculiarly-shaped overflow lip. The yeast works its
+way out of the vessel over the lip, and then flows into a gutter and is
+collected. The pontos are kept filled with beer by means of a vessel placed
+at a higher level. In the _ordinary_ dropping system the partly fermented
+beer is let down from the "squares" and "rounds" into large vessels, termed
+dropping or skimming "backs." These are fitted with attemperators, and
+parachutes for the removal of yeast, in much the same way as in the
+skimming system. As a rule the parachute covers the whole width of the
+back. (c) The _Burton Union System_ is really an improved ponto system. A
+series of casks, supplied with beer at the cleansing stage from a feed
+vessel, are mounted so that they may rotate axially. Each cask is fitted
+with an attemperator, a pipe and cock at the base for the removal of the
+finished beer and "bottoms," and lastly with a swan neck fitting through a
+bung-hole and commanding a common gutter. This system yields excellent
+results for certain classes of beers, and many Burton brewers think it is
+essential for obtaining [v.04 p.0511] the Burton character. Fig. 6 (Plate
+II.) shows the process in operation in Messrs Allsopp's brewery.
+
+(B) _The Stone Square System_, which is only used to a certain extent
+(exclusively in the north of England), practically consists in pumping the
+fermenting wort from one to the other of two superimposed square vessels,
+connected with one another by means of a man-hole and a valve. These
+squares are built of stone and kept very cool. At the end of the
+fermentation the yeast (after closing the man-hole) is removed from the top
+square.
+
+_Racking, &c._--After the fermentation and cleansing operations are
+completed, the beer is racked off (sometimes after passing a few hours in a
+settling tank) into storage vessels or trade casks. The finest "stock" and
+"pale" ales are stored from six weeks to three months prior to going out,
+but "running" beers (mild ales, &c.) are frequently sent out of the brewery
+within a week or ten days of mashing. It is usual to add some hops in cask
+(this is called _dry hopping_) in the case of many of the better beers.
+Running beers, which must be put into condition rapidly, or beers that have
+become flat, are generally _primed_. Priming consists in adding a small
+quantity of sugar solution to the beer in cask. This rapidly ferments and
+so produces "condition."
+
+_Fining_.--As a very light article is desired nowadays, and this has to be
+provided in a short time, artificial means must be resorted to, in order to
+replace the natural fining or brightening which storage brings about.
+_Finings_ generally consist of a solution or semi-solution of isinglass in
+sour beer, or in a solution of tartaric acid or of sulphurous acid. After
+the finings are added to the beer and the barrels have been well rolled,
+the finings slowly precipitate (or work out through the bung-hole) and
+carry with them the matter which would otherwise render the beer turbid.
+
+_Bottling_.--Formerly it was the general custom to brew a special beer for
+bottling, and this practice is still continued by some brewers. It is
+generally admitted that the special brew, matured by storage and an
+adequate secondary fermentation, produces the best beer for bottling, but
+the modern taste for a very light and bright bottled beer at a low cost has
+necessitated the introduction of new methods. The most interesting among
+these is the "chilling" and "carbonating" system. In this the beer, when it
+is ripe for racking, is first "chilled," that is, cooled to a very low
+temperature. As a result, there is an immediate deposition of much matter
+which otherwise would require prolonged time to settle. The beer is then
+filtered and so rendered quite bright, and finally, in order to produce
+immediate "condition," is "carbonated," _i.e._ impregnated under pressure
+with carbon dioxide (carbonic acid gas).
+
+FOREIGN BREWING AND BEERS.--The system of brewing which differs most widely
+from the English _infusion_ and _top fermentation_ method is the
+_decoction_ and _bottom fermentation_ system, so widely employed, chiefly
+on the continent of Europe, for the production of beers of the "lager"
+type.
+
+The method pursued in the decoction system is broadly as follows:--After
+the grist has been mashed with cold water until a homogeneous mixture
+ensues, sufficient hot water is introduced into the mash-tun to raise the
+temperature to 85-100° F., according to circumstances. Thereupon, about
+one-third of the mash (including the "goods") is transferred to the _Maisch
+Kessel_ (mash copper), in which it is gradually brought to a temperature of
+(about) 165° F., and this heat is maintained until the mash becomes
+transparent. The _Dickmaische_, as this portion is called, is then raised
+to the boil, and the ebullition sustained between a quarter and
+three-quarters of an hour. Just sufficient of the _Dickmaische_ is returned
+to the mash-tun proper to raise the temperature of the whole to 111-125°
+F., and after a few minutes a third is again withdrawn and treated as
+before, to form the second "thick mash." When the latter has been returned
+to the mash-tun the whole is thoroughly worked up, allowed to stand in
+order that the solids may deposit, and then another third (called the
+_Läutermaische_ or "clear mash") is withdrawn, boiled until the coagulable
+albuminoids are precipitated, and finally reconveyed to the mash-tun, where
+the mashing is continued for some time, the final heat being rather over
+160° F. The wort, after boiling with hops and cooling, much as in the
+English system, is subjected to the peculiar system of fermentation called
+_bottom fermentation_. In this system the "pitching" and fermentation take
+place at a very low temperature and, compared with the English system, in
+very small vessels. The fermenting cellars are maintained at a temperature
+of about 37-38° F., and the temperature of the fermenting wort does not
+rise above 50° F. The yeast, which is of a different type from that
+employed in the English system, remains at the bottom of the fermenting
+tun, and hence is derived the name of "bottom fermentation" (see
+FERMENTATION). The primary fermentation lasts about eleven to twelve days
+(as compared with three days on the English system), and the beer is then
+run into store (lager) casks where it remains at a temperature approaching
+the freezing-point of water for six weeks to six months, according to the
+time of the year and the class of the beer. As to the relative character
+and stability of decoction and infusion beers, the latter are, as a rule,
+more alcoholic; but the former contain more unfermented malt extract, and
+are therefore, broadly speaking, more nutritive. Beers of the German type
+are less heavily hopped and more peptonized than English beers, and more
+highly charged with carbonic acid, which, owing to the low fermentation and
+storing temperatures, is retained for a comparatively long time and keeps
+the beer in condition. On the other hand, infusion beers are of a more
+stable and stimulating character. It is impossible to keep "lager" beer on
+draught in the ordinary sense of the term in England. It will not keep
+unless placed on ice, and, as a matter of fact, the "condition" of lager is
+dependent to a far greater extent on the methods of distribution and
+storage than is the case with infusion beers. If a cask is opened it must
+be rapidly consumed; indeed it becomes undrinkable within a very few hours.
+The gas escapes rapidly when the pressure is released, the temperature
+rises, and the beer becomes flat and mawkish. In Germany every publican is
+bound to have an efficient supply of ice, the latter frequently being
+delivered by the brewery together with the beer.
+
+In America the common system of brewing is one of infusion mashing combined
+with bottom fermentation. The method of mashing, however, though on
+infusion lines, differs appreciably from the English process. A very low
+initial heat--about 100° F.--at which the mash remains for about an hour,
+is employed. After this the temperature is rapidly raised to 153-156° F. by
+running in the boiling "cooker mash," _i.e._ raw grain wort from the
+converter. After a period the temperature is gradually increased to about
+165° F. The very low initial heat, and the employment of relatively large
+quantities of readily transformable malt adjuncts, enable the American
+brewer to make use of a class of malt which would be considered quite unfit
+for brewing in an English brewery. The system of fermentation is very
+similar to the continental "lager" system, and the beer obtained bears some
+resemblance to the German product. To the English palate it is somewhat
+flavourless, but it is always retailed in exceedingly brilliant condition
+and at a proper temperature. There can be little doubt that every nation
+evolves a type of beer most suited to its climate and the temperament of
+the people, and in this respect the modern American beer is no exception.
+In regard to plant and mechanical arrangements generally, the modern
+American breweries may serve as an object-lesson to the European brewer,
+although there are certainly a number of breweries in the United Kingdom
+which need not fear comparison with the best American plants.
+
+It is a sign of the times and further evidence as to the growing taste for
+a lighter type of beer, that lager brewing in its most modern form has now
+fairly taken root in Great Britain, and in this connexion the process
+introduced by Messrs Allsopp exhibits many features of interest. The
+following is a brief description of the plant and the methods
+employed:--The wort is prepared on infusion lines, and is then cooled by
+means of refrigerated brine before passing to a temporary store tank, which
+serves as a gauging vessel. From the latter the wort passes directly to the
+fermenting tuns, huge closed cylindrical vessels made of sheet-steel and
+coated with glass enamel. There the wort ferments under reduced pressure,
+the carbonic acid generated being removed by means of a vacuum pump, and
+the gas thus withdrawn is replaced by the introduction of cool sterilized
+air. The fermenting cellars are kept at 40° F. The yeast employed is a pure
+culture (see FERMENTATION) bottom yeast, but the withdrawal of the products
+of yeast metabolism and the constant supply of pure fresh air cause the
+fermentation to proceed far more rapidly than is the case with lager beer
+brewed on ordinary lines. It is, in fact, finished in about six days.
+Thereupon the air-supply is cut off, the green beer again cooled to 40° F.
+and [v.04 p.0512] then conveyed by means of filtered air pressure to the
+store tanks, where secondary fermentation, lasting three weeks, takes
+place. The gases evolved are allowed to collect under pressure, so that the
+beer is thoroughly charged with the carbonic acid necessary to give it
+condition. Finally the beer is again cooled, filtered, racked and bottled,
+the whole of these operations taking place under counter pressure, so that
+no gas can escape; indeed, from the time the wort leaves the copper to the
+moment when it is bottled in the shape of beer, it does not come into
+contact with the outer air.
+
+The preparation of the Japanese beer _saké_ (_q.v._) is of interest. The
+first stage consists in the preparation of _Koji_, which is obtained by
+treating steamed rice with a culture of _Aspergillus oryzae_. This
+micro-organism converts the starch into sugar. The _Koji_ is converted into
+_moto_ by adding it to a thin paste of fresh-boiled starch in a vat.
+Fermentation is set up and lasts for 30 to 40 days. The third stage
+consists in adding more rice and _Koji_ to the _moto_, together with some
+water. A secondary fermentation, lasting from 8 to 10 days, ensues.
+Subsequently the whole is filtered, heated and run into casks, and is then
+known as _saké_. The interest of this process consists in the fact that a
+single micro-organism--a mould--is able to exercise the combined functions
+of saccharification and fermentation. It replaces the diastase of malted
+grain and also the yeast of a European brewery. Another liquid of interest
+is _Weissbier_. This, which is largely produced in Berlin (and in some
+respects resembles the _wheat-beer_ produced in parts of England), is
+generally prepared from a mash of three parts of wheat malt and one part of
+barley malt. The fermentation is of a symbiotic nature, two organisms,
+namely a yeast and a fission fungus (the _lactic acid bacillus_) taking
+part in it. The preparation of this peculiar double ferment is assisted by
+the addition of a certain quantity of white wine to the yeast prior to
+fermentation.
+
+BREWING CHEMISTRY.--The principles of brewing technology belong for the
+most part to physiological chemistry, whilst those of the cognate industry,
+malting, are governed exclusively by that branch of knowledge. Alike in
+following the growth of barley in field, its harvesting, maturing and
+conversion into malt, as well as the operations of mashing malt, fermenting
+wort, and conditioning beer, physiological chemistry is needed. On the
+other hand, the consideration of the saline matter in waters, the
+composition of the extract of worts and beers, and the analysis of brewing
+materials and products generally, belong to the domain of pure chemistry.
+Since the extractive matters contained in wort and beer consist for the
+most part of the transformation products of starch, it is only natural that
+these should have received special attention at the hands of scientific men
+associated with the brewing industry. It was formerly believed that by the
+action of diastase on starch the latter is first converted into a gummy
+substance termed dextrin, which is then subsequently transformed into a
+sugar--glucose. F.A. Musculus, however, in 1860, showed that sugar and
+dextrin are simultaneously produced, and between the years 1872 and 1876
+Cornelius O'Sullivan definitely proved that the sugar produced was maltose.
+When starch-paste, the jelly formed by treating starch with boiling water,
+is mixed with iodine solution, a deep blue coloration results. The first
+product of starch degradation by either acids or diastase, namely soluble
+starch, also exhibits the same coloration when treated with iodine. As
+degradation proceeds, and the products become more and more soluble and
+diffusible, the blue reaction with iodine gives place first to a purple,
+then to a reddish colour, and finally the coloration ceases altogether. In
+the same way, the optical rotating power decreases, and the cupric reducing
+power (towards Fehling's solution) increases, as the process of hydrolysis
+proceeds. C. O'Sullivan was the first to point out definitely the influence
+of the temperature of the mash on the character of the products. The work
+of Horace T. Brown (with J. Heron) extended that of O'Sullivan, and (with
+G.H. Morris) established the presence of an intermediate product between
+the higher dextrins and maltose. This product was termed maltodextrin, and
+Brown and Morris were led to believe that a large number of these
+substances existed in malt wort. They proposed for these substances the
+generic name "amyloins." Although according to their view they were
+compounds of maltose and dextrin, they had the properties of mixtures of
+these two substances. On the assumption of the existence of these
+compounds, Brown and his colleagues formulated what is known as the
+maltodextrin or amyloin hypothesis of starch degradation. C.J. Lintner, in
+1891, claimed to have separated a sugar, isomeric with maltose, which is
+termed isomaltose, from the products of starch hydrolysis. A.R. Ling and
+J.L. Baker, as well as Brown and Morris, in 1895, proved that this
+isomaltose was not a homogeneous substance, and evidence tending to the
+same conclusion was subsequently brought forward by continental workers.
+Ling and Baker, in 1897, isolated the following compounds from the products
+of starch hydrolysis--maltodextrin-[alpha], C_{36}H_{62}O_{31}, and
+maltodextrin-[beta], C_{24}H_{42}O_{21} (previously named by Prior,
+achroodextrin III.). They also separated a substance, C_{12}H_{22}O_{11},
+isomeric with maltose, which had, however, the characteristics of a
+dextrin. This is probably identical with the so-called dextrinose isolated
+by V. Syniewski in 1902, which yields a phenylosazone melting at 82-83° C.
+It has been proved by H. Ost that the so-called isomaltose of Lintner is a
+mixture of maltose and another substance, maltodextrin, isomeric with Ling
+and Baker's maltodextrin-[beta].
+
+The theory of Brown and Morris of the degradation of starch, although based
+on experimental evidence of some weight, is by no means universally
+accepted. Nevertheless it is of considerable interest, as it offers a
+rational and consistent explanation of the phenomena known to accompany the
+transformation of starch by diastase, and even if not strictly correct it
+has, at any rate, proved itself to be a practical working hypothesis, by
+which the mashing and fermenting operations may be regulated and
+controlled. According to Brown and Morris, the starch molecule consists of
+five amylin groups, each of which corresponds to the molecular formula
+(C_{12}H_{20}O_{10})_{20}. Four of these amylin radicles are grouped
+centrally round the fifth, thus:--
+
+  (C_{12}H_{20}O_{10})_{20}                       (C_{12}H_{20}O_{10})_{20}
+                          \                       /
+                          (C_{12}H_{20}O_{10})_{20}
+                          /                       \
+  (C_{12}H_{20}O_{10})_{20}                       (C_{12}H_{20}O_{10})_{20}
+
+By the action of diastase, this complex molecule is split up, undergoing
+hydrolysis into four groups of amyloins, the fifth or central group
+remaining unchanged (and under brewing conditions unchangeable), forming
+the substance known as stable dextrin. When diastase acts on starch-paste,
+hydrolysis proceeds as far as the reaction represented by the following
+equation:--
+
+  5(C_{12}H_{20}O_{10})_{20} + 80 H_2O
+        starch.                 water.
+        = 80 C_{12}H_{22}O_{11} + (C_{12}H_{20}O_{10})_{20}
+               maltose.                  stable dextrin.
+
+The amyloins are substances containing varying numbers of amylin (original
+starch or dextrin) groups in conjunction with a proportional number of
+maltose groups. They are not separable into maltose and dextrin by any of
+the ordinary means, but exhibit the properties of mixtures of these
+substances. As the process of hydrolysis proceeds, the amyloins become
+gradually poorer in amylin and relatively richer in maltose-groups. The
+final products of transformation, according to Brown and J.H. Millar, are
+maltose and glucose, which latter is derived from the hydrolysis of the
+stable dextrin. This theory may be applied in practical brewing in the
+following manner. If it is desired to obtain a beer of a stable
+character--that is to say, one containing a considerable proportion of
+high-type amyloins--it is necessary to restrict the action of the diastase
+in the mash-tun accordingly. On the other hand, for mild running ales,
+which are to "condition" rapidly, it is necessary to provide for the
+presence of sufficient maltodextrin of a low type. Investigation has shown
+that the type of maltodextrin can be regulated, not only in the mash-tun
+but also on the malt-kiln. A higher type is obtained by low kiln and high
+mashing temperatures than by high kiln and low mashing heats, and it is
+possible therefore to regulate, on scientific lines, not only the quality
+but also the type of amyloins which are suitable for a particular beer.
+
+The chemistry of the nitrogenous constituents of malt is equally important
+with that of starch and its transformations. Without nitrogenous compounds
+of the proper type, vigorous fermentations are not possible. It may be
+remembered that yeast assimilates nitrogenous compounds in some of their
+simpler forms--amides and the like. One of the aims of the maltster is,
+therefore, to break down the protein substances present in barley to such a
+degree that the wort has a maximum nutritive value for the yeast. Further,
+it is necessary for the production of stable beer to eliminate a large
+proportion of nitrogenous matter, and this is only done by the yeast when
+the proteins are degraded. There is also some evidence that the presence of
+albumoses assists in producing the foaming properties of beer. It has now
+been established definitely, by the work of A. Fernbach, W. Windisch,
+F.Weiss and P. Schidrowitz, that finished malt contains at least two
+proteolytic enzymes (a peptic and a pancreatic enzyme).
+
+[Illustration: BREWING
+
+PLATE I.
+
+FIG. 5.--REFRIGERATORS IN "LAGER" BREWERY OF MESSRS. ALLSOPP.
+
+The hot wort trickles over the outside of the series of pipes, and is
+cooled by the cold water which circulates in them. From the shallow
+collecting trays the cooled wort is conducted to the fermenting backs.]
+
+[Illustration: BREWING
+
+PLATE II.
+
+FIG. 6.--BURTON-UNION SYSTEM OF CLEANSING. (MESSRS. ALLSOPP'S BREWERY.)
+
+The green beer is filled into the casks, and the excess of yeast, &c., then
+works out through the swan necks into the long common gutter shown.]
+
+[v.04 p.0513]
+
+The presence of different types of phosphates in malt, and the important
+influence which, according to their nature, they exercise in the brewing
+process by way of the enzymes affected by them, have been made the subject
+of research mainly by Fernbach and A. Hubert, and by P.E. Petit and G.
+Labourasse. The number of enzymes which are now known to take part in the
+brewing process is very large. They may with utility be grouped as
+follows:--
+
+                         Name.                Rôle or Nature.
+                  +- Cytase                  Dissolves cell walls of
+                  |                             of starch granules.
+  In the malt ----+- Diastase A              Liquefies starch
+    or mash-tun.  +- Diastase B              Saccharifies starch.
+                  +- Proteolytic Enzymes -+- (1) Peptic.
+                  |                       +- (2) Pancreatic.
+                  +- Catalase                Splits peroxides.
+
+  In fermenting   +- Invertase               Inverts cane sugar.
+    wort and -----+- Glucase                 Splits maltose into glucose.
+    yeast.        +- Zymase                  Splits sugar into alcohol
+                                                and carbonic acid.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY.--W.J. Sykes, _Principles and Practice of Brewing_ (London,
+1897); Moritz and Morris, _A Text-book of the Science of Brewing_ (London,
+1891); H.E. Wright, _A Handy Book for Brewers_ (London, 1897); Frank
+Thatcher, _Brewing and Malting_ (London, 1898); Julian L. Baker, _The
+Brewing Industry_ (London, 1905); E.J. Lintner, _Grundriss der
+Bierbrauerei_ (Berlin, 1904); J.E. Thausing, _Die Theorie und Praxis der
+Malzbereitung und Bierfabrikation_ (Leipzig, 1898); E. Michel, _Lehrbuch
+der Bierbrauerei_ (Augsburg, 1900); E. Prior, _Chemie u. Physiologie des
+Malzes und des Bieres_ (Leipzig, 1896). Technical journals: _The Journal of
+the Institute of Brewing_ (London); _The Brewing Trade Review_ (London);
+_The Brewers' Journal_ (London); _The Brewers' Journal_ (New York);
+_Wochenschrift für Brauerei_ (Berlin); _Zeitschrift für das gesammte
+Brauwesen_ (Munich).
+
+(P. S.)
+
+[1] They were classified at 28 lb in 1896, but since 1897 the standard has
+been at the rate of 32 lb to the bushel.
+
+[2] Inclusive of rice and maize.
+
+[3] Exclusive of rice and maize.
+
+[4] As a rule there is no separate "collecting vessel," duty being assessed
+in the fermenting vessels.
+
+BREWSTER, SIR DAVID (1781-1868), Scottish natural philosopher, was born on
+the 11th of December 1781 at Jedburgh, where his father, a teacher of high
+reputation, was rector of the grammar school. At the early age of twelve he
+was sent to the university of Edinburgh, being intended for the clerical
+profession. Even before this, however, he had shown a strong inclination
+for natural science, and this had been fostered by his intimacy with a
+"self-taught philosopher, astronomer and mathematician," as Sir Walter
+Scott called him, of great local fame--James Veitch of Inchbonny, who was
+particularly skilful in making telescopes. Though he duly finished his
+theological course and was licensed to preach, Brewster's preference for
+other pursuits prevented him from engaging in the active duties of his
+profession. In 1799 he was induced by his fellow-student, Henry Brougham,
+to study the diffraction of light. The results of his investigations were
+communicated from time to time in papers to the _Philosophical
+Transactions_ of London and other scientific journals, and were admirably
+and impartially summarized by James D. Forbes in his preliminary
+dissertation to the eighth edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_. The
+fact that other philosophers, notably Etienne Louis Malus and Augustin
+Fresnel, were pursuing the same investigations contemporaneously in France
+does not invalidate Brewster's claim to independent discovery, even though
+in one or two cases the priority must be assigned to others.
+
+The most important subjects of his inquiries are enumerated by Forbes under
+the following five heads:--(1) The laws of polarization by reflection and
+refraction, and other quantitative laws of phenomena; (2) The discovery of
+the polarizing structure induced by heat and pressure; (3) The discovery of
+crystals with two axes of double refraction, and many of the laws of their
+phenomena, including the connexion of optical structure and crystalline
+forms; (4) The laws of metallic reflection; (5) Experiments on the
+absorption of light. In this line of investigation the prime importance
+belongs to the discovery (1) of the connexion between the refractive index
+and the polarizing angle, (2) of biaxial crystals, and (3) of the
+production of double refraction by irregular heating. These discoveries
+were promptly recognized. So early as the year 1807 the degree of LL.D. was
+conferred upon Brewster by Marischal College, Aberdeen; in 1815 he was made
+a member of the Royal Society of London, and received the Copley medal; in
+1818 he received the Rumford medal of the society; and in 1816 the French
+Institute awarded him one-half of the prize of three thousand francs for
+the two most important discoveries in physical science made in Europe
+during the two preceding years. Among the non-scientific public his fame
+was spread more effectually by his rediscovery about 1815 of the
+kaleidoscope, for which there was a great demand in both England and
+America. An instrument of higher interest, the stereoscope, which, though
+of much later date (1849-1850), may be mentioned here, since along with the
+kaleidoscope it did more than anything else to popularize his name, was
+not, as has often been asserted, the invention of Brewster. Sir Charles
+Wheatstone discovered its principle and applied it as early as 1838 to the
+construction of a cumbrous but effective instrument, in which the binocular
+pictures were made to combine by means of mirrors. To Brewster is due the
+merit of suggesting the use of lenses for the purpose of uniting the
+dissimilar pictures; and accordingly the lenticular stereoscope may fairly
+be said to be his invention. A much more valuable practical result of
+Brewster's optical researches was the improvement of the British lighthouse
+system. It is true that the dioptric apparatus was perfected independently
+by Fresnel, who had also the satisfaction of being the first to put it into
+operation. But it is indisputable that Brewster was earlier in the field
+than Fresnel; that he described the dioptric apparatus in 1812; that he
+pressed its adoption on those in authority at least as early as 1820, two
+years before Fresnel suggested it; and that it was finally introduced into
+British lighthouses mainly by his persistent efforts.
+
+Brewster's own discoveries, important though they were, were not his only,
+perhaps not even his chief, service to science. He began literary work in
+1799 as a regular contributor to the _Edinburgh Magazine_, of which he
+acted as editor at the age of twenty. In 1807 he undertook the editorship
+of the newly projected _Edinburgh Encyclopaedia_, of which the first part
+appeared in 1808, and the last not until 1830. The work was strongest in
+the scientific department, and many of its most valuable articles were from
+the pen of the editor. At a later period he was one of the leading
+contributors to the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ (seventh and eighth
+editions), the articles on Electricity, Hydrodynamics, Magnetism,
+Microscope, Optics, Stereoscope, Voltaic Electricity, &c., being from his
+pen. In 1819 Brewster undertook further editorial work by establishing, in
+conjunction with Robert Jameson (1774-1854), the _Edinburgh Philosophical
+Journal_, which took the place of the _Edinburgh Magazine_. The first ten
+volumes (1819-1824) were published under the joint editorship of Brewster
+and Jameson, the remaining four volumes (1825-1826) being edited by Jameson
+alone. After parting company with Jameson, Brewster started the _Edinburgh
+Journal of Science_ in 1824, sixteen volumes of which appeared under his
+editorship during the years 1824-1832, with very many articles from his own
+pen. To the transactions of various learned societies he contributed from
+first to last between three and four hundred papers, and few of his
+contemporaries wrote so much for the various reviews. In the _North British
+Review_ alone seventy-five articles of his appeared. A list of his larger
+separate works will be found below. Special mention, however, must be made
+of the most important of them all--his biography of Sir Isaac Newton. In
+1831 he published a short popular account of the philosopher's life in
+Murray's _Family Library_; but it was not until 1855 that he was able to
+issue the much fuller _Memoirs of the Life, Writings and Discoveries of Sir
+Isaac Newton_, a work which embodied the results of more than twenty years'
+patient investigation of original manuscripts and all other available
+sources.
+
+Brewster's relations as editor brought him into frequent communication with
+the most eminent scientific men, and he was naturally among the first to
+recognize the benefit that would accrue from regular intercourse among
+workers in the field of science. In an article in the _Quarterly Review_ he
+threw out a suggestion for "an association of our nobility, clergy, gentry
+and philosophers," which was taken up by others and found speedy
+realization in the British Association for the Advancement of [v.04 p.0514]
+Science. Its first meeting was held at York in 1831; and Brewster, along
+with Charles Babbage and Sir John F. W. Herschel, had the chief part in
+shaping its constitution. In the same year in which the British Association
+held its first meeting, Brewster received the honour of knighthood and the
+decoration of the Guelphic order of Hanover. In 1838 he was appointed
+principal of the united colleges of St Salvator and St Leonard, St Andrews.
+In 1849 he acted as president of the British Association and was elected
+one of the eight foreign associates of the Institute of France in
+succession to J.J. Berzelius; and ten years later he accepted the office of
+principal of the university of Edinburgh, the duties of which he discharged
+until within a few months of his death, which took place at Allerly,
+Melrose, on the 10th of February 1868.
+
+In estimating Brewster's place among scientific discoverers the chief thing
+to be borne in mind is that the bent of his genius was not
+characteristically mathematical. His method was empirical, and the laws
+which he established were generally the result of repeated experiment. To
+the ultimate explanation of the phenomena with which he dealt he
+contributed nothing, and it is noteworthy in this connexion that if he did
+not maintain to the end of his life the corpuscular theory he never
+explicitly adopted the undulatory theory of light. Few will be inclined to
+dispute the verdict of Forbes:--"His scientific glory is different in kind
+from that of Young and Fresnel; but the discoverer of the law of
+polarization of biaxial crystals, of optical mineralogy, and of double
+refraction by compression, will always occupy a foremost rank in the
+intellectual history of the age." In addition to the various works of
+Brewster already noticed, the following may be mentioned:--Notes and
+Introduction to Carlyle's translation of Legendre's _Elements of Geometry_
+(1824); _Treatise on Optics_ (1831); _Letters on Natural Magic,_ addressed
+to Sir Walter Scott (1831); _The Martyrs of Science, or the Lives of
+Galileo, Tycho Brahe, and Kepler_ (1841); _More Worlds than One_ (1854).
+
+See _The Home Life of Sir David Brewster,_ by his daughter Mrs Gordon.
+
+BREWSTER, WILLIAM (c. 1566-1644), American colonist, one of the leaders of
+the "Pilgrims," was born at Scrooby, in Nottinghamshire, England, about
+1566. After studying for a short time at Cambridge, he was from 1584 to
+1587 in the service of William Davison (? 1541-1608), who in 1585 went to
+the Low Countries to negotiate an alliance with the states-general and in
+1586 became assistant to Walsingham, Queen Elizabeth's secretary of state.
+Upon the disgrace of Davison, Brewster removed to Scrooby, where from 1590
+until September 1607 he held the position of "Post," or postmaster
+responsible for the relays of horses on the post road, having previously,
+for a short time, assisted his father in that office. About 1602 his
+neighbours began to assemble for worship at his home, the Scrooby manor
+house, and in 1606 he joined them in organizing the Separatist church of
+Scrooby. After an unsuccessful attempt in 1607 (for which he was imprisoned
+for a short time), he, with other Separatists, removed to Holland in 1608
+to obtain greater freedom of worship. At Leiden in 1609 he was chosen
+ruling elder of the Congregation. In Holland he supported himself first by
+teaching English and afterwards in 1616-1619, as the partner of one Thomas
+Brewer, by secretly printing, for sale in England, books proscribed by the
+English government, thus, says Bradford, having "imploymente inough." In
+1619 their types were seized and Brewer was arrested by the authorities of
+the university of Leiden, acting on the instance of the British ambassador,
+Sir Dudley Carleton. Brewster, however, escaped, and in the same year, with
+Robert Cushman (c. 1580-1625), obtained in London, on behalf of his
+associates, a land patent from the Virginia Company. In 1620 he emigrated
+to America on the "Mayflower," and was one of the founders of the Plymouth
+Colony. Here besides continuing until his death to act as ruling elder, he
+was also--regularly until the arrival of the first pastor, Ralph Smith (d.
+1661), in 1629 and irregularly afterward--a "teacher," preaching "both
+powerfully and profitably to ye great contentment of ye hearers and their
+comfortable edification." By many he is regarded as pre-eminently the
+leader of the "Pilgrims." He died, probably on the 10th of April 1644.
+
+See Ashbel Steele's _Chief of the Pilgrims; or the Life and Time of William
+Brewster_ (Philadelphia, 1857); and a sketch in William Bradford's _History
+of the Plimouth Plantation_ (new ed., Boston, 1898).
+
+BRÉZÉ the name of a noble Angevin family, the most famous member of which
+was PIERRE DE BRÉZÉ (c. 1410-1465), one of the trusted soldiers and
+statesmen of Charles VII. He had made his name as a soldier in the English
+wars when in 1433 he joined with Yolande, queen of Sicily, the constable
+Richmond and others, in chasing from power Charles VII.'s minister La
+Trémoille. He was knighted by Charles of Anjou in 1434, and presently
+entered the royal council. In 1437 he became seneschal of Anjou, and in
+1440 of Poitou. During the Praguerie he rendered great service to the royal
+cause against the dauphin Louis and the revolted nobles, a service which
+was remembered against him after Louis's accession to the throne. He fought
+against the English in Normandy in 1440-1441, and in Guienne in 1442. In
+the next year he became chamberlain to Charles VII., and gained the chief
+power in the state through the influence of Agnes Sorel, superseding his
+early allies Richmond and Charles of Anjou. The six years (1444-1450) of
+his ascendancy were the most prosperous period of the reign of Charles VII.
+His most dangerous opponent was the dauphin Louis, who in 1448 brought
+against him accusations which led to a formal trial resulting in a complete
+exoneration of Brézé and his restoration to favour. He fought in Normandy
+in 1450-1451, and became seneschal of the province after the death of Agnes
+Sorel and the consequent decline of his influence at court. He made an
+ineffective descent on the English coast at Sandwich in 1457, and was
+preparing an expedition in favour of Margaret of Anjou when the accession
+of Louis XI. brought him disgrace and a short imprisonment. In 1462,
+however, his son Jacques married Louis's half-sister, Charlotte de Valois,
+daughter of Agnes Sorel. In 1462 he accompanied Margaret to Scotland with a
+force of 2000 men, and after the battle of Hexham he brought her back to
+Flanders. On his return he was reappointed seneschal of Normandy, and fell
+in the battle of Montlhéry on the 16th of July 1465. He was succeeded as
+seneschal of Normandy by his eldest son Jacques de Brézé (c. 1440-1490),
+count of Maulevrier; and by his grandson, husband of the famous Diane de
+Poitiers, Louis de Brézé (d. 1531), whose tomb in Rouen cathedral,
+attributed to Jean Goujon and Jean Cousin, is a splendid example of French
+Renaissance work.
+
+The lordship of Brézé passed eventually to Claire Clémence de Maillé,
+princess of Condé, by whom it was sold to Thomas Dreux, who took the name
+of Dreux Brézé, when it was erected into a marquisate. HENRI EVRARD,
+marquis de Dreux-Brézé (1762-1829), succeeded his father as master of the
+ceremonies to Louis XVI. in 1781. On the meeting of the states-general in
+1789 it fell to him to regulate the questions of etiquette and precedence
+between the three estates. That as the immediate representative of the
+crown he should wound the susceptibilities of the deputies was perhaps
+inevitable, but little attempt was made to adapt traditional etiquette to
+changed circumstances. Brézé did not formally intimate to President Bailly
+the proclamation of the royal séance until the 20th of June, when the
+carpenters were about to enter the hall to prepare for the event, thus
+provoking the session in the tennis court. After the royal séance Brézé was
+sent to reiterate Louis's orders that the estates should meet separately,
+when Mirabeau replied that the hall could not be cleared except by force.
+After the fall of the Tuileries Brézé emigrated for a short time, but
+though he returned to France he was spared during the Terror. At the
+Restoration he was made a peer of France, and resumed his functions as
+guardian of an antiquated ceremonial. He died on the 27th of January 1829,
+when he was succeeded in the peerage and at court by his son Scipion
+(1793-1845).
+
+The best contemporary account of Pierre de Brézé is given in the
+_Chroniques_ of the Burgundian chronicler, Georges Chastellain, who had
+been his secretary. Chastellain addressed a _Déprécation_ to Louis XI. on
+his behalf at the time of his disgrace.
+
+[v.04 p.0515] BRIALMONT, HENRI ALEXIS (1821-1903), Belgian general and
+military engineer, son of General Laurent Mathieu Brialmont (d. 1885), was
+born at Venlo in Limburg on the 25th of May 1821. Educated at the Brussels
+military school, he entered the army as sub-lieutenant of engineers in
+1843, and became lieutenant in 1847. From 1847 to 1850 he was private
+secretary to the war minister, General Baron Chazal. In 1855 he entered the
+staff corps, became major in 1861, lieutenant-colonel 1864, colonel in 1868
+and major-general 1874. In this rank he held at first the position of
+director of fortifications in the Antwerp district (December 1874), and
+nine months later he became inspector-general of fortifications and of the
+corps of engineers. In 1877 he became lieutenant-general. His far-reaching
+schemes for the fortification of the Belgian places met with no little
+opposition, and Brialmont seems to have felt much disappointment in this;
+at any rate he went in 1883 to Rumania to advise as to the fortification
+works required for the defence of the country, and presided over the
+elaboration of the scheme by which Bucharest was to be made a first-class
+fortress. He was thereupon placed _en disponibilité_ in his own service, as
+having undertaken the Bucharest works without the authorization of his
+sovereign. This was due in part to the suggestion of Austria, which power
+regarded the Bucharest works as a menace to herself. His services were,
+however, too valuable to be lost, and on his return to Belgium in 1884 he
+resumed his command of the Antwerp military district. He had, further,
+while in eastern Europe, prepared at the request of the Hellenic
+government, a scheme for the defence of Greece. He retired in 1886, but
+continued to supervise the Rumanian defences. He died on the 21st of
+September 1903.
+
+In the first stage of his career as an engineer Brialmont's plans followed
+with but slight modification the ideas of Vauban; and his original scheme
+for fortifying Antwerp provided for both enceinte and forts being on a
+bastioned trace. But in 1859, when the great entrenched camp at Antwerp was
+finally taken in hand, he had already gone over to the school of polygonal
+fortification and the ideas of Montalembert. About twenty years later
+Brialmont's own types and plans began to stand out amidst the general
+confusion of ideas on fortification which naturally resulted from the
+introduction of long-range guns, and from the events of 1870-71. The
+extreme detached forts of the Antwerp region and the fortifications on the
+Meuse at Liége and Namur were constructed in accordance with Brialmont's
+final principles, viz. the lavish use of armour to protect the artillery
+inside the forts, the suppression of all artillery positions open to
+overhead fire, and the multiplication of intermediate batteries (see
+FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT). In his capacity of inspector-general
+Brialmont drafted and carried out the whole scheme for the defences of
+Belgium. He was an indefatigable writer, and produced, besides essays,
+reviews and other papers in the journals, twenty-three important works and
+forty-nine pamphlets. In 1850 he originated the _Journal de l'armée Belge_.
+His most important publications were _La Fortification du temps présent_
+(Brussels, 1885); _Influence du tir plongeant et des obus-torpilles sur la
+fortification_ (Brussels, 1888); _Les Régions fortifiées_ (Brussels, 1890);
+_La Défense des états et la fortification à la fin du XIX^e siècle_
+(Brussels, 1895); _Progrès de la défense des états et de la fortification
+permanente depuis Vauban_ (Brussels, 1898).
+
+BRIAN (926-1014), king of Ireland, known as BRIAN BORU, BOROMA, or BOROIMHE
+(from _boroma_, an Irish word for tribute), was a son of a certain Kennedy
+or Cenneide (d. 951). He passed his youth in fighting against the Danes,
+who were constantly ravaging Munster, the northern part of which district
+was the home of Brian's tribe, and won much fame in these encounters. In
+976 his brother, Mathgamhain or Mahon, who had become king of Thomond about
+951 and afterwards king of Munster, was murdered; Brian avenged this deed,
+became himself king of Munster in 978, and set out upon his career of
+conquest. He forced the tribes of Munster and then those of Leinster to own
+his sovereignty, defeated the Danes, who were established around Dublin, in
+Wicklow, and marched into Dublin, and after several reverses compelled
+Malachy (Maelsechlainn), the chief king of Ireland, who ruled in Meath, to
+bow before him in 1002. Connaught was his next objective. Here and also in
+Ulster he was successful, everywhere he received hostages and tribute, and
+he was generally recognized as the _ardri_, or chief king of Ireland. After
+a period of comparative quiet Brian was again at war with the Danes of
+Dublin, and on the 23rd of April 1014 his forces gained a great victory
+over them at Clontarf. After this battle, however, the old king was slain
+in his tent, and was buried at Armagh. Brian has enjoyed a great and not
+undeserved reputation. One of his charters is still preserved in Trinity
+College, Dublin.
+
+See E.A. D'Alton, _History of Ireland_, vol. i. (1903).
+
+BRIANÇON, a strongly fortified town in the department of Hautes-Alpes in
+S.E. France. It is built at a height of 4334 ft. on a plateau which
+dominates the junction of the Durance with the Guisane. The town itself is
+formed of very steep and narrow, though picturesque streets. As it lies at
+the foot of the descent from the Mont Genèvre Pass, giving access to Turin,
+a great number of fortifications have been constructed on the heights
+around Briançon, especially towards the east. The Fort Janus is no less
+than 4000 ft. above the town. The parish church, with its two towers, was
+built 1703-1726, and occupies a very conspicuous position. The Pont
+d'Asfeld, E. of the town, was built in 1734, and forms an arch of 131 ft.
+span, thrown at a height of 184 ft. across the Durance. The modern town
+extends in the plain at the S.W. foot of the plateau on which the old town
+is built and forms the suburb of Ste Catherine, with the railway station,
+and an important silk-weaving factory. Briançon is 51½ m. by rail from Gap.
+The commune had a civil population in 1906 of 4883 (urban population 3130),
+while the permanent garrison was 2641--in all 7524 inhabitants.
+
+Briançon was the _Brigantium_ of the Romans and formed part of the kingdom
+of King Cottius. About 1040 it came into the hands of the counts of Albon
+(later dauphins of the Viennois) and thenceforth shared the fate of the
+Dauphiné. The Briançonnais included not merely the upper valley of the
+Durance (with those of its affluents, the Gyronde and the Guil), but also
+the valley of the Dora Riparia (Césanne, Oulx, Bardonnèche and Exilles),
+and that of the Chisone (Fénestrelles, Pérouse, Pragelas)--these glens all
+lying on the eastern slope of the chain of the Alps. But by the treaty of
+Utrecht (1713) all these valleys were handed over to Savoy in exchange for
+that of Barcelonnette, on the west slope of the Alps. In 1815 Briançon
+successfully withstood a siege of three months at the hands of the Allies,
+a feat which is commemorated by an inscription on one of its gates, _Le
+passé répond de l'avenir_.
+
+(W. A. B. C.)
+
+BRIAND, ARISTIDE (1862- ), French statesman, was born at Nantes, of a
+bourgeois family. He studied law, and while still young took to politics,
+associating himself with the most advanced movements, writing articles for
+the anarchist journal _Le Peuple_, and directing the _Lanterne_ for some
+time. From this he passed to the _Petite République_, leaving it to found,
+with Jean Jaurès, _L'Humanité_. At the same time he was prominent in the
+movement for the formation of labour unions, and at the congress of working
+men at Nantes in 1894 he secured the adoption of the labour union idea
+against the adherents of Jules Guesde. From that time, Briand became one of
+the leaders of the French Socialist party. In 1902, after several
+unsuccessful attempts, he was elected deputy. He declared himself a strong
+partisan of the union of the Left in what is known as the _Bloc_, in order
+to check the reactionary deputies of the Right. From the beginning of his
+career in the chamber of deputies, Briand was occupied with the question of
+the separation of church and state. He was appointed reporter of the
+commission charged with the preparation of the law, and his masterly report
+at once marked him out as one of the coming leaders. He succeeded in
+carrying his project through with but slight modifications, and without
+dividing the parties upon whose support he relied. He was the principal
+author of the law of separation, but, not content with preparing it, he
+wished to apply it as well, especially as the existing Rouvier [v.04
+p.0516] ministry allowed disturbances to occur during the taking of
+inventories of church property, a clause of the law for which Briand was
+not responsible. Consequently he accepted the portfolio of public
+instruction and worship in the Sarrien ministry (1906). So far as the
+chamber was concerned his success was complete. But the acceptance of a
+portfolio in a bourgeois ministry led to his exclusion from the Unified
+Socialist party (March 1906). As opposed to Jaurès, he contended that the
+Socialists should co-operate actively with the Radicals in all matters of
+reform, and not stand aloof to await the complete fulfilment of their
+ideals.
+
+BRIANZA, a district of Lombardy, Italy, forming the south part of the
+province of Como, between the two southern arms of the lake of that name.
+It is thickly populated and remarkable for its fertility; and being hilly
+is a favourite summer resort of the Milanese.
+
+BRIARE, a town of north-central France in the department of Loiret on the
+right bank of the Loire, 45½ m. S.E. of Orléans on the railway to Nevers.
+Pop. (1906) 4613. Briare, the _Brivodorum_ of the Romans, is situated at
+the extremity of the Canal of Briare, which unites the Loire and its
+lateral canal with the Loing and so with the Seine. The canal of Briare was
+constructed from 1605 to 1642 and is about 36 m. long. The industries
+include the manufacture of fine pottery, and of so-called porcelain buttons
+made of felspar and milk by a special process; its inventor, Bapterosses,
+has a bust in the town. The canal traffic is in wood, iron, coal, building
+materials, &c. A modern hospital and church, and the hôtel de ville
+installed in an old moated château, are the chief buildings. The lateral
+canal of the Loire crosses the Loire near Briare by a fine canal-bridge 720
+yds. in length.
+
+BRIAREUS, or AEGAEON, in Greek mythology, one of the three hundred-armed,
+fifty-headed Hecatoncheires, brother of Cottus and Gyges (or Gyes).
+According to Homer (_Iliad_ i. 403) he was called Aegaeon by men, and
+Briareus by the gods. He was the son of Poseidon (or Uranus) and Gaea. The
+legends regarding him and his brothers are various and somewhat
+contradictory. According to the most widely spread myth, Briareus and his
+brothers were called by Zeus to his assistance when the Titans were making
+war upon Olympus. The gigantic enemies were defeated and consigned to
+Tartarus, at the gates of which the three brothers were placed (Hesiod,
+_Theog._ 624, 639, 714). Other accounts make Briareus one of the assailants
+of Olympus, who, after his defeat, was buried under Mount Aetna
+(Callimachus, _Hymn to Delos_, 141). Homer mentions him as assisting Zeus
+when the other Olympian deities were plotting against the king of gods and
+men (_Iliad_ i. 398). Another tradition makes him a giant of the sea, ruler
+of the fabulous Aegaea in Euboea, an enemy of Poseidon and the inventor of
+warships (Schol. on Apoll. Rhod. i. 1165). It would be difficult to
+determine exactly what natural phenomena are symbolized by the
+Hecatoncheires. They may represent the gigantic forces of nature which
+appear in earthquakes and other convulsions, or the multitudinous motion of
+the sea waves (Mayer, _Die Giganten und Titanen_, 1887).
+
+BRIBERY (from the O. Fr. _briberie_, begging or vagrancy, _bribe_, Mid.
+Lat. _briba_, signifying a piece of bread given to beggars; the Eng.
+"bribe" has passed through the meanings of alms, blackmail and extortion,
+to gifts received or given in order to influence corruptly). The public
+offence of bribery may be defined as the offering or giving of payment in
+some shape or form that it may be a motive in the performance of functions
+for which the proper motive ought to be a conscientious sense of duty. When
+this is superseded by the sordid impulses created by the bribe, a person is
+said to be corrupted, and thus corruption is a term sometimes held
+equivalent to bribery. The offence may be divided into two great
+classes--the one where a person invested with power is induced by payment
+to use it unjustly; the other, where power is obtained by purchasing the
+suffrages of those who can impart it. It is a natural propensity, removable
+only by civilization or some powerful counteracting influence, to feel that
+every element of power is to be employed as much as possible for the
+owner's own behoof, and that its benefits should be conferred not on those
+who best deserve them, but on those who will pay most for them. Hence
+judicial corruption is an inveterate vice of imperfect civilization. There
+is, perhaps no other crime on which the force of law, if unaided by public
+opinion and morals, can have so little influence; for in other crimes, such
+as violence or fraud, there is generally some person immediately injured by
+the act, who can give his aid in the detection of the offender, but in the
+perpetration of the offence of bribery all the immediate parties obtain
+what they desire, and are satisfied.
+
+The purification of the bench from judicial bribery has been gradual in
+most of the European countries. In France it received an impulse in the
+16th century from the high-minded chancellor, Michel de L'Hôpital. In
+England judicial corruption has been a crime of remarkable rarity. Indeed,
+with the exception of a statute of 1384 (repealed by the Statute Law
+Revision Act 1881) there has been no legislation relating to judicial
+bribery. The earliest recorded case was that of Sir William Thorpe, who in
+1351 was fined and removed from office for accepting bribes. Other
+celebrated cases were those of Michael de la Pole, chancellor of England,
+in 1387; Lord Chancellor Bacon in 1621; Lionel Cranfield, earl of
+Middlesex, in 1624; and Sir Thomas Parker, 1st earl of Macclesfield, in
+1725. In Scotland for some years after the Revolution the bench was not
+without a suspicion of interested partiality; but since the beginning of
+the 19th century, at least, there has been in all parts of the empire a
+perfect reliance on its purity. The same may be said of the higher class of
+ministerial officers. There is no doubt that in the period from the
+Revolution to the end of Queen Anne's reign, when a speaker of the House of
+Commons was expelled for bribery, and the great Marlborough could not clear
+his character from pecuniary dishonesty, there was much corruption in the
+highest official quarters. The level of the offence of official bribery has
+gradually descended, until it has become an extremely rare thing for the
+humbler officers connected with the revenue to be charged with it. It has
+had a more lingering existence with those who, because their power is more
+of a constitutional than an official character, have been deemed less
+responsible to the public. During Walpole's administration there is no
+doubt that members of parliament were paid in cash for votes; and the
+memorable saying, that every man has his price, has been preserved as a
+characteristic indication of his method of government. One of the forms in
+which administrative corruption is most difficult of eradication is the
+appointment to office. It is sometimes maintained that the purity which
+characterizes the administration of justice is here unattainable, because
+in giving a judgment there is but one form in which it can be justly given,
+but when an office has to be filled many people may be equally fitted for
+it, and personal motives must influence a choice. It very rarely happens,
+however, that direct bribery is supposed to influence such appointments. It
+does not appear that bribery was conspicuous in England until, in the early
+part of the 18th century, constituencies had thrown off the feudal
+dependence which lingered among them; and, indeed, it is often said, that
+bribery is essentially the defect of a free people, since it is the sale of
+that which is taken from others without payment.
+
+In English law bribery of a privy councillor or a juryman (see EMBRACERY)
+is punishable as a misdemeanour, as is the taking of a bribe by any
+judicial or ministerial officer. The buying and selling of public offices
+is also regarded at common law as a form of bribery. By the Customs
+Consolidation Act 1876, any officer in the customs service is liable to
+instant dismissal and a penalty of £500 for taking a bribe, and any person
+offering or promising a bribe or reward to an officer to neglect his duty
+or conceal or connive at any act by which the customs may be evaded shall
+forfeit the sum of £200. Under the Inland Revenue Regulations Act 1890, the
+bribery of commissioners, collectors, officers or other persons employed in
+relation to the Inland Revenue involves a fine of £500. The Merchant
+Shipping Act 1894, ss. 112 and 398, makes provision for certain offences in
+the nature of bribery. Bribery is, by the Extradition Act 1906, [v.04
+p.0517] an extraditable offence. Administrative corruption was dealt with
+in the Public Bodies' Corrupt Practices Act 1889. The public bodies
+concerned are county councils, town or borough councils, boards,
+commissioners, select vestries and other bodies having local government,
+public health or poor law powers, and having for those purposes to
+administer rates raised under public general acts. The giving or receiving,
+promising, offering, soliciting or agreeing to receive any gift, fee, loan
+or advantage by any person as an inducement for any act or forbearance by a
+member, officer or servant of a public body in regard to the affairs of
+that body is made a misdemeanour in England and Ireland and a crime and
+offence in Scotland. Prosecution under the act requires the consent of the
+attorney or solicitor-general in England or Ireland and of the lord
+advocate in Scotland. Conviction renders liable to imprisonment with or
+without hard labour for a term not exceeding two years, and to a fine not
+exceeding £500, in addition to or in lieu of imprisonment. The offender may
+also be ordered to pay to the public body concerned any bribe received by
+him; he may be adjudged incapable for seven years of holding public office,
+_i.e._ the position of member, officer or servant of a public body; and if
+already an officer or servant, besides forfeiting his place, he is liable
+at the discretion of the court to forfeit his right to compensation or
+pension. On a second conviction he may be adjudged forever incapable of
+holding public office, and for seven years incapable of being registered or
+of voting as a parliamentary elector, or as an elector of members of a
+public body. An offence under the act may be prosecuted and punished under
+any other act applicable thereto, or at common law; but no person is to be
+punished twice for the same offence. Bribery at political elections was at
+common law punishable by indictment or information, but numerous statutes
+have been passed dealing with it as a "corrupt practice." In this sense,
+the word is elastic in meaning and may embrace any method of corruptly
+influencing another for the purpose of securing his vote (see CORRUPT
+PRACTICES). Bribery at elections of fellows, scholars, officers and other
+persons in colleges, cathedral and collegiate churches, hospitals and other
+societies was prohibited in 1588-1589 by statute (31 Eliz. c. 6). If a
+member receives any money, fee, reward or other profit for giving his vote
+in favour of any candidate, he forfeits his own place; if for any such
+consideration he resigns to make room for a candidate, he forfeits double
+the amount of the bribe, and the candidate by or on whose behalf a bribe is
+given or promised is incapable of being elected on that occasion. The act
+is to be read at every election of fellows, &c., under a penalty of £40 in
+case of default. By the same act any person for corrupt consideration
+presenting, instituting or inducting to an ecclesiastical benefice or
+dignity forfeits two years' value of the benefice or dignity; the corrupt
+presentation is void, and the right to present lapses for that turn to the
+crown, and the corrupt presentee is disabled from thereafter holding the
+same benefice or dignity; a corrupt institution or induction is void, and
+the patron may present. For a corrupt resignation or exchange of a benefice
+the giver and taker of a bribe forfeit each double the amount of the bribe.
+Any person corruptly procuring the ordaining of ministers or granting of
+licenses to preach forfeits £40, and the person so ordained forfeits £10
+and for seven years is incapacitated from holding any ecclesiastical
+benefice or promotion.
+
+In the United States the offence of bribery is very severely dealt with. In
+many states, bribery or the attempt to bribe is made a felony, and is
+punishable with varying terms of imprisonment, in some jurisdictions it may
+be with a period not exceeding ten years. The offence of bribery at
+elections is dealt with on much the same lines as in England, voiding the
+election and disqualifying the offender from holding any office.
+
+Bribery may also take the form of a secret commission (_q.v._), a profit
+made by an agent, in the course of his employment, without the knowledge of
+his principal.
+
+BRIC À BRAC (a French word, formed by a kind of onomatopoeia, meaning a
+heterogeneous collection of odds and ends; cf. _de bric et de broc_,
+corresponding to our "by hook or by crook"; or by reduplication from
+_brack_, refuse), objects of "virtu," a collection of old furniture, china,
+plate and curiosities.
+
+BRICK (derived according to some etymologists from the Teutonic _bricke_, a
+disk or plate; but more authoritatively, through the French _brique_,
+originally a "broken piece," applied especially to bread, and so to clay,
+from the Teutonic _brikan_, to break), a kind of artificial stone generally
+made of burnt clay, and largely used as a building material.
+
+_History_.--The art of making bricks dates from very early times, and was
+practised by all the civilized nations of antiquity. The earliest burnt
+bricks known are those found on the sites of the ancient cities of
+Babylonia, and it seems probable that the method of making strong and
+durable bricks, by burning blocks of dried clay, was discovered in this
+corner of Asia. We know at least that well-burnt bricks were made by the
+Babylonians more than 6000 years ago, and that they were extensively used
+in the time of Sargon of Akkad (c. 3800 B.C.). The site of the ancient city
+of Babylon is still marked by huge mounds of bricks, the ruins of its great
+walls, towers and palaces, although it has been the custom for centuries to
+carry away from these heaps the bricks required for the building of the
+modern towns in the surrounding country. The Babylonians and Assyrians
+attained to a high degree of proficiency in brickmaking, notably in the
+manufacture of bricks having a coating of coloured glaze or enamel, which
+they largely used for wall decoration. The Chinese claim great antiquity
+for their clay industries, but it is not improbable that the knowledge of
+brickmaking travelled eastwards from Babylonia across the whole of Asia. It
+is believed that the art of making glazed bricks, so highly developed
+afterwards by the Chinese, found its way across Asia from the west, through
+Persia and northern India, to China. The great wall of China was
+constructed partly of brick, both burnt and unburnt; but this was built at
+a comparatively late period (c. 210 B.C.), and there is nothing to show
+that the Chinese had any knowledge of burnt bricks when the art flourished
+in Babylonia.
+
+Brickmaking formed the chief occupation of the Israelites during their
+bondage in Egypt, but in this case the bricks were probably sun-dried only,
+and not burnt. These bricks were made of a mixture of clay and chopped
+straw or reeds, worked into a stiff paste with water. The clay was the
+river mud from the banks of the Nile, and as this had not sufficient
+cohesion in itself, the chopped straw (or reeds) was added as a binding
+material. The addition of such substances increases the plasticity of wet
+clay, especially if the mixture is allowed to stand for some days before
+use; so that the action of the chopped straw was twofold; a fact possibly
+known to the Egyptians. These sun-dried bricks, or "adobes," are still
+made, as of old, on the banks of the Nile by the following method:--A
+shallow pit or bed is prepared, into which are thrown the mud, chopped
+straw and water in suitable proportions, and the whole mass is tramped on
+until it is thoroughly mixed and of the proper consistence. This mixture is
+removed in lumps and shaped into bricks, in moulds or by hand, the bricks
+being simply sun-dried.
+
+Pliny mentions that three kinds of bricks were made by the Greeks, but
+there is no indication that they were used to any great extent, and
+probably the walls of Athens on the side towards Mount Hymettus were the
+most important brick-structures in ancient Greece. The Romans became
+masters of the brickmaker's art, though they probably acquired much of
+their knowledge in the East, during their occupation of Egypt and Greece.
+In any case they revived and extended the manufacture of bricks about the
+beginning of the Christian era; exercising great care in the selection and
+preparation of their clay, and introducing the method of burning bricks in
+kilns. They carried their knowledge and their methods throughout western
+Europe, and there is abundant evidence that they made bricks extensively in
+Germany and in Britain.
+
+Although brickmaking was thus introduced into Britain nearly 2000 years
+ago, the art seems to have been lost when the Romans withdrew from the
+country, and it is doubtful whether any burnt bricks were made in England
+from that time until the 13th century. Such bricks as were used during this
+long [v.04 p.0518] period were generally taken from the remains of Roman
+buildings, as at Colchester and St Albans Abbey. One of the earliest
+existing brick buildings, erected after the revival of brickmaking in
+England, is Little Wenham Hall, in Suffolk, built about A.D. 1210; but it
+was not until the 15th century that bricks came into general use again, and
+then only for important edifices. During the reign of Henry VIII.
+brickmaking was brought to great perfection, probably by workmen brought
+from Flanders, and the older portions of St James's Palace and Hampton
+Court Palace remain to testify to the skill then attained. In the 16th
+century bricks were increasingly used, but down to the Great Fire of
+London, in 1666, the smaller buildings, shops and dwelling-houses, were
+constructed of timber framework filled in with lath and plaster. In the
+rebuilding of London after the fire, bricks were largely used, and from the
+end of the 17th century to the present day they have been almost
+exclusively used in all ordinary buildings throughout the country, except
+in those districts where building stone is plentiful and good brick-clay is
+not readily procurable. The bricks made in England before 1625 were of many
+sizes, there being no recognized standard; but in that year the sizes were
+regulated by statute, and the present standard size was adopted, viz. 9 x
+4½ x 3 in. In 1784 a tax was levied on bricks, which was not repealed until
+1850. The tax averaged about 4s. 7d. per thousand on ordinary bricks, and
+special bricks were still more heavily taxed.
+
+The first brick buildings in America were erected on Manhattan Island in
+the year 1633 by a governor of the Dutch West India Company. These bricks
+were made in Holland, where the industry had long reached great excellence;
+and for many years bricks were imported into America from Holland and from
+England. In America burnt bricks were first made at New Haven about 1650,
+and the manufacture slowly spread through the New England states; but for
+many years the home-made article was inferior to that imported from Europe.
+
+The Dutch and the Germans were the great brickmakers of Europe during the
+middle ages, although the Italians, from the 14th to the 15th century,
+revived and developed the art of decorative brick-work or terra-cotta, and
+discovered the method of applying coloured enamels to these materials.
+Under the Della Robbias, in the 15th century, some of the finest work of
+this class that the world has seen was executed, but it can scarcely be
+included under brickwork.
+
+_Brick Clays_.--All clays are the result of the denudation and
+decomposition of felspathic and siliceous rocks, and consist of the fine
+insoluble particles which have been carried in suspension in water and
+deposited in geologic basins according to their specific gravity and degree
+of fineness (see CLAY). These deposits have been formed in all geologic
+epochs from the "Recent" to the "Cambrian," and they vary in hardness from
+the soft and plastic "alluvial" clays to the hard and rock-like shales and
+slates of the older formations. The alluvial and drift clays (which were
+alone used for brickmaking until modern times) are found near the surface,
+are readily worked and require little preparation, whereas the older
+sedimentary deposits are often difficult to work and necessitate the use of
+heavy machinery. These older shales, or rocky clays, may be brought into
+plastic condition by long weathering (_i.e._ by exposure to rain, frost and
+sun) or by crushing and grinding in water, and they then resemble ordinary
+alluvial clays in every respect.
+
+The clays or earths from which burnt bricks are made may be divided into
+two principal types, according to chemical composition: (1) Clays or shales
+containing only a small percentage of carbonate of lime and consisting
+chiefly of hydrated aluminium silicates (the "true clay substance") with
+more or less sand, undecomposed grains of felspar, and oxide or carbonate
+of iron; these clays usually burn to a buff, salmon or red colour; (2)
+Clays containing a considerable percentage of carbonate of lime in addition
+to the substances above mentioned. These latter clay deposits are known as
+"marls,"[1] and may contain as much as 40% of chalk. They burn to a
+sulphur-yellow colour which is quite distinctive.
+
+Brick clays of class (1) are very widely distributed, and have a more
+extensive geological range than the marls, which are found in connexion
+with chalk or limestone formations only. These ordinary brick clays vary
+considerably in composition, and many clays, as they are found in nature,
+are unsuitable for brickmaking without the addition of some other kind of
+clay or sand. The strongest brick clays, _i.e._ those possessing the
+greatest plasticity and tensile strength, are usually those which contain
+the highest percentage of the hydrated aluminium silicates, although the
+exact relation of plasticity to chemical composition has not yet been
+determined. This statement cannot be applied indiscriminately to all clays,
+but may be taken as fairly applicable to clays of one general type (see
+CLAY). All clays contain more or less free silica in the form of sand, and
+usually a small percentage of undecomposed felspar. The most important
+ingredient, after the clay-substance and the sand, is oxide of iron; for
+the colour, and, to a less extent, the hardness and durability of the burnt
+bricks depend on its presence. The amount of oxide of iron in these clays
+varies from about 2 to 10%, and the colour of the bricks varies accordingly
+from light buff to chocolate; although the colour developed by a given
+percentage of oxide of iron is influenced by the other substances present
+and also by the method of firing. A clay containing from 5 to 8% of oxide
+of iron will, under ordinary conditions of firing, produce a red brick; but
+if the clay contains 3 to 4% of alkalis, or the brick is fired too hard,
+the colour will be darker and more purple. The actions of the alkalis and
+of increased temperature are probably closely related, for in either case
+the clay is brought nearer to its fusion point, and ferruginous clays
+generally become darker in colour as they approach to fusion. Alumina acts
+in the opposite direction, an excess of this compound tending to make the
+colour lighter and brighter. It is impossible to give a typical composition
+for such clays, as the percentages of the different constituents vary
+through such wide ranges. The clay substance may vary from 15 to 80%, the
+free silica or sand from 5 to 80%, the oxide of iron from 1 to 10%, the
+carbonates of lime and magnesia together, from 1 to 5%, and the alkalis
+from 1 to 4%. Organic matter is always present, and other impurities which
+frequently occur are the sulphates of lime and magnesia, the chlorides and
+nitrates of soda and potash, and iron-pyrites. The presence of organic
+matter gives the wet clay a greater plasticity, probably because it forms a
+kind of mucilage which adds a certain viscosity and adhesiveness to the
+natural plasticity of the clay. In some of the coal-measure shales the
+amount of organic matter is very considerable, and may render the clay
+useless for brickmaking. The other impurities, all of which, except the
+pyrites, are soluble in water, are undesirable, as they give rise to
+"scum," which produces patchy colour and pitted faces on the bricks. The
+commonest soluble impurity is calcium sulphate, which produces a whitish
+scum on the face of the brick in drying, and as the scum becomes
+permanently fixed in burning, such bricks are of little use except for
+common work. This question of "scumming" is very important to the maker of
+high-class facing and moulded bricks, and where a clay containing calcium
+sulphate must be used, a certain percentage of barium carbonate is nowadays
+added to the wet clay. By this means the calcium sulphate is converted into
+calcium carbonate which is insoluble in water, so that it remains
+distributed throughout the mass of the brick instead of being deposited on
+the surface. The presence of magnesium salts is also very objectionable, as
+these generally remain in the burnt brick as magnesium sulphate, which
+gives rise to an efflorescence of fine white crystals after the bricks are
+built into position. Clays which are strong or plastic are known as "fat"
+clays, and they always contain a high percentage of true "clay substance,"
+and, consequently, a low percentage of sand. Such clays take up a
+considerable amount of water in "tempering"; they dry slowly, shrink
+greatly, and so become liable to lose their shape and develop cracks in
+drying and firing. "Fat" clays are greatly improved by the addition of
+coarse sharp sand, [v.04 p.0519] which reduces the time of drying and the
+shrinkage, and makes the brick more rigid during the firing. Coarse sand,
+unlike clay-substance, is practically unaffected during the drying and
+firing, and is a desirable if not a necessary ingredient of all brick
+clays. The best brick-clays feel gritty between the fingers; they should,
+of course, be free from pebbles, sufficiently plastic to be moulded into
+shape and strong enough when dry to be safely handled. All clays are
+greatly improved by being turned over and exposed to the weather, or by
+standing for some months in a wet condition. This "weathering" and "ageing"
+of clay is particularly important where bricks are made from tempered clay,
+_i.e._ clay in the wet or plastic state; where bricks are made from shale,
+in the semi-plastic condition, weathering is still of importance.
+
+The lime clays or "marls" of class (2), which contain essentially a high
+percentage of chalk or limestone, are not so widely distributed as the
+ordinary brick-clays, and in England the natural deposits of these clays
+have been largely exhausted. A very fine chalk-clay, or "malm" as it was
+locally called, was formerly obtained from the alluvium in the vicinity of
+London; but the available supply of this has been used up, and at the
+present time an artificial "malm" is prepared by mixing an ordinary
+brick-clay with ground chalk. For the best London facing-bricks the clay
+and chalk are mixed in water. The chalk is ground on grinding-pans, and the
+clay is mixed with water and worked about until the mixture has the
+consistence of cream. The mixture of these "pulps" is run through a grating
+or coarse sieve on to a drying-kiln or "bed," where it is allowed to stand
+until stiff enough to walk on. A layer of fine ashes is then spread over
+the clay, and the mass is turned over and mixed by spade, and tempered by
+the addition of water. In other districts, where clays containing limestone
+are used, the marl is mixed with water on a wash-pan and the resulting
+creamy fluid passed through coarse sieves on to a drying-bed. If necessary,
+coarse sand is added to the clay in the wash-pan, and such addition is
+often advisable because the washed clays are generally very fine in grain.
+Another method of treating these marls, when they are in the plastic
+condition, is to squeeze them by machinery through iron gratings, which
+arrest and remove the pebbles. In other cases the marl is passed through a
+grinding-mill having a solid bottom and heavy iron rollers, by which means
+the limestone pebbles are crushed sufficiently and mixed through the whole
+mass. The removal of limestone pebbles from the clay is of great
+importance, as during the firing they would be converted into quicklime,
+which has a tendency to shatter the brick on exposure to the weather. As
+before stated, these marls (which usually contain from 15 to 30% of calcium
+carbonate) burn to a yellow colour which is quite distinctive, although in
+some cases, where the percentage of limestone is very high, over 40%, the
+colour is grey or a very pale buff. The action of lime in bleaching the
+ferric oxide and producing a yellow instead of a red brick, has not been
+thoroughly investigated, but it seems probable that some compound is
+produced, between the lime and the oxide of iron, or between these two
+oxides and the free silica, entirely different from that produced by oxide
+of iron in the absence of lime. Such marls require a harder fire than the
+ordinary brick-clays in order to bring about the reaction between the lime
+and the other ingredients. Magnesia may replace lime to some extent in such
+marls, but the firing temperature must be higher when magnesia is present.
+Marls usually contract very little, if at all, in the burning, and
+generally produce a strong, square brick of fine texture and good colour.
+When under-fired, marl bricks are very liable to disintegrate under the
+action of the weather, and great care must be exercised in burning them at
+a sufficiently high temperature.
+
+_Brickmaking_.--Bricks made of tempered clay may be made by hand or by
+machine, and the machines may be worked by hand or by mechanical power.
+Bricks made of semi-plastic clay (_i.e._ ground clay or shale sufficiently
+damp to adhere under pressure) are generally machine-made throughout. The
+method of making bricks by hand is the same, with slight variation, the
+world over. The tempered clay is pressed by hand into a wooden or metal
+mould or four-sided case (without top or bottom) which is of the desired
+shape and size, allowance being made for the shrinkage of the brick in
+drying and firing. The moulder stands at the bench or table, dips the mould
+in water, or water and then sand, to prevent the clay from sticking, takes
+a rudely shaped piece of clay from an assistant, and dashes this into the
+mould which rests on the moulding bench. He then presses the clay into the
+corners of the mould with his fingers, scrapes off any surplus clay and
+levels the top by means of a strip of wood called a "strike," and then
+turns the brick out of the mould on to a board, to be carried away by
+another assistant to the drying-ground. The mould may be placed on a
+special piece of wood, called the stock-board, provided with an elevated
+tongue of wood in the centre, which produces the hollow or "frog" in the
+bottom of the brick.
+
+Machine-made bricks may be divided into two kinds, plastic and
+semi-plastic, although the same type of machine is often used for both
+kinds.
+
+The machine-made plastic bricks are made of tempered clay, but generally
+the tempering and working of the clay are effected by the use of machinery,
+especially when the harder clays and shales are used. The machines used in
+the preparation of such clays are grinding-mills and pug-mills. The
+grinding-mills are either a series of rollers with graduated spaces
+between, through which the clay or shale is passed, or are of the ordinary
+"mortar pan" type, having a solid or perforated iron bottom on which the
+clay or shale is crushed by heavy rollers. Shales are sometimes passed
+through a grinding-mill before they are exposed to the action of the
+weather, as the disintegration of the hard lumps of shale greatly
+accelerates the "weathering." In the case of ordinary brick-clay, in the
+plastic condition, grinding-mills are only used when pebbles more than a
+quarter of an inch in diameter are present, as otherwise the clay may be
+passed directly through the pug-mill, a process which may be repeated if
+necessary. The pug-mill consists of a box or trough having a feed hole at
+one end and a delivery hole or nose at the other end, and provided with a
+central shaft which carries knives and cutters so arranged that when the
+shaft revolves they cut and knead the clay, and at the same time force it
+towards and through the delivery nose. The cross section of this nose of
+the pug-mill is approximately the same as that of the required brick (9 in.
+× 4½ in. plus contraction, for ordinary bricks), so that the pug delivers a
+solid or continuous mass of clay from which bricks may be made by merely
+making a series of square cuts at the proper distances apart. In practice,
+the clay is pushed from the pug along a smooth iron plate, which is
+provided with a wire cutting frame having a number of tightly stretched
+wires placed at certain distances apart, arranged so that they can be
+brought down upon, and through, the clay, and so many bricks cut off at
+intervals. The frame is sometimes in the form of a skeleton cylinder, the
+wires being arranged radially (or the wires may be replaced by metal
+disks); but in all cases bricks thus made are known as "wire-cuts." In
+order to obtain a better-shaped and more compact brick, these wire-cuts may
+be placed under a brick press and there squeezed into iron moulds under
+great pressure. These two processes are now generally performed by one
+machine, consisting of pug-mill and brick press combined. The pug delivers
+the clay, downwards, into the mould; the proper amount of clay is cut off;
+and the mould is made to travel into position under the ram of the press,
+which squeezes the clay into a solid mass.
+
+There are many forms of brick press, a few for hand power, but the most
+adapted for belt-driving; although in recent years hydraulic presses have
+come more and more into use, especially in Germany and America. The
+essential parts of a brick press are: (1) a box or frame in which the clay
+is moulded; (2) a plunger or die carried on the end of a ram, which gives
+the necessary pressure; (3) an arrangement for pushing the pressed brick
+out of the moulding box. Such presses are generally made of iron
+throughout, although other metals are used, occasionally, for the moulds
+and dies. The greatest variations found in brick presses are in the means
+adopted for actuating the ram; and many ingenious mechanical devices have
+been applied to this end, each claiming some particular advantage over its
+predecessors. In many recent presses, especially where semi-plastic clay is
+used, the brick is pressed simultaneously from top and bottom, a second
+ram, working upwards from beneath, giving the additional pressure.
+
+Although the best bricks are still pressed from tempered or plastic clay,
+there has recently been a great development in the manufacture of
+semi-plastic or dust-made bricks, especially in those districts where
+shales are used for brickmaking. These semi-plastic bricks are stamped out
+of ground shale that has been sufficiently moistened with water to enable
+it to bind together. The hard-clay, or shale, is crushed under heavy
+rollers in an iron grinding-pan having a perforated bottom through which
+the crushed clay passes, when sufficiently fine, into a small compartment
+underneath. This clay powder is then delivered, by an elevator, into a
+sieve or screen, which retains the coarser particles for regrinding. Sets
+of rollers may also be used for crushing shales that are only moderately
+hard, the ground material being sifted as before. The material, as fed
+[v.04 p.0520] into the mould of the press, is a coarse, damp powder which
+becomes adhesive under pressure, producing a so-called "semi-plastic"
+brick. The presses used are similar to those employed for plastic clay, but
+they are generally more strongly and heavily built, and are capable of
+applying a greater pressure.
+
+The semi-plastic method has many advantages where shales are used, although
+the bricks are not as strong nor as perfect as the best "plastic" bricks.
+The method, however, enables the brickmaker to make use of certain kinds of
+clay-rock, or shale, that would be impracticable for plastic bricks; and
+the weathering, tempering and "ageing" may be largely or entirely dispensed
+with. The plant required is heavier and more costly, but the brickyard
+becomes more compact, and the processes are simpler than with the "plastic"
+method.
+
+The drying of bricks, which was formerly done in the open, is now, in most
+cases, conducted in a special shed heated by flues along which the heated
+gases from the kilns pass on their way to the chimney. It is important that
+the atmosphere of the drying-shed should be fairly dry, to which end
+suitable means of ventilation must be arranged (by fans or otherwise). If
+the atmosphere is too moist the surface of the brick remains damp for a
+considerable time, and the moisture from the interior passes to the surface
+as water, carrying with it the soluble salts, which are deposited on the
+surface as the water slowly evaporates. This deposit produces the "scum"
+already referred to. When the drying is done in a dry atmosphere the
+surface quickly dries and hardens, and the moisture from the interior
+passes to the surface as vapour, the soluble salts being left distributed
+through the whole mass, and consequently no "scum" is produced. Plastic
+bricks take much longer to dry than semi-plastic; they shrink more and have
+a greater tendency to warp or twist.
+
+The burning or firing of bricks is the most important factor in their
+production; for their strength and durability depend very largely on the
+character and degree of the firing to which they have been subjected. The
+action of the heat brings about certain chemical decompositions and
+re-combinations which entirely alter the physical character of the dry
+clay. It is important, therefore, that the firing should be carefully
+conducted and that it should be under proper control. For ordinary bricks
+the firing atmosphere should be oxidizing, and the finishing temperature
+should be adjusted to the nature of the clay, the object being to produce a
+hard strong brick, of good shape, that will not be too porous and will
+withstand the action of frost. The finishing temperature ranges from 900°
+C. to 1250° C., the usual temperature being about 1050° C. for ordinary
+bricks. As before mentioned, lime-clays require a higher firing temperature
+(usually about 1150° C. to 1200° C.) in order to bring the lime into
+chemical combination with the other substances present.
+
+It is evident that the best method of firing bricks is to place them in
+permanent kilns, but although such kilns were used by the Romans some 2000
+years ago, the older method of firing in "clamps" is still employed in the
+smaller brickfields, in every country where bricks are made. These clamps
+are formed by arranging the unfired bricks in a series of rows or walls,
+placed fairly closely together, so as to form a rectangular stack. A
+certain number of channels, or firemouths, are formed in the bottom of the
+clamp; and fine coal is spread in horizontal layers between the bricks
+during the building up of the stack. Fires are kindled in the fire-mouths,
+and the clamp is allowed to go on burning until the fuel is consumed
+throughout. The clamp is then allowed to cool, after which it is taken
+down, and the bricks sorted; those that are under-fired being built up
+again in the next clamp for refiring. Sometimes the clamp takes the form of
+a temporary kiln, the outside being built of burnt bricks which are
+plastered over with clay, and the fire-mouths being larger and more
+carefully formed. There are many other local modifications in the manner of
+building up the clamps, all with the object of producing a large percentage
+of well-fired bricks. Clamp-firing is slow, and also uneconomical, because
+irregular and not sufficiently under control; and it is now only employed
+where bricks are made on a small scale.
+
+Brick-kilns are of many forms, but they can all be grouped under two main
+types--Intermittent kilns and Continuous kilns. The intermittent kiln is
+usually circular in plan, being in the form of a vertical cylinder with a
+domed top. It consists of a single firing-chamber in which the unfired
+bricks are placed, and in the walls of which are contrived a number of
+fire-mouths where wood or coal is burned. In the older forms known as
+_up-draught_ kilns, the products of combustion pass from the fire-mouth,
+through flues, into the bottom of the firing-chamber, and thence directly
+upwards and out at the top. The modern plan is to introduce the products of
+combustion near the top, or crown, of the kiln, and to draw them downwards
+through holes in the bottom which lead to flues connected with an
+independent chimney. These _down-draught_ kilns have short chimneys or
+"bags" built round the inside wall in connexion with the fire-mouths, which
+conduct the flames to the upper part of the firing-chamber, where they are
+reverberated and passed down through the bricks in obedience to the pull of
+the chimney. The "bags" may be joined together, forming an inner circular
+wall entirely round the firing-chamber, except at the doorway; and a number
+of kilns may be built in a row or group having their bottom flues connected
+with the same tall chimney. Down-draught kilns usually give a more regular
+fire and a higher percentage of well-fired bricks; and they are more
+economical in fuel consumption than up-draught kilns, while the hot gases,
+as they pass from the kiln, may be utilized for drying purposes, being
+conducted through flues under the floor of the drying-shed, on their way to
+the chimney. The method of using one tall chimney to work a group of
+down-draught kilns naturally led to the invention of the "continuous" kiln,
+which is really made up of a number of separate kilns or firing-chambers,
+built in series and connected up to the main flue of the chimney in such a
+manner that the products of combustion from one kiln may be made to pass
+through a number of other kilns before entering the flue. The earliest form
+of continuous kiln was invented by Friedrich Hoffman, and all kilns of this
+type are built on the Hoffman principle, although there are a great number
+of modifications of the original Hoffman construction. The great principle
+of "continuous" firing is the utilization of the waste heat from one kiln
+or section of a kiln in heating up another kiln or section, direct firing
+being applied only to finish the burning. In practice a number of kilns or
+firing-chambers, usually rectangular in plan, are built side by side in two
+parallel lines, which are connected at the ends by other kilns so as to
+make a complete circuit. The original form of the complete series was
+elliptical in plan, but the tendency in recent years has been to flatten
+the sides of the ellipse and bring them together, thus giving two parallel
+rows joined at the ends by a chamber or passage at right angles. Coal or
+gas is burnt in the chamber or section that is being fired-up, the air
+necessary for the combustion being heated on its passage through the kilns
+that are cooling down, and the products of combustion, before entering the
+chimney flue, are drawn through a number of other kilns or chambers
+containing unfired bricks, which are thus gradually heated up by the
+otherwise waste-heat from the sections being fired. Continuous kilns
+produce a more evenly fired product than the intermittent kilns usually do,
+and, of course, at much less cost for fuel. Gas firing is now being
+extensively applied to continuous kilns, natural gas in some instances
+being used in the United States of America; and the methods of construction
+and of firing are carried out with greater care and intelligence, the prime
+objects being economy of fuel and perfect control of firing. Pyrometers are
+coming into use for the control of the firing temperature, with the result
+that a constant and trustworthy product is turned put. The introduction of
+machinery greatly helped the brickmaking industry in opening up new sources
+of supply of raw material in the shales and hardened clays of the
+sedimentary deposits of the older geologic formations, and, with the
+extended use of continuous firing plants, it has led to the establishment
+of large concerns where everything is co-ordinated for the production of
+enormous quantities of bricks at a minimum cost. In the United Kingdom, and
+still more in Germany and the United States of America, great improvements
+have been made in machinery, firing-plant and organization, so that the
+whole manufacture is now being conducted on more scientific lines, to the
+great advantage of the industry.
+
+_Blue Brick_ is a very strong vitreous brick of dark, slaty-blue colour,
+used in engineering works where great strength or impermeability is
+desirable. These bricks are made of clay containing front 7 to 10% of oxide
+of iron, and their manufacture is carried out in the ordinary way until the
+later stages of the firing process, when they are subjected to the strongly
+reducing action of a smoky atmosphere, which is produced by throwing small
+bituminous coal upon the fire-mouths and damping down the admission of air.
+The smoke thus produced reduces the red ferric oxide to blue-green ferrous
+oxide, or to metallic iron, which combines with the silica present to form
+a fusible ferrous silicate. This fusible "slag" partly combines with the
+other silicates present, and partly fills up the pores, and so produces a
+vitreous impermeable layer varying in thickness according to the duration
+and character of the smoking, the finishing temperature of the kiln and the
+texture of the brick. Particles of carbon penetrate the surface during the
+early stages of the smoking, and a small quantity of carbon probably enters
+into combination, tending to produce a harder surface and darker colour.
+
+_Floating Bricks_ were first mentioned by Strabo, the Greek geographer, and
+afterwards by Pliny as being made at Pitane in the Troad. The secret of
+their manufacture was lost for many centuries, but was rediscovered in 1791
+by Fabroni, an Italian, who made them from the fossil meal (diatomaceous
+earth) found in Tuscany. These bricks are very light, fairly strong, and
+being poor conductors of heat, have been employed for the construction of
+powder-magazines on board ship, &c.
+
+_Mortar Bricks_ belong to the class of unburnt bricks, and are, strictly
+speaking, blocks of artificial stone made in brick moulds. These bricks
+have been made for many years by moulding a mixture of sand and slaked lime
+and allowing the blocks thus made to harden in the air. This hardening is
+brought about partly by evaporation of the water, but chiefly by the
+conversion of the calcium hydrate, or slaked lime, into calcium carbonate
+by the action of the carbonic acid in the atmosphere. A small proportion of
+the lime enters into combination with the silica and water present to form
+hydrated calcium silicate, and probably a little hydrated basic carbonate
+of lime is also formed, both of which substances are in the nature of
+cement. This process of natural hardening by exposure to the air was a very
+long one, occupying from six to eighteen months, and many improvements were
+introduced during the latter half of the 19th century to improve the
+strength of the bricks and to hasten the hardening. [v.04 p.0521] Mixtures
+of sand, lime and cement (and of certain ground blast-furnace slags and
+lime) were introduced; the moulding was done under hydraulic presses and
+the bricks afterwards treated with carbon dioxide under pressure, with or
+without the application of mild heat. Some of these mixtures and methods
+are still in use, but a new type of mortar brick has come into use during
+recent years which has practically superseded the old mortar brick.
+
+_Sand-lime Bricks_.--In the early 'eighties of the 19th century, Dr
+Michaelis of Berlin patented a new process for hardening blocks made of a
+mixture of sand and lime by treating them with high-pressure steam for a
+few hours, and the so-called _sand-lime_ bricks are now made on a very
+extensive scale in many countries. There are many differences of detail in
+the manufacture, but the general method is in all cases the same. Dry sand
+is intimately mixed with about one-tenth of its weight of powdered slaked
+lime, the mixture is then slightly moistened with water and afterwards
+moulded into bricks under powerful presses, capable of exerting a pressure
+of about 60 tons per sq. in. After removal from the press the bricks are
+immediately placed in huge steel cylinders usually 60 to 80 ft. long and
+about 7 ft. in diameter, and are there subjected to the action of
+high-pressure steam (120 lb to 150 lb per sq. in.) for from ten to fifteen
+hours. The proportion of slaked lime to sand varies according to the nature
+of the lime and the purity and character of the sand, one of lime to ten of
+sand being a fair average. The following is an analysis of a typical German
+sand-lime brick: silica (SiO_2), 84%; lime (CaO), 7%; alumina and oxide of
+iron, 2%; water, magnesia and alkalis, 7%. Under the action of the
+high-pressure steam the lime attacks the particles of sand, and a chemical
+compound of water, lime and silica is produced which forms a strong bond
+between the larger particles of sand. This bond of hydrated calcium
+silicate is evidently different from, and of better type than, the filling
+of calcium carbonate produced in the mortar-brick, and the sand-lime brick
+is consequently much stronger than the ordinary mortar-brick, however the
+latter may be made. The sand-lime brick is simple in manufacture, and with
+reasonable care is of constant quality. It is usually of a light-grey
+colour, but may be stained by the addition of suitable colouring oxides or
+pigments unaffected by lime and the conditions of manufacture.
+
+_Strength of Brick._--The following figures indicate the crushing load for
+bricks of various types in tons per sq. in.:--
+
+  Common hand-made                from 0.4 to 0.9
+  "      machine-made               "  0.9 "  1.2
+  London stock                      "  0.7 "  1.3
+  Staffordshire blue                "  2.8 "  3.3
+  Sand-lime                         "  2.9 "  3.4
+
+See also BRICKWORK.
+
+(J. B.*; W. B.*)
+
+[1] The term "marl" has been wrongly applied to many fire-clays. It should
+be restricted to natural mixtures of clay and chalk such as those of the
+Paris and London basins.
+
+BRICKFIELDER, a term used in Australia for a hot scorching wind blowing
+from the interior, where the sandy wastes, bare of vegetation in summer,
+are intensely heated by the sun. This hot wind blows strongly, often for
+several days at a time, defying all attempts to keep the dust down, and
+parching all vegetation. It is in one sense a healthy wind, as, being
+exceedingly dry and hot, it destroys many injurious germs of disease. The
+northern brickfielder is almost invariably followed by a strong "southerly
+buster," cloudy and cool from the ocean. The two winds are due to the same
+cause, viz. a cyclonic system over the Australian Bight. These systems
+frequently extend inland as a narrow V-shaped depression (the apex
+northward), bringing the winds from the north on their eastern sides and
+from the south on their western. Hence as the narrow system passes eastward
+the wind suddenly changes from north to south, and the thermometer has been
+known to fall fifteen degrees in twenty minutes.
+
+BRICKWORK, in building, the term applied to constructions made of bricks.
+The tools and implements employed by the bricklayer are:--the trowel for
+spreading the mortar; the plumb-rule to keep the work perpendicular, or in
+the case of an inclined or battering wall, to a regular batter, for the
+plumb-rule may be made to suit any required inclination; the spirit-level
+to keep the work horizontal, often used in conjunction with a straight-edge
+in order to test a greater length; and the gauge-rod with the brick-courses
+marked on it. The quoins or angles are first built up with the aid of the
+gauge-rod, and the intermediate work is kept regular by means of the line
+and line pins fixed in the joints. The raker, jointer, pointing rule and
+Frenchman are used in pointing joints, the pointing staff being held on a
+small board called the hawk. For roughly cutting bricks the large trowel is
+used; for neater work such as facings, the bolster and club-hammer; the
+cold chisel is for general cutting away, and for chases and holes. When
+bricks require to be cut, the work is set out with the square, bevel and
+compasses. If the brick to be shaped is a hard one it is placed on a
+V-shaped cutting block, an incision made where desired with the tin saw,
+and after the bolster and club-hammer have removed the portion of the
+brick, the scutch, really a small axe, is used to hack off the rough parts.
+For cutting soft bricks, such as rubbers and malms, a frame saw with a
+blade of soft iron wire is used, and the face is brought to a true surface
+on the rubbing stone, a slab of Yorkshire stone.
+
+In ordinary practice a scaffold is carried up with the walls and made to
+rest on them. Having built up as high as he can reach from the ground, the
+scaffolder erects a scaffold with standards, ledgers and putlogs to carry
+the scaffold boards (see SCAFFOLD, SCAFFOLDING). Bricks are carried to the
+scaffold on a hod which holds twenty bricks, or they may be hoisted in
+baskets or boxes by means of a pulley and fall, or may be raised in larger
+numbers by a crane. The mortar is taken up in a hod or hoisted in pails and
+deposited on ledged boards about 3 ft. square, placed on the scaffold at
+convenient distances apart along the line of work. The bricks are piled on
+the scaffold between the mortar boards, leaving a clear way against the
+wall for the bricklayers to move along. The workman, beginning at the
+extreme left of his section, or at a quoin, advances to the right,
+carefully keeping to his line and frequently testing his work with the
+plumb-rule, spirit-level and straight-edge, until he reaches another angle,
+or the end of his section. The pointing is sometimes finished off as the
+work proceeds, but in other cases the joints are left open until the
+completion, when the work is pointed down, perhaps in a different mortar.
+When the wall has reached a height from the scaffold beyond which the
+workman cannot conveniently reach, the scaffolding is raised and the work
+continued in this manner from the new level.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+It is most important that the brickwork be kept perfectly plumb, and that
+every course be perfectly horizontal or level, both longitudinally and
+transversely. Strictest attention should be paid to the levelling of the
+lowest course of footings of a wall, for any irregularity will necessitate
+the inequality being made up with mortar in the courses above, thus
+inducing a liability for the wall to settle unequally, and so perpetuate
+the infirmity. To save the trouble of keeping the plumb-rule and level
+constantly in his hands and yet ensure correct work, the bricklayer, on
+clearing the footings of a wall, builds up six or eight courses of bricks
+at the external angles (see fig. 1), which he carefully plumbs and levels
+across. These form a gauge for the intervening work, a line being tightly
+strained between and fixed with steel pins to each angle at a level with
+the top of the next course to be laid, and with this he makes his work
+range. If, however, the length between the quoins be great, the line will
+of course sag, and it must, therefore, be carefully supported at intervals
+to the proper level. Care must be taken to keep the "perpends," or vertical
+joints, one immediately over the other. Having been carried up three or
+four courses to a level with the guidance of the line which is raised
+course by course, the work should be proved with the level and plumb-rule,
+particularly with the latter at the quoins and reveals, as well as over the
+face. A smart tap with the end of the handle of the trowel will suffice to
+make a brick yield what little it may be out of truth, while the work is
+green, and not injure it. The work of an efficient craftsman, however, will
+need but little adjustment.
+
+For every wall of more than one brick (9 in) thick, two men should be
+employed at the same time, one on the outside and the [v.04 p.0522] other
+inside; one man cannot do justice from one side to even a 14-in. wall. When
+the wall can be approached from one side only, the work is said to be
+executed "overhand." In work circular on plan, besides the level and
+plumb-rule, a gauge mould or template, or a ranging trammel--a rod working
+on a pivot at the centre of the curve, and in length equalling the
+radius--must be used for every course, as it is evident that the line and
+pins cannot be applied to this in the manner just described.
+
+Bricks should not be merely _laid_, but each should be placed frog upwards,
+and rubbed and pressed firmly down in such a manner as to secure absolute
+adhesion, and force the mortar into joints. Every brick should be well
+wetted before it is laid, especially in hot dry weather, in order to wash
+off the dust from its surface, and to obtain more complete adhesion, and
+prevent it from absorbing water from the mortar in which it is bedded. The
+bricks are wetted either by the bricklayer dipping them in water as he uses
+them, or by water being thrown or sprinkled on them as they lie piled on
+the scaffold. In bricklaying with quick-setting cements an ample use of
+water is of even more importance.
+
+All the walls of a building that are to sustain the same floors and the
+same roof, should be carried up simultaneously; in no circumstances should
+more be done in one part than can be reached from the same scaffold, until
+all the walls are brought up to the same height. Where it is necessary for
+any reason to leave a portion of the wall at a certain level while carrying
+up the adjoining work the latter should be racked back, i.e. left in steps
+as shown in fig. 7, and not carried up vertically with merely the toothing
+necessary for the bond.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Section of a Hollow Wall.]
+
+Buildings in exposed situations are frequently built with cavity-walls,
+consisting of the inside or main walls with an outer skin [Sidenote: Hollow
+walls.] usually half a brick thick, separated from the former by a cavity
+of 2 or 3 in. (fig. 2). The two walls are tied together at frequent
+intervals by iron or stoneware ties, each having a bend or twist in the
+centre, which prevents the transmission of water to the inner wall. All
+water, therefore, which penetrates the outer wall drops to the base of the
+cavity, and trickles out through gratings provided for the purpose a few
+inches above the ground level. The base of the cavity should be taken down
+a course or two below the level of the damp-proof course. The ties are
+placed about 3 ft. apart horizontally, with 12 or 18 in. vertical
+intervals; they are about 8 in. long and ¾ in. wide. It is considered
+preferable by some architects and builders to place the thicker wall on the
+outside. This course, however, allows the main wall to be attacked by the
+weather, whereas the former method provides for its protection by a screen
+of brickwork. Where door and window frames occur in hollow walls, it is of
+the utmost importance that a proper lead or other flashing be built in,
+shaped so as to throw off on each side, clear of the frames and main wall,
+the water which may penetrate the outer shell. While building the wall it
+is very essential to ensure that the cavity and ties be kept clean and free
+from rubbish or mortar, and for this purpose a wisp of straw or a narrow
+board, is laid on the ties where the bricklayer is working, to catch any
+material that may be inadvertently dropped, this protection being raised as
+the work proceeds. A hollow wall tends to keep the building dry internally
+and the temperature equable, but it has the disadvantage of harbouring
+vermin, unless care be taken to ensure their exclusion. The top of the wall
+is usually sealed with brickwork to prevent vermin or rubbish finding its
+way into the cavity. Air gratings should be introduced here to allow of air
+circulating through the cavity; they also facilitate drying out after rain.
+
+Hollow walls are not much used in London for two reasons, the first being
+that, owing to the protection from the weather afforded by surrounding
+buildings, one of the main reasons for their use is gone, and the other
+that the expense is greatly increased, owing to the authorities ignoring
+the outer shell and requiring the main wall to be of the full thickness
+stipulated in schedule I. of London Building Act 1894. Many English
+provincial authorities in determining the thickness of a cavity-wall, take
+the outer portion into consideration.
+
+In London and the surrounding counties, brickwork is measured by the _rod_
+of 16½ ft. square, 1½ bricks in thickness. A rod of brickwork [Sidenote:
+Materials and labour.] gauged four courses to a foot with bricks 8¾ in.
+long, 4¼ in. wide, and 2¾ in thick, and joints ¼ in. in thickness, will
+require 4356 bricks, and the number will vary as the bricks are above or
+below the average size, and as the joints are made thinner or thicker. The
+quantity of mortar, also, will evidently be affected by the latter
+consideration, but in London it is generally reckoned at 50 cub. ft. for a
+¼-in. joint, to 72 cub. ft. for a joint 3/8 in. thick. To these figures
+must be added an allowance of about 11 cub. ft. if the bricks are formed
+with frogs or hollows. Bricks weigh about 7 lb each; they are bought and
+sold by the thousand, which quantity weighs about 62 cwt. The weight of a
+rod of brickwork is 13½-15 tons, work in cement mortar being heavier than
+that executed in lime. Seven bricks are required to face a sq. ft.; 1 ft.
+of reduced brickwork--1½ bricks thick--will require 16 bricks. The number
+of bricks laid by a workman in a day of eight hours varies considerably
+with the description of work, but on straight walling a man will lay an
+average of 500 in a day.
+
+The absorbent properties of bricks vary considerably with the kind of
+brick. The ordinary London stock of good quality should [Sidenote:
+Varieties of bricks.] not have absorbed, after twenty-four hours' soaking,
+more than one-fifth of its bulk. Inferior bricks will absorb as much as a
+third. The Romans were great users of bricks, both burnt and sun-dried. At
+the decline of the Roman empire, the art of brickmaking fell into disuse,
+but after the lapse of some centuries it was revived, and the ancient
+architecture of Italy shows many fine examples of brick and terra-cotta
+work. The scarcity of stone in the Netherlands led to the development of a
+brick architecture, and fine examples of brickwork abound in the Low
+Countries. The Romans seem to have introduced brickmaking into England, and
+specimens of the large thin bricks, which they used chiefly as a bond for
+rubble masonry, may be seen in the many remains of Roman buildings
+scattered about that country. During the reigns of the early Tudor kings
+the art of brickmaking arrived at great perfection, and some of the finest
+known specimens of ornamental brickwork are to be found among the work of
+this period. The rebuilding of London after the Great Fire of 1666 gave
+considerable impetus to brickmaking, most of the new buildings being of
+brick, and a statute was passed regulating the number of bricks in the
+thickness of the walls of the several rates of dwelling-houses.
+
+The many names given to the different qualities of bricks in various parts
+of Great Britain are most confusing, but the following are those generally
+in use:--
+
+_Stocks_, hard, sound, well-burnt bricks, used for all ordinary purposes.
+
+_Hard Stocks,_ sound but over-burnt, used in footings to walls and other
+positions where good appearance is not required.
+
+_Shippers_, sound, hard-burnt bricks of imperfect shape. Obtain their name
+from being much used as ballast for ships.
+
+_Rubbers_ or _Cutters_, sandy in composition and suitable for cutting with
+a wire saw and rubbing to shape on the stone slab.
+
+_Grizzles_, sound and of fair shape, but under-burnt; used for inferior
+work, and in cases where they are not liable to be heavily loaded.
+
+_Place-bricks_, under-burnt and defective; used for temporary work.
+
+_Chuffs_, cracked and defective in shape and badly burnt. [v.04 p.0523]
+_Burrs_, lumps which have vitrified or run together in the burning; used
+for rough walling, garden work, &c.
+
+_Pressed bricks_, moulded under hydraulic pressure, and much used for
+facing work. They usually have a deep frog or hollow on one or both
+horizontal faces, which reduces the weight of the brick and forms an
+excellent key for the mortar.
+
+_Blue bricks_, chiefly made in South Staffordshire and North Wales. They
+are used in engineering work, and where great compressional resistance is
+needed, as they are vitrified throughout, hard, heavy, impervious and very
+durable. Blue bricks of special shape may be had for paving, channelling
+and coping.
+
+_Fire-bricks_, withstanding great heat, used in connexion with furnaces.
+They should always be laid with fire-clay in place of lime or cement
+mortar.
+
+_Glazed bricks_, either salt-glazed or enamelled. The former, brown in
+colour, are glazed by throwing salt on the bricks in the kiln. The latter
+are dipped into a slip of the required colour before being burnt, and are
+used for decorative and sanitary purposes, and where reflected light is
+required.
+
+_Moulded bricks_, for cornices, string courses, plinths, labels and
+copings. They are made in the different classes to many patterns; and on
+account of their greater durability, and the saving of the labour of
+cutting, are preferable in many cases to rubbers. For sewer work and
+arches, bricks shaped as voussoirs are supplied.
+
+The strength of brickwork varies very considerably according to the kind of
+brick used, the position in which it is used, the kind and [Sidenote:
+Strength of brickwork.] quality of the lime or cement mortar, and above all
+the quality of the workmanship. The results of experiments with short walls
+carried out in 1896-1897 by the Royal Institute of British Architects to
+determine the average loads per sq. ft. at which crushing took place, may
+be briefly summarized as follows: Stock brickwork in lime mortar crushed
+under a pressure of 18.63 tons per sq. ft., and in cement mortar under
+39.29 tons per sq. ft. Gault brickwork in lime mortar crushed at 31.14
+tons, and in cement mortar at 51.34 tons. Fletton brickwork in lime crushed
+under a load of 30.68 tons, in cement under 56.25 tons. Leicester red
+brickwork in lime mortar crushed at 45.36 tons per sq. ft., in cement
+mortar at 83.36 tons. Staffordshire blue brick work in lime mortar crushed
+at 114.34 tons, and in cement mortar at 135.43 tons.
+
+The height of a brick pier should not exceed twelve times its least width.
+The London Building Act in the first schedule prescribes that in buildings
+not public, or of the warehouse class, in no storey shall any external or
+party walls exceed in height sixteen times the thickness. In buildings of
+the warehouse class, the height of these walls shall not exceed fourteen
+times the thickness.
+
+In exposed situations it is necessary to strengthen the buildings by
+increasing the thickness of walls and parapets, and to provide heavier
+copings and flashings. Special precautions, too, must be observed in the
+fixing of copings, chimney pots, ridges and hips. The greatest wind
+pressure experienced in England may be taken at 56 lb on a sq. ft., but
+this is only in the most exposed positions in the country or on a sea
+front. Forty pounds is a sufficient allowance in most cases, and where
+there is protection by surrounding trees or buildings 28 lb per sq. ft. is
+all that needs to be provided against.
+
+In mixing mortar, particular attention must be paid to the sand with which
+the lime or cement is mixed. The best sand is that [Sidenote: Mortar.]
+obtained from the pit, being sharp and angular. It is, however, liable to
+be mixed with clay or earth, which must be washed away before the sand is
+used. Gravel found mixed with it must be removed by screening or sifting.
+River sand is frequently used, but is not so good as pit sand on account of
+the particles being rubbed smooth by attrition. Sea sand is objectionable
+for two reasons; it cannot be altogether freed from a saline taint, and if
+it is used the salt attracts moisture and is liable to keep the brickwork
+permanently damp. The particles, moreover, are generally rounded by
+attrition, caused by the movement of the sea, which makes it less efficient
+for mortar than if they retained their original angular forms. Blue or
+black mortar, often used for pointing the joints of external brickwork on
+account of its greater durability, is made by using foundry sand or smith's
+ashes instead of ordinary sand. There are many other substitutes for the
+ordinary sand. As an example, fine stone grit may be used with advantage.
+Thoroughly burnt clay or ballast, old bricks, clinkers and cinders, ground
+to a uniform size and screened from dust, also make excellent substitutes.
+
+Fat limes (that is, limes which are pure, as opposed to "hydraulic" limes
+which are burnt from limestone containing some clay) should not be used for
+mortar; they are slow-setting, and there is a liability for some of the
+mortar, where there is not a free access of air to assist the setting,
+remaining soft for some considerable period, often months, thus causing
+unequal settlement and possibly failure. Grey stone lime is feebly
+hydraulic, and makes a good mortar for ordinary work. It, however, decays
+under the influence of the weather, and it is, therefore, advisable to
+point the external face of the work in blue ash or cement mortar, in order
+to obtain greater durability. It should never be used in foundation work,
+or where exposed to wet. Lias lime is hydraulic, that is, it will set firm
+under water. It should be used in all good class work, where Portland
+cement is not desired.
+
+Of the various cements used in building, it is necessary only to mention
+three as being applicable to use for mortar. The first of these is Portland
+cement, which has sprung into very general use, not only for work where
+extra strength and durability are required, and for underground work, but
+also in general building where a small extra cost is not objected to.
+Ordinary lime mortar may have its strength considerably enhanced by the
+addition of a small proportion of Portland cement. Roman cement is rarely
+used for mortar, but is useful in some cases on account of the rapidity
+with which it sets, usually becoming hard about fifteen minutes after
+mixing. It is useful in tidal work and embankments, and constructions under
+water. It has about one-third of the strength of Portland cement, by which
+it is now almost entirely supplanted. Selenitic cement or lime, invented by
+Major-General H. Y. D. Scott (1822-1883), is lias lime, to which a small
+proportion of plaster of Paris has been added with the object of
+suppressing the action of slaking and inducing quicker setting. If
+carefully mixed in accordance with the instructions issued by the
+manufacturers, it will take a much larger proportion of sand than ordinary
+lime.
+
+Lime should be slaked before being made into mortar. The lime is measured
+out, deposited in a heap on a wooden "bank" or platform, and after being
+well watered is covered with the correct proportion of sand. This retains
+the heat and moisture necessary to thorough slaking; the time required for
+this operation depends on the variety of the lime, but usually it is from a
+few hours to one and a half days. If the mixing is to be done by hand the
+materials must be screened to remove any unslaked lumps of lime. The
+occurrence of these may be prevented by grinding the lime shortly before
+use. The mass should then be well "larried," _i.e._ mixed together with the
+aid of a long-handled rake called the "larry." Lime mortar should be
+tempered for at least two days, roughly covered up with sacks or other
+material. Before being used it must be again turned over and well mixed
+together. Portland and Roman cement mortars must be mixed as required on
+account of their quick-setting properties. In the case of Portland cement
+mortar, a quantity sufficient only for the day's use should be "knocked
+up," but with Roman cement fresh mixtures must be made several times a day,
+as near as possible to the place of using. Cement mortars should never be
+worked up after setting has taken place. Care should be taken to obtain the
+proper consistency, which is a stiff paste. If the mortar be too thick,
+extra labour is involved in its use, and much time wasted. If it be so thin
+as to run easily from the trowel, a longer time is taken in setting, and
+the wall is liable to settle; also there is danger that the lime or cement
+will be killed by the excess of water, or at least have its binding power
+affected. It is not advisable to carry out work when the temperature is
+below freezing point, but in urgent cases bricklaying may be successfully
+done by using unslaked lime mortar. The mortar must be prepared in small
+quantities immediately before being used, so that binding action takes
+place before it cools. When the wall is left at night time the top course
+should be covered up to prevent the penetration of rain into the work,
+which would then be destroyed by the action of frost. Bricks used during
+frosty weather should be quite dry, and those that have been exposed to
+rain or frost should never be employed. The question whether there is any
+limit to bricklayers' work in frost is still an open one. Among the members
+of the Norwegian Society of Engineers and Architects, at whose meetings the
+subject has been frequently discussed, that limit is variously estimated at
+between -6° to -8° Réaumur (18½° to 14° Fahr.) and -12° to -15° Réaumur (5°
+above to 1¾° below zero Fahr.). It has been proved by hydraulic tests that
+good bricklayers' work can be executed at the latter minimum. The
+conviction is held that the variations in the opinions held on this subject
+are attributable to the degree of care bestowed on the preparation of the
+mortar. It is generally agreed, however, that from a practical point of
+view, bricklaying should not be carried on at temperatures lower than -8°
+to -10° Réaumur (14° to 9½° Fahr.), for as the thermometer falls the
+expense of building is greatly increased, owing to a larger proportion of
+lime being required.
+
+For grey lime mortar the usual proportion is one part of lime to two or
+three parts of sand; lias lime mortar is mixed in similar proportions,
+except for work below ground, when equal quantities of lime and sand should
+be used. Portland cement mortar is usually in the proportions of one to
+three, or five, of sand; good results are obtained with lime mortar
+fortified with cement as follows:--one part slaked lime, one part Portland
+cement, and seven parts sand. Roman cement mortar should consist of one or
+one and a half parts of cement to one part of sand. Selenitic lime mortar
+is usually in the proportions of one to four or five, and must be mixed in
+a particular manner, the lime being first ground in water in the mortar
+mill, and the sand gradually added. Blue or black mortar contains equal
+parts of foundry ashes and lime; but is improved by the addition of a
+proportion of cement. For setting fire-bricks fire-clay is always used.
+Pargetting for rendering inside chimney flues is made of one part of lime
+with three parts of cow dung free from straw or litter. No efficient
+substitute has been found for this mixture, which should be used fresh. A
+mortar that has found approval for tall chimney shafts is composed by
+grinding in a mortar-mill one part of blue lias lime with one part each of
+sand and foundry ashes. In the external walls of the Albert Hall the mortar
+used was one part Portland cement, one part grey Burham lime and six parts
+pit sand. The lime was slaked twenty-four hours, and after being mixed
+[v.04 p.0524] with the sand for ten minutes the cement was added and the
+whole ground for one minute; the stuff was prepared in quantities only
+sufficient for immediate use. The by-laws dated 1891, made by the London
+County Council under section 16 of the Metropolis Management and Building
+Acts Amendment Act 1878, require the proportions of lime mortar to be one
+to three of sand or grit, and for cement mortar one to four. Clean soft
+water only should be used for the purpose of making mortar.
+
+_Grout_ is thin liquid mortar, and is legitimately used in gauged arches
+and other work when fine joints are desired. In ordinary work it is
+sometimes used every four or five courses to fill up any spaces that may
+have been inadvertently left between the bricks. This at the best is but
+doing with grout what should be done with mortar in the operation of laying
+the bricks; and filling or flushing up every course with mortar requires
+but little additional exertion and is far preferable. The use of grout is,
+therefore, a sign of inefficient workmanship, and should not be
+countenanced in good work. It is liable, moreover, to ooze out and stain
+the face of the brickwork.
+
+_Lime putty_ is pure slaked lime. It is prepared or "run," as it is termed,
+in a wooden tub or bin, and should be made as long a time as possible
+before being used; at least three weeks should elapse between preparation
+and use.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Forms of Joints.]
+
+The pointing of a wall, as previously mentioned, is done either with the
+bricklaying or at the completion of the work. If the [Sidenote: Pointing.]
+pointing is to be of the same mortar as the rest of the work, it would
+probably greatly facilitate matters to finish off the work at one operation
+with the bricklaying, but where, as in many cases, the pointing is required
+to be executed in a more durable mortar, this would be done as the scaffold
+is taken down at the completion of the building, the joints being raked out
+by the bricklayer to a depth of ½ or ¾ in. By the latter method the whole
+face of the work is kept uniform in appearance. The different forms of
+joints in general use are clearly shown in fig. 3. Flat or flush joints (A)
+are formed by pressing the protruding mortar back flush with the face of
+the brickwork. This joint is commonly used for walls intended to be coated
+with distemper or limewhite. The flat joint jointed (two forms, B and C) is
+a development of the flush joint. In order to increase the density and
+thereby enhance the durability of the mortar, a semicircular groove is
+formed along the centre, or one on each side of the joint, with an iron
+jointer and straight-edge. Another form, rarely used, is the keyed joint
+shown at D, the whole width of the joint in this case being treated with
+the curved key. Struck or bevelled, or weathered, joints have the upper
+portion pressed back with the trowel to form a sloping surface, which
+throws off the wet. The lower edge is cut off with the trowel to a straight
+edge. This joint is in very common use for new work. Ignorant workmen
+frequently make the slope in the opposite direction (F), thus forming a
+ledge on the brick; this catches the water, which on being frozen rapidly
+causes the disintegration of the upper portion of the brick and of the
+joint itself. With recessed jointing, not much used, a deep shadow may be
+obtained. This form of joint, illustrated in G, is open to very serious
+objections, for it encourages the soaking of the brick with rain instead of
+throwing off the wet, as it seems the natural function of good pointing,
+and this, besides causing undue dampness in the wall, renders it liable to
+damage by frost. It also leaves the arrises of the bricks unprotected and
+liable to be damaged, and from its deep recessed form does not make for
+stability in the work. Gauged work has very thin joints, as shown at H,
+formed by dipping the side of the brick in white lime putty. The sketch I
+shows a joint raked out and filled in with pointing mortar to form a flush
+joint, or it may be finished in any of the preceding forms. Where the wall
+is to be plastered the joints are either left open or raked out, or the
+superfluous mortar may be left protruding as shown at J. By either method
+an excellent key is obtained, to which the rendering firmly adheres. In
+tuck pointing (K) the joints are raked out and stopped, i.e. filled in
+flush with mortar coloured to match the brickwork. The face of the wall is
+then rubbed over with a soft brick of the same colour, or the work may be
+coloured with pigment. A narrow groove is then cut in the joints, and the
+mortar allowed to set. White lime putty is next filled into the groove,
+being pressed on with a jointing tool, leaving a white joint 1/8 to ¼ in.
+wide, and with a projection of about 1/16 in. beyond the face of the work.
+This method is not a good or a durable one, and should only be adopted in
+old work when the edges of the bricks are broken or irregular. In bastard
+tuck pointing (L), the ridge, instead of being in white lime putty, is
+formed of the stopping mortar itself.
+
+Footings, as will be seen on reference to fig. 1, are the wide courses of
+brickwork at the base or foot of a wall. They serve to spread [Sidenote:
+Footings.] the pressure over a larger area of ground, offsets 2¼ in. wide
+being made on each side of the wall until a width equal to double the
+thickness of the wall is reached. Thus in a wall 13½ in. (1½ bricks) thick,
+this bottom course would be 2 ft. 3 in. (3 bricks) wide. It is preferable
+for greater strength to double the lowest course. The foundation bed of
+concrete then spreading out an additional 6 in. on each side brings the
+width of the surface bearing on the ground to 3 ft. 3 in. The London
+Building Act requires the projection of concrete on each side of the
+brickwork to be only 4 in., but a projection of 6 in. is generally made to
+allow for easy working. Footings should be built with hard bricks laid
+principally as headers; stretchers, if necessary, should be placed in the
+middle of the wall.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Diagram of Bonding.]
+
+Bond in brickwork is the arrangement by which the bricks of every course
+cover the joints of those in the course below it, and so [Sidenote:
+Bonding.] tend to make the whole mass or combination of bricks act as much
+together, or as dependently one upon another, as possible. The workmen
+should be strictly supervised as they proceed with the work, for many
+failures are due to their ignorance or carelessness in this particular. The
+object of bonding will be understood by reference to fig. 4. Here it is
+evident from the arrangement of the bricks that any weight placed on the
+topmost brick (a) is carried down and borne alike in every course; in this
+way the weight on each brick is distributed over an area increasing with
+every course. But this forms a longitudinal bond only, which cannot extend
+its influence beyond the width of the brick; and a wall of one brick and a
+half, or two bricks, thick, built in this manner, would in effect consist
+of three or four half brick thick walls acting independently of each other.
+If the bricks were turned so as to show their short sides or ends in front
+instead of their long ones, certainly a compact wall of a whole brick
+thick, instead of half a brick, would be produced, and while the thickness
+of the wall would be double, the longitudinal bond would be shortened by
+one-half: a wall of any great thickness built in this manner would
+necessarily be composed of so many independent one-brick walls. To produce
+a transverse and yet preserve a true longitudinal bond, the bricks are laid
+in a definite arrangement of stretchers and headers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--English Bond.
+
+In this and following illustration of bond in brickwork the position of
+bricks in the second course is indicated by dotted lines.]
+
+In "English bond" (fig. 5), rightly considered the most perfect in use, the
+bricks are laid in alternate courses of headers and stretchers, thus
+combining the advantages of the two previous modes of arrangement. A
+reference to fig. 5 will show how the process of bonding is pursued in a
+wall one and a half bricks in thickness, and how the quoins are formed. In
+walls which are a multiple of a whole brick, the appearance of the same
+course is similar on the elevations of the front and back faces, but in
+walls where an odd half brick must be used to make up the thickness, as is
+the case in the illustration, the appearance of the opposite sides of a
+course is inverted. The example illustrates the principle of English bond;
+thicker walls are constructed in the same manner by an extension of the
+same methods. It will be observed that portions of a brick have to be
+inserted near a vertical end or a quoin, in order to start the regular
+bond. These portions equal a half header in width, and are called queen
+closers; they are placed next to the first header. A three-quarter brick is
+obviously as available for this purpose as a header and closer combined,
+but the latter method is preferred because by the use of it uniformity of
+appearance is preserved, and whole bricks are retained on the returns. King
+closers are used at rebated openings formed in walls in Flemish bond, and
+by reason of the greater width of the back or "tail," add strength to the
+work. They are cut on the splay so that the front end is half the width of
+a header and one side half the length of the brick. An example of their use
+will be seen in fig. 15. In walls of almost all thicknesses above 9 in.,
+except in the [v.04 p.0525] English bond, to preserve the transverse and
+yet not destroy the longitudinal bond, it is frequently necessary to use
+half bricks. It may be taken as a general rule that a brick should never be
+cut if it can be worked in whole, for a new joint is thereby created in a
+construction, the difficulty of which consists in obviating the debility
+arising from the constant recurrence of joints. Great insistence must be
+laid on this point, especially at the junctions of walls, where the
+admission of closers already constitutes a weakness which would only be
+increased by the use of other bats or fragments of bricks.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Flemish Bond.]
+
+Another method of bonding brickwork, instead of placing the bricks in
+alternate courses of headers and stretchers, places them alternately as
+headers and stretchers in the same course, the appearance of the course
+being the same on each face. This is called "Flemish bond." Closers are
+necessary to this variety of bond. From fig. 6 it will be seen that, owing
+to the comparative weakness of the transverse tie, and the numbers of half
+bricks required to be used and the thereby increased number of joints, this
+bond is not so perfect nor so strong as English. The arrangements of the
+face joints, however, presenting in Flemish bond a neater appearance than
+in English bond, it is generally selected for the external walls of
+domestic and other buildings where good effect is desirable. In buildings
+erected for manufacturing and similar purposes, and in engineering works
+where the greatest degree of strength and compactness is considered of the
+highest importance, English bond should have the preference.
+
+A compromise is sometimes made between the two above-mentioned bonds. For
+the sake of appearance the bricks are laid to form Flemish bond on the
+face, while the backing is of English bond, the object being to combine the
+best features of the two bonds. Undoubtedly the result is an improvement on
+Flemish bond, obviating as it does the use of bats in the interior of the
+wall. This method of bonding is termed "single Flemish bond," and is shown
+in fig. 7.
+
+In stretching bond, which should only be used for walls half a brick in
+thickness, all the bricks are laid as stretchers, a half brick being used
+in alternate courses to start the bond. In work curved too sharply on plan
+to admit of the use of stretchers, and for footings, projecting mouldings
+and corbels, the bricks are all laid as headers, i.e. with their ends to
+the front, and their length across the thickness of the wall. This is
+termed "heading bond."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Single Flemish Bond.]
+
+In thick walls, three bricks thick and upwards, a saving of labour is
+effected without loss of strength, by the adoption of "herring bone" or
+"diagonal bond" in the interior of the wall, the outer faces of the wall
+being built in English and Flemish bond. This mode should not be had
+recourse to for walls of a less thickness than 27 in., even that being
+almost too thin to admit of any great advantage from it.
+
+Hoop-iron, about 1½ in. wide and 1/16 in. thick, either galvanized or well
+tarred and sanded to retard rusting, is used in order to obtain additional
+longitudinal tie. The customary practice is to use one strip of iron for
+each half-brick in thickness of the wall. Joints at the angles, and where
+necessary in the length, are formed by bending the ends of the strips so as
+to hook together. A patent stabbed iron now on the market is perforated to
+provide a key for the mortar.
+
+A difficulty often arises in bonding when facing work with bricks of a
+slightly different size from those used in "backing," as it is technically
+termed. As it is, of course, necessary to keep all brickwork in properly
+levelled courses, a difference has to be made in the thickness of the
+mortar joints. Apart from the extra labour involved, this obviously is
+detrimental to the stability of the wall, and is apt to produce unequal
+settlement and cracking. Too much care cannot be taken to obtain both
+facing and backing bricks of equal size.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+
+Dishonest bricklayers do not hesitate, when using for the face of a wall
+bricks of a quality superior to those used for the interior, to use
+"snapped headers," that is cutting the heading bricks in halves, one brick
+thus serving the purposes of two as regards outward appearance. This is a
+most pernicious practice, unworthy of adoption by any craftsman of repute,
+for a skin of brickwork 4½ in. thick is thus carried up with a straight
+mortar joint behind it, the proper bonding with the back of the wall by
+means of headers being destroyed.
+
+American building acts describe the kind of bond to be used for ordinary
+walls, and the kind for faced walls. Tie courses also require an extra
+thickness where walls are perforated with over 30% of flues.
+
+The importance for sanitary and other reasons of keeping walls dry is
+admitted by all who have observed the deleterious action of damp upon a
+building.
+
+Walls are liable to become damp, (1) by wet rising up the wall from the
+earth; (2) by water soaking down from the top of the [Sidenote: Prevention
+of damp.] wall; (3) by rain being driven on to the face by wind. Dampness
+from the first cause may be prevented by the introduction of damp-proof
+courses or the construction of dry areas; from the second by means of a
+coping of stone, cement or other non-porous material; and from the third by
+covering the exterior with impervious materials or by the adoption of
+hollow walls.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.]
+
+After the footings have been laid and the wall has been brought up to not
+less than 6 in. above the finished surface of the ground, and previous to
+fixing the plate carrying the ground floor, there should always be
+introduced a course of some damp-proof material to prevent the rise of
+moisture from the soil. There are several forms of damp-proof course. A
+very usual one is a double layer of roofing slates laid in neat Portland
+cement (fig. 8), the joints being well lapped. A course or two of
+Staffordshire blue bricks in cement is excellent where heavy weights have
+to be considered. Glazed stoneware perforated slabs about 2 in. thick are
+specially made for use as damp-proof courses. Asphalt (fig. 9) recently has
+come into great favour with architects; a layer ½ or ¾ in. thick is a good
+protection against damp, and not likely to crack should a settlement occur,
+but in hot weather it is liable to squeeze out at the joints under heavy
+weights. Felt covered with bitumen is an excellent substitute for asphalt,
+and is not liable to crack or squeeze out. Sheet lead is efficient, but
+very costly and also somewhat liable to squeezing. A damp-proof course has
+been introduced consisting of a thin sheet of lead sandwiched between
+layers of asphalt. Basement storeys to be kept dry require, besides the
+damp-proof course horizontally in the wall, a horizontal course, usually of
+asphalt, in the thickness of the floor, and also a vertical damp-proof
+course from a level below that of the floor to about 6 in. above the level
+of the ground, either built in the thickness of the wall or rendered on the
+outside between the wall and the surrounding earth (fig. 10).
+
+By means of dry areas or air drains (figs. 11 and 12), a hollow [v.04
+p.0526] space 9 in. or more in width is formed around those portions of the
+walls situated below the ground, the object being to prevent them from
+coming into contact with the brickwork of the main walls and so imparting
+its moisture to the building. Arrangements should be made for keeping the
+area clear of vermin and for ventilating and draining it. Dry areas, being
+far from sanitary, are seldom adopted now, and are being superseded by
+asphalt or cement applied to the face of the wall.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.]
+
+Moisture is prevented from soaking down from the top of the wall by using a
+covering of some impervious material in the form of a coping. This may
+consist of ordinary bricks set on edge in cement with a double course of
+tiles immediately below, called a "creasing," or of specially made
+non-porous coping bricks, or of stone, cast-iron, or cement sloped or
+"weathered" in order to throw the rain off.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.]
+
+The exterior of walls above the ground line may be protected by coating the
+surface with cement or rough cast; or covering with slates or tiles fixed
+on battens in a similar manner to those on a roof (fig.13).
+
+The use of hollow walls in exposed positions has already been referred to.
+
+The by-laws dated 1891, made by the London County Council under section 16
+of the Metropolis Management and Buildings Acts Amendment Act 1878, require
+that "every wall of a house or building shall have a damp course composed
+of materials impervious to moisture approved by the district surveyor,
+extending throughout its whole thickness at the level of not less than 6
+in. below the level of the lowest floor. Every external wall or enclosing
+wall of habitable rooms or their appurtenances or cellars which abuts
+against the earth shall be protected by materials impervious to moisture to
+the satisfaction of the district surveyor..." "The top of every party-wall
+and parapet-wall shall be finished with one course of hard, well-burnt
+bricks set on edge, in cement, or by a coping of any other waterproof and
+fire-resisting material, properly secured."
+
+Arches are constructions built of wedge-shaped blocks, which by reason of
+their shape give support one to another, and to the [Sidenote: Arches.]
+super-imposed weight, the resulting load being transmitted through the
+blocks to the abutments upon which the ends of the arch rest. An arch
+should be composed of such materials and designed of such dimensions as to
+enable it to retain its proper shape and resist the crushing strain imposed
+upon it. The abutments also must be strong enough to take safely the thrust
+of the weighted arch, as the slightest movement in these supports will
+cause deflection and failure. The outward thrust of an arch decreases as it
+approaches the semicircular form, but the somewhat prevalent idea that in
+the latter form no thrusting takes place is at variance with fact.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.]
+
+Arches in brickwork may be classed under three heads: plain arches,
+rough-cut and gauged. Plain arches are built of uncut bricks, and since the
+difference between the outer and inner periphery of the arch requires the
+parts of which an arch is made up to be wedge-formed, which an ordinary
+brick is not, the difference must be made in mortar, with the result that
+the joints become wedge-shaped. This obviously gives an objectionable
+inconsistency of material in the arch, and for this reason to obtain
+greatest strength it is advisable to build these arches in independent
+rings of half-brick thickness. The undermost rings should have thin joints,
+those of each succeeding ring being slightly thickened. This prevents the
+lowest ring from settling while those above remain in position, which would
+cause an ugly fissure. In work of large span bonding blocks or "lacing
+courses" should be built into the arch, set in cement and running through
+its thickness at intervals, care being taken to introduce the lacing course
+at a place where the joints of the various rings coincide. Stone blocks in
+the shape of a voussoir (fig. 14) may be used instead. Except for these
+lacing courses hydraulic lime mortar should be used for large arches, on
+account of its slightly accommodating nature.
+
+Rough-cut arches are those in which the bricks are roughly cut with an axe
+to a wedge form; they are used over openings, such as doors and windows,
+where a strong arch of neat appearance is desired. The joints are usually
+made equal in width to those of the ordinary brickwork. Gauged arches are
+composed of specially made soft bricks, which are cut and rubbed to gauges
+or templates so as to form perfectly fitting voussoirs. Gauging is, of
+course, equally applicable to arches and walling, as it means no more than
+bringing every brick exactly to a certain form by cutting and rubbing.
+Gauged brickwork is set in lime putty instead of common mortar; the
+finished joints should not be more than 1/32 in. wide. To give stability
+the sides of the voussoirs are gauged out hollow and grouted in Portland
+cement, thus connecting each brick with the next by a joggle joint. Gauged
+arches, being for the most part but a half-brick in thickness on the soffit
+and not being tied by a bond to anything behind them--for behind them is
+the lintel with rough discharging arch over, supporting the remaining width
+of the wall--require to be executed with great care and nicety. It is a
+common fault with workmen to rub the bricks thinner behind than before to
+lessen the labour required to obtain a very fine face joint. This practice
+tends to make the work bulge outwards; it should rather be inverted if it
+be done at all, though the best work is that in which the bricks are gauged
+to exactly the same thickness at the back as at the front. The same fault
+occurs when a gauged arch is inserted in an old wall, on account of the
+difficulty of filling up with cement the space behind the bricks.
+
+The bond of an arch obtains its name from the arrangement of headers and
+stretchers on its soffit. The under side of an arch built in English bond,
+therefore, will show the same arrangement as the face of a wall built in
+English bond. If the arch is in Flemish the soffit presents the same
+appearance as the elevation of a wall built in that bond.
+
+It is generally held that the building of wood into brickwork [Sidenote:
+Plates.] should as far as is possible be avoided. Wall plates of wood are,
+however, necessary where wood joists are used, and where these plates may
+not be supported on corbels of projecting brickwork or iron they must be
+let flush into the wall, taking the place of a course of bricks. They form
+a uniform bed for the joists, to which easy fixing is obtained. The various
+modes adopted for resting and fixing the ends of joists on walls are
+treated in the article CARPENTRY.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.]
+
+Lintels, which may be of iron, steel, plain or reinforced concrete, or
+stone, are used over square-headed openings instead of or in conjunction
+with arches. They are useful to preserve the square form and receive the
+joiners' fittings, but except when made of steel or of concrete reinforced
+with steel bars, they should have relieving arches turned immediately over
+them (Fig.15).
+
+"Fixing bricks" were formerly of wood of the same size as the ordinary
+brick, and built into the wall as required for fixing joinery. Owing to
+their liability to shrinkage and decay, their use is now practically
+abandoned, their place being taken by bricks of coke-breeze concrete, which
+do not shrink or rot and hold fast nails or screws driven into them.
+Another method often adopted for [v.04 p.0527] providing a fixing for
+joinery is to build in wood slips the thickness of a joint and 4½ in. wide.
+When suitable provision for fixing has not been made, wood plugs are driven
+into the joints of the bricks. Great care must be taken in driving these in
+the joints of reveals or at the corners of walls, or damage may be done.
+
+The name "brick-ashlar" is given to walls faced with ashlar stonework
+backed in with brickwork. Such constructions are liable in an aggravated
+degree to the unequal settling and its attendant evils pointed out as
+existing in walls built with different qualities of bricks. The outer face
+is composed of unyielding stone with few and very thin joints, which
+perhaps do not occupy more than a hundredth part of its height, while the
+back is built up of bricks with about one-eighth its height composed of
+mortar joints, that is, of a material that by its nature and manner of
+application must both shrink in drying and yield to pressure. To obviate
+this tendency to settle and thus cause the bulging of the face or failure
+of the wall, the mortar used should be composed of Portland cement and sand
+with a large proportion of the former, and worked as stiff as it
+conveniently can be. In building such work the stones should be in height
+equal to an exact number of brick courses. It is a common practice in
+erecting buildings with a facing of Kentish rag rubble to back up the
+stonework with bricks. Owing to the great irregularity of the stones, great
+difficulty is experienced in obtaining proper bond between the two
+materials. Through bonding stones or headers should be frequently built in,
+and the whole of the work executed in cement mortar to ensure stability.
+
+Not the least important part of the bricklayer's art is the formation of
+chimney and other flues. Considerable skill is required in [Sidenote:
+Chimneys and flues.] gathering-over properly above the fireplace so as to
+conduct the smoke into the smaller flue, which itself requires to be built
+with precision, so that its capacity may not vary in different parts. Bends
+must be made in gradual curves so as to offer the least possible resistance
+to the up-draught, and at least one bend of not less than 60° should be
+formed in each flue to intercept down-draughts. Every fireplace must have a
+separate flue. The collection of a number of flues into a "stack" is
+economical, and tends to increase the efficiency of the flues, the heat
+from one flue assisting the up-draught in those adjoining it. It is also
+desirable from an aesthetic point of view, for a number of single flue
+chimneys sticking up from various parts of the roof would appear most
+unsightly. The architects of the Elizabethan and later periods were masters
+of this difficult art of treating a stack or stacks as an architectural
+feature. The shaft should be carried well above the roof, higher, if
+possible, than adjacent buildings, which are apt to cause down-draught and
+make the chimney smoke. When this is found impossible, one of the many
+forms of patent chimney-pots or revolving cowls must be adopted. Each flue
+must be separated by smoke-proof "withes" or divisions, usually half a
+brick in thickness; connexion between them causes smoky chimneys. The size
+of the flue for an ordinary grate is 14×9 in.; for a kitchen stove 14×14
+in. The outer wall of a chimney stack may with advantage be made 9 in.
+thick. Fireclay tubes, rectangular or circular in transverse section, are
+largely used in place of the pargetting; although more expensive than the
+latter they have the advantage in point of cleanliness and durability.
+Fireplaces generally require more depth than can be provided in the
+thickness of the wall, and therefore necessitate a projection to contain
+the fireplace and flues, called the "chimney breast." Sometimes, especially
+when the wall is an external one, the projection may be made on the back,
+thus allowing a flush wall in the room and giving more space and a more
+conveniently-shaped room. The projection on the outside face of the wall
+may be treated as an ornamental feature. The fireplace opening is covered
+by a brick relieving arch, which is fortified by wrought-iron bar from ½ to
+¾ in. thick and 2 to 3 in. wide. It is usually bent to a "camber," and the
+brick arch built upon it naturally takes the same curve. Each end is
+"caulked," that is, split longitudinally and turned up and down. The
+interior of a chimney breast behind the stove should always be filled in
+solid with concrete or brickwork. The flooring in the chimney opening is
+called the "hearth"; the back hearth covers the space between the jambs of
+the chimney breast, and the front hearth rests upon the brick "trimmer
+arch" designed to support it. The hearth is now often formed in solid
+concrete, supported on the brick wall and fillets fixed to the floor
+joists, without any trimmer arch and finished in neat cement or glazed
+tiles instead of stone slabs.
+
+Tall furnace chimneys should stand as separate constructions, unconnected
+with other buildings. If it is necessary to bring other work close up, a
+straight joint should be used. The shaft of the chimney will be built
+"overhand," the men working from the inside. Lime mortar is used, cement
+being too rigid to allow the chimney to rock in the wind. Not more than 3
+ft. in height should be erected in one day, the work of necessity being
+done in small portions to allow the mortar to set before it is required to
+sustain much weight. The bond usually adopted is one course of headers to
+four of stretchers. Scaffolding is sometimes erected outside for a height
+of 25 or 30 ft., to facilitate better pointing, especially where the
+chimney is in a prominent position. The brickwork at the top must,
+according to the London Building Act, be 9 in. thick (it is better 14 in.
+in shafts over 100 ft. high), increasing half a brick in thickness for
+every additional 20 ft. measured downwards. "The shaft shall taper
+gradually from the base to the top at the rate of at least 2½ in. in 10 ft.
+of height. The width of the base of the shaft if square shall be at least
+one-tenth of the proposed height of the shaft, or if round or any other
+shape, then one-twelfth of the height. Firebricks built inside the lower
+portion of the shaft shall be provided, as additional to and independent of
+the prescribed thickness of brickwork, and shall not be bonded therewith."
+The firebrick lining should be carried up from about 25 ft. for ordinary
+temperatures to double that height for very great ones, a space of 1½ to 3
+in. being kept between the lining and the main wall. The lining itself is
+usually 4½ in. thick. The cap is usually of cast iron or terra-cotta
+strengthened with iron bolts and straps, and sometimes of stone, but the
+difficulty of properly fixing this latter material causes it to be
+neglected in favour of one of the former. (See a paper by F.J. Bancroft on
+"Chimney Construction," which contains a tabulated description of nearly
+sixty shafts, _Proc. Civ. and Mech. Eng. Soc._, December 1883.)
+
+The work of laying bricks or tiles as paving falls to the lot of the
+bricklayer. Paving formed of ordinary bricks laid flat or on their
+[Sidenote: Brick paving.] edges was once in general use, but is now almost
+abandoned in favour of floors of special tiles or cement paving, the latter
+being practically non-porous and therefore more sanitary and cleaner.
+Special bricks of extremely hard texture are made for stable and similar
+paving, having grooves worked on the face to assist drainage and afford
+good foothold. A bed of concrete 6 in. thick is usually provided under
+paving, or when the bricks are placed on edge the concrete for external
+paving may be omitted and the bricks bedded in sand, the ground being
+previously well rammed. The side joints of the bricks are grouted in with
+lime or cement. Dutch clinkers are small, hard paving bricks burned at a
+high temperature and of a light yellow colour; they are 6 in. long, 3 in.
+wide, 1½ in. thick. A variety of paving tile called "oven tiles" is of
+similar material to the ordinary red brick, and in size is 10 or 12 in.
+square and 1 to 2 in. thick. An immense variety of ornamental paving and
+walling tiles is now manufactured of different colours, sizes and shapes,
+and the use of these for lining sculleries, lavatories, bathrooms,
+provision shops, &c., makes for cleanliness and improved sanitary
+conditions. Besides, however, being put to these uses, tiles are often used
+in the ornamentation of buildings, externally as well as internally.
+
+Mosaic work is composed of small pieces of marble, stone, glass or pottery,
+laid as paving or wall lining, usually in some ornamental pattern or
+design. A firm bed of concrete is required, the pieces of [v.04 p.0528]
+material being fixed in a float of cement about half or three-quarters of
+an inch thick. Roman mosaic is formed with cubes of marble of various
+colours pressed into the float. A less costly paving may be obtained by
+strewing irregularly-shaped marble chips over the floated surface: these
+are pressed into the cement with a plasterer's hand float, and the whole is
+then rolled with an iron roller. This is called "terazzo mosaic." In either
+the Roman or terazzo method any patterns or designs that are introduced are
+first worked in position, the ground-work being filled in afterwards. For
+the use of cement for paving see PLASTER.
+
+The principal publications on brickwork are as follows:--Rivington, _Notes
+on Building Construction_, vols. i. ii. iii.; Col. H.E. Seddon, _Aide
+Memoir_, vol. ii.; _Specification_; J.P. Allen, _Building Construction_;
+F.E. Kidder, _Building Construction and Superintendence_, part i. (1903);
+Longmans & Green, _Building Construction_; E. Dobson, _Bricks and Tiles_;
+Henry Adams, _Building Construction_; C.F. Mitchell, _Building
+Construction_, vols. i. ii.; E. Street, _Brick and Marble Architecture in
+Italy_.
+
+(J. BT.)
+
+BRICOLE (a French word of unknown origin), a military engine for casting
+heavy stones; also a term in tennis for a sidestroke rebounding off the
+wall of the court, corrupted into "brickwall" from a supposed reference to
+the wall, and in billiards for a stroke off the cushion to make a cannon or
+hazard.
+
+BRIDAINE (or BRYDAYNE), JACQUES (1701-1767), French Roman Catholic
+preacher, was born at Chuslan in the department of Gard on the 21st of
+March 1701. He was educated at Avignon, first in the Jesuit college and
+afterwards at the Sulpician seminary of St Charles. Soon after his
+ordination to the priesthood in 1725, he joined the _Missions Royales_,
+organized to bring back to the Catholíc faith the Protestants of France. He
+gained their good-will and made many converts; and for over forty years he
+visited as a missionary preacher almost every town of central and southern
+France. In Paris, in 1744, his sermons created a deep impression by their
+eloquence and sincerity. He died at Roquemaure, near Avignon, on the 22nd
+of December 1767. He was the author of _Cantiques spirituels_ (Montpelier,
+1748, frequently reprinted, in use in most French churches); his sermons
+were published in 5 vols. at Avignon in 1823 (ed. Paris, 1861).
+
+See Abbé G. Carron, _Le Modèle des prêtres_ (1803).
+
+BRIDE (a common Teutonic word, e.g. Goth. _bruths_, O.Eng. _bryd_, O.H.Ger.
+_prût_, Mod. Ger. _Braut_, Dut. _bruid_, possibly derived from the root
+_bru-_, cook, brew; from the med. latinized form _bruta_, in the sense of
+daughter-in-law, is derived the Fr. _bru_), the term used of a woman on her
+wedding-day, and applicable during the first year of wifehood. It appears
+in combination with many words, some of them obsolete. Thus "bridegroom" is
+the newly married man, and "bride-bell," "bride-banquet" are old
+equivalents of wedding-bells, wedding-breakfast. "Bridal" (from
+_Bride-ale_), originally the wedding-feast itself, has grown into a general
+descriptive adjective, e.g. the _bridal_ party, the _bridal_ ceremony. The
+_bride-cake_ had its origin in the Roman _confarreatio_, a form of
+marriage, the essential features of which were the eating by the couple of
+a cake made of salt, water and flour, and the holding by the bride of three
+wheat-ears, symbolical of plenty. Under Tiberius the cake-eating fell into
+disuse, but the wheat ears survived. In the middle ages they were either
+worn or carried by the bride. Eventually it became the custom for the young
+girls to assemble outside the church porch and throw grains of wheat over
+the bride, and afterwards a scramble for the grains took place. In time the
+wheat-grains came to be cooked into thin dry biscuits, which were broken
+over the bride's head, as is the custom in Scotland to-day, an oatmeal cake
+being used. In Elizabeth's reign these biscuits began to take the form of
+small rectangular cakes made of eggs, milk, sugar, currants and spices.
+Every wedding guest had one at least, and the whole collection were thrown
+at the bride the instant she crossed the threshold. Those which lighted on
+her head or shoulders were most prized by the scramblers. At last these
+cakes became amalgamated into a large one which took on its full glories of
+almond paste and ornaments during Charles II.'s time. But even to-day in
+rural parishes, e.g. north Notts, wheat is thrown over the bridal couple
+with the cry "Bread for life and pudding for ever," expressive of a wish
+that the newly wed may be always affluent. The throwing of rice, a very
+ancient custom but one later than the wheat, is symbolical of the wish that
+the bridal may be fruitful. The _bride-cup_ was the bowl or loving-cup in
+which the bridegroom pledged the bride, and she him. The custom of breaking
+this wine-cup, after the bridal couple had drained its contents, is common
+to both the Jews and the members of the Greek Church. The former dash it
+against the wall or on the ground, the latter tread it under foot. The
+phrase "bride-cup" was also sometimes used of the bowl of spiced wine
+prepared at night for the bridal couple. _Bride-favours_, anciently called
+bride-lace, were at first pieces of gold, silk or other lace, used to bind
+up the sprigs of rosemary formerly worn at weddings. These took later the
+form of bunches of ribbons, which were at last metamorphosed into rosettes.
+_Bridegroom-men_ and _bridesmaids_ had formerly important duties. The men
+were called bride-knights, and represented a survival of the primitive days
+of marriage by capture, when a man called his friends in to assist to
+"lift" the bride. Bridesmaids were usual in Saxon England. The senior of
+them had personally to attend the bride for some days before the wedding.
+The making of the bridal wreath, the decoration of the tables for the
+wedding feast, the dressing of the bride, were among her special tasks. In
+the same way the senior groomsman (the _best man_) was the personal
+attendant of the husband. The _bride-wain_, the wagon in which the bride
+was driven to her new home, gave its name to the weddings of any poor
+deserving couple, who drove a "wain" round the village, collecting small
+sums of money or articles of furniture towards their housekeeping. These
+were called bidding-weddings, or bid-ales, which were in the nature of
+"benefit" feasts. So general is still the custom of "bidding-weddings" in
+Wales, that printers usually keep the form of invitation in type. Sometimes
+as many as six hundred couples will walk in the bridal procession. The
+_bride's wreath_ is a Christian substitute for the gilt coronet all Jewish
+brides wore. The crowning of the bride is still observed by the Russians,
+and the Calvinists of Holland and Switzerland. The wearing of orange
+blossoms is said to have started with the Saracens, who regarded them as
+emblems of fecundity. It was introduced into Europe by the Crusaders. The
+_bride's veil_ is the modern form of the _flammeum_ or large yellow veil
+which completely enveloped the Greek and Roman brides during the ceremony.
+Such a covering is still in use among the Jews and the Persians.
+
+See Brand, _Antiquities of Great Britain_ (Hazlitt's ed., 1905); Rev J.
+Edward Vaux, _Church Folklore_ (1894).
+
+BRIDEWELL, a district of London between Fleet Street and the Thames, so
+called from the well of St Bride or St Bridget close by. From William the
+Conqueror's time, a castle or Norman tower, long the occasional residence
+of the kings of England, stood there by the Fleet ditch. Henry VIII., Stow
+says, built there "a stately and beautiful house," specially for the
+housing of the emperor Charles V. and his suite in 1525. During the hearing
+of the divorce suit by the Cardinals at Blackfriars, Henry and Catharine of
+Aragon lived there. In 1553 Edward VI. made it over to the city as a
+penitentiary, a house of correction for vagabonds and loose women; and it
+was formally taken possession of by the lord mayor and corporation in 1555.
+The greater part of the building was destroyed in the Great Fire of 1666.
+New Bridewell, built in 1829, was pulled down in 1864. The term has become
+a synonym for any reformatory.
+
+BRIDGE, a game of cards, developed out of the game of whist. The country of
+its origin is unknown. A similar game is said to have been played in
+Denmark in the middle of the 19th century. A game in all respects the same
+as bridge, except that in "no trumps" each trick counted ten instead of
+twelve, was played in England about 1884 under the name of Dutch whist.
+Some connect it with Turkey and Egypt under the name of "Khedive," or with
+a Russian game called "Yeralash." It was in Turkey that it first won a
+share of popular favour. Under the synonyms of "Biritch," "Bridge," or
+"Russian whist," it found its way to the London clubs about 1894, from
+which date its popularity rapidly increased.
+
+_Ordinary Bridge._--Bridge, in its ordinary form, differs from [v.04
+p.0529] whist in the following respects:--Although there are four players,
+yet in each hand the partner of the dealer takes no part in the play of
+that particular hand. After the first lead his cards are placed on the
+table exposed, and are played by the dealer as at dummy whist; nevertheless
+the dealer's partner is interested in the result of the hand equally with
+the dealer. The trump suit is not determined by the last card dealt, but is
+selected by the dealer or his partner without consultation, the former
+having the first option. It is further open to them to play without a trump
+suit. The value of tricks and honours varies with the suit declared as
+trumps. Honours are reckoned differently from whist, and on a scale which
+is somewhat involved. The score for honours does not count towards winning
+or losing the rubber, but is added afterwards to the trick score in order
+to determine the value of the rubber. There are also scores for holding no
+trumps ("chicane"), and for winning all the tricks or all but one ("slam").
+
+The score has to be kept on paper. It is usual for the scoring block to
+have two vertical columns divided halfway by a horizontal line. The left
+column is for the scorers' side, and the right for the opponents'. Honours
+are scored above the horizontal line, and tricks below. The drawback to
+this arrangement is that, since the scores for each hand are not kept
+separately, it is generally impossible to trace an error in the score
+without going through the whole series of hands. A better plan, it seems,
+is to have four columns ruled, the inner two being assigned to tricks, the
+outer ones to honours. By this method a line can be reserved for each hand,
+and any discrepancy in the scores at once rectified.
+
+The Portland Club, London, drew up a code of laws in 1895, and this code,
+with a few amendments, was in July 1895 adopted by a joint committee of the
+Turf and Portland Clubs. A revised code came into force in January 1905,
+the provisions of which are here summarized.
+
+Each trick above 6 counts 2 points in a spade declaration, 4 in a club, 6
+in a diamond, 8 in a heart, 12 in a no-trump declaration. The game consists
+of 30 points made by tricks alone. When one side has won two games the
+rubber is ended. The winners are entitled to add 100 points to their score.
+Honours consist of ace, king, queen, knave, ten, in a suit declaration. If
+a player and his partner conjointly hold 3 (or "simple") honours they score
+twice the value of a trick; if 4 honours, 4 times; if 5 honours, 5 times.
+If a player in his own hand hold 4 honours he is entitled to score 4
+honours in addition to the score for conjoint honours; thus, if one player
+hold 4 honours and his partner the other their total score is 9 by honours.
+Similarly if a player hold 5 honours in his own hand he is entitled to
+score 10 by honours. If in a no-trump hand the partners conjointly hold 3
+aces, they score 30 for honours; if 4 aces, 40 for honours. 4 aces in 1
+hand count 100. On the same footing as the score for honours are the
+following: _chicane_, if a player hold no trump, in amount equal to simple
+honours; _grand slam_, if one side win all the tricks, 40 points; _little
+slam_, if they win 12 tricks, 20 points. At the end of the rubber the total
+scores, whether made by tricks, honours, chicane, slam, or rubber points,
+are added together, and the difference between the two totals is the number
+of points won.
+
+At the opening of play, partners are arranged and the cards are shuffled,
+cut and dealt (the last card not being turned) as at whist; but the dealer
+cannot lose the deal by misdealing. After the deal is completed, the dealer
+makes the trump or no-trump (_sans atout_) declaration, or passes the
+choice to his partner without remark. If the dealer's partner make the
+declaration out of his turn, the adversary on the dealer's left may,
+without consultation, claim a fresh deal. If an adversary make a
+declaration, the dealer may claim a fresh deal or disregard the
+declaration. Then after the declaration, either adversary may double, the
+leader having first option. The effect of doubling is that each trick is
+worth twice as many points as before; but the scores for honours, chicane
+and slam are unaltered. If a declaration is doubled, the dealer and his
+partner have the right of redoubling, thus making each trick worth four
+times as much as at first. The declarer has the first option. The other
+side can again redouble, and so on; but the value of a trick is limited to
+100 points. In the play of the hand the laws are nearly the same as the
+laws of whist, except that the dealer may expose his cards and lead out of
+turn without penalty; after the second hand has played, however, he can
+only correct this lead out of turn with the permission of the adversaries.
+Dummy cannot revoke. The dealer's partner may take no part in the play of
+the hand beyond guarding the dealer against revoking.
+
+_Advice to Players._--In the choice of a suit two objects are to be aimed
+at: first, to select the suit in which the combined forces have the best
+chance of making tricks; secondly, to select the trump so that the value of
+the suit agrees with the character of the hand, _i.e._ a suit of high value
+when the hands are strong and of low value when very weak. As the deal is a
+great advantage it generally happens that a high value is to be aimed at,
+but occasionally a low value is desirable. The task of selection should
+fall to the hand which has the most distinctive features, that is, either
+the longest suit or unusual strength or weakness. No consultation being
+allowed, the dealer must assume only an average amount of variation from
+the normal in his partner's hand. If his own hand has distinctive features
+beyond the average, he should name the trump suit himself, otherwise pass
+it to his partner. It may here be stated what is the average in these
+respects.
+
+As regards the length of a suit, a player's long suit is rather more likely
+to be fewer than five than over five. If the dealer has in his hand a suit
+of five cards including two honours, it is probable that he has a better
+suit to make trumps than dummy; if the suit is in hearts, and the dealer
+has a fair hand, he ought to name the trump. As regards strength, the
+average hand would contain ace, king, queen, knave and ten, or equivalent
+strength. Hands stronger or weaker than this by the value of a king or less
+may be described as featureless. If the dealer's hand is a king over the
+average, it is more likely than not that his partner will either hold a
+stronger hand, or will hold such a weak hand as will counteract the
+player's strength. The dealer would not generally with such a hand declare
+no trump, especially as by making a no-trump declaration the dealer
+forfeits the advantage of holding the long trumps.
+
+_Declarations by Dealer._--In calculating the strength of a hand a knave is
+worth two tens, a queen is worth two knaves, a king is worth a queen and
+knave together, and an ace is worth a king and queen together. A king
+unguarded is worth less than a queen guarded; a queen is not fully guarded
+unless accompanied by three more cards; if guarded by one small card it is
+worth a knave guarded. An ace also loses in value by being sole.
+
+A hand to be strong enough for a no-trump declaration should be a king and
+ten above the average with all the honours guarded and all the suits
+protected. It must be a king and knave or two queens above the average if
+there is protection in three suits. It must be an ace or a king and queen
+above the average if only two suits are protected. An established black
+suit of six or more cards with a guarded king as card of entry is good
+enough for no trumps. With three aces no trumps can be declared. Without an
+ace, four kings, two queens and a knave are required in order to justify
+the declaration. When the dealer has a choice of declarations, a sound
+heart make is to be preferred to a doubtful no-trump. Four honours in
+hearts are to be preferred to any but a very strong no-trump declaration;
+but four aces counting 100 points constitute a no-trump declaration without
+exception.
+
+Six hearts should be made trumps and five with two honours unless the hand
+is very weak; five hearts with one honour or four hearts with three honours
+should be declared if the hand is nearly strong enough for no trumps, also
+if the hand is very irregular with one suit missing or five of a black
+suit. Six diamonds with one honour, five with three honours or four all
+honours should be declared; weaker diamonds should be declared if the suits
+are irregular, especially if blank in hearts. Six clubs with three honours
+or five with four honours should be declared. Spades are practically only
+declared with a weak hand; with only a king in the hand a suit of five
+spades should be declared as a defensive measure. With nothing above a ten
+a suit of two or three spades can be declared, though even with the weakest
+hands a suit of five clubs or of six red cards will probably prove less
+expensive.
+
+_Declarations by Dummy._--From the fact that the call has been passed, the
+dealer's partner must credit the dealer with less than average strength as
+regards the rank of his cards, and probably a slightly increased number of
+black cards; he must therefore be more backward in making a high
+declaration whenever he can make a sound declaration of less value. On the
+other hand, he has not the option of passing the declaration, and may be
+driven to declare on less strength because the only alternative is a short
+suit of spades. For example, with the hand: Hearts, ace, kv. 2; diamonds,
+qn. 9, 7, 6, 3; clubs, kg. 10, 4; spades, 9, 2, the chances are in the
+dealer's favour with five trumps, but decidedly against with only two, and
+the diamond declaration is to be preferred to the spade. Still, a hand may
+be so weak that spades should be declared with two or less, but five clubs
+or six diamonds would be preferable with the weakest of hands.
+
+[v.04 p.0530] _Declarations to the Score._--When one's score is over
+twenty, club declarations should be made more frequently by the dealer.
+Spades should be declared with six at the score of twenty-six and with five
+at twenty-eight. When much behind in the score a risky no-trumper such as
+one with an established suit of seven or eight cards without a card of
+entry, may be declared.
+
+Declaring to the score is often overdone; an ordinary weak no-trump
+declaration carries with it small chances of three by tricks unless dummy
+holds a no-trump hand.
+
+_Doubling._--Practically the leader only doubles a no-trump declaration
+when he holds what is probably an established suit of seven cards or a suit
+which can be established with the loss of one trick and he has good cards
+of re-entry. Seven cards of a suit including the ace, king and queen make
+sound double without any other card of value in the hand, or six cards
+including king, queen and knave with two aces in other suits.
+
+Doubling by the third hand is universally understood to mean that the
+player has a very strong suit which he can establish. In response to the
+double his partner, according to different conventions, leads either a
+heart or his own shortest suit as the one most likely to be the third
+player's strongest. Under the short suit convention, if the doubler holds
+six of a suit headed by the ace, king and queen, it is about an even chance
+that his suit will be selected; he should not double with less strength.
+Under the heart convention it is not necessary to have such great strength;
+with a strong suit of six hearts and good cards of re-entry, enough tricks
+will be saved to compensate for the doubled value. A player should
+ascertain the convention followed before beginning to play.
+
+Before doubling a suit declaration a player should feel almost certain that
+he is as strong as the declarer. The minimum strength to justify the
+declaration is generally five trumps, but it may have been made on six. If,
+then, a player holds six trumps with an average hand as regards the rank of
+his cards, or five trumps with a hand of no-trump strength, it is highly
+probable that he is as strong as the declarer. It must be further taken
+into account that the act of doubling gives much valuable information to
+the dealer, who would otherwise play with the expectation of finding the
+trumps evenly distributed; this is counterbalanced when the doubler is on
+the left of the declaring hand by the intimation given to his partner to
+lead trumps through the strong hand. In this position, then, the player
+should double with the strength stated above. When on the declarer's right,
+the player should hold much greater strength unless his hand is free from
+tenaces. When a spade declaration has been made by dummy, one trump less is
+necessary and the doubler need not be on the declarer's left. A spade
+declaration by the dealer can be doubled with even less strength. A
+declaration can be rather more freely doubled when a single trick undoubled
+will take the dealer out, but even in this position the player must be
+cautious of informing the dealer that there is a strong hand against him.
+
+_Redoubling._--When a declaration has been doubled, the declarer knows the
+minimum that he will find against him; he must be prepared to find
+occasionally strength against him considerably exceeding this minimum.
+Except in the case of a spade declaration, cases in which redoubling is
+justifiable are very rare.
+
+_The Play of the Hand._--In a no-trump declaration the main object is to
+bring in a long suit. In selecting the suit to establish, the following are
+favourable conditions:--One hand should hold at least five cards of the
+suit. The two hands, unless with a sequence of high cards, should hold
+between them eight cards of the suit, so as to render it probable that the
+suit will be established in three rounds. The hand which contains the
+strong suit should be sufficiently strong in cards of re-entry. The suit
+should not be so full of possible tenaces as to make it disadvantageous to
+open it. As regards the play of the cards in a suit, it is not the object
+to make tricks early, but to make all possible tricks. Deep finesses should
+be made when there is no other way of stealing a trick. Tricks may be given
+away, if by so doing a favourable opening can be made for a finesse. When,
+however, it is doubtful with which hand the finesse should be made, it is
+better to leave it as late as possible, since the card to be finessed
+against may fall, or an adversary may fail, thus disclosing the suit. It is
+in general unsound to finesse against a card that must be unguarded. From a
+hand short in cards of re-entry, winning cards should not be led out so as
+to exhaust the suit from the partner's hand. Even a trick should sometimes
+be given away. For instance, if one hand holds seven cards headed by ace,
+king, and the other hand hold's only two of the suit, although there is a
+fair chance of making seven tricks in the suit, it would often be right to
+give the first trick to the adversaries. When one of the adversaries has
+shown a long suit, it is frequently possible to prevent its being brought
+in by a device, such as holding up a winning card, until the suit is
+exhausted from his partner's hand, or playing in other suits so as to give
+the player the lead whilst his partner his a card of his suit to return,
+and to give the latter the lead when he has no card to return. The dealer
+should give as little information as possible as to what he holds in his
+own hand, playing frequent false cards. Usually he should play the higher
+or highest of a sequence; still, there are positions in which playing the
+higher gives more information than the lower; a strict adherence to a rule
+in itself assists the adversaries.
+
+With a suit declaration, if there is no chance of letting the weak hand
+make a trump by ruffing, it will generally be the dealer's aim to discard
+the losing cards in the declaring hand either to high cards or to the cards
+of an established suit in the other hand, sometimes after the adverse
+trumps have been taken out, but often before, there being no time for
+drawing trumps. With no card of any value in a suit in one hand, the lead
+should come from that hand, but it is better, if possible, to let the
+adversaries open the suit. It is generally useless to lead a moderately
+high card from the weaker hand in order to finesse it, when holding no
+cards in sequence with it in either hand. Sometimes (especially in
+no-trumps) it is the better play to make the weak hand third player. For
+instance, with king, 8, 7, 5, 2 in one hand, knave, 4 in the other, the
+best way of opening is from the hand that holds five cards.
+
+In a no-trump declaration the opponents of the dealer should endeavour to
+find the longest suit in the two hands, or the one most easily established.
+With this object the leader should open his best suit. If his partner next
+obtains the lead he ought to return the suit, unless he himself has a suit
+which he considers better, having due regard to the fact that the first
+suit is already partially established. The opponents should employ the same
+tactics as the dealer to prevent the latter from bringing in a long suit;
+they can use them with special effect when the long suit is in the exposed
+hand.
+
+Against no-trumps the leader should not play his winning cards unless he
+has a good chance of clearing the suit without help from his partner; in
+most cases it is advisable to give away the first trick, especially if he
+has no card of re-entry, in order that his partner on gaining the lead may
+have a card of the suit to return; but holding ace, king and queen, or ace,
+king with seven in the suit, or ace, king, knave, ten with six, the player
+may lead out his best. With three honours any two of which are in sequence
+(not to the ace) the player should lead the higher of the sequence. He
+should lead his highest card from queen, knave, ten; from queen, knave,
+nine; from knave, ten, nine; knave, ten, eight, and ten, nine, eight. In
+other cases the player should lead a small card; according to the usual
+convention, the fourth best. His partner, and also the dealer, can credit
+him with three cards higher than the card led, and can often place the
+cards of the suit: for instance, the seven is led, dummy holds queen and
+eight, playing the queen, the third player holds the nine and smaller
+cards; the unseen cards higher than the seven are ace, king, knave and ten
+of which the leader must hold three; he cannot hold both knave and ten or
+he would have led the knave; he must therefore hold the ace, king and
+either knave or ten. The "eleven" rule is as follows: the number of pips in
+the card led subtracted from eleven (11-7=4 in the case stated) gives the
+number of cards higher than the one led not in the leader's hand; the three
+cards seen (queen, nine and eight) leave one for the dealer to hold. The
+mental process is no shorter than assigning three out of the unseen cards
+to the leader, and by not noting the unseen cards much valuable information
+may be missed, as in the illustrative case given.
+
+With a suit declared the best opening lead is a singleton, failing which a
+lead from a strong sequence. A lead from a tenace or a guarded king or
+queen is to be avoided. Two small cards may be led from, though the lead is
+objected to by some. A suit of three small cards of no great strength
+should not be opened. In cases of doubt preference should be given to
+hearts and to a less extent to diamonds.
+
+To lead up to dummy's weak suits is a valuable rule. The converse, to lead
+through strength, must be used with caution, and does not apply to no-trump
+declarations. It is not advisable to adopt any of the recent whist methods
+of giving information. It is clear that, if the adversaries signal, the
+dealer's hand alone is a secret, and he, in addition to his natural
+advantage, has the further advantage of better information than either of
+the adversaries. The following signals are however, used, and are of great
+trick-making value: playing an unnecessarily high card, whether to one's
+partner's suit or in discarding in a no-trump declaration, indicates
+strength in the suit; in a suit declaration a similar method of play
+indicates two only of the suit and a desire to ruff,--it is best used in
+the case of a king led by one's partner.
+
+The highest of a sequence led through dummy will frequently tell the third
+player that he has a good finesse. The lowest of a sequence led through the
+dealer will sometimes explain the position to the third player, at the same
+time keeping the dealer in the dark.
+
+When on dummy's left it is futile to finesse against a card not in dummy's
+hand. But with ace and knave, if dummy has either king or queen, the knave
+should usually be played, partly because the other high card may be in the
+leader's hand, partly because, if the finesse fails, the player may still
+hold a tenace over dummy. When a player is with any chance of success
+trying to establish his long suit, he should keep every card of it if
+possible, whether it is a suit already opened or a suit which he wishes his
+partner to lead; when, however, the main object of the hand is to establish
+one's partner's suit, it is not necessary for a player to keep his own long
+suit, and he should pay attention to guarding the other suits. In some
+circles a discard from a suit is always understood to indicate strength in
+the suit; this convention, while it makes the game easier for inferior
+players, frequently causes the player to throw away one of his most
+valuable cards.
+
+_Playing to the Score._--At the beginning of the hand the chances are so
+great against any particular result, that at the score of love-all the
+advantage of getting to any particular score has no appreciable [v.04
+p.0531] effect in determining the choice of suit. In the play of the hand,
+the advantage of getting to certain points should be borne in mind. The
+principal points to be aimed at are 6, 18, and, in a less degree, 22. The
+reason is that the scores 24, 12 and 8, which will just take the dealer out
+from the respective points, can each be made in a variety of ways, and are
+the most common for the dealer to make. The 2 points that take the score
+from 4 to 6 are worth 4, or perhaps 5, average points; and the 2 points
+that take the score from 6 to 8 are worth 1 point. When approaching game it
+is an advantage to make a declaration that may just take the player out,
+and, in a smaller degree, one that will not exactly take the adversaries
+out. When the score is 24 to 22 against the dealer, hearts and clubs are
+half a trick better relatively to diamonds than at the score of love-all.
+In the first and second games of the rubber the value of each point scored
+for honours is probably about a half of a point scored for tricks--in a
+close game rather less, in a one-sided game rather more. In the deciding
+game of the rubber, on account of the importance of winning the game, the
+value of each point scored for honours sinks to one-third of a point scored
+for tricks.
+
+_Other Forms of Bridge._--The following varieties of the game are also
+played:--
+
+_Three-handed Bridge._--The three players cut; the one that cuts the lowest
+card deals, and takes dummy for one deal: each takes dummy in turn. Dummy's
+cards are dealt face downwards, and the dealer declares without seeing
+them. If the dealer declares trumps, both adversaries may look at their
+hands; doubling and redoubling proceeds as at ordinary bridge, but dummy's
+hand is not exposed till the first card has been led. If the dealer passes
+the declaration to dummy, his right-hand adversary, who must not have
+looked at his own hand, examines dummy's, and declares trumps, not,
+however, exposing the hand. The declaration is forced: with three or four
+aces _sans atout_ (no trumps) must be declared: in other cases the longest
+suit: if suits are equal in length, the strongest, _i.e._ the suit
+containing most pips, ace counting eleven, king, queen and knave counting
+ten each. If suits are equal in both length and strength, the one in which
+the trick has the higher value must be trumps. On the dummy's declaration
+the third player can only double before seeing his own cards. When the
+first card has been led, dummy's hand is exposed, never before the lead.
+The game is 30: the player wins the rubber who is the first to win two
+games. Fifty points are scored for each game won, and fifty more for the
+rubber. Sometimes three games are played without reference to a rubber,
+fifty points being scored for a game won. No tricks score towards game
+except those which a player wins in his own deal; the value of tricks won
+in other deals is scored above the line with honours, slam and chicane. At
+the end of the rubber the totals are added up, and the points won or lost
+are adjusted thus. Suppose A is credited with 212, B with 290, and C with
+312, then A owes 78 to B and 100 to C; B owes 22 to C.
+
+_Dummy Bridge._--The player who cuts the lowest card takes dummy. Dummy
+deals the first hand of all. The player who takes dummy always looks at his
+own hand first, when he deals for himself or for dummy; he can either
+declare trumps or "leave it" to dummy. Dummy's declaration is compulsory,
+as in three-handed bridge. When the dealer deals for dummy, the player on
+the dealer's _left_ must not look at his cards till either the dealer has
+declared trumps or, the declaration having been left to dummy, his own
+partner has led a card. The latter can double, but his partner can only
+double without seeing his hand. The dealer can only redouble on his own
+hand. When the player of dummy deals for himself, the player on his _right_
+hand looks at dummy's hand if the declaration is passed, the positions and
+restrictions of his partner and himself being reversed. If the player of
+dummy declares from his own hand, the game proceeds as in ordinary bridge,
+except that dummy's hand is not looked at till permission to play has been
+given. When the player on dummy's right deals, dummy's partner may look at
+dummy's hand to decide if he will double, but he may not look at his own
+till a card has been led by dummy. In another form of dummy bridge two
+hands are exposed whenever dummy's adversaries deal, but the game is
+unsuited for many players, as in every other hand the game is one of
+double-dummy.
+
+_Misery Bridge._--This is a form of bridge adapted for two players. The
+non-dealer has the dummy, whilst the dealer is allowed to strengthen his
+hand by discarding four or fewer cards and taking an equal number from the
+fourth packet dealt; the rest of the cards in that packet are unused and
+remain unseen. A novel and interesting addition to the game is that the
+three of clubs (called "Cato") does not rank as a club but can be played to
+any trick and win it. The dealer, in addition to his other calls, may
+declare "misery" when he has to make less than two tricks.
+
+_Draw- or Two-handed Bridge._--This is the best form of bridge for two
+players. Each player has a dummy, which is placed opposite to him; but the
+cards are so arranged that they cannot be seen by his opponent, a special
+stand being required for the purpose. The dealer makes the declaration or
+passes it to his dummy to make by the same rules as in three-handed or
+dummy bridge. The objection to this is that, since the opponent does not
+see the dealer's dummy, he has no chance of checking an erroneous
+declaration. This could be avoided by not allowing the dealer the option of
+passing.
+
+_Auction Bridge._--This variety of the game for four players, which adds an
+element characteristic of poker, appears to have been suggested about 1904,
+but was really introduced at the Bath Club, London, in 1907, and then was
+gradually taken up by a wider circle. The laws were settled in August 1908
+by a joint committee of the Bath and Portland clubs. The scoring (except as
+below), value of suits, and play are as at ordinary bridge, but the variety
+consists in the method of declaration, the declaration not being confined
+in auction bridge to the dealer or his partner, and the deal being a
+disadvantage rather than otherwise. The dealer, having examined his hand,
+_must_ declare to win at least one "odd" trick, and then each player in
+turn, beginning with the one on the dealer's left, has the right to pass
+the previous declaration, or double, or redouble, or overcall by making a
+declaration of higher value any number of times till all are satisfied, the
+actual play of the combined hands (or what in ordinary bridge would be
+dealer and dummy) resting eventually with the partners making the final
+declaration; the partner who made the first call (however small) in the
+suit finally constituting the trump (or no-trump) plays the hands, the
+other being dummy. A declaration of a greater number of tricks in a suit of
+lower value, which equals a previous call in value of points (_e.g._ two in
+spades as against one in clubs) is "of higher value"; but doubling and
+redoubling only affect the score and not the declaration, so that a call of
+two diamonds overcalls one no-trump even though this has been doubled. The
+scoring in auction bridge has the additional element that when the eventual
+player of the two hands wins what was ultimately declared or more, his side
+score the full value below the line (as tricks), but if he fails the
+opponents score 50 points above the line (as honours) for each under-trick
+(_i.e._ trick short of the declaration), or 100 or 200 if doubled or
+redoubled, nothing being scored by either side below the line; the loss on
+a declaration of one spade is limited, however, to a maximum of 100 points.
+A player whose declaration has been doubled and who fulfils his contract,
+scores a bonus of 50 points above the line and a further 50 points for each
+additional trick beyond his declaration; if there was a redouble and he
+wins, he scores double the bonus. The penalty for a revoke (unaffected by a
+double) is (1) in the case of the declarer, that his adversaries add 150
+above the line; (2) in the case of one of his adversaries, that the
+declarer may either add 150 points above the line or may take three tricks
+from his opponents and add them to his own; in the latter case such tricks
+may assist him to fulfil his contract, but shall not entitle him to any
+bonus for a double or redouble. A revoking side may score nothing either
+above or below the line except for honours or chicane. As regards the
+essential feature of auction bridge, the competitive declaration, it is
+impossible here to discuss the intricacies involved. It entails, clearly,
+much reliance on a good partner, since the various rounds of bidding enable
+good players to draw inferences as to where the cards lie. The game opens
+the door to much larger scores than ordinary bridge, and since the end only
+comes from scores made below the line, there are obvious ways of prolonging
+it at the cost of scores above the line which involve much more of the
+gambling element. It by no means follows that the winner of the rubber is
+the winner by points, and many players prefer to go for points (_i.e._
+above the line) extorted from their opponents rather than for fulfilling a
+declaration made by themselves.
+
+AUTHORITIES.--"Hellespont," _Laws and Principles of Bridge_; W. Dalton,
+_Saturday Bridge_, containing full bibliography (London, 1906); J. B.
+Elwell, _Advanced Bridge_; R. F. Foster, _Bridge Tactics_; "Badsworth,"
+_Laws and Principles of Bridge_; E. Bergholt, _Double-Dummy Bridge:
+Biritch, or Russian Whist_, pamphlet in Brit. Mus.; W. Dalton, _Auction
+Bridge_ (1908).
+
+(W. H. W.*)
+
+BRIDGEBUILDING BROTHERHOOD, a confraternity (_Fratres Pontifices_) that
+arose in the south of France during the latter part of the 12th century,
+and maintained hospices at the chief fords of the principal rivers, besides
+building bridges and looking after ferries. The brotherhood was recognized
+by Pope Clement III. in 1189.
+
+BRIDGE-HEAD (Fr. _tête-du-pont_), in fortification, a work designed to
+cover the passage of a river by means of fortifications [v.04 p.0532] on
+one or both banks. As the process of moving an army over bridges is slow
+and complicated, it is usually necessary to secure it from hostile
+interruption, and the works constituting the bridge-head must therefore be
+sufficiently far advanced to keep the enemy's artillery out of range of the
+bridges. In addition, room is required for the troops to form up on the
+farther bank. In former days, with short-range weapons, a bridge-head was
+often little more than a screen for the bridge itself, but modern
+conditions have rendered necessary far greater extension of bridge
+defences.
+
+BRIDGEND, a market town in the southern parliamentary division of
+Glamorganshire, Wales, on both sides of the river Ogwr (whence its Welsh
+name Penybont-ar-Ogwr). Pop. of urban district (1901) 6062. It has a
+station 165 m. from London on the South Wales trunk line of the Great
+Western railway, and is the junction of the Barry Company's railway to
+Barry via Llantwit Major. Bridgend has a good market for agricultural
+produce, and is an important centre owing to its being the natural outlet
+for the mining valleys of the Llynvi, Garw and the two Ogwr rivers, which
+converge about 3 m. north of the town and are connected with it by branch
+lines of the Great Western railway. Though without large manufacturing
+industries, the town has joinery works, a brass and iron foundry, a tannery
+and brewery. There are brick-works and stone quarries, and much lime is
+burnt in the neighbourhood. Just outside the town at Angelton and Parc
+Gwyllt are the Glamorgan county lunatic asylums.
+
+There was no civil parish of Bridgend previous to 1905, when one was formed
+out of portions of the parishes of Newcastle and Coity. Of the castle of
+Newcastle, built on the edge of a cliff above the church of that parish,
+there remain a courtyard with flanking towers and a fine Norman gateway. At
+Coity, about 2 m. distant, there are more extensive ruins of its castle,
+originally the seat of the Turbervilles, lords of Coity, but now belonging
+to the earls of Dunraven. Coity church, dating from the 14th century, is a
+fine cruciform building with central embattled tower in Early Decorated
+style.
+
+BRIDGE OF ALLAN, a police burgh of Stirlingshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901)
+3240. It lies on the Allan, a left-hand tributary of the Forth, 3 m. N. of
+Stirling by the Caledonian railway and by tramway. Built largely on the
+well-wooded slopes of Westerton and Airthrey Hill, sheltered by the Ochils
+from the north and east winds, and environed by charming scenery, it has a
+great reputation as a health resort and watering-place, especially in
+winter and spring. There is a pump-room. The chief buildings are the
+hydropathic and the Macfarlane museum of fine art and natural history. The
+industries include bleaching, dyeing and paper-making. The Strathallan
+Gathering, usually held in the neighbourhood, is the most popular athletic
+meeting in mid-Scotland. Airthrey Castle, standing in a fine park with a
+lake, adjoins the town on the south-east, and just beyond it are the old
+church and burying-ground of Logie, beautifully situated at the foot of a
+granite spur of the Ochil range.
+
+BRIDGEPORT, a city, a port of entry, and one of the county-seats of
+Fairfield county, Connecticut, U.S.A., co-extensive with the town of
+Bridgeport, in the S.W. part of the state, on Long Island Sound, at the
+mouth of the Pequonnock river; about 18 m. S.W. of New Haven. Pop. (1880)
+27,643; (1890) 48,866; (1900) 70,996, of whom 22,281 were foreign-born,
+including 5974 from Ireland, 3172 from Hungary, 2854 from Germany, 2755
+from England, and 1436 from Italy; (1910) 102,054. Bridgeport is served by
+the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway, by lines of coast steamers, and
+by steamers to New York City and to Port Jefferson, directly across Long
+Island Sound. The harbour, formed by the estuary of the river and Yellow
+Mill Pond, an inlet, is excellent. Between the estuary and the pond is a
+peninsula, East Bridgeport, in which are some of the largest manufacturing
+establishments, and west of the harbour and the river is the main portion
+of the city, the wholesale section extending along the bank, the retail
+section farther back, and numerous factories along the line of the railway
+far to the westward. There are two large parks, Beardsley, in the extreme
+north part of the city, and Seaside, west of the harbour entrance and along
+the Sound; in the latter are statues of Elias Howe, who built a large
+sewing-machine factory here in 1863, and of P.T. Barnum, the showman, who
+lived in Bridgeport after 1846 and did much for the city, especially for
+East Bridgeport. In Seaside Park there is also a soldiers' and sailors'
+monument, and in the vicinity are many fine residences. The principal
+buildings are the St Vincent's and Bridgeport hospitals, the Protestant
+orphan asylum, the Barnum Institute, occupied by the Bridgeport Scientific
+and Historical Society and the Bridgeport Medical Society; and the United
+States government building, which contains the post-office and the customs
+house.
+
+In 1905 Bridgeport was the principal manufacturing centre in Connecticut,
+the capital invested in manufacturing being $49,381,348, and the products
+being valued at $44,586,519. The largest industries were the manufacture of
+corsets--the product of Bridgeport was 19.9% of the total for the United
+States in 1905, Bridgeport being the leading city in this industry--sewing
+machines (one of the factories of the Singer Manufacturing Co. is here),
+steam-fitting and heating apparatus, cartridges (the factory of the Union
+Metallic Cartridge Co. is here), automobiles, brass goods, phonographs and
+gramophones, and typewriters. There are also large foundry and machine
+shops. Here, too, are the winter headquarters of "Barnum and Bailey's
+circus" and of "Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show." Bridgeport is a port of
+entry; its imports in 1908 were valued at $656,271. Bridgeport was
+originally a part of the township of Stratford. The first settlement here
+was made in 1659. It was called Pequonnock until 1695, when its name was
+changed to Stratfield. During the War of Independence it was a centre of
+privateering. In 1800 the borough of Bridgeport was chartered, and in 1821
+the township was incorporated. The city was not chartered until 1836.
+
+See S. Orcutt's _History of the Township of Stratford and the City of
+Bridgeport_ (New Haven, 1886).
+
+BRIDGES, ROBERT (1844- ), English poet, born on the 23rd of October 1844,
+was educated at Eton and at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, and studied
+medicine in London at St Bartholomew's hospital. He was afterwards
+assistant physician at the Children's hospital, Great Ormond Street, and
+physician at the Great Northern hospital, retiring in 1882. Two years later
+he married Mary, daughter of Alfred Waterhouse, R.A. As a poet Robert
+Bridges stands rather apart from the current of modern English verse, but
+his work has had great influence in a select circle, by its restraint,
+purity, precision, and delicacy yet strength of expression; and it embodies
+a distinct theory of prosody. His chief critical works are _Milton's
+Prosody_ (1893), a volume made up of two earlier essays (1887 and 1889),
+and _John Keats, a Critical Essay_ (1895). He maintained that English
+prosody depended on the number of "stresses" in a line, not on the number
+of syllables, and that poetry should follow the rules of natural speech.
+His poetry was privately printed in the first instance, and was slow in
+making its way beyond a comparatively small circle of his admirers. His
+best work is to be found in his _Shorter Poems_ (1890), and a complete
+edition of his _Poetical Works_ (6 vols.) was published in 1898-1905. His
+chief volumes are _Prometheus_ (Oxford, 1883, privately printed), a "mask
+in the Greek Manner"; _Eros and Psyche_ (1885), a version of Apuleius; _The
+Growth of Love_, a series of sixty-nine sonnets printed for private
+circulation in 1876 and 1889; _Shorter Poems_ (1890); _Nero_ (1885), a
+historical tragedy, the second part of which appeared in 1894; _Achilles in
+Scyros_ (1890), a drama; _Palicio_ (1890), a romantic drama in the
+Elizabethan manner; _The Return of Ulysses_ (1890), a drama in five acts;
+_The Christian Captives_ (1890), a tragedy on the same subject as
+Calderon's _El Principe Constante_; _The Humours of the Court_ (1893), a
+comedy founded on the same dramatist's _El secreto á voces_ and on Lope de
+Vega's _El Perro del hortelano_; _The Feast of Bacchus_ (1889), partly
+translated from the _Heauton-Timoroumenos_ of Terence; _Hymns from the
+Yattendon Hymnal_ (Oxford, 1899); and _Demeter, a Mask_ (Oxford, 1905).
+
+[v.04 p.0533] BRIDGES. 1. _Definitions and General
+Considerations._--Bridges (old forms, _brig_, _brygge_, _brudge_; Dutch,
+_brug_; German, _Brücke_; a common Teutonic word) are structures carrying
+roadways, waterways or railways across streams, valleys or other roads or
+railways, leaving a passage way below. Long bridges of several spans are
+often termed "viaducts," and bridges carrying canals are termed
+"aqueducts," though this term is sometimes used for waterways which have no
+bridge structure. A "culvert" is a bridge of small span giving passage to
+drainage. In railway work an "overbridge" is a bridge over the railway, and
+an "underbridge" is a bridge carrying the railway. In all countries there
+are legal regulations fixing the minimum span and height of such bridges
+and the width of roadway to be provided. Ordinarily bridges are fixed
+bridges, but there are also movable bridges with machinery for opening a
+clear and unobstructed passage way for navigation. Most commonly these are
+"swing" or "turning" bridges. "Floating" bridges are roadways carried on
+pontoons moored in a stream.
+
+In classical and medieval times bridges were constructed of timber or
+masonry, and later of brick or concrete. Then late in the 18th century
+wrought iron began to be used, at first in combination with timber or cast
+iron. Cast iron was about the same time used for arches, and some of the
+early railway bridges were built with cast iron girders. Cast iron is now
+only used for arched bridges of moderate span. Wrought iron was used on a
+large scale in the suspension road bridges of the early part of the 19th
+century. The great girder bridges over the Menai Strait and at Saltash near
+Plymouth, erected in the middle of the 19th century, were entirely of
+wrought iron, and subsequently wrought iron girder bridges were extensively
+used on railways. Since the introduction of mild steel of greater tenacity
+and toughness than wrought iron (_i.e._ from 1880 onwards) it has wholly
+superseded the latter except for girders of less than 100 ft. span. The
+latest change in the material of bridges has been the introduction of
+ferro-concrete, armoured concrete, or concrete strengthened with steel bars
+for arched bridges. The present article relates chiefly to metallic
+bridges. It is only since metal has been used that the great spans of 500
+to 1800 ft. now accomplished have been made possible.
+
+2. In a bridge there may be distinguished the _superstructure_ and the
+_substructure_. In the former the main supporting member or members may be
+an arch ring or arched ribs, suspension chains or ropes, or a pair of
+girders, beams or trusses. The bridge flooring rests on the supporting
+members, and is of very various types according to the purpose of the
+bridge. There is also in large bridges wind-bracing to stiffen the
+structure against horizontal forces. The _substructure_ consists of (a) the
+piers and end piers or abutments, the former sustaining a vertical load,
+and the latter having to resist, in addition, the oblique thrust of an
+arch, the pull of a suspension chain, or the thrust of an embankment; and
+(b) the foundations below the ground level, which are often difficult and
+costly parts of the structure, because the position of a bridge may be
+fixed by considerations which preclude the selection of a site naturally
+adapted for carrying a heavy structure.
+
+3. _Types of Bridges_.--Bridges may be classed as _arched bridges_, in
+which the principal members are in compression; _suspension bridges_, in
+which the principal members are in tension; and _girder bridges_, in which
+half the components of the principal members are in compression and half in
+tension. But there are cases of bridges of mixed type. The choice of the
+type to be adopted depends on many and complex considerations:--(1) The
+cost, having regard to the materials available. For moderate spans brick,
+masonry or concrete can be used without excessive cost, but for longer
+spans steel is more economical, and for very long spans its use is
+imperative. (2) The importance of securing permanence and small cost of
+maintenance and repairs has to be considered. Masonry and concrete are more
+durable than metal, and metal than timber. (3) Aesthetic considerations
+sometimes have great weight, especially in towns. Masonry bridges are
+preferable in appearance to any others, and metal arch bridges are less
+objectionable than most forms of girder.
+
+Most commonly the engineer has to attach great importance to the question
+of cost, and to design his structure to secure the greatest economy
+consistent with the provision of adequate strength. So long as bridge
+building was an empirical art, great waste of material was unavoidable. The
+development of the theory of structures has been largely directed to
+determining the arrangements of material which are most economical,
+especially in the superstructure. In the case of bridges of large span the
+cost and difficulty of erection are serious, and in such cases facility of
+erection becomes a governing consideration in the choice of the type to be
+adopted. In many cases the span is fixed by local conditions, such as the
+convenient sites for piers, or the requirements of waterway or navigation.
+But here also the question of economy must be taken into the reckoning. The
+cost of the superstructure increases very much as the span increases, but
+the greater the cost of the substructure, the larger the span which is
+economical. Broadly, the least costly arrangement is that in which the cost
+of the superstructure of a span is equal to that of a pier and foundation.
+
+For masonry, brick or concrete the arch subjected throughout to compression
+is the most natural form. The arch ring can be treated as a blockwork
+structure composed of rigid voussoirs. The stability of such structures
+depends on the position of the line of pressure in relation to the extrados
+and intrados of the arch ring. Generally the line of pressure lies within
+the middle half of the depth of the arch ring. In finding the line of
+pressure some principle such as the principle of least action must be used
+in determining the reactions at the crown and springings, and some
+assumptions must be made of not certain validity. Hence to give a margin of
+safety to cover contingencies not calculable, an excess of material must be
+provided. By the introduction of hinges the position of the line of
+resistance can be fixed and the stress in the arch ring determined with
+less uncertainty. In some recent masonry arched bridges of spans up to 150
+ft. built with hinges considerable economy has been obtained.
+
+For an elastic arch of metal there is a more complete theory, but it is
+difficult of application, and there remains some uncertainty unless (as is
+now commonly done) hinges are introduced at the crown and springings.
+
+In suspension bridges the principal members are in tension, and the
+introduction of iron link chains about the end of the 18th century, and
+later of wire ropes of still greater tenacity, permitted the construction
+of road bridges of this type with spans at that time impossible with any
+other system of construction. The suspension bridge dispenses with the
+compression member required in girders and with a good deal of the
+stiffening required in metal arches. On the other hand, suspension bridges
+require lofty towers and massive anchorages. The defect of the suspension
+bridge is its flexibility. It can be stiffened by girders and bracing and
+is then of mixed type, when it loses much of its advantage in economy.
+Nevertheless, the stiffened suspension bridge will probably be the type
+adopted in future for very great spans. A bridge on this system has been
+projected at New York of 3200 ft. span.
+
+The immense extension of railways since 1830 has involved the construction
+of an enormous number of bridges, and most of these are girder bridges, in
+which about half the superstructure is in tension and half in compression.
+The use of wrought iron and later of mild steel has made the construction
+of such bridges very convenient and economical. So far as superstructure is
+concerned, more material must be used than for an arch or chain, for the
+girder is in a sense a combination of arch and chain. On the other hand, a
+girder imposes only a vertical load on its piers and abutments, and not a
+horizontal thrust, as in the case of an arch or suspension chain. It is
+also easier to erect.
+
+A fundamental difference in girder bridges arises from the mode of support.
+In the simplest case the main girders are supported at the ends only, and
+if there are several spans they are _discontinuous_ or _independent_. But a
+main girder may be supported at two or more points so as to be _continuous_
+over two [v.04 p.0534] or more spans. The continuity permits economy of
+weight. In a three-span bridge the theoretical advantage of continuity is
+about 49% for a dead load and 16% for a live load. The objection to
+continuity is that very small alterations of level of the supports due to
+settlement of the piers may very greatly alter the distribution of stress,
+and render the bridge unsafe. Hence many multiple-span bridges such as the
+Hawkesbury, Benares and Chittravatti bridges have been built with
+independent spans.
+
+Lastly, some bridges are composed of cantilevers and suspended girders. The
+main girder is then virtually a continuous girder hinged at the points of
+contrary flexure, so that no ambiguity can arise as to the stresses.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Trajan's Bridge.]
+
+Whatever type of bridge is adopted, the engineer has to ascertain the loads
+to be carried, and to proportion the parts so that the stresses due to the
+loads do not exceed limits found by experience to be safe. In many
+countries the limits of working stress in public and railway bridges are
+prescribed by law. The development of theory has advanced _pari passu_ with
+the demand for bridges of greater strength and span and of more complex
+design, and there is now little uncertainty in calculating the stresses in
+any of the types of structure now adopted. In the modern metal bridge every
+member has a definite function and is subjected to a calculated straining
+action. Theory has been the guide in the development of bridge design, and
+its trustworthiness is completely recognized. The margin of uncertainty
+which must be met by empirical allowances on the side of safety has been
+steadily diminished.
+
+The larger the bridge, the more important is economy of material, not only
+because the total expenditure is more serious, but because as the span
+increases the dead weight of the structure becomes a greater fraction of
+the whole load to be supported. In fact, as the span increases a point is
+reached at which the dead weight of the superstructure becomes so large
+that a limit is imposed to any further increase of span.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Bridge of Alcantara.]
+
+HISTORY OF BRIDGE BUILDING
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Ponte Salario.]
+
+4. _Roman Bridges_.--The first bridge known to have been constructed at
+Rome over the Tiber was the timber Pons Sublicius, the bridge defended by
+Horatius. The Pons Milvius, now Ponte Molle, was reconstructed in stone by
+M. Aemilius Scaurus in 109 B.C., and some portions of the old bridge are
+believed to exist in the present structure. The arches vary from 51 to 79
+ft. span. The Pons Fabricius (mod. Ponte dei Quattro Capi), of about 62
+B.C., is practically intact; and the Pons Cestius, built probably in 46
+B.C., retains much of the original masonry. The Pons Aelius, built by
+Hadrian A.D. 134 and repaired by Pope Nicholas II. and Clement IX., is now
+the bridge of St Angelo. It had eight arches, the greatest span being 62
+ft.[1] Dio Cassius mentions a bridge, possibly 3000 to 4000 ft. in length,
+built by Trajan over the Danube in A.D. 104. Some piers are said still to
+exist. A bas-relief on the Trajan column shows this bridge with masonry
+piers and timber arches, but the representation is probably conventional
+(fig. 1). Trajan also constructed the bridge of Alcantara in Spain (fig.
+2), of a total length of 670 ft., at 210 ft. above the stream. This had six
+arches and was built of stone blocks without cement. The bridge of Narses,
+built in the 6th century (fig. 3), carried the Via Salaria over the Anio.
+It was destroyed in 1867, during the approach of Garibaldi to Rome. It had
+a fortification such as became usual in later bridges for defence or for
+the enforcement of tolls. The great lines of aqueducts built by Roman
+engineers, and dating from 300 B.C. onwards, where they are carried above
+ground, are arched bridge structures of remarkable magnitude (see
+AQUEDUCTS, § _Roman_). They are generally of brick and concrete.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--First Span of Schaffhausen Bridge.]
+
+5. _Medieval and other Early Bridges_.--Bridges with stone piers and timber
+superstructures were no doubt constructed from Roman times onward, but they
+have perished. Fig. 4 shows a timber bridge erected by the brothers
+Grubenmann at Schaffhausen about the middle of the 18th century. It had
+spans of 172 and 193 ft., and may be taken as a representative type of
+bridges of this kind. The Wittingen bridge by the same engineers had a span
+of 390 ft., probably the longest timber [v.04 p.0535] span ever
+constructed. Of stone bridges in Great Britain, the earliest were the
+cyclopean bridges still existing on Dartmoor, consisting of stone piers
+bridged by stone slabs. The bridge over the East Dart near Tavistock had
+three piers, with slabs 15 ft. by 6 ft. (Smiles, _Lives of the Engineers,_
+ii. 43). It is reputed to have lasted for 2000 years.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Crowland Bridge.]
+
+The curious bridge at Crowland near Peterborough (fig. 5) which now spans
+roadways, the streams which formerly flowed under it having been diverted,
+is one of the earliest known stone bridges in England. It is referred to in
+a charter of the year 943. It was probably built by the abbots. The first
+bridges over the Thames at London were no doubt of timber. William of
+Malmesbury mentions the existence of a bridge in 994. J. Stow (_Survey of
+the Cities of London and Westminster_) describes the building of the first
+stone bridge commonly called Old London Bridge: "About the year 1176, the
+stone bridge was begun to be founded by Peter of Colechurch, near unto the
+bridge of timber, but more towards the west." It carried timber houses
+(fig. 6) which were frequently burned down, yet the main structure existed
+till the beginning of the 19th century. The span of the arches ranged from
+10 to 33 ft., and the total waterway was only 337 ft. The waterway of the
+present London Bridge is 690 ft., and the removal of the obstruction caused
+by the old bridge caused a lowering of the low-water level by 5 ft., and a
+considerable deepening of the river-bed. (See Smiles, _Lives of the
+Engineers_, "Rennie.")
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Old London Bridge, A.D. 1600. From a Drawing in the
+Pepysian Library Magdalene College, Cambridge.
+
+From J. R Green's _A Short History of the English People_, by permission of
+Macmillan & Co., Ltd.]
+
+The architects of the Renaissance showed great boldness in their designs. A
+granite arch built in 1377 over the Adda at Trezzo had a span at low water
+of 251 ft. This noble bridge was destroyed for military reasons by
+Carmagnola in 1416. The Rialto bridge at Venice, with a span of 91 ft., was
+built in 1588 by Antonio da Ponte. Fig. 7 shows the beautiful Ponte dellà
+Trinità erected at Florence in 1566 from the design of B. Ammanati.
+
+6. _Modern Bridges._--(a) _Timber._--In England timber bridges of
+considerable span, either braced trusses or laminated arches (_i.e._ arches
+of planks bolted together), were built for some of the earlier railways,
+particularly the Great Western and the Manchester, Sheffield &
+Lincolnshire. They have mostly been replaced, decay having taken place at
+the joints. Timber bridges of large span were constructed in America
+between the end of the 18th and the middle of the 19th century. The
+Amoskeag bridge over the Merrimac at Manchester, N.H., U.S.A., built in
+1792, had 6 spans of 92 ft. The Bellows Falls bridge over the Connecticut
+(built 1785-1792) had 2 spans of 184 ft. The singular Colossus bridge,
+built in 1812 over the Schuylkill, a kind of flat arched truss, had a span
+of 340 ft. Some of these timber bridges are said to have lasted ninety
+years with ordinary repairs, but they were road bridges not heavily loaded.
+From 1840, trusses, chiefly of timber but with wrought-iron tension-rods
+and cast-iron shoes, were adopted in America. The Howe truss of 1830 and
+the Pratt truss of 1844 are examples. The Howe truss had timber chords and
+a lattice of timber struts, with vertical iron ties. In the Pratt truss the
+struts were vertical and the ties inclined. Down to 1850 such bridges were
+generally limited to 150 ft. span. The timber was white pine. As railway
+loads increased and greater spans were demanded, the Howe truss was
+stiffened by timber arches on each side of each girder. Such a composite
+structure is, however, fundamentally defective, the distribution of loading
+to the two independent systems being indeterminate. Remarkably high timber
+piers were built. The Genesee viaduct, 800 ft. in length, built in
+1851-1852 in 10 spans, had timber trestle piers 190 ft. in height. (See
+Mosse, "American Timber Bridges," _Proc. Inst. C.E._ xxii. p. 305, and for
+more modern examples, cxlii. p. 409; and clv. p. 382; Cooper, "American
+Railroad Bridges," _Trans. Am. Soc. C.E._ vol. xxi pp. 1-28.) These timber
+framed structures served as models for the earlier metal trusses which
+began to be used soon after 1850, and which, except in a few localities
+where iron is costly, have quite superseded them.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Ponte della Trinità, Florence.]
+
+7. (b) _Masonry._--The present London Bridge, begun in 1824 and completed
+in 1831, is as fine an example of a masonry arch structure as can be found
+(figs. 8 and 9). The design was made by John Rennie the elder, and the
+acting engineer was his son, Sir John Rennie. The semi-elliptical shape of
+the arches the variation of span, the slight curvature of the roadway, and
+the simple yet bold architectural details, combine to make it a singularly
+beautiful bridge. The centre arch has a span of 152 ft., and rises 29 ft. 6
+in above Trinity high-water mark; the arches on each side of the centre
+have a span of 140 ft. and the abutment arches 130 ft. The total length of
+the bridge is 1005 ft., its width from outside to outside 56 ft., and
+height above low [v.04 p.0536] water 60 ft. The two centre piers are 24 ft.
+thick, the exterior stones are granite, the interior, half Bramley Fall and
+half from Painshaw, Derbyshire. The voussoirs of the centre arch (all of
+granite) are 4 ft. 9 in. deep at the crown, and increase to not less than 9
+ft. at the springing. The general depth at which the foundations are laid
+is about 29 ft. 6 in. below low water. The total cost was £1,458,311, but
+the contractor's tender for the bridge alone was £425,081.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--London New Bridge.]
+
+Since 1867 it had been recognized that London Bridge was inadequate to
+carry the traffic passing over it, and a scheme for widening it was adopted
+in 1900. This was carried out in 1902-1904, the footways being carried on
+granite corbels, on which are mounted cornices and open parapets. The width
+between parapets is now 65 ft., giving a roadway of 35 ft. and two footways
+of 15 ft. each. The architect was Andrew Murray and the engineer, G. E. W.
+Cruttwell. (Cole, _Proc. Inst. C.E._ clxi. p. 290.)
+
+The largest masonry arch is the Adolphe bridge in Luxemburg, erected in
+1900-1903. This has a span of 278 ft., 138 ft. rise above the river, and
+102 ft. from foundation to crown. The thickness of the arch is 4 ft. 8 in.
+at the crown and 7 ft. 2 in. where it joins the spandrel masonry. The
+roadway is 52 ft. 6 in. wide. The bridge is not continuous in width, there
+are arch rings on each face, each 16.4 ft. wide with a space between of
+19.7 ft. This space is filled with a flooring of reinforced concrete,
+resting on the two arches, and carrying the central roadway. By the method
+adopted the total masonry has been reduced one-third. One centering was
+used for the two arch rings, supported on dwarf walls which formed a
+slipway, along which it was moved after the first was built.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Half Elevation and Half Section of Arch of London
+Bridge.]
+
+Till near the end of the 19th century bridges of masonry or brickwork were
+so constructed that they had to be treated as rigid blockwork structures.
+The stability of such structures depends on the position of the line of
+pressure relatively to the intrados and extrados of the arch ring.
+Generally, so far as could be ascertained, the line of pressure lies within
+the middle half of the depth of the voussoirs. In finding the abutment
+reactions some principle such as the principle of least action must be
+used, and some assumptions of doubtful validity made. But if hinges are
+introduced at crown and springings, the calculation of the stresses in the
+arch ring becomes simple, as the line of pressures must pass through the
+hinges. Such hinges have been used not only for metal arches, but in a
+modified form for masonry and concrete arches. Three cases therefore arise:
+(a) The arch is rigid at crown and springings; (b) the arch is two-hinged
+(hinges at springings); (c) the arch is three-hinged (hinges at crown and
+springings). For an elementary account of the theory of arches, hinged or
+not, reference may be made to a paper by H. M. Martin (_Proc. Inst. C. E._
+vol. xciii. p. 462); and for that of the elastic arch, to a paper by
+A.E.Young (_Proc. Inst. C.E._ vol. cxxxi. p. 323).
+
+In Germany and America two- and three-hinged arches of masonry and concrete
+have been built, up to 150 ft. span, with much economy, and the
+calculations being simple, an engineer can venture to work closely to the
+dimensions required by theory. For hinges, Leibbrand, of Stuttgart, uses
+sheets of lead about 1 in. thick extending over the middle third of the
+depth of the voussoir joints, the rest of the joints being left open. As
+the lead is plastic this construction is virtually an articulation. If the
+pressure on the lead is uniformly varying, the centre of pressure must be
+within the middle third of the width of the lead; that is, it cannot
+deviate from the centre of the voussoir joint by more than one-eighteenth
+of its depth. In any case the position of the line of pressures is confined
+at the lead articulations within very narrow limits, and ambiguity as to
+the stresses is greatly diminished. The restricted area on which the
+pressure acts at the lead joints involves greater intensity of stress than
+has been usual in arched bridges. In the Württemberg hinged arches a limit
+of stress of 110 tons per sq. ft. was allowed, while in the unhinged arches
+at Cologne and Coblentz the limit was 50 to 60 tons per sq. ft. (_Annales
+des Fonts et Chaussées_, 1891). At Rechtenstein a bridge of two concrete
+arches has been constructed, span 75½ ft., with lead articulations: width
+of arch 11 ft.; depth of arch at crown and springing 2.1 and 2.96 ft.
+respectively. The stresses were calculated to be 15, 17 and 12 tons per sq.
+ft. at crown, joint of rupture, and springing respectively. At Cincinnati a
+concrete arch of 70 ft. span has been built, with a rise of 10 ft. The
+concrete is reinforced by eleven 9-in. steel-rolled joists, spaced 3 ft.
+apart and supported by a cross-channel joist at each springing. The arch is
+15 in. thick at the crown and 4 ft. at the abutments. The concrete
+consisted of 1 cement, 2 sand and 3 to 4 broken stone. An important series
+of experiments on the strength of masonry, brick and concrete structures
+will be found in the _Zeitschr. des österreichen Ing. und Arch. Vereines_
+(1895).
+
+The thermal coefficient of expansion of steel and concrete is nearly the
+same, otherwise changes of temperature would cause shearing stress at the
+junction of the two materials. If the two materials are disposed
+symmetrically, the amount of load carried by each would be in direct
+proportion to the coefficient of elasticity and inversely as the moment of
+inertia of the cross section. But it is usual in many cases to provide a
+sufficient section of steel to carry all the tension. For concrete the
+coefficient of elasticity E varies with the amount of stress and diminishes
+as the ratio of sand and stone to cement increases. Its value is generally
+taken at 1,500,000 to 3,000,000 lb per sq. in. For steel E = 28,000,000 to
+30,000,000, or on the average about twelve times its value for concrete.
+The maximum compressive working stress on the concrete may be 500 lb per
+sq. in., the tensile working stress 50 lb per sq. in., and the working
+shearing stress 75 lb per sq. in. The tensile stress on the steel may be
+16,000 lb per sq. in. The amount of steel in the structure may vary from
+0.75 to 1.5%. The concrete not only affords much of the strength to resist
+compression, but effectively protects the steel from corrosion.
+
+8. (c) _Suspension Bridges._--A suspension bridge consists of two or more
+chains, constructed of links connected by pins, or of twisted wire strands,
+or of wires laid parallel. The chains pass over lofty piers on which they
+usually rest on saddles carried by rollers, and are led down on either side
+to anchorages in rock chambers. A level platform is hung from the chains by
+suspension rods. In the suspension bridge iron or steel can be used in its
+strongest form, namely hard-drawn wire. Iron suspension bridges began to be
+used at the end of the 18th century for road bridges with spans
+unattainable at that time in any other system. In 1819 T. Telford began the
+construction of the Menai bridge (fig. 10), the span being 570 ft. and the
+dip 43 ft. This bridge suffered some injury in a storm, but it is still in
+good condition and one of the most graceful of bridges. Other bridges built
+soon after were the Fribourg bridge of 870 ft. span, the Hammersmith bridge
+of 422 ft. span, and the Pest bridge of 666 ft. span. The merit of the
+simple suspension bridge is its cheapness, and its defect is its
+flexibility. This last becomes less [v.04 p.0537] serious as the dead
+weight of the structure becomes large in proportion to the live or
+temporary load. It is, therefore, a type specially suited for great spans.
+Some suspension bridges have broken down in consequence of the oscillations
+produced by bodies of men marching in step. In 1850 a suspension bridge at
+Angers gave way when 487 soldiers were marching over it, and 226 were
+killed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Menai Suspension Bridge.]
+
+To obtain greater stiffness various plans have been adopted. In the Ordish
+system a certain number of intermediate points in the span are supported by
+oblique chains, on which girders rest. The Ordish bridge built at Prague in
+1868 had oblique chains supporting the stiffening girders at intermediate
+points of the span. A curved chain supported the oblique chains and kept
+them straight. In 1860 a bridge was erected over the Danube canal at
+Vienna, of 264 ft. span which had two parallel chains one above the other
+and 4 ft. apart on each side of the bridge. The chains of each pair were
+connected by bracing so that they formed a stiff inverted arch resisting
+deformation under unequal loading. The bridge carried a railway, but it
+proved weak owing to errors of calculation, and it was taken down in 1884.
+The principle was sound and has been proposed at various times. About 1850
+it was perceived that a bridge stiff enough to carry railway trains could
+be constructed by combining supporting chains with stiffening girders
+suspended from them. W. J. M. Rankine proved (_Applied Mechanics_, p. 370)
+that the necessary strength of a stiffening girder would be only
+one-seventh part of that of an independent girder of the same span as the
+bridge, suited to carry the same moving load (not including the dead weight
+of the girder which is supported by the chain). (See "Suspension Bridge
+with Stiffened Roadway," by Sir G. Airy, and the discussion, _Proc. Inst,
+C.E._, 1867, xxvi. p. 258; also "Suspension Bridges with Stiffening
+Girders," by Max am Ende, _Proc. Inst. C.E._ cxxxvii. p. 306.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Niagara Suspension Bridge.]
+
+The most remarkable bridge constructed on this system was the Niagara
+bridge built by J. A. Roebling in 1852-1855 (fig. 11). The span was 821
+ft., much the largest of any railway bridge at that time, and the height
+above the river 245 ft. There were four suspension cables, each 10 in. in
+diameter; each was composed of seven strands, containing 520 parallel
+wires, or 3640 wires in each cable. Each cable was carried on a separate
+saddle on rollers on each pier. The stiffening girder, constructed chiefly
+of timber, was a box-shaped braced girder 18 ft. deep and 25 ft. wide,
+carrying the railway on top and a roadway within. After various repairs and
+strengthenings, including the replacement of the timber girder by an iron
+one in 1880, this bridge in 1896-1897 was taken down and a steel arch built
+in its place. It was not strong enough to deal with the increasing weight
+of railway traffic. In 1836 I. K. Brunei constructed the towers and
+abutments for a suspension bridge of 702 ft. span at Clifton over the Avon,
+but the project was not then carried further; in 1860, however, the link
+chains of the Hungerford suspension bridge which was being taken down were
+available at small cost, and these were used to complete the bridge. There
+are three chains on each side, of one and two links alternately, and these
+support wrought iron stiffening girders. There are wrought iron saddles and
+steel rollers on the piers. At 196 ft. on either side from the towers the
+chains are carried over similar saddles without rollers, and thence at 45°
+with the horizontal down to the anchorages. Each chain has an anchor plate
+5 ft. by 6 ft. The links are 24 ft. long at the centre of the bridge, and
+longer as they are more inclined, so that their horizontal projection is 24
+ft. The chains are so arranged that there is a suspending rod at each 8
+ft., attached at the joint of one of the three chains. For erection a
+suspended platform was constructed on eight wire ropes, on which the chains
+were laid out and connected. Another wire rope with a travelling carriage
+took out the links. The sectional area of the chains is 481 sq. in. at the
+piers and 440 sq. in. at the centre. The two stiffening girders are plate
+girders 3 ft. deep with flanges of 11 sq. in. area. In addition, the hand
+railing on each side forms a girder 4 ft. 9 in. deep, with flanges 4½ sq.
+in. area.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Williamsburg Suspension Bridge.]
+
+Of later bridges of great span, perhaps the bridges over the East river at
+New York are the most remarkable. The Brooklyn bridge, begun in 1872, has a
+centre span of 1595½ and side spans of 930 ft. The Brooklyn approach being
+971 ft., and the New York approach 1562½ ft., the total length of the
+bridge is 5989 ft. There are four cables which carry a promenade, a roadway
+and an electric railway. The stiffening girders of the main span are 40 ft.
+deep and 67 ft. apart. The saddles for the chains are 329 ft. above high
+water. The cables are 15¾ in. in diameter. Each cable has 19 strands of 278
+parallel steel wires, 7 B.W.G. Each wire is taken separately across the
+river and its length adjusted. Roebling preferred parallel wires as 10 %
+stronger than twisted wires. Each strand when made up and clamped was
+lowered to its position. The Williamsburg bridge (fig. 12), begun in 1897
+and opened for traffic in 1903, has a span of 1600 ft., a versed sine of
+176 ft., and a width of 118 ft. It has two decks, and carries two elevated
+railway tracks, four electric tramcar lines, two carriageways, two footways
+and two [v.04 p.0538] bicycle paths. There are four cables, one on each
+side of the two main trusses or stiffening girders. These girders are
+supported by the cables over the centre span but not in the side spans.
+Intermediate piers support the trusses in the side spans. The cables are
+18¾ in. in diameter; each weighs about 1116 tons, and has a nominal
+breaking strength of 22,320 tons, the actual breaking strength being
+probably greater. The saddles are 332 ft. above the water. The four cables
+support a dead load of 7140 tons and a live load of 4017 tons. Each cable
+is composed of 37 strands of 208 wires, or 7696 parallel steel wires, No. 8
+B.W.G., or about 3/16 in. in diameter. The wire was required to have a
+tensile strength of 89 tons per sq. in., and 2½% elongation in 5 ft. and 5%
+in 8 in. Cast steel clamps hold the cable together, and to these the
+suspending rods are attached. The cables are wrapped in cotton duck soaked
+in oxidized oil and varnish, and are sheathed in sheet iron. A later
+bridge, the Manhattan, is designed to carry four railway tracks and four
+tramway lines, with a wide roadway and footpaths, supported by cables 21¼
+in. in diameter, each composed of 9472 galvanized steel wires 3/16 in. in
+diameter.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Tower Bridge, London.]
+
+The Tower Bridge, London (fig. 13), is a suspension bridge with a secondary
+bascule bridge in the centre span to permit the passage of ships. Two main
+towers in the river and two towers on the shore abutments carry the
+suspension chains. The opening bridge between the river towers consists of
+two leaves or bascules, pivoted near the faces of the piers and rotating in
+a vertical plane. When raised, the width of 200 ft. between the main river
+piers is unobstructed up to the high-level foot-bridge, which is 141 ft.
+above Trinity H.W. The clear width of the two shore spans is 270 ft. The
+total length of the bridge is 940 ft., and that of the approaches 1260 ft.
+on the north and 780 ft. on the south. The width of the bridge between
+parapets is 60 ft., except across the centre span, where it is 49 ft. The
+main towers consist of a skeleton of steel, enclosed in a facing of granite
+and Portland stone, backed with brickwork. There are two high-level
+footways for use when the bascules are raised, the main girders of which
+are of the cantilever and suspended girder type. The cantilevers are fixed
+to the shore side of the towers. The middle girders are 120 ft. in length
+and attached to the cantilevers by links. The main suspension chains are
+carried across the centre span in the form of horizontal ties resting on
+the high-level footway girders. These ties are jointed to the hanging
+chains by pins 20 in. in diameter with a ring in halves surrounding it 5
+in. thick. One half ring is rigidly attached to the tie and one to the
+hanging chain, so that the wear due to any movement is distributed over the
+length of the pin. A rocker bearing under these pins transmits the load at
+the joint to the steel columns of the towers. The abutment towers are
+similar to the river towers. On the abutment towers the chains are
+connected by horizontal links, carried on rockers, to anchor ties. The
+suspension chains are constructed in the form of braced girders, so that
+they are stiff against unsymmetrical loading. Each chain over a shore span
+consists of two segments, the longer attached to the tie at the top of the
+river tower, the shorter to the link at the top of the abutment tower, and
+the two jointed together at the lowest point. Transverse girders are hung
+from the chains at distances of 18 ft. There are fifteen main transverse
+girders to each shore span, with nine longitudinal girders between each
+pair. The trough flooring, 3/8 in. thick and 6 in. deep, is riveted to the
+longitudinals. The anchor ties are connected to girders embedded in large
+concrete blocks in the foundations of the approach viaducts.
+
+The two bascules are each constructed with four main girders. Over the
+river these are lattice girders, with transverse girders 12 ft. apart, and
+longitudinal and subsidiary transverse girders dividing the floor into
+rectangles 3 ft. by 3½ ft. covered with buckled plates. The roadway is of
+pine blocks dowelled. The bascules rotate through an angle of 82°, and
+their rear ends in the bascule chambers of the piers carry 365 tons of
+counterweight, the total weight of each being 1070 tons. They rotate on
+steel shafts 21 in. in diameter and 48 ft. long, and the bascules can be
+lifted or lowered in one minute, but usually the time taken is one and a
+half minutes. They are worked by hydraulic machinery.
+
+9. (d) _Iron and Steel Girder Bridges._--The main supporting members are
+two or more horizontal beams, girders or trusses. The girders carry a floor
+or platform either on top (_deck_ bridges) or near the bottom (_through_
+bridges). The platform is variously constructed. For railway bridges it
+commonly consists of cross girders, attached to or resting on the main
+girders, and longitudinal rail girders or stringers carried by the cross
+girders and directly supporting the sleepers and rails. For spans over 75
+ft., expansion due to change of temperature is provided for by carrying one
+end of each chain girder on rollers placed between the bearing-plate on the
+girder and the bed-plate on the pier or abutment.
+
+Fig. 14 shows the roller bed of a girder of the Kuilenburg bridge of 490
+ft. span. It will be seen that the girder directly rests on a cylindrical
+pin or rocker so placed as to distribute the load uniformly to all the
+rollers. The pressure on the rollers is limited to about p = 600 d in lb
+per in. length of roller, where d is the diameter of the roller in inches.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.--Roller Bed of a Girder.]
+
+In the girders of bridges the horizontal girder is almost exclusively
+subjected to vertical loading forces. Investigation of the internal
+stresses, which balance the external forces, shows that most of the
+material should be arranged in a top flange, boom or chord, subjected to
+compression, and a bottom flange or chord, subjected to tension. (See
+STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.) Connecting the flanges is a vertical web which may
+be a solid plate or a system of bracing bars. In any case, though the exact
+form of cross section of girders varies very much, it is virtually an I
+section (fig. 15). The function of the flanges is to resist a horizontal
+tension and compression distributed practically uniformly on their cross
+sections. The web resists forces equivalent [v.04 p.0539] to a shear on
+vertical and horizontal planes. The inclined tensions and compressions in
+the bars of a braced web are equivalent to this shear. The horizontal
+stresses in the flanges are greatest at the centre of a span. The stresses
+in the web are greatest at the ends of the span. In the most numerous cases
+the flanges or chords are parallel. But girders may have curved chords and
+then the stresses in the web are diminished.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Flanged Girder.]
+
+At first girders had solid or plate webs, but for spans over 100 ft. the
+web always now consists of bracing bars. In some girder bridges the members
+are connected entirely by riveting, in others the principal members are
+connected by pin joints. The pin system of connexion used in the Chepstow,
+Saltash, Newark Dyke and other early English bridges is now rarely used in
+Europe. But it is so commonly used in America as to be regarded as a
+distinctive American feature. With pin connexions some weight is saved in
+the girders, and erection is a little easier. In early pin bridges
+insufficient bearing area was allowed between the pins and parts connected,
+and they worked loose. In some cases riveted covers had to be substituted
+for the pins. The proportions are now better understood. Nevertheless the
+tendency is to use riveted connexions in preference to pins, and in any
+case to use pins for tension members only.
+
+On the first English railways cast iron girder bridges for spans of 20 to
+66 ft. were used, and in some cases these were trussed with wrought iron.
+When in 1845 the plans for carrying the Chester and Holyhead railway over
+the Menai Straits were considered, the conditions imposed by the admiralty
+in the interests of navigation involved the adoption of a new type of
+bridge. There was an idea of using suspension chains combined with a
+girder, and in fact the tower piers were built so as to accommodate chains.
+But the theory of such a combined structure could not be formulated at that
+time, and it was proved, partly by experiment, that a simple tubular girder
+of wrought iron was strong enough to carry the railway. The Britannia
+bridge (fig. 16) has two spans of 460 and two of 230 ft. at 104 ft. above
+high water. It consists of a pair of tubular girders with solid or plate
+sides stiffened by angle irons, one line of rails passing through each
+tube. Each girder is 1511 ft. long and weighs 4680 tons. In cross section
+(fig. 17), it is 15 ft. wide and varies in depth from 23 ft. at the ends to
+30 ft. at the centre. Partly to counteract any tendency to buckling under
+compression and partly for convenience in assembling a great mass of
+plates, the top and bottom were made cellular, the cells being just large
+enough to permit passage for painting. The total area of the cellular top
+flange of the large-span girders is 648 sq. in., and of the bottom 585 sq.
+in. As no scaffolding could be used for the centre spans, the girders were
+built on shore, floated out and raised by hydraulic presses. The credit for
+the success of the Conway and Britannia bridges must be divided between the
+engineers. Robert Stephenson and William Fairbairn, and Eaton Hodgkinson,
+who assisted in the experimental tests and in formulating the imperfect
+theory then available. The Conway bridge was first completed, and the first
+train passed through the Britannia bridge in 1850. Though each girder has
+been made continuous over the four spans it has not quite the proportions
+over the piers which a continuous girder should have, and must be regarded
+as an imperfectly continuous girder. The spans were in fact designed as
+independent girders, the advantage of continuity being at that time
+imperfectly known. The vertical sides of the girders are stiffened so that
+they amount to 40% of the whole weight. This was partly necessary to meet
+the uncertain conditions in floating when the distribution of supporting
+forces was unknown and there were chances of distortion.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.--Britannia Bridge.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.--Britannia Bridge (Cross Section of Tubular
+Girder).]
+
+Wrought iron and, later, steel plate web girders were largely used for
+railway bridges in England after the construction of the Conway and Menai
+bridges, and it was in the discussions arising during their design that the
+proper function of the vertical web between the top and bottom flanges of a
+girder first came to be understood. The proportion of depth to span in the
+Britannia bridge was 1/16. But so far as the flanges are concerned the
+stress [v.04 p.0540] to be resisted varies inversely as the depth of the
+girder. It would be economical, therefore, to make the girder very deep.
+This, however, involves a much heavier web, and therefore for any type of
+girder there must be a ratio of depth to span which is most economical. In
+the case of the plate web there must be a considerable excess of material,
+partly to stiffen it against buckling and partly because an excess of
+thickness must be provided to reduce the effect of corrosion. It was soon
+found that with plate webs the ratio of depth to span could not be
+economically increased beyond 1/15 to 1/12. On the other hand a framed or
+braced web afforded opportunity for much better arrangement of material,
+and it very soon became apparent that open web or lattice or braced girders
+were more economical of material than solid web girders, except for small
+spans. In America such girders were used from the first and naturally
+followed the general design of the earlier timber bridges. Now plate web
+girders are only used for spans of less than 100 ft.
+
+Three types of bracing for the web very early developed--the Warren type in
+which the bracing bars form equilateral triangles, the Whipple Murphy in
+which the struts are vertical and the ties inclined, and the lattice in
+which both struts and ties are inclined at equal angles, usually 45° with
+the horizontal. The earliest published theoretical investigations of the
+stresses in bracing bars were perhaps those in the paper by W.T. Doyne and
+W.B. Blood (_Proc. Inst. C.E._, 1851, xi. p. 1), and the paper by J.
+Barton, "On the economic distribution of material in the sides of wrought
+iron beams" (_Proc. Inst. C.E._, 1855, xiv. p. 443).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18.--Span of Saltash Bridge.]
+
+The Boyne bridge, constructed by Barton in Ireland, in 1854-1855, was a
+remarkable example of the confidence with which engineers began to apply
+theory in design. It was a bridge for two lines of railway with lattice
+girders continuous over three spans. The centre span was 264 ft., and the
+side spans 138 ft. 8 in.; depth 22 ft. 6 in. Not only were the bracing bars
+designed to calculated stresses, and the continuity of the girders taken
+into account, but the validity of the calculations was tested by a
+verification on the actual bridge of the position of the points of contrary
+flexure of the centre span. At the calculated position of one of the points
+of contrary flexure all the rivets of the top boom were cut out, and by
+lowering the end of the girder over the side span one inch, the joint was
+opened 1/32 in. Then the rivets were cut out similarly at the other point
+of contrary flexure and the joint opened. The girder held its position with
+both joints severed, proving that, as should be the case, there was no
+stress in the boom where the bending moment changes sign.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.--Newark Dyke Bridge and Section of Newark Dyke
+Bridge]
+
+By curving the top boom of a girder to form an arch and the bottom boom to
+form a suspension chain, the need of web except for non-uniform loading is
+obviated. I.K. Brunel adopted this principle for the Saltash bridge near
+Plymouth, built soon after the Britannia bridge. It has two spans of 455
+ft. and seventeen smaller spans, the roadway being 100 ft. above high
+water. The top boom of each girder is an elliptical wrought iron tube 17
+ft. wide by 12 ft. deep. The lower boom is a pair of chains, of
+wrought-iron links, 14 in each chain, of 7 in. by 1 in. section, the links
+being connected by pins. The suspending rods and cross bracing are very
+light. The depth of the girder at the centre is about one-eighth of the
+span.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.--Fink Truss.]
+
+In both England and America in early braced bridges cast iron, generally in
+the form of tubes circular or octagonal in section, was used for
+compression members, and wrought iron for the tension members. Fig. 19
+shows the Newark Dyke bridge on the Great Northern railway over the Trent.
+It was a pin-jointed Warren girder bridge erected from designs by C.M. Wild
+in 1851-1853. The span between supports was 259 ft., the clear span 240½
+ft.; depth between joint pins 16 ft. There were four girders, two to each
+line of way. The top flange consisted of cast iron hollow castings butted
+end to end, and the struts were of cast iron. The lower flange and ties
+were flat wrought iron links. This bridge has now been replaced by a
+stronger bridge to carry the greater loads imposed by modern traffic. Fig.
+20 shows a Fink truss, a characteristic early American type, with cast iron
+compression and wrought iron tension members. The bridge is a deck bridge,
+the railway being carried on top. The transfer of the loads to the ends of
+the bridge by [v.04 p.0541] long ties is uneconomical, and this type has
+disappeared. The Warren type, either with two sets of bracing bars or with
+intermediate verticals, affords convenient means of supporting the floor
+girders. In 1869 a bridge of 390 ft. span was built on this system at
+Louisville.
+
+Amongst remarkable American girder bridges may be mentioned the Ohio bridge
+on the Cincinnati & Covington railway, which is probably the largest girder
+span constructed. The centre span is 550 ft. and the side spans 490
+ft.--centre to centre of piers. The girders are independent polygonal
+girders. The centre girder has a length of 545 ft. and a depth of 84 ft.
+between pin centres. It is 67 ft. between parapets, and carries two lines
+of railway, two carriageways, and two footways. The cross girders,
+stringers and wind-bracing are wrought iron, the rest of mild steel. The
+bridge was constructed in 1888 by the Phoenix Bridge Company, and was
+erected on staging. The total weight of iron and steel in three spans was
+about 5000 tons.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Typical Cantilever Bridge.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22.]
+
+10. (e) _Cantilever Bridges._--It has been stated that if in a girder
+bridge of three or more spans, the girders were made continuous there would
+be an important economy of material, but that the danger of settlement of
+the supports, which would seriously alter the points of contrary flexure or
+points where the bending moment changes sign, and therefore the magnitude
+and distribution of the stresses, generally prevents the adoption of
+continuity. If, however, hinges or joints are introduced at the points of
+contrary flexure, they become necessarily points where the bending moment
+is zero and ambiguity as to the stresses vanishes. The exceptional local
+conditions at the site of the Forth bridge led to the adoption there of the
+cantilever system, till then little considered. Now it is well understood
+that in many positions this system is the simplest and most economical
+method of bridging. It is available for spans greater than those
+practicable with independent girders; in fact, on this system the spans are
+virtually reduced to smaller spans so far as the stresses are concerned.
+There is another advantage which in many cases is of the highest
+importance. The cantilevers can be built out from the piers, member by
+member, without any temporary scaffolding below, so that navigation is not
+interrupted, the cost of scaffolding is saved, and the difficulty of
+building in deep water is obviated. The centre girder may be built on the
+cantilevers and rolled into place or lifted from the water-level. Fig. 21
+shows a typical cantilever bridge of American design. In this case the
+shore ends of the cantilevers are anchored to the abutments. J.A.L. Waddell
+has shown that, in some cases, it is convenient to erect simple independent
+spans, by building them out as cantilevers and converting them into
+independent girders after erection. Fig. 22 shows girders erected in this
+way, the dotted lines being temporary members during erection, which are
+removed afterwards. The side spans are erected first on staging and
+anchored to the piers. From these, by the aid of the temporary members, the
+centre span is built out from both sides. The most important cantilever
+bridges so far erected or projected are as follows:--
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23.--Forth Bridge.]
+
+(1) The Forth bridge (fig. 23). The original design was for a stiffened
+suspension bridge, but after the fall of the Tay bridge in 1879 this was
+abandoned. The bridge, which was begun in 1882 and completed in 1889, is at
+the only narrowing of the Forth in a distance of 50 m., at a point where
+the channel, about a mile in width, is divided by the island of Inchgarvie.
+The length of the cantilever bridge is 5330 ft., made up thus: central
+tower on Inchgarvie 260 ft.; Fife and Queensferry piers each 145 ft.; two
+central girders between cantilevers each 350 ft.; and six cantilevers each
+680 ft. The two main spans are each 1710 ft. The clear headway is 157 ft.,
+and the extreme height of the towers above high water 361 ft. The outer
+ends of the shore cantilevers are loaded to balance half the weight of the
+central girder, the rolling load, and 200 tons in addition. An internal
+viaduct of lattice girders carries a double line of rails. Provision is
+made for longitudinal expansion due to change of temperature, for
+distortion due to the sun acting on one side of the structure, and for the
+wind acting on one side of the bridge. The amount of steel used was 38,000
+tons exclusive of approach viaducts. (See _The Forth Bridge_, by W.
+Westhofen; _Reports of the British Association_ (1884 and 1885); _Die Forth
+Brücke_, von G. Barkhausen (Berlin, 1889); _The Forth Bridge_, by Philip
+Phillips (1890); Vernon Harcourt, _Proc. Inst. C.E._ cxxi. p. 309.)
+
+(2) The Niagara bridge of a total length of 910 ft., for two lines of
+railway. Clear span between towers 495 ft. Completed in 1883, and more
+recently strengthened (_Proc. Inst. C.E._ cvii. p. 18, and cxliv. p. 331).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.--Lansdowne Bridge.]
+
+(3) The Lansdowne bridge (completed 1889) at Sukkur, over the Indus. The
+clear span is 790 ft., and the suspended girder 200 ft. in length. The span
+to the centres of the end uprights is 820 ft.; width between centres of
+main uprights at bed-plate 100 ft., and between centres of main members at
+end of cantilevers 20 ft. The bridge is for a single line of railway of 5
+ft. 6 in. gauge. The back guys are the most heavily strained part of the
+structure, the stress provided for being 1200 tons. This is due to the half
+weight of centre girder, the weight of the cantilever itself, the rolling
+load on half the bridge, and the wind pressure. The anchors are built up of
+steel plates and angle, bars, and are buried in a large mass of concrete.
+The area of each anchor plate, normal to the line of stress, is 32 ft. by
+12 ft. The bridge was designed by Sir A. Rendel, the consulting engineer to
+the Indian government (_Proc. Inst. C.E._ ciii. p. 123).
+
+(4) The Red Rock cantilever bridge over the Colorado river, with a centre
+span of 660 ft.
+
+(5) The Poughkeepsie bridge over the Hudson, built 1886-1887. There are
+five river and two shore spans. The girders over the second and fourth
+spans are extended as cantilevers over the adjoining spans. The shore piers
+carry cantilevers projecting one way over the river openings and the other
+way over a shore span where it is secured to an anchorage. The girder spans
+are 525 ft., the cantilever spans 547 ft., and the shore spans 201 ft.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.--Quebec Bridge (original design)]
+
+(6) The Quebec bridge (fig. 25) over the St Lawrence, which collapsed while
+in course of construction in 1907. This bridge, connecting very important
+railway systems, was designed to carry two lines of rails, a highway and
+electric railway on each side, all between the main trusses. Length between
+abutments 3240 ft.; [v.04 p.0542] channel span 1800 ft.; suspended span 675
+ft.; shore spans 562½ ft. Total weight of metal about 32,000 tons.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26.--Jubilee Bridge over the Hugli.]
+
+(7) The Jubilee bridge over the Hugli, designed by Sir Bradford Leslie, is
+a cantilever bridge of another type (fig. 26). The girders are of the
+Whipple Murphy type, but with curved top booms. The bridge carries a double
+line of railway, between the main girders. The central double cantilever is
+360 ft. long. The two side span girders are 420 ft long. The cantilever
+rests on two river piers 120 ft. apart, centre to centre. The side girders
+rest on the cantilevers on 15 in. pins, in pendulum links suspended from
+similar pins in saddles 9 ft. high.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27.--Coalbrookdale Bridge.]
+
+11. (f) _Metal Arch Bridges._--The first iron bridge erected was
+constructed by John Wilkinson (1728-1808) and Abraham Darby (1750-1791) in
+1773-1779 at Coalbrookdale over the Severn (fig. 27). It had five cast iron
+arched ribs with a centre span of 100 ft. This curious bridge is still in
+use. Sir B. Baker stated that it had required patching for ninety years,
+because the arch and the high side arches would not work together.
+Expansion and contraction broke the high arch and the connexions between
+the arches. When it broke they fished it. Then the bolts sheared or the
+ironwork broke in a new place. He advised that there was nothing unsafe; it
+was perfectly strong and the stress in vital parts moderate. All that
+needed to be done was to fish the fractured ribs of the high arches, put
+oval holes in the fishes, and not screw up the bolts too tight.
+
+Cast iron arches of considerable span were constructed late in the 18th and
+early in the 19th century. The difficulty of casting heavy arch ribs led to
+the construction of cast iron arches of cast voussoirs, somewhat like the
+voussoirs of masonry bridges. Such a bridge was the Wearmouth bridge,
+designed by Rowland Burdon and erected in 1793-1796, with a span of 235 ft.
+Southwark bridge over the Thames, designed by John Rennie with cast iron
+ribs and erected in 1814-1819, has a centre span of 240 ft. and a rise of
+24 ft. In Paris the Austerlitz (1800-1806) and Carrousel (1834-1836)
+bridges had cast iron arches. In 1858 an aqueduct bridge was erected at
+Washington by M.C. Meigs (1816-1892). This had two arched ribs formed by
+the cast iron pipes through which the water passed. The pipes were 4 ft. in
+diameter inside, 1½ in. thick, and were lined with staves of pine 3 in.
+thick to prevent freezing. The span was 200 ft.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28.--Arch of Bridge at Coblenz]
+
+Fig. 28 shows one of the wrought iron arches of a bridge over the Rhine at
+Coblenz. The bridge consists of three spans of about 315 ft. each.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29.--St Louis Bridge.]
+
+Of large-span bridges with steel arches, one of the most important is the
+St Louis bridge over the Mississippi, completed in 1874 (fig. 29). The
+river at St Louis is confined to a single channel, 1600 ft. wide, and in a
+freshet in 1870 the scour reached a depth of 51 ft. Captain J.B. Eads, the
+engineer, determined to establish the piers and abutments on rock at a
+depth for the east pier and east abutment of 136 ft. below high water. This
+was effected by caissons with air chambers and air locks, a feat
+unprecedented in the annals of engineering. The bridge has three spans,
+each formed of arches of cast steel. The centre span is 520 ft. and the
+side spans 502 ft. in the clear. The rise of the centre arch is 47½ ft.,
+and that of the side arches 46 ft. Each span has four steel double ribs of
+steel tubes butted and clasped by wrought iron couplings. The vertical
+bracing between the upper and lower members of each rib, which are 12 ft.
+apart, centre to centre, consolidates them into a single arch. The arches
+carry a double railway track and above this a roadway 54 ft. wide.
+
+The St Louis bridge is not hinged, but later bridges have been constructed
+with hinges at the springings and sometimes with hinges at the crown also.
+
+The Alexander III. bridge over the Seine has fifteen steel ribs hinged at
+crown and springings with a span of 353 ft. between centres of hinges and
+358 ft. between abutments. The rise from side to centre hinges is 20 ft. 7
+in. The roadway is 65½ ft. wide and footways 33 ft. (_Proc. Inst. C.E._
+cxxx. p. 335).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30.--Viaur Viaduct.]
+
+The largest three-hinged-arch bridge constructed is the Viaur viaduct in
+the south of France (fig. 30). The central span is 721 ft. 9 in. and the
+height of the rails above the valley 380 ft. It has a very fine appearance,
+especially when seen in perspective and not merely in elevation.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31.--Douro Viaduct.]
+
+Fig. 31 shows the Douro viaduct of a total length of 1158 ft. carrying a
+railway 200 ft. above the water. The span of the central opening is 525 ft.
+The principal rib is crescent-shaped 32.8 ft. deep [v.04 p.0543] at the
+crown. Rolling load taken at 1.2 ton per ft. Weight of centre span 727
+tons. The Luiz I. bridge is another arched bridge over the Douro, also
+designed by T. Seyrig. This has a span of 566 ft. There are an upper and
+lower roadway, 164 ft. apart vertically. The arch rests on rollers and is
+narrowest at the crown. The reason given for this change of form was that
+it more conveniently allowed the lower road to pass between the springings
+and ensured the transmission of the wind stresses to the abutments without
+interrupting the cross-bracing. Wire cables were used in the erection, by
+which the members were lifted from barges and assembled, the operations
+being conducted from the side piers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32.--Niagara Falls and Clifton Bridge.]
+
+The Niagara Falls and Clifton steel arch (fig. 32) replaces the older
+Roebling suspension bridge. The centre span is a two-hinged parabolic
+braced rib arch, and there are side spans of 190 and 210 ft. The bridge
+carries two electric-car tracks, two roadways and two footways. The main
+span weighed 1629 tons, the side spans 154 and 166 tons (Buck, _Proc. Inst.
+C.E._ cxliv. p. 70). Prof. Claxton Fidler, speaking of the arrangement
+adopted for putting initial stress on the top chord, stated that this
+bridge marked the furthest advance yet made in this type of construction.
+When such a rib is erected on centering without initial stress, the
+subsequent compression of the arch under its weight inflicts a bending
+stress and excess of compression in the upper member at the crown. But the
+bold expedients adopted by the engineer annulled the bending action.
+
+The Garabit viaduct carries the railway near St Flour, in the Cantal
+department, France, at 420 ft. above low water. The deepest part of the
+valley is crossed by an arch of 541 ft. span, and 213 ft. rise. The bridge
+is similar to that at Oporto, also designed by Seyrig. It is formed by a
+crescent-shaped arch, continued on one side by four, on the other side by
+two lattice girder spans, on iron piers. The arch is formed by two lattice
+ribs hinged at the abutments. Its depth at the crown is 33 ft., and its
+centre line follows nearly the parabolic line of pressures. The two arch
+ribs are 65½ ft. apart at the springings and 20½ ft. at the crown. The
+roadway girders are lattice, 17 ft. deep, supported from the arch ribs at
+four points. The total length of the viaduct is 1715 ft. The lattice
+girders of the side spans were first rolled into place, so as to project
+some distance beyond the piers, and then the arch ribs were built out,
+being partly supported by wire-rope cables from the lattice girders above.
+The total weight of ironwork was 3200 tons and the cost £124,000 (_Annales
+des travaux publiques_, 1884).
+
+The Victoria Falls bridge over the Zambezi, designed by Sir Douglas Fox,
+and completed in 1905, is a combination of girder and arch having a total
+length of 650 ft. The centre arch is 500 ft. span, the rise of the crown 90
+ft., and depth at crown 15 ft. The width between centres of ribs of main
+arch is 27½ ft. at crown and 53 ft. 9 in at springings. The curve of the
+main arch is a parabola. The bridge has a roadway of 30 ft. for two lines
+of rails. Each half arch was supported by cables till joined at the centre.
+An electric cableway of 900 ft. span capable of carrying 10 tons was used
+in erection.
+
+12. (g) _Movable Bridges_ can be closed to carry a road or railway or in
+some cases an aqueduct, but can be opened to give free passage to
+navigation. They are of several types:--
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33.]
+
+(1) _Lifting Bridges._--The bridge with its platform is suspended from
+girders above by chains and counterweights at the four corners (fig. 33 a).
+It is lifted vertically to the required height when opened. Bridges of this
+type are not very numerous or important.
+
+(2) _Rolling Bridges._--The girders are longer than the span and the part
+overhanging the abutment is counter-weighted so that the centre of gravity
+is over the abutment when the bridge is rolled forward (fig. 33 b). To fill
+the gap in the approaches when the bridge is rolled forward a frame
+carrying that part of the road is moved into place sideways. At Sunderland,
+the bridge is first lifted by a hydraulic press so as to clear the roadway
+behind, and is then rolled back.
+
+(3) _Draw or Bascule Bridges._--The fortress draw-bridge is the original
+type, in which a single leaf, or bascule, turns round a horizontal hinge at
+one abutment. The bridge when closed is supported on abutments at each end.
+It is raised by chains and counterweights. A more common type is a bridge
+with two leaves or bascules, one hinged at each abutment. When closed [v.04
+p.0544] the bascules are locked at the centre (see fig. 13). In these
+bridges each bascule is prolonged backwards beyond the hinge so as to
+balance at the hinge, the prolongation sinking into the piers when the
+bridge is opened.
+
+(4) _Swing or Turning Bridges._--The largest movable bridges revolve about
+a vertical axis. The bridge is carried on a circular base plate with a
+central pivot and a circular track for a live ring and conical rollers. A
+circular revolving platform rests on the pivot and rollers. A toothed arc
+fixed to the revolving platform or to the live ring serves to give motion
+to the bridge. The main girders rest on the revolving platform, and the
+ends of the bridge are circular arcs fitting the fixed roadway. Three
+arrangements are found: (a) the axis of rotation is on a pier at the centre
+of the river and the bridge is equal armed (fig. 33 c), so that two
+navigation passages are opened simultaneously. (b) The axis of rotation is
+on one abutment, and the bridge is then usually unequal armed (fig. 33 d),
+the shorter arm being over the land. (c) In some small bridges the shorter
+arm is vertical and the bridge turns on a kind of vertical crane post at
+the abutment (fig. 33 e).
+
+(5) _Floating Bridges_, the roadway being carried on pontoons moored in the
+stream.
+
+The movable bridge in its closed position must be proportioned like a fixed
+bridge, but it has also other conditions to fulfil. If it revolves about a
+vertical axis its centre of gravity must always lie in that axis; if it
+rolls the centre of gravity must always lie over the abutment. It must have
+strength to support safely its own overhanging weight when moving.
+
+At Konigsberg there is a road bridge of two fixed spans of 39 ft., and a
+central span of 60 ft. between bearings, or 41 ft. clear, with balanced
+bascules over the centre span. Each bascule consists of two main girders
+with cross girders and stringers. The main girders are hung at each side on
+a horizontal shaft 8-5/8 in. in diameter, and are 6 ft. deep at the hinge,
+diminishing to 1 ft. 7 in. at the centre of the span. The counterweight is
+a depressed cantilever arm 12 ft. long, overlapped by the fixed platform
+which sinks into a recess in the masonry when the bridge opens. In closed
+position the main girders rest on a bed plate on the face of the pier 4 ft.
+3 in. beyond the shaft bearings. The bridge is worked by hydraulic power,
+an accumulator with a load of 34 tons supplying pressure water at 630 lb
+per sq. in. The bridge opens in 15 seconds and closes in 25 seconds.
+
+At the opening span of the Tower bridge (fig. 13) there are four main
+girders in each bascule. They project 100 ft. beyond and 62 ft. 6 in.
+within the face of the piers. Transverse girders and bracings are inserted
+between the main girders at 12 ft. intervals. The floor is of buckled
+plates paved with wood blocks. The arc of rotation is 82°, and the axis of
+rotation is 13 ft. 3 in. inside the face of the piers, and 5 ft. 7 in.
+below the roadway. The weight of ballast in the short arms of the bascules
+is 365 tons. The weight of each leaf including ballast is about 1070 tons.
+The axis is of forged steel 21 in. in diameter and 48 ft. long. The axis
+has eight bearings, consisting of rings of live rollers 4-7/16 in. in
+diameter and 22 in. long. The bascules are rotated by pinions driven by
+hydraulic engines working in steel sectors 42 ft. radius (_Proc. Inst.
+C.E._ cxxvii. p. 35).
+
+As an example of a swing bridge, that between Duluth and Superior at the
+head of Lake Superior over the St Louis river may be described. The centre
+opening is 500 ft., spanned by a turning bridge, 58 ft. wide. The girders
+weighing 2000 tons carry a double track for trains between the girders and
+on each side on cantilevers a trolley track, roadway and footway. The
+bridge can be opened in 2 minutes, and is operated by two large electric
+motors. These have a speed reduction from armature shaft to bridge column
+of 1500 to 1, through four intermediate spur gears and a worm gear. The end
+lifts which transfer the weight of the bridge to the piers when the span is
+closed consist of massive eccentrics having a throw of 4 in. The clearance
+is 2 in., so that the ends are lifted 2 in. This gives a load of 50 tons
+per eccentric. One motor is placed at each end of the span to operate the
+eccentrics and also to release the latches and raise the rails of the steam
+track.
+
+At Riga there is a floating pontoon bridge over the Duna. It consists of
+fourteen rafts, 105 ft. in length, each supported by two pontoons placed 64
+ft. apart. The pairs of rafts are joined by three baulks 15 ft. long laid
+in parallel grooves in the framing. Two spans are arranged for opening
+easily. The total length is 1720 ft. and the width 46 ft. The pontoons are
+of iron, 85½ ft. in length, and their section is elliptical, 10½ ft.
+horizontal and 12 ft. vertical. The displacement of each pontoon is 180
+tons and its weight 22 tons. The mooring chains, weighing 22 lb per ft.,
+are taken from the upstream end of each pontoon to a downstream screw pile
+mooring and from the downstream end to an upstream screw pile.
+
+13. _Transporter Bridges._--This new type of bridge consists of a high
+level bridge from which is suspended a car at a low level. The car receives
+the traffic and conveys it across the river, being caused to travel by
+electric machinery on the high level bridge. Bridges of this type have been
+erected at Portugalete, Bizerta, Rouen, Rochefort and more recently across
+the Mersey between the towns of Widnes and Runcorn.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34.--Widnes and Runcorn Transporter Bridge.]
+
+The Runcorn bridge crosses the Manchester Ship Canal and the Mersey in one
+span of 1000 ft., and four approach spans of 55½ ft. on one side and one
+span on the other. The low-level approach roadways are 35 ft. wide with
+footpaths 6 ft. wide on each side. The supporting structure is a cable
+suspension bridge with stiffening girders. A car is suspended from the
+bridge, carried by a trolley running on the underside of the stiffening
+girders, the car being [v.04 p.0545] propelled electrically from one side
+to the other. The underside of the stiffening girder is 82 ft. above the
+river. The car is 55 ft. long by 24½ ft. wide. The electric motors are
+under the control of the driver in a cabin on the car. The trolley is an
+articulated frame 77 ft. long in five sections coupled together with pins.
+To this are fixed the bearings of the running wheels, fourteen on each
+side. There are two steel-clad series-wound motors of 36 B.H.P. For a test
+load of 120 tons the tractive force is 70 lb per ton, which is sufficient
+for acceleration, and maintaining speed against wind pressure. The brakes
+are magnetic, with auxiliary handbrakes. Electricity is obtained by two gas
+engines (one spare) each of 75 B.H.P.
+
+On the opening day passengers were taken across at the rate of more than
+2000 per hour in addition to a number of vehicles. The time of crossing is
+3 or 4 minutes. The total cost of the structure was £133,000.
+
+14. In the United States few railway companies design or build their own
+bridges. General specifications as to span, loading, &c., are furnished to
+bridge-building companies, which make the design under the direction of
+engineers who are experts in this kind of work. The design, with strain
+sheets and detail drawings, is submitted to the railway engineer with
+estimates. The result is that American bridges are generally of
+well-settled types and their members of uniform design, carefully
+considered with reference to convenient and accurate manufacture. Standard
+patterns of details are largely adopted, and more system is introduced in
+the workshop than is possible where the designs are more varied. Riveted
+plate girders are used up to 50 ft. span, riveted braced girders for spans
+of 50 ft. to 75 ft., and pin-connected girders for longer spans. Since the
+erection of the Forth bridge, cantilever bridges have been extensively
+used, and some remarkable steel arch and suspension bridges have also been
+constructed. Overhead railways are virtually continuous bridge
+constructions, and much attention has been given to a study of the special
+conditions appertaining to that case.
+
+_Substructure._
+
+15. The substructure of a bridge comprises the piers, abutments and
+foundations. These portions usually consist of masonry in some form,
+including under that general head stone masonry, brickwork and concrete.
+Occasionally metal work or woodwork is used for intermediate piers.
+
+When girders form the superstructure, the resultant pressure on the piers
+or abutments is vertical, and the dimensions of these are simply regulated
+by the sufficiency to bear this vertical load.
+
+When arches form the superstructure, the abutment must be so designed as to
+transmit the resultant thrust to the foundation in a safe direction, and so
+distributed that no part may be unduly compressed. The intermediate piers
+should also have considerable stability, so as to counterbalance the thrust
+arising when one arch is loaded while the other is free from load.
+
+For suspension bridges the abutment forming the anchorage must be so
+designed as to be thoroughly stable under the greatest pull which the
+chains can exert. The piers require to be carried above the platform, and
+their design must be modified according to the type of suspension bridge
+adopted. When the resultant pressure is not vertical on the piers these
+must be constructed to meet the inclined pressure. In any stiffened
+suspension bridge the action of the pier will be analogous to that of a
+pier between two arches.
+
+_Concrete in a shell_ is a name which might be applied to all the methods
+of founding a pier which depend on the very valuable property which strong
+hydraulic concrete possesses of setting into a solid mass under water. The
+required space is enclosed by a wooden or iron shell; the soil inside the
+shell is removed by dredging, or some form of mechanical excavator, until
+the formation is reached which is to support the pier; the concrete is then
+shot into the enclosed space from a height of about 10 ft., and rammed down
+in layers about 1 ft. thick; it soon consolidates into a permanent
+artificial stone.
+
+_Piles_ are used as foundations in compressible or loose soil. The heads of
+the piles are sawn off, and a platform of timber or concrete rests on them.
+Cast iron and concrete reinforced piles are now used. _Screw piles_ are
+cast iron piles which are screwed into the soil instead of being driven in.
+At their end is fixed a blade of cast iron from two to eight times the
+diameter of the shaft of the pile; the pitch of the screw varies from
+one-half to one-fourth of the external diameter of the blade.
+
+_Disk piles_ have been used in sand. These piles have a flat flange at the
+bottom, and water is pumped in at the top of the pile, which is weighted to
+prevent it from rising. Sand is thus blown or pumped from below the piles,
+which are thus easily lowered in ground which baffles all attempts to drive
+in piles by blows. In ground which is of the nature of quicksand, piles
+will often slowly rise to their original position after each blow.
+
+_Wells._--In some soils foundations may be obtained by the device of
+building a masonry casing like that of a well and excavating the soil
+inside; the casing gradually sinks and the masonry is continued at the
+surface. This method is applicable in running sands. The interior of the
+well is generally filled up with concrete or brick when the required depth
+has been reached.
+
+_Piers and Abutments._--Piers and abutments are of masonry, brickwork, or
+cast or wrought iron. In the last case they consist of any number of hollow
+cylindrical pillars, vertical or raking, turned and planed at the ends and
+united by a projection or socket and by flanges and bolts. The pillars are
+strengthened against lateral yielding by horizontal and diagonal bracing.
+In some cases the piers are cast iron cylinders 10 ft. or more in diameter
+filled with concrete.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35.--Cylinder, Charing Cross Bridge.]
+
+_Cylinder Foundations._--Formerly when bridge piers had to be placed where
+a firm bearing stratum could only be reached at a considerable depth, a
+timber cofferdam was used in which piles were driven down to the firm
+stratum. On the piles the masonry piers were built. Many bridges so
+constructed have stood for centuries. A great change of method arose when
+iron cylinders and in some cases brick cylinders or wells were adopted for
+foundations. These can be sunk to almost any depth or brought up to any
+height, and are filled with Portland cement concrete. They are sometimes
+excavated by grabs. Sometimes they are closed in and kept free of water by
+compressed air so that excavation work can be carried on inside them (fig.
+35). Sometimes in silty river beds they are sunk 100 ft. or more, for [v.04
+p.0546] security against deep scouring of the river-bed in floods. In the
+case of the Empress bridge over the Sutlej each pier consisted of three
+brick wells, 19 ft. in diameter, sunk 110 ft. The piers of the Benares
+bridge were single iron caissons, 65 ft. by 28 ft., sunk about 100 ft.,
+lined with brick and filled with concrete. At the Forth bridge iron
+caissons 70 ft. in diameter were sunk about 40 ft. into the bed of the
+Forth. In this case the compressed air process was used.
+
+16. _Erection._--Consideration of the local conditions affecting the
+erection of bridges is always important, and sometimes becomes a
+controlling factor in the determination of the design. The methods of
+erection may be classed as--(1) erection on staging or falsework; (2)
+floating to the site and raising; (3) rolling out from one abutment; (4)
+building out member by member, the completed part forming the stage from
+which additions are handled.
+
+(1) In erection on staging, the materials available determine the character
+of the staging; stacks of timber, earth banks, or built-up staging of piles
+and trestles have all been employed, also iron staging, which can be
+rapidly erected and moved from site to site. The most ordinary type of
+staging consists of timber piles at nearly equal distances of 20 ft. to 30
+ft., carrying a timber platform, on which the bridge is erected. Sometimes
+a wide space is left for navigation, and the platform at this part is
+carried by a timber and iron truss. When the headway is great or the river
+deep, timber-braced piers or clusters of piles at distances of 50 ft. to
+100 ft. may be used. These carry temporary trusses of timber or steel. The
+Kuilenburg bridge in Holland, which has a span of 492 ft., was erected on a
+timber staging of this kind, containing 81,000 cub. ft. of timber and 5
+tons of bolts. The bridge superstructure weighed 2150 tons, so that 38 cub.
+ft. of timber were used per ton of superstructure.
+
+(2) The Britannia and Conway bridges were built on staging on shore, lifted
+by pontoons, floated out to their position between the piers, and lastly
+lifted into place by hydraulic presses. The Moerdyk bridge in Holland, with
+14 spans of 328 ft., was erected in a similar way. The convenience of
+erecting girders on shore is very great, but there is some risk in the
+floating operations and a good deal of hauling plant is required.
+
+(3) If a bridge consists of girders continuous over two or more spans, it
+may be put together on the embankment at one end and rolled over the piers.
+In some cases hauling tackle is used, in others power is applied by levers
+and ratchets to the rollers on which the girders travel. In such rolling
+operations the girder is subjected to straining actions different from
+those which it is intended to resist, and parts intended for tension may be
+in compression; hence it may need to be stiffened by timber during rolling.
+The bending action on the bottom boom in passing over the rollers is also
+severe. Modifications of the system have been adopted for bridges with
+discontinuous spans. In narrow ravines a bridge of one span may be rolled
+out, if the projecting end is supported on a temporary suspension cable
+anchored on each side. The free end is slung to a block running on the
+cable. If the bridge is erected when the river is nearly dry a travelling
+stage may be constructed to carry the projecting end of the girder while it
+is hauled across, the other end resting on one abutment. Sometimes a girder
+is rolled out about one-third of its length, and then supported on a
+floating pontoon.
+
+(4) Some types of bridge can be built out from the abutments, the completed
+part forming an erecting stage on which lifting appliances are fixed.
+Generally, in addition, wire cables are stretched across the span, from
+which lifting tackle is suspended. In bridges so erected the straining
+action during erection must be studied, and material must be added to
+resist erecting stresses. In the case of the St Louis bridge, half arches
+were built out on either side of each pier, so that the load balanced.
+Skeleton towers on the piers supported chains attached to the arched ribs
+at suitable points. In spite of careful provision, much difficulty was
+experienced in making the connexion at the crown, from the expansion due to
+temperature changes. The Douro bridge was similarly erected. The girders of
+the side spans were rolled out so as to overhang the great span by 105 ft.,
+and formed a platform from which parts of the arch could be suspended.
+Dwarf towers, built on the arch ring at the fifth panel from either side,
+helped to support the girder above, in erecting the centre part of the arch
+(Seyrig, _Proc. Inst. C.E._ lxiii. p. 177). The great cantilever bridges
+have been erected in the same way, and they are specially adapted for
+erection by building out.
+
+_Straining Actions and Working Stresses._
+
+17. In metal bridges wrought iron has been replaced by mild steel--a
+stronger, tougher and better material. Ingot metal or mild steel was
+sometimes treacherous when first introduced, and accidents occurred, the
+causes of which were obscure. In fact, small differences of composition or
+variations in thermal treatment during manufacture involve relatively large
+differences of quality. Now it is understood that care must be taken in
+specifying the exact quality and in testing the material supplied.
+Structural wrought iron has a tenacity of 20 to 22½ tons per sq. in. in the
+direction of rolling, and an ultimate elongation of 8 or 10% in 8 in.
+Across the direction of rolling the tenacity is about 18 tons per sq. in.,
+and the elongation 3% in 8 in. Steel has only a small difference of quality
+in different directions. There is still controversy as to what degree of
+hardness, or (which is nearly the same thing) what percentage of carbon,
+can be permitted with safety in steel for structures.
+
+The qualities of steel used may be classified as follows:--(a) Soft steel,
+having a tenacity of 22½ to 26 tons per sq. in., and an elongation of 32 to
+24% in 8 in. (b) Medium steel, having a tenacity of 26 to 34 tons per sq.
+in., and 28 to 25% elongation. (c) Moderately hard steel, having a tenacity
+of 34 to 37 tons per sq. in., and 17% elongation, (d) Hard steel, having a
+tenacity of 37 to 40 tons per sq. in., and 10% elongation. Soft steel is
+used for rivets always, and sometimes for the whole superstructure of a
+bridge, but medium steel more generally for the plates, angle bars, &c.,
+the weight of the bridge being then reduced by about 7% for a given factor
+of safety. Moderately hard steel has been used for the larger members of
+long-span bridges. Hard steel, if used at all, is used only for compression
+members, in which there is less risk of flaws extending than in tension
+members. With medium or moderately hard steel all rivet holes should be
+drilled, or punched 1/8 in. less in diameter than the rivet and reamed out,
+so as to remove the ring of material strained by the punch.
+
+In the specification for bridge material, drawn up by the British
+Engineering Standards Committee, it is provided that the steel shall be
+acid or basic open-hearth steel, containing not more than 0.06% of sulphur
+or phosphorus. Plates, angles and bars, other than rivet bars, must have a
+tensile strength of 28 to 32 tons per sq. in., with an elevation of 20% in
+8 in. Rivet bars tested on a gauge length eight times the diameter must
+have a tensile strength of 26 to 30 tons per sq. in. and an elongation of
+25%.
+
+18. _Straining Actions._--The external forces acting on a bridge may be
+classified as follows:--
+
+(1) The _live_ or _temporary load_, for road bridges the weight of a dense
+crowd uniformly distributed, or the weight of a heavy wagon or traction
+engine; for railway bridges the weight of the heaviest train likely to come
+on the bridge. (2) An allowance is sometimes made for _impact_, that is the
+dynamical action of the live load due to want of vertical balance in the
+moving parts of locomotives, to irregularities of the permanent way, or to
+yielding of the structure. (3) The _dead load_ comprises the weight of the
+main girders, flooring and wind bracing, or the total weight of the
+superstructure exclusive of any part directly carried by the piers. This is
+usually treated as uniformly distributed over the span. (4) The _horizontal
+pressure_ due to a wind blowing transversely to the span, which becomes of
+importance in long and high bridges. (5) The _longitudinal drag_ due to the
+friction of a train when braked, about one-seventh of the weight of the
+train. (6) On a curved bridge the _centrifugal load_ due to the radical
+acceleration of the train. If w is the weight of a locomotive in tons, r
+the radius of curvature of the track, v the velocity in feet per sec.; then
+the horizontal force exerted on the bridge is wv^2/gr tons. (7) In some
+cases, especially in arch and suspension bridges, changes of temperature
+set up stresses equivalent to those produced by an external load. In Europe
+a variation of temperature of 70° C. or 126° F. is commonly assumed. For
+this the expansion is about 1 in. in 100 ft. Generally a structure should
+be anchored at one point and free to move if possible in other directions.
+Roughly, if expansion is prevented, a stress of one ton per sq. in. is set
+up in steel structures for each 12° change of temperature.
+
+i. _Live Load on Road Bridges._--A dense crowd of people may be taken as a
+uniform load of 80 to 120 lb per sq. ft. But in recent times the weight of
+traction engines and wagons which pass over bridges has increased, and this
+kind of load generally produces greater straining action than a crowd of
+people. In manufacturing districts and near large towns loads of 30 tons
+may come on road bridges, and county and borough authorities insist on
+provision being made for such loads. In Switzerland roads are divided into
+three classes according to their importance, and the following loads are
+prescribed, the designer having to provide sufficient strength either for a
+uniformly distributed crowd, or for a heavy wagon anywhere on the
+roadway:-- [v.04 p.0547]
+
+                     |      Crowd,     |          Wagon,
+                     |  lb per sq. ft. |      tons per axle.
+                     |                 |
+  Main Roads ....... |       92        | 10 with 13 ft. wheel base
+  Secondary Roads .. |       72        |  6  "   10  "      "
+  Other Roads ...... |       51        |  3  "    8  "      "
+
+In England still larger loads are now provided for. J.C. Inglis (_Proc.
+Inst. C.E._ cxli. p. 35) has considered two cases--(a) a traction engine
+and boiler trolley, and (b) a traction engine and trucks loaded with
+granite. He has calculated the equivalent load per foot of span which would
+produce the same maximum bending moments. The following are some of the
+results:--
+
+  Span Ft.                             |10. |20. |30. |40. |50. |
+                                       |    |    |    |    |    |
+  Equivalent load in tons per ft. run, |    |    |    |    |    |
+  Case a ............................. |1.75|0.95|0.70|0.73|0.72|
+  Do. Case b ......................... |3.25|1.7 |1.3 |1.2 |1.15|
+
+Large as these loads are on short spans, they are not more than must often
+be provided for.
+
+_Live Load on Railway Bridges._--The live load is the weight of the
+heaviest train which can come on the bridge. In the earlier girder bridges
+the live load was taken to be equivalent to a uniform load of 1 ton per
+foot run for each line of way. At that time locomotives on railways of 4
+ft. 8½ in. gauge weighed at most 35 to 45 tons, and their length between
+buffers was such that the average load did not exceed 1 ton per foot run.
+Trains of wagons did not weigh more than three-quarters of a ton per foot
+run when most heavily loaded. The weights of engines and wagons are now
+greater, and in addition it is recognized that the concentration of the
+loading at the axles gives rise to greater straining action, especially in
+short bridges, than the same load uniformly distributed along the span.
+Hence many of the earlier bridges have had to be strengthened to carry
+modern traffic. The following examples of some of the heaviest locomotives
+on English railways is given by W.B. Farr (_Proc. Inst. C.E._ cxli. p.
+12):--
+
+  _Passenger Engines._
+
+  Total weights, tons ......... 84.35 | 98.90 | 91.90 | 85.48
+  Tons per ft. over all .......  1.58 |  1.71 |  1.62 |  1.61
+  Tons per ft. of wheel base ..  1.92 |  2.04 |  1.97 |  1.95
+  Maximum axle load, tons ..... 19.00 | 16.00 | 18.70 | 18.50
+
+  _Goods Engines._
+
+  Total weight, tons .......... 77.90 | 78.80 | 76.46 | 75.65
+  Tons per ft. over all .......  1.54 |  1.50 |  1.54 |  1.51
+  Tons per ft. of wheel base ..  2.02 |  2.02 |  2.03 |  2.00
+  Maximum axle load, tons ..... 15.90 | 16.00 | 13.65 | 15.50
+
+  _Tank Engines._
+
+  Total weight, tons .......... 53.80 | 58.61 | 60.80 | 47.00
+  Tons per ft. over all .......  1.60 |  1.68 |  1.70 |  1.55
+  Tons per ft. of wheel base ..  2.45 |  2.52 |  2.23 |  3.03
+  Maximum axle load, tons ..... 17.54 | 15.29 | 17.10 | 15.77
+
+Farr has drawn diagrams of bending moment for forty different very heavy
+locomotives on different spans, and has determined for each case a uniform
+load which at every point would produce as great a bending moment as the
+actual wheel loads. The following short abstract gives the equivalent
+uniform load which produces bending moments as great as those of any of the
+engines calculated:--
+
+  Span in Ft. |   Load per ft. run equivalent
+              |  to actual Wheel Loads in Tons,
+              |         for each Track.
+              |
+      5.0     |              7.6
+     10.0     |              4.85
+     20.0     |              3.20
+     30.0     |              2.63
+     50.0     |              2.24
+    100.0     |              1.97
+
+Fig. 36 gives the loads per axle and the distribution of loads in some
+exceptionally heavy modern British locomotives.
+
+[Illustration: Express Passenger Engine, G.N. Ry.]
+
+[Illustration: Goods Engine, L. & Y. Ry.]
+
+[Illustration: Passenger Engine, Cal. Ry.
+FIG. 36.]
+
+[v.04 p.0548] In Austria the official regulations require that railway
+bridges shall be designed for at least the following live loads per foot
+run and per track:--
+
+  |      Span.     |       Live Load in Tons.      |
+  | - - - - - - - -|- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -|
+  |Metres. |  Ft.  | Per metre run. | Per ft. run. |
+  |        |       |                |              |
+  |   1    |  3.3  |      20        |      6.1     |
+  |   2    |  6.6  |      15        |      4.6     |
+  |   5    | 16.4  |      10        |      3.1     |
+  |  20    | 65.6  |       5        |      1.5     |
+  |  30    | 98.4  |       4        |      1.2     |
+
+It would be simpler and more convenient in designing short bridges if,
+instead of assuming an equivalent uniform rolling load, agreement could be
+come to as to a typical heavy locomotive which would produce stresses as
+great as any existing locomotive on each class of railway. Bridges would
+then be designed for these selected loads, and the process would be safer
+in dealing with flooring girders and shearing forces than the assumption of
+a uniform load.
+
+Some American locomotives are very heavy. Thus a consolidation engine may
+weigh 126 tons with a length over buffers of 57 ft., corresponding to an
+average load of 2.55 tons per ft. run. Also long ore wagons are used which
+weigh loaded two tons per ft. run. J.A.L. Waddell (_De Pontibus_, New York,
+1898) proposes to arrange railways in seven classes, according to the live
+loads which may be expected from the character of their traffic, and to
+construct bridges in accordance with this classification. For the lightest
+class, he takes a locomotive and tender of 93.5 tons, 52 ft. between
+buffers (average load 1.8 tons per ft. run), and for the heaviest a
+locomotive and tender weighing 144.5 tons, 52 ft. between buffers (average
+load 2.77 tons per ft. run). Wagons he assumes to weigh for the lightest
+class 1.3 tons per ft. run and for the heaviest 1.9 tons. He takes as the
+live load for a bridge two such engines, followed by a train of wagons
+covering the span. Waddell's tons are short tons of 2000 lb.
+
+ii. _Impact._--If a vertical load is imposed suddenly, but without
+velocity, work is done during deflection, and the deformation and stress
+are momentarily double those due to the same load at rest on the structure.
+No load of exactly this kind is ever applied to a bridge. But if a load is
+so applied that the deflection increases with speed, the stress is greater
+than that due to a very gradually applied load, and vibrations about a mean
+position are set up. The rails not being absolutely straight and smooth,
+centrifugal and lurching actions occur which alter the distribution of the
+loading. Again, rapidly changing forces, due to the moving parts of the
+engine which are unbalanced vertically, act on the bridge; and, lastly,
+inequalities of level at the rail ends give rise to shocks. For all these
+reasons the stresses due to the live load are greater than those due to the
+same load resting quietly on the bridge. This increment is larger on the
+flooring girders than on the main ones, and on short main girders than on
+long ones. The impact stresses depend so much on local conditions that it
+is difficult to fix what allowance should be made. E.H. Stone (_Trans. Am.
+Soc. of C.E._ xli. p. 467) collated some measurements of deflection taken
+during official trials of Indian bridges, and found the increment of
+deflection due to impact to depend on the ratio of dead to live load. By
+plotting and averaging he obtained the following results:--
+
+_Excess of Deflection and straining Action of a moving Load over that due
+to a resting Load._
+
+  Dead load in per cent |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+     of total load .... | 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 70 | 90 |
+  Live load in per cent |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+     of total load .... | 90 | 80 | 70 | 60 | 50 | 30 | 10 |
+  Ratio of live to dead |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+     load ............. |  9 |  4 |2.3 |1.5 |1.0 |0.43|0.10|
+  Excess of deflection  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+     and stress due to  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+     moving load        |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+     per cent ......... | 23 | 13 |  8 |5.5 |4.0 |1.6 |0.3 |
+
+These results are for the centre deflections of main girders, but Stone
+infers that the augmentation of stress for any member, due to causes
+included in impact allowance, will be the same percentage for the same
+ratios of live to dead load stresses. Valuable measurements of the
+deformations of girders and tension members due to moving trains have been
+made by S.W. Robinson (_Trans. Am. Soc. C.E._ xvi.) and by F.E. Turneaure
+(_Trans. Am. Soc. C.E._ xli.). The latter used a recording deflectometer
+and two recording extensometers. The observations are difficult, and the
+inertia of the instrument is liable to cause error, but much care was
+taken. The most striking conclusions from the results are that the
+locomotive balance weights have a large effect in causing vibration, and
+next, that in certain cases the vibrations are cumulative, reaching a value
+greater than that due to any single impact action. Generally: (1) At speeds
+less than 25 m. an hour there is not much vibration. (2) The increase of
+deflection due to impact at 40 or 50 m. an hour is likely to reach 40 to
+50% for girder spans of less than 50 ft. (3) This percentage decreases
+rapidly for longer spans, becoming about 25% for 75-ft. spans. (4) The
+increase per cent of boom stresses due to impact is about the same as that
+of deflection; that in web bracing bars is rather greater. (5) Speed of
+train produces no effect on the mean deflection, but only on the magnitude
+of the vibrations.
+
+A purely empirical allowance for impact stresses has been proposed,
+amounting to 20% of the live load stresses for floor stringers; 15% for
+floor cross girders; and for main girders, 10% for 40-ft. spans, and 5% for
+100-ft. spans. These percentages are added to the live load stresses.
+
+iii. _Dead Load._--The dead load consists of the weight of main girders,
+flooring and wind-bracing. It is generally reckoned to be uniformly
+distributed, but in large spans the distribution of weight in the main
+girders should be calculated and taken into account. The weight of the
+bridge flooring depends on the type adopted. Road bridges vary so much in
+the character of the flooring that no general rule can be given. In railway
+bridges the weight of sleepers, rails, &c., is 0.2 to 0.25 tons per ft. run
+for each line of way, while the rail girders, cross girders, &c., weigh
+0.15 to 0.2 tons. If a footway is added about 0.4 ton per ft. run may be
+allowed for this. The weight of main girders increases with the span, and
+there is for any type of bridge a limiting span beyond which the dead load
+stresses exceed the assigned limit of working stress.
+
+Let W_l be the total live load, W_f the total flooring load on a bridge of
+span l, both being considered for the present purpose to be uniform per ft.
+run. Let k(W_l+W_f) be the weight of main girders designed to carry
+W_l+W_f, but not their own weight in addition. Then
+
+  W_g = (W_l+W_f)(k+k^2+k^3 ...)
+
+will be the weight of main girders to carry W_l+W_f and their own weight
+(Buck, _Proc. Inst. C.E._ lxvii. p. 331). Hence,
+
+  W_g = (W_l+W_f)k/(1-k).
+
+Since in designing a bridge W_l+W_f is known, k(W_l+W_f) can be found from
+a provisional design in which the weight W_g is neglected. The actual
+bridge must have the section of all members greater than those in the
+provisional design in the ratio k/(1-k).
+
+Waddell (_De Pontibus_) gives the following convenient empirical relations.
+Let w_1, w_2 be the weights of main girders per ft. run for a live load p
+per ft. run and spans l_1, l_2. Then
+
+  w_2/w_1 = ½ [l_2/l_1+(l_2/l_1)^2].
+
+Now let w_1', w_2' be the girder weights per ft. run for spans l_1, l_2,
+and live loads p' per ft. run. Then
+
+  w_2'/w_2 = 1/5(1+4p'/p)
+
+  w_2'/w_1 = 1/10[l_2/l_1+(l_2/l_1)^2](1+4p'/p)
+
+A partially rational approximate formula for the weight of main girders is
+the following (Unwin, _Wrought Iron Bridges and Roofs_, 1869, p. 40):--
+
+Let w = total live load per ft. run of girder; w_2 the weight of platform
+per ft. run; w_3 the weight of main girders per ft. run, all in tons; l =
+span in ft.; s = average stress in tons per sq. in. on gross section of
+metal; d = depth of girder at centre in ft.; r = ratio of span to depth of
+girder so that r = l/d. Then
+
+  w_3 = (w_1+w_2)l^2/(Cds-l_2) = (w_1+w_2)lr/(Cs-lr),
+
+where C is a constant for any type of girder. It is not easy to fix the
+average stress s per sq. in. of gross section. Hence the formula is more
+useful in the form
+
+  w = (w_1+w_2)l^2/(Kd-l^2) = (w_1+w_2)lr/(K-lr)
+
+where K = (w_1+w_2+w_3)lr/w_3 is to be deduced from the data of some bridge
+previously designed with the same working stresses. From some known
+examples, C varies from 1500 to 1800 for iron braced parallel or bowstring
+girders, and from 1200 to 1500 for similar girders of steel. K = 6000 to
+7200 for iron and = 7200 to 9000 for steel bridges.
+
+iv. _Wind Pressure._--Much attention has been given to wind action since
+the disaster to the Tay bridge in 1879. As to the maximum wind pressure on
+small plates normal to the wind, there is not much doubt. Anemometer
+observations show that pressures of 30 lb per sq. ft. occur in storms
+annually in many localities, and that occasionally higher pressures are
+recorded in exposed positions. Thus at Bidstone, Liverpool, where the gauge
+has an exceptional exposure, a pressure of 80 lb per sq. ft. has been
+observed. In tornadoes, such as that at St Louis in 1896, it has been
+calculated, from the stability of structures overturned, that pressures of
+45 to 90 lb per sq. ft. must have been reached. As to anemometer pressures,
+it should be observed that the recorded pressure is made up of a positive
+front and negative (vacuum) back pressure, but in structures the latter
+must be absent or only partially developed. Great difference of opinion
+exists as to whether on large surfaces the average pressure per sq. ft. is
+as great as on small surfaces, such as anemometer plates. The experiments
+of Sir B. Baker at the Forth bridge showed that on a surface 30 ft. × 15
+ft. the intensity of pressure was less than on a similarly exposed
+anemometer plate. In the case of bridges there is the further difficulty
+that some surfaces partially [v.04 p.0549] shield other surfaces; one
+girder, for instance, shields the girder behind it (see _Brit. Assoc.
+Report_, 1884). In 1881 a committee of the Board of Trade decided that the
+maximum wind pressure on a vertical surface in Great Britain should be
+assumed in designing structures to be 56 lb per sq. ft. For a plate girder
+bridge of less height than the train, the wind is to be taken to act on a
+surface equal to the projected area of one girder and the exposed part of a
+train covering the bridge. In the case of braced girder bridges, the wind
+pressure is taken as acting on a continuous surface extending from the
+rails to the top of the carriages, plus the vertical projected area of so
+much of one girder as is exposed above the train or below the rails. In
+addition, an allowance is made for pressure on the leeward girder according
+to a scale. The committee recommended that a factor of safety of 4 should
+be taken for wind stresses. For safety against overturning they considered
+a factor of 2 sufficient. In the case of bridges not subject to Board of
+Trade inspection, the allowance for wind pressure varies in different
+cases. C. Shaler Smith allows 300 lb per ft. run for the pressure on the
+side of a train, and in addition 30 lb per sq. ft. on twice the vertical
+projected area of one girder, treating the pressure on the train as a
+travelling load. In the case of bridges of less than 50 ft. span he also
+provides strength to resist a pressure of 50 lb per sq. ft. on twice the
+vertical projection of one truss, no train being supposed to be on the
+bridge.
+
+19. _Stresses Permitted._--For a long time engineers held the convenient
+opinion that, if the total dead and live load stress on any section of a
+structure (of iron) did not exceed 5 tons per sq. in., ample safety was
+secured. It is no longer possible to design by so simple a rule. In an
+interesting address to the British Association in 1885, Sir B. Baker
+described the condition of opinion as to the safe limits of stress as
+chaotic. "The old foundations," he said, "are shaken, and engineers have
+not come to an agreement respecting the rebuilding of the structure. The
+variance in the strength of existing bridges is such as to be apparent to
+the educated eye without any calculation. In the present day engineers are
+in accord as to the principles of estimating the magnitude of the stresses
+on the members of a structure, but not so in proportioning the members to
+resist those stresses. The practical result is that a bridge which would be
+passed by the English Board of Trade would require to be strengthened 5% in
+some parts and 60% in others, before it would be accepted by the German
+government, or by any of the leading railway companies in America." Sir B.
+Baker then described the results of experiments on repetition of stress,
+and added that "hundreds of existing bridges which carry twenty trains a
+day with perfect safety would break down quickly under twenty trains an
+hour. This fact was forced on my attention nearly twenty-five years ago by
+the fracture of a number of girders of ordinary strength under a
+five-minutes' train service."
+
+Practical experience taught engineers that though 5 tons per sq. in. for
+iron, or 6½ tons per sq. in. for steel, was safe or more than safe for long
+bridges with large ratio of dead to live load, it was not safe for short
+ones in which the stresses are mainly due to live load, the weight of the
+bridge being small. The experiments of A. Wöhler, repeated by Johann
+Bauschinger, Sir B. Baker and others, show that the breaking stress of a
+bar is not a fixed quantity, but depends on the range of variation of
+stress to which it is subjected, if that variation is repeated a very large
+number of times. Let K be the breaking strength of a bar per unit of
+section, when it is loaded once gradually to breaking. This may be termed
+the statical breaking strength. Let k_{max.} be the breaking strength of
+the same bar when subjected to stresses varying from k_{max.} to k_{min.}
+alternately and repeated an indefinitely great number of times; k_{min.} is
+to be reckoned + if of the same kind as k_{max.} and - if of the opposite
+kind (tension or thrust). The range of stress is therefore
+k_{max.}-k_{min.}, if the stresses are both of the same kind, and
+k_{max.}+k_{min.}, if they are of opposite kinds. Let [Delta] = k_{max.} ±
+k_{min.} = the range of stress, where [Delta] is always positive. Then
+Wöhler's results agree closely with the rule,
+
+  k_{max.} = ½[Delta]+[root](K²-n[Delta]K),
+
+where n is a constant which varies from 1.3 to 2 in various qualities of
+iron and steel. For ductile iron or mild steel it may be taken as 1.5. For
+a statical load, range of stress nil, [Delta] = 0, k_{max.} = K, the
+statical breaking stress. For a bar so placed that it is alternately loaded
+and the load removed, [Delta] = k_{max.} and k_{max.} = 0.6 K. For a bar
+subjected to alternate tension and compression of equal amount, [Delta] = 2
+f_{max.} and k_{max.} = 0.33 K. The safe working stress in these different
+cases is k_{max.} divided by the factor of safety. It is sometimes said
+that a bar is "fatigued" by repeated straining. The real nature of the
+action is not well understood, but the word fatigue may be used, if it is
+not considered to imply more than that the breaking stress under repetition
+of loading diminishes as the range of variation increases.
+
+It was pointed out as early as 1869 (Unwin, _Wrought Iron Bridges and
+Roofs_) that a rational method of fixing the working stress, so far as
+knowledge went at that time, would be to make it depend on the ratio of
+live to dead load, and in such a way that the factor of safety for the live
+load stresses was double that for the dead load stresses. Let A be the dead
+load and B the live load, producing stress in a bar; [rho] = B/A the ratio
+of live to dead load; f_1 the safe working limit of stress for a bar
+subjected to a dead load only and f the safe working stress in any other
+case. Then
+
+  f_1 (A+B)/(A+2B) = f_1(1+[rho])/(1+2[rho]).
+
+The following table gives values of f so computed on the assumption that
+f_1 = 7½ tons per sq. in. for iron and 9 tons per sq. in. for steel.
+
+_Working Stress for combined Dead and Live Load. Factor of Safety twice as
+great for Live Load as for Dead Load._
+
+  ----------------------+-------+----------+-----------------------------+
+                        | Ratio | 1+[rho]  |Values of f, tons per sq. in.|
+                        | [rho] | -------  +-----------------------------+
+                        |       | 1+2[rho] |      Iron.     | Mild Steel.|
+  ----------------------+-------+----------+----------------+------------+
+  All dead load         |     0 |   1.00   |       7.5      |     9.0    |
+                        |   .25 |   0.83   |       6.2      |     7.5    |
+                        |   .33 |   0.78   |       5.8      |     7.0    |
+                        |   .50 |   0.75   |       5.6      |     6.8    |
+                        |   .66 |   0.71   |       5.3      |     6.4    |
+  Live load = Dead load |  1.00 |   0.66   |       4.9      |     5.9    |
+                        |  2.00 |   0.60   |       4.5      |     5.4    |
+                        |  4.00 |   0.56   |       4.2      |     5.0    |
+  All live load         | [inf] |   0.50   |       3.7      |     4.5    |
+  ----------------------+-------+----------+----------------+------------+
+
+Bridge sections designed by this rule differ little from those designed by
+formulae based directly on Wöhler's experiments. This rule has been revived
+in America, and appears to be increasingly relied on in bridge-designing.
+(See _Trans. Am. Soc. C.E._ xli. p. 156.)
+
+The method of J.J. Weyrauch and W. Launhardt, based on an empirical
+expression for Wöhler's law, has been much used in bridge designing (see
+_Proc. Inst. C.E._ lxiii. p. 275). Let t be the _statical breaking
+strength_ of a bar, loaded once gradually up to fracture (t = breaking load
+divided by original area of section); u the breaking strength of a bar
+loaded and unloaded an indefinitely great number of times, the stress
+varying from u to 0 alternately (this is termed the _primitive strength_);
+and, lastly, let s be the breaking strength of a bar subjected to an
+indefinitely great number of repetitions of stresses equal and opposite in
+sign (tension and thrust), so that the stress ranges alternately from s to
+-s. This is termed the _vibration strength_. Wöhler's and Bauschinger's
+experiments give values of t, u, and s, for some materials. If a bar is
+subjected to alternations of stress having the range [Delta] =
+f_{max.}-f_{min.}, then, by Wöhler's law, the bar will ultimately break, if
+
+  f_{max.} = F[Delta], . . . (1)
+
+where F is some unknown function. Launhardt found that, for stresses always
+of the same kind, F = (t-u)/(t-f_{max.}) approximately agreed with
+experiment. For stresses of different kinds Weyrauch found F =
+(u-s)/(2u-s-f_{max.}) to be similarly approximate. Now let
+f_{max.}/f_{min.} = [phi], where [phi] is + or - according as the stresses
+are of the same or opposite signs. Putting the values of F in (1) and
+solving for f_{max.}, we get for the breaking stress of a bar subjected to
+repetition of varying stress,
+
+  f_{max.} = u(1+(t-u)[phi]/u)   [Stresses of same sign.]
+  f_{max.} = u(1+(u-s)[phi]/u)   [Stresses of opposite sign.]
+
+The working stress in any case is f_{max.} divided by a factor of safety.
+Let that factor be 3. Then Wöhler's results for iron and Bauschinger's for
+steel give the following equations for tension or thrust:--
+
+  Iron, working stress, f = 4.4 (1+½[phi])
+  Steel, working stress, f = 5.87 (1+½[phi]).
+
+In these equations [phi] is to have its + or - value according to the case
+considered. For shearing stresses the working stress may have 0.8 of its
+value for tension. The following table gives values of the working stress
+calculated by these equations:--
+
+_Working Stress for Tension or Thrust by Launhardt and Weyrauch Formula._
+
+  ------------------------+-------+-----------+--------------------+
+                          | [phi] |     [phi] | Working Stress f,  |
+                          |       | 1 + ----- |  tons per sq. in.  |
+                          |       |       2   +--------------------+
+                          |       |           |  Iron.   | Steel.  |
+  ------------------------+-------+-----------+--------------------+
+  All dead load           |  1.0  |   1.5     |   6.60   |  8.80   |
+                          |  0.75 |   1.375   |   6.05   |  8.07   |
+                          |  0.50 |   1.25    |   5.50   |  7.34   |
+                          |  0.25 |   1.125   |   4.95   |  6.60   |
+  All live load           |  0.00 |   1.00    |   4.40   |  5.87   |
+                          | -0.25 |   0.875   |   3.85   |  5.14   |
+                          | -0.50 |   0.75    |   3.30   |  4.40   |
+                          | -0.75 |   0.625   |   2.75   |  3.67   |
+  Equal stresses + and -  | -1.00 |   0.500   |   2.20   |  2.93   |
+  ------------------------+-------+-----------+--------------------+
+
+[v.04 p.0550] To compare this with the previous table, [phi] = (A+B)/A =
+1+[rho]. Except when the limiting stresses are of opposite sign, the two
+tables agree very well. In bridge work this occurs only in some of the
+bracing bars.
+
+It is a matter of discussion whether, if fatigue is allowed for by the
+Weyrauch method, an additional allowance should be made for impact. There
+was no impact in Wöhler's experiments, and therefore it would seem rational
+to add the impact allowance to that for fatigue; but in that case the
+bridge sections become larger than experience shows to be necessary. Some
+engineers escape this difficulty by asserting that Wöhler's results are not
+applicable to bridge work. They reject the allowance for fatigue (that is,
+the effect of repetition) and design bridge members for the total dead and
+live load, plus a large allowance for impact varied according to some
+purely empirical rule. (See Waddell, _De Pontibus_, p.7.) Now in applying
+Wöhler's law, f_{max.} for any bridge member is found for the maximum
+possible live load, a live load which though it may sometimes come on the
+bridge and must therefore be provided for, is not the usual live load to
+which the bridge is subjected. Hence the range of stress,
+f_{max.}-f_{min.}, from which the working stress is deduced, is not the
+ordinary range of stress which is repeated a practically infinite number of
+times, but is a range of stress to which the bridge is subjected only at
+comparatively long intervals. Hence practically it appears probable that
+the allowance for fatigue made in either of the tables above is sufficient
+to cover the ordinary effects of impact also.
+
+English bridge-builders are somewhat hampered in adopting rational limits
+of working stress by the rules of the Board of Trade. Nor do they all
+accept the guidance of Wöhler's law. The following are some examples of
+limits adopted. For the Dufferin bridge (steel) the working stress was
+taken at 6.5 tons per sq. in. in bottom booms and diagonals, 6.0 tons in
+top booms, 5.0 tons in verticals and long compression members. For the
+Stanley bridge at Brisbane the limits were 6.5 tons per sq. in. in
+compression boom, 7.0 tons in tension boom, 5.0 tons in vertical struts,
+6.5 tons in diagonal ties, 8.0 tons in wind bracing, and 6.5 tons in cross
+and rail girders. In the new Tay bridge the limit of stress is generally 5
+tons per sq. in., but in members in which the stress changes sign 4 tons
+per sq. in. In the Forth bridge for members in which the stress varied from
+0 to a maximum frequently, the limit was 5.0 tons per sq. in., or if the
+stress varied rarely 5.6 tons per sq. in.; for members subjected to
+alternations of tension and thrust frequently 3.3 tons per sq. in. or 5
+tons per sq. in. if the alternations were infrequent. The shearing area of
+rivets in tension members was made 1½ times the useful section of plate in
+tension. For compression members the shearing area of rivets in butt-joints
+was made half the useful section of plate in compression.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37.]
+
+20. _Determination of Stresses in the Members of Bridges._--It is
+convenient to consider beam girder or truss bridges, and it is the stresses
+in the main girders which primarily require to be determined. A main girder
+consists of an upper and lower flange, boom or chord and a vertical web.
+The loading forces to be considered are vertical, the horizontal forces due
+to wind pressure are treated separately and provided for by a horizontal
+system of bracing. For practical purposes it is accurate enough to consider
+the booms or chords as carrying exclusively the horizontal tension and
+compression and the web as resisting the whole of the vertical and, in a
+plate web, the equal horizontal shearing forces. Let fig. 37 represent a
+beam with any system of loads W_1, W_2, ... W_n.
+
+The reaction at the right abutment is
+
+  R_2 = W_1x_1/l+W_2x_2/l+...
+
+That at the left abutment is
+
+  R_1 = W_1+W_2+...-R_2.
+
+Consider any section a b. The total shear at a b is
+
+  S = R-[Sigma](W_1+W_2 ...)
+
+where the summation extends to all the loads to the left of the section.
+Let p_1, p_2 ... be the distances of the loads from a b, and p the distance
+of R_1 from a b; then the bending moment at a b is
+
+  M = R_1p-[Sigma](W_1p_1+W_2p_2 ...)
+
+where the summation extends to all the loads to the left of a b. If the
+loads on the right of the section are considered the expressions are
+similar and give the same results.
+
+If A_t A_c are the cross sections of the tension and compression flanges or
+chords, and h the distance between their mass centres, then on the
+assumption that they resist all the direct horizontal forces the total
+stress on each flange is
+
+  H_t = H_c = M/h
+
+and the intensity of stress of tension or compression is
+
+  f_t = M/A_th,
+  f_c = M/A_ch.
+
+If A is the area of the plate web in a vertical section, the intensity of
+shearing stress is
+
+  f_x = S/A
+
+and the intensity on horizontal sections is the same. If the web is a
+braced web, then the vertical component of the stress in the web bars cut
+by the section must be equal to S.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38.]
+
+21. _Method of Sections. A. Ritter's Method._--In the case of braced
+structures the following method is convenient: When a section of a girder
+can be taken cutting only three bars, the stresses in the bars can be found
+by taking moments. In fig. 38 m n cuts three bars, and the forces in the
+three bars cut by the section are C, S and T. There are to the left of the
+section the external forces, R, W_1, W_2. Let s be the perpendicular from
+O, the join of C and T on the direction of S; t the perpendicular from A,
+the join of C and S on the direction of T; and c the perpendicular from B,
+the join of S and T on the direction of C. Taking moments about O,
+
+  R_x-W_1(x+a)-W_2(x+2a) = Ss;
+
+taking moments about A,
+
+  R3a-W_12a-W_2a = Tt;
+
+and taking moments about B,
+
+  R2a-W_1a = Cc
+
+Or generally, if M_1 M_2 M_3 are the moments of the external forces to the
+left of O, A, and B respectively, and s, t and c the perpendiculars from O,
+A and B on the directions of the forces cut by the section, then
+
+  Ss = M_1; Tt = M_2 and Cc = M_3.
+
+Still more generally if H is the stress on any bar, h the perpendicular
+distance from the join of the other two bars cut by the section, and M is
+the moment of the forces on one side of that join,
+
+  Hh = M.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 39.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 40.]
+
+22. _Distribution of Bending Moment and Shearing Force._--Let a girder of
+span l, fig. 39, supported at the ends, carry a fixed load W at m from the
+right abutment. The reactions at the abutments are R_1 = Wm/l and R_2 =
+W(l-m)/l. The shears on vertical sections to the left and right of the load
+are R_1 and -R_2, and the distribution of shearing force is given by two
+rectangles. Bending moment increases uniformly from either abutment to the
+load, at which the bending moment is M = R_2m = R_1(l-m). The distribution
+of bending moment is given by the ordinates of a triangle. Next let the
+girder carry a uniform load w per ft. run (fig. 40). The total load [v.04
+p.0551] is wl; the reactions at abutments, R_1 = R_2 = ½wl. The
+distribution of shear on vertical sections is given by the ordinates of a
+sloping line. The greatest bending moment is at the centre and = M_c =
+1/8wl^2. At any point x from the abutment, the bending moment is M =
+½wx(l-x), an equation to a parabola.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 41.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 42.]
+
+23. _Shear due to Travelling Loads._--Let a uniform train weighing w per
+ft. run advance over a girder of span 2c, from the left abutment. When it
+covers the girder to a distance x from the centre (fig. 41) the total load
+is w(c+x); the reaction at B is
+
+  R_2 = w(c+x)×(c+x)/4c = w/4c(c+x)²,
+
+which is also the shearing force at C for that position of the load. As the
+load travels, the shear at the head of the train will be given by the
+ordinates of a parabola having its vertex at A, and a maximum F_{max.} =
+-½wl at B. If the load travels the reverse way, the shearing force at the
+head of the train is given by the ordinates of the dotted parabola. The
+greatest shear at C for any position of the load occurs when the head of
+the train is at C. For any load p between C and B will increase the
+reaction at B and therefore the shear at C by part of p, but at the same
+time will diminish the shear at C by the whole of p. The web of a girder
+must resist the maximum shear, and, with a travelling load like a railway
+train, this is greater for partial than for complete loading. Generally a
+girder supports both a dead and a live load. The distribution of total
+shear, due to a dead load w_l per ft. run and a travelling load w_l per ft.
+run, is shown in fig. 42, arranged so that the dead load shear is added to
+the maximum travelling load shear of the same sign.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43.]
+
+24. _Counterbracing._--In the case of girders with braced webs, the tension
+bars of which are not adapted to resist a thrust, another circumstance due
+to the position of the live load must be considered. For a train advancing
+from the left, the travelling load shear in the left half of the span is of
+a different sign from that due to the dead load. Fig. 43 shows the maximum
+shear at vertical sections due to a dead and travelling load, the latter
+advancing (fig. 43, a) from the left and (fig. 43, b) from the right
+abutment. Comparing the figures it will be seen that over a distance x near
+the middle of the girder the shear changes sign, according as the load
+advances from the left or the right. The bracing bars, therefore, for this
+part of the girder must be adapted to resist either tension or thrust.
+Further, the range of stress to which they are subjected is the sum of the
+stresses due to the load advancing from the left or the right.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 45.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 46.]
+
+25. _Greatest Shear when concentrated Loads travel over the Bridge._--To
+find the greatest shear with a set of concentrated loads at fixed
+distances, let the loads advance from the left abutment, and let C be the
+section at which the shear is required (fig. 44). The greatest shear at C
+may occur with W_1 at C. If W_1 passes beyond C, the shear at C will
+probably be greatest when W_2 is at C. Let R be the resultant of the loads
+on the bridge when W_1 is at C. Then the reaction at B and shear at C is
+Rn/l. Next let the loads advance a distance a so that W_2 comes to C. Then
+the shear at C is R(n+a)/l-W_1, plus any reaction d at B, due to any
+additional load which has come on the girder during the movement. The shear
+will therefore be increased by bringing W_2 to C, if Ra/l+d > W_1 and d is
+generally small and negligible. This result is modified if the action of
+the load near the section is distributed to the bracing intersections by
+rail and cross girders. In fig. 45 the action of W is distributed to A and
+B by the flooring. Then the loads at A and B are W(p-x)/p and Wx/p. Now let
+C (fig. 46) be the section at which the greatest shear is required, and let
+the loads advance from the left till W_1 is at C. If R is the resultant of
+the loads then on the girder, the reaction at B and shear at C is Rn/l. But
+the shear may be greater when W_2 is at C. In that case the shear at C
+becomes R(n+a)/l+d-W_1, if a > p, and R(n+a)/l+d-W_1a/p, if a < p. If we
+neglect d, then the shear increases by moving W_2 to C, if Ra/l > W_1 in
+the first case, and if Ra/l > W_1a/p in the second case.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 47.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 48.]
+
+26. _Greatest Bending Moment due to travelling concentrated Loads._--For
+the greatest bending moment due to a travelling live load, let a load of w
+per ft. run advance from the left abutment (fig. 47), and let its centre be
+at x from the left abutment. The reaction at B is 2wx²/l and the bending
+moment at any section C, at m from the left abutment, is 2wx²/(l-m)/l,
+which increases as x increases till the span is covered. Hence, for uniform
+travelling loads, the bending moments are greatest when the loading is
+complete. In that case the loads on either side of C are proportional to m
+and l-m. In the case of a series of travelling loads at fixed distances
+apart passing over the girder from the left, let W_1, W_2 (fig. 48), at
+distances x and x+a from the left abutment, be their resultants on either
+side of C. Then the reaction at B is W_1x/l+W_2(x+a)/l. The bending moment
+at C is
+
+  M = W_1x(l-m)/l+W_2m{1-(x+a)/l}.
+
+If the loads are moved a distance [Delta]x to the right, the bending moment
+becomes
+
+  M+[Delta]M = W_1(x+[Delta]x)(l-m)/l+W_2m{1-(x+[Delta]x+a)/l}
+          [Delta]m = W_1[Delta]x(l-m)/l-W_2[Delta]xm/l,
+
+and this is positive or the bending moment increases, if W_1(l-m) > W_2m,
+or if W_1/m > W_2/(l-m). But these are the average loads per ft. run to the
+left and right of C. Hence, if the average load to the left of a section is
+greater than that to the right, the bending moment at the section will be
+increased by moving the loads to the right, and vice versa. Hence the
+maximum bending moment at C for a series of travelling loads will occur
+when the average load is the same on either side of C. If one of the loads
+is at C, spread over a very small distance in the neighbourhood of C, then
+a very small displacement of the loads will permit the fulfilment of the
+condition. Hence the criterion for the position of the loads which makes
+the moment at C greatest is this: one load must be at C, and the other
+loads must be distributed, so that the average loads per ft. on either side
+of C (the load at C being neglected) are nearly equal. If the loads are
+very unequal in magnitude or distance this condition may be satisfied for
+more than one position of the loads, but it is not difficult to ascertain
+which position gives the maximum moment. Generally one of the largest of
+the loads must be at C with as many others to right and left as is
+consistent with that condition.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49.]
+
+This criterion may be stated in another way. The greatest bending moment
+will occur with one of the greatest loads at the section, and when this
+further condition is satisfied. Let fig. 49 represent a beam with the
+series of loads travelling from the right. Let a b be [v.04 p.0552] the
+section considered, and let W_x be the load at a b when the bending moment
+there is greatest, and W_n the last load to the right then on the bridge.
+Then the position of the loads must be that which satisfies the condition
+
+    x                W_1+W_2+... W_{x-1}
+   --- greater than ------------------------
+    l                W_1+W_2+... W_n
+
+       x             W_1+W_2+... W_x
+      --- less than ------------------------
+       l             W_1+W_2+... W_n
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 50.]
+
+Fig. 50 shows the curve of bending moment under one of a series of
+travelling loads at fixed distances. Let W_1, W_2, W_3 traverse the girder
+from the left at fixed distances a, b. For the position shown the
+distribution of bending moment due to W_1 is given by ordinates of the
+triangle A'CB'; that due to W_2 by ordinates of A'DB'; and that due to W_3
+by ordinates A'EB'. The total moment at W_1, due to three loads, is the sum
+mC+mn+mo of the intercepts which the triangle sides cut off from the
+vertical under W_1. As the loads move over the girder, the points C, D, E
+describe the parabolas M_1, M_2, M_3, the middle ordinates of which are
+¼W_1l, ¼W_2l, and ¼W_3l. If these are first drawn it is easy, for any
+position of the loads, to draw the lines B'C, B'D, B'E, and to find the sum
+of the intercepts which is the total bending moment under a load. The lower
+portion of the figure is the curve of bending moments under the leading
+load. Till W_1 has advanced a distance a only one load is on the girder,
+and the curve A"F gives bending moments due to W_1 only; as W_1 advances to
+a distance a+b, two loads are on the girder, and the curve FG gives moments
+due to W_1 and W_2. GB" is the curve of moments for all three loads
+W_1+W_2+W_3.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 51.]
+
+Fig. 51 shows maximum bending moment curves for an extreme case of a short
+bridge with very unequal loads. The three lightly dotted parabolas are the
+curves of maximum moment for each of the loads taken separately. The three
+heavily dotted curves are curves of maximum moment under each of the loads,
+for the three loads passing over the bridge, at the given distances, from
+left to right. As might be expected, the moments are greatest in this case
+at the sections under the 15-ton load. The heavy continuous line gives the
+last-mentioned curve for the reverse direction of passage of the loads.
+
+With short bridges it is best to draw the curve of maximum bending moments
+for some assumed typical set of loads in the way just described, and to
+design the girder accordingly. For longer bridges the funicular polygon
+affords a method of determining maximum bending moments which is perhaps
+more convenient. But very great accuracy in drawing this curve is
+unnecessary, because the rolling stock of railways varies so much that the
+precise magnitude and distribution of the loads which will pass over a
+bridge cannot be known. All that can be done is to assume a set of loads
+likely to produce somewhat severer straining than any probable actual
+rolling loads. Now, except for very short bridges and very unequal loads, a
+parabola can be found which includes the curve of maximum moments. This
+parabola is the curve of maximum moments for a travelling load uniform per
+ft. run. Let w_e be the load per ft. run which would produce the maximum
+moments represented by this parabola. Then w_e may be termed the uniform
+load per ft. equivalent to any assumed set of concentrated loads. Waddell
+has calculated tables of such equivalent uniform loads. But it is not
+difficult to find w_e, approximately enough for practical purposes, very
+simply. Experience shows that (a) a parabola having the same ordinate at
+the centre of the span, or (b) a parabola having the same ordinate at
+one-quarter span as the curve of maximum moments, agrees with it closely
+enough for practical designing. A criterion already given shows the
+position of any set of loads which will produce the greatest bending moment
+at the centre of the bridge, or at one-quarter span. Let M_c and M_a be
+those moments. At a section distant x from the centre of a girder of span
+2c, the bending moment due to a uniform load w_e per ft run is
+
+  M = ½w_e(c-x)(c+x).
+
+Putting x = 0, for the centre section
+
+  M_c = ½w_ec^2;
+
+and putting x = ½c, for section at quarter span
+
+  M_a = 3/8w_ec^2.
+
+From these equations a value of w_e can be obtained. Then the bridge is
+designed, so far as the direct stresses are concerned, for bending moments
+due to a uniform dead load and the uniform equivalent load w_e.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 52.]
+
+27. _Influence Lines._--In dealing with the action of travelling loads much
+assistance may be obtained by using a line termed an _influence line_. Such
+a line has for abscissa the distance of a load from one end of a girder,
+and for ordinate the bending moment or shear at any given section, or on
+any member, due to that load. Generally the influence line is drawn for
+unit load. In fig. 52 let A'B' be a girder supported at the ends and let it
+be required to investigate the bending moment at C' due to unit load in any
+position on the girder. When the load is at F', the reaction at B' is m/l
+and the moment at C' is m(l-x)/l, which will be reckoned positive, when it
+resists a tendency of the right-hand part of the girder to turn
+counter-clockwise. Projecting A'F'C'B' on to the horizontal AB, take Ff =
+m(l-x)/l, the moment at C of unit load at F. If this process is repeated
+for all positions of the load, we get the influence line AGB for the
+bending moment at C. The area AGB is termed the influence area. The
+greatest moment CG at C is x(l-x)/l. To use this line to investigate the
+maximum moment at C due to a series of travelling loads at fixed distances,
+let P_1, P_2, P_3, ... be the loads which at the moment considered are at
+distances m_1, m_2, ... from the left abutment. Set off these distances
+along AB and let y_1, y_2, ... be the corresponding ordinates of the
+influence curve (y = Ff) on the verticals under the loads. Then the moment
+at C due to all the loads is
+
+  M = P_1y_1+P_2y_2+...
+
+[v.04 p.0553] [Illustration: FIG. 53.]
+
+The position of the loads which gives the greatest moment at C may be
+settled by the criterion given above. For a uniform travelling load w per
+ft. of span, consider a small interval Fk = [Delta]m on which the load is
+w[Delta]m. The moment due to this, at C, is wm(l-x)[Delta]m/l. But
+m(l-x)[Delta]m/l is the area of the strip Ffhk, that is y[Delta]m. Hence
+the moment of the load on [Delta]m at C is wy[Delta]m, and the moment of a
+uniform load over any portion of the girder is w × the area of the
+influence curve under that portion. If the scales are so chosen that a inch
+represents 1 in. ton of moment, and b inch represents 1 ft. of span, and w
+is in tons per ft. run, then ab is the unit of area in measuring the
+influence curve.
+
+If the load is carried by a rail girder (stringer) with cross girders at
+the intersections of bracing and boom, its effect is distributed to the
+bracing intersections D'E' (fig. 53), and the part of the influence line
+for that bay (panel) is altered. With unit load in the position shown, the
+load at D' is (p-n)/p, and that at E' is n/p. The moment of the load at C
+is m(l-x)/l-n(p-n)/p. This is the equation to the dotted line RS (fig. 52).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 54.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 55]
+
+If the unit load is at F', the reaction at B' and the shear at C' is m/l,
+positive if the shearing stress resists a tendency of the part of the
+girder on the right to move upwards; set up Ff = m/l (fig. 54) on the
+vertical under the load. Repeating the process for other positions, we get
+the influence line AGHB, for the shear at C due to unit load anywhere on
+the girder. GC = x/l and CH = -(l-x)/l. The lines AG, HB are parallel. If
+the load is in the bay D'E' and is carried by a rail girder which
+distributes it to cross girders at D'E', the part of the influence line
+under this bay is altered. Let n (Fig. 55) be the distance of the load from
+D', x_1 the distance of D' from the left abutment, and p the length of a
+bay. The loads at D', E, due to unit weight on the rail girder are (p-n)/p
+and n/p. The reaction at B' is {(p-n)x_1+n(x_1+p)}/pl. The shear at C' is
+the reaction at B' less the load at E', that is, {p(x_1+n)-nl}/pl, which is
+the equation to the line DH (fig. 54). Clearly, the distribution of the
+load by the rail girder considerably alters the distribution of shear due
+to a load in the bay in which the section considered lies. The total shear
+due to a series of loads P_1, P_2, ... at distances m_1, m_2, ... from the
+left abutment, y_1, y_2, ... being the ordinates of the influence curve
+under the loads, is S = P_1y_1+P_2y_2+.... Generally, the greatest shear S
+at C will occur when the longer of the segments into which C divides the
+girder is fully loaded and the other is unloaded, the leading load being at
+C. If the loads are very unequal or unequally spaced, a trial or two will
+determine which position gives the greatest value of S. The greatest shear
+at C' of the opposite sign to that due to the loading of the longer segment
+occurs with the shorter segment loaded. For a uniformly distributed load w
+per ft. run the shear at C is w × the area of the influence curve under the
+segment covered by the load, attention being paid to the sign of the area
+of the curve. If the load rests directly on the main girder, the greatest +
+and - shears at C will be w × AGC and -w × CHB. But if the load is
+distributed to the bracing intersections by rail and cross girders, then
+the shear at C' will be greatest when the load extends to N, and will have
+the values w × ADN and -w × NEB. An interesting paper by F.C. Lea, dealing
+with the determination of stress due to concentrated loads, by the method
+of influence lines will be found in _Proc. Inst. C.E._ clxi. p.261.
+
+Influence lines were described by Fränkel, _Der Civilingenieur_, 1876. See
+also _Handbuch der Ingenieur-wissenschaften_, vol. ii. ch. x. (1882), and
+Levy, _La Statique graphique_ (1886). There is a useful paper by Prof. G.F.
+Swain (_Trans. Am. Soc. C.E._ xvii., 1887), and another by L.M. Hoskins
+(_Proc. Am. Soc. C.E._ xxv., 1899).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 56.]
+
+28. _Eddy's Method._--Another method of investigating the maximum shear at
+a section due to any distribution of a travelling load has been given by
+Prof. H.T. Eddy (_Trans. Am. Soc. C.E._ xxii., 1890). Let hk (fig. 56)
+represent in magnitude and position a load W, at x from the left abutment,
+on a girder AB of span l. Lay off kf, hg, horizontal and equal to l. Join f
+and g to h and k. Draw verticals at A, B, and join no. Obviously no is
+horizontal and equal to l. Also mn/mf = hk/kf or mn-W(l-x)/l, which is the
+reaction at A due to the load at C, and is the shear at any point of AC.
+Similarly, po is the reaction at B and shear at any point of CB. The shaded
+rectangles represent the distribution of shear due to the load at C, while
+no may be termed the datum line of shear. Let the load move to D, so that
+its distance from the left abutment is x+a. Draw a vertical at D,
+intersecting fh, kg, in s and q. Then qr/ro = hk/hg or ro = W(l-x-a)/l,
+which is the reaction at A and shear at any point of AD, for the new
+position of the load. Similarly, rs = W(x+a)/l is the shear on DB. The
+distribution of shear is given by the partially shaded rectangles. For the
+application of this method to a series of loads Prof. Eddy's paper must be
+referred to.
+
+29. _Economic Span._--In the case of a bridge of many spans, there is a
+length of span which makes the cost of the bridge least. The cost of
+abutments and bridge flooring is practically independent of the length of
+span adopted. Let P be the cost of one pier; C the cost of the main girders
+for one span, erected; n the number of spans; l the length of one span, and
+L the length of the bridge between abutments. Then, n = L/l nearly. Cost of
+piers (n-1)P. Cost of main girders nG. The cost of a pier will not vary
+materially with the span adopted. It depends mainly on the character of the
+foundations and height at which the bridge is carried. The cost of the main
+girders for one span will vary nearly as the square of the span for any
+given type of girder and intensity of live load. That is, G = al², where a
+is a constant. Hence the total cost of that part of the bridge which varies
+with the span adopted is--
+
+  C = (n-i)P+nal²
+    = LP/l-P+Lal.
+
+Differentiating and equating to zero, the cost is least when
+
+  dC     LP
+  -- = - -- + La = 0,
+  dl     l²
+
+      P = al² = G;
+
+that is, when the cost of one pier is equal to the cost erected of the main
+girders of one span. Sir Guilford Molesworth puts this in a convenient but
+less exact form. Let G be the cost of superstructure of a 100-ft. span
+erected, and P the cost of one pier with its protection. Then the economic
+span is l = 100[root]P/[root]G.
+
+30. _Limiting Span._--If the weight of the main girders of a bridge, per
+ft. run in tons, is--
+
+  w_3 = (w_1+w_2)lr/(K-lr)
+
+according to a formula already given, then w_3 becomes infinite if k-lr =
+0, or if
+
+  l = K/r,
+
+[v.04 p.0554] where l is the span in feet and r is the ratio of span to
+depth of girder at centre. Taking K for steel girders as 7200 to 9000,
+
+                        Limiting Span in Ft.
+          r = 12          l = 600 to 750
+            = 10            = 720 to 900
+            =  8            = 900 to 1120
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 58.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 59.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 60.]
+
+In a three-span bridge continuous girders are lighter than discontinuous
+ones by about 45% for the dead load and 15% for the live load, if no
+allowance is made for ambiguity due to uncertainty as to the level of the
+supports. The cantilever and suspended girder types are as economical and
+free from uncertainty as to the stresses. In long-span bridges the
+cantilever system permits erection by building out, which is economical and
+sometimes necessary. It is, however, unstable unless rigidly fixed at the
+piers. In the Forth bridge stability is obtained partly by the great excess
+of dead over live load, partly by the great width of the river piers. The
+majority of bridges not of great span have girders with parallel booms.
+This involves the fewest difficulties of workmanship and perhaps permits
+the closest approximation of actual to theoretical dimensions of the parts.
+In spans over 200 ft. it is economical to have one horizontal boom and one
+polygonal (approximately parabolic) boom. The hog-backed girder is a
+compromise between the two types, avoiding some difficulties of
+construction near the ends of the girder.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 61.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 62.]
+
+Most braced girders may be considered as built up of two simple forms of
+truss, the king-post truss (fig. 61, a), or the queen-post truss (fig. 61,
+b). These may be used in either the upright or the inverted position. A
+_multiple truss_ consists of a number of simple trusses, e.g. Bollman
+truss. Some timber bridges consist of queen-post trusses in the upright
+position, as shown diagrammatically in fig. 62, where the circles indicate
+points at which the flooring girders transmit load to the main girders.
+_Compound_ trusses consist of simple trusses used as primary, secondary and
+tertiary trusses, the secondary supported on the primary, and the tertiary
+on the secondary. Thus, the Fink truss consists of king-post trusses; the
+Pratt truss (fig. 63) and the Whipple truss (fig. 64) of queen-post trusses
+alternately upright and inverted.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 63.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 64.]
+
+A combination bridge is built partly of timber, partly of steel, the
+compression members being generally of timber and the tension members of
+steel. On the Pacific coast, where excellent timber is obtainable and steel
+works are distant, combination bridges are still largely used (Ottewell,
+_Trans. Am. Soc. C.E._ xxvii. p. 467). The combination bridge at Roseburgh,
+Oregon, is a cantilever bridge, The shore arms are 147 ft. span, the river
+arms 105 ft., and the suspended girder 80 ft., the total distance between
+anchor piers being 584 ft. The floor beams, floor and railing are of
+timber. The compression members are of timber, except the struts and bottom
+chord panels next the river piers, which are of steel. The tension members
+are of iron and the pins of steel. The chord blocks and post shoes are of
+cast-iron.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 65.]
+
+33. _Graphic Method of finding the Stresses in Braced Structures._--Fig. 65
+shows a common form of bridge truss known as a _Warren girder_, with lines
+indicating external forces applied to the joints; half the load carried
+between the two lower joints next the piers on either side is directly
+carried by the abutments. The sum of the two upward vertical reactions must
+clearly be equal to the sum of the loads. The lines in the diagram
+represent the directions of a series of forces which must all be in
+equilibrium; these lines may, for an object to be explained in the next
+paragraph, be conveniently named by the letters in the spaces which they
+separate instead of by the method usually employed in geometry. Thus we
+shall call the first inclined line on the left hand the line AG, the line
+representing the first force on the top left-hand joint AB, the first
+horizontal member at the top left hand the line BH, &c; similarly each
+point requires at least three letters to denote it; the top first left-hand
+joint may be called ABHG, being the point where these four spaces meet. In
+this method of lettering, every enclosed space must be designated by a
+letter; all external forces must be represented by lines _outside_ the
+frame, and each space between any two forces must receive a distinctive
+letter; this method of lettering was first proposed by O. Henrici and R. H.
+Bow (_Economics of Construction_), and is convenient in applying the theory
+of reciprocal figures to the computation of stresses on frames.
+
+34. _Reciprocal Figures._--J. Clerk Maxwell gave (_Phil. Mag. 1864_) the
+following definition of reciprocal figures:--"Two plane figures are
+reciprocal when they consist of an equal number of lines so that
+corresponding lines in the two figures are parallel, and corresponding
+lines which converge to a point in one figure form a closed polygon in the
+other."
+
+Let a frame (without redundant members), and the external forces which keep
+it in equilibrium, be represented by a diagram constituting one of these
+two plane figures, then the lines in the other plane figure or the
+reciprocal will represent in direction and magnitude the forces between the
+joints of the frame, and, consequently, the stress on each member, as will
+now be explained.
+
+Reciprocal figures are easily drawn by following definite rules, and afford
+therefore a simple method of computing the stresses on members of a frame.
+
+The external forces on a frame or bridge in equilibrium under those forces
+may, by a well-known proposition in statics, be represented by a closed
+polygon, each side of which is parallel to one force, and represents the
+force in magnitude as well as in direction. The sides of the polygon may be
+arranged in any order, provided care is taken so to draw them that in
+passing round the polygon in one direction this direction may for each side
+correspond to the direction of the force which it represents.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 66.]
+
+This polygon of forces may, by a slight extension of the above definition,
+be called the _reciprocal figure_ of the external forces, if the sides are
+arranged in the same order as that of the joints on which they act, so that
+if the joints and forces be numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, &c., passing round the
+outside of the frame in one direction, and returning at last to joint 1,
+then in the polygon the side representing the force 2 will be next the side
+representing the force 1, and will be followed by the side representing the
+force 3, and so forth. [v.04 p.0555] This polygon falls under the
+definition of a reciprocal figure given by Clerk Maxwell, if we consider
+the frame as a point in equilibrium under the external forces.
+
+Fig. 66 shows a frame supported at the two end joints, and loaded at each
+top joint. The loads and the supporting forces are indicated by arrows.
+Fig. 67a shows the reciprocal figure or polygon for the external forces on
+the assumption that the reactions are slightly inclined. The lines in fig.
+67 a, lettered in the usual manner, correspond to the forces indicated by
+arrows in fig. 66, and lettered according to Bow's method. When all the
+forces are vertical, as will be the case in girders, the polygon of
+external forces will be reduced to two straight lines, fig. 67 b,
+superimposed and divided so that the length AX represents the load AX, the
+length AB the load AB, the length YX the reaction YX, and so forth. The
+line XZ consists of a series of lengths, as XA, AB ... DZ, representing the
+loads taken in their order. In subsequent diagrams the two reaction lines
+will, for the sake of clearness, be drawn as if slightly inclined to the
+vertical.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 67.]
+
+If there are no redundant members in the frame there will be only two
+members abutting at the point of support, for these two members will be
+sufficient to balance the reaction, whatever its direction may be; we can
+therefore draw two triangles, each having as one side the reaction YX, and
+having the two other sides parallel to these two members; each of these
+triangles will represent a polygon of forces in equilibrium at the point of
+support. Of these two triangles, shown in fig. 67 c, select that in which
+the letters X and Y are so placed that (naming the apex of the triangle E)
+the lines XE and YE are the lines parallel to the two members of the same
+name in the frame (fig. 66). Then the triangle YXE is the reciprocal figure
+of the three lines YX, XE, EY in the frame, and represents the three forces
+in equilibrium at the point YXE of the frame. The direction of YX, being a
+thrust upwards, shows the direction in which we must go round the triangle
+YXE to find the direction of the two other forces; doing this we find that
+the force XE must act down towards the point YXE, and the force EY away
+from the same point. Putting arrows on the frame diagram to indicate the
+direction of the forces, we see that the member EY must pull and therefore
+act as a tie, and that the member XE must push and act as a strut. Passing
+to the point XEFA we find two known forces, the load XA acting downwards,
+and a push from the strut XE, which, being in compression, must push at
+both ends, as indicated by the arrow, fig. 66. The directions and
+magnitudes of these two forces are already drawn (fig. 67 a) in a fitting
+position to represent part of the polygon of forces at XEFA; beginning with
+the upward thrust EX, continuing down XA, and drawing AF parallel to AF in
+the frame we complete the polygon by drawing EF parallel to EF in the
+frame. The point F is determined by the intersection of the two lines, one
+beginning at A, and the other at E. We then have the polygon of forces
+EXAF, the reciprocal figure of the lines meeting at that point in the
+frame, and representing the forces at the point EXAF; the direction of the
+forces on EH and XA being known determines the direction of the forces due
+to the elastic reaction of the members AF and EF, showing AF to push as a
+strut, while EF is a tie. We have been guided in the selection of the
+particular quadrilateral adopted by the rule of arranging the order of the
+sides so that the same letters indicate corresponding sides in the diagram
+of the frame and its reciprocal. Continuing the construction of the diagram
+in the same way, we arrive at fig. 67 d as the complete reciprocal figure
+of the frame and forces upon it, and we see that each line in the
+reciprocal figure measures the stress on the corresponding member in the
+frame, and that the polygon of forces acting at any point, as IJKY, in the
+frame is represented by a polygon of the same name in the reciprocal
+figure. The direction of the force in each member is easily ascertained by
+proceeding in the manner above described. A single known force in a polygon
+determines the direction of all the others, as these must all correspond
+with arrows pointing the same way round the polygon. Let the arrows be
+placed on the frame round each joint, and so as to indicate the direction
+of each force on that joint; then when two arrows point to one another on
+the same piece, that piece is a tie; when they point from one another the
+piece is a strut. It is hardly necessary to say that the forces exerted by
+the two ends of any one member must be equal and opposite. This method is
+universally applicable where there are no redundant members. The reciprocal
+figure for any loaded frame is a complete formula for the stress on every
+member of a frame of that particular class with loads on given joints.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 68]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 69]
+
+Consider a Warren girder (fig. 68), loaded at the top and bottom joints.
+Fig. 69 b is the polygon of external forces, and 69 c is half the
+reciprocal figure. The complete reciprocal figure is shown in fig. 69 a.
+
+The method of sections already described is often more convenient than the
+method of reciprocal figures, and the method of influence lines is also
+often the readiest way of dealing with braced girders.
+
+35. _Chain Loaded uniformly along a Horizontal Line._--If the lengths of
+the links be assumed indefinitely short, the chain under given simple
+distributions of load will take the form of comparatively simple
+mathematical curves known as catenaries. The true catenary is that assumed
+by a chain of uniform weight per unit of length, but the form generally
+adopted for suspension bridges is that assumed by a chain under a weight
+uniformly distributed relatively to a horizontal line. This curve is a
+parabola.
+
+Remembering that in this case the centre bending moment [Sigma]wl will be
+equal to wL²/8, we see that the horizontal tension H at the vertex for a
+span L (the points of support being at equal heights) is given by the
+expression
+
+  1 . . . H = wL²/8y,
+
+or, calling x the distance from the vertex to the point of support,
+
+  H = wx²/2y,
+
+The value of H is equal to the maximum tension on the bottom flange, or
+compression on the top flange, of a girder of equal span, equally and
+similarly loaded, and having a depth equal to the dip of the suspension
+bridge.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 70.]
+
+Consider any other point F of the curve, fig. 70, at a distance x [v.04
+p.0556] from the vertex, the horizontal component of the resultant (tangent
+to the curve) will be unaltered; the vertical component V will be simply
+the sum of the loads between O and F, or wx. In the triangle FDC, let FD be
+tangent to the curve, FC vertical, and DC horizontal; these three sides
+will necessarily be proportional respectively to the resultant tension
+along the chain at F, the vertical force V passing through the point D, and
+the horizontal tension at O; hence
+
+  H : V = DC : FC = wx²/2y : wx = x/2 : y,
+
+hence DC is the half of OC, proving the curve to be a parabola.
+
+The value of R, the tension at any point at a distance x from the vertex,
+is obtained from the equation
+
+  R² = H²+V² = w²x^4/4y²+w²x²,
+
+or,
+
+  2 . . . R = wx[root](1+x²/4y²).
+
+Let i be the angle between the tangent at any point having the co-ordinates
+x and y measured from the vertex, then
+
+  3 . . . tan i = 2y/x.
+
+Let the length of half the parabolic chain be called s, then
+
+  4 . . . s = x+2y²/3x.
+
+The following is the approximate expression for the relation between a
+change [Delta]s in the length of the half chain and the corresponding
+change [Delta]y in the dip:--
+
+  s+[Delta]s = x+(2/3x) {y²+2y[Delta]y+([Delta]y)²} =
+      x+2y²/3x+4y[Delta]y/3x+2[Delta]y²/3x,
+
+or, neglecting the last term,
+
+  5 . . . [Delta]s = 4y[Delta]y/3x,
+
+and
+
+  6 . . . [Delta]y = 3x[Delta]s/4y.
+
+From these equations the deflection produced by any given stress on the
+chains or by a change of temperature can be calculated.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 71.]
+
+36. _Deflection of Girders._-- Let fig. 71 represent a beam bent by
+external loads. Let the origin O be taken at the lowest point of the bent
+beam. Then the deviation y = DE of the neutral axis of the bent beam at any
+point D from the axis OX is given by the relation
+
+  d²y   M
+  --- = -- ,
+  dx²   EI
+
+where M is the bending moment and I the amount of inertia of the beam at D,
+and E is the coefficient of elasticity. It is usually accurate enough in
+deflection calculations to take for I the moment of inertia at the centre
+of the beam and to consider it constant for the length of the beam. Then
+
+  dy    1
+  -- = ---[Integral]Mdx
+  dx   EI
+
+       1
+  y = ---[Integral][Integral]Mdx².
+      EI
+
+The integration can be performed when M is expressed in terms of x. Thus
+for a beam supported at the ends and loaded with w per inch length M =
+w(a²-x²), where a is the half span. Then the deflection at the centre is
+the value of y for x = a, and is
+
+             5  wa^4
+  [delta] = --- ----.
+             24  EI
+
+The radius of curvature of the beam at D is given by the relation
+
+  R = EI/M.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 72.]
+
+37. _Graphic Method of finding Deflection._--Divide the span L into any
+convenient number n of equal parts of length l, so that nl = L; compute the
+radii of curvature R_1, R_2, R_3 for the several sections. Let measurements
+along the beam be represented according to any convenient scale, so that
+calling L_1 and l_1 the lengths to be drawn on paper, we have L = aL_1; now
+let r_1, r_2, r_3 be a series of radii such that r_1 = R_1/ab, r_2 =
+R_2/ab, &c., where b is any convenient constant chosen of such magnitude as
+will allow arcs with the radii, r_1, r_2, &c., to be drawn with the means
+at the draughtsman's disposal. Draw a curve as shown in fig. 72 with arcs
+of the length l_1, l_2, l_3, &c., and with the radii r_1, r_2, &c. (note,
+for a length ½l_1 at each end the radius will be infinite, and the curve
+must end with a straight line tangent to the last arc), then let v be the
+measured deflection of this curve from the straight line, and V the actual
+deflection of the bridge; we have V = av/b, approximately. This method
+distorts the curve, so that vertical ordinates of the curve are drawn to a
+scale b times greater than that of the horizontal ordinates. Thus if the
+horizontal scale be one-tenth of an inch to the foot, a = 120, and a beam
+100 ft. in length would be drawn equal to 10 in.; then if the true radius
+at the centre were 10,000 ft., this radius, if the curve were undistorted,
+would be on paper 1000 in., but making b = 50 we can draw the curve with a
+radius of 20 in. The vertical distortion of the curve must not be so great
+that there is a very sensible difference between the length of the arc and
+its chord. This can be regulated by altering the value of b. In fig. 72
+distortion is carried too far; this figure is merely used as an
+illustration.
+
+38. _Camber._--In order that a girder may become straight under its working
+load it should be constructed with a camber or upward convexity equal to
+the calculated deflection. Owing to the yielding of joints when a beam is
+first loaded a smaller modulus of elasticity should be taken than for a
+solid bar. For riveted girders E is about 17,500,000 lb per sq. in. for
+first loading. W.J.M. Rankine gives the approximate rule
+
+  Working deflection = [delta] = l²/10,000h,
+
+where l is the span and h the depth of the beam, the stresses being those
+usual in bridgework, due to the total dead and live load.
+
+(W. C. U.)
+
+[1] For the ancient bridges in Rome see further ROME: _Archaeology_, and
+such works as R. Lanciani, _Ruins and Excavations of Ancient Rome_ (Eng.
+trans., 1897), pp. 16 foll.
+
+BRIDGET, SAINT, more properly BRIGID (c. 452-523), one of the patron saints
+of Ireland, was born at Faughart in county Louth, her father being a prince
+of Ulster. Refusing to marry, she chose a life of seclusion, making her
+cell, the first in Ireland, under a large oak tree, whence the place was
+called Kil-dara, "the church of the oak." The city of Kildare is supposed
+to derive its name from St Brigid's cell. The year of her death is
+generally placed in 523. She was buried at Kildare, but her remains were
+afterwards translated to Downpatrick, where they were laid beside the
+bodies of St Patrick and St Columba. Her feast is celebrated on the 1st of
+February. A large collection of miraculous stories clustered round her
+name, and her reputation was not confined to Ireland, for, under the name
+of St Bride, she became a favourite saint in England, and numerous churches
+were dedicated to her in Scotland.
+
+See the five lives given in the Bollandist _Acta Sanctorum_, Feb. 1, i. 99,
+119, 950. Cf. Whitley-Stokes, _Three Middle-Irish Homilies on the Lives of
+Saint Patrick, Brigit and Columba_ (Calcutta, 1874); Colgan, _Acta SS.
+Hiberniae_; D. O'Hanlon, _Lives of Irish Saints_, vol. ii.; Knowles, _Life
+of St Brigid_ (1907); further bibliography in Ulysse Chevalier, _Répertoire
+des sources hist. Bio.-Bibl._ (2nd ed., Paris, 1905), s.v.
+
+BRIDGET, BRIGITTA, BIRGITTA, OF SWEDEN, SAINT (c. 1302-1373), the most
+celebrated saint of the northern kingdoms, was the daughter of Birger
+Persson, governor and _lagman_ (provincial judge) of Uppland, and one of
+the richest landowners of the country. In 1316 she was married to Ulf
+Gudmarson, lord of Nericia, to whom she bore eight children, one of whom
+was [v.04 p.0557] afterwards honoured as St Catherine of Sweden. Bridget's
+saintly and charitable life soon made her known far and wide; she gained,
+too, great religious influence over her husband, with whom (1341-1343) she
+went on pilgrimage to St James of Compostella. In 1344, shortly after their
+return, Ulf died in the Cistercian monastery of Alvastra in East Gothland,
+and Bridget now devoted herself wholly to religion. As a child she had
+already believed herself to have visions; these now became more frequent,
+and her records of these "revelations," which were translated into Latin by
+Matthias, canon of Linköping, and by her confessor, Peter, prior of
+Alvastra, obtained a great vogue during the middle ages. It was about this
+time that she founded the order of St Saviour, or Bridgittines (_q.v._), of
+which the principal house, at Vadstena, was richly endowed by King Magnus
+II. and his queen. About 1350 she went to Rome, partly to obtain from the
+pope the authorization of the new order, partly in pursuance of her
+self-imposed mission to elevate the moral tone of the age. It was not till
+1370 that Pope Urban V. confirmed the rule of her order; but meanwhile
+Bridget had made herself universally beloved in Rome by her kindness and
+good works. Save for occasional pilgrimages, including one to Jerusalem in
+1373, she remained in Rome till her death on the 23rd of July 1373. She was
+canonized in 1391 by Pope Boniface IX., and her feast is celebrated on the
+9th of October.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Cf. the Bollandist _Acta Sanctorum_, Oct. 8, iv. 368-560;
+the _Vita Sanctae Brigittae_, edited by C. Annerstedt in _Scriptores rerum
+Suedicarum medii aevi_, iii. 185-244 (Upsala, 1871). The best modern work
+on the subject is by the comtesse Catherine de Flavigny, entitled _Sainte
+Brigitte de Suède, sa vie, ses révélations et son oeuvre_ (Paris, 1892),
+which contains an exhaustive bibliography. The Revelations are contained in
+the critical edition of St Bridget's works published by the Swedish
+Historical Society and edited by G.E. Klemming (Stockholm, 1857-1884, II
+vols.). For full bibliography (to 1904) see Ulysse Chevalier, _Répertoire
+des sources hist. Bio.-Bibl._, _s.v._ "Brigitte."
+
+BRIDGETON, a city, port of entry, and the county-seat of Cumberland county,
+New Jersey, U.S.A., in the south part of the state, on Cohansey creek, 38
+m. S. of Philadelphia. Pop. (1890) 11,424; (1900) 13,913, of whom 653 were
+foreign-born and 701 were negroes; (1905) 13,624; (1910) 14,209. It is
+served by the West Jersey & Sea Shore and the Central of New Jersey
+railways, by electric railways connecting with adjacent towns, and by
+Delaware river steamboats on Cohansey creek, which is navigable to this
+point. It is an attractive residential city, has a park of 650 acres and a
+fine public library, and is the seat of West Jersey academy and of Ivy
+Hall, a school for girls. It is an important market town and distributing
+centre for a rich agricultural region; among its manufactures are glass
+(the product, chiefly glass bottles, being valued in 1905 at
+$1,252,795--42.3% of the value of all the city's factory products--and
+Bridgeton ranking eighth among the cities of the United States in this
+industry), machinery, clothing, and canned fruits and vegetables; it also
+has dyeing and finishing works. Though Bridgeton is a port of entry, its
+foreign commerce is relatively unimportant. The first settlement in what is
+now Bridgeton was made toward the close of the 18th century. A pioneer
+iron-works was established here in 1814. The city of Bridgeton, formed by
+the union of the township of Bridgeton and the township of Cohansey
+(incorporated in 1845 and 1848 respectively), was chartered in 1864.
+
+BRIDGETT, THOMAS EDWARD (1829-1899), Roman Catholic priest and historical
+writer, was born at Derby on the 20th of January 1829. He was brought up a
+Baptist, but in his sixteenth year joined the Church of England. In 1847 he
+entered St John's College, Cambridge, with the intention of taking orders.
+Being unable to subscribe to the Thirty-Nine Articles he could not take his
+degree, and in 1850 became a Roman Catholic, soon afterwards joining the
+Congregation of the Redemptorists. He went through his novitiate at St
+Trond in Belgium, and after a course of five years of theological study at
+Wittem, in Holland, was ordained priest. He returned to England in 1856,
+and for over forty years led an active life as a missioner in England and
+Ireland, preaching in over 80 missions and 140 retreats to the clergy and
+to nuns. His stay in Limerick was particularly successful, and he founded a
+religious confraternity of laymen which numbered 5000 members. Despite his
+arduous life as a priest, Bridgett found time to produce literary works of
+value, chiefly dealing with the history of the Reformation in England;
+among these are _The Life of Blessed John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester_
+(1888); _The Life and Writings of Sir Thomas More_ (1890); _History of the
+Eucharist in Great Britain_ (2 vols., 1881); _Our Lady's Dowry_ (1875, 3rd
+ed. 1890). He died at Clapham on the 17th of February 1899.
+
+For a complete list of Bridgett's works see _The Life of Father Bridgett_,
+by C. Ryder (London, 1906).
+
+BRIDGEWATER, FRANCIS EGERTON, 3RD DUKE OF (1736-1803), the originator of
+British inland navigation, younger son of the 1st duke, was born on the
+21st of May 1736. Scroop, 1st duke of Bridgewater (1681-1745), was the son
+of the 3rd earl of Bridgewater, and was created a duke in 1720; he was the
+great-grandson of John Egerton, 1st earl of Bridgewater (d. 1649; cr.
+1617), whose name is associated with the production of Milton's _Comus_;
+and the latter was the son of Sir Thomas Egerton (1540-1617), Queen
+Elizabeth's lord keeper and James I.'s lord chancellor, who was created
+baron of Ellesmere in 1603, and in 1616 Viscount Brackley (_q.v._).
+
+Francis Egerton succeeded to the dukedom at the age of twelve on the death
+of his brother, the 2nd duke. As a child he was sickly and of such
+unpromising intellectual capacity that at one time the idea of cutting the
+entail was seriously entertained. Shortly after attaining his majority he
+became engaged to the beautiful duchess of Hamilton, but her refusal to
+give up the acquaintance of her sister, Lady Coventry, led to the breaking
+off of the match. Thereupon the duke broke up his London establishment, and
+retiring to his estate at Worsley, devoted himself to the making of canals.
+The navigable canal from Worsley to Manchester which he projected for the
+transport of the coal obtained on his estates was (with the exception of
+the Sankey canal) the first great undertaking of the kind executed in Great
+Britain in modern times. The construction of this remarkable work, with its
+famous aqueduct across the Irwell, was carried out by James Brindley, the
+celebrated engineer. The completion of this canal led the duke to undertake
+a still more ambitious work. In 1762 he obtained parliamentary powers to
+provide an improved waterway between Liverpool and Manchester by means of a
+canal. The difficulties encountered in the execution of the latter work
+were still more formidable than those of the Worsley canal, involving, as
+they did, the carrying of the canal over Sale Moor Moss. But the genius of
+Brindley, his engineer, proved superior to all obstacles, and though at one
+period of the undertaking the financial resources of the duke were almost
+exhausted, the work was carried to a triumphant conclusion. The untiring
+perseverance displayed by the duke in surmounting the various difficulties
+that retarded the accomplishment of his projects, together with the
+pecuniary restrictions he imposed on himself in order to supply the
+necessary capital (at one time he reduced his personal expenses to £400 a
+year), affords an instructive example of that energy and self-denial on
+which the success of great undertakings so much depends. Both these canals
+were completed when the duke was only thirty-six years of age, and the
+remainder of his life was spent in extending them and in improving his
+estates; and during the latter years of his life he derived a princely
+income from the success of his enterprise. Though a steady supporter of
+Pitt's administration, he never took any prominent part in politics.
+
+He died unmarried on the 8th of March 1803, when the ducal title became
+extinct, but the earldom of Bridgewater passed to a cousin, John William
+Egerton, who became 7th earl. By his will he devised his canals and estates
+on trust, under which his nephew, the marquess of Stafford (afterwards
+first duke of Sutherland), became the first beneficiary, and next his son
+Francis Leveson Gower (afterwards first earl of Ellesmere) and his issue.
+In order that the trust should last as long as possible, an extraordinary
+use was made of the legal rule that property may be [v.04 p.0558] settled
+for the duration of lives in being and twenty-one years after, by choosing
+a great number of persons connected with the duke and their living issue
+and adding to them the peers who had taken their seats in the House of
+Lords on or before the duke's decease. Though the last of the peers died in
+1857, one of the commoners survived till the 19th of October 1883, and
+consequently the trust did not expire till the 19th of October 1903, when
+the whole property passed under the undivided control of the earl of
+Ellesmere. The canals, however, had in 1872 been transferred to the
+Bridgewater Navigation Company, by whom they were sold in 1887 to the
+Manchester Ship Canal Company.
+
+BRIDGEWATER, FRANCIS HENRY EGERTON, 8TH EARL OF (1756-1829), was educated
+at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, and became fellow of All Souls in 1780,
+and F.R.S. in 1781. He held the rectories of Middle and Whitchurch in
+Shropshire, but the duties were performed by a proxy. He succeeded his
+brother (see above) in the earldom in 1823, and spent the latter part of
+his life in Paris. He was a fair scholar, and a zealous naturalist and
+antiquarian. When he died in February 1829 the earldom became extinct. He
+bequeathed to the British Museum the valuable Egerton MSS. dealing with the
+literature of France and Italy, and also £12,000. He also left £8000 at the
+disposal of the president of the Royal Society, to be paid to the author or
+authors who might be selected to write and publish 1000 copies of a
+treatise "On the Power, Wisdom and Goodness of God, as manifested in the
+Creation." Mr Davies Gilbert, who then filled the office, selected eight
+persons, each to undertake a branch of this subject, and each to receive
+£1000 as his reward, together with any benefit that might accrue from the
+sale of his work, according to the will of the testator.
+
+The Bridgewater treatises were published as follows:--1. _The Adaptation of
+External Nature to the Moral and Intellectual Condition of Man_, by Thomas
+Chalmers, D.D. 2. _The Adaptation of External Nature to the Physical
+Condition of Man_, by John Kidd, M.D. 3. _Astronomy and General Physics
+considered with reference to Natural Theology_, by William Whewell, D.D. 4.
+_The Hand, its Mechanism and Vital Endowments as evincing Design_, by Sir
+Charles Bell. 5. _Animal and Vegetable Physiology considered with reference
+to Natural Theology_, by Peter Mark Roget. 6. _Geology and Mineralogy
+considered with reference to Natural Theology_, by William Buckland, D.D.
+7. _The Habits and Instincts of Animals with reference to Natural
+Theology_, by William Kirby. 8. _Chemistry, Meteorology, and the Function
+of Digestion, considered with reference to Natural Theology_, by William
+Prout, M.D. The works are of unequal merit; several of them took a high
+rank in apologetic literature. They first appeared during the years 1833 to
+1840, and afterwards in Bohn's Scientific Library.
+
+BRIDGITTINES, an order of Augustinian canonesses founded by St Bridget of
+Sweden (_q.v._) c. 1350, and approved by Urban V. in 1370. It was a "double
+order," each convent having attached to it a small community of canons to
+act as chaplains, but under the government of the abbess. The order spread
+widely in Sweden and Norway, and played a remarkable part in promoting
+culture and literature in Scandinavia; to this is to be attributed the fact
+that the head house at Vastein, by Lake Vetter, was not suppressed till
+1595. There were houses also in other lands, so that the total number
+amounted to 80. In England, the famous Bridgittine convent of Syon at
+Isleworth, Middlesex, was founded and royally endowed by Henry V. in 1415,
+and became one of the richest and most fashionable and influential
+nunneries in the country. It was among the few religious houses restored in
+Mary's reign, when nearly twenty of the old community were re-established
+at Syon. On Elizabeth's accession they migrated to the Low Countries, and
+thence, after many vicissitudes, to Rouen, and finally in 1594 to Lisbon.
+Here they remained, always recruiting their numbers from England, till
+1861, when they returned to England. Syon House is now established at
+Chudleigh in Devon, the only English community that can boast an unbroken
+conventual existence since pre-Reformation times. Some six other
+Bridgittine convents exist on the Continent, but the order is now composed
+only of women.
+
+See Helyot, _Histoire des ordres religieux_ (1715), iv. c. 4; Max
+Heimbucher, _Orden u. Kongregationen_ (1907), ii. § 83; Herzog-Hauck,
+_Realencyklopädie_ (ed. 3), art. "Birgitta"; A. Hamilton in _Dublin
+Review_, 1888, "The Nuns of Syon."
+
+(E. C. B.)
+
+BRIDGMAN, FREDERICK ARTHUR (1847- ), American artist, was born at Tuskegee,
+Alabama, on the 10th of November 1847. He began as a draughtsman in New
+York for the American Bank Note Company in 1864-1865, and studied art in
+the same years at the Brooklyn Art School and at the National Academy of
+Design; but he went to Paris in 1866 and became a pupil of J.L. Gérôme.
+Paris then became his headquarters. A trip to Egypt in 1873-1874 resulted
+in pictures of the East that attracted immediate attention, and his large
+and important composition, "The Funeral Procession of a Mummy on the Nile,"
+in the Paris Salon (1877), bought by James Gordon Bennett, brought him the
+cross of the Legion of Honour. Other paintings by him were "An American
+Circus in Normandy," "Procession of the Bull Apis" (now in the Corcoran Art
+Gallery, Washington), and a "Rumanian Lady" (in the Temple collection,
+Philadelphia).
+
+BRIDGMAN, LAURA DEWEY (1829-1889), American blind deaf-mute, was born on
+the 21st of December 1829 at Hanover, New Hampshire, U.S.A., being the
+third daughter of Daniel Bridgman (d. 1868), a substantial Baptist farmer,
+and his wife Harmony, daughter of Cushman Downer, and grand-daughter of
+Joseph Downer, one of the five first settlers (1761) of Thetford, Vermont.
+Laura was a delicate infant, puny and rickety, and was subject to fits up
+to twenty months old, but otherwise seemed to have normal senses; at two
+years, however, she had a very bad attack of scarlet fever, which destroyed
+sight and hearing, blunted the sense of smell, and left her system a wreck.
+Though she gradually recovered health she remained a blind deaf-mute, but
+was kindly treated and was in particular made a sort of playmate by an
+eccentric bachelor friend of the Bridgmans, Mr Asa Tenney, who as soon as
+she could walk used to take her for rambles a-field. In 1837 Mr James
+Barrett, of Dartmouth College, saw her and mentioned her case to Dr Mussey,
+the head of the medical department, who wrote an account which attracted
+the attention of Dr S.G. Howe (_q.v._), the head of the Perkins Institution
+for the Blind at Boston. He determined to try to get the child into the
+Institution and to attempt to educate her; her parents assented, and in
+October 1837 Laura entered the school. Though the loss of her eye-balls
+occasioned some deformity, she was otherwise a comely child and of a
+sensitive and affectionate nature; she had become familiar with the world
+about her, and was imitative in so far as she could follow the actions of
+others; but she was limited in her communication with others to the
+narrower uses of touch--patting her head meant approval, rubbing her hand
+disapproval, pushing one way meant to go, drawing another to come. Her
+mother, preoccupied with house-work, had already ceased to be able to
+control her, and her father's authority was due to fear of superior force,
+not to reason. Dr Howe at once set himself to teach her the alphabet by
+touch. It is impossible, for reasons of space, to describe his efforts in
+detail. He taught words before the individual letters, and his first
+experiment consisting in pasting upon several common articles such as keys,
+spoons, knives, &c., little paper labels with the names of the articles
+printed in raised letters, which he got her to feel and differentiate; then
+he gave her the same labels by themselves, which she learnt to associate
+with the articles they referred to, until, with the spoon or knife alone
+before her she could find the right label for each from a mixed heap. The
+next stage was to give her the component letters and teach her to combine
+them in the words she knew, and gradually in this way she learnt all the
+alphabet and the ten digits, &c. The whole process depended, of course, on
+her having a human intelligence, which only required stimulation, and her
+own interest in learning became keener as she progressed. On the 24th of
+July 1839 she first wrote her own name legibly. Dr Howe devoted himself
+with the utmost patience and assiduity to her education and was rewarded by
+increasing success. On the 20th of June 1840 she had her first arithmetic
+lesson, by the aid of a metallic case perforated with square holes, square
+types being used; and in nineteen days she could add a column of figures
+amounting to thirty. She was in good health and happy, and was treated by
+Dr Howe as his daughter. Her case already began to interest the public, and
+others were brought to Dr Howe [v.04 p.0559] for treatment. In 1841 Laura
+began to keep a journal, in which she recorded her own day's work and
+thoughts. In January 1842 Charles Dickens visited the Institution, and
+afterwards wrote enthusiastically in _American Notes_ of Dr Howe's success
+with Laura. In 1843 funds were obtained for devoting a special teacher to
+her, and first Miss Swift, then Miss Wight, and then Miss Paddock, were
+appointed; Laura by this time was learning geography and elementary
+astronomy. By degrees she was given religious instruction, but Dr Howe was
+intent upon not inculcating dogma before she had grasped the essential
+moral truths of Christianity and the story of the Bible. She grew up a gay,
+cheerful girl, loving, optimistic, but with a nervous system inclining to
+irritability, and requiring careful education in self-control. In 1860 her
+eldest sister Mary's death helped to bring on a religious crisis, and
+through the influence of some of her family she was received into the
+Baptist church; she became for some years after this more self-conscious
+and rather pietistic. In 1867 she began writing compositions which she
+called poems; the best-known is called "Holy Home." In 1872, Dr Howe having
+been enabled to build some separate cottages (each under a matron) for the
+blind girls, Laura was moved from the larger house of the Institution into
+one of them, and there she continued her quiet life. The death of Dr Howe
+in 1876 was a great grief to her; but before he died he had made
+arrangements by which she would be financially provided for in her home at
+the Institution for the rest of her life. In 1887 her jubilee was
+celebrated there, but in 1889 she was taken ill, and she died on the 24th
+of May. She was buried at Hanover. Her name has become familiar everywhere
+as an example of the education of a blind deaf-mute, leading to even
+greater results in Helen Keller.
+
+See _Laura Bridgman_, by Maud Howe and Florence Howe Hall (1903), which
+contains a bibliography; and _Life and Education of Laura Dewey Bridgman_
+(1878), by Mary S. Lamson.
+
+(H. CH.)
+
+BRIDGNORTH, a market town and municipal borough in the Ludlow parliamentary
+division of Shropshire, England, 150 m. N.W. by W. from London by the Great
+Western railway, on the Worcester-Shrewsbury line. Pop. (1901) 6052. The
+river Severn separates the upper town on the right bank from the lower on
+the left. A steep line of rail connects them. The upper town is built on
+the acclivities and summit of a rock which rises abruptly from the river to
+the height of 180 ft., and gives the town a very picturesque appearance.
+The railway passes under by a long tunnel. On the summit is the tower of
+the old castle, leaning about 17° from the perpendicular. There are also
+two parish churches. That of St Leonard, formerly collegiate, was
+practically rebuilt in 1862. This parish was held by Richard Baxter, the
+famous divine, in 1640. St Mary's church is in classic style of the late
+18th century. The picturesque half-timbered style of domestic building is
+frequently seen in the streets. In this style are the town hall (1652), and
+a house dated 1580, in which was born in 1729 Thomas Percy, bishop of
+Dromore, the editor of the _Reliques of Ancient English Poetry_. The
+grammar school, founded in 1503, occupies an Elizabethan building; there
+are also a college of divinity, a blue-coat school, and a literary
+institute with library and school of art. There are large charities. Near
+the town is a curious ancient hermitage cave, in the sandstone. At
+Quatford, 1 m. south-east, the site of a castle dating from 1085 may be
+traced. This dominated the ancient Forest of Morf. Here Robert de Belesme
+originally founded the college which was afterwards moved to Bridgnorth.
+Bridgnorth manufactures carpets; brewing is carried on, and there is trade
+in agricultural produce. The town is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12
+councillors. Area, 3018 acres.
+
+The early history of Bridgnorth is connected with Æthelfleda, lady of the
+Mercians, who raised a mound there in 912 as part of her offensive policy
+against the Danes of the five boroughs. After the Conquest William I.
+granted the manor of Bridgnorth to Earl Roger of Shrewsbury, whose son
+Robert de Belesme transferred his castle and borough from Quatford to
+Bridgnorth, but on Robert's attainder in 1102 the town became a royal
+borough. It is probable that Henry I. granted the burgesses certain
+privileges, for Henry II. confirmed to them all the franchises and customs
+which they had in the time of Henry I. King John in 1215 granted them
+freedom from toll throughout England except the city of London, and in 1227
+Henry III. conferred several new rights and liberties, among which were a
+gild merchant with a hanse. These early charters were confirmed by several
+succeeding kings, Henry VI. granting in addition assize of bread and ale
+and other privileges. Bridgnorth was incorporated by James I. in 1546. The
+burgesses returned two members to parliament in 1295, and continued to do
+so until 1867, when they were assigned only one member. The town was
+disfranchised in 1885. A yearly fair on the feast of the Translation of St
+Leonard and three following days was granted to the burgesses in 1359, and
+in 1630 Charles I. granted them licence to hold another fair on the
+Thursday before the first week in Lent and two following days.
+
+BRIDGWATER, a market town, port and municipal borough in the Bridgwater
+parliamentary division of Somerset, England, on the river Parret, 10 m.
+from its mouth, and 151¾ m. by the Great Western railway W. by S. of
+London. Pop. (1901) 15,209. It is pleasantly situated in a level and
+well-wooded country, having on the east the Mendip range and on the west
+the Quantock hills. The town lies along both sides of the river, here
+crossed by a handsome iron bridge. Among several places of worship the
+chief is St Mary Magdalene's church; this has a north porch and windows
+dating from the 14th century, besides a lofty and slender spire; but it has
+been much altered by restoration. It possesses a fine painted reredos. A
+house in Blake Street, largely restored, was the birthplace of Admiral
+Blake in 1598. Near the town are the three fine old churches of Weston
+Zoyland, Chedzoy and Middlezoy, containing some good brasses and carved
+woodwork. The battlefield of Sedgemoor, where the Monmouth rebellion was
+finally crushed in 1685, is within 3 m.; while not far off is Charlinch,
+the home of the Agapemonites (_q.v._). Bridgwater has a considerable
+coasting trade, importing grain, coal, wine, hemp, tallow and timber, and
+exporting Bath brick, farm produce, earthenware, cement and plaster of
+Paris. The river is navigable by vessels of 700 tons, though liable, when
+spring-tides are flowing, to a bore which rises, in rough weather, to a
+height of 9 ft. Bath brick, manufactured only here, and made of the mingled
+sand and clay deposited by every tide, is the staple article of commerce;
+iron-founding is also carried on. The town is governed by a mayor, 6
+aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 926 acres.
+
+A settlement probably grew up in Saxon times at Bridgwater (_Briges_,
+_Briggewalteri_, _Brigewauter_), owing its origin as a trade centre to its
+position at the mouth of the chief river in Somerset. It became a mesne
+borough by the charter granted by John in 1201, which provided that the
+town should be a free borough, the burgesses to be free and quit of all
+tolls, and made William de Briwere overlord. Other charters were granted by
+Henry III. in 1227 (confirmed in 1318, 1370, 1380), which gave Bridgwater a
+gild merchant. It was incorporated by charter of Edward IV. (1468),
+confirmed in 1554, 1586, 1629 and 1684. Parliamentary representation began
+in 1295 and continued until the Reform Act of 1870. A Saturday market and a
+fair on the 24th of June were granted by the charter of 1201. Another fair
+at the beginning of Lent was added in 1468, and a second market on
+Thursday, and fairs at Midsummer and on the 21st of September were added in
+1554. Charles II. granted another fair on the 29th of December. The
+medieval importance of these markets and fairs for the sale of wool and
+wine and later of cloth has gone. The shipping trade of the port revived
+after the construction of the new dock in 1841, and corn and timber have
+been imported for centuries.
+
+See S. G. Jarman, "History of Bridgwater," _Historical MSS. Commission_,
+Report 9, Appendix; _Victoria County History: Somerset_, vol. ii.
+
+BRIDLINGTON, a market town, municipal borough and seaside resort in the
+Buckrose parliamentary division of the East Riding of Yorkshire, England,
+31 m. N.N.E. from Hull by a branch of the North Eastern railway. Pop.
+(1891) 8919; (1901) 12,482. It is divided into two parts, the ancient
+market town lying about 1 m. from the coast, while the modern houses of
+Bridlington Quay, the watering-place, fringe the shore of Bridlington Bay.
+Southward the coast becomes low, but northward it is steep and very fine,
+where the great spur of Flamborough Head (_q.v._) projects eastward. In the
+old town of Bridlington the church of St Mary and St Nicholas consists of
+the fine Decorated and Perpendicular nave, with Early English portions, of
+the priory church of an Augustinian foundation of the time of Henry I.
+There remains also the Perpendicular gateway, serving as the town-hall. The
+founder of the priory was Walter de Gaunt, about 1114, and the institution
+[v.04 p.0560] flourished until 1537, when the last prior was executed for
+taking part in the Pilgrimage of Grace. A Congregational society was
+founded in 1662, and its old church, dating from 1702, stood until 1906. At
+Bridlington Quay there is excellent sea-bathing, and the parade and
+ornamental gardens provide pleasant promenades. Extensive works have been
+carried out along the sea front. There is a chalybeate spring. The harbour
+is enclosed by two stone piers, and there is good anchorage in the bay. The
+municipal borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors, and has
+an area of 2751 acres.
+
+The mention of four burgesses at Bridlington (Brellington, Burlington) in
+the Domesday survey shows it to have been a borough before the Conquest.
+With the rest of the north of England, Bridlington suffered from the
+ravages of the Normans, and decreased in value from £32 in the reign of
+Edward the Confessor, when it formed part of the possessions of Earl
+Morcar, to 8s. at the time of the Domesday survey. By that time it was in
+the hands of the king by the forfeiture of Earl Morcar. It was granted by
+William II. to Gilbert de Gaunt, whose son and heir Walter founded the
+priory and endowed it with the manor of Bridlington and other lands. From
+this date the importance of the town steadily increased. Henry I. and
+several succeeding kings confirmed Walter de Gaunt's gift, Stephen granting
+in addition the right to have a port. In 1546 Henry IV. granted the prior
+and convent exemption from fifteenths, tenths and subsidies, in return for
+prayer for himself and his queen in every mass sung at the high altar.
+After the Dissolution the manor remained with the crown until 1624, when
+Charles I. granted it to Sir John Ramsey, whose brother and heir, Sir
+George Ramsey, sold it in 1633 to thirteen inhabitants of the town on
+behalf of all the tenants of the manor. The thirteen lords were assisted by
+twelve other inhabitants chosen by the freeholders, and when the number of
+lords was reduced to six, seven others were chosen from the assistants. A
+chief lord was chosen every year. This system still holds good. It is
+evident from the fact of thirteen inhabitants being allowed to hold the
+manor that the town had some kind of incorporation in the 17th century,
+although its incorporation charter was not granted until 1899, when it was
+created a municipal borough. In 1200 King John granted the prior of
+Bridlington a weekly market on Saturday and an annual fair on the vigil,
+feast and morrow of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary. Henry VI. in 1446
+granted the prior three new fairs yearly on the vigil, day and morrow of
+the Nativity of the Virgin Mary, the Deposition of St John, late prior of
+Bridlington, and the Translation of the same St John. All fairs and markets
+were sold with the manor to the inhabitants of the town.
+
+See J. Thompson, _Historical Sketches of Bridlington_ (1821); _Victoria
+County History: Yorkshire_.
+
+BRIDPORT, ALEXANDER HOOD, VISCOUNT (1727-1814), British admiral, was the
+younger brother of Samuel, Lord Hood, and cousin of Sir Samuel and Captain
+Alexander Hood. Entering the navy in January 1741, he was appointed
+lieutenant of the "Bridgewater" six years later, and in that rank served
+for ten years in various ships. He was then posted to the "Prince," the
+flag-ship of Rear-Admiral Saunders (under whom Hood had served as a
+lieutenant) and in this command served in the Mediterranean for some time.
+Returning home, he was appointed to the "Minerva" frigate, in which he was
+present at Hawke's great victory in Quiberon Bay (20th November 1759). In
+1761 the "Minerva" recaptured, after a long struggle, the "Warwick" of
+equal force, and later in the same year Captain Alexander Hood went in the
+"Africa" to the Mediterranean, where he served until the conclusion of
+peace. From this time forward he was in continuous employment afloat and
+ashore, and in the "Robust" was present at the battle of Ushant in 1778.
+Hood was involved in the court-martial on Admiral (afterwards Viscount)
+Keppel which followed this action, and although adverse popular feeling was
+aroused by the course which he took in Keppel's defence, his conduct does
+not seem to have injured his professional career. Two years later he was
+made rear-admiral of the white, and succeeded Kempenfeldt as one of Howe's
+flag-officers, and in the "Queen" (90) he was present at the relief of
+Gibraltar in 1782. For a time he sat in the House of Commons. Promoted
+vice-admiral in 1787, he became K.B. in the following year, and on the
+occasion of the Spanish armament in 1790 flew his flag again for a short
+time. On the outbreak of the war with France in 1793 Sir Alexander Hood
+once more went to sea, this time as Howe's second in command, and he had
+his share in the operations which culminated in the "Glorius First of
+June," and for his services was made Baron Bridport of Cricket St Thomas in
+Somerset in the Irish peerage. Henceforth Bridport was practically in
+independent command. In 1795 he fought the much-criticized partial action
+of the 23rd of June off Belle-Ile, which, however unfavourably it was
+regarded in some quarters, was counted as a great victory by the public.
+Bridport's peerage was made English, and he became vice-admiral of England.
+In 1796-1797 he practically directed the war from London, rarely hoisting
+his flag afloat save at such critical times as that of the Irish expedition
+in 1797. In the following year he was about to put to sea when the Spithead
+fleet mutinied. He succeeded at first in pacifying the crew of his
+flag-ship, who had no personal grudge against their admiral, but a few days
+later the mutiny broke out afresh, and this time was uncontrollable. For a
+whole week the mutineers were supreme, and it was only by the greatest
+exertions of the old Lord Howe that order was then restored and the men
+returned to duty. After the mutiny had been suppressed, Bridport took the
+fleet to sea as commander-in-chief in name as well as in fact, and from
+1798 to 1800 personally directed the blockade of Brest, which grew stricter
+and stricter as time went on. In 1800 he was relieved by St Vincent, and
+retired from active duty after fifty-nine years' service. In reward for his
+fine record his peerage was made a viscounty. He spent the remaining years
+of his life in retirement. He died on the 2nd of May 1814. The viscounty in
+the English peerage died with him; the Irish barony passed to the younger
+branch of his brother's family, for whom the viscounty was recreated in
+1868.
+
+See Charnock, _Biographia Navalis_, vi. 153; _Naval Chronicle_, i. 265;
+Ralfe, _Nav. Biog._ i. 202.
+
+BRIDPORT, a market town and municipal borough in the Western parliamentary
+division of Dorsetshire, England, 18 m. N.W. of Dorchester, on a branch of
+the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 5710. It is pleasantly situated in a
+hilly district on the river Brit, from which it takes its name. The main
+part of the town is about a mile from the sea, with which it is connected
+by a winding street, ending at a quay surrounded by the fishing village of
+West Bay, where the railway terminates. The church of St Mary is a handsome
+cruciform Perpendicular building. The harbour is accessible only to small
+vessels. There is some import trade in flax, timber and coal. The principal
+articles of manufacture have long been sailcloth, cordage, linen and
+fishing-nets. The municipal borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18
+councillors. Area, 593 acres.
+
+Bridport was evidently of some importance before the Conquest, when it
+consisted of 120 houses rated for all the king's services and paying geld
+for five hides. By 1086 the number of houses had decreased to 100, and of
+these 20 were in such a wretched condition that they could not pay geld.
+The town is first mentioned as a borough in the Pipe Roll of 1189, which
+states that William de Bendenges owed £9: 10s. for the ancient farm of
+Bridport, and that the men of the town owed tallage to the amount of 53s.
+10d. Henry III. granted the first charter in 1252-1253, making the town a
+free borough and granting the burgesses the right to hold it at the ancient
+fee farm with an increase of 40s., and to choose two bailiffs to answer at
+the exchequer for the farm. A deed of 1381 shows that Henry III. also
+granted the burgesses freedom from toll. Bridport was incorporated by James
+I. in 1619, but Charles II. granted a new charter in 1667, and by this the
+town was governed until 1835. The first existing grant of a market and
+fairs to Bridport is dated 1593, but it appears from the _Quo Warranto_
+Rolls that Edward I. possessed a market there. The town was noted for the
+manufacture of ropes and cables as early as 1213, and an act of parliament
+(21 Henry VIII.) shows that the inhabitants had "from time out of mind"
+made the cables, ropes and hawsers for the royal navy and for most of the
+other ships. Bridport was represented in parliament by two members from
+1395 to 1867. In the latter year the number was reduced to one, and in 1885
+the town was disfranchised.
+
+BRIE (_Briegus saltus_, from Celtic _briek_, clay), an agricultural
+district of northern France, to the E. of Paris, bounded W. and S. by the
+Seine, N. by the Marne. It has an area of 2400 sq. m., comprising the
+greater part of the department of Seine-et-Marne, together with portions of
+the departments of Seine, Seine-et-Oise, Aisne, Marne and Aube. The western
+portion was known as the _Brie française_, the eastern portion as the _Brie
+champenoise_. The Brie forms a plateau with few eminences, varying in
+altitude between 300 and 500 ft. in the west, and between 500 and 650 ft.
+in the east. Its scenery is varied by forests of some size--the [v.04
+p.0561] chief being the Forêt de Senart, the Forêt de Crécy and the Forêt
+d'Armainvilliers. The surface soil is clay in which are embedded fragments
+of siliceous sandstone, used for millstones and constructional purposes;
+the subsoil is limestone. The Yères, a tributary of the Seine, and the
+Grand Morin and Petit Morin, tributaries of the Marne, are the chief
+rivers, but the region is not abundantly watered and the rainfall is only
+between 20 and 24 in. The Brie is famous for its grain and its dairy
+products, especially cheeses.
+
+BRIEF (Lat. _brevis_, short), in English legal practice, the written
+statement given to a barrister to form the basis of his case. It was
+probably so called from its at first being only a copy of the original
+writ. Upon a barrister devolves the duty of taking charge of a case when it
+comes into court, but all the preliminary work, such as the drawing up of
+the case, serving papers, marshalling evidence, &c., is performed by a
+solicitor, so that a brief contains a concise summary for the information
+of counsel of the case which he has to plead, with all material facts in
+chronological order, and frequently such observations thereon as the
+solicitor may think fit to make, the names of witnesses, with the "proofs,"
+that is, the nature of the evidence which each witness is ready to give, if
+called upon. The brief may also contain suggestions for the use of counsel
+when cross-examining witnesses called by the other side. Accompanying the
+brief may be copies of the pleadings (see PLEADING), and of all documents
+material to the case. The brief is always endorsed with the title of the
+court in which the action is to be tried, with the title of the action, and
+the names of the counsel and of the solicitor who delivers the brief.
+Counsel's fee is also marked. The delivery of a brief to counsel gives him
+authority to act for his client in all matters which the litigation
+involves. The result of the action is noted on the brief by counsel, or if
+the action is compromised, the terms of the compromise are endorsed on each
+brief and signed by the leading counsel on the opposite side. In Scotland a
+brief is called a memorial.
+
+In the United States the word has, to a certain extent, a different
+meaning, a brief in its English sense not being required, for the American
+attorney exercises all the functions distributed in England between
+barristers and solicitors. A lawyer sometimes prepares for his own use what
+is called a "trial brief" for use at the trial. This corresponds in all
+essential particulars with the "brief" prepared by the solicitor in England
+for the use of counsel. But the more distinctive use of the term in America
+is in the case of the brief "in error or appeal," before an appellate
+court. This is a written or printed document, varying according to
+circumstances, but embodying the argument on the question affected. Most of
+the appellate courts require the filing of printed briefs for the use of
+the court and opposing counsel at a time designated for each side before
+hearing. In the rules of the United States Supreme Court and circuit courts
+of appeals the brief is required to contain a concise statement of the
+case, a specification of errors relied on, including the substance of
+evidence, the admission or rejection of which is to be reviewed, or any
+extract from a charge excepted to, and an argument exhibiting clearly the
+points of law or fact to be discussed. This form of brief, it may be added,
+is also adopted for use at the trial in certain states of the Union which
+require printed briefs to be delivered to the court.
+
+In English ecclesiastical law a brief meant letters patent issued out of
+chancery to churchwardens or other officers for the collection of money for
+church purposes. Such briefs were regulated by a statute of 1704, but are
+now obsolete, though they are still to be found named in one of the rubrics
+in the Communion service of the Book of Common Prayer.
+
+The _brief-bag_, in which counsel's papers are carried to and from court,
+now forms an integral part of a barrister's outfit, but in the early part
+of the 19th century the possession of a brief-bag was strictly confined to
+those who had received one from a king's counsel. King's counsel were then
+few in number, were considered officers of the court, and had a salary of
+£40 a year, with a supply of paper, pens and purple bags. These bags they
+distributed among rising juniors of their acquaintance, whose bundles of
+briefs were getting inconveniently large to be carried in their hands.
+These perquisites were abolished in 1830. English brief-bags are now either
+blue or red. Blue bags are those with which barristers provide themselves
+when first called, and it is a breach of etiquette to let this bag be
+visible in court. The only brief-bag allowed to be placed on the desks is
+the red bag, which by English legal etiquette is given by a leading counsel
+to a junior who has been useful to him in some important case.
+
+BRIEG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia, on the left
+bank of the Oder, and on the Breslau and Beuthen railway, 27 m. S.E. of the
+former city. Pop. (1900) 24,090. It has a castle (the residence of the old
+counts of Brieg), a lunatic asylum, a gymnasium with a good library,
+several churches and hospitals, and a theatre. Its fortifications were
+destroyed by the French in 1807, and are now replaced by beautiful
+promenades. Brieg carries on a considerable trade, its chief manufactures
+being linen, embroideries, cotton and woollen goods, ribbons, leather,
+machinery, hats, pasteboard and cigars. Important cattle-markets are held
+here. Brieg, or, as it is called in early documents, _Civitas Altae Ripae_,
+obtained municipal rights in 1250 from Duke Henry III. of Breslau, and was
+fortified in 1297; its name is derived from the Polish _Brzeg_ (shore).
+Burned by the Hussites in 1428, the town was soon afterwards rebuilt, and
+in 1595 it was again fortified by Joachim Frederick, duke of Brieg. In the
+Thirty Years' War it suffered greatly; in that of the Austrian succession
+it was heavily bombarded by the Prussian forces; and in 1807 it was
+captured by the French and Bavarians. From 1311 to 1675 Brieg was the
+capital of an independent line of dukes, a cadet branch of the Polish dukes
+of Lower Silesia, by one of whom the castle was built in 1341. In 1537
+Frederick II., duke of Liegnitz, Brieg and Wohlau, concluded with Joachim
+II., elector of Brandenburg, a treaty according to which his duchy was to
+pass to the house of Brandenburg in the event of the extinction of his
+line. On the death of George William the last duke in 1675, however,
+Austria refused to acknowledge the validity of the treaty and annexed the
+duchies. It was the determination of Frederick II. of Prussia to assert his
+claim that led in 1740 to the war that ended two years later in the cession
+of Silesia to Prussia.
+
+See Stokvis, _Manuel d'histoire_, iii. pp. 54, 64.
+
+BRIEG, often now spelt BRIG (Fr. _Brigue_, Ital. _Briga_), a picturesque
+small town in the Swiss canton of the Valais, situated at the foot of the
+northern slope of the Simplon Pass, on the right bank of the Saltine
+stream, and a little above its junction with the Rhone. Its older houses
+are very Italian in appearance, while its most prominent buildings (castle,
+former Jesuits' college and Ursuline convent) all date from the 17th
+century, and are due to the generosity of a single member of the local
+Stockalper family. The prosperity of Brieg is bound up with the Simplon
+Pass (_q.v._), so that it gradually supplanted the more ancient village of
+Naters opposite, becoming a separate parish (the church is at Glis, a few
+minutes from the town) in 1517. Its medieval name was _Briga dives_. The
+opening of the carriage road across the Simplon (1807) and of the tunnel
+beneath the pass (1906), as well as the fact that above Brieg is the
+steeper and less fertile portion of the Upper Valais (now much frequented
+by tourists), have greatly increased the importance and size of the town.
+The opening of the railway tunnel beneath the Lötschen Pass, affording
+direct communication with Bern and the Bernese Oberland, is calculated
+still further to contribute to its prosperity. The new town extends below
+the old one and is closer to the right bank of the Rhone. In 1900 the
+population was 2182, almost all Romanists, while 1316 were German-speaking,
+719 Italian-speaking (the Simplon tunnel workmen), and 142 French-speaking,
+one person only speaking Romonsch.
+
+(W. A. B. C.)
+
+BRIELLE (_Briel_ or _Bril_), a seaport in the province of South Holland,
+Holland, on the north side of the island of Voorne, at the mouth of the New
+Maas, 5½ m. N. of Hellevoetsluis. Pop. (1900) 4107. It is a fortified place
+and has a good harbour, arsenal, magazine and barracks. It also possesses a
+quaint town hall, and an orphanage dating from 1533. The tower of the
+Groote [v.04 p.0562] Kerk of St Catherine serves as a lighthouse. Most of
+the trade of Brielle was diverted to Hellevoetsluis by the cutting of the
+Voornsche Canal in 1829, but it still has some business in corn and fodder,
+as well as a few factories. A large number of the inhabitants are also
+engaged in the fisheries and as pilots.
+
+The chief event in the history of Brielle is its capture by the _Gueux sur
+Mer_, a squadron of privateers which raided the Dutch coast under
+commission of the prince of Orange. This event, which took place on the 1st
+of April 1572, was the first blow in the long war of Dutch independence,
+and was followed by a general outbreak of the patriotic party (Motley,
+_Rise of the Dutch Republic_, part iii. chapter vi.). "The Brill" was one
+of the four Dutch towns handed over to Queen Elizabeth in 1584 as security
+for English expenses incurred in aiding the Dutch. Brielle is the
+birthplace of the famous admiral Martin van Tromp, and also of Admiral van
+Almonde, a distinguished commander of the early 18th century.
+
+BRIENNE-LE-CHÂTEAU, a town of north-eastern France, in the department of
+Aube, 1 m. from the right bank of the Aube and 26 m. N.E. of Troyes on the
+Eastern railway. Pop. (1906) 1761. The château, which overlooks the town,
+is an imposing building of the latter half of the 18th century, built by
+the cardinal de Brienne (see below). It possesses an important collection
+of pictures, many of them historical portraits of the 17th and 18th
+centuries. The church dates from the 16th century and contains good stained
+glass. A statue of Napoleon commemorates his sojourn at Brienne from 1779
+to 1784, when he was studying at the military school suppressed in 1790. In
+1814 Brienne was the scene of fighting between Napoleon and the Allies (see
+NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS). Brewing is carried on in the town.
+Brienne-la-Vieille, a village 1½ m. south of Brienne-le-Château, has a
+church of the 12th and 16th centuries with fine stained windows. The portal
+once belonged to the ancient abbey of Bassefontaine, the ruins of which are
+situated near the village.
+
+_Counts of Brienne._--Under the Carolingian dynasty Brienne-le-Château was
+the capital town of a French countship. In the 10th century it was captured
+by two adventurers named Engelbert and Gobert, and from the first of these
+sprang the noble house of Brienne. In 1210 John of Brienne (1148-1237)
+became king of Jerusalem, through his marriage with Mary of Montsserrat,
+heiress of the kingdom of Jerusalem. He led a crusade in Egypt which had no
+lasting success; and when in 1229 he was elected emperor of the East, for
+the period of Baldwin II.'s minority, he fought and conquered the Greek
+emperor John III. (Batatzes or Vatatzes). Walter V., count of Brienne and
+of Lecce (Apulia) and duke of Athens, fought against the Greeks and at
+first drove them from Thessaly, but was eventually defeated and killed near
+Lake Copais in 1311. His son, Walter VI., after having vainly attempted to
+reconquer Athens in 1331, served under Philip of Valois against the
+English. Having defended Florence against the Pisans he succeeded in
+obtaining dictatorial powers for himself in the republic; but his
+tyrannical conduct brought about his expulsion. He was appointed constable
+of France by John the Good, and was killed at the battle of Poitiers in
+1356. His sister and heiress Isabelle married Walter of Enghien, and so
+brought Brienne to the house of Enghien, and, by his marriage with Margaret
+of Enghien, John of Luxemburg-St Pol (d. about 1397) became count of
+Brienne. The house of Luxemburg retained the countship until Margaret
+Charlotte of Luxemburg sold it to a certain Marpon, who ceded it to Henri
+Auguste de Loménie (whose wife, Louise de Béon, descended from the house of
+Luxemburg-Brienne) in 1640. The Limousin house of Loménie (the genealogies
+which trace this family to the 15th century are untrustworthy) produced
+many well-known statesmen, among others the celebrated cardinal Étienne
+Charles de Loménie de Brienne (1727-1794), minister of Louis XV.; and the
+last lords of Brienne were members of this family.
+
+(M. P.*)
+
+BRIENZ, LAKE OF, in the Swiss canton of Bern, the first lake into which the
+river Aar expands. It lies in a deep hollow between the village of Brienz
+on the east (2580 inhabitants, the chief centre of the Swiss wood-carving
+industry) and, on the west, Bönigen (1515 inhabitants), close to
+Interlaken. Its length is about 9 m., its width 1½ m., and its maximum
+depth 856 ft., while its area is 11½ sq. m., and the surface is 1857 ft.
+above the sea-level. On the south shore are the Giessbach Falls and the
+hamlet of Iseltwald. On the north shore are a few small villages. The
+character of the lake is gloomy and sad as compared with its neighbour,
+that of Thun. Its chief affluent is the Lütschine (flowing from the valleys
+of Grindelwald and Lauterbrunnen). The first steamer was placed on the lake
+in 1839.
+
+(W. A. B. C.)
+
+BRIERLEY, BENJAMIN (1825-1896), English weaver and writer in Lancashire
+dialect, was born near Manchester, the son of humble parents, and started
+life in a textile factory, educating himself in his spare time. At about
+the age of thirty he began to contribute articles to local papers, and the
+republication of some of his sketches of Lancashire character in _A Summer
+Day in Daisy Nook_ (1859) attracted attention. In 1863 he definitely took
+to journalism and literature as his work, publishing in 1863 his
+_Chronicles of Waverlow_, and in 1864 a long story called _The Layrock of
+Langley Side_ (afterwards dramatized), followed by others. He started in
+1869 _Ben Brierley's Journal_, a weekly, which continued till 1891, and he
+gave public readings from his own writings, visiting America in 1880 and
+1884. His various _Ab-o'-th'-Yate_ sketches (about America, London, &c.),
+and his pictures of Lancashire common life were very popular, and were
+collected after his death. In 1884 he lost his savings by the failure of a
+building society, and a fund was raised for his support. He died on the
+18th of January 1896, and two years later a statue was erected to him in
+Queen's Park, Manchester.
+
+BRIERLY, SIR OSWALD WALTERS (1817-1894), English marine painter, who came
+of an old Cheshire family, was born at Chester. He entered Sass's
+art-school in London, and after studying naval architecture at Plymouth he
+exhibited some drawings of ships at the Royal Academy in 1839. He had a
+passion for the sea, and in 1841 started round the world with Benjamin Boyd
+(1796-1851), afterwards well known as a great Australian squatter, in the
+latter's ship "Wanderer," and having got to New South Wales, made his home
+at Auckland for ten years. Brierly Point is called after him. He added to
+his sea experiences by voyages on H.M.S. "Rattlesnake" in 1848, and with
+Sir Henry Keppel on the "Meander" in 1850; he returned to England in 1851
+on this ship, and illustrated Keppel's book about his cruise (1853). He was
+again with Keppel during the Crimean War, and published in 1855 a series of
+lithographs illustrating "The English and French fleets in the Baltic." He
+was now taken up by Queen Victoria and other members of the royal family,
+and was attached to the suites of the duke of Edinburgh and the prince of
+Wales on their tours by sea, the results being seen in further marine
+pictures by him; and in 1874 he was made marine-painter to the queen. He
+exhibited at the Academy, but more largely at the Royal Water-colour
+Society, his more important works including the historical pictures, "The
+Retreat of the Spanish Armada" (1871) and "The Loss of the Revenge" (1877).
+In 1885 he was knighted, and he died on the 14th of December 1894. He was
+twice married and had an active and prosperous life, but was no great
+artist; his best pictures are at Melbourne and Sydney.
+
+BRIEUX, EUGÈNE (1858- ), French dramatist, was born in Paris of poor
+parents on the 19th of January 1858. A one-act play, _Bernard Palissy_,
+written in collaboration with M. Gaston Salandri, was produced in 1879, but
+he had to wait eleven years before he obtained another hearing, his _Ménage
+d' artistes_ being produced by Antoine at the Théâtre Libre in 1890. His
+plays are essentially didactic, being aimed at some weakness or iniquity of
+the social system. _Blanchette_ (1892) pointed out the evil results of
+education of girls of the working classes; _M. de Réboval_ (1892) was
+directed against pharisaism; _L'Engrenage_ (1894) against corruption in
+politics; _Les Bienssaiteurs_ (1896) against the frivolity of fashionable
+charity; and _L'Évasion_ (1896) satirized an indicriminate belief in the
+doctrine of heredity. _Les Trois Filles de M. Dupont_ (1897) is a powerful,
+somewhat brutal, study of the miseries imposed on poor middle-class girls
+by the French [v.04 p.0563] system of dowry; _Le Résultat des courses_
+(1898) shows the evil results of betting among the Parisian workmen; _La
+Robe rouge_ (1900) was directed against the injustices of the law; _Les
+Remplaçantes_ (1901) against the practice of putting children out to nurse.
+_Les Avariés_ (1901), forbidden by the censor, on account of its medical
+details, was read privately by the author at the Théâtre Antoine; and
+_Petite amie_ (1902) describes the life of a Parisian shop-girl. Later
+plays are _La Couvée_ (1903, acted privately at Rouen in 1893), _Maternité_
+(1904), _La Déserteuse_ (1904), in collaboration with M. Jean Sigaux, and
+_Les Hannetons_, a comedy in three acts (1906).
+
+BRIGADE (Fr. and Ger. _brigade_, Ital. _brigata_, Span. _brigada_; the
+English use of the word dates from the early 17th century), a unit in
+military organization commanded by a major-general, brigadier-general or
+colonel, and composed of two or more regiments of infantry, cavalry or
+artillery. The British infantry brigade consists as a rule of four
+battalions (or about 4000 bayonets) with supply, transport and medical
+units attached; the cavalry brigade of two or three regiments of cavalry.
+An artillery "brigade" (field, horse, and heavy) is in Great Britain a
+smaller unit, forming a lieut.-colonel's command and consisting of two or
+three batteries. (See ARMY, ARTILLERY, INFANTRY, and CAVALRY.) The staff of
+an infantry or cavalry brigade usually consists of the brigadier
+commanding, his aide-de-camp, and the brigade-major, a staff officer whose
+duties are intermediate between those of an adjutant and those of a general
+staff officer.
+
+BRIGANDAGE. The brigand is supposed to derive his name from the O. Fr.
+_brigan_, which is a form of the Ital. _brigante,_ an irregular or partisan
+soldier. There can be no doubt as to the origin of the word "bandit," which
+has the same meaning. In Italy, which is not unjustly considered the home
+of the most accomplished European brigands, a _bandito_ was a man declared
+outlaw by proclamation, or _bando_, called in Scotland "a decree of
+horning" because it was delivered by a blast of a horn at the town cross.
+The brigand, therefore, is the outlaw who conducts warfare after the manner
+of an irregular or partisan soldier by skirmishes and surprises, who makes
+the war support itself by plunder, by extorting blackmail, by capturing
+prisoners and holding them to ransom, who enforces his demands by violence,
+and kills the prisoners who cannot pay. In certain conditions the brigand
+has not been a mere malefactor. "It is you who are the thieves"--"_I
+Ladroni, siete voi,_"--was the defence of the Calabrian who was tried as a
+brigand by a French court-martial during the reign of Murat in Naples.
+Brigandage may be, and not infrequently has been, the last resource of a
+people subject to invasion. The Calabrians who fought for Ferdinand of
+Naples, and the Spanish irregular levies, which maintained the national
+resistance against the French from 1808 to 1814, were called brigands by
+their enemies. In the Balkan peninsula, under Turkish rule, the brigands
+(called _klephts_ by the Greeks and _hayduks_ or _haydutzi_ by the Slavs)
+had some claim to believe themselves the representatives of their people
+against oppressors. The only approach to an attempt to maintain order was
+the permission given to part of the population to carry arms in order to
+repress the klephts. They were hence called "armatoli." As a matter of fact
+the armatole were rather the allies than the enemies of the klephts. The
+invader who reduces a nation to anarchy, and then suffers from the disorder
+he creates, always calls his opponents brigands. It is a natural
+consequence of such a war, but a very disastrous one, for the people who
+have to have recourse to these methods of defence, that the brigand
+acquires some measure of honourable prestige from his temporary association
+with patriotism and honest men. The patriot band attracts the brigand
+proper, who is not averse to continue his old courses under an honourable
+pretext. "_Viva Fernando y vamos robando_" (Long life to Ferdinand, and let
+us go robbing) has been said by not unfair critics to have been the maxim
+of many Spanish guerrilleros. Italy and Spain suffered for a long time from
+the disorder developed out of the popular resistance to the French. Numbers
+of the guerrilleros of both countries, who in normal conditions might have
+been honest, had acquired a preference for living on the country, and for
+occasional booty, which they could not resign when the enemy had retired.
+Their countrymen had to work for a second deliverance from their late
+defenders. In the East the brigand has had a freer scope, and has even
+founded kingdoms. David's following in the cave of Adullam was such
+material as brigands are made of. "And every one that was in distress, and
+every one that was in debt, and every one that was discontented, gathered
+themselves unto him, and he became a captain over them: and there were with
+him about four hundred men." Nadir Shah of Persia began in just such a cave
+of Adullam, and lived to plunder Delhi with a host of Persians and Afghans.
+
+The conditions which favour the development of brigandage may be easily
+summed up. They are first bad administration, and then, in a less degree,
+the possession of convenient hiding-places. A country of mountain and
+forest is favourable to the brigand. The highlands of Scotland supplied a
+safe refuge to the "gentlemen reavers," who carried off the cattle of the
+Sassenach landlords. The Apennines, the mountains of Calabria, the Sierras
+of Spain, were the homes of the Italian "banditos" and the Spanish
+"bandoleros" (banished men) and "salteadores" (raiders). The forests of
+England gave cover to the outlaws whose very much flattered portrait is to
+be found in the ballads of Robin Hood. The "maquis," i.e. the bush of
+Corsica, and its hills, have helped the Corsican brigand, as the bush of
+Australia covered the bushranger. But neither forest thicket nor mountain
+is a lasting protection against a good police, used with intelligence by
+the government, and supported by the law-abiding part of the community. The
+great haunts of brigands in Europe have been central and southern Italy and
+the worst-administered parts of Spain, except those which fell into the
+hands of the Turks. "Whenever numerous troops of banditti, multiplied by
+success and impunity, publicly defy, instead of eluding, the justice of
+their country, we may safely infer that the excessive weakness of the
+government is felt and abused by the lowest ranks of the community," is the
+judgment passed by Gibbon on the disorders of Sicily in the reign of the
+emperor Gallienus. This weakness has not always been a sign of real
+feebleness in the government. England was vigorously ruled in the reign of
+William III., when "a fraternity of plunderers, thirty in number according
+to the lowest estimate, squatted near Waltham Cross under the shades of
+Epping Forest, and built themselves huts, from which they sallied forth
+with sword and pistol to bid passengers stand." It was not because the
+state was weak that the Gubbings (so called in contempt from the trimmings
+and refuse of fish) infested Devonshire for a generation from their
+headquarters near Brent Tor, on the edge of Dartmoor. It was because
+England had not provided herself with a competent rural police. In
+relatively unsettled parts of the United States there has been a
+considerable amount of a certain kind of brigandage. In early days the
+travel routes to the far West were infested by highwaymen, who, however,
+seldom united into bands, and such outlaws, when captured, were often dealt
+with in an extra-legal manner, e.g. by "vigilance committees." The Mexican
+brigand Cortina made incursions into Texas before the Civil War. In Canada
+the mounted police have kept brigandage down, and in Mexico the "Rurales"
+have made an end of the brigands. Such curable evils as the highwaymen of
+England, and their like in the States, are not to be compared with the
+"Écorcheurs," or Skinners, of France in the 15th century, or the
+"Chauffeurs" of the revolutionary epoch. The first were large bands of
+discharged mercenary soldiers who pillaged the country. The second were
+ruffians who forced their victims to pay ransom by holding their feet in
+fires. Both flourished because the government was for the time disorganized
+by foreign invasion or by revolution. These were far more terrible evils
+than the licence of criminals, who are encouraged by a fair prospect of
+impunity because there is no permanent force always at hand to check them,
+and to bring them promptly to justice. At the same time it would be going
+much too far to say that the absence of an efficient police is the sole
+cause of brigandage in countries not subject to foreign invasion, or where
+[v.04 p.0564] the state is not very feeble. The Sicilian peasants of whom
+Gibbon wrote were not only encouraged by the hope of impunity, but were
+also maddened by an oppressive system of taxation and a cruel system of
+land tenure. So were the Gauls and Spaniards who throughout the 3rd and 4th
+centuries were a constant cause of trouble to the empire, under the name of
+Bagaudae, a word of uncertain origin. In the years preceding the French
+Revolution, the royal government commanded the services of a strong army,
+and a numerous _maréchaussée_ or gendarmerie. Yet it was defied by the
+troops of smugglers and brigands known as _faux saulniers_, unauthorized
+salt-sellers, and gangs of poachers haunted the king's preserves round
+Paris. The salt monopoly and the excessive preservation of the game were so
+oppressive that the peasantry were provoked to violent resistance and to
+brigandage. They were constantly suppressed, but as the cause of the
+disorder survived, so its effects were continually renewed. The offenders
+enjoyed a large measure of public sympathy, and were warned or concealed by
+the population, even when they were not actively supported. The traditional
+outlaw who spared the poor and levied tribute on the rich was, no doubt,
+always a creature of fiction. The ballad which tells us how "Rich, wealthy
+misers were abhorred, By brave, free-hearted Bliss" (a rascal hanged for
+highway robbery at Salisbury in 1695) must have been a mere echo of the
+Robin Hood songs. But there have been times and countries in which the law
+and its administration have been so far regarded as enemies by people who
+were not themselves criminals, that all who defied them have been sure of a
+measure of sympathy. Then and there it was that brigandage has flourished,
+and has been difficult to extirpate. Schinder-Hannes, Jack the Skinner,
+whose real name was Johann Buckler, and who was born at Muklen on the
+Rhine, flourished from 1797 to 1802 because there was no proper police to
+stop him; it is also true that as he chiefly plundered the Jews he had a
+good deal of Christian sympathy. When caught and beheaded he had no
+successors.
+
+The brigandage of Greece, southern Italy, Corsica and Spain had deeper
+roots, and has never been quite suppressed. All four countries are well
+provided with hiding-places in forest and mountain. In all the
+administration has been bad, the law and its officers have been regarded as
+dangers, if not as deliberate enemies, so that they have found little
+native help, and, what is not the least important cause of the persistence
+of brigandage, there have generally been local potentates who found it to
+their interest to protect the brigand. The case of Greece under Turkish
+rule need not be dealt with. Whoever was not a klepht was the victim of
+some official extortioner. It would be grossly unfair to apply the name
+brigand to the Mainotes and similar clans, who had to choose between being
+flayed by the Turks or living by the sword under their own law. When it
+became independent Greece was extremely ill administered under a nominal
+parliamentary government by politicians who made use of the brigands for
+their own purposes. The result was the state of things described with only
+pardonable exaggeration in Edmond About's amusing _Roi de la montagne_. An
+authentic and most interesting picture of the Greek brigands will be found
+in the story of the captivity of S. Soteropoulos, an ex-minister who fell
+into their hands. It was translated into English under the title of _The
+Brigands of the Morea_, by the Rev. J.O. Bagdon (London, 1868). The
+misfortunes of Soteropoulos led to the adoption of strong measures which
+cleared the Morea, where the peasantry gave active support to the troops
+when they saw that the government was in earnest. But brigandage was not
+yet extinct in Greece. In 1870 an English party, consisting of Lord and
+Lady Muncaster, Mr Vyner, Mr Lloyd, Mr Herbert, and Count de Boyl, was
+captured at Oropos, near Marathon, and a ransom of £25,000 was demanded.
+Lord and Lady Muncaster were set at liberty to seek for the ransom, but the
+Greek government sent troops in pursuit of the brigands, and the other
+prisoners were then murdered. The scoundrels were hunted down, caught, and
+executed, and Greece has since then been tolerably free from this reproach.
+In the Balkan peninsula, under Turkish rule, brigandage continued to exist
+in connexion with Christian revolt against the Turk, and the race conflicts
+of Albanians, Walachians, Pomuks, Bulgarians and Greeks. In Corsica the
+"maquis" has never been without its brigand hero, because industry has been
+stagnant, family feuds persist, and the government has never quite
+succeeded in persuading the people to support the law. The brigand is
+always a hero to at least one faction of Corsicans.
+
+The conditions which favour brigandage have been more prevalent, and for
+longer, in Italy than elsewhere in western Europe, with the standing
+exception of Corsica, which is Italian in all but political allegiance.
+Until the middle of the 19th century Italy was divided into small states,
+so that the brigand who was closely pursued in one could flee to another.
+Thus it was that Marco Sciarra of the Abruzzi, when hard pressed by the
+Spanish viceroy of Naples--just before and after 1600--could cross the
+border of the papal states and return on a favourable opportunity. When
+pope and viceroy combined against him he took service with Venice, from
+whence he could communicate with his friends at home, and pay them
+occasional visits. On one such visit he was led into a trap and slain.
+Marco Sciarra had terrorized the country far and wide at the head of 600
+men. He was the follower and imitator of Benedetto Mangone, of whom it is
+recorded that, having stopped a party of travellers which included Torquato
+Tasso, he allowed them to pass unharmed out of his reverence for poets and
+poetry. Mangone was finally taken, and beaten to death with hammers at
+Naples. He and his like are the heroes of much popular verse, written in
+_ottava rima_, and beginning with the traditional epic invocation to the
+muse. A fine example is "The most beautiful history of the life and death
+of Pietro Mancino, chief of Banditti," which has remained popular with the
+people of southern Italy. It begins:--
+
+  "Io canto li ricatti, e il fiero ardire
+  Del gran Pietro Mancino fuoruscito"
+  (Pietro Mancino that great outlawed man
+  I sing, and all his rage.)
+
+In Naples the number of competing codes and jurisdictions, the survival of
+the feudal power of the nobles, who sheltered banditti, just as a Highland
+chief gave refuge to "caterans" in Scotland, and the helplessness of the
+peasantry, made brigandage chronic, and the same conditions obtained in
+Sicily. The Bourbon dynasty reduced brigandage very much, and secured order
+on the main high-roads. But it was not extinguished, and it revived during
+the French invasion. This was the flourishing time of the notorious Fra
+Diavolo, who began as brigand and blossomed into a patriot. Fra Diavolo was
+captured and executed by the French. When Ferdinand was restored on the
+fall of Napoleon he employed an English officer, General Sir Richard
+Church, to suppress the brigands. General Church, who kept good order among
+his soldiers, and who made them pay for everything, gained the confidence
+of the peasantry, and restored a fair measure of security. It was he who
+finally brought to justice the villainous Don Ciro Anicchiarico--priest and
+brigand--who declared at his trial with offhand indifference that he
+supposed he had murdered about seventy people first and last. When a
+brother priest was sent to give him the consolations of religion, Ciro cut
+him short, saying, "Stop that chatter, we are two of a trade: we need not
+play the fool to one another" (_Lasciate queste chiacchiere, siamo dell'
+istessa professione: non ci burliamo fra noi_). Every successive
+revolutionary disturbance in Naples saw a recrudescence of brigandage down
+to the unification of 1860-1861, and then it was years before the Italian
+government rooted it out. The source of the trouble was the support the
+brigands received from various kinds of "_manuténgoli_"
+(maintainers)--great men, corrupt officials, political parties, and the
+peasants who were terrorized, or who profited by selling the brigands food
+and clothes. In Sicily brigandage has been endemic. In 1866 two English
+travellers, Mr E.J.C. Moens and the Rev. J.C. Murray Aynesley, were
+captured and held to ransom. Mr Moens found that the "manuténgoli" of the
+brigands among the peasants charged famine prices for food, and
+extortionate prices for clothes and cartridges. What is true of Naples and
+Sicily is true of other parts of Italy _mutatis [v.04 p.0565] mutandis_. In
+Tuscany, Piedmont and Lombardy the open country has been orderly, but the
+borders infested with brigands. The worst district outside Calabria has
+been the papal states. The Austrian general, Frimont, did, however, partly
+clear the Romagna about 1820, though at a heavy cost of life to his
+soldiers--mostly Bohemian Jägers--from the malaria.
+
+The history of brigandage in Spain is very similar. It may be said to have
+been endemic in and south of the Sierra Morena. In the north it has
+flourished when government was weak, and after foreign invasion and civil
+wars. But it has always been put down easily by a capable administration.
+It reached its greatest heights in Catalonia, where it began in the strife
+of the peasants against the feudal exactions of the landlords. It had its
+traditional hero, Roque Guinart, who figures in the second part of Don
+Quixote. The revolt against the house of Austria in 1640, and the War of
+the Succession (1700-1714), gave a great stimulus to Catalan brigandage.
+But it was then put down in a way for which Italy offers no precedent. A
+country gentleman named Pedro Veciana, hereditary _balio_ (military and
+civil lieutenant) of the archbishop of Tarragona in the town of Valls,
+armed his farm-servants, and resisted the attacks of the brigands. With the
+help of neighbouring country gentlemen he formed a strong band, known as
+the Mozos (Boys) of Veciana. The brigands combined to get rid of him by
+making an attack on the town of Valls, but were repulsed with great loss.
+The government of Philip V. then commissioned Veciana to raise a special
+corps of police, the "escuadra de Cataluna," which still exists. For five
+generations the colonel of the escuadra was always a Veciana. At all times
+in central and northern Spain the country population has supported the
+police when the government would act firmly. Since the organization of the
+excellent constabulary called "La Guardia Civil" by the duke of Ahumada,
+about 1844, brigandage has been well kept down. At the close of the Carlist
+War in 1874 a few bands infested Catalonia, but one of the worst was
+surprised, and all its members battered to death with boxwood cudgels by a
+gang of charcoal-burners on the ruins of the castle of San Martin de
+Centellas. In such conditions as these brigandage cannot last. More
+sympathy is felt for "bandoleros" in the south, and there also they find
+Spanish equivalents for the "manuténgoli" of Italy. The tobacco smuggling
+from Gibraltar keeps alive a lawless class which sinks easily into pure
+brigandage. Perhaps the influence of the Berber blood in the population
+helps to prolong this barbarism. The Sierra Morena, and the Serrania de
+Ronda, have produced the bandits whose achievements form the subject of
+popular ballads, such as Francisco Esteban El Guapo (Francis Stephen, the
+Buck or Dandy), Don Juan de Serralonga, Pedranza, &c. The name of José
+Maria has been made familiar to all the world by Merimée's story, _Carmen_,
+and by Bizet's opera. José Maria, called El Tempranillo (the early bird),
+was a historical personage, a liberal in the rising against Ferdinand VII.,
+1820-1823, then a smuggler, then a "bandolero." He was finally bought off
+by the government, and took a commission to suppress the other brigands.
+Jose Maria was at last shot by one of them, whom he was endeavouring to
+arrest. The civil guard prevents brigandage from reaching any great height
+in normal times, but in 1905 a bandit of the old stamp, popularly known as
+"El Vivillo" (the Vital Spark), haunted the Serrania de Ronda.
+
+The brigand life has been made the subject of much romance. But when
+stripped of fiction it appears that the bands have been mostly recruited by
+men who had been guilty of homicide, out of jealousy or in a gambling
+quarrel, and who remained in them not from love of the life, but from fear
+of the gallows. A reformed brigand, known as Passo di Lupo (Wolf's Step),
+confessed to Mr McFarlane about 1820 that the weaker members of the band
+were terrorized and robbed by the bullies, and that murderous conflicts
+were constant among them.
+
+The "dacoits" or brigands of India were of the same stamp as their European
+colleagues. The Pindaris were more than brigands, and the Thugs were a
+religious sect.
+
+AUTHORITIES.--The literature of brigandage, apart from pure romances, or
+official reports of trials, is naturally extensive. Mr McFarlane's _Lives
+and Exploits of Banditti and Robbers_ (London, 1837) is a useful
+introduction to the subject. The author saw a part of what he wrote about,
+and gives many references, particularly for Italy. A good bibliography of
+Spanish brigandage will be found in the _Reseña Historica de la Guardia
+Civil_ of Eugenio de la Iglesia (Madrid, 1898). For actual pictures of the
+life, nothing is better than the _English Travellers and Italian Brigands_
+of W.J.C. Moens (London, 1866), and _The Brigands of the Morea_, by S.
+Soteropoulos, translated by the Rev. J.O. Bagdon (London, 1868).
+
+(D. H.)
+
+BRIGANDINE, a French word meaning the armour for the _brigandi_ or
+_brigantes_, light-armed foot soldiers; part of the armour of a foot
+soldier in the middle ages, consisting of a padded tunic of canvas,
+leather, &c., and lined with closely sewn scales or rings of iron.
+
+BRIGANTES (Celtic for "mountaineers" or "free, privileged"), a people of
+northern Britain, who inhabited the country from the mouth of the Abus
+(Humber) on the east and the Belisama (Mersey; according to others, Ribble)
+on the west as far northwards as the Wall of Antoninus. Their territory
+thus included most of Yorkshire, the whole of Lancashire, Durham,
+Westmorland, Cumberland and part of Northumberland. Their chief town was
+Eburacum (or Eboracum; York). They first came into contact with the Romans
+during the reign of Claudius, when they were defeated by Publius Ostorius
+Scapula. Under Vespasian they submitted to Petillius Cerealis, but were not
+finally subdued till the time of Antoninus Pius (Tac. _Agricola_, 17;
+Pausan. viii. 43. 4). The name of their eponymous goddess Brigantia is
+found on inscriptions (_Corp. Inscr. Lat._ vii. 200, 875, 1062; F.
+Haverfield in _Archaeological Journal_, xlix., 1892), and also that of a
+god Bergans = Brigans (_Ephemeris Epigraphica_, vii. No. 920). A branch of
+the Brigantes also settled in the south-east corner of Ireland, near the
+river Birgus (Barrow).
+
+See A. Holder, _Altceltischer Sprachschatz_, i. (1896), for ancient
+authorities; J. Rhys, _Celtic Britain_ (3rd ed., 1904); Pauly-Wissowa,
+_Realencyclopädie_, iii. pt. i. (1897).
+
+BRIGG (properly Glanford Briggs or Glamford Bridge), a market town in the
+North Lindsey or Brigg parliamentary division of Lincolnshire, England,
+situated on the river Ancholme, which affords water communication with the
+Humber. Pop. of urban district (1901) 3137. It is 23 m. by road north of
+Lincoln, and is served by the Grimsby line of the Great Central railway.
+Trade is principally agricultural. In 1885 a remarkable boat, assigned to
+early British workmanship, was unearthed near the river; it is hollowed out
+of the trunk of an oak, and measures 48 ft. 6 in. by about 5 ft. Other
+prehistoric relics have also been discovered.
+
+BRIGGS, CHARLES AUGUSTUS (1841- ), American Hebrew scholar and theologian,
+was born in New York City on the 15th of January 1841. He was educated at
+the university of Virginia (1857-1860), graduated at the Union Theological
+Seminary in 1863, and studied further at the university of Berlin. He was
+pastor of the Presbyterian church of Roselle, New Jersey, 1869-1874, and
+professor of Hebrew and cognate languages in Union Theological Seminary
+1874-1891, and of Biblical theology there from 1891 to 1904, when he became
+professor of theological encyclopaedia and symbolics. From 1880 to 1890 he
+was an editor of the _Presbyterian Review_. In 1892 he was tried for heresy
+by the presbytery of New York and acquitted. The charges were based upon
+his inaugural address of the preceding year. In brief they were as follows:
+that he had taught that reason and the Church are each a "fountain of
+divine authority which apart from Holy Scripture may and does savingly
+enlighten men"; that "errors may have existed in the original text of the
+Holy Scripture"; that "many of the Old Testament predictions have been
+reversed by history" and that "the great body of Messianic prediction has
+not and cannot be fulfilled"; that "Moses is not the author of the
+Pentateuch," and that "Isaiah is not the author of half of the book which
+bears his name"; that "the processes of redemption extend to the world to
+come"--he had considered it a fault of Protestant theology that it limits
+redemption to this world--and that "sanctification is not complete at
+death." The general assembly, to which the case was appealed, suspended Dr
+Briggs [v.04 p.0566] in 1893, being influenced, it would seem, in part, by
+the manner and tone of his expressions--by what his own colleagues in the
+Union Theological Seminary called the "dogmatic and irritating" nature of
+his inaugural address. He was ordained a priest of the Protestant Episcopal
+Church in 1899. His scholarship procured for him the honorary degree of
+D.D. from Edinburgh (1884) and from Glasgow (1901), and that of Litt.D.
+from Oxford (1901). With S.R. Driver and Francis Brown he prepared a
+revised _Hebrew and English Lexicon_ (1891-1905), and with Driver edited
+the "International Commentary Series." His publications include _Biblical
+Study: Its Principles, Methods and History_ (1883); _Hebrew Poems of the
+Creation_ (1884); _American Presbyterianism: Its Origin and Early History_
+(1885); _Messianic Prophecy_ (1886); _Whither? A Theological Question for
+the Times_ (1889); _The Authority of the Holy Scripture_ (1891); _The
+Bible, the Church and the Reason_ (1892); _The Higher Criticism of the
+Hexateuch_ (1893); _The Messiah of the Gospels_ (1804), _The Messiah of the
+Apostles_ (1894); _New Light on the Life of Jesus_ (1904); _The Ethical
+Teaching of Jesus_ (1904); _A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the
+Book of Psalms_ (2 vols., 1906-1907), in which he was assisted by his
+daughter; and _The Virgin Birth of Our Lord_ (1909).
+
+BRIGGS, HENRY (1556-1630), English mathematician, was born at Warley Wood,
+near Halifax, in Yorkshire. He graduated at St John's College, Cambridge,
+in 1581, and obtained a fellowship in 1588. In 1592 he was made reader of
+the physical lecture founded by Dr Thomas Linacre, and in 1596 first
+professor of geometry in Gresham House (afterwards College), London. In his
+lectures at Gresham House he proposed the alteration of the scale of
+logarithms from the hyperbolic form which John Napier had given them, to
+that in which unity is assumed as the logarithm of the ratio of ten to one;
+and soon afterwards he wrote to the inventor on the subject. In 1616 he
+paid a visit to Napier at Edinburgh in order to discuss the suggested
+change; and next year he repeated his visit for a similar purpose. During
+these conferences the alteration proposed by Briggs was agreed upon; and on
+his return from his second visit to Edinburgh in 1617 he accordingly
+published the first chiliad of his logarithms. (See NAPIER, JOHN.) In 1619
+he was appointed Savilian professor of geometry at Oxford, and resigned his
+professorship of Gresham College on the 25th of July 1620. Soon after his
+settlement at Oxford he was incorporated master of arts. In 1622 he
+published a small tract on the _North-West Passage to the South Seas,
+through the Continent of Virginia and Hudson's Bay_; and in 1624 his
+_Arithmetica Logarithmica_, in folio, a work containing the logarithms of
+thirty thousand natural numbers to fourteen places of figures besides the
+index. He also completed a table of logarithmic sines and tangents for the
+hundredth part of every degree to fourteen places of figures besides the
+index, with a table of natural sines to fifteen places, and the tangents
+and secants for the same to ten places; all of which were printed at Gouda
+in 1631 and published in 1633 under the title of _Trigonometria Britannica_
+(see TABLE, MATHEMATICAL). Briggs died on the 26th of January 1630, and was
+buried in Merton College chapel, Oxford. Dr Smith, in his _Lives of the
+Gresham Professors_, characterizes him as a man of great probity, a
+contemner of riches, and contented with his own station, preferring a
+studious retirement to all the splendid circumstances of life.
+
+His works are: _A Table to find the Height of the Pole, the Magnetical
+Declination being given_ (London, 1602, 4to); "Tables for the Improvement
+of Navigation," printed in the second edition of Edward Wright's treatise
+entitled _Certain Errors in Navigation detected and corrected_ (London,
+1610, 4to); _A Description of an Instrumental Table to find the part
+proportional, devised by Mr Edward Wright_ (London, 1616 and 1618, 12mo);
+_Logarithmorum Chilias prima_ (London, 1617, 8vo); _Lucubrationes et
+Annotationes in opera posthuma J. Neperi_ (Edinburgh, 1619, 4to); _Euclidis
+Elementorum VI. libri priores_ (London, 1620. folio); _A Treatise on the
+North-West Passage to the South Sea_ (London, 1622, 4to), reprinted in
+Purchas's _Pilgrims_, vol. iii. p. 852; _Arithmetica Logarithmica_ (London,
+1624, folio); _Trigonometria Britannica_ (Goudae, 1663, folio); two
+_Letters_ to Archbishop Usher; _Mathematica ab Antiquis minus cognita_.
+Some other works, as his _Commentaries on the Geometry of Peter Ramus_, and
+_Remarks on the Treatise of Longomontanus respecting the Quadrature of the
+Circle_, have not been published.
+
+BRIGHOUSE, a municipal borough in the Elland parliamentary division of the
+West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 5½ m. N. of Huddersfield by the
+Lancashire & Yorkshire railway, on the river Calder. Pop. (1901) 21,735. It
+is in the heart of the manufacturing district of the West Riding, and has
+large woollen and worsted factories; carpets, machinery and soap are also
+produced. The town was incorporated in 1893, and is governed by a mayor, 8
+aldermen and 24 councillors. Area, 2231 acres.
+
+BRIGHT, SIR CHARLES TILSTON (1832-1888), English telegraph engineer, who
+came of an old Yorkshire family, was born on the 8th of June 1832, at
+Wanstead, Essex. At the age of fifteen he became a clerk under the Electric
+Telegraph Company. His talent for electrical engineering was soon shown,
+and his progress was rapid; so that in 1852 he was appointed engineer to
+the Magnetic Telegraph Company, and in that capacity superintended the
+laying of lines in various parts of the British Isles, including in 1853
+the first cable between Great Britain and Ireland, from Portpatrick to
+Donaghadee. His experiments convinced him of the practicability of an
+electric submarine cable connexion between Ireland and America; and having
+in 1855 already discussed the question with Cyrus Field, who with J. W.
+Brett controlled the Newfoundland Telegraph Company on the other side of
+the ocean, Bright organized with them the Atlantic Telegraph Company in
+1856 for the purpose of carrying out the idea, himself becoming
+engineer-in-chief. The story of the first Atlantic cable is told elsewhere
+(see TELEGRAPH), and it must suffice here to say that in 1858, after two
+disappointments, Bright successfully accomplished what to many had seemed
+an impossible feat, and within a few days of landing the Irish end of the
+line at Valentia he was knighted in Dublin. Subsequently Sir Charles Bright
+supervised the laying of submarine cables in various regions of the world,
+and took a leading part as pioneer in other developments of the electrical
+industry. In conjunction with Josiah Latimer Clark, with whom he entered
+into partnership in 1861, he invented improved methods of insulating
+submarine cables, and a paper on electrical standards read by them before
+the British Association in the same year led to the establishment of the
+British Association committee on that subject, whose work formed the
+foundations of the system still in use. From 1865 to 1868 he was Liberal
+M.P. for Greenwich. He died on the 3rd of May 1888, at Abbey Wood, near
+London.
+
+See _Life Story of Sir C. T. Bright_, by his son Charles Bright (revised
+ed. 1908).
+
+BRIGHT, JOHN (1811-1889), British statesman, was born at Rochdale on the
+16th of November 1811. His father, Jacob Bright, was a much-respected
+Quaker, who had started a cottonmill at Rochdale in 1809. The family had
+reached Lancashire by two migrations. Abraham Bright was a Wiltshire
+yeoman, who, early in the 18th century, removed to Coventry, where his
+descendants remained, and where, in 1775, Jacob Bright was born. Jacob
+Bright was educated at the Ackworth school of the Society of Friends, and
+was apprenticed to a fustian manufacturer at New Mills. He married his
+employer's daughter, and settled with his two brothers-in-law at Rochdale
+in 1802, going into business for himself seven years later. His first wife
+died without children, and in 1809 he married Martha Wood, daughter of a
+tradesman of Bolton-le-Moors. She had been educated at Ackworth school, and
+was a woman of great strength of character and refined taste. There were
+eleven children of this marriage, of whom John Bright was the second, but
+the death of his elder brother in childhood made him the eldest son. He was
+a delicate child, and was sent as a day-scholar to a boarding-school near
+his home, kept by Mr William Littlewood. A year at the Ackworth school, two
+years at a school at York, and a year and a half at Newton, near Clitheroe,
+completed his education. He learned, he himself said, but little Latin and
+Greek, but acquired a great love of English literature, which his mother
+fostered, and a love of outdoor pursuits. In his sixteenth year he entered
+his father's mill, and in due time became a partner in the business. Two
+agitations were then going on in Rochdale--the first (in which Jacob Bright
+was a leader) in opposition to a local [v.04 p.0567] church-rate, and the
+second for parliamentary reform, by which Rochdale successfully claimed to
+have a member allotted to it under the Reform Bill. In both these movements
+John Bright took part. He was an ardent Nonconformist, proud to number
+among his ancestors John Gratton, a friend of George Fox, and one of the
+persecuted and imprisoned preachers of the Society of Friends. His
+political interest was probably first kindled by the Preston election in
+1830, in which Lord Stanley, after a long struggle, was defeated by
+"Orator" Hunt. But it was as a member of the Rochdale Juvenile Temperance
+Band that he first learned public speaking. These young men went out into
+the villages, borrowed a chair of a cottager, and spoke from it at open-air
+meetings. In Mrs John Mills's life of her husband is an account of John
+Bright's first extempore speech. It was at a temperance meeting. Bright got
+his notes muddled, and broke down. The chairman gave out a temperance song,
+and during the singing told Bright to put his notes aside and say what came
+into his mind. Bright obeyed, began with much hesitancy, but found his
+tongue and made an excellent address. On some early occasions, however, he
+committed his speech to memory. In 1832 he called on the Rev. John Aldis,
+an eminent Baptist minister, to accompany him to a local Bible meeting. Mr
+Aldis described him as a slender, modest young gentleman, who surprised him
+by his intelligence and thoughtfulness, but who seemed nervous as they
+walked to the meeting together. At the meeting he made a stimulating
+speech, and on the way home asked for advice. Mr Aldis counselled him not
+to learn his speeches, but to write out and commit to memory certain
+passages and the peroration. Bright took the advice, and acted on it all
+his life.
+
+This "first lesson in public speaking," as Bright called it, was given in
+his twenty-first year, but he had not then contemplated entering on a
+public career. He was a fairly prosperous man of business, very happy in
+his home, and always ready to take part in the social, educational and
+political life of his native town. He was one of the founders of the
+Rochdale Literary and Philosophical Society, took a leading part in its
+debates, and on returning from a holiday journey in the East, gave the
+society a lecture on his travels. He first met Richard Cobden in 1836 or
+1837. Cobden was an alderman of the newly formed Manchester corporation,
+and Bright went to ask him to speak at an education meeting in Rochdale. "I
+found him," said Bright, "in his office in Mosley Street, introduced myself
+to him, and told him what I wanted." Cobden consented, and at the meeting
+was much struck by Bright's short speech, and urged him to speak against
+the Corn Laws. His first speech on the Corn Laws was made at Rochdale in
+1838, and in the same year he joined the Manchester provisional committee
+which in 1839 founded the Anti-Corn Law League He was still only the local
+public man, taking part in all public movements, especially in opposition
+to John Feilden's proposed factory legislation, and to the Rochdale
+church-rate. In 1839 he built the house which he called "One Ash," and
+married Elizabeth, daughter of Jonathan Priestman of Newcastle-on-Tyne. In
+November of the same year there was a dinner at Bolton to Abraham Paulton,
+who had just returned from a successful Anti-Corn Law tour in Scotland.
+Among the speakers were Cobden and Bright, and the dinner is memorable as
+the first occasion on which the two future leaders appeared together on a
+Free Trade platform. Bright is described by the historian of the League as
+"a young man then appearing for the first time in any meeting out of his
+own town, and giving evidence, by his energy and by his grasp of the
+subject, of his capacity soon to take a leading part in the great
+agitation." But his call had not yet come. In 1840 he led a movement
+against the Rochdale church-rate, speaking from a tombstone in the
+churchyard, where it looks down on the town in the valley below. A very
+happy married life at home contented him, and at the opening of the Free
+Trade hall in January 1840 he sat with the Rochdale deputation,
+undistinguished in the body of the meeting. A daughter, Helen, was born to
+him; but his young wife, after a long illness, died of consumption in
+September 1841. Three days after her death at Leamington, Cobden called to
+see him. "I was in the depths of grief," said Bright, when unveiling the
+statue of his friend at Bradford in 1877, "I might almost say of despair,
+for the life and sunshine of my house had been extinguished." Cobden spoke
+some words of condolence, but after a time he looked up and said, 'There
+are thousands of homes in England at this moment where wives, mothers and
+children are dying of hunger. Now, when the first paroxysm of your grief is
+past, I would advise you to come with me, and we will never rest till the
+Corn Laws are repealed.' "I accepted his invitation," added Bright, "and
+from that time we never ceased to labour hard on behalf of the resolution
+which we had made." At the general election in 1841 Cobden was returned for
+Stockport, and in 1843 Bright was the Free Trade candidate at a by-election
+at Durham. He was defeated, but his successful competitor was unseated on
+petition, and at the second contest Bright was returned. He was already
+known in the country as Cobden's chief ally, and was received in the House
+of Commons with a suspicion and hostility even greater than had met Cobden
+himself. In the Anti-Corn Law movement the two speakers were the
+complements and correlatives of each other. Cobden had the calmness and
+confidence of the political philosopher, Bright had the passion and the
+fervour of the popular orator. Cobden did the reasoning, Bright supplied
+the declamation, but like Demosthenes he mingled argument with appeal. No
+orator of modern times rose more rapidly to a foremost place. He was not
+known beyond his own borough when Cobden called him to his side in 1841,
+and he entered parliament towards the end of the session of 1843 with a
+formidable reputation as an agitator. He had been all over England and
+Scotland addressing vast meetings and, as a rule, carrying them with him;
+he had taken a leading part in a conference held by the Anti-Corn Law
+League in London, had led deputations to the duke of Sussex, to Sir James
+Graham, then home secretary, and to Lord Ripon and Mr Gladstone, the
+secretary and under secretary of the Board of Trade; and he was universally
+recognized as the chief orator of the Free Trade movement. Wherever "John
+Bright of Rochdale" was announced to speak, vast crowds assembled. He had
+been so announced, for the last time, at the first great meeting in Drury
+Lane theatre on 15th March 1843; henceforth his name was enough. He took
+his seat in the House of Commons as one of the members for Durham on 28th
+July 1843, and on 7th August delivered his maiden speech in support of a
+motion by Mr Ewart for reduction of import duties. He was there, he said,
+"not only as one of the representatives of the city of Durham, but also as
+one of the representatives of that benevolent organization, the Anti-Corn
+Law League." A member who heard the speech described Bright as "about the
+middle size, rather firmly and squarely built, with a fair, clear
+complexion, and an intelligent and pleasing expression of countenance. His
+voice is good, his enunciation distinct, and his delivery free from any
+unpleasant peculiarity or mannerism." He wore the usual Friend's coat, and
+was regarded with much interest and hostile curiosity on both sides of the
+House.
+
+Mr Ewart's motion was defeated, but the movement of which Cobden and Bright
+were the leaders continued to spread. In the autumn the League resolved to
+raise £100,000; an appeal was made to the agricultural interest by great
+meetings in the farming counties, and in November _The Times_ startled the
+world by declaring, in a leading article, "The League is a great fact. It
+would be foolish, nay, rash, to deny its importance." In London great
+meetings were held in Covent Garden theatre, at which William Johnson Fox
+was the chief orator, but Bright and Cobden were the leaders of the
+movement. Bright publicly deprecated the popular tendency to regard Cobden
+and himself as the chief movers in the agitation, and Cobden told a
+Rochdale audience that he always stipulated that he should speak first, and
+Bright should follow. His "more stately genius," as Mr John Morley calls
+it, was already making him the undisputed master of the feelings of his
+audiences. In the House of Commons his progress was slower. Cobden's
+argumentative speeches were regarded more sympathetically than Bright's
+more rhetorical appeals, and in a debate on Villiers's annual motion
+against the Corn Laws Bright was heard with so much impatience that [v.04
+p.0568] he was obliged to sit down. In the next session (1845) he moved for
+an inquiry into the operation of the Game Laws. At a meeting of county
+members earlier in the day Peel had advised them not to be led into
+discussion by a violent speech from the member for Durham, but to let the
+committee be granted without debate. Bright was not violent, and Cobden
+said that he did his work admirably, and won golden opinions from all men.
+The speech established his position in the House of Commons. In this
+session Bright and Cobden came into opposition, Cobden voting for the
+Maynooth Grant and Bright against it. On only one other occasion--a vote
+for South Kensington--did they go into opposite lobbies, during twenty-five
+years of parliamentary life. In the autumn of 1845 Bright retained Cobden
+in the public career to which Cobden had invited him four years before.
+Bright was in Scotland when a letter came from Cobden announcing his
+determination, forced on him by business difficulties, to retire from
+public work. Bright replied that if Cobden retired the mainspring of the
+League was gone. "I can in no degree take your place," he wrote. "As a
+second I can fight, but there are incapacities about me, of which I am
+fully conscious, which prevent my being more than second in such a work as
+we have laboured in." A few days later he set off for Manchester, posting
+in that wettest of autumns through "the rain that rained away the Corn
+Laws," and on his arrival got his friends together, and raised the money
+which tided Cobden over the emergency. The crisis of the struggle had come.
+Peel's budget in 1845 was a first step towards Free Trade. The bad harvest
+and the potato disease drove him to the repeal of the Corn Laws, and at a
+meeting in Manchester on 2nd July 1846 Cobden moved and Bright seconded a
+motion dissolving the league. A library of twelve hundred volumes was
+presented to Bright as a memorial of the struggle.
+
+Bright married, in June 1847, Miss Margaret Elizabeth Leatham, of
+Wakefield, by whom he had seven children, Mr John Albert Bright being the
+eldest. In the succeeding July he was elected for Manchester, with Mr
+Milner Gibson, without a contest. In the new parliament, as in the previous
+session, he opposed legislation restricting the hours of labour, and, as a
+Nonconformist, spoke against clerical control of national education. In
+1848 he voted for Hume's household suffrage motion, and introduced a bill
+for the repeal of the Game Laws. When Lord John Russell brought forward his
+Ecclesiastical Titles Bill, Bright opposed it as "a little, paltry,
+miserable measure," and foretold its failure. In this parliament he spoke
+much on Irish questions. In a speech in favour of the government bill for a
+rate in aid in 1849, he won loud cheers from both sides, and was
+complimented by Disraeli for having sustained the reputation of that
+assembly. From this time forward he had the ear of the House, and took
+effective part in the debates. He spoke against capital punishment, against
+church-rates, against flogging in the army, and against the Irish
+Established Church. He supported Cobden's motion for the reduction of
+public expenditure, and in and out of parliament pleaded for peace. In the
+election of 1852 he was again returned for Manchester on the principles of
+free trade, electoral reform and religious freedom. But war was in the air,
+and the most impassioned speeches he ever delivered were addressed to this
+parliament in fruitless opposition to the Crimean War. Neither the House
+nor the country would listen. "I went to the House on Monday," wrote
+Macaulay in March 1854, "and heard Bright say everything I thought." His
+most memorable speech, the greatest he ever made, was delivered on the 23rd
+of February 1855. "The angel of death has been abroad throughout the land.
+You may almost hear the beating of his wings," he said, and concluded with
+an appeal to the prime minister that moved the House as it had never been
+moved within living memory. There was a tremor in Bright's voice in the
+touching parts of his great speeches which stirred the feelings even of
+hostile listeners. It was noted for the first time in this February speech,
+but the most striking instance was in a speech on Mr Osborne Morgan's
+Burials Bill in April 1875, in which he described a Quaker funeral, and
+protested against the "miserable superstition of the phrase 'buried like a
+dog.'" "In that sense," he said, "I shall be buried like a dog, and all
+those with whom I am best acquainted, whom I best love and esteem, will be
+'buried like a dog.' Nay more, my own ancestors, who in past time suffered
+persecution for what is now held to be a righteous cause, have all been
+buried like dogs, if that phrase is true." The tender, half-broken tones in
+which these words were said, the inexpressible pathos of his voice and
+manner, were never forgotten by those who heard that Wednesday morning
+speech.
+
+Bright was disqualified by illness during the whole of 1856 and 1857. In
+Palmerston's penal dissolution in the latter year, Bright was rejected by
+Manchester, but in August, while ill and absent, Birmingham elected him
+without a contest. He returned to parliament in 1858, and in February
+seconded the motion which threw out Lord Palmerston's government. Lord
+Derby thereupon came into office for the second time, and Bright had the
+satisfaction of assisting in the passing of two measures which he had long
+advocated--the admission of Jews to parliament and the transfer of the
+government of India from the East India Company to the crown. He was now
+restored to full political activity, and in October addressed his new
+constituents, and started a movement for parliamentary reform. He spoke at
+great gatherings at Edinburgh, Glasgow, Bradford and Manchester, and his
+speeches filled the papers. For the next nine years he was the protagonist
+of Reform. Towards the close of the struggle he told the House of Commons
+that a thousand meetings had been held, that at every one the doors were
+open for any man to enter, yet that an almost unanimous vote for reform had
+been taken. In the debates on the Reform Bills submitted to the House of
+Commons from 1859. to 1867, Bright's was the most influential voice. He
+rebuked Lowe's "Botany Bay view," and described Horsman as retiring to his
+"cave of Adullam," and hooking in Lowe. "The party of two," he said,
+"reminds me of the Scotch terrier, which was so covered with hair that you
+could not tell which was the head and which was the tail." These and
+similar phrases, such as the excuse for withdrawing the Reform Bill in the
+year of the great budget of 1860--"you cannot get twenty wagons at once
+through Temple Bar"--were in all men's mouths. It was one of the triumphs
+of Bright's oratory that it constantly produced these popular cries. The
+phrase "a free breakfast table" was his; and on the rejection of Forster's
+Compensation for Disturbance Bill he used the phrase as to Irish
+discontent, "Force is not a remedy."
+
+During his great reform agitation Bright had vigorously supported Cobden in
+the negotiations for the treaty of commerce with France, and had taken,
+with his usual vehemence, the side of the North in the discussions in
+England on the American Civil War. In March 1865 Cobden died, and Bright
+told the House of Commons he dared not even attempt to express the feelings
+which oppressed him, and sat down overwhelmed with grief. Their friendship
+was one of the most characteristic features of the public life of their
+time. "After twenty years of intimate and almost brotherly friendship with
+him," said Bright, "I little knew how much I loved him till I had lost
+him." In June 1865 parliament was dissolved, and Bright was returned for
+Birmingham without opposition. Palmerston's death in the early autumn
+brought Lord John Russell into power, and for the first time Bright gave
+his support to the government. Russell's fourth Reform Bill was introduced,
+was defeated by the Adullamites, and the Derby-Disraeli ministry was
+installed. Bright declared Lord Derby's accession to be a declaration of
+war against the working classes, and roused the great towns in the demand
+for reform. Bright was the popular hero of the time. As a political leader
+the winter of 1866-1867 was the culminating point in his career. The Reform
+Bill was carried with a clause for minority representation, and in the
+autumn of 1868 Bright, with two Liberal colleagues, was again returned for
+Birmingham. Mr Gladstone came into power with a programme of Irish reform
+in church and land such as Bright had long urged, and he accepted the post
+of president of the Board of Trade. He thus became a member of the privy
+council, with the title of Right Honourable, and from this time forth was a
+recognized leader of the Liberal party in parliament and in the country. He
+made a great speech [v.04 p.0569] on the second reading of the Irish Church
+Bill, and wrote a letter on the House of Lords, in which he said, "In
+harmony with the nation they may go on for a long time, but throwing
+themselves athwart its course they may meet with accidents not pleasant for
+them to think of." He also spoke strongly in the same session in favour of
+the bill permitting marriage with a deceased wife's sister. The next
+session found him disqualified by a severe illness, which caused his
+retirement from office at the end of the year, and kept him out of public
+life for four years. In August 1873 Mr Gladstone reconstructed his cabinet,
+and Bright returned to it as chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. But his
+hair had become white, and though he spoke again with much of his former
+vigour, he was now an old man. In the election in January 1874 Bright and
+his colleagues were returned for Birmingham without opposition. When Mr
+Gladstone resigned the leadership of his party in 1875, Bright was chairman
+of the party meeting which chose Lord Hartington as his successor. He took
+a less prominent part in political discussion till the Eastern Question
+brought Great Britain to the verge of war with Russia, and his old energy
+flamed up afresh. In the debate on the vote of credit in February 1878, he
+made one of his impressive speeches, urging the government not to increase
+the difficulties manufacturers had in finding employment for their
+workpeople by any single word or act which could shake confidence in
+business. The debate lasted five days. On the fifth day a telegram from Mr
+Layard was published announcing that the Russians were nearing
+Constantinople. The day, said _The Times_, "was crowded with rumours,
+alarms, contradictions, fears, hopes, resolves, uncertainties." In both
+Houses Mr Layard's despatch was read, and in the excited Commons Mr
+Forster's resolution opposing the vote of credit was withdrawn. Bright,
+however, distrusted the ambassador at the Porte, and gave reasons for
+doubting the alarming telegram. While he was speaking a note was put into
+the hands of Sir Stafford Northcote, and when Bright sat down he read it to
+the House. It was a confirmation from the Russian prime minister of
+Bright's doubts: "There is not a word of truth in the rumours which have
+reached you." At the general election in 1880 he was re-elected at
+Birmingham, and joined Mr Gladstone's new government as chancellor of the
+duchy of Lancaster. For two sessions he spoke and voted with his
+colleagues, but after the bombardment of the Alexandria forts he left the
+ministry and never held office again. He felt most painfully the severance
+from his old and trusted leader, but it was forced on him by his conviction
+of the danger and impolicy of foreign entanglements. He, however, gave a
+general support to Mr Gladstone's government. In 1883 he took the chair at
+a meeting of the Liberation Society in Mr Spurgeon's chapel; and in June of
+that year was the object of an unparalleled demonstration at Birmingham to
+celebrate his twenty-five years of service as its representative. At this
+celebration he spoke strongly of "the Irish rebel party," and accused the
+Conservatives of "alliance" with them, but withdrew the imputation when Sir
+Stafford Northcote moved that such language was a breach of the privileges
+of the House of Commons. At a banquet to Lord Spencer he accused the Irish
+members of having "exhibited a boundless sympathy for criminals and
+murderers." He refused in the House of Commons to apologise for these
+words, and was supported in his refusal by both sides of the House. At the
+Birmingham election in 1885 he stood for the central division of the
+redistributed constituency; he was opposed by Lord Randolph Churchill, but
+was elected by a large majority. In the new parliament he voted against the
+Home Rule Bill, and it was generally felt that in the election of 1886
+which followed its defeat, when he was re-elected without opposition, his
+letters told with fatal effect against the Home Rule Liberals. His
+contribution to the discussion was a suggestion that the Irish members
+should form a grand committee to which every Irish bill should go after
+first reading. The break-up of the Liberal party filled him with gloom. His
+last speech at Birmingham was on 29th March 1888, at a banquet to celebrate
+Mr Chamberlain's return from his peace mission to the United States. He
+spoke of imperial federation as a "dream and an absurdity." In May his
+illness returned, he took to his bed in October, and died on the 27th of
+March 1889. He was buried in the graveyard of the meeting-house of the
+Society of Friends in Rochdale.
+
+Bright had much literary and social recognition in his later years. In 1882
+he was elected lord rector of the university of Glasgow, and Dr Dale wrote
+of his rectorial address: "It was not the old Bright." "I am weary of
+public speaking," he had told Dr Dale; "my mind is almost a blank." He was
+given an honorary degree of the university of Oxford in 1886, and in 1888 a
+statue of him was erected at Birmingham. The 3rd marquess of Salisbury said
+of him, and it sums up his character as a public man: "He was the greatest
+master of English oratory that this generation--I may say several
+generations--has seen.... At a time when much speaking has depressed, has
+almost exterminated eloquence, he maintained that robust, powerful and
+vigorous style in which he gave fitting expression to the burning and noble
+thoughts he desired to utter."
+
+See _The Life and Speeches of the Right Hon. John Bright, M.P_., by George
+Barnett Smith, 2 vols. 8vo (1881); _The Life of John Bright, M.P._, by John
+M^cGilchrist, in Cassell's Representative Biographies (1868); _John
+Bright_, by C.A. Vince (1898); _Speeches on Parliamentary Reform by John
+Bright, M.P., revised by Himself_ (1866); _Speeches on Questions of Public
+Policy_, by John Bright, M.P., edited by J.E. Thorold Rogers, 2 vols. 8vo
+(1868); _Public Addresses_, edited by J.E. Thorold Rogers, 8vo (1879);
+_Public Letters of the Right Hon. John Bright, M.P._, collected by H.J.
+Leech (1885).
+
+(P. W. C.)
+
+BRIGHTLINGSEA (pronounced BRITTLESEA), a port and fishing station in the
+Harwich parliamentary division of Essex, England, on a creek opening from
+the east shore of the Colne estuary, the terminus of a branch from
+Colchester of the Great Eastern railway, 62½ m. E.N.E. of London. Pop. of
+urban district (1901) 4501. The Colchester oyster beds are mainly in this
+part of the Colne, and the oyster fishery is the chief industry.
+Boat-building is carried on. This is also a favourite yachting centre. The
+church of All Saints, principally Perpendicular, has interesting monuments
+and brasses, and a fine lofty tower and west front. Brightlingsea, which
+appears in Domesday, is a member of the Cinque Port of Sandwich in Kent.
+Near the opposite shore of the creek is St Osyth's priory, which originated
+as a nunnery founded by Osyth, a grand-daughter of Penda, king of Mercia,
+martyred (c. 653) by Norse invaders. A foundation for Augustinian canons
+followed on the site early in the 12th century. The remains, incorporated
+with a modern residence, include a late Perpendicular gateway, abbots'
+tower, clock tower and crypt. The gateway, an embattled structure with
+flanking turrets, is particularly fine, the entire front being panelled and
+ornamented with canopied niches. The church of St Osyth, also Perpendicular
+in the main, is of interest.
+
+BRIGHTON, a watering-place of Bourke county, Victoria, Australia, 7½ m. by
+rail S.E. of Melbourne, of which it is practically a suburb. It stands on
+the east shore of Port Phillip, and has two piers, a great extent of sandy
+beach and numerous beautiful villas. Pop. (1901) 10,029.
+
+BRIGHTON, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough of Sussex, England,
+one of the best-known seaside resorts in the United Kingdom, 51 m. S. from
+London by the London, Brighton & South Coast railway. Pop. (1901) 123,478.
+Its ready accessibility from the metropolis is the chief factor in its
+popularity. It is situated on the seaward slope of the South Downs; the
+position is sheltered from inclement winds, and the climate is generally
+mild. The sea-front, overlooking the English Channel, stretches nearly 4 m.
+from Kemp Town on the east to Hove (a separate municipal borough) on the
+west. Inland, including the suburb of Preston, the town extends some 2 m.
+The tendency of the currents in the Channel opposite Brighton is to drive
+the shingle eastward, and encroachments of the sea were frequent and
+serious until the erection of a massive sea-wall, begun about 1830, 60 ft.
+high, 23 ft. thick at the base, and 3 ft. at the summit. There are numerous
+modern churches and chapels, many of them very handsome; and the former
+parish church of St Nicholas remains, a Decorated structure containing a
+Norman font and a memorial to the great duke of Wellington. The incumbency
+of Trinity Chapel was held by the famous [v.04 p.0570] preacher Frederick
+William Robertson (1847-1853). The town hall and the parochial offices are
+the principal administrative buildings. Numerous institutions contribute to
+the entertainment of visitors. Of these the most remarkable is the
+Pavilion, built as a residence for the prince regent (afterwards George
+IV.) and remodelled in 1819 by the architect, John Nash, in a grotesque
+Eastern style of architecture. In 1849 it was purchased by the town for
+£53,000, and is devoted to various public uses, containing a museum,
+assembly-rooms and picture-galleries. The detached building, formerly the
+stables, is converted into a fine concert hall; it is lighted by a vast
+glazed dome approaching that of St Paul's cathedral, London, in dimensions.
+There are several theatres and music-halls. The aquarium, the property of
+the corporation, contains an excellent marine collection, but is also used
+as a concert hall and winter garden, and a garden is laid out on its roof.
+The Booth collection of British birds, bequeathed to the corporation by
+E.T. Booth, was opened in 1893. There are two piers, of which the Palace
+pier, near the site of the old chain pier (1823), which was washed away in
+1896, is near the centre of the town, while the West pier is towards Hove.
+Preston and Queen's parks are the principal of several public recreation
+grounds; and the racecourse at Kemp Town is also the property of the town.
+Educational establishments are numerous, and include Brighton College,
+which ranks high among English public schools. There are municipal schools
+of science, technology and art. St Mary's Hall (1836) is devoted to the
+education of poor clergymen's daughters. Among many hospitals, the county
+hospital (1828), "open to the sick and lame poor of every country and
+nation," may be mentioned. There are an extensive mackerel and herring
+fishery, and motor engineering works. The parliamentary borough, which
+includes the parish of Hove, returns two members. The county borough was
+created in 1888. The municipal borough is under a mayor, 14 aldermen and 42
+councillors. Area, 2536 acres.
+
+Although there is evidence of Roman and Saxon occupation of the site, the
+earliest mention of Brighton (Bristelmeston, Brichelmestone,
+Brighthelmston) is the Domesday Book record that its three manors belonged
+to Earl Godwin and were held by William de Warenne. Of these, two passed to
+the priories of Lewes and Michelham respectively, and after the dissolution
+of the monasteries were subject to frequent sale and division. The third
+descended to the earls of Arundel, falling to the share of the duke of
+Norfolk in 1415, and being divided in 1502 between the families of Howard
+and Berkeley. That Brighton was a large fishing village in 1086 is evident
+from the rent of 4000 herrings; in 1285 it had a separate constable, and in
+1333 it was assessed for a tenth, and fifteenth at £5:4:6¾, half the
+assessment of Shoreham. In 1340 there were no merchants there, only tenants
+of lands, but its prosperity increased during the 15th and 16th centuries,
+and it was assessed at £6:12:8 in 1534. There is, however, no indication
+that it was a borough. In 1580 commissioners sent to decide disputes
+between the fishermen and landsmen found that from time immemorial Brighton
+had been governed by two head boroughs sitting in the borough court, and
+assisted by a council called the Twelve. This constitution disappeared
+before 1772, when commissioners were appointed. Brighton refused a charter
+offered by George, prince of Wales, but was incorporated in 1854. It had
+become a parliamentary borough in 1832. From a fishing town in 1656 it
+became a fashionable resort in 1756; its popularity increased after the
+visit of the prince of Wales (see GEORGE IV.) to the duke of Cumberland in
+1783, and was ensured by his building the Pavilion in 1784-1787, and his
+adoption of it as his principal residence; and his association with Mrs
+Fitzherbert at Brighton was the starting-point of its fashionable repute.
+
+See _Victoria County History--Sussex; Sussex Archaeological Society
+Transactions_, vol. ii.; L. Melville, _Brighton, its History, its Follies
+and its Fashions_ (London, 1909).
+
+BRIGHT'S DISEASE, a term in medicine applied to a class of diseases of the
+kidneys (acute and chronic nephritis) which have as their most prominent
+symptom the presence of albumen in the urine, and frequently also the
+coexistence of dropsy. These associated symptoms in connexion with kidney
+disease were first described in 1827 by Dr Richard Bright (1789-1858).
+Since that period it has been established that the symptoms, instead of
+being, as was formerly supposed, the result of one form of disease of the
+kidneys, may be dependent on various morbid conditions of those organs (see
+KIDNEY DISEASES). Hence the term Bright's disease, which is retained in
+medical nomenclature in honour of Dr Bright, must be understood as having a
+generic application.
+
+The symptoms are usually of a severe character. Pain in the back, vomiting
+and febrile disturbance commonly usher in the attack. Dropsy, varying in
+degree from slight puffiness of the face to an accumulation of fluid
+sufficient to distend the whole body, and to occasion serious embarrassment
+to respiration, is a very common accompaniment. The urine is reduced in
+quantity, is of dark, smoky or bloody colour, and exhibits to chemical
+reaction the presence of a large amount of albumen, while, under the
+microscope, blood corpuscles and casts, as above mentioned, are found in
+abundance.
+
+This state of acute inflammation may by its severity destroy life, or,
+short of this, may by continuance result in the establishment of one of the
+chronic forms of Bright's disease. On the other hand an arrest of the
+inflammatory action frequently occurs, and this is marked by the increased
+amount of the urine, and the gradual disappearance of its albumen and other
+abnormal constituents; as also by the subsidence of the dropsy and the
+rapid recovery of strength.
+
+In the treatment of acute Bright's disease, good results are often obtained
+from local depletion, from warm baths and from the careful employment of
+diuretics and purgatives. Chronic Bright's disease is much less amenable to
+treatment, but by efforts to maintain the strength and improve the quality
+of the blood by strong nourishment, and at the same time by guarding
+against the risks of complications, life may often be prolonged in
+comparative comfort, and even a certain measure of improvement be
+experienced.
+
+BRIGNOLES, a town in the department of Var in the S.E. of France, 36 m. by
+rail N. of Toulon. Pop. (1906) 3639. It is built at a height of 754 ft.
+above the sea-level, in a fertile valley, and on the right bank of the
+Carami river. It contains the old summer palace of the counts of Provence,
+and has an active trade, especially in prunes, known as _prunes de
+Brignoles_. Its old name was _Villa Puerorum_, as the children of the
+counts of Provence were often brought up here. It was sacked on several
+occasions during the religious wars in the 16th century. Twelve miles to
+the N.W. is St Maximin (with a fine medieval church), which is one of the
+best starting-points for the most famous pilgrimage resort in Provence, the
+Sainte Baume, wherein St Mary Magdalene is said to have taken refuge. This
+is 20 m. distant by road.
+
+(W. A. B. C.)
+
+BRIHASPATI, or BRAHMANASPATI ("god of strength"), a deity of importance in
+early Hindu mythology. In the Rigveda he is represented as the god of
+prayer, aiding Indra in his conquest of the cloud-demon, and at times
+appears to be identified with Agni, god of fire. He is the offspring of
+Heaven and Earth, the two worlds; is the inspirer of prayer and the guide
+and protector of the pious. He is pictured as having seven mouths, a
+hundred wings and horns and is armed with bow and arrows and an axe. He
+rides in a chariot drawn by red horses. In the later scriptures he is
+represented as a Rishi or seer.
+
+See A.A. Macdonell, _Vedic Mythology_ (Strassburg, 1897).
+
+BRIL, PAUL (1554-1626), Flemish painter, was born at Antwerp. The success
+of his elder brother Matthew (1550-1584) in the Vatican induced him to go
+to Rome to live. On the death of Matthew, Paul, who far surpassed him as an
+artist, succeeded to his pensions and employments. He painted landscapes
+with a depth of chiaroscuro then little practised in Italy, and introduced
+into them figures well drawn and finely coloured. One of his best
+compositions is the "Martyrdom of St Clement," in the Sala Clementina of
+the Vatican.
+
+BRILL, the name given to a flat-fish (_Psetta laevis_, or _Rhombus laevis_)
+which is a species closely related to the turbot, differing [v.04 p.0571]
+from it in having very small scales, being smaller in size, having no bony
+tubercules in the skin, and being reddish in colour. It abounds on parts of
+the British coast, and is only less favoured for the table than the turbot
+itself.
+
+BRILLAT-SAVARIN, ANTHELME (1755-1826), French gastronomist, was born at
+Belley, France, on the 1st of April 1755. In 1789 he was a deputy, in 1793
+mayor of Belley. To escape proscription he fled from France to Switzerland,
+and went thence to the United States, where he played in the orchestra of a
+New York theatre. On the fall of Robespierre he returned to France, and in
+1797 became a member of the court of cassation. He wrote various volumes on
+political economy and law, but his name is famous for his _Physiologie du
+goût_, a compendium of the art of dining. Many editions of this work have
+been published. Brillat-Savarin died in Paris on the 2nd of February 1826.
+
+BRIMSTONE, the popular name of sulphur (_q.v._), particularly of the
+commercial "roll sulphur." The word means literally "burning stone"; the
+first part being formed from the stem of the Mid. Eng. _brennen_, to burn.
+Earlier forms of the word are _brenstone_, _bernstone_, _brynstone,_ &c.
+
+BRIN, BENEDETTO (1833-1898), Italian naval administrator, was born at Turin
+on the 17th of May 1833, and until the age of forty worked with distinction
+as a naval engineer. In 1873 Admiral Saint-Bon, minister of marine,
+appointed him under-secretary of state. The two men completed each other;
+Saint-Bon conceived a type of ship, Brin made the plans and directed its
+construction. On the advent of the Left to power in 1876, Brin was
+appointed minister of marine by Depretis, a capacity in which he continued
+the programme of Saint-Bon, while enlarging and completing it in such way
+as to form the first organic scheme for the development of the Italian
+fleet. The huge warships "Italia" and "Dandolo" were his work, though he
+afterwards abandoned their type in favour of smaller and faster vessels of
+the "Varese" and the "Garibaldi" class. By his initiative Italian naval
+industry, almost non-existent in 1873, made rapid progress. During his
+eleven years' ministry (1876-1878 with Depretis, 1884-1891 with Depretis
+and Crispi, 1896-1898 with Rudini), he succeeded in creating large private
+shipyards, engine works and metallurgical works for the production of
+armour, steel plates and guns. In 1892 he entered the Giolitti cabinet as
+minister for foreign affairs, accompanying, in that capacity, the king and
+queen of Italy to Potsdam, but showed weakness towards France on the
+occasion of the massacre of Italian workmen at Aigues-Mortes. He died on
+the 24th of May 1898, while minister of marine in the Rudini cabinet. He,
+more than any other man, must be regarded as the practical creator of the
+Italian navy.
+
+BRINDABAN, a town of British India, in the Muttra district of the United
+Provinces, on the right bank of the Jumna, 6 m. N. of Muttra. Pop. (1901)
+22,717. Brindaban is one of the most popular places of pilgrimage in India,
+being associated with the cult of Krishna as a shepherd. It contains
+bathing-stairs, tanks and wells, and a great number of handsome temples, of
+which the finest is that of Govind Deva, a cruciform vaulted building of
+red sandstone, dating from 1590. The town was founded earlier in the same
+century.
+
+BRINDISI (anc. _Brundisium_, _q.v._), a seaport town and archiepiscopal see
+of Apulia, Italy, in the province of Lecce, 24 m. N.W. by rail from the
+town of Lecce, and 346 m. from Ancona. Pop.(1861) 8000; (1871) 13,755;
+(1901) 25,317. The chief importance of Brindisi is due to its position as a
+starting-point for the East. The inner harbour, admirably sheltered and 27
+to 30 ft. in depth, allows ocean steamers to lie at the quays. Brindisi
+has, however, been abandoned by the large steamers of the Peninsular &
+Oriental Steam Navigation Company, which had called there since 1870, but
+since 1898 call at Marseilles instead; small express boats, carrying the
+mails, still leave every week, connecting with the larger steamers at Port
+Said; but the number of passengers leaving the port, which for the years
+1893-1897 averaged 14,728, was only 7608 in 1905, and only 943 of these
+were carried by the P. & O. boats. The harbour railway station was not
+completed until 1905 (_Consular Report_, No. 3672, 1906, pp. 13 sqq.). The
+port was cleared in 1905 by 1492 vessels of 1,486,269 tons. The imports
+represented a value of £629,892 and the exports a value of £663,201--an
+increase of £84,077 and £57,807 respectively on the figures of the previous
+year, while in 1899 the amounts, which were below the average, were only
+£298,400 and £253,000. The main imports are coal, flour, sulphur, timber
+and metals; and the main exports, wine and spirits, oil and dried fruits.
+
+Frederick II. erected a castle, with huge round towers, to guard the inner
+harbour; it is now a convict prison. The cathedral, ruined by earthquakes,
+was restored in 1743-1749, but has some remains of its mosaic pavement
+(1178). The baptismal church of S. Giovanni al Sepolcro (11th century) is
+now a museum. The town was captured in 836 by the Saracens, and destroyed
+by them; but was rebuilt in the 11th century by Lupus the protospatharius,
+Byzantine governor. In 1071 it fell into the hands of the Normans, and
+frequently appears in the history of the Crusades. Early in the 14th
+century the inner port was blocked by Giovanni Orsini, prince of Taranto;
+the town was devastated by pestilence in 1348, and was plundered in 1352
+and 1383; but even greater damage was done by the earthquake of 1456.
+
+(T. AS.)
+
+BRINDLEY, JAMES (1716-1772), English engineer, was born at Thornsett,
+Derbyshire, in 1716. His parents were in very humble circumstances, and he
+received little or no education. At the age of seventeen he was apprenticed
+to a millwright near Macclesfield, and soon after completing his
+apprenticeship he set up in business for himself as a wheelwright at Leek,
+quickly becoming known for his ingenuity and skill in repairing all kinds
+of machinery. In 1752 he designed and set up an engine for draining some
+coal-pits at Clifton in Lancashire. Three years later he extended his
+reputation by completing the machinery for a silk-mill at Congleton. In
+1759, when the duke of Bridgewater was anxious to improve the outlets for
+the coal on his estates, Brindley advised the construction of a canal from
+Worsley to Manchester. The difficulties in the way were great, but all were
+surmounted by his genius, and his crowning triumph was the construction of
+an aqueduct to carry the canal at an elevation of 39 ft. over the river
+Irwell at Barton. The great success of this canal encouraged similar
+projects, and Brindley was soon engaged in extending his first work to the
+Mersey, at Runcorn. He then designed and nearly completed what he called
+the Grand Trunk Canal, connecting the Trent and Humber with the Mersey. The
+Staffordshire and Worcestershire, the Oxford and the Chesterfield Canals
+were also planned by him, and altogether he laid out over 360 m. of canals.
+He died at Turnhurst, Staffordshire, on the 30th of September 1772.
+Brindley retained to the last a peculiar roughness of character and
+demeanour; but his innate power of thought more than compensated for his
+lack of training. It is told of him that when in any difficulty he used to
+retire to bed, and there remain thinking out his problem until the solution
+became clear to him. His mechanical ingenuity and fertility of resource
+were very remarkable, and he undoubtedly possessed the engineering faculty
+in a very high degree. He was an enthusiastic believer in canals, and his
+reported answer, when asked the use of navigable rivers, "To feed canals,"
+is characteristic, if not altogether authentic.
+
+BRINTON, DANIEL GARRISON (1837-1899), American archaeologist and
+ethnologist, was born at Thornbury, Pennsylvania, on the 13th of May 1837.
+He graduated at Yale in 1858, studied for two years in the Jefferson
+Medical College, and then for one year travelled in Europe and continued
+his studies at Paris and Heidelberg. From 1862 to 1865, during the Civil
+War in America, he was a surgeon in the Union army, acting for one year,
+1864-1865, as surgeon in charge of the U.S. Army general hospital at
+Quincy, Illinois. After the war he practised medicine at Westchester,
+Pennsylvania, for several years; was the editor of a weekly periodical, the
+_Medical and Surgical Reporter_, in Philadelphia, from 1874 to 1887; became
+professor of ethnology and archaeology in the Academy of Natural Sciences
+in Philadelphia in 1884, and was professor of American linguistics and
+archaeology in the university of Pennsylvania from 1886 until his death at
+Philadelphia on the 31st of July 1899. [v.04 p.0572] He was a member of
+numerous learned societies in the United States and in Europe, and was
+president at different times of the Numismatic and Antiquarian Society of
+Philadelphia, of the American Folk-Lore Society and of the American
+Association for the Advancement of Science. During the period from 1859
+(when he published his first book) to 1899, he wrote a score of books,
+several of them of great value, and a large number of pamphlets, brochures,
+addresses and magazine articles. His principal works are:--_The Myths of
+the New World_ (1868), the first attempt to analyse and correlate,
+according to true scientific principles, the mythology of the American
+Indians; _The Religious Sentiment: Its Sources and Aim: A Contribution to
+the Science and Philosophy of Religion_ (1876); _American Hero Myths_
+(1882); _Essays of an Americanist_ (1890); _Races and Peoples_ (1890); _The
+American Race_ (1891); _The Pursuit of Happiness_ (1893); and _Religions of
+Primitive People_ (1897). In addition, he edited and published a _Library
+of American Aboriginal Literature_ (8 vols. 1882-1890), a valuable
+contribution to the science of anthropology in America. Of the eight
+volumes, six were edited by Brinton himself, one by Horatio Hale and one by
+A.S. Gatschet.
+
+BRINVILLIERS, MARIE MADELEINE MARGUERITE D'AUBRAY, MARQUISE DE (c.
+1630-1676), French poisoner, daughter of Dreux d'Aubray, civil lieutenant
+of Paris, was born in Paris about 1630. In 1651 she married the marquis de
+Brinvilliers, then serving in the regiment of Normandy. Contemporary
+evidence describes the marquise at this time as a pretty and much-courted
+little woman, with a fascinating air of childlike innocence. In 1659 her
+husband introduced her to his friend Godin de Sainte-Croix, a handsome
+young cavalry officer of extravagant tastes and bad reputation, whose
+mistress she became. Their relations soon created a public scandal, and as
+the marquis de Brinvilliers, who had left France to avoid his creditors,
+made no effort to terminate them, M. d'Aubray secured the arrest of
+Sainte-Croix on a _lettre de cachet_. For a year Sainte-Croix remained a
+prisoner in the Bastille, where he is popularly supposed to have acquired a
+knowledge of poisons from his fellow-prisoner, the Italian poisoner Exili.
+When he left the Bastille, he plotted with his willing mistress his revenge
+upon her father. She cheerfully undertook to experiment with the poisons
+which Sainte-Croix, possibly with the help of a chemist, Christopher
+Glaser, prepared, and found subjects ready to hand in the poor who sought
+her charity, and the sick whom she visited in the hospitals. Meanwhile
+Sainte-Croix, completely ruined financially, enlarged his original idea,
+and determined that not only M. Dreux d'Aubray but also the latter's two
+sons and other daughter should be poisoned, so that the marquise de
+Brinvilliers and himself might come into possession of the large family
+fortune. In February 1666, satisfied with the efficiency of Sainte-Croix's
+preparations and with the ease with which they could be administered
+without detection, the marquise poisoned her father, and in 1670, with the
+connivance of their valet La Chaussée, her two brothers. A post-mortem
+examination suggested the real cause of death, but no suspicion was
+directed to the murderers. Before any attempt could be made on the life of
+Mlle Théresè d'Aubray, Sainte-Croix suddenly died. As he left no heirs the
+police were called in, and discovered among his belongings documents
+seriously incriminating the marquise and La Chaussée. The latter was
+arrested, tortured into a complete confession, and broken alive on the
+wheel (1673), but the marquise escaped, taking refuge first probably in
+England, then in Germany, and finally in a convent at Liége, whence she was
+decoyed by a police emissary disguised as a priest. A full account of her
+life and crimes was found among her papers. Her attempt to commit suicide
+was frustrated, and she was taken to Paris, where she was beheaded and her
+body burned on the 16th of July 1676.
+
+See G. Roullier, _La Marquise de Brinvilliers_ (Paris, 1883); Toiseleur,
+_Trois énigmes historiques_ (Paris, 1882).
+
+BRIONIAN ISLANDS, a group of small islands, in the Adriatic Sea, off the
+west coast of Istria, from which they are separated by the narrow Canale di
+Fasana. They belong to Austria and are twelve in number. Up to a recent
+period they were chiefly noted for their quarries, which have been worked
+for centuries and have supplied material not only for the palaces and
+bridges of Venice and the whole Adriatic coast, but latterly for Vienna and
+Berlin also. As they command the entrance to the naval harbour of Pola, a
+strong fortress, "Fort Tegetthoff," has been erected on the largest of them
+(Brioni), together with minor fortifications on some of the others. The
+islands are inhabited by about 100 Italian quarrymen.
+
+BRIOSCO, ANDREA (c. 1470-1532), Italian sculptor and architect, known as
+Riccio ("curly-headed"), was born at Padua. In architecture he is known by
+the church of Sta Giustina in his native city, but he is most famous as a
+worker in metal. His masterpieces are the bronze Paschal candelabrum (11
+ft. high) in the choir of the Santo (S. Antonio) at Padua (1515), and the
+two bronze reliefs (1507) of "David dancing before the Ark" and "Judith and
+Holofernes" in the same church. His bronze and marble tomb of the physician
+Girolamo della Torre in San Fermo at Verona was beautifully decorated with
+reliefs, which were taken away by the French and are now in the Louvre. A
+number of other works which emanated from his workshop are attributed to
+him; and he has been suggested, but doubtfully, as the author of a fine
+bronze relief, a "Dance of Nymphs," in the Wallace collection at Hertford
+House, London.
+
+BRIOUDE, a town of central France, capital of an arrondissement in the
+department of Haute-Loire, on the left bank of the Allier, 1467 ft. above
+the sea, 47 m. N.W. of Le Puy on the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) 4581.
+Brioude has to a great extent escaped modernization and still has many old
+houses and fountains. Its streets are narrow and irregular, but the town is
+surrounded by wide boulevards lined with trees. The only building of
+consequence is the church of St Julian (12th and 13th centuries) in the
+Romanesque style of Auvergne, of which the choir, with its apse and
+radiating chapels and the mosaic ornamentation of the exterior, is a fine
+example. Brioude is the seat of a sub-prefect, and of tribunals of first
+instance and of commerce. The plain in which it is situated is of great
+fertility; the grain trade of the town is considerable, and
+market-gardening is carried on in the outskirts. The industries include
+brewing, saw-milling, lace-making and antimony mining and founding.
+
+Brioude, the ancient _Brinas_, was formerly a place of considerable
+importance. It was in turn besieged and captured by the Goths (532), the
+Burgundians, the Saracens (732) and the Normans. In 1181 the viscount of
+Polignac, who had sacked the town two years previously, made public apology
+in front of the church, and established a body of twenty-five knights to
+defend the relics of St Julian. For some time after 1361 the town was the
+headquarters of Bérenger, lord of Castelnau, who was at the head of one of
+the bands of military adventurers which then devastated France. The knights
+(or canons, as they afterwards became) of St Julian bore the title of
+counts of Brioude, and for a long time opposed themselves to the civic
+liberties of the inhabitants.
+
+BRIQUEMAULT (or BRIQUEMAUT), FRANÇOIS DE BEAUVAIS, SEIGNEUR DE (c.
+1502-1572), leader of the Huguenots during the first religious wars, was
+the son of Adrien de Briquemault and Alexane de Sainte Ville, and was born
+about 1502. His first campaign was under the count of Brissac in the
+Piedmontese wars. On his return to France in 1554 he joined Admiral
+Coligny. Charged with the defence of Rouen, in 1562, he resigned in favour
+of Montgomery, to whom the prince of Condé had entrusted the task, and went
+over to England, where he concluded the treaty of Hampton Court on the 20th
+of September. He then returned to France, and took Dieppe from the
+Catholics before the conclusion of peace. If his share in the second
+religious war was less important, he played a very active part in the
+third. He fought at Jarnac, Roche-Abeille and Montcontour, assisted in the
+siege of Poitiers, was nearly captured by the Catholics at Bourg-Dieu,
+re-victualled Vézelay, and almost surprised Bourges. In 1570, being charged
+by Coligny to stop the army of the princes in its ascent of the Rhone
+valley, he crossed Burgundy and effected his junction [v.04 p.0573] with
+the admiral at St. Étienne in May. On the 21st of the following June he
+assisted in achieving the victory of Arnay-le-Duc, and was then employed to
+negotiate a marriage between the prince of Navarre and Elizabeth of
+England. Being in Paris on the night of St Bartholomew he took refuge in
+the house of the English ambassador, but was arrested there. With his
+friend Arnaud da Cavagnes he was delivered over to the parlement, and
+failed in courage when confronted with his judges, seeking to escape death
+by unworthy means. He was condemned, nevertheless, on the 27th of October
+1572, to the last penalty and to the confiscation of his property, and on
+the 29th of October he and Cavagnes were executed.
+
+See _Histoire ecclésiastique des Églises réformées au royaume de France_
+(new edition, 1884), vol. ii.; _La France protestante_ (2nd edition), vol.
+ii., article "Beauvais."
+
+BRIQUETTE (diminutive of Fr. _brique_, brick), a form of fuel, known also
+as "patent fuel," consisting of small coal compressed into solid blocks by
+the aid of some binding material. For making briquettes the small coal, if
+previously washed, is dried to reduce the moisture to at most 4%, and if
+necessary crushed in a disintegrator. It is then incorporated in a pug mill
+with from 8 to 10% of gas pitch, and softened by heating to between 70° and
+90° C. to a plastic mass, which is moulded into blocks and compacted by a
+pressure of ½ to 2 tons per sq. in. in a machine with a rotating die-plate
+somewhat like that used in making semi-plastic clay bricks. When cold, the
+briquettes, which usually weigh from 7 to 20 lb each, although smaller
+sizes are made for domestic use, become quite hard, and can be handled with
+less breakage than the original coal. Their principal use is as fuel for
+marine and locomotive boilers, the evaporative value being about the same
+as, or somewhat greater than, that of coal. The principal seat of the
+manufacture in Great Britain is in South Wales, where the dust and smalls
+resulting from the handling of the best steam coals (which are very
+brittle) are obtainable in large quantities and find no other use. Some
+varieties of lignite, when crushed and pressed at a steam heat, soften
+sufficiently to furnish compact briquettes without requiring any cementing
+material. Briquettes of this kind are made to a large extent from the
+tertiary lignites in the vicinity of Cologne; they are used mainly for
+house fuel on the lower Rhine and in Holland, and occasionally come to
+London.
+
+BRISBANE, SIR THOMAS MAKDOUGALL (1773-1860), Scottish soldier and
+astronomer, was born on the 23rd of July 1773 at Brisbane House, near
+Largs, in Ayrshire. He entered the army in 1789, and served in Flanders,
+the West Indies and the Peninsula. In 1814 he was sent to North America; on
+the return of Napoleon from Elba he was recalled, but did not arrive in
+time to take part in the battle of Waterloo. In 1821 he was appointed
+governor of New South Wales. During the four years for which he held that
+office, although he allowed the finances of the colony to get into
+confusion, he endeavoured to improve its condition by introducing the vine,
+sugar-cane and tobacco plant, and by encouraging the breeding of horses and
+the reclamation of land. At his instigation exploring parties were sent
+out, and one of these discovered the Brisbane river which was named after
+him. He established an astronomical observatory at Paramatta in 1822, and
+the _Brisbane Catalogue_, which was printed in 1835 and contained 7385
+stars, was the result of observations made there in 1822-1826. The
+observatory was discontinued in 1855. After his return to Scotland he
+resided chiefly at Makerstoun in Roxburghshire, where, as at Brisbane
+House, he had a large and admirably equipped observatory. Important
+magnetic observations were begun at Makerstoun in 1841, and the results
+gained him in 1848 the Keith prize of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, in
+whose _Transactions_ they were published. In 1836 he was made a baronet,
+and G.C.B. in 1837; and in 1841 he became general. He was elected president
+of the Royal Society of Edinburgh after the death of Sir Walter Scott in
+1833, and in the following year acted as president of the British
+Association. He died at Brisbane House on the 27th of January 1860. He
+founded two gold medals for the encouragement of scientific research, one
+in the award of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and the other in that of
+the Scottish Society of Arts.
+
+BRISBANE, the capital of Queensland, Australia. It is situated in Stanley
+county, on the banks of the river Brisbane, 25 m. from its mouth in Moreton
+Bay. It is built on a series of hills rising from the river-banks, but some
+parts of it, such as Woollongabba and South Brisbane, occupy low-lying
+flats, which have sometimes been the scene of disastrous floods. The main
+streets and principal buildings of the city are situated on a tongue of
+land formed by a southward bend of the river. The extremity of the tongue,
+however, is open. Here, adjoining one another, are the botanical gardens,
+the grounds surrounding Government House, the official residence of the
+governor of the colony, and the Houses of Parliament, and Queen's Park,
+which is used as a recreation ground. From this park Albert Street runs for
+about three-quarters of a mile through the heart of the city, leading to
+Albert Park, in which is the observatory. Queen's Street, the main
+thoroughfare of Brisbane, crosses Albert Street midway between the two
+parks and leads across the Victoria Bridge to the separate city of South
+Brisbane on the other side of the river. The Victoria Bridge is a fine
+steel structure, which replaced the bridge swept away by floods in February
+1893. Brisbane has a large number of buildings of architectural merit,
+though in some cases their effect is marred by the narrowness of the
+streets in which they stand. Among the most prominent are the Houses of
+Parliament, the great domed custom-house on the river-bank, the lands
+office, the general post-office, the town halls of Brisbane and South
+Brisbane, and the opera house. The Roman Catholic cathedral of St Stephen
+(Elizabeth Street) is an imposing building, having a detached campanile
+containing the largest bell in Australia. The foundation-stone of the
+Anglican cathedral, on an elevated site in Ann Street, was laid by the
+prince of Wales (as duke of York) in 1901. The city is the seat of a Roman
+Catholic archbishop and of an Anglican bishop. Many of the commercial and
+private buildings are also worthy of notice, especially the Queensland
+National Bank, a classic Italian structure, the massive treasury buildings,
+one of the largest erections in Australia, the Queensland Club with its
+wide colonnades in Italian Renaissance style, and the great buildings of
+the Brisbane Newspaper Company. Brisbane is well provided with parks and
+open spaces; the Victoria Park and Bowen Park are the largest; the
+high-lying Mount Coot-tha commands fine views, and there are other parks
+and numerous recreation grounds in various parts of the city, besides the
+admirable botanical gardens and the gardens of the Acclimatization Society.
+Electric tramways and omnibuses serve all parts of the city, and numerous
+ferries ply across the river. There is railway communication to north,
+south and west. By careful dredging, the broad river is navigable as far as
+Brisbane for ocean-going vessels, and the port is the terminal port for the
+Queensland mail steamers to Europe, and is visited by steamers to China,
+Japan and America, and for various inter-colonial lines. There is wharf
+accommodation on both banks of the river, a graving dock which can be used
+by vessels up to 5000 tons, and two patent slips which can take up ships of
+1000 and 400 tons respectively. The exports are chiefly coal, sheep,
+tallow, wool, frozen meat and hides. The annual value of imports and
+exports exceeds seven and nine millions sterling respectively. There are
+boot factories, soap works, breweries, tanneries, tobacco works, &c. The
+climate is on the whole dry and healthy, but during summer the temperature
+is high, the mean shade temperature being about 70° F.
+
+Brisbane was founded in 1825 as a penal settlement, taking its name from
+Sir Thomas Brisbane, then governor of Australia; in 1842 it became a free
+settlement and in 1859 capital of Queensland, the town up to that time
+having belonged to New South Wales. It was incorporated in the same year.
+South Brisbane became a separate city in 1903. The municipal government of
+the city, and also of South Brisbane, is in the hands of a mayor and ten
+alderman; the suburbs are controlled by shire councils and divisional
+boards. The chief suburbs are Kangaroo Point, Fortitude Valley, New Farm,
+Red Hill, Paddington, Milon, Toowong, Breakfast Creek, Bulimba,
+Woolongabba, [v.04 p.0574] Highgate and Indooroopilly. The population of
+the metropolitan area in 1901 was 119,907; of the city proper, 28,953; of
+South Brisbane, 25,481.
+
+BRISEUX, CHARLES ÉTIENNE (c. 1680-1754), French architect. He was
+especially successful as a designer of internal decorations--mantelpieces,
+mirrors, doors and overdoors, ceilings, consoles, candelabra, wall
+panellings and other fittings, chiefly in the Louis Quinze mode. He was
+also an industrious writer on architectural subjects. His principal works
+are:--_L'Architecture moderne_ (2 vols., 1728); _L'Art de bâtir les maisons
+de campagne_ (2 vols., 1743); _Traité du beau essentiel dans les arts,
+appliqué particulièrement à l'architecture_ (1752); and _Traité des
+proportions harmoniques._
+
+BRISSAC, DUKES OF. The fief of Brissac in Anjou was acquired at the end of
+the 15th century by a noble French family named Cossé belonging to the same
+province. René de Cossé married into the Gouffier family, just then very
+powerful at court, and became _premier panelier_ (chief pantler) to Louis
+XII. Two of his sons were marshals of France. Brissac was made a countship
+in 1560 for Charles, the eldest, who was grandmaster of artillery, and
+governor of Piedmont and of Picardy. The second, Artus, who held the
+offices of _grand panetier_ of France and superintendent of finance,
+distinguished himself in the religious wars. Charles II. de Cossé fought
+for the League, and as governor of Paris opened the gates of that town to
+Henry IV., who created him marshal of France in 1594. Brissac was raised to
+a duchy in the peerage of France in 1611. Louis Hercule Timoléon de Cossé,
+due de Brissac, and commandant of the constitutional guard of Louis XVI.,
+was killed at Versailles on the 9th of September 1792 for his devotion to
+the king.
+
+(M. P.*)
+
+BRISSON, EUGÈNE HENRI (1835- ), French statesman, was born at Bourges on
+the 31st of July 1835. He followed his father's profession of advocate, and
+having made himself conspicuous in opposition during the last days of the
+empire, was appointed deputy-mayor of Paris after its overthrow. He was
+elected to the Assembly on the 8th of February 1871, as a member of the
+extreme Left. While not approving of the Commune, he was the first to
+propose amnesty for the condemned (on the 13th of September 1871), but the
+proposal was voted down. He strongly supported obligatory primary
+education, and was a firm anti-clerical. He was president of the chamber
+from 1881--replacing Gambetta--to March 1885, when he became prime minister
+upon the resignation of Jules Ferry; but he resigned when, after the
+general elections of that year, he only just obtained a majority for the
+vote of credit for the Tongking expedition. He remained conspicuous as a
+public man, took a prominent part in exposing the Panama scandals, was a
+powerful candidate for the presidency after the murder of President Carnot
+in 1894, and was again president of the chamber from December 1894 to 1898.
+In June of the latter year he formed a cabinet when the country was
+violently excited over the Dreyfus affair; his firmness and honesty
+increased the respect in which he was already held by good citizens, but a
+chance vote on an occasion of especial excitement overthrew his ministry in
+October. As one of the leaders of the radicals he actively supported the
+ministries of Waldeck-Rousseau and Combes, especially concerning the laws
+on the religious orders and the separation of church and state. In 1899 he
+was a candidate for the presidency. In May 1906 he was elected president of
+the chamber of deputies by 500 out of 581 votes.
+
+BRISSON, MATHURIN JACQUES (1723-1806), French zoologist and natural
+philosopher, was born at Fontenay le Comte on the 30th of April 1723. The
+earlier part of his life was spent in the pursuit of natural history, his
+published works in this department including _Le Règne animal_ (1756) and
+_Ornithologie_ (1760). After the death of R.A.F. Réaumur (1683-1757), whose
+assistant he was, he abandoned natural history, and was appointed professor
+of natural philosophy at Navarre and later at Paris. His most important
+work in this department was his _Poids spécifiques des corps_ (1787), but
+he published several other books on physical subjects which were in
+considerable repute for a time. He died at Croissy near Paris, on the 23rd
+of June 1806.
+
+BRISSOT, JACQUES PIERRE (1754-1793), who assumed the name of DE WARVILLE, a
+celebrated French Girondist, was born at Chartres, where his father was an
+inn-keeper, in January 1754. Brissot received a good education and entered
+the office of a lawyer at Paris. His first works, _Théorie des lois
+criminelles_ (1781) and _Bibliothèque philosophique du législateur_ (1782),
+were on the philosophy of law, and showed how thoroughly Brissot was imbued
+with the ethical precepts of Rousseau. The first work was dedicated to
+Voltaire, and was received by the old _philosophe_ with much favour.
+Brissot became known as a facile and able writer, and was engaged on the
+_Mercure_, on the _Courrier de l'Europe_, and on other papers. Ardently
+devoted to the service of humanity, he projected a scheme for a general
+concourse of all the savants in Europe, and started in London a paper,
+_Journal du Lycée de Londres_, which was to be the organ of their views.
+The plan was unsuccessful, and soon after his return to Paris Brissot was
+lodged in the Bastille on the charge of having published a work against the
+government. He obtained his release after four months, and again devoted
+himself to pamphleteering, but had speedily to retire for a time to London.
+On this second visit he became acquainted with some of the leading
+Abolitionists, and founded later in Paris a Société des Amis des Noirs, of
+which he was president during 1790 and 1791. As an agent of this society he
+paid a visit to the United States in 1788, and in 1791 published his
+_Nouveau Voyage dans les États-Unis de l'Amerique Septentrionale_ (3
+vols.).
+
+From the first, Brissot threw himself heart and soul into the Revolution.
+He edited the _Patriote français_ from 1789 to 1793, and being a
+well-informed and capable man took a prominent part in affairs. Upon the
+demolition of the Bastille the keys were presented to him. Famous for his
+speeches at the Jacobin club, he was elected a member of the municipality
+of Paris, then of the Legislative Assembly, and later of the National
+Convention. During the Legislative Assembly his knowledge of foreign
+affairs enabled him as member of the diplomatic committee practically to
+direct the foreign policy of France, and the declaration of war against the
+emperor on the 20th of April 1792, and that against England on the 1st of
+July 1793, were largely due to him. It was also Brissot who gave these wars
+the character of revolutionary propaganda. He was in many ways the leading
+spirit of the Girondists, who were also known as Brissotins. Vergniaud
+certainly was far superior to him in oratory, but Brissot was quick, eager,
+impetuous, and a man of wide knowledge. But he was at the same time
+vacillating, and not qualified to struggle against the fierce energies
+roused by the events of the Revolution. His party fell before the Mountain;
+sentence of arrest was passed against the leading members of it on the 2nd
+of June 1793. Brissot attempted to escape in disguise, but was arrested at
+Moulins. His demeanour at the trial was quiet and dignified; and on the
+31st of October 1793 he died bravely with several other Girondists.
+
+See _Mémoires de Brissot, sur ses contemporains et la Révolution
+française_, published by his sons, with notes by F. de Montrol (Paris,
+1830); Helena Williams, _Souvenirs de la Révolution française_ (Paris,
+1827); F. A. Aulard, _Les Orateurs de la Législative et de la Convention_
+2nd ed., (Paris, 1905); F. A. Aulard, _Les Portraits littéraires à la fin
+du XVIII^e siècle, pendant la Révolution_ (Paris, 1883).
+
+BRISTOL, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF. This English title has been held in the
+Hervey family since 1714, though previously an earldom of Bristol, in the
+Digby family, is associated with two especially famous representatives, of
+whom separate biographies are given. The Herveys are mentioned during the
+13th century as seated in Bedfordshire, and afterwards in Suffolk, where
+they have held the estate of Ickworth since the 15th century. John Hervey
+(1616-1679) was the eldest son of Sir William Hervey (d. 1660), and was
+born on the 18th of August 1616. He held a high position in the household
+of Catherine, wife of Charles II., and was for many years member of
+parliament for Hythe. He married Elizabeth, the only surviving child of his
+kinsman, William, Lord Hervey of Kidbrooke (d. 1642), but left no children
+when he died on the 18th of January 1679, and his estates passed to his
+brother, Sir Thomas Hervey. Sir Thomas, who was member of parliament for
+Bury St Edmunds, [v.04 p.0575] died on the 27th of May 1694, and was
+succeeded by his son, John, who became the 1st earl of Bristol.
+
+JOHN HERVEY, 1st earl of Bristol (1665-1751), born on the 27th of August
+1665, was educated at Clare Hall, Cambridge, and became member of
+parliament for Bury St Edmunds in March 1694. In March 1703 he was created
+Baron Hervey of Ickworth, and in October 1714 was made earl of Bristol as a
+reward for his zeal in promoting the principles of the revolution and
+supporting the Hanoverian succession. He died on the 20th of January 1751.
+By his first wife, Isabella (d. 1693), daughter of Sir Robert Carr, Bart.,
+of Sleaford, he had one son, Carr, Lord Hervey (1691-1723), who was
+educated at Clare Hall, Cambridge, and was member for Bury St Edmunds from
+1713 to 1722. (It has been suggested that Carr, who died unmarried on the
+14th of November 1723, was the father of Horace Walpole.) He married
+secondly Elizabeth (d. 1741), daughter and co-heiress of Sir Thomas Felton,
+Bart., of Playford, Suffolk, by whom he had ten sons and six daughters. His
+eldest son, John (1696-1743), took the courtesy title of Lord Hervey on the
+death of his half-brother, Carr, in 1723, and gained some renown both as a
+writer and a politician (see HERVEY OF ICKWORTH). Another son, Thomas
+(1699-1775), was one of the members for Bury from 1733 to 1747; held
+various offices at court; and eloped with Elizabeth, wife of Sir Thomas
+Hanmer. He had very poor health, and his reckless life frequently brought
+him into pecuniary and other difficulties. He wrote numerous pamphlets, and
+when he died Dr Johnson said of him, "Tom Hervey, though a vicious man, was
+one of the genteelest men who ever lived." Another of the 1st earl's sons,
+Felton (1712-1773), was also member for the family borough of Bury St
+Edmunds. Having assumed the additional name of Bathurst, Felton's grandson,
+Felton Elwell Hervey-Bathurst (1782-1819), was created a baronet in 1818,
+and on his death a year later the title descended to his brother, Frederick
+Anne (1783-1824), the direct ancestor of the present baronet. The 1st earl
+died in January 1751, the title and estates descending to his grandson.
+
+GEORGE WILLIAM HERVEY, 2nd earl of Bristol (1721-1775), the eldest son of
+John, Lord Hervey of Ickworth, by his marriage with Mary (1700-1768),
+daughter of Nicholas Lepell, was born on the 31st of August 1721. He served
+for some years in the army, and in 1755 was sent to Turin as envoy
+extraordinary. He was ambassador at Madrid from 1758 to 1761, filling a
+difficult position with credit and dignity, and ranked among the followers
+of Pitt. Appointed lord-lieutenant of Ireland in 1766, he never visited
+that country during his short tenure of this office, and, after having
+served for a short time as keeper of the privy seal, became groom of the
+stole to George III. in January 1770. He died unmarried on the 18th or 20th
+of March 1775, and was succeeded by his brother.
+
+AUGUSTUS JOHN HERVEY, 3rd earl of Bristol (1724-1779), was born on the 19th
+of May 1724, and entered the navy, where his promotion was rapid. He
+distinguished himself in several encounters with the French, and was of
+great assistance to Admiral Hawke in 1759, although he had returned to
+England before the battle of Quiberon Bay in November 1759. Having served
+with distinction in the West Indies under Rodney, his active life at sea
+ceased when the peace of Paris was concluded in February 1763. He was,
+however, nominally commander-in-chief in the Mediterranean in this year,
+and was made vice-admiral of the blue in January 1778. Hervey was member of
+parliament for Bury from 1757 to 1763, and after being for a short time
+member for Saltash, again represented Bury from 1768 until he succeeded his
+brother in the peerage in 1775. He often took part in debates in
+parliament, and was a frequent contributor to periodical literature. Having
+served as a lord of the admiralty from 1771 to 1775 he won some notoriety
+as an opponent of the Rockingham ministry and a defender of Admiral Keppel.
+In August 1744 he had been secretly married to Elizabeth Chudleigh
+(1720-1788), afterwards duchess of Kingston (_q.v._), but this union was
+dissolved in 1769. The earl died in London on the 23rd of December 1779,
+leaving no legitimate issue, and having, as far as possible, alienated his
+property from the title. He was succeeded by his brother. Many of his
+letters are in the Record Office, and his journals in the British Museum.
+Other letters are printed in the _Grenville Papers_, vols. iii. and iv.
+(London, 1852-1853), and the _Life of Admiral Keppel_, by the Hon. T.
+Keppel (London, 1852).
+
+FREDERICK AUGUSTUS HERVEY, bishop of Derry (1730-1803), who now became 4th
+earl of Bristol, was born on the 1st of August 1730, and educated at
+Westminster school and Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, graduating in
+1754. Entering the church he became a royal chaplain; and while waiting for
+other preferment spent some time in Italy, whither he was led by his great
+interest in art. In February 1767, while his brother, the 2nd earl, was
+lord-lieutenant of Ireland, he was made bishop of Cloyne, and having
+improved the property of the see he was translated to the rich bishopric of
+Derry a year later. Here again he was active and philanthropic. While not
+neglecting his luxurious personal tastes he spent large sums of money on
+making roads and assisting agriculture, and his munificence was shared by
+the city of Londonderry. He built splendid residences at Downhill and
+Ballyscullion, which he adorned with rare works of art. As a bishop, Hervey
+was industrious and vigilant; he favoured complete religious equality, and
+was opposed to the system of tithes. In December 1779 he became earl of
+Bristol, and in spite of his brother's will succeeded to a considerable
+property. Having again passed some time in Italy, he returned to Ireland
+and in 1782 threw himself ardently into the Irish volunteer movement,
+quickly attaining a prominent position among the volunteers, and in great
+state attending the convention held in Dublin in November 1783. Carried
+away by his position and his popularity he talked loudly of rebellion, and
+his violent language led the government to contemplate his arrest.
+Subsequently he took no part in politics, spending his later years mainly
+on the continent of Europe. In 1798 he was imprisoned by the French at
+Milan, remaining in custody for eighteen months. He died at Albano on the
+8th of July 1803, and was buried in Ickworth church. Varying estimates have
+been found of his character, including favourable ones by John Wesley and
+Jeremy Bentham. He was undoubtedly clever and cultured, but licentious and
+eccentric. In later life he openly professed materialistic opinions; he
+fell in love with the countess Lichtenau, mistress of Frederick William
+II., king of Prussia; and by his bearing he gave fresh point to the saying
+that "God created men, women and Herveys." In 1752 he had married Elizabeth
+(d. 1800), daughter of Sir Jermyn Davers, Bart., by whom he had two sons
+and three daughters. His elder son, Augustus John, Lord Hervey (1757-1796),
+had predeceased his father, and he was succeeded in the title by his
+younger son.
+
+FREDERICK WILLIAM HERVEY, 5th earl and 1st marquess of Bristol (1769-1859),
+was born on the 2nd of October 1769. He married Elizabeth Albana (d. 1844),
+daughter of Clotworthy, 1st Baron Templetown, by whom he had six sons and
+three daughters. In 1826 he was created marquess of Bristol and Earl
+Jermyn, and died on the 15th of February 1859. He was succeeded by his son
+Frederick William (1800-1864), M.P. for Bury St Edmunds 1830-1859, as 2nd
+marquess; and by the latter's son Frederick William John (1834-1907), M.P.
+for West Suffolk 1859-1864, as 3rd marquess. The latter's nephew, Frederick
+William Fane Hervey (b. 1863), who succeeded as 4th marquess, served with
+distinction in the royal navy, and was M.P. for Bury St Edmunds from 1906
+to 1907.
+
+See John, Lord Hervey, _Memoirs of the Reign of George II_., edited by J.W.
+Croker (London, 1884); John Hervey, 1st earl of Bristol, _Diary_ (Wells,
+1894); and _Letter Books of Bristol; with Sir T. Hervey's Letters during
+Courtship and Poems during Widowhood_ (Wells, 1894). Also the articles in
+the _Dictionary of National Biography_, vol. xxvi. (London, 1891).
+
+BRISTOL, GEORGE DIGBY, 2ND EARL OF[1] (1612-1677), eldest son of the 1st
+earl (see below), was born in October 1612. At the age of twelve he
+appeared at the bar of the House of Commons and pleaded for his father,
+then in the Tower, when his youth, graceful person and well-delivered
+speech made a great [v.04 p.0576] impression. He was admitted to Magdalen
+College, Oxford, on the 15th of August 1626, where he was a favourite pupil
+of Peter Heylin, and became M.A. in 1636. He spent the following years in
+study and in travel, from which he returned, according to Clarendon, "the
+most accomplished person of our nation or perhaps any other nation," and
+distinguished by a remarkably handsome person. In 1638 and 1639 were
+written the _Letters between Lord George Digby and Sir Kenelm Digby, Knt.
+concerning Religion_ (publ. 1651), in which Digby attacked Roman
+Catholicism. In June 1634 Digby was committed to the Fleet till July for
+striking Crofts, a gentleman of the court, in Spring Gardens; and possibly
+his severe treatment and the disfavour shown to his father were the causes
+of his hostility to the court. He was elected member for Dorsetshire in
+both the Short and Long parliaments in 1640, and in conjunction with Pym
+and Hampden he took an active part in the opposition to Charles. He moved
+on the 9th of November for a committee to consider the "deplorable state"
+of the kingdom, and on the 11th was included in the committee for the
+impeachment of Strafford, against whom he at first showed great zeal. He,
+however, opposed the attainder, made an eloquent speech on the 21st of
+April 1641, accentuating the weakness of Vane's evidence against the
+prisoner, and showing the injustice of _ex post facto_ legislation. He was
+regarded in consequence with great hostility by the parliamentary party,
+and was accused of having stolen from Pym's table Vane's notes on which the
+prosecution mainly depended. On the 15th of July his speech was burnt by
+the hangman by the order of the House of Commons. Meanwhile on the 8th of
+February he had made an important speech in the Commons advocating the
+reformation and opposing the abolition of episcopacy. On the 8th of June,
+during the angry discussion on the army plot, he narrowly escaped assault
+in the House; and the following day, in order to save him from further
+attacks, the king called him up to the Lords in his father's barony of
+Digby.
+
+He now became the evil genius of Charles, who had the incredible folly to
+follow his advice in preference to such men as Hyde and Falkland. In
+November he is recorded as performing "singular good service," and "doing
+beyond admiration," in speaking in the Lords against the instruction
+concerning evil counsellors. He suggested to Charles the impeachment of the
+five members, and urged upon him the fatal attempt to arrest them on the
+4th of January 1642; but he failed to play his part in the Lords in
+securing the arrest of Lord Mandeville, to whom on the contrary he declared
+that "the king was very mischievously advised"; and according to Clarendon
+his imprudence was responsible for the betrayal of the king's plan. Next
+day he advised the attempt to seize them in the city by force. The same
+month he was ordered to appear in the Lords to answer a charge of high
+treason for a supposed armed attempt at Kingston, but fled to Holland,
+where he joined the queen, and on the 26th of February was impeached.
+Subsequently he visited Charles at York disguised as a Frenchman, but on
+the return voyage to Holland he was captured and taken to Hull, where he
+for some time escaped detection; and at last he cajoled Sir John Hotham,
+after discovering himself, into permitting his escape. Later he ventured on
+a second visit to Hull to persuade Hotham to surrender the place to
+Charles, but this project failed. He was present at Edgehill, and greatly
+distinguished himself at Lichfield, where he was wounded while leading the
+assault. He soon, however, threw down his commission in consequence of a
+quarrel with Prince Rupert, and returned to the king at Oxford, over whom
+he obtained more influence as the prospect became more gloomy. On the 28th
+of September 1643 he was appointed secretary of state and a privy
+councillor, and on the 31st of October high steward of Oxford University.
+He now supported the queen's disastrous policy of foreign alliances and
+help from Ireland, and engaged in a series of imprudent and ill-conducted
+negotiations which greatly injured the king's affairs, while his fierce
+disputes with Rupert and his party further embarrassed them. On the 14th of
+October 1645 he was made lieutenant general of the royal forces north of
+the Trent, with the object of pushing through to join Montrose, but he was
+defeated on the 15th at Sherburn, where his correspondence was captured,
+disclosing the king's expectations from abroad and from Ireland and his
+intrigues with the Scots; and after reaching Dumfries, he found his way
+barred. He escaped on the 24th to the Isle of Man, thence crossing to
+Ireland, where he caused Glamorgan to be arrested. Here, on this new stage,
+he believed he was going to achieve wonders. "Have I not carried my body
+swimmingly," he wrote to Hyde in irrepressible good spirits, "who being
+before so irreconcilably hated by the Puritan party, have thus seasonably
+made myself as odious to the Papists?"[2] His project now was to bring over
+Prince Charles to head a royalist movement in the island; and having joined
+Charles at Jersey in April 1646, he intended to entrap him on board, but
+was dissuaded by Hyde. He then travelled to Paris to gain the queen's
+consent to his scheme, but returned to persuade Charles to go to Paris, and
+accompanied him thither, revisiting Ireland on the 29th of June once more,
+and finally escaping to France on the surrender of the island to the
+parliament. At Paris amongst the royalists he found himself in a nest of
+enemies eager to pay off old scores. Prince Rupert challenged him, and he
+fought a duel with Lord Wilmot. He continued his adventures by serving in
+Louis XIV.'s troops in the war of the Fronde, in which he greatly
+distinguished himself. He was appointed in 1651 lieutenant-general in the
+French army, and commander of the forces in Flanders. These new honours,
+however, were soon lost. During Mazarin's enforced absence from the court
+Digby aspired to become his successor; and the cardinal, who had from the
+first penetrated his character and regarded him as a mere adventurer,[3] on
+his restoration to power sent Digby away on an expedition in Italy; and on
+his return informed him that he was included in the list of those expelled
+from France, in accordance with the new treaty with Cromwell. In August
+1656 he joined Charles II. at Bruges, and desirous of avenging himself upon
+the cardinal offered his services to Don John of Austria in the
+Netherlands, being instrumental in effecting the surrender of the garrison
+of St Ghislain to Spain in 1657. On the 1st of January 1657 he was
+appointed by Charles II. secretary of state, but shortly afterwards, having
+become a Roman Catholic--probably with the view of adapting himself better
+to his new Spanish friends--he was compelled to resign office. Charles,
+however, on account of his "jollity" and Spanish experience took him with
+him to Spain in 1659, though his presence was especially deprecated by the
+Spanish; but he succeeded in ingratiating himself, and was welcomed by the
+king of Spain subsequently at Madrid.
+
+By the death of his father Digby had succeeded in January 1659 to the
+peerage as 2nd earl of Bristol, and had been made K.G. the same month. He
+returned to England at the restoration, when he found himself excluded from
+office on account of his religion, and relegated to only secondary
+importance. His desire to make a brilliant figure induced a restless and
+ambitious activity in parliament. He adopted an attitude of violent
+hostility to Clarendon. In foreign affairs he inclined strongly to the side
+of Spain, and opposed the king's marriage with Catherine of Portugal. He
+persuaded Charles to despatch him to Italy to view the Medici princesses,
+but the royal marriage and treaty with Portugal were settled in his
+absence. In June 1663 he made an attempt to upset Clarendon's management of
+the House of Commons, but his intrigue was exposed to the parliament by
+Charles, and Bristol was obliged to attend the House to exonerate himself,
+when he confessed that he had "taken the liberty of enlarging," and his
+"comedian-like speech" excited general amusement. Exasperated by these
+failures, in a violent scene with the king early in July, he broke out into
+fierce and disrespectful reproaches, ending with a threat that unless
+Charles granted his requests within twenty-four hours "he would do somewhat
+that should awaken him out of his slumbers, and make him look better to his
+own business." Accordingly on the 10th he impeached Clarendon in the Lords
+of high treason, and on the charge being dismissed renewed [v.04 p.0577]
+his accusation, and was expelled from the court, only avoiding the warrant
+issued for his apprehension by a concealment of two years. In January 1664
+he caused a new sensation by his appearance at his house at Wimbledon,
+where he publicly renounced before witnesses his Roman Catholicism, and
+declared himself a Protestant, his motive being probably to secure immunity
+from the charge of recusancy preferred against him.[4] When, however, the
+fall of Clarendon was desired, Bristol was again welcomed at court. He took
+his seat in the Lords on the 29th of July 1667. "The king," wrote Pepys in
+November, "who not long ago did say of Bristoll that he was a man able in
+three years to get himself a fortune in any kingdom in the world and lose
+all again in three months, do now hug him and commend his parts everywhere
+above all the world."[5] He pressed eagerly for Clarendon's commital, and
+on the refusal of the Lords accused them of mutiny and rebellion, and
+entered his dissent with "great fury."[6] In March 1668 he attended prayers
+in the Lords. On the 15th of March 1673 though still ostensibly a Roman
+Catholic, he spoke in favour of the Test Act, describing himself as "a
+Catholic of the church of Rome, not a Catholic of the court of Rome," and
+asserting the unfitness of Romanists for public office. His adventurous and
+erratic career closed by death on the 20th of March 1677.
+
+Bristol was one of the most striking and conspicuous figures of his time, a
+man of brilliant abilities, a great orator, one who distinguished himself
+without effort in any sphere of activity he chose to enter, but whose
+natural gifts were marred by a restless ambition and instability of
+character fatal to real greatness. Clarendon describes him as "the only man
+I ever knew of such incomparable parts that was none the wiser for any
+experience or misfortune that befell him," and records his extraordinary
+facility in making friends and making enemies. Horace Walpole characterized
+him in a series of his smartest antitheses as "a singular person whose life
+was one contradiction." "He wrote against popery and embraced it; he was a
+zealous opposer of the court and a sacrifice for it; was conscientiously
+converted in the midst of his prosecution of Lord Strafford and was most
+unconscientiously a persecutor of Lord Clarendon. With great parts, he
+always hurt himself and his friends; with romantic bravery, he was always
+an unsuccessful commander. He spoke for the Test Act, though a Roman
+Catholic; and addicted himself to astrology on the birthday of true
+philosophy." Besides his youthful correspondence with Sir K. Digby on the
+subject of religion already mentioned, he was the author of an _Apologie_
+(1643, Thomason Tracts, E. 34 (32)), justifying his support of the king's
+cause; of _Elvira ... a comedy_ (1667), printed in R. Dodsley's _Select
+Collect. of Old English Plays_ (Hazlitt, 1876), vol. xv., and of _Worse and
+Worse_, an adaptation from the Spanish, acted but not printed. Other
+writings are also ascribed to him, including the authorship with Sir Samuel
+Tuke of _The Adventures of Five Hours_ (1663). His eloquent and pointed
+speeches, many of which were printed, are included in the article in the
+_Biog. Brit._ and among the _Thomason Tracts_; see also the general
+catalogue in the British Museum. The catalogue of his library was published
+in 1680. He married Lady Anne Russell, daughter of Francis, 4th earl of
+Bedford, by whom, besides two daughters, he had two sons, Francis, who
+predeceased him unmarried, and John, who succeeded him as 3rd earl of
+Bristol, at whose death without issue the peerage became extinct.
+
+AUTHORITIES.--See the article in _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Wood's _Ath. Oxon._
+(Bliss), iii. 1100-1105; _Biographia Brit._ (Kippis), v. 210-238; H.
+Walpole's _Royal and Noble Authors_ (Park, 1806), iii. 191; _Roscius
+Anglicanus_, by J. Downes, pp. 31, 36 (1789); Cunningham's _Lives of
+Eminent Englishmen_ (1837), iii. 29; _Somers Tracts_ (1750), iii. (1809),
+iv.; _Harleian Miscellany_ (1808), v., vi.; _Life_ by T. H. Lister (1838);
+_State Papers_.
+
+(P. C. Y.)
+
+[1] _I.e._ in the Digby line; for the Herveys see above.
+
+[2] _Clarendon State Papers_, ii. 201.
+
+[3] _Mémoires du Cardinal de Retz_ (1859), app. iii. 437, 442.
+
+[4] Pepys's _Diary_, iv. 51.
+
+[5] _Ib._ vii. 199.
+
+[6] _Ib._ 207; _Protests of the Lords_, by J.E.T. Rogers, i. 36.
+
+BRISTOL, JOHN DIGBY, 1ST EARL OF[1] (1580-1653) English diplomatist, son of
+Sir George Digby of Coleshill, Warwickshire, and of Abigail, daughter of
+Sir Arthur Henningham, was born in 1580, and entered Magdalen College,
+Oxford, in 1595 (M.A. 1605), becoming a member of the Inner Temple in 1598.
+In 1605 he was sent to James to inform him of the safety of the princess
+Elizabeth at the time of the Gunpowder Plot. He gained his favour, was made
+a gentleman of the privy chamber and one of the king's carvers, and was
+knighted in 1607. From 1610 to 1611 he was member of parliament for Heydon.
+In 1611 he was sent as ambassador to Spain to negotiate a marriage between
+Prince Henry and the infanta Anne, and to champion the cause of the English
+merchants, for whom he obtained substantial concessions, and arranged the
+appointment of consuls at Lisbon and Seville. He also discovered a list of
+the English pensioners of the Spanish court, which included some of the
+ministers, and came home in 1613 to communicate this important intelligence
+to the king. In 1614 he again went to Spain to effect a union between the
+infanta Maria and Charles, though he himself was in favour of a Protestant
+marriage, and desired a political and not a matrimonial treaty. In 1616, on
+the disgrace of Somerset, he was recalled home to give evidence concerning
+the latter's connexions with Spain, was made vice-chamberlain and a privy
+councillor, and obtained from James the manor of Sherborne forfeited by the
+late favourite. In 1618 he went once more to Spain to reopen the
+negotiations, returning in May, and being created Baron Digby on the 25th
+of November. He endeavoured to avoid a breach with Spain on the election of
+the elector palatine, the king's son-in-law, to the Bohemian throne; and in
+March 1621, after the latter's expulsion from Bohemia, Digby was sent to
+Brussels to obtain a suspension of hostilities in the Palatinate. On the
+4th of July he went to Vienna and drew up a scheme of pacification with the
+emperor, by which Frederick was to abandon Bohemia and be secured in his
+hereditary territories, but the agreement could never be enforced. After
+raising money for the defence of Heidelberg he returned home in October,
+and on the 21st of November explained his policy to the parliament, and
+asked for money and forces for its execution. The sudden dissolution of
+parliament, however, prevented the adoption of any measure of support, and
+entirely ruined Digby's plans. In 1622 he returned to Spain with nothing on
+which to rely but the goodwill of Philip IV., and nothing to offer but
+entreaties.
+
+On the 15th of September he was created earl of Bristol. He urged on the
+marriage treaty, believing it would include favourable conditions for
+Frederick, but the negotiations were taken out of his control, and finally
+wrecked by the arrival of Charles himself and Buckingham in March 1623. He
+incurred their resentment, of which the real inspiration was Buckingham's
+implacable jealousy, by a letter written to James informing him of
+Buckingham's unpopularity among the Spanish ministers, and by his
+endeavouring to maintain the peace with Spain after their departure. In
+January 1624 he left Spain, and on arriving at Dover in March, Buckingham
+and Charles having now complete ascendancy over the king, he was forbidden
+to appear at court and ordered to confine himself at Sherborne. He was
+required by Buckingham to answer a series of interrogatories, but he
+refused to inculpate himself and demanded a trial by parliament. On the
+death of James he was removed by Charles I. from the privy council, and
+ordered to absent himself from his first parliament. On his demand in
+January 1626 to be present at the coronation Charles angrily refused, and
+accused him of having tried to pervert his religion in Spain. In March
+1626, after the assembling of the second parliament, Digby applied to the
+Lords, who supported his rights, and Charles sent him his writ accompanied
+by a letter from Lord Keeper Coventry desiring him not to use it. Bristol,
+however, took his seat and demanded justice against Buckingham (Thomason
+Tracts, E. 126 (20)). The king endeavoured to obstruct his attack by
+causing Bristol on the 1st of May to be himself brought to the bar, on an
+accusation of high treason by the attorney-general. The Lords, however,
+ordered that both charges should be investigated simultaneously. Further
+proceedings were stopped by the dissolution of parliament on the 15th of
+June; a prosecution was ordered by Charles in the Star Chamber, and Bristol
+was sent to the [v.04 p.0578] Tower, where he remained till the 17th of
+March 1628, when the peers, on the assembling of Charles's third
+parliament, insisted on his liberation and restoration to his seat in the
+Lords.
+
+In the discussions upon the Petition of Right, Bristol supported the use of
+the king's prerogative in emergencies, and asserted that the king besides
+his legal had a regal power, but joined in the demand for a full acceptance
+of the petition by the king after the first unsatisfactory answer. He was
+now restored to favour, but took no part in politics till the outbreak of
+the Scottish rebellion, when he warned Charles of the danger of attacking
+with inadequate forces. He was the leader in the Great Council held at
+York, was a commissioner to treat with the Scots in September 1640 at
+Ripon, and advised strongly the summoning of the parliament. In February
+1641 he was one of the peers who advocated reforms in the administration
+and were given seats in the council. Though no friend to Strafford, he
+endeavoured to save his life, desiring only to see him excluded from
+office, and as a witness was excused from voting on the attainder. He was
+appointed gentleman of the bedchamber on the king's departure for Scotland,
+and on the 27th of December he was declared an evil counsellor by the House
+of Commons, Cromwell on the 28th moving an address to the king to dismiss
+him from his councils, on the plea that he had advocated the bringing up of
+the northern army to overawe parliament in the preceding spring. There is
+no evidence to support the charge, but Digby was regarded by the
+parliamentary party with special hatred and distrust, of which the chief
+causes were probably his Spanish proclivities and his indifference on the
+great matter of religion, to which was added the unpopularity reflected
+from his misguided son. On the 28th of March 1642 he was sent to the Tower
+for having failed to disclose to parliament the Kentish petition. Liberated
+in April, he spoke in the Lords on the 20th of May in favour of an
+accommodation, and again in June in vindication of the king; but finding
+his efforts ineffectual, and believing all armed rebellion against the king
+a wicked violation of the most solemn oaths, he joined Charles at York, was
+present at Edgehill and accompanied him to Oxford. On the 1st of February
+1643 he was named with Lord Herbert of Raglan for removal from the court
+and public office for ever, and in the propositions of November 1644 was
+one of those excepted from pardon. In January he had endeavoured to
+instigate a breach of the Independents with the Scots. Bristol, however,
+was not in favour of continuing the war, and withdrew to Sherborne,
+removing in the spring of 1644 to Exeter, and after the surrender of the
+city retiring abroad on the 11th of July by order of the Houses, which
+rejected his petition to compound for his estate. He took up his residence
+at Caen, passing the rest of his life in exile and poverty, and
+occasionally attending the young king. In 1647 he printed at Caen _An
+Apology_, defending his support of the royal cause. This was reprinted in
+1656 (Thomason Tracts, E. 897, 6). He died at Paris on the 16th of January
+1653.
+
+He is described by Clarendon as "a man of grave aspect, of a presence that
+drew respect, and of great parts and ability, but passionate and
+supercilious and too voluminous a discourser in council." His aim was to
+effect a political union between England and Spain apart from the religious
+or marriage questions--a policy which would probably have benefited both
+English and European interests; but it was one understood neither in Spain
+nor in England, and proved impracticable. He was a man of high character,
+who refused to compound with falsehood and injustice, whose misfortune it
+was to serve two Stuart sovereigns, and whose firm resistance to the king's
+tyranny led the way to the great movement which finally destroyed it.
+Besides his _Apology_, he was the author of several printed speeches and
+poems, and translated _A Defence of the Catholic Faith_ by Peter du Moulin
+(1610). He married Beatrix, daughter of Charles Walcot, and widow of Sir
+John Dyve, and besides two daughters left two sons, George, who succeeded
+him as 2nd earl of Bristol, and John, who died unmarried.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The best account of Bristol will be found in the scattered
+notices of him in the _Hist. of England_ and of the _Civil War_, by S. R.
+Gardiner, who also wrote the short sketch of his career in the _Dict. of
+Nat. Biog._, and who highly eulogizes his character and diplomacy. For
+lives, see _Biographia Britannica_ (Kippis), v. 199; Wood's _Ath. Oxon._
+(Bliss), iii. 338; D. Lloyd's _Memoires_ (1668), 579; Collins's _Peerage_
+(Brydges, 1812), v. 362; Fuller's _Worthies_ (Nichols, 1811), ii. 412; H.
+Walpole's _Royal and Noble Authors_ (Park, 1806), iii. 49; also Clarendon's
+_Hist of the Rebellion_, esp. vi. 388; _Clarendon State Papers_ and _Cal.
+of Cl. State Papers_; _Old Parliamentary History_; _Cabala_ (1691;
+letters); Camden Soc., _Miscellany_, vol. vi. (1871); _Defence of his
+Spanish Negotiations_, ed. by S.R. Gardiner; _Somers Tracts_ (1809), ii.
+501; _Thomason Tracts_ in Brit. Museum; _Hardwicke State Papers_, i. 494.
+The MSS. at Sherborne Castle, of which a selection was transcribed and
+deposited in the Public Record Office, were calendared by the Hist. MSS.
+Commission in _Rep._ viii. app. i. p. 213 and 10th _Rep._ app. i. p. 520;
+there are numerous references to Bristol in various collections calendared
+in the same publication and in the _Cal. of State Papers, Dom. Series_; see
+also _Harleian MSS._, Brit. Mus. 1580, art. 31-48, and _Add. MSS._ indexes
+and calendars.
+
+(P. C. Y.)
+
+[1] _I.e._ in the Digby line; for the Herveys see above.
+
+BRISTOL, a township of Hartford county, Connecticut, U.S.A., in the central
+part of the state, about 16 m. S.W. of Hartford. It has an area of 27 sq.
+m., and contains the village of Forestville and the borough of Bristol
+(incorporated in 1893). Both are situated on the Pequabuck river, and are
+served by the western branch of the midland division of the New York, New
+Haven & Hartford railway, and by electric railway to Hartford, New Britain
+and Terryville. Pop. (1890) 7382; (1900) 9643, including that of the
+borough, 6268 (1910) 13,502 (borough, 9527). Among the manufactures of the
+borough of Bristol are clocks, woollen goods, iron castings, hardware,
+brass ware, silverplate and bells. Bristol clocks, first manufactured soon
+after the War of Independence, have long been widely known. Bristol,
+originally a part of the township of Farmington, was first settled about
+1727, but did not become an independent corporation until the formation, in
+1742, of the first church, known after 1744 as the New Cambridge Society.
+In 1748 a Protestant Episcopal Church was organized, and before and during
+the War of Independence its members belonged to the Loyalist party; their
+rector, Rev. James Nichols, was tarred and feathered by the Whigs, and
+Moses Dunbar, a member of the church, was hanged for treason by the
+Connecticut authorities. Chippen's Hill (about 3 m. from the centre of the
+township) was a favourite rendezvous of the local Loyalists; and a cave
+there, known as "The Tories' Den," is a well-known landmark. In 1785 New
+Cambridge and West Britain, another ecclesiastical society of Farmington,
+were incorporated as the township of Bristol, but in 1806 they were divided
+into the present townships of Bristol and Burlington.
+
+BRISTOL, a city, county of a city, municipal, county and parliamentary
+borough, and seaport of England, chiefly in Gloucestershire but partly in
+Somersetshire, 118½ m. W. of London. Pop. (1901) 328,945. The Avon, here
+forming the boundary between Gloucestershire and Somerset, though entering
+the estuary of the Severn (Bristol Channel) only 8 m. below the city, is
+here confined between considerable hills, with a narrow valley-floor on
+which the nucleus of the city rests. Between Bristol and the Channel the
+valley becomes a gorge, crossed at a single stride by the famous Clifton
+Suspension Bridge. Above Bristol the hills again close in at Keynsham, so
+that the city lies in a basin-like hollow some 4 m. in diameter, and
+extends up the heights to the north. The Great Western railway, striking
+into the Avon valley near Bath, serves Bristol from London, connects it
+with South Wales by the Severn tunnel, and with the southern and
+south-western counties of England. Local lines of this company encircle the
+city on the north and the south, serving the outports of Avonmouth and
+Portishead on the Bristol Channel. A trunk line of the Midland railway
+connects Bristol with the north of England by way of Gloucester, Worcester,
+Birmingham and Derby. Both companies use the central station, Temple Meads.
+
+The nucleus of Bristol lies to the north of the river. The business centre
+is in the district traversed by Broad Street, High Street, Wine Street and
+Corn Street, which radiate from a centre close to the Floating Harbour. To
+the south of this centre, connected with it by Bristol Bridge, an island is
+formed between the Floating Harbour and the New Course of the Avon, [v.04
+p.0579] and here are Temple Meads station, above Victoria Street, two of
+the finest churches (the Temple and St Mary Redcliffe) the general hospital
+and other public buildings. Immediately above the bridge the little river
+Frome joins the Avon. Owing to the nature of the site the streets are
+irregular; in the inner part of the city they are generally narrow, and
+sometimes, with their ancient gabled houses, extremely picturesque. The
+principal suburbs surround the city to the west, north and east.
+
+_Churches, &c._--In the centre of Bristol a remarkable collection of
+architectural antiquities is found, principally ecclesiastical. This the
+city owes mainly to a few great baronial families, such as the earls of
+Gloucester and the Berkeleys, in its early history, and to a few great
+merchants, the Canyngs, Shipwards and Framptons, in its later career. The
+see of Bristol, founded by Henry VIII. in 1542, was united to that of
+Gloucester in 1836; but again separated in 1896. The diocese includes parts
+of Gloucestershire and Wiltshire, and a small but populous [Sidenote:
+Cathedral.] portion of Somerset. The cathedral, standing above the
+so-called Canons' Marsh which borders the Floating Harbour, is pleasantly
+situated on the south side of College Green. It has two western towers and
+a central tower, nave, short transepts, choir with aisles, an eastern Lady
+chapel and other chapels; and on the south, a chapter-house and cloister
+court. The nave is modern (by Street, 1877), imitating the choir of the
+14th century, with its curious skeleton-vaulting in the aisles. Besides the
+canopied tombs of the Berkeleys with their effigies in chain mail, and
+similarly fine tombs of the crosiered abbots, there are memorials to Bishop
+Butler, to Sterne's Eliza (Elizabeth Draper), and to Lady Hesketh (the
+friend of Cowper), who are all interred here. There is also here William
+Mason's fine epitaph to his wife (d. 1767), beginning "Take, holy earth,
+all that my soul holds dear." Of Fitz-Harding's abbey of St Augustine,
+founded in 1142 (of which the present cathedral was the church), the
+stately entrance gateway, with its sculptured mouldings, remains hardly
+injured. The abbot's gateway, the vestibule to the chapter-house, and the
+chapter-house itself, which is carved with Byzantine exuberance of
+decoration, and acknowledged to be one of the finest Norman chambers in
+Europe, are also perfect. On the north side of College Green is the small
+but ornate Mayor's chapel (originally St Mark's), devoted to the services
+of the mayor and corporation. It is mainly Decorated and Perpendicular. Of
+the churches within the centre of the city, the following are found within
+a radius of half-a-mile from Bristol Bridge. St Stephen's church, built
+between 1450 and 1490, is a dignified structure, chiefly interesting for
+its fan-traceried porch and stately tower. It was built entirely by the
+munificence of John Shipward, a wealthy merchant. The tower and spire of St
+John's (15th century) stand on one of the gateways of the city. This church
+is a parallelogram, without east or west windows or aisles, and is built
+upon a fine groined crypt. St James's church, the burial place of its
+founder, Robert, earl of Gloucester, dates from 1130, and fine Norman work
+remains in the nave. The tower is of the 14th century. St Philip's has an
+Early English tower, but its external walls and windows are for the most
+part debased Perpendicular. Robert FitzHamon's Norman tower of St Peter,
+the oldest church tower in Bristol, still presents its massive square to
+the eye. This church stands in Castle Street, which commemorates the castle
+of Robert, earl of Gloucester, the walls of which were 25 ft. thick at the
+base. Nothing remains of this foundation, but there still exist some walls
+and vaults of the later stronghold, including a fine Early English cell.
+Adjacent to the church is St Peter's hospital, a picturesque gabled
+building of Jacobean and earlier date, with a fine court room. St Mary le
+Port and St Augustine the Less are churches of the Perpendicular era, and
+not the richest specimens of their kind. St Nicholas church is modern, on a
+crypt of the date 1503, and earlier. On the island south of the Floating
+Harbour are two of the most interesting churches in the city. Temple
+church, with its leaning tower, 5 ft. off the perpendicular, retains
+nothing of the Templars' period, but is a fine building of the Decorated
+and Perpendicular periods. The church of St Mary Redcliffe, for grandeur of
+proportion and elaboration of design and finish, is the first
+ecclesiastical building in Bristol, and takes high rank among the parish
+churches of England. It was built for the most part in the latter part of
+the 14th century by William Canyng or Canynges (_q.v._), but the sculptured
+north porch is externally Decorated, and internally Early English. The fine
+tower is also Decorated, on an Early English base. The spire, Decorated in
+style, is modern. Among numerous monuments is that of Admiral Penn (d.
+1718), the father of the founder of Pennsylvania. The church exhibits the
+rare feature of transeptal aisles. Of St Thomas's, in the vicinity, only
+the tower (15th century) remains of the old structures. All Hallows church
+has a modern Italian campanile, but is in the main of the 15th century,
+with the retention of four Norman piers in the nave; and is interesting
+from its connexion with the ancient gild of calendars, whose office it was
+"to convert Jews, instruct youths," and keep the archives of the town.
+Theirs was the first free library in the city, possibly in England. The
+records of the church contain a singularly picturesque representation of
+the ancient customs of the fraternity.
+
+Among conventual remains, besides those already mentioned, there exist of
+the Dominican priory the Early English refectory and dormitory, the latter
+comprising a row of fifteen original windows and an oak roof of the same
+date; and of St Bartholomew's hospital there is a double arch, with
+intervening arcades, also Early English. These, with the small chapel of
+the Three Kings of Cologne, Holy Trinity Hospital, both Perpendicular, and
+the remains of the house of the Augustinian canons attached to the
+cathedral, comprise the whole of the monastic relics.
+
+There are many good specimens of ancient domestic architecture--notably
+some arches of a grand Norman hall and some Tudor windows of Colston's
+house, Small Street; and Canyng's house, with good Perpendicular oak roof.
+Of buildings to which historic interest attaches, there are the Merchant
+Venturers' almshouses (1699), adjoining their hall. This gild was
+established in the 16th century. A small house near St Mary Redcliffe was
+the school where the poet Chatterton received his education. His memorial
+is in the churchyard of St Mary, and in the church a chest contains the
+records among which he claimed to have discovered some of the manuscripts
+which were in reality his own. A house in Wine Street was the birthplace of
+the poet-laureate Robert Southey (1744).
+
+_Public Buildings, &c._--The public buildings are somewhat overshadowed in
+interest by the ecclesiastical. The council house, at the "Cross" of the
+four main thoroughfares, dates from 1827, was enlarged in 1894, and
+contains the city archives and many portraits, including a Van Dyck and a
+Kneller. The Guildhall is close by--a modern Gothic building. The exchange
+(used as a corn-market) is a noteworthy building by the famous architect of
+Bath, John Wood (1743). Edward Colston, a revered citizen and benefactor of
+the city (d. 1721), is commemorated by name in several buildings and
+institutions, notably in Colston Hall, which is used for concerts and
+meetings. A bank close by St Stephen's church claims to have originated in
+the first savings-bank established in England (1812). Similarly, the city
+free library (1613) is considered to be the original of its kind. The
+Bristol museum and reference library were transferred to the corporation in
+1893. Vincent Stuckey Lean (d. 1899) bequeathed to the corporation of
+Bristol the sum of £50,000 for the further development of the free
+libraries of the city, and with especial regard to the formation and
+sustenance of a general reference library of a standard and scientific
+character. The central library was opened in 1906. An art gallery,
+presented by Sir William Henry Wills, was opened in 1905.
+
+Among educational establishments, the technical college of the Company of
+Merchant Venturers (1885) supplies scientific, technical and commercial
+education. The extensive buildings of this institution were destroyed by
+fire in 1906. University College (1876) forms the nucleus of the university
+of Bristol (chartered 1909). Clifton College, opened in 1862 and
+incorporated in 1877, includes a physical science school, with
+laboratories, [v.04 p.0580] a museum and observatory. Colston's girls' day
+school (1891) includes domestic economy and calisthenics. Among the many
+charitable institutions are the general hospital, opened in 1858, and since
+repeatedly enlarged; royal hospital for sick children and women, Royal
+Victoria home, and the Queen Victoria jubilee convalescent home.
+
+Of the open spaces in and near Bristol the most extensive are those
+bordering the river in the neighbourhood of the gorge, Durdham and Clifton
+Downs, on the Gloucestershire side (see CLIFTON). Others are Victoria Park,
+south of the river, near the Bedminster station, Eastville Park by the
+Frome, on the north-east of the city beyond Stapleton Road station, St
+Andrew's Park near Montpelier station to the north, and Brandon Hill, west
+of the cathedral, an abrupt eminence commanding a fine view over the city,
+and crowned with a modern tower commemorating the "fourth centenary of the
+discovery of America by John Cabot, and sons Lewis, Sebastian and Sanctus."
+Other memorials in the city are the High Cross on College Green (1850), and
+statues of Queen Victoria (1888), Samuel Morley (1888), Edmund Burke
+(1894), and Edward Colston (1895), in whose memory are held annual Colston
+banquets.
+
+_Harbour and Trade._--Bristol harbour was formed in 1809 by the conversion
+of the Avon and a branch of the Frome into "the Float," by the cutting of a
+new channel for the Avon and the formation of two basins. Altogether the
+water area, at fixed level, is about 85 acres. Four dry docks open into the
+floating harbour. In 1884 the Avonmouth and Portishead docks at the river
+entrance were bought up by the city; and the port extends from Hanham Mills
+on the Avon to the mouth of the river, and for some distance down the
+estuary of the Severn. The city docks have a depth of 22 ft., while those
+at Avonmouth are accessible to the largest vessels. In 1902 the
+construction of the extensive Royal Edward dock at Avonmouth was put in
+hand by the corporation, and the dock was opened by King Edward VII. in
+1908. It is entered by a lock 875 ft. long and 100 ft. wide, with a depth
+of water on the sill of 46 ft. at ordinary spring, and 36 ft. at ordinary
+neap tides. The dock itself has a mean length of 1120 ft. and a breadth of
+1000 ft., and there is a branch and passage connecting with the old dock.
+The water area is about 30 acres, and the dock is so constructed as to be
+easily capable of extension. Portishead dock, on the Somerset shore, has an
+area of 12 acres. The port has a large trade with America, the West Indies
+and elsewhere, the principal imports being grain, fruit, oils, ore, timber,
+hides, cattle and general merchandise; while the exports include machinery,
+manufactured oils, cotton goods, tin and salt. The Elder Dempster, Dominion
+and other large steamship companies trade at the port.
+
+The principal industries are shipbuilding, ropewalks, chocolate factories,
+sugar refineries, tobacco mills and pipe-making, glass works, potteries,
+soaperies, shoe factories, leather works and tanneries, chemical works, saw
+mills, breweries, copper, lead and shot works, iron works, machine works,
+stained-paper works, anchors, chain cables, sail-cloth, buttons. A
+coalfield extending 16 m. south-east to Radstock avails much for Bristol
+manufactures.
+
+The parliamentary borough is divided into four divisions, each returning
+one member. The government of the city is in the hands of a lord mayor, 22
+aldermen and 66 councillors. The area in 1901 was 11,705 acres; but in 1904
+it was increased to 17,004 acres.
+
+_History._--Bristol (Brigstow, Bristou, Bristow, Bristole) is one of the
+best examples of a town that has owed its greatness entirely to trade. It
+was never a shire town or the site of a great religious house, and it owed
+little to its position as the head of a feudal lordship, or as a military
+post. Though it is near both British and Roman camps, there is no evidence
+of a British or Roman settlement. It was the western limit of the Saxon
+invasion of Britain, and about the year 1000 a Saxon settlement began to
+grow up at the junction of the rivers Frome and Avon, the natural
+advantages of the situation favouring the growth of the township. Bristol
+owed much to Danish rule, and during the reign of Canute, when the wool
+trade with Ireland began, it became the market for English slaves. In the
+reign of Edward the Confessor the town was included in the earldom of Sweyn
+Godwinsson, and at the date of the Domesday survey it was already a royal
+borough governed by a reeve appointed by the king as overlord, the king's
+geld being assessed at 110 marks. There was a mint at the time of the
+Conquest, which proves that Bristol must have been already a place of some
+size, though the fact that the town was a member of the royal manor of
+Baston shows that its importance was still of recent growth. One-third of
+the geld was paid to Geoffrey de Coutances, bishop of Exeter, who threw up
+the earthworks of the castle. He joined in a rebellion against William II.,
+and after his death the king granted the town and castle, as part of the
+honour of Gloucester, to Robert FitzHamon, whose daughter Mabel, marrying
+Earl Robert of Gloucester in 1119, brought him Bristol as her dowry. Earl
+Robert still further strengthened the castle, probably with masonry, and
+involved Bristol in the rebellion against Stephen. From the castle he
+harried the whole neighbourhood, threatened Bath, and sold his prisoners as
+slaves to Ireland. A contemporary chronicler describes Bristol castle as
+"seated on a mighty mound, and garrisoned with knights and foot soldiers or
+rather robbers and raiders," and he calls Bristol the stepmother of
+England.
+
+The history of the charters granted to Bristol begins about this time. A
+charter granted by Henry II. in 1172 exempted the burgesses of Bristol from
+certain tolls throughout the kingdom, and confirmed existing liberties.
+Another charter of the same year granted the city of Dublin to the men of
+Bristol as a colony with the same liberties as their own town.
+
+As a result probably of the close connexion between Bristol and Ireland the
+growth of the wool trade was maintained. Many Bristol men settled in
+Dublin, which for a long time was a Bristol beyond the seas, its charters
+being almost duplicates of those granted to Bristol. About this time
+Bristol began to export wool to the Baltic, and had developed a wine trade
+with the south of France, while soap-making and tanning were flourishing
+industries. Bristol was still organized manorially rather than municipally.
+Its chief courts were the weekly hundred court and the court leet held
+three times a year, and presided over by the reeve appointed by the earl of
+Gloucester. By the marriage of Earl John with the heiress of Earl William
+of Gloucester, Bristol became part of the royal demesne, the rent payable
+to the king being fixed, and the town shook off the feudal yoke. The
+charter granted by John in 1190 was an epoch in the history of the borough.
+It provided that no burgess should be impleaded without the walls, that no
+non-burgess should sell wine, cloth, wool, leather or corn in Bristol, that
+all should hold by burgage tenure, that corn need not be ground at the
+lord's mill, and that the burgesses should have all their reasonable gilds.
+At some uncertain date soon after this a commune was established in Bristol
+on the French model, Robert FitzNichol, the first mayor of Bristol, taking
+the oath in 1200. The mayor was chosen, not, like the reeve whom he had
+displaced, by the overlord, but by the merchants of Bristol who were
+members of the merchant gild. The first documentary evidence of the
+existence of the merchant gild appears in 1242. In addition, there were
+many craft gilds (later at least twenty-six were known to exist), the most
+important being the gilds of the weavers, tuckers and fullers, and the Gild
+of the Kalendars of Bristol, which devoted itself to religious, educational
+and social work. The mayor of Bristol was helped by two assistants, who
+were called provosts until 1267, and from 1267 to 1311 were known as
+stewards, and after that date as bailiffs. Before this time many religious
+houses had been founded. Earl Robert of Gloucester established the
+Benedictine priory of St James; there were Dominican and Franciscan
+priories, a monastery of Carmelites, and an abbey of St Augustine founded
+by Robert FitzHardinge.
+
+In the reign of John, Bristol began the struggle to absorb the neighbouring
+manor of Bedminster, the eastern half of which was held by the Templars by
+gift of Earl Robert of Gloucester, and the western half, known as
+Redcliffe, was sold by the same earl to Robert FitzHardinge, afterwards
+Lord Berkeley. The [v.04 p.0581] Templars acquiesced without much
+difficulty, but the wealthy owners of the manor of Redcliffe, who had their
+own manorial courts, market, fair and quay, resisted the union for nearly
+one hundred years. In 1247 a new course was cut for the river Frome which
+vastly improved the harbour, and in the same year a stone bridge was built
+over the Avon, bringing Temple and Redcliffe into closer touch with the
+city. The charter granted by Henry III. in 1256 was important. It gave the
+burgesses the right to choose coroners, and as they already farmed the geld
+payable to the king, Bristol must have been practically independent of the
+king. The growing exclusiveness of the merchant gild led to the great
+insurrection of 1312. The oligarchical party was supported by the
+Berkeleys, but the opposition continued their rebellion until 1313, when
+the town was besieged and taken by the royal forces. During the reign of
+Edward III. cloth manufacture developed in Bristol. Thomas Blanket set up
+looms in 1337, employing many foreign workmen, and in 1353 Bristol was made
+one of the Staple towns, the office of mayor of the staple being held by
+the mayor of the town.
+
+The charter of 1373 extended the boundaries of the town to include
+Redcliffe (thus settling the long-standing dispute) and the waters of the
+Avon and Severn up to the Steep and Flat Holmes; and made Bristol a county
+in itself, independent of the county courts, with an elected sheriff, and a
+council of forty to be chosen by the mayor and sheriff. The town was
+divided into five wards, each represented by an alderman, the aldermen
+alone being eligible for the mayoralty. This charter (confirmed in 1377 and
+1488) was followed by the period of Bristol's greatest prosperity, the era
+of William Canyng, of the foundation of the Society of Merchant Venturers,
+and of the voyages of John and Sebastian Cabot. William Canyng (1399-1474)
+was five times mayor and twice represented Bristol in parliament; he
+carried on a huge cloth trade with the Baltic and rebuilt St Mary
+Redcliffe. At the same time cloth was exported by Bristol merchants to
+France, Spain and the Levant. The records of the Society of Merchant
+Venturers began in 1467, and the society increased in influence so rapidly
+that in 1500 it directed all the foreign trade of the city and had a lease
+of the port dues. It was incorporated in 1552, and received other charters
+in 1638 and 1662. Henry VII. granted Bristol a charter in 1499 (confirmed
+in 1510) which removed the theoretically popular basis of the corporation
+by the provision that the aldermen were to be elected by the mayor and
+council. At the dissolution of the monasteries the diocese of Bristol was
+founded, which included the counties of Bristol and Dorset. The voyages of
+discovery in which Bristol had played a conspicuous part led to a further
+trade development. In the 16th century Bristol traded with Spain, the
+Canaries and the Spanish colonies in America, shared in the attempt to
+colonize Newfoundland, and began the trade in African slaves which
+flourished during the 17th century. Bristol took a great share in the Civil
+War and was three times besieged. Charles II. granted a formal charter of
+incorporation in 1664, the governing body being the mayor, 12 aldermen, 30
+common councilmen, 2 sheriffs, 2 coroners, a town clerk, clerk of the peace
+and 39 minor officials, the governing body itself filling up all vacancies
+in its number. In the 18th century the cloth trade declined owing to the
+competition of Ireland and to the general migration of manufactures to the
+northern coalfields, but the prosperity of the city was maintained by the
+introduction of manufactures of iron, brass, tin and copper, and by the
+flourishing West Indian trade, sugar being taken in exchange for African
+slaves.
+
+The hot wells became fashionable in the reign of Anne (who granted a
+charter in 1710), and a little later Bristol was the centre of the
+Methodist revival of Whitefield and Wesley. The city was small, densely
+populated and dirty, with dark, narrow streets, and the mob gained an
+unenviable notoriety for violence in the riots of 1708, 1753, 1767 and
+1831. At the beginning of the 19th century it was obvious that the
+prosperity of Bristol was diminishing, comparatively if not actually, owing
+to (1) the rise of Liverpool, which had more natural facilities as a port
+than Bristol could offer, (2) the abolition of the slave trade, which
+ruined the West Indian sugar trade, and (3) the extortionate rates levied
+by the Bristol Dock Company, incorporated in 1803. These rates made
+competition with Liverpool and London impossible, while other tolls were
+levied by the Merchant Venturers and the corporation. The decline was
+checked by the efforts of the Bristol chamber of commerce (founded in 1823)
+and by the Municipal Reform Act of 1835. The new corporation, consisting of
+48 councillors and 16 aldermen who elected the mayor, being themselves
+chosen by the burgesses of each ward, bought the docks in 1848 and reduced
+the fees. In 1877-1880 the docks at the mouth of the river at Avonmouth and
+Portishead were made, and these were bought by the corporation in 1884. A
+revival of trade, rapid increase of population and enlargement of the
+boundaries of the city followed. The chief magistrate became a lord mayor
+in 1899.
+
+See J. Corry, _History of Bristol_ (Bristol, 1816); J. Wallaway,
+_Antiquities_ (1834); J. Evans, _Chronological History of Bristol_ (1824);
+Bristol vol. of _Brit. Archaeol. Inst._; J.F. Nicholl and J. Taylor,
+_Bristol Past and Present_ (Bristol and London, 1882); W. Hunt, _Bristol_,
+in "Historic Towns" series (London, 1887); J. Latimer, _Annals of Bristol_
+(various periods); G.E. Weare, _Collectanea relating to the Bristol Friars_
+(Bristol, 1893); Samuel Seyer, _History of Bristol and Bristol Charters_
+(1812); _The Little Red Book of Bristol_ (1900); _The Maior's Kalendar_
+(Camden Soc., 1872); _Victoria County History, Gloucester_.
+
+BRISTOL, a borough of Bucks county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the Delaware
+river, opposite Burlington, New Jersey, 20 m. N.E. of Philadelphia. Pop.
+(1890) 6553; (1900) 7104 (1134 foreign-born); (1910) 9256. It is served by
+the Pennsylvania railway. The borough is built on level ground elevated
+several feet above the river, and in the midst of an attractive farming
+country. The principal business houses are on Mill Street; while Radcliffe
+Street extends along the river. Among Bristol's manufacturing
+establishments are machine shops, rolling mills, a planing mill, yarn,
+hosiery and worsted mills, and factories for making carpets, wall paper and
+patent leather. Bath Springs are located just outside the borough limits;
+though not so famous as they were early in the 18th century, these springs
+are still well known for the medicinal properties of their chalybeate
+waters. Bristol was one of the first places to be settled in Pennsylvania
+after William Penn received his charter for the province in 1681, and from
+its settlement until 1725 it was the seat of government of the county. It
+was laid out in 1697 and was incorporated as a borough in 1720; the present
+charter, however, dates only from 1851.
+
+BRISTOL, the shire-township of Bristol county, Rhode Island, U.S.A., about
+15 m. S.S.E. of Providence, between Narragansett Bay on the W. and Mount
+Hope Bay on the E., thus being a peninsula. Pop. (1900) 6901, of whom 1923
+were foreign-born; (1905; state census) 7512; (1910) 8565; area 12 sq. m.
+It is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford, and the Rhode Island
+Suburban railways, and is connected with the island of Rhode Island by
+ferry. Mount Hope (216 ft.), on the eastern side, commands delightful views
+of landscape, bay and river scenery. Elsewhere in the township the surface
+is gently undulating and generally well adapted to agriculture, especially
+to the growing of onions. A small island, Hog Island, is included in the
+township. The principal village, also known as Bristol, is a port of entry
+with a capacious and deep harbour, has manufactories of rubber and woollen
+goods, and is well known as a yacht-building centre, several defenders of
+the America's Cup, including the "Columbia" and the "Reliance," having been
+built in the Herreshoff yards here. At the close of King Philip's War in
+1676, Mount Hope Neck (which had been the seat of the vanquished sachem),
+with most of what is now the township of Bristol, was awarded to Plymouth
+Colony. In 1680, immediately after Plymouth had conveyed the "Neck" to a
+company of four, the village was laid out; the following year, in
+anticipation of future commercial importance, the township and the village
+were named Bristol, from the town in England. The township became the
+shire-township in 1685, passed under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts in
+1692, and in 1747 was annexed to Rhode Island. During the War of
+Independence the village was bombarded by the British on the 7th of October
+1775, but [v.04 p.0582] suffered little damage; on the 25th of May 1778 it
+was visited and partially destroyed by a British force.
+
+BRISTOL, a city of Sullivan county, Tennessee, and Washington county,
+Virginia, U.S.A., 130 m. N.E. of Knoxville, Tennessee, at an altitude of
+about 1700 ft. Pop. (1880) 3209; (1890) 6226; (1900) 9850 (including 1981
+negroes); (1910) 13,395, of whom 7148 were in Tennessee and 6247 were in
+Virginia. Bristol is served by the Holston Valley, the Southern, the
+Virginia & South-Western, and the Norfolk & Western railways, and is a
+railway centre of some importance. It is near the great mineral deposits of
+Virginia, Tennessee, West Virginia, Kentucky and North Carolina; an
+important distributing point for iron, coal and coke; and has tanneries and
+lumber mills, iron furnaces, tobacco factories, furniture factories and
+packing houses. It is the seat of Sullins College (Methodist Episcopal,
+South; 1870) for women, and of the Virginia Institute for Women (Baptist,
+1884), both in the state of Virginia, and of a normal college for negroes,
+on the Tennessee side of the state line. The Tennessee-Virginia boundary
+line runs through the principal street, dividing the place into two
+separate corporations, the Virginia part, which before 1890 (when it was
+chartered as a city) was known as Goodson, being administratively
+independent of the county in which it is situated. Bristol was settled
+about 1835, and the town of Bristol, Tennessee, was first incorporated in
+1856.
+
+BRISTOW, BENJAMIN HELM (1832-1896), American lawyer and politician, was
+born in Elkton, Kentucky, on the 20th of June 1832, the son of Francis
+Marion Bristow (1804-1864), a Whig member of Congress in 1854-1855 and
+1859-1861. He graduated at Jefferson College, Canonsburg, Pennsylvania, in
+1851, studied law under his father, and was admitted to the Kentucky bar in
+1853. At the beginning of the Civil War he became lieutenant-colonel of the
+25th Kentucky Infantry; was severely wounded at Shiloh; helped to recruit
+the 8th Kentucky Cavalry, of which he was lieutenant-colonel and later
+colonel; and assisted at the capture of John H. Morgan in July 1863. In
+1863-1865 he was state senator; in 1865-1866 assistant United States
+district-attorney, and in 1866-1870 district-attorney for the Louisville
+district; and in 1870-1872, after a few months' practice of law with John
+M. Harlan, was the (first appointed) solicitor-general of the United
+States. In 1873 President Grant nominated him attorney-general of the
+United States in case George H. Williams were confirmed as chief justice of
+the United States,--a contingency which did not arise. As secretary of the
+treasury (1874-1876) he prosecuted with vigour the so-called "Whisky Ring,"
+the headquarters of which was at St Louis, and which, beginning in 1870 or
+1871, had defrauded the Federal government out of a large part of its
+rightful revenue from the distillation of whisky. Distillers and revenue
+officers in St Louis, Milwaukee, Cincinnati and other cities were
+implicated, and the illicit gains--which in St Louis alone probably
+amounted to more than $2,500,000 in the six years 1870-1876--were divided
+between the distillers and the revenue officers, who levied assessments on
+distillers ostensibly for a Republican campaign fund to be used in
+furthering Grant's re-election. Prominent among the ring's alleged
+accomplices at Washington was Orville E. Babcock, private secretary to
+President Grant, whose personal friendship for Babcock led him to
+indiscreet interference in the prosecution. Through Bristow's efforts more
+than 200 men were indicted, a number of whom were convicted, but after some
+months' imprisonment were pardoned. Largely owing to friction between
+himself and the president, Bristow resigned his portfolio in June 1876; as
+secretary of the treasury he advocated the resumption of specie payments
+and at least a partial retirement of "greenbacks"; and he was also an
+advocate of civil service reform. He was a prominent candidate for the
+Republican presidential nomination in 1876. After 1878 he practised law in
+New York City, where he died on the 22nd of June 1896.
+
+See _Memorial of Benjamin Helm Bristow_, largely prepared by David Willcox
+(Cambridge, Mass., privately printed, 1897); _Whiskey Frauds_, 44th Cong.,
+1st Sess., Mis. Doc. No. 186; _Secrets of the Great Whiskey Ring_ (Chicago,
+1880), by John McDonald, who for nearly six years had been supervisor of
+internal revenue at St Louis,--a book by one concerned and to be considered
+in that light.
+
+BRISTOW, HENRY WILLIAM (1817-1889), English geologist, son of Major-General
+H. Bristow, who served in the Peninsular War, was born on the 17th of May
+1817. He was educated at King's College, London, under John Phillips, then
+professor of geology. In 1842 he was appointed assistant geologist on the
+Geological Survey, and in that service he remained for forty-six years,
+becoming director for England and Wales in 1872, and retiring in 1888. He
+was elected F.R.S. in 1862. He died in London on the 14th of June 1889. His
+publications (see _Geol. Mag._, 1889, p. 384) include _A Glossary of
+Mineralogy_ (1861) and _The Geology of the Isle of Wight_ (1862).
+
+BRITAIN (Gr. [Greek: Pretanikai nêsoi, Brettania]; Lat. _Britannia_, rarely
+_Brittania_), the anglicized form of the classical name of England, Wales
+and Scotland, sometimes extended to the British Isles as a whole
+(_Britannicae Insulae_). The Greek and Roman forms are doubtless attempts
+to reproduce a Celtic original, the exact form of which is still matter of
+dispute. Brittany (Fr. _Bretagne_) in western France derived its name from
+Britain owing to migrations in the 5th and 6th century A.D. The
+personification of Britannia as a female figure may be traced back as far
+as the coins of Hadrian and Antoninus Pius (early 2nd century A.D.); its
+first appearance on modern coins is on the copper of Charles II. (see
+NUMISMATICS).
+
+In what follows, the archaeological interest of early Britain is dealt
+with, in connexion with the history of Britain in Pre-Roman, Roman, and
+Anglo-Saxon days; this account being supplementary to the articles ENGLAND;
+ENGLISH HISTORY; SCOTLAND, &c.
+
+PRE-ROMAN BRITAIN
+
+Geologists are not yet agreed when and by whom Britain was first peopled.
+Probably the island was invaded by a succession of races. The first, the
+Paleolithic men, may have died out or retired before successors arrived.
+During the Neolithic and Bronze Ages we can dimly trace further
+immigrations. Real knowledge begins with two Celtic invasions, that of the
+Goidels in the later part of the Bronze Age, and that of the Brythons and
+Belgae in the Iron Age. These invaders brought Celtic civilization and
+dialects. It is uncertain how far they were themselves Celtic in blood and
+how far they were numerous enough to absorb or obliterate the races which
+they found in Britain. But it is not unreasonable to think that they were
+no mere conquering caste, and that they were of the same race as the
+Celtic-speaking peoples of the western continent. By the age of Julius
+Caesar all the inhabitants of Britain, except perhaps some tribes of the
+far north, were Celts in speech and customs. Politically they were divided
+into separate and generally warring tribes, each under its own princes.
+They dwelt in hill forts with walls of earth or rude stone, or in villages
+of round huts sunk into the ground and resembling those found in parts of
+northern Gaul, or in subterranean chambered houses, or in hamlets of
+pile-dwellings constructed among the marshes. But, at least in the south,
+market centres had sprung up, town life was beginning, houses of a better
+type were perhaps coming into use, and the southern tribes employed a gold
+coinage and also a currency of iron bars or ingots, attested by Caesar and
+by surviving examples, which weigh roughly, some two-thirds of a pound,
+some 2-2/3 lb, but mostly 1-1/3 lb. In religion, the chief feature was the
+priesthood of Druids, who here, as in Gaul, practised magical arts and
+barbarous rites of human sacrifice, taught a secret lore, wielded great
+influence, but, at least as Druids, took ordinarily no part in politics. In
+art, these tribes possessed a native Late Celtic fashion, descended from
+far-off Mediterranean antecedents and more directly connected with the
+La-Tène culture of the continental Celts. Its characteristics were a
+flamboyant and fantastic treatment of plant and animal (though not of
+human) forms, a free use of the geometrical device called the "returning
+spiral," and much skill in enamelling. Its finest products were in bronze,
+but the artistic impulse spread to humbler work in wood and pottery. The
+late Celtic age was one which genuinely delighted in beauty of form and
+detail. In this it resembled the middle ages rather than the Roman empire
+or the present day, and it resembled [v.04 p.0583] them all the more in
+that its love of beauty, like theirs, was mixed with a feeling for the
+fantastic and the grotesque. The Roman conquest of northern Gaul (57-50
+B.C.) brought Britain into definite relation with the Mediterranean. It was
+already closely connected with Gaul, and when Roman civilization and its
+products invaded Gallia Belgica, they passed on easily to Britain. The
+British coinage now begins to bear Roman legends, and after Caesar's two
+raids (55, 54 B.C.) the southern tribes were regarded at Rome, though they
+do not seem to have regarded themselves, as vassals. Actual conquest was,
+however, delayed. Augustus planned it. But both he and his successor
+Tiberius realized that the greater need was to consolidate the existing
+empire, and absorb the vast additions recently made to it by Pompey, Caesar
+and Augustus.
+
+ROMAN BRITAIN
+
+I. _The Roman Conquest._--The conquest of Britain was undertaken by
+Claudius in A.D. 43. Two causes coincided to produce the step. On the one
+hand a forward policy then ruled at Rome, leading to annexations in various
+lands. On the other hand, a probably philo-Roman prince, Cunobelin (known
+to literature as Cymbeline), had just been succeeded by two sons,
+Caractacus (_q.v._) and Togodumnus, who were hostile to Rome. Caligula, the
+half-insane predecessor of Claudius, had made in respect to this event some
+blunder which we know only through a sensational exaggeration, but which
+doubtless had to be made good. An immediate reason for action was the
+appeal of a fugitive British prince, presumably a Roman partisan and victim
+of Cunobelin's sons. So Aulus Plautius with a singularly well equipped army
+of some 40,000 men landed in Kent and advanced on London. Here Claudius
+himself appeared--the one reigning emperor of the 1st century who crossed
+the waves of ocean,--and the army, crossing the Thames, moved forward
+through Essex and captured the native capital, Camulodunum, now Colchester.
+From the base of London and Colchester three corps continued the conquest.
+The left wing, the Second Legion (under Vespasian, afterwards emperor),
+subdued the south; the centre, the Fourteenth and Twentieth Legions,
+subdued the midlands, while the right wing, the Ninth Legion, advanced
+through the eastern part of the island. This strategy was at first
+triumphant. The lowlands of Britain, with their partly Romanized and partly
+scanty population and their easy physical features, presented no obstacle.
+Within three or four years everything south of the Humber and east of the
+Severn had been either directly annexed or entrusted, as protectorates, to
+native client-princes.
+
+A more difficult task remained. The wild hills and wilder tribes of Wales
+and Yorkshire offered far fiercer resistance. There followed thirty years
+of intermittent hill fighting (A.D. 47-79). The precise steps of the
+conquest are not known. Legionary fortresses were established at Wroxeter
+(for a time only), Chester and Caerleon, facing the Welsh hills, and at
+Lincoln in the northeast. Monmouthshire, and Flintshire with its lead
+mines, were early overrun; in 60 Suetonius Paulinus reached Anglesea. The
+method of conquest was the establishment of small detached forts in
+strategic positions, each garrisoned by 500 or 1000 men, and it was
+accompanied by a full share of those disasters which vigorous barbarians
+always inflict on civilized invaders. Progress was delayed too by the great
+revolt of Boadicea (_q.v._) and a large part of the nominally conquered
+Lowlands. Her rising was soon crushed, but the government was obviously
+afraid for a while to move its garrisons forward. Indeed, other needs of
+the empire caused the withdrawal of the Fourteenth Legion about 67. But the
+decade A.D. 70-80 was decisive. A series of three able generals commanded
+an army restored to its proper strength by the addition of Legio II.
+Adiutrix, and achieved the final subjugation of Wales and the first
+conquest of Yorkshire, where a legionary fortress at York was substituted
+for that at Lincoln.
+
+The third and best-known, if not the ablest, of these generals, Julius
+Agricola, moved on in A.D. 80 to the conquest of the farther north. He
+established between the Clyde and Forth a frontier meant to be permanent,
+guarded by a line of forts, two of which are still traceable at Camelon
+near Falkirk, and at Bar Hill. He then advanced into Caledonia and won a
+"famous victory" at Mons Graupius (sometimes, but incorrectly, spelt
+Grampius), probably near the confluence of the Tay and the Isla, where a
+Roman encampment of his date, Inchtuthill, has been partly examined (see
+GALGACUS). He dreamt even of invading Ireland, and thought it an easy task.
+The home government judged otherwise. Jealous possibly of a too brilliant
+general, certainly averse from costly and fruitless campaigns and needing
+the Legio II. Adiutrix for work elsewhere, it recalled both governor and
+legion, and gave up the more northerly of his nominal conquests. The most
+solid result of his campaigns is that his battlefield, misspelt Grampius,
+has provided to antiquaries, and through them to the world, the modern name
+of the Grampian Hills.
+
+What frontier was adopted after Agricola's departure, whether Tweed or
+Cheviot or other, is unknown. For thirty years (A.D. 85-115) the military
+history of Britain is a blank. When we recover knowledge we are in an
+altered world. About 115 or 120 the northern Britons rose in revolt and
+destroyed the Ninth Legion, posted at York, which would bear the brunt of
+any northern trouble. In 122 the second reigning emperor who crossed the
+ocean, Hadrian, came himself to Britain, brought the Sixth Legion to
+replace the Ninth, and introduced the frontier policy of his age. For over
+70 m. from Tyne to Solway, more exactly from Wallsend to Bowness, he built
+a continuous rampart, more probably of turf than of stone, with a ditch in
+front of it, a number of small forts along it, one or two outposts a few
+miles to the north of it, and some detached forts (the best-known is on the
+hill above Maryport) guarding the Cumberland coast beyond its western end.
+The details of his work are imperfectly known, for though many remains
+survive, it is hard to separate those of Hadrian's date from others that
+are later. But that Hadrian built a wall here is proved alike by literature
+and by inscriptions. The meaning of the scheme is equally certain. It was
+to be, as it were, a Chinese wall, marking the definite limit of the Roman
+world. It was now declared, not by the secret resolutions of cabinets, but
+by the work of the spade marking the solid earth for ever, that the era of
+conquest was ended.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+But empires move, though rulers bid them stand still. Whether the land
+beyond Hadrian's wall became temptingly peaceful or remained in vexing
+disorder, our authorities do not say. We know only that about 142 Hadrian's
+successor, Antoninus Pius, acting through his general Lollius Urbicus,
+advanced from the Tyne and Solway frontier to the narrower isthmus between
+Forth and Clyde, 36 m. across, which Agricola had fortified before him.
+Here he reared a continuous rampart with a ditch in front of it, fair-sized
+forts, probably a dozen in number, built either close behind it or actually
+abutting on it, and a connecting road running from end to end. An ancient
+writer states that the rampart was built of regularly laid sods (the same
+method which had probably been employed by Hadrian), and excavations in
+1891-1893 have verified the statement. The work still survives visibly,
+though in varying preservation, except in the agricultural districts near
+its two ends. Occasionally, as on Croyhill (near Kilsyth), at Westerwood,
+and in the covers of Bonnyside (3 m. west of Falkirk), wall and ditch and
+even road can be distinctly traced, and the sites of many of the forts are
+plain to practised eyes. Three of these forts have been excavated. All
+three show the ordinary features of Roman _castella_, though they differ
+more than one would expect in forts built at one time by one general. Bar
+Hill, the most completely explored, covers three acres--nearly five times
+as much as the earlier fort of Agricola on the same site. It had ramparts
+of turf, barrack-rooms of wood, and a headquarters building, storehouse and
+bath in stone: it stands a few yards back from the wall. Castle Cary covers
+nearly four acres: its ramparts contain massive and well-dressed masonry;
+its interior buildings, though they agree in material, do not altogether
+agree in plan with those of Bar Hill, and its north face falls in line with
+the frontier wall. Rough Castle, near Falkirk, is very much smaller; it is
+remarkable for the astonishing [v.04 p.0584] strength of its turf-built and
+earthen ramparts and ravelins, and for a remarkable series of defensive
+pits, reminiscent of Caesar's _lilia_ at Alesia, plainly intended to break
+an enemy's charge, and either provided with stakes to impale the assailant
+or covered over with hurdles or the like to deceive him. Besides the dozen
+forts on the wall, one or two outposts may have been held at Ardoch and
+Abernethy along the natural route which runs by Stirling and Perth to the
+lowlands of the east coast. This frontier was reached from the south by two
+roads. One, known in medieval times as Dere Street and misnamed Watling
+Street by modern antiquaries, ran from Corbridge on the Tyne past
+Otterburn, crossed Cheviot near Makendon Camps, and passed by an important
+fort at Newstead near Melrose, and another at Inveresk (outside of
+Edinburgh), to the eastern end of the wall. The other, starting from
+Carlisle, ran to Birrens, a Roman fort near Ecclefechan, and thence, by a
+line not yet explored and indeed not at all certain, to Carstairs and the
+west end of the wall. This wall was in addition to, and not instead of, the
+wall of Hadrian. Both barriers were held together, and the district between
+them was regarded as a military area, outside the range of civilization.
+
+The work of Pius brought no long peace. Sixteen years later disorder broke
+out in north Britain, apparently in the district between the Cheviots and
+the Derbyshire hills, and was repressed with difficulty after four or five
+years' fighting. Eighteen or twenty years later (180-185) a new war broke
+out with a different issue. The Romans lost everything beyond Cheviot, and
+perhaps even more. The government of Commodus, feeble in itself and vexed
+by many troubles, could not repair the loss, and the civil wars which soon
+raged in Europe (193-197) gave the Caledonians further chance. It was not
+till 208 that Septimius Severus, the ablest emperor of his age, could turn
+his attention to the island. He came thither in person, invaded Caledonia,
+commenced the reconstruction of the wall of Hadrian, rebuilding it from end
+to end in stone, and then in the fourth year of his operations died at
+York. Amid much that is uncertain and even legendary about his work in
+Britain, this is plain, that he fixed on the line of Hadrian's wall as his
+substantive frontier. His successors, Caracalla and Severus Alexander
+(211-235), accepted the position, and many inscriptions refer to building
+or rebuilding executed by them for the greater efficiency of the frontier
+defences. The conquest of Britain was at last over. The wall of Hadrian
+remained for nearly two hundred years more the northern limit of Roman
+power in the extreme west.
+
+II. _The Province of Britain and its Military System._--Geographically,
+Britain consists of two parts: (1) the comparatively flat lowlands of the
+south, east and midlands, suitable to agriculture and open to easy
+intercourse with the continent, i.e. with the rest of the Roman empire; (2)
+the district consisting of the hills of Devon and Cornwall, of Wales and of
+northern England, regions lying more, and often very much more, than 600
+ft. above the sea, scarred with gorges and deep valleys, mountainous in
+character, difficult for armies to traverse, ill fitted to the peaceful
+pursuits in agriculture. These two parts of the province differ also in
+their history. The lowlands, as we have seen, were conquered easily and
+quickly. The uplands were hardly subdued completely till the end of the 2nd
+century. They differ, thirdly, in the character of their Roman occupation.
+The lowlands were the scene of civil life. Towns, villages and country
+houses were their prominent features; troops were hardly seen in them save
+in some fortresses on the edge of the hills and in a chain of forts built
+in the 4th century to defend the south-east coast, the so-called Saxon
+Shore. The uplands of Wales and the north presented another spectacle. Here
+civil life was almost wholly absent. No country town or country house has
+been found more than 20 m. north of York or west of Monmouthshire. The
+hills were one extensive military frontier, covered with forts and
+strategic roads connecting them, and devoid of town life, country houses,
+farms or peaceful civilized industry. This geographical division was not
+reproduced by Rome in any administrative partitions of the province. At
+first the whole was governed by one _legatus Augusti_ of consular standing.
+Septimius Severus made it two provinces, Superior and Inferior, with a
+boundary which probably ran from Humber to Mersey, but we do not know how
+long this arrangement lasted. In the 5th century there were five provinces,
+Britannia Prima and Secunda, Flavia and Maxima Caesariensis and (for a
+while) Valentia, ruled by _praesides_ and _consulares_ under a _vicartus_,
+but the only thing known of them is that Britannia Prima included
+Cirencester.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Plan of Housesteads (Borcovicium) on Hadrian's
+Wall.]
+
+The army which guarded or coerced the province consisted, from the time of
+Hadrian onwards, of (1) three legions, the Second at Isca Silurum
+(Caerleon-on-Usk, _q.v._), the Ninth at Eburacum (_q.v._; now York), the
+Twentieth at Deva (_q.v._; now Chester), a total of some 15,000 heavy
+infantry; and (2) a large but uncertain number of auxiliaries, troops of
+the second grade, organized in infantry cohorts or cavalry _alae_, each 500
+or 1000 strong, and posted in _castella_ nearer the frontiers than the
+legions. The legionary fortresses were large rectangular enclosures of 50
+or 60 acres, surrounded by strong walls of which traces can still be seen
+in the lower courses of the north and east town-walls of Chester, in the
+abbey gardens at York, and on the south side of Caerleon. The auxiliary
+_castella_ were hardly a tenth of the size, varying generally from three to
+six acres according to the size of the regiment and the need for stabling.
+Of these upwards of 70 are known in England and some 20 more in Scotland.
+Of the English examples a few have been carefully excavated, notably
+Gellygaer between Cardiff and Brecon, one of the most perfect specimens to
+be found anywhere in the Roman empire of a Roman fort dating from the end
+of the 1st century A.D.; Hardknott, on a Cumberland moor overhanging Upper
+Eskdale; and Housesteads on Hadrian's wall. In Scotland excavation has been
+more active, in particular at the forts of Birrens, Newstead near Melrose,
+Lyne near Peebles, Ardoch between Stirling and Perth, and Castle Cary,
+Rough Castle and Bar Hill on the wall of Pius. The internal arrangements of
+all these forts follow one general plan. But in some of them the internal
+buildings are all of stone, while in [v.04 p.0585] others, principally (it
+seems) forts built before 150, wood is used freely and only the few
+principal buildings seem to have been constructed throughout of stone.
+
+We may illustrate their character from Housesteads, which, in the form in
+which we know it, perhaps dates from Septimius Severus. This fort measures
+about 360 by 600 ft. and covers a trifle less than 5 acres. Its ramparts
+are of stone, and its north rampart coincides with the great wall of
+Hadrian. Its interior is filled with stone buildings. Chief among these
+(see fig. 1), and in the centre of the whole fort, is the Headquarters, in
+Lat. _Principia_ or, as it is often (though perhaps less correctly) styled
+by moderns, _Praetorium_. This is a rectangular structure with only one
+entrance which gives access, first, to a small cloistered court (x. 4),
+then to a second open court (x. 7), and finally to a row of five rooms (x.
+8-12) containing the shrine for official worship, the treasury and other
+offices. Close by were officers' quarters, generally built round a tiny
+cloistered court (ix., xi., xii.), and substantially built storehouses with
+buttresses and dry basements (viii.). These filled the middle third of the
+fort. At the two ends were barracks for the soldiers (i.-vi.,
+xiii.-xviii.). No space was allotted to private religion or domestic life.
+The shrines which voluntary worshippers might visit, the public bath-house,
+and the cottages of the soldiers' wives, camp followers, &c., lay outside
+the walls. Such were nearly all the Roman forts in Britain. They differ
+somewhat from Roman forts in Germany or other provinces, though most of the
+differences arise from the different usage of wood and of stone in various
+places.
+
+Forts of this kind were dotted all along the military roads of the Welsh
+and northern hill-districts. In Wales a road ran from Chester past a fort
+at Caer-hyn (near Conway) to a fort at Carnarvon (Segontium). A similar
+road ran along the south coast from Caerleon-on-Usk past a fort at Cardiff
+and perhaps others, to Carmarthen. A third, roughly parallel to the shore
+of Cardigan Bay, with forts at Llanio and Tommen-y-mur (near Festiniog),
+connected the northern and southern roads, while the interior was held by a
+system of roads and forts not yet well understood but discernible at such
+points as Caer-gai on Bala Lake, Castle Collen near Llandrindod Wells, the
+Gaer near Brecon, Merthyr and Gellygaer. In the north of Britain we find
+three principal roads. One led due north from York past forts at Catterick
+Bridge, Piers Bridge, Binchester, Lanchester, Ebchester to the wall and to
+Scotland, while branches through Chester-le-Street reached the Tyne Bridge
+(Pons Aelius) at Newcastle and the Tyne mouth at South Shields. A second
+road, turning north-west from Catterick Bridge, mounted the Pennine Chain
+by way of forts at Rokeby, Bowes and Brough-under-Stainmoor, descended into
+the Eden valley, reached Hadrian's wall near Carlisle (Luguvallium), and
+passed on to Birrens. The third route, starting from Chester and passing up
+the western coast, is more complex, and exists in duplicate, the result
+perhaps of two different schemes of road-making. Forts in plenty can be
+detected along it, notably Manchester (Mancunium or Mamucium), Ribchester
+(Bremetennacum), Brougham Castle (Brocavum), Old Penrith (Voreda), and on a
+western branch, Watercrook near Kendal, Waterhead near the hotel of that
+name on Ambleside, Hardknott above Eskdale, Maryport (Uxellodunum), and Old
+Carlisle (possibly Petriana). In addition, two or three cross roads, not
+yet sufficiently explored, maintained communication between the troops in
+Yorkshire and those in Cheshire and Lancashire. This road system bears
+plain marks of having been made at different times, and with different
+objectives, but we have no evidence that any one part was abandoned when
+any other was built. There are signs, however, that various forts were
+dismantled as the country grew quieter. Thus, Gellygaer in South Wales and
+Hardknott in Cumberland have yielded nothing later than the opening of the
+2nd century.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Hadrian's Wall.
+
+From _Social England_, by permission of Cassell & Co., Ltd.]
+
+Besides these detached forts and their connecting roads, the north of
+Britain was defended by Hadrian's wall (figs. 2 and 3). The history of this
+wall has been given above. The actual works are threefold. First, there is
+that which to-day forms the most striking feature in the whole, the wall of
+stone 6-8 ft. thick, and originally perhaps 14 ft. high, with a deep ditch
+in front, and forts and "mile castles" and turrets and a connecting road
+behind it. On the high moors between Chollerford and Gilsland its traces
+are still plain, as it climbs from hill to hill and winds along perilous
+precipices. Secondly, there is the so-called "Vallum," in reality no
+_vallum_ at all, but a broad flat-bottomed ditch out of which the earth has
+been cast up on either side into regular and continuous mounds that
+resemble ramparts. Thirdly, nowhere very clear on the surface and as yet
+detected only at a few points, there are the remains of the "turf wall,"
+constructed of sods laid in regular courses, with a ditch in front. This
+turf wall is certainly older than the stone wall, and, as our ancient
+writers mention two wall-builders, Hadrian and Septimius Severus, the
+natural inference is that Hadrian built his wall of [v.04 p.0586] turf and
+Severus reconstructed it in stone. The reconstruction probably followed in
+general the line of Hadrian's wall in order to utilize the existing ditch,
+and this explains why the turf wall itself survives only at special points.
+In general it was destroyed to make way for the new wall in stone.
+Occasionally (as at Birdoswald) there was a deviation, and the older work
+survived. This conversion of earthwork into stone in the age of Severus can
+be paralleled from other parts of the Roman empire.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Section of Hadrian's Wall.]
+
+The meaning of the _vallum_ is much more doubtful. John Hodgson and Bruce,
+the local authorities of the 19th century, supposed that it was erected to
+defend the wall from southern insurgents. Others have ascribed it to
+Agricola, or have thought it to be the wall of Hadrian, or even assigned it
+to pre-Roman natives. The two facts that are clear about it are, that it is
+a Roman work, no older than Hadrian (if so old), and that it was not
+intended, like the wall, for military defence. Probably it is
+contemporaneous with either the turf wall or the stone wall, and marked
+some limit of the civil province of Britain. Beyond this we cannot at
+present go.
+
+III. _The Civilization of Roman Britain._--Behind these formidable
+garrisons, sheltered from barbarians and in easy contact with the Roman
+empire, stretched the lowlands of southern and eastern Britain. Here a
+civilized life grew up, and Roman culture spread. This part of Britain
+became Romanized. In the lands looking on to the Thames estuary (Kent,
+Essex, Middlesex) the process had perhaps begun before the Roman conquest.
+It was continued after that event, and in two ways. To some extent it was
+definitely encouraged by the Roman government, which here, as elsewhere,
+founded towns peopled with Roman citizens--generally discharged
+legionaries--and endowed them with franchise and constitution like those of
+the Italian municipalities. It developed still more by its own automatic
+growth. The coherent civilization of the Romans was accepted by the
+Britons, as it was by the Gauls, with something like enthusiasm. Encouraged
+perhaps by sympathetic Romans, spurred on still more by their own
+instincts, and led no doubt by their nobles, they began to speak Latin, to
+use the material resources of Roman civilized life, and in time to consider
+themselves not the unwilling subjects of a foreign empire, but the British
+members of the Roman state. The steps by which these results were reached
+can to some extent be dated. Within a few years of the Claudian invasion a
+_colonia_, or municipality of time-expired soldiers, had been planted in
+the old native capital of Colchester (Camulodunum), and though it served at
+first mainly as a fortress and thus provoked British hatred, it came soon
+to exercise a civilizing influence. At the same time the British town of
+Verulamium (St Albans) was thought sufficiently Romanized to deserve the
+municipal status of a _municipium_, which at this period differed little
+from that of a _colonia_. Romanized Britons must now have begun to be
+numerous. In the great revolt of Boadicea (60) the nationalist party seem
+to have massacred many thousands of them along with actual Romans. Fifteen
+or twenty years later, the movement increases. Towns spring up, such as
+Silchester, laid out in Roman fashion, furnished with public buildings of
+Roman type, and filled with houses which are Roman in fittings if not in
+plan. The baths of Bath (Aquae Sulis) are exploited. Another _colonia_ is
+planted at Lincoln (Lindum), and a third at Gloucester (Glevum) in 96. A
+new "chief judge" is appointed for increasing civil business. The
+tax-gatherer and recruiting officer begin to make their way into the hills.
+During the 2nd century progress was perhaps slower, hindered doubtless by
+the repeated risings in the north. It was not till the 3rd century that
+country houses and farms became common in most parts of the civilized area.
+In the beginning of the 4th century the skilled artisans and builders, and
+the cloth and corn of Britain were equally famous on the continent. This
+probably was the age when the prosperity and Romanization of the province
+reached its height. By this time the town populations and the educated
+among the country-folk spoke Latin, and Britain regarded itself as a Roman
+land, inhabited by Romans and distinct from outer barbarians.
+
+The civilization which had thus spread over half the island was genuinely
+Roman, identical in kind with that of the other western provinces of the
+empire, and in particular with that of northern Gaul. But it was defective
+in quantity. The elements which compose it are marked by smaller size, less
+wealth and less splendour than the same elements elsewhere. It was also
+uneven in its distribution. Large tracts, in particular Warwickshire and
+the adjoining midlands, were very thinly inhabited. Even densely peopled
+areas like north Kent, the Sussex coast, west Gloucestershire and east
+Somerset, immediately adjoin areas like the Weald of Kent and Sussex where
+Romano-British remains hardly occur.
+
+The administration of the civilized part of the province, while subject to
+the governor of all Britain, was practically entrusted to local
+authorities. Each Roman municipality ruled itself and a territory perhaps
+as large as a small county which belonged to it. Some districts belonged to
+the Imperial Domains, and were administered by agents of the emperor. The
+rest, by far the larger part of the country, was divided up among the old
+native tribes or cantons, some ten or twelve in number, each grouped round
+some country town where its council (_ordo_) met for cantonal business.
+This cantonal system closely resembles that which we find in Gaul. It is an
+old native element recast in Roman form, and well illustrates the Roman
+principle of local government by devolution.
+
+In the general framework of Romano-British life the two chief features were
+the town, and the _villa_. The towns of the province, as we have already
+implied, fall into two classes. Five modern cities, Colchester, Lincoln,
+York, Gloucester and St Albans, stand on the sites, and in some fragmentary
+fashion bear the names of five Roman municipalities, founded by the Roman
+government with special charters and constitutions. All of these reached a
+considerable measure of prosperity. None of them rivals the greater
+municipalities of other provinces. Besides them we trace a larger number of
+country towns, varying much in size, but all possessing in some degree the
+characteristics of a town. The chief of these seem to be cantonal capitals,
+probably developed out of the market centres or capitals of the Celtic
+tribes before the Roman conquest. Such are Isurium Brigantum, capital of
+the Brigantes, 12 m. north-west of York and the most northerly
+Romano-British town; Ratae, now Leicester, capital of the Coritani;
+Viroconium, now Wroxeter, near Shrewsbury, capital of the Cornovii; Venta
+Silurum, now Caerwent, near Chepstow; Corinium, now Cirencester, capital of
+the Dobuni; Isca Dumnoniorum, now Exeter, the most westerly of these towns;
+Durnovaria, now Dorchester, in Dorset, capital of the Durotriges; Venta
+Belgarum, now Winchester; Calleva Atrebatum, now Silchester, 10 m. south of
+Reading; Durovernum Cantiacorum, now Canterbury; and Venta Icenorum, now
+Caistor-by-Norwich. Besides these country towns, Londinium (London) was a
+rich and important trading town, centre of the road system, and the seat of
+the finance officials of the province, as the remarkable objects discovered
+in it abundantly prove, while Aquae Sulis (Bath) was a spa provided with
+splendid baths, and a richly adorned temple of the native patron deity, Sul
+or Sulis, whom the Romans called Minerva. Many smaller places, too, for
+example, Magna or Kenchester near Hereford, Durobrivae or Rochester in
+Kent, another Durobrivae near Peterborough, a site of uncertain name near
+Cambridge, another of uncertain name near Chesterford, exhibited some
+measure of town life.
+
+As a specimen we may take Silchester, remarkable as the one town in the
+whole Roman empire which has been completely [v.04 p.0587] and
+systematically uncovered. As we see it to-day, it is an open space of 100
+acres, set on a hill with a wide prospect east and south and west, in shape
+an irregular hexagon, enclosed in a circuit of a mile and a half by the
+massive ruins of a city wall which still stands here and there some 20 ft.
+high (fig. 4). Outside, on the north-east, is the grassy hollow of a tiny
+amphitheatre; on the west a line of earthworks runs in wider circuit than
+the walls. The area within the walls is a vast expanse of cultivated land,
+unbroken by any vestige of antiquity; yet the soil is thick with tile and
+potsherd, and in hot summers the unevenly growing corn reveals the remains
+of streets beneath the surface. Casual excavations were made here in 1744
+and 1833; more systematic ones intermittently between 1864 and 1884 by the
+Rev. J.G. Joyce and others; finally, in May 1890, the complete uncovering
+of the whole site was begun by Mr G.E. Fox and others. The work was carried
+on with splendid perseverance, and the uncovering of the interior was
+completed in 1908.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--General Plan of Silchester (Calleva Atrebatum).]
+
+The chief results concern the buildings. Though these have vanished wholly
+from the surface, the foundations and lowest courses of their walls survive
+fairly perfect below ground: thus the plan of the town can be minutely
+recovered, and both the character of the buildings which make up a place
+like Calleva, and the character of Romano-British buildings generally,
+become plainer. Of the buildings the chief are:--
+
+1. _Forum._--Near the middle of the town was a rectangular block covering
+two acres. It comprised a central open court, 132 ft. by 140 ft. in size,
+surrounded on three sides by a corridor or cloister, with rooms opening on
+the cloister (fig. 5). On the fourth side was a great hall, with rooms
+opening into it from behind. This hall was 270 ft. long and 58 ft. wide;
+two rows of Corinthian columns ran down the middle, and the clerestory roof
+may have stood 50 ft. above the floor; the walls were frescoed or lined
+with marble, and for ornament there were probably statues. Finally, a
+corridor ran round outside the whole block. Here the local authorities had
+their offices, justice was administered, traders trafficked, citizens and
+idlers gathered. Though we cannot apportion the rooms to their precise
+uses, the great hall was plainly the basilica, for meetings and business;
+the rooms behind it were perhaps law courts, and some of the rooms on the
+other three sides of the quadrangle may have been shops. Similar municipal
+buildings existed in most towns of the western Empire, whether they were
+full municipalities or (as probably Calleva was) of lower rank. The
+Callevan Forum seems in general simpler than others, but its basilica is
+remarkably large. Probably the British climate compelled more indoor life
+than the sunnier south.
+
+2. _Temples._--Two small square temples, of a common western-provincial
+type, were in the east of the town; the _cella_ of the larger measured 42
+ft. sq., and was lined with Purbeck marble. A third, circular temple stood
+between the forum and the south gate. A fourth, a smaller square shrine
+found in 1907 a little east of the forum, yielded some interesting
+inscriptions which relate to a gild (_collegium_) and incidentally confirm
+the name Calleva.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Plan of Forum, Basilica and surroundings,
+Silchester.]
+
+3. _Christian Church._--Close outside the south-east angle of the forum was
+a small edifice, 42 ft. by 27 ft., consisting of a nave and two aisles
+which ended at the east in a porch as wide as the building, and at the west
+in an apse and two flanking chambers. The nave and porch were floored with
+plain red tesserae: in the apse was a simple mosaic panel in red, black and
+white. Round the building was a yard, fenced with wooden palings; in it
+were a well near the apse, and a small structure of tile with a pit near
+the east end. No direct proof of date or use was discovered. But the ground
+plan is that of an early Christian church of the "basilican" type. This
+type comprised nave and aisles, ending at one end in an apse and two
+chambers resembling rudimentary transepts, and at the other end in a porch
+(_narthex_). Previous to about A.D. 420 the porch was often at the east end
+and the apse at the west, and the altar, often movable, stood in the
+apse--as at Silchester, perhaps, on the mosaic panel. A court enclosed the
+whole; near the porch was a laver for the ablutions of intending
+worshippers. Many such churches have been found in other countries,
+especially in Roman Africa; no other satisfactory instance is known in
+Britain.
+
+4. _Town Baths._--A suite of public baths stood a little east of the forum.
+At the entrance were a peristyle court for loungers and a latrine: hence
+the bather passed into the Apodyterium (dressing-room), the Frigidarium
+(cold room) fitted with a cold bath for use at the end of the bathing
+ceremony, and a series of hot rooms--the whole resembling many modern
+Turkish baths. In their first form the baths of Silchester were about 160
+ft. by 80 ft., but they were later considerably extended.
+
+5. _Private Houses._--The private houses of Silchester are of two types.
+They consist either of a row of rooms, with a corridor along them, and
+perhaps one or two additional rooms at one or both ends, or of three such
+corridors and rows of rooms, forming three sides of a large square open
+yard. They are detached houses, standing each in its own garden, and not
+forming terraces or rows. The country houses of Roman Britain have long
+been recognized as embodying these (or allied) types; now it becomes plain
+that they were the normal types throughout Britain. They differ widely from
+the town houses of Rome and Pompeii: they are less unlike some of the
+country houses of Italy and Roman Africa; but their real parallels occur in
+Gaul, and they may be Celtic types modified to Roman use--like Indian
+bungalows. Their internal fittings--hypocausts, frescoes, mosaics--are
+everywhere Roman; those at Silchester are average specimens, and, except
+for one mosaic, not individually striking. The largest Silchester house,
+with a special annexe for baths, is usually taken to be a guest-house or
+inn for travellers between London and the west (fig. 6). Altogether, the
+town probably did not contain more than seventy or eighty houses of any
+size, and large spaces were not built over at all. This fact and the
+peculiar character of the houses must have given to Silchester rather the
+appearance of a village with scattered cottages, each in its own plot
+facing its own way, than a town with regular and continuous streets.
+
+6. _Industries._--Shops are conjectured in the forum and elsewhere, [v.04
+p.0588] but were not numerous. Many dyers' furnaces, a little silver
+refinery, and perhaps a bakery have also been noticed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Plan of supposed Inn and Baths at Silchester.]
+
+7. _Streets, Roads, &c._--The streets were paved with gravel: they varied
+in width up to 28½ ft. They intersect regularly at right angles, dividing
+the town into square blocks, like modern Mannheim or Turin, according to a
+Roman system usual in both Italy and the provinces: plainly they were laid
+out all at once, possibly by Agricola (Tac. _Agr._ 21) and most probably
+about his time. There were four chief gates, not quite symmetrically
+placed. The town-walls are built of flint and concrete bonded with
+ironstone, and are backed with earth. In the plans, though not in the
+reports, of the excavations, they are shown as built later than the
+streets. No traces of meat-market, theatre or aqueduct have come to light:
+water was got from wells lined with wooden tubs, and must have been scanty
+in dry summers. Smaller objects abound--coins, pottery, window and bottle
+and cup glass, bronze ornaments, iron tools, &c.--and many belong to the
+beginnings of Calleva, but few pieces are individually notable. Traces of
+late Celtic art are singularly absent; Roman fashions rule supreme, and
+inscriptions show that even the lower classes here spoke and wrote Latin.
+Outside the walls were the cemeteries, not yet explored. Of suburbs we have
+as yet no hint. Nor indeed is the neighbourhood of Calleva at all rich in
+Roman remains. In fact, as well as in Celtic etymology, it was "the town in
+the forest." A similar absence of remains may be noticed outside other
+Romano-British towns, and is significant of their economic position. Such
+doubtless were most of the towns of Roman Britain--thoroughly Romanized,
+peopled with Roman-speaking citizens, furnished with Roman appurtenances,
+living in Roman ways, but not very large, not very rich, a humble witness
+to the assimilating power of the Roman civilization in Britain.
+
+The country, as opposed to the towns, of Roman Britain seems to have been
+divided into estates, commonly (though perhaps incorrectly) known as
+"villas." Many examples survive, some of them large and luxurious
+country-houses, some mere farms, constructed usually on one of the two
+patterns described in the account of Silchester above. The inhabitants were
+plainly as various--a few of them great nobles and wealthy landowners,
+others small farmers or possibly bailiffs. Some of these estates were
+worked on the true "villa" system, by which the lord occupied the "great
+house," and cultivated the land close round it by slaves, while he let the
+rest to half-free _coloni_. But other systems may have prevailed as well.
+Among the most important country-houses are those of Bignor in west Sussex,
+and Woodchester and Chedworth in Gloucestershire.
+
+The wealth of the country was principally agrarian. Wheat and wool were
+exported in the 4th century, when, as we have said, Britain was especially
+prosperous. But the details of the trade are unrecorded. More is known of
+the lead and iron mines which, at least in the first two centuries, were
+worked in many districts--lead in Somerset, Shropshire, Flintshire and
+Derbyshire; iron in the west Sussex Weald, the Forest of Dean, and (to a
+slight extent) elsewhere. Other minerals were less notable. The gold
+mentioned by Tacitus proved scanty. The Cornish tin, according to present
+evidence, was worked comparatively little, and perhaps most in the later
+Empire.
+
+Lastly, the roads. Here we must put aside all idea of "Four Great Roads."
+That category is probably the invention of antiquaries, and certainly
+unconnected with Roman Britain (see ERMINE STREET). Instead, we may
+distinguish four main groups of roads radiating from London, and a fifth
+which runs obliquely. One road ran south-east to Canterbury and the Kentish
+ports, of which Richborough (Rutupiae) was the most frequented. A second
+ran west to Silchester, and thence by various branches to Winchester,
+Exeter, Bath, Gloucester and South Wales. A third, known afterwards to the
+English as Watling Street, ran by St Albans Wall near Lichfield
+(Letocetum), to Wroxeter and Chester. It also gave access by a branch to
+Leicester and Lincoln. A fourth served Colchester, the eastern counties,
+Lincoln and York. The fifth is that known to the English as the Fosse,
+which joins Lincoln and Leicester with Cirencester, Bath and Exeter.
+Besides these five groups, an obscure road, called by the Saxons Akeman
+Street, gave alternative access from London through Alchester (outside of
+Bicester) to Bath, while another obscure road winds south from near
+Sheffield, past Derby and Birmingham, and connects the lower Severn with
+the Humber. By these roads and their various branches the Romans provided
+adequate communications throughout the lowlands of Britain.
+
+IV. _The End of Roman Britain._--Early in the 4th century it was necessary
+to establish a special coast defence, reaching from the Wash to Spithead,
+against Saxon pirates: there were forts at Brancaster, Borough Castle (near
+Yarmouth), Bradwell (at the mouth of the Colne and Blackwater), Reculver,
+Richborough, Dover and Lymme (all in Kent), Pevensey in Sussex, Porchester
+near Portsmouth, and perhaps also at Felixstowe in Suffolk. After about
+350, barbarian assaults, not only of Saxons but also of Irish (Scoti) and
+Picts, became commoner and more terrible. At the end of the century Magnus
+Maximus, claiming to be emperor, withdrew many troops from Britain and a
+later pretender did the same. Early in the 5th century the Teutonic
+conquest of Gaul cut the island off from Rome. This does not mean that
+there was any great "departure of Romans." The central government simply
+ceased to send the usual governors and high officers. The Romano-British
+were left to themselves. Their position was weak. Their fortresses lay in
+the north and west, while the Saxons attacked the east and south. Their
+trained troops, and even their own numbers, must have been few. It is
+intelligible that they followed a precedent set by Rome in that age, and
+hired Saxons to repel Saxons. But they could not command the fidelity of
+their mercenaries, and the Saxon peril only grew greater. It would seem as
+if the Romano-Britons were speedily driven from the east of the island.
+Even Wroxeter on the Welsh border may have been finally destroyed before
+the end of the 5th century. It seems that the Saxons though apparently
+unable to maintain their hold so far to the west, were able to prevent the
+natives from recovering the lowlands. Thus driven from the centres of
+Romanized life, from the region of walled cities and civilized houses, into
+the hills of Wales and the north-west, the provincials underwent an
+intelligible change. The Celtic element, never quite extinct in those hills
+and, like most forms of barbarism, reasserting itself in this wild age--not
+without reinforcement from Ireland--challenged the remnants of Roman
+civilization and in the end absorbed them. The Celtic language reappeared;
+the Celtic art emerged from its shelters in the west to develop in new and
+medieval fashions.
+
+AUTHORITIES.--The principal references to early Britain in classical
+writers occur in Strabo, Diodorus, Julius Caesar, the elder Pliny, Tacitus,
+Ptolemy and Cassius Dio, and in the lists of the Antonine Itinerary
+(probably about A.D. 210-230; ed. Parthey, 1848), the _Notitia Dignitatum_
+(about A.D. 400; ed. Seeck, 1876), and the Ravennas (7th-century
+_rechauffé_; ed. Parthey 1860). The chief passages are collected in
+Petrie's _Monumenta Hist. Britann._ (1848), and (alphabetically) in
+Holder's _Altkeltische Sprachschatz_ (1896-1908). The Roman inscriptions
+have been collected by Hübner, _Corpus Inscriptionum Latin._ vii. (1873),
+and in supplements by Hübner and Haverfield in the periodical _Ephemeris
+epigraphica_; see also Hübner, _Inscript. Britann. Christianae_ (1876, now
+out of date), and J. Rhys on Pictish, &c., inscriptions, _Proceedings Soc.
+Antiq. Scotland_, xxvi., xxxii.
+
+Of modern works the best summary for Roman Britain and for Caesar's
+invasions is T.R. Holmes, _Ancient Britain_ (1907), who cites numerous
+authorities. See also Sir John Evans, _Stone Implements, [v.04 p.0589]
+Bronze Implements_, and _Ancient British Coins_ (with suppl.); Boyd
+Dawkins, _Early Man in Britain_ (1880); J. Rhys, _Celtic Britain_ (3rd ed.,
+1904). For late Celtic art see J.M. Kemble and A.W. Franks' _Horae Ferales_
+(1863), and Arthur J. Evans in _Archaeologia_, vols. lii.-lv. Celtic
+ethnology and philology (see CELT) are still in the "age of discussion."
+For ancient earthworks see A. Hadrian Allcroft, _Earthwork of England_
+(1909).
+
+For Roman Britain see, in general, Prof. F. Haverfield, _The Romanization
+of Roman Britain_ (Oxford, 1906), and his articles in the _Victoria County
+History_; also the chapter in Mommsen's _Roman Provinces_; and an article
+in the _Edinburgh Review_, 1899. For the wall of Hadrian see John Hodgson,
+_History of Northumberland_ (1840); J.C. Bruce, _Roman Wall_ (3rd ed.,
+1867); reports of excavations by Haverfield in the _Cumberland
+Archaeological Society Transactions_ (1894-1904); and R.C. Bosanquet,
+_Roman Camp at Housesteads_ (Newcastle, 1904). For the Scottish Excavations
+see _Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland_, xx.-xl., and
+especially J. Macdonald, _Bar Hill_ (reprint, Glasgow, 1906). For other
+forts see R.S. Ferguson, _Cumberland Arch. Soc. Trans._ xii., on Hardknott;
+and J. Ward, _Roman Fort of Gellygaer_ (London, 1903). For the Roman
+occupation of Scotland see Haverfield in _Antonine Wall Report_ (1899); J.
+Macdonald, _Roman Stones in Hunterian Mus._ (1897); and, though an older
+work, Stuart's _Caledonia Romana_ (1852). For Silchester, _Archaeologia_
+(1890-1908); for Caerwent (ib. 1901-1908); for London, Charles Roach Smith,
+_Roman London_ (1859); for Christianity in Roman Britain, _Engl. Hist.
+Rev._ (1896); for the villages, Gen. Pitt-Rivers' _Excavations in Cranborne
+Chase, &c._ (4 vols., 1887-1908), and _Proc. Soc. of Ant._ xviii. For the
+end of Roman Britain see _Engl. Hist. Rev._ (1904); Prof. Bury's _Life of
+St Patrick_ (1905); Haverfield's _Romanization_ (cited above); and P.
+Vinogradoff, _Growth of the Manor_ (1905), bk. i.
+
+(F. J. H.)
+
+ANGLO-SAXON BRITAIN
+
+1. _History._--The history of Britain after the withdrawal of the Roman
+troops is extremely obscure, but there can be little doubt that for many
+years the inhabitants of the provinces were exposed to devastating raids by
+the Picts and Scots. According to Gildas it was for protection against
+these incursions that the Britons decided to call in the Saxons. Their
+allies soon obtained a decisive victory; but subsequently they turned their
+arms against the Britons themselves, alleging that they had not received
+sufficient payment for their services. A somewhat different account,
+probably of English origin, may be traced in the _Historia Brittonum_,
+according to which the first leaders of the Saxons, Hengest and Horsa, came
+as exiles, seeking the protection of the British king, Vortigern. Having
+embraced his service they quickly succeeded in expelling the northern
+invaders. Eventually, however, they overcame the Britons through treachery,
+by inducing the king to allow them to send for large bodies of their own
+countrymen. It was to these adventurers, according to tradition, that the
+kingdom of Kent owed its origin. The story is in itself by no means
+improbable, while the dates assigned to the first invasion by various
+Welsh, Gaulish and English authorities, with one exception all fall within
+about a quarter of a century, viz. between the year 428 and the joint reign
+of Martian and Valentinian III. (450-455).
+
+For the subsequent course of the invasion our information is of the most
+meagre and unsatisfactory character. According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
+the kingdom of Sussex was founded by a certain Ella or Ælle, who landed in
+477, while Wessex owed its origin to Cerdic, who arrived some eighteen
+years later. No value, however, can be attached to these dates; indeed, in
+the latter case the story itself is open to suspicion on several grounds
+(see WESSEX). For the movements which led to the foundation of the more
+northern kingdoms we have no evidence worth consideration, nor do we know
+even approximately when they took place. But the view that the invasion was
+effected throughout by small bodies of adventurers acting independently of
+one another, and that each of the various kingdoms owes its origin to a
+separate enterprise, has little probability in its favour. Bede states that
+the invaders belonged to three different nations, Kent and southern
+Hampshire being occupied by Jutes (_q.v._), while Essex, Sussex and Wessex
+were founded by the Saxons, and the remaining kingdoms by the Angli
+(_q.v._). The peculiarities of social organization in Kent certainly tend
+to show that this kingdom had a different origin from the rest; but the
+evidence for the distinction between the Saxons and the Angli is of a much
+less satisfactory character (see ANGLO-SAXONS). The royal family of Essex
+may really have been of Saxon origin (see ESSEX), but on the other hand the
+West Saxon royal family claimed to be of the same stock as that of
+Bernicia, and their connexions in the past seem to have lain with the
+Angli.
+
+We need not doubt that the first invasion was followed by a long period of
+warfare between the natives and the invaders, in which the latter gradually
+strengthened their hold on the conquered territories. It is very probable
+that by the end of the 5th century all the eastern part of Britain, at
+least as far as the Humber, was in their hands. The first important check
+was received at the siege of "Mons Badonicus" in the year 517 (_Ann.
+Cambr._), or perhaps rather some fifteen or twenty years earlier. According
+to Gildas this event was followed by a period of peace for at least
+forty-four years. In the latter part of the 6th century, however, the
+territories occupied by the invaders seem to have been greatly extended. In
+the south the West Saxons are said to have conquered first Wiltshire and
+then all the upper part of the Thames valley, together with the country
+beyond as far as the Severn. The northern frontier also seems to have been
+pushed considerably farther forward, perhaps into what is now Scotland, and
+it is very probable that the basin of the Trent, together with the central
+districts between the Trent and the Thames, was conquered about the same
+time, though of this we have no record. Again, the destruction of Chester
+about 615 was soon followed by the overthrow of the British kingdom of
+Elmet in south-west Yorkshire, and the occupation of Shropshire and the
+Lothians took place perhaps about the same period, that of Herefordshire
+probably somewhat later. In the south, Somerset is said to have been
+conquered by the West Saxons shortly after the middle of the 7th century.
+Dorset had probably been acquired by them before this time, while part of
+Devon seems to have come into their hands soon afterwards.
+
+The area thus conquered was occupied by a number of separate kingdoms, each
+with a royal family of its own. The districts north of the Humber contained
+two kingdoms, Bernicia (_q.v._) and Deira (_q.v._), which were eventually
+united in Northumbria. South of the Humber, Lindsey seems to have had a
+dynasty of its own, though in historical times it was apparently always
+subject to the kings of Northumbria or Mercia. The upper basin of the Trent
+formed the nucleus of the kingdom of Mercia (_q.v._), while farther down
+the east coast was the kingdom of East Anglia (_q.v._). Between these two
+lay a territory called Middle Anglia, which is sometimes described as a
+kingdom, though we do not know whether it ever had a separate dynasty.
+Essex, Kent and Sussex (see articles on these kingdoms) preserve the names
+of ancient kingdoms, while the old diocese of Worcester grew out of the
+kingdom of the Hwicce (_q.v._), with which it probably coincided in area.
+The south of England, between Sussex and "West Wales" (eventually reduced
+to Cornwall), was occupied by Wessex, which originally also possessed some
+territory to the north of the Thames. Lastly, even the Isle of Wight
+appears to have had a dynasty of its own. But it must not be supposed that
+all these kingdoms were always, or even normally, independent. When history
+begins, Æthelberht, king of Kent, was supreme over all the kings south of
+the Humber. He was followed by the East Anglian king Raedwald, and the
+latter again by a series of Northumbrian kings with an even wider
+supremacy. Before Æthelberht a similar position had been held by the West
+Saxon king Ceawlin, and at a much earlier period, according to tradition,
+by Ella or Ælle, the first king of Sussex. The nature of this supremacy has
+been much discussed, but the true explanation seems to be furnished by that
+principle of personal allegiance which formed such an important element in
+Anglo-Saxon society.
+
+2. _Government._--Internally the various states seem to have been organized
+on very similar lines. In every case we find kingly government from the
+time of our earliest records, and there is no doubt that the institution
+goes back to a date anterior to the invasion of Britain (see OFFA;
+WERMUND). The royal title, however, was frequently borne by more than one
+person. Sometimes we find one supreme king together with a number of
+under-kings (_subreguli_); sometimes again, especially in the smaller
+kingdoms, Essex, Sussex and Hwicce, we meet with two [v.04 p.0590] or more
+kings, generally brothers, reigning together apparently on equal terms.
+During the greater part of the 8th century Kent seems to have been divided
+into two kingdoms; but as a rule such divisions did not last beyond the
+lifetime of the kings between whom the arrangement had been made. The kings
+were, with very rare exceptions, chosen from one particular family in each
+state, the ancestry of which was traced back not only to the founder of the
+kingdom but also, in a remoter degree, to a god. The members of such
+families were entitled to special wergilds, apparently six times as great
+as those of the higher class of nobles (see below).
+
+The only other central authority in the state was the king's council or
+court (_þeod_, _witan_, _plebs_, _concilium_). This body consisted partly
+of young warriors in constant attendance on the king, and partly of senior
+officials whom he called together from time to time. The terms used for the
+two classes by Bede are _milites_ (_ministri_) and _comites_, for which the
+Anglo-Saxon version has _þegnas_ and _gesiðas_ respectively. Both classes
+alike consisted in part of members of the royal family. But they were by no
+means confined to such persons or even to born subjects of the king.
+Indeed, we are told that popular kings like Oswine attracted young nobles
+to their service from all quarters. The functions of the council have been
+much discussed, and it has been claimed that they had the right of electing
+and deposing kings. This view, however, seems to involve the existence of a
+greater feeling for constitutionalism than is warranted by the information
+at our disposal. The incidents which have been brought forward as evidence
+to this effect may with at least equal probability be interpreted as cases
+of profession or transference of personal allegiance. In other respects the
+functions of the council seem to have been of a deliberative character. It
+was certainly customary for the king to seek their advice and moral support
+on important questions, but there is nothing to show that he had to abide
+by the opinion of the majority.
+
+For administrative purposes each of the various kingdoms was divided into a
+number of districts under the charge of royal reeves (_cyninges gerefa_,
+_praefectus_, _praepositus_). These officials seem to have been located in
+royal villages (_cyninges tun_, _villa regalis_) or fortresses (_cyninges
+burg_, _urbs regis_), which served as centres and meeting-places (markets,
+&c.) for the inhabitants of the district, and to which their dues, both in
+payments and services had to be rendered. The usual size of such districts
+in early times seems to have been 300, 600 or 1200 hides.[1] In addition to
+these districts we find mention also of much larger divisions containing
+2000, 3000, 5000 or 7000 hides. To this category belong the shires of
+Wessex (Hampshire, Wiltshire, Berkshire, &c.), each of which had an earl
+(_aldormon_, _princeps_, _dux_) of its own, at all events from the 8th
+century onwards. Many, if not all, of these persons were members of the
+royal family, and it is not unlikely that they originally bore the kingly
+title. At all events they are sometimes described as _subreguli_.
+
+3. _Social Organization._--The officials mentioned above, whether of royal
+birth or not, were probably drawn from the king's personal retinue. In
+Anglo-Saxon society, as in that of all Teutonic nations in early times, the
+two most important principles were those of kinship and personal
+allegiance. If a man suffered injury it was to his relatives and his lord,
+rather than to any public official, that he applied first for protection
+and redress. If he was slain, a fixed sum (_wergild_), varying according to
+his station, had to be paid to his relatives, while a further but smaller
+sum (_manbot_) was due to his lord. These principles applied to all classes
+of society alike, and though strife within the family was by no means
+unknown, at all events in royal families, the actual slaying of a kinsman
+was regarded as the most heinous of all offences. Much the same feeling
+applied to the slaying of a lord--an offence for which no compensation
+could be rendered. How far the armed followers of a lord were entitled to
+compensation when the latter was slain is uncertain, but in the case of a
+king they received an amount equal to the wergild. Another important
+development of the principle of allegiance is to be found in the custom of
+heriots. In later times this custom amounted practically to a system of
+death-duties, payable in horses and arms or in money to the lord of the
+deceased. There can be little doubt, however, that originally it was a
+restoration to the lord of the military outfit with which he had presented
+his man when he entered his service. The institution of thegnhood, _i.e._
+membership of the _comitatus_ or retinue of a prince, offered the only
+opening by which public life could be entered. Hence it was probably
+adopted almost universally by young men of the highest classes. The thegn
+was expected to fight for his lord, and generally to place his services at
+his disposal in both war and peace. The lord, on the other hand, had to
+keep his thegns and reward them from time to time with arms and treasure.
+When they were of an age to marry he was expected to provide them with the
+means of doing so. If the lord was a king this provision took the form of a
+grant, perhaps normally ten hides, from the royal lands. Such estates were
+not strictly hereditary, though as a mark of favour they were not
+unfrequently re-granted to the sons of deceased holders.
+
+The structure of society in England was of a somewhat peculiar type. In
+addition to slaves, who in early times seem to have been numerous, we find
+in Wessex and apparently also in Mercia three classes, described as
+_twelfhynde_, _sixhynde_ and _twihynde_ from the amount of their wergilds,
+viz. 1200, 600 and 200 shillings respectively. It is probable that similar
+classes existed also in Northumbria, though not under the same names.
+Besides these terms there were others which were probably in use
+everywhere, viz. _gesiðcund_ for the two higher classes and _ceorlisc_ for
+the lowest. Indeed, we find these terms even in Kent, though the social
+system of that kingdom seems to have been of an essentially different
+character. Here the wergild of the _ceorlisc_ class amounted to 100
+shillings, each containing twenty silver coins (_sceattas_), as against 200
+shillings of four (in Wessex five) silver coins, and was thus very much
+greater than the latter. Again, there was apparently but one _gestiðcund_
+class in Kent, with a wergild of 300 shillings, while, on the other hand,
+below the _ceorlisc_ class we find three classes of persons described as
+_laetas_, who corresponded in all probability to the _liti_ or freedmen of
+the continental laws, and who possessed wergilds of 80, 60 and 40 shillings
+respectively. To these we find nothing analogous in the other kingdoms,
+though the poorer classes of Welsh freemen had wergilds varying from 120 to
+60 shillings. It should be added that the differential treatment of the
+various classes was by no means confined to the case of wergilds. We find
+it also in the compensations to which they were entitled for various
+injuries, in the fines to which they were liable, and in the value attached
+to their oaths. Generally, though not always, the proportions observed were
+the same as in the wergilds.
+
+The nature of the distinction between the _gesiðcund_ and _ceorlisc_
+classes is nowhere clearly explained; but it was certainly hereditary and
+probably of considerable antiquity. In general we may perhaps define them
+as nobles and commons, though in view of the numbers of the higher classes
+it would probably be more correct to speak of gentry and peasants. The
+distinction between the _twelfhynde_ and _sixhynde_ classes was also in
+part at least hereditary, but there is good reason for believing that it
+arose out of the possession of land. The former consisted of persons who
+possessed, whether as individuals or families, at least five hides of
+land--which practically means a village--while the latter were landless,
+_i.e._ probably without this amount of land. Within the _ceorlisc_ class we
+find similar subdivisions, though they were not marked by a difference in
+wergild. The _gafolgelda_ or _tributarius_ (tribute-payer) seems to have
+been a ceorl who possessed at least a hide, while the _gebur_ was without
+land of his own, and received his outfit as a loan from his lord.
+
+4. _Payments and Services._--We have already had occasion to refer to the
+dues which were rendered by different classes of the population, and which
+the reeves in royal villages had to collect and superintend. The payments
+seem to have varied greatly according to the class from which they were
+due. Those [v.04 p.0591] rendered by landowners seem to have been known as
+_feorm_ or _fostor_, and consisted of a fixed quantity of articles paid in
+kind. In Ine's Laws (cap. 70) we find a list of payments specified for a
+unit of ten hides, perhaps the normal holding of a _twelfhynde_ man--though
+on the other hand it may be nothing more than a mere fiscal unit in an
+aggregate of estates. The list consists of oxen, sheep, geese, hens, honey,
+ale, loaves, cheese, butter, fodder, salmon and eels. Very similar
+specifications are found elsewhere. The payments rendered by the
+_gafolgelda_ (_tributarius_) were known as _gafol_ (_tributuni_), as his
+name implies. In Ine's Laws we hear only of the _hwitel_ or white cloak,
+which was to be of the value of six pence per household (hide), and of
+barley, which was to be six pounds in weight for each worker. In later
+times we meet with many other payments both in money and in kind, some of
+which were doubtless in accordance with ancient custom. On the other hand
+the _gebur_ seems not to have been liable to payments of this kind,
+presumably because the land which he cultivated formed part of the demesne
+(_inland_) of his lord. The term _gafol_, however, may have been applied to
+the payments which he rendered to the latter.
+
+The services required of landowners were very manifold in character.
+Probably the most important were military service (_fird_, _expeditio_) and
+the repairing of fortifications and bridges--the _trinoda necessitas_ of
+later times. Besides these we find reference in charters of the 9th century
+to the keeping of the king's hunters, horses, dogs and hawks, and the
+entertaining of messengers and other persons in the king's service. The
+duties of men of the _sixhynde_ class, if they are to be identified with
+the _radcnihtas_ (_radmanni_) of later times, probably consisted chiefly in
+riding on the king's (or their lord's) business. The services of the
+peasantry can only be conjectured from what we find in later times.
+Presumably their chief duty was to undertake a share in the cultivation of
+the demesne land. We need scarcely doubt also that the labour of repairing
+fortifications and bridges, though it is charged against the landowners,
+was in reality delegated by them to their dependents.
+
+5. _Warfare._--All classes are said to have been liable to the duty of
+military service. Hence, since the ceorls doubtless formed the bulk of the
+population, it has been thought that the Anglo-Saxon armies of early times
+were essentially peasant forces. The evidence at our disposal, however,
+gives little justification for such a view. The regulation that every five
+or six hides should supply a warrior was not a product of the Danish
+invasions, as is sometimes stated, but goes back at least to the beginning
+of the 9th century. Had the fighting material been drawn from the
+_ceorlisc_ class a warrior would surely have been required from each hide,
+but for military service no such regulation is found. Again, the fird
+(_fyrd_) was composed of mounted warriors during the 9th century, though
+apparently they fought on foot, and there are indications that such was the
+case also in the 7th century. No doubt ceorls took part in military
+expeditions, but they may have gone as attendants and camp-followers rather
+than as warriors, their chief business being to make stockades and bridges,
+and especially to carry provisions. The serious fighting, however, was
+probably left to the _gesiðcund_ classes, who possessed horses and more or
+less effective weapons. Indeed, there is good reason for regarding these
+classes as essentially military.
+
+The chief weapons were the sword and spear. The former were two-edged and
+on the average about 3 ft. long. The hilts were often elaborately
+ornamented and sometimes these weapons were of considerable value. No
+definite line can be drawn between the spear proper and the javelin. The
+spear-heads which have been found in graves vary considerably in both form
+and size. They were fitted on to the shaft, by a socket which was open on
+one side. Other weapons appear to have been quite rare. Bows and arrows
+were certainly in use for sporting purposes, but there is no reason for
+believing that they were much used in warfare before the Danish invasions.
+They are very seldom met with in graves. The most common article of
+defensive armour was the shield, which was small and circular and
+apparently of quite thin lime-wood, the edge being formed probably by a
+thin band of iron. In the centre of the shield, in order to protect the
+hand which held it, was a strong iron boss, some 7 in. in diameter and
+projecting about 3 in. It is clear from literary evidence that the helmet
+(_helm_) and coat of chain mail (_byrne_) were also in common use. They are
+seldom found in graves, however, whether owing to the custom of heriots or
+to the fact that, on account of their relatively high value, they were
+frequently handed on from generation to generation as heirlooms. Greaves
+are not often mentioned. It is worth noting that in later times the heriot
+of an "ordinary thegn" (_medema þegn_)--by which is meant apparently not a
+king's thegn but a man of the _twelfhynde_ class--consisted of his horse
+with its saddle, &c. and his arms, or two pounds of silver as an equivalent
+of the whole. The arms required were probably a sword, helmet, coat of mail
+and one or two spears and shields. There are distinct indications that a
+similar outfit was fairly common in Ine's time, and that its value was much
+the same. One would scarcely be justified, however, in supposing that it
+was anything like universal; for the purchasing power of such a sum was at
+that time considerable, representing as it did about 16-20 oxen or 100-120
+sheep. It would hardly be safe to credit men of the _sixhynde_ class in
+general with more than a horse, spear and shield.
+
+6. _Agriculture and Village Life._--There is no doubt that a fairly
+advanced system of agriculture must have been known to the Anglo-Saxons
+before they settled in Britain. This is made clear above all by the
+representation of a plough drawn by two oxen in one of the very ancient
+rock-carvings at Tegneby in Bohuslän. In Domesday Book the heavy plough
+with eight oxen seems to be universal, and it can be traced back in Kent to
+the beginning of the 9th century. In this kingdom the system of
+agricultural terminology was based on it. The unit was the _sulung_
+(_aratrum_) or ploughland (from _sulh_, "plough"), the fourth part of which
+was the _geocled_ or _geoc_ (_jugum_), originally a yoke of oxen. An
+analogy is supplied by the _carucata_ of the Danelagh, the eighth part of
+which was the _bouata_ or "ox-land." In the 10th century the _sulung_ seems
+to have been identified with the hide, but in earlier times it contained
+apparently two hides. The hide itself, which was the regular unit in the
+other kingdoms, usually contained 120 acres in later times and was divided
+into four _girda_ (_virgatae_) or yardlands. But originally it seems to
+have meant simply the land pertaining to a household, and its area in early
+times is quite uncertain, though probably far less. For the acre also there
+was in later times a standard length and breadth, the former being called
+_furhlang_ (_furlong_) and reckoned at one-eighth of a mile, while the
+_aecerbraedu_ or "acre-breadth" (chain) was also a definite measure. We
+need not doubt, however, that in practice the form of the acre was largely
+conditioned by the nature of the ground. Originally it is thought to have
+been the measure of a day's ploughing, in which case the dimensions given
+above would scarcely be reached. Account must also be taken of the
+possibility that in early times lighter teams were in general use. If so
+the normal dimensions of the acre may very well have been quite different.
+
+The husbandry was of a co-operative character. In the 11th century it was
+distinctly unusual for a peasant to possess a whole team of his own, and
+there is no reason for supposing the case to have been otherwise in early
+times; for though the peasant might then hold a hide, the hide itself was
+doubtless smaller and not commensurate in any way with the ploughland. The
+holdings were probably not compact but consisted of scattered strips in
+common fields, changed perhaps from year to year, the choice being
+determined by lot or otherwise. As for the method of cultivation itself
+there is little or no evidence. Both the "two-course system" and the
+"three-course system" may have been in use; but on the other hand it is
+quite possible that in many cases the same ground was not sown more than
+once in three years. The prevalence of the co-operative principle, it may
+be observed, was doubtless due in large measure to the fact that the
+greater part of England, especially towards the east, was settled not in
+scattered farms or hamlets but in compact villages with the cultivated
+lands lying round them.
+
+[v.04 p.0592] The mill was another element which tended to promote the same
+principle. There can be little doubt that before the Anglo-Saxons came to
+Britain they possessed no instrument for grinding corn except the quern
+(_cweorn_), and in remote districts this continued in use until quite late
+times. The grinding seems to have been performed chiefly by female slaves,
+but occasionally we hear also of a donkey-mill (_esolcweorn_). The mill
+proper, however, which was derived from the Romans, as its name (_mylen_,
+from Lat. _molina_) indicates, must have come into use fairly early. In the
+11th century every village of any size seems to have possessed one, while
+the earliest references go back to the 8th century. It is not unlikely that
+they were in use during the Roman occupation of Britain, and consequently
+that they became known to the invaders almost from the first. The mills
+were presumably driven for the most part by water, though we have a
+reference to a windmill as early as the year 833.
+
+All the ordinary domestic animals were known. Cattle and sheep were
+pastured on the common lands appertaining to the village, while pigs, which
+(especially in Kent) seem to have been very numerous, were kept in the
+woods. Bee-keeping was also practised. In all these matters the invasion of
+Britain had brought about no change. The cultivation of fruit and
+vegetables on the other hand was probably almost entirely new. The names
+are almost all derived from Latin, though most of them seem to have been
+known soon after the invasion, at all events by the 7th century.
+
+From the considerations pointed out above we can hardly doubt that the
+village possessed a certain amount of corporate life, centred perhaps in an
+ale-house where its affairs were discussed by the inhabitants. There is no
+evidence, however, which would justify us in crediting such gatherings with
+any substantial degree of local authority. So far as the limited
+information at our disposal enables us to form an opinion, the
+responsibility both for the internal peace of the village, and for its
+obligations to the outside world, seems to have lain with the lord or his
+steward (_gerefa_, _villicus_) from the beginning. A quite opposite view
+has, it is true, found favour with many scholars, viz. that the villages
+were orginally settlements of free kindreds, and that the lord's authority
+was superimposed on them at a later date. This view is based mainly on the
+numerous place-names ending in _-ing_, _-ingham_, _-ington_, &c., in which
+the syllable _-ing_ is thought to refer to kindreds of cultivators. It is
+more probable, however, that these names are derived from persons of the
+_twelfhynde_ class to whom the land had been granted. In many cases indeed
+there is good reason for doubting whether the name is a patronymic at all.
+
+The question how far the villages were really new settlements is difficult
+to answer, for the terminations _-ham_, _-ton_, &c. cannot be regarded as
+conclusive evidence. Thus according to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (ann. 571)
+Bensington and Eynsham were formerly British villages. Even if the first
+part of Egonesham is English--which is by no means certain--it is hardly
+sufficient reason for discrediting this statement, for Canterbury
+(_Cantwaraburg_) and Rochester (_Hrofes ceaster_) were without doubt Roman
+places in spite of their English names. On the whole it seems likely that
+the cultivation of the land was not generally interrupted for more than a
+very few years; hence the convenience of utilizing existing sites of
+villages would be obvious, even if the buildings themselves had been burnt.
+
+7. _Towns._--Gildas states that in the time of the Romans Britain contained
+twenty-eight cities (_civitates_), besides a number of fortresses
+(_castetta_). Most of these were situated within the territories eventually
+occupied by the invaders, and reappear as towns in later times. Their
+history in the intervening period, however, is wrapped in obscurity.
+Chester appears to have been deserted for three centuries after its
+destruction early in the 7th century, and in most of the other cases there
+are features observable in the situation and plan of the medieval town
+which suggest that its occupation had not been continuous. Yet London and
+Canterbury must have recovered a certain amount of importance quite early,
+at all events within two centuries after the invasion, and the same is
+probably true of York, Lincoln and a few other places. The term applied to
+both the cities and the fortresses of the Romans was _ceaster_ (Lat.
+_castra_), less frequently the English word _burg_. There is little or no
+evidence for the existence of towns other than Roman in early times, for
+the word _urbs_ is merely a translation of _burg_, which was used for any
+fortified dwelling-place, and it is improbable that anything which could
+properly be called a town was known to the invaders before their arrival in
+Britain. The Danish settlements at the end of the 9th century and the
+defensive system initiated by King Alfred gave birth to a new series of
+fortified towns, from which the boroughs of the middle ages are mainly
+descended.
+
+8. _Houses._--Owing to the fact that houses were built entirely of
+perishable materials, wood and wattle, we are necessarily dependent almost
+wholly upon literary evidence for knowledge of this subject. Stone seems to
+have been used first for churches, but this was not before the 7th century,
+and we are told that at first masons were imported from Gaul. Indeed wood
+was used for many churches, as well as for most secular buildings, until a
+much later period. The walls were formed either of stout planks laid
+together vertically or horizontally, or else of posts at a short distance
+from one another, the interstices being filled up with wattlework daubed
+with clay. It is not unlikely that the houses of wealthy persons were
+distinguished by a good deal of ornamentation in carving and painting. The
+roof was high-pitched and covered with straw, hay, reeds or tiles. The
+regular form of the buildings was rectangular, the gable sides probably
+being shorter than the others. There is little evidence for partitions
+inside, and in wealthy establishments the place of rooms seems to have been
+supplied by separate buildings within the same enclosure. The windows must
+have been mere openings in the walls or roof, for glass was not used for
+this purpose before the latter part of the 7th century. Stoves were known,
+but most commonly heat was obtained from an open fire in the centre of the
+building. Of the various buildings in a wealthy establishment the chief
+were the hall (_heall_), which was both a dining and reception room, and
+the "lady's bower" (_brydbur_), which served also as a bedroom for the
+master and mistress. To these we have to add buildings for the attendants,
+kitchen, bakehouse, &c., and farm buildings. There is little or no evidence
+for the use of two-storeyed houses in early times, though in the 10th and
+11th centuries they were common. The whole group of buildings stood in an
+enclosure (_tun_) surrounded by a stockade (_burg_), which perhaps rested
+on an earthwork, though this is disputed. Similarly the homestead of the
+peasant was surrounded by a fence (_edor_).
+
+9. _Clothes._--The chief material for clothing was at first no doubt wool,
+though linen must also have been used and later became fairly common. The
+chief garments were the coat (_roc_), the trousers (_brec_), and the cloak,
+for which there seem to have been a number of names (_loða_, _hacele_,
+_sciccing_, _pad_, _hwitel_). To these we may add the hat (_haet_), belt
+(_gyrdel_), stockings (_hosa_), shoes (_scoh_, _gescy_, _rifeling_) and
+gloves (_glof_). The _crusene_ was a fur coat, while the _serc_ or _smoc_
+seems to have been an undergarment and probably sleeveless. The whole
+attire was of national origin and had probably been in use long before the
+invasion of Britain. In the great bog-deposit at Thorsbjaerg in Angel,
+which dates from about the 4th century, there were found a coat with long
+sleeves, in a fair state of preservation, a pair of long trousers with
+remains of socks attached, several shoes and portions of square cloaks, one
+of which had obviously been dyed green. The dress of the upper classes must
+have been of a somewhat gorgeous character, especially when account is
+taken of the brooches and other ornaments which they wore. It is worth
+noting that according to Jordanes the Swedes in the 6th century were
+splendidly dressed.
+
+10. _Trade._--The few notices of this subject which occur in the early laws
+seem to refer primarily to cattle-dealing. But there can be no doubt that a
+considerable import and export trade with the continent had sprung up quite
+early. In Bede's time, if not before, London was resorted to by many
+merchants both by land and by sea. At first the chief export trade was
+[v.04 p.0593] probably in slaves. English slaves were to be obtained in
+Rome even before the end of the 6th century, as appears from the well-known
+story of Gregory the Great. Since the standard price of slaves on the
+continent was in general three or four times as great as it was in England,
+the trade must have been very profitable. After the adoption of
+Christianity it was gradually prohibited by the laws. The nature of the
+imports during the heathen period may be learned chiefly from the graves,
+which contain many brooches and other ornaments of continental origin, and
+also a certain number of silver, bronze and glass vessels. With the
+introduction of Christianity the ecclesiastical connexion between England
+and the continent without doubt brought about a large increase in the
+imports of secular as well as religious objects, and the frequency of
+pilgrimages by persons of high rank must have had the same effect. The use
+of silk (_seoluc_) and the adoption of the mancus (see below) point to
+communication, direct or indirect, with more distant countries. In the 8th
+century we hear frequently of tolls on merchant ships at various ports,
+especially London.
+
+11. _Coinage._--The earliest coins which can be identified with certainty
+are some silver pieces which bear in Runic letters the name of the Mercian
+king Æthelred (675-704). There are others, however, of the same type and
+standard (about 21 grains) which may be attributed with probability to his
+father Penda (d. 655). But it is clear from the laws of Æthelberht that a
+regular silver coinage was in use at least half a century before this time,
+and it is not unlikely that many unidentified coins may go back to the 6th
+century. These are fairly numerous, and are either without inscriptions or,
+if they do bear letters at all, they seem to be mere corruptions of Roman
+legends. Their designs are derived from Roman or Frankish coins, especially
+the former, and their weight varies from about 10 to 21 grains, though the
+very light coins are rare. Anonymous gold coins, resembling Frankish
+trientes in type and standard (21 grains), are also fairly common, though
+they must have passed out of use very early, as the laws give no hint of
+their existence. Larger gold coins (_solidi_) are very rare. In the early
+laws the money actually in use appears to have been entirely silver. In
+Offa's time a new gold coin, the _mancus_, resembling in standard the Roman
+solidus (about 70 grains), was introduced from Mahommedan countries. The
+oldest extant specimen bears a faithfully copied Arabic inscription. In the
+same reign the silver coins underwent a considerable change in type, being
+made larger and thinner, while from this time onwards they always bore the
+name of the king (or queen or archbishop) for whom they were issued. The
+design and execution also became remarkably good. Their weight was at first
+unaffected, but probably towards the close of Offa's reign it was raised to
+about 23 grains, at which standard it seems to have remained, nominally at
+least, until the time of Alfred. It is to be observed that with the
+exception of Burgred's coins and a few anonymous pieces the silver was
+never adulterated. No bronze coins were current except in Northumbria,
+where they were extremely common in the 9th century.
+
+Originally _scilling_ ("shilling") and _sceatt_ seem to have been the terms
+for gold and silver coins respectively. By the time of Ine, however,
+_pending_, _pen(n)ing_ ("penny"), had already come into use for the latter,
+while, owing to the temporary disappearance of a gold coinage, _scilling_
+had come to denote a mere unit of account. It was, however, a variable
+unit, for the Kentish shilling contained twenty _sceattas_ (pence), while
+the Mercian contained only four. The West Saxon shilling seems originally
+to have been identical with the Mercian, but later it contained five pence.
+Large payments were generally made by weight, 240-250 pence being reckoned
+to the pound, perhaps from the 7th century onwards. The mancus was equated
+with thirty pence, probably from the time of its introduction. This means
+that the value of gold relatively to silver was 10:1 from the end of Offa's
+reign. There is reason, however, for thinking that in earlier times it was
+as low as 6:1, or even 5:1. In Northumbria a totally different monetary
+system prevailed, the unit being the _tryms_, which contained three
+_sceattas_ or pence. As to the value of the bronze coins we are without
+information.
+
+The purchasing power of money was very great. The sheep was valued at a
+shilling in both Wessex and Mercia, from early times till the 11th century.
+One pound was the normal price of a slave and half a pound that of a horse.
+The price of a pig was twice, and that of an ox six times as great as that
+of a sheep. Regarding the prices of commodities other than live-stock we
+have little definite information, though an approximate estimate may be
+made of the value of arms. It is worth noticing that we often hear of
+payments in gold and silver vessels in place of money. In the former case
+the mancus was the usual unit of calculation.
+
+12. _Ornaments._--Of these the most interesting are the brooches which were
+worn by both sexes and of which large numbers have been found in heathen
+cemeteries. They may be classed under eight leading types: (1) circular or
+ring-shaped, (2) cruciform, (3) square-headed, (4) radiated, (5) S-shaped,
+(6) bird-shaped, (7) disk-shaped, (8) cupelliform or saucer-shaped. Of
+these Nos. 5 and 6 appear to be of continental origin, and this is probably
+the case also with No. 4 and in part with No. 7. But the last-mentioned
+type varies greatly, from rude and almost plain disks of bronze to
+magnificent gold specimens studded with gems. No. 8 is believed to be
+peculiar to England, and occurs chiefly in the southern Midlands, specimens
+being usually found in pairs. The interiors are gilt, often furnished with
+detachable plates and sometimes set with brilliants. The remaining types
+were probably brought over by the Anglo-Saxons at the time of the invasion.
+Nos. 1 and 3 are widespread outside England, but No. 2, though common in
+Scandinavian countries, is hardly to be met with south of the Elbe. It is
+worth noting that a number of specimens were found in the cremation
+cemetery at Borgstedterfeld near Rendsburg. In England it occurs chiefly in
+the more northern counties. Nos. 2 and 3 vary greatly in size, from 2½ to 7
+in. or more. The smaller specimens are quite plain, but the larger ones are
+gilt and generally of a highly ornamental character. In later times we hear
+of brooches worth as much as six mancusas, _i.e._ equivalent to six oxen.
+
+Among other ornaments we may mention hairpins, rings and ear-rings, and
+especially buckles which are often of elaborate workmanship. Bracelets and
+necklets are not very common, a fact which is rather surprising, as in
+early times, before the issuing of a coinage, these articles (_beagas_)
+took the place of money to a large extent. The glass vessels are finely
+made and of somewhat striking appearance, though they closely resemble
+contemporary continental types. Since the art of glass-working was unknown,
+according to Bede, until nearly the end of the 7th century, it is probable
+that these were all of continental or Roman-British origin.
+
+13. _Amusements_.--It is clear from the frequent references to dogs and
+hawks in the charters that hunting and falconry were keenly pursued by the
+kings and their retinues. Games, whether indoor or outdoor, are much less
+frequently mentioned, but there is no doubt that the use of dice (_taefl_)
+was widespread. At court much time was given to poetic recitation, often
+accompanied by music, and accomplished poets received liberal rewards. The
+chief musical instrument was the harp (_hearpe_), which is often mentioned.
+Less frequently we hear of the flute (_pipe_) and later also of the fiddle
+(_fiðele_). Trumpets (_horn_, _swegelhorn_, _byme_) appear to have been
+used chiefly as signals.
+
+14. _Writing._--The Runic alphabet seems to have been the only form of
+writing known to the Anglo-Saxons before the invasion of Britain, and
+indeed until the adoption of Christianity. In its earliest form, as it
+appears in inscriptions on various articles found in Schleswig and in
+Scandinavian countries, it consisted of twenty-four letters, all of which
+occur in abecedaria in England. In actual use, however, two letters soon
+became obsolete, but a number of others were added from time to time, some
+of which are found also on the continent, while others are peculiar to
+certain parts of England. Originally the Runic alphabet seems to have been
+used for writing on wooden boards, though none of these have survived. The
+inscriptions which have come down to us are engraved partly on memorial
+stones, [v.04 p.0594] which are not uncommon in the north of England, and
+partly on various metal objects, ranging from swords to brooches. The
+adoption of Christianity brought about the introduction of the Roman
+alphabet; but the older form of writing did not immediately pass out of
+use, for almost all the inscriptions which we possess date from the 7th or
+following centuries. Coins with Runic legends were issued at least until
+the middle of the 8th century, and some of the memorial stones date
+probably even from the 9th. The most important of the latter are the column
+at Bewcastle, Cumberland, believed to commemorate Alhfrith, the son of
+Oswio, who died about 670, and the cross at Ruthwell, Dumfriesshire, which
+is probably about a century later. The Roman alphabet was very soon applied
+to the purpose of writing the native language, _e.g._ in the publication of
+the laws of Æthelberht. Yet the type of character in which even the
+earliest surviving MSS. are written is believed to be of Celtic origin.
+Most probably it was introduced by the Irish missionaries who evangelized
+the north of England, though Welsh influence is scarcely impossible.
+Eventually this alphabet was enlarged (probably before the end of the 7th
+century) by the inclusion of two Runic letters for _th_ and _w_.
+
+15. _Marriage._--This is perhaps the subject on which our information is
+most inadequate. It is evident that the relationships which prohibited
+marriage were different from those recognized by the Church; but the only
+fact which we know definitely is that it was customary, at least in Kent,
+for a man to marry his stepmother. In the Kentish laws marriage is
+represented as hardly more than a matter of purchase; but whether this was
+the case in the other kingdoms also the evidence at our disposal is
+insufficient to decide. We know, however, that in addition to the sum paid
+to the bride's guardian, it was customary for the bridegroom to make a
+present (_morgengifu_) to the bride herself, which, in the case of queens,
+often consisted of a residence and considerable estates. Such persons also
+had retinues and fortified residences of their own. In the Kentish laws
+provision is made for widows to receive a proportionate share in their
+husbands' property.
+
+16. _Funeral Rites._--Both inhumation and cremation were practised in
+heathen times. The former seems to have prevailed everywhere; the latter,
+however, was much more common in the more northern counties than in the
+south, though cases are fairly numerous throughout the valley of the
+Thames. In _Beowulf_ cremation is represented as the prevailing custom.
+There is no evidence that it was still practised when the Roman and Celtic
+missionaries arrived, but it is worth noting that according to the
+tradition given in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Oxfordshire, where the custom
+seems to have been fairly common, was not conquered before the latter part
+of the 6th century. The burnt remains were generally, if not always,
+enclosed in urns and then buried. The urns themselves are of clay, somewhat
+badly baked, and bear geometrical patterns applied with a punch. They vary
+considerably in size (from 4 to 12 in. or more in diameter) and closely
+resemble those found in northern Germany. Inhumation graves are sometimes
+richly furnished. The skeleton is laid out at full length, generally with
+the head towards the west or north, a spear at one side and a sword and
+shield obliquely across the middle. Valuable brooches and other ornaments
+are often found. In many other cases, however, the grave contained nothing
+except a small knife and a simple brooch or a few beads. Usually both
+classes of graves lie below the natural surface of the ground without any
+perceptible trace of a barrow.
+
+17. _Religion._--Here again the information at our disposal is very
+limited. There can be little doubt that the heathen Angli worshipped
+certain gods, among them Ti (Tig), Woden, Thunor and a goddess Frigg, from
+whom the names Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday and Friday are derived. Ti was
+probably the same god of whom early Roman writers speak under the name Mars
+(see TÝR), while Thunor was doubtless the thunder-god (see THOR). From
+Woden (_q.v._) most of the royal families traced their descent. Seaxneat,
+the ancestor of the East Saxon dynasty, was also in all probability a god
+(see ESSEX, KINGDOM OF).
+
+Of anthropomorphic representations of the gods we have no clear evidence,
+though we do hear of shrines in sacred enclosures, at which sacrifices were
+offered. It is clear also that there were persons specially set apart for
+the priesthood, who were not allowed to bear arms or to ride except on
+mares. Notices of sacred trees and groves, springs, stones, &c., are much
+more frequent than those referring to the gods. We hear also a good deal of
+witches and valkyries, and of charms and magic; as an instance we may cite
+the fact that certain (Runic) letters were credited, as in the North, with
+the power of loosening bonds. It is probable also that the belief in the
+spirit world and in a future life was of a somewhat similar kind to what we
+find in Scandinavian religion. (See TEUTONIC PEOPLES, §6.)
+
+The chief primary authorities are Gildas, _De Excidio Britanniae_, and
+Nennius, _Historia Britonum_ (ed. San-Marte, Berlin, 1844); Th. Mommsen in
+_Mon. Germ. Hist., Auct. Antiquiss._, tom. xiii. (Berlin, 1898); Bede,
+_Hist. Eccl._ (ed. C. Plummer, Oxford, 1896); the _Saxon Chronicle_ (ed. C.
+Plummer, Oxford, 1892-1899); and the _Anglo-Saxon Laws_ (ed. F. Liebermann,
+Halle, 1903), and Charters (W. de G. Birch, _Cartularium Saxonicum_,
+London, 1885-1893). Modern authorities: Sh. Turner, _History of the
+Anglo-Saxons_ (London, 1799-1805; 7th ed., 1852); Sir F. Palgrave, _Rise
+and Progress of the English Commonwealth_ (London, 1831-1832); J.M. Kemble,
+_The Saxons in England_ (London, 1849; 2nd ed., 1876); K. Maurer,
+_Kritische Überschau d. deutschen Gesetzgebung u. Rechtswissenschaft_,
+vols. i.-iii. (Munich, 1853-1855); J.M. Lappenberg, _Geschichte von
+England_ (Hamburg, 1834); _History of England under the Anglo-Saxon Kings_
+(London, 1845; 2nd ed., 1881); J.R. Green, _The Making of England_ (London,
+1881); T. Hodgkin, _History of England from the Earliest Times to the
+Norman Conquest_ (vol. i. of _The Political History of England_) (London,
+1906); F. Seebohm, _The English Village Community_ (London, 1883); A.
+Meitzen, _Siedelung und Agrarwesen d. Westgermanen, u. Ostgermanen, &c._
+(Berlin, 1895); Sir F. Pollock and F.W. Maitland, _History of English Law_
+(Cambridge, 1895; 2nd ed., 1898); F.W. Maitland, _Domesday Book and Beyond_
+(Cambridge, 1897); F. Seebohm, _Tribal Custom in Anglo-Saxon Law_ (London,
+1903); P. Vinogradoff, _The Growth of the Manor_ (London, 1905); H.M.
+Chadwick, _Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions_ (Cambridge, 1905); _The
+Origin of the English Nation_ (_ib._, 1907); M. Heyne, _Über die Lage und
+Construction der Halle Heorot_ (Paderborn, 1864); R. Henning, _Das deutsche
+Haus_ (_Quellen u. Forschungen_, 47) (Strassburg, 1882); M. Heyne,
+_Deutsche Hausaltertümer_, i., ii., iii. (Leipzig, 1900-1903); G. Baldwin
+Brown, _The Arts in Early England_ (London, 1903); C.F. Keary, _Catalogue
+of Anglo-Saxon Coins in the British Museum_, vol. i. (London, 1887); C.
+Roach Smith, _Collectanea Antiqua_ (London, 1848-1868); R.C. Neville,
+_Saxon Obsequies_ (London, 1852); J.Y. Akerman, _Remains of Pagan Saxondom_
+(London, 1855); Baron J. de Baye, _Industrie anglo-saxonne_ (Paris, 1889);
+_The Industrial Arts of the Anglo-Saxons_ (London, 1893); G. Stephens, _The
+Old Northern Runic Monuments_ (London and Copenhagen, 1866-1901); W.
+Vietor, _Die northumbrischen Runensteine_ (Marburg, 1895). Reference must
+also be made to the articles on Anglo-Saxon antiquities in the _Victoria
+County Histories_, and to various papers in _Archaeologia_, the
+_Archaeological Journal_, the _Journal of the British Archaeological
+Society_, the _Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries_, the _Associated
+Architectural Societies' Reports_, and other antiquarian journals.
+
+(H. M. C.)
+
+[1] The hide (_hid_, _hiwisc_, _familia_, _tributarius_, _cassatus_,
+_manens_, &c.) was in later times a measure of land, usually 120 acres. In
+early times, however, it seems to have meant (1) household, (2) normal
+amount of land appertaining to a household.
+
+BRITANNICUS, son of the Roman emperor Claudius by his third wife
+Messallina, was born probably A.D. 41. He was originally called Claudius
+Tiberius Germanicus, and received the name Britannicus from the senate on
+account of the conquest made in Britain about the time of his birth. Till
+48, the date of his mother's execution, he was looked upon as the heir
+presumptive; but Agrippina, the new wife of Claudius, soon persuaded the
+feeble emperor to adopt Lucius Domitius, known later as Nero, her son by a
+previous marriage. After the accession of Nero, Agrippina, by playing on
+his fears, induced him to poison Britannicus at a banquet (A.D. 55). A
+golden statue of the young prince was set up by the emperor Titus.
+Britannicus is the subject of a tragedy by Racine.
+
+Tacitus, _Annals_, xii. 25, 41, xiii. 14-16; Suetonius, _Nero_, 33; Dio
+Cassius lx. 32, 34; works quoted under NERO.
+
+BRITISH CENTRAL AFRICA, the general name given to the British protectorates
+in South Central Africa north of the Zambezi river, but more particularly
+to a large territory lying between 8° 25' S. on Lake Tanganyika and 17° 6'
+S. on the river Shiré, near its confluence with the Zambezi, and between
+36° 10' E. (district of Mlanje) and 26° 30' E. (river Luengwe-Kafukwe).
+Originally the term "British Central Africa" was applied by Sir H.H.
+Johnston to all the territories under British [v.04 p.0595] influence north
+of the Zambezi which were formerly intended to be under one administration;
+but the course of events having prevented the connexion of Barotseland (see
+BAROTSE) and the other Rhodesian territories with the more direct British
+administration north of the Zambezi, the name of British Central Africa was
+confined officially (in 1893) to the British protectorate on the Shiré and
+about Lake Nyasa. In 1907 the official title of the protectorate was
+changed to that of Nyasaland Protectorate, while the titles "North Eastern
+Rhodesia" and "North Western Rhodesia" (Barotseland) have been given to the
+two divisions of the British South Africa Company's territory north of the
+Zambezi. The western boundary, however, of the territory here described has
+been taken to be a line drawn from near the source of the Lualaba on the
+southern boundary of Belgian Congo to the western source of the Luanga
+river, and thence the course of the Luanga to its junction with the
+Luengwe-Kafukwe, after which the main course of the Kafukwe delimits the
+territory down to the Zambezi. Thus, besides the Nyasaland Protectorate and
+North Eastern Rhodesia, part of North Western Rhodesia is included, and for
+the whole of this region British Central Africa is the most convenient
+designation.
+
+_Physical Features._--Within these limits we have a territory of about
+250,000 sq. m., which includes two-thirds of Lake Nyasa, the south end of
+Lake Tanganyika, more than half Lake Mweru, and the whole of Lake
+Bangweulu, nearly the whole courses of the rivers Shiré and Luangwa (or
+Loangwa), the whole of the river Chambezi (the most remote of the
+headwaters of the river Congo), the right or east bank of the Luapula (or
+upper Congo) from its exit from Lake Bangweulu to its issue from the north
+end of Lake Mweru; also the river Luanga and the whole course of the Kafue
+or Kafukwe.[1] Other lesser sheets of water included within the limits of
+this territory are the Great Mweru Swamp, between Tanganyika and Mweru,
+Moir's Lake (a small mountain tarn--possibly a crater lake--lying between
+the Luangwa and the Luapula), Lake Malombe (on the upper Shiré), and the
+salt lake Chilwa (wrongly styled Shirwa, being the Bantu word _Kilwa_),
+which lies on the borders of the Portuguese province of Moçambique. The
+southern border of this territory is the north bank of the Zambezi from the
+confluence of the Kafukwe to that of the Luangwa at Zumbo. Eastwards of
+Zumbo, British Central Africa is separated from the river Zambezi by the
+Portuguese possessions; nevertheless, considerably more than two-thirds of
+the country lies within the Zambezi basin, and is included within the
+subordinate basins of Lake Nyasa and of the rivers Luangwa and
+Luengwe-Kafukwe. The remaining portions drain into the basins of the river
+Congo and of Lake Tanganyika, and also into the small lake or half-dried
+swamp called Chilwa, which at the present time has no outlet, though in
+past ages it probably emptied itself into the Lujenda river, and thence
+into the Indian Ocean.
+
+As regards orographical features, much of the country is high plateau, with
+an average altitude of 3500 ft. above sea-level. Only a very minute portion
+of its area--the country along the banks of the river Shiré--lies at
+anything like a low elevation; though the Luangwa valley may not be more
+than about 900 ft. above sea-level. Lake Nyasa lies at an elevation of 1700
+ft. above the sea, is about 350 m. long, with a breadth varying from 15 to
+40 m. Lake Tanganyika is about 2600 ft. above sea-level, with a length of
+about 400 m. and an average breadth of nearly 40 m. Lake Mweru and Lake
+Bangweulu are respectively 3000 and 3760 ft. above sea-level; Lake Chilwa
+is 1946 ft. in altitude. The highest mountain found within the limits
+previously laid down is Mount Mlanje, in the extreme south-eastern corner
+of the protectorate. This remarkable and picturesque mass is an isolated
+"chunk" of the Archean plateau, through which at a later date there has
+been a volcanic outburst of basalt. The summit and sides of this mass
+exhibit several craters. The highest peak of Mlanje reaches an altitude of
+9683 ft. (In German territory, near the north end of Lake Nyasa, and close
+to the British frontier, is Mount Rungwe, the altitude of which exceeds
+10,000 ft.) Other high mountains are Mounts Chongone and Dedza, in
+Angoniland, which reach an altitude of 7000 ft., and points on the Nyika
+Plateau and in the Konde Mountains to the north-west of Lake Nyasa, which
+probably exceed a height of 8000 ft. There are also Mounts Zomba (6900 ft.)
+and Chiradzulu (5500 ft.) in the Shiré Highlands. The principal plateaus or
+high ridges are (1) the Shiré Highlands, a clump of mountainous country
+lying between the river Shiré, the river Ruo, Lake Chilwa and the south end
+of Lake Nyasa; (2) Angoniland--a stretch of elevated country to the west of
+Lake Nyasa and the north-west of the river Shiré; (3) the Nyika Plateau,
+which lies to the north of Angoniland; and (4) the Nyasa-Tanganyika
+Plateau, between the basin of the river Luangwa, the vicinity of Tanganyika
+and the vicinity of Lake Mweru (highest point, 7000-8000 ft.). Finally may
+be mentioned the tract of elevated country between Lake Bangweulu and the
+river Luapula, and between Lake Bangweulu and the basin of the Luangwa; and
+also the Lukinga (Mushinga) or Ugwara Mountains of North Western Rhodesia,
+which attain perhaps to altitudes of 6000 ft.
+
+The whole of this part of Africa is practically without any stretch of
+desert country, being on the whole favoured with an abundant rainfall. The
+nearest approach to a desert is the rather dry land to the east and
+north-east of Lake Mweru. Here, and in parts of the lower Shiré district,
+the annual rainfall probably does not exceed an average of 35 in.
+Elsewhere, in the vicinity of the highest mountains, the rainfall may
+attain an average of 75 in., in parts of Mount Mlanje possibly often
+reaching to 100 in. in the year. The average may be put at 50 in. per
+annum, which is also about the average rainfall of the Shiré Highlands,
+that part of British Central Africa which at present attracts the greatest
+number of European settlers.
+
+_Geology._--The whole formation is Archean and Primary (with a few modern
+plutonic outbursts), and chiefly consists of granite, felspar, quartz,
+gneiss, schists, amphibolite and other Archean rocks, with Primary
+sandstones and limestones in the basin of Lake Nyasa (a great rift
+depression), the river Shiré, and the regions within the northern watershed
+of the Zambezi river. Sandstones of Karroo age occur in the basin of the
+Luangwa (N.E. Rhodesia). There are evidences of recent volcanic activity on
+the summit of the small Mlanje plateau (S.E. corner of the protectorate:
+here there are two extinct craters with a basaltic outflow), and at the
+north end of Lake Nyasa and the eastern edge of the Tanganyika plateau.
+Here there are many craters and much basalt, or even lava; also hot
+springs.
+
+_Metals and Minerals._--Gold has been found in the Shiré Highlands, in the
+hills along the Nyasa-Zambezi waterparting, and in the mountainous region
+west of Lake Nyasa; silver (galena, silver-lead) in the hills of the
+Nyasa-Zambezi waterparting; lead in the same district; graphite in the
+western basin of Lake Nyasa; copper (pyrites and pure ore) in the west
+Nyasa region and in the hills of North Western and North Eastern Rhodesia;
+iron ore almost universally; mica almost universally; coal occurs in the
+north and west Nyasa districts (especially in the Karroo sandstones of the
+Rukuru valley), and perhaps along the Zambezi-Nyasa waterparting; limestone
+in the Shiré basin; malachite in south-west Angoniland and North Western
+Rhodesia; and perhaps petroleum in places along the Nyasa-Zambezi
+waterparting. (See also RHODESIA.)
+
+_Flora_.--No part of the country comes within the forest region of West
+Africa. The whole of it may be said to lie within the savannah or park-like
+division of the continent. As a general rule, the landscape is of a
+pleasing and attractive character, well covered with vegetation and fairly
+well watered. Actual forests of lofty trees, forests of a West African
+type, are few in number, and are chiefly limited to portions of the Nyika,
+Angoniland and Shiré Highlands plateaus, and to a few nooks in valleys near
+the south end of Tanganyika. Patches of forest of tropical luxuriance may
+still be seen on the slopes of Mounts Mlanje and Chiradzulu. On the upper
+plateaus of Mount Mlanje there are forests of a remarkable conifer
+(_Widdringtonia whytei_), a relation of the cypress, which in appearance
+resembles much more the cedar, and is therefore wrongly styled the "Mlanje
+cedar." This tree is remarkable as being the most northern form of a group
+of yew-like conifers confined otherwise to South Africa (Cape Colony).
+Immense areas in the lower-lying plains are covered by long, coarse grass,
+sometimes reaching 10 ft. in height. Most of the West African forest trees
+are represented in British Central Africa. A full list of the known flora
+has been compiled by Sir W. Thiselton-Dyer and his assistants at Kew, and
+is given in the first and second editions of Sir H. H. Johnston's work on
+British Central Africa. Amongst the principal vegetable products of the
+country interesting for commercial purposes may be mentioned tobacco
+(partly native varieties and partly introduced); coffee (wild coffee is
+said to grow in some of the mountainous districts, but the actual coffee
+cultivated by the European settlers has been introduced from abroad);
+rubber--derived chiefly from the various species of _Landolphia_, _Ficus_,
+_Clitandra_, _Carpodinus_ and _Conopharygia_, and from other apocynaceous
+plants; the _Strophanthus_ pod (furnishing a valuable drug); ground-nuts
+(_Arachis_ and _Voandzeia_); the cotton plant; all African cultivated
+cereals (_Sorghum_, _Pennisetum_, maize, rice, wheat--cultivated chiefly by
+Europeans--and _Eleusine_); and six species of palms--the oil palm on the
+north-west (near Lake Nyasa, at the south end of Tanganyika and on the
+Luapula), the _Borassus_ and _Hyphaene_, _Phoenix_ (or wild date), _Raphia_
+and the coco-nut palm. The last named was introduced by Arabs and
+Europeans, and is found on Lake Nyasa and on the lower Shiré. Most of the
+European vegetables have been introduced, and thrive exceedingly well,
+especially the potato. The mango has also been introduced from India, and
+has taken to the Shiré Highlands as to a second home. Oranges, lemons and
+limes have been planted by Europeans and Arabs in a few districts. European
+fruit trees do not ordinarily flourish, though apples are grown to some
+extent at Blantyre. The vine hitherto has proved a failure. Pineapples give
+the best result [v.04 p.0596] among cultivated fruit, and strawberries do
+well in the higher districts. In the mountains the native wild brambles
+give blackberries of large size and excellent flavour. The vegetable
+product through which this protectorate first attracted trade was coffee,
+the export of which, however, has passed through very disheartening
+fluctuations. In 1905-1906, 773,919 lb of coffee (value £16,123) were
+exported; but during this twelve months the crop of cotton--quite a newly
+developed product, rose to 776,621 lb, from 285,185 lb in 1904-1905. An
+equally marked increase in tobacco and ground-nuts (_Arachis_) has taken
+place. Beeswax is a rising export.
+
+_Fauna._--The fauna is on the whole very rich. It has affinities in a few
+respects with the West African forest region, but differs slightly from the
+countries to the north and south by the absence of such animals as prefer
+drier climates, as for instance the oryx antelopes, gazelles and the
+ostrich. There is a complete blank in the distribution of this last between
+the districts to the south of the Zambezi and those of East Africa between
+Victoria Nyanza and the Indian Ocean. The giraffe is found in the Luanga
+valley; it is also met with in the extreme north-east of the country. The
+ordinary African rhinoceros is still occasionally, but very rarely, seen in
+the Shiré Highlands, The African elephant is fairly common throughout the
+whole territory. Lions and leopards are very abundant; the zebra is still
+found in great numbers, and belongs to the Central African variety of
+Burchell's zebra, which is completely striped down to the hoofs, and is
+intermediate in many particulars between the true zebra of the mountains
+and Burchell's zebra of the plains. The principal antelopes found are the
+sable and the roan (_Hippotragus_), five species of _Cobus_ or waterbuck
+(the puku, the Senga puku, the lechwe, Crawshay's waterbuck and the common
+waterbuck); the pallah, tsessébe (_Damaliscus_), hartebeest, brindled gnu
+(perhaps two species), several duykers (including the large _Cephalophus
+sylvicultrix_), klipspringer, oribi, steinbok and reedbuck. Among
+tragelaphs are two or more bushbucks, the inyala, the water tragelaph
+(_Limnotragus selousi_), the kudu and Livingstone's eland. The only buffalo
+is the common Cape species. The hyaena is the spotted kind. The hunting dog
+is present. There are some seven species of monkeys, including two baboons
+and one colobus. The hippopotamus is found in the lakes and rivers, and all
+these sheets of water are infested with crocodiles, apparently belonging to
+but one species, the common Nile crocodile.
+
+_Inhabitants._--The human race is represented by only one indigenous native
+type--the Negro. No trace is anywhere found of a Hamitic intermixture
+(unless perhaps at the north end of Lake Nyasa, where the physique of the
+native Awankonde recalls that of the Nilotic negro). Arabs from Zanzibar
+have settled in the country, but not, as far as is known, earlier than the
+beginning of the 19th century. As the present writer takes the general term
+"Negro" to include equally the Bantu, Hottentot, Bushman and Congo Pygmy,
+this designation will cover all the natives of British Central Africa. The
+Bantu races, however, exhibit in some parts signs of Hottentot or Bushman
+intermixture, and there are legends in some mountain districts, especially
+Mount Mlanje, of the former existence of unmixed Bushman tribes, while
+Bushman stone implements are found at the south end of Tanganyika. At the
+present day the population is, as a rule, of a black or chocolate-coloured
+Negro type, and belongs, linguistically, entirely and exclusively to the
+Bantu family. The languages spoken offer several very interesting forms of
+Bantu speech, notably in the districts between the north end of Lake Nyasa,
+the south end of Lake Tanganyika, and the river Luapula. In the more or
+less plateau country included within these geographical limits, the Bantu
+dialects are of an archaic type, and to the present writer it has seemed as
+though one of them, Kibemba or Kiwemba, came near to the original form of
+the Bantu mother-language, though not nearer than the interesting Subiya of
+southern Barotseland. Through dialects spoken on the west and north of
+Tanganyika, these languages of North Eastern Rhodesia and northern
+Nyasaland and of the Kafukwe basin are connected with the Bantu languages
+of Uganda. They also offer a slight resemblance to Zulu-Kaffir, and it
+would seem as though the Zulu-Kaffir race must have come straight down from
+the countries to the north-east of Tanganyika, across the Zambezi, to their
+present home. Curiously enough, some hundreds of years after this southward
+migration, intestine wars and conflicts actually determined a
+north-eastward return migration of Zulus. From Matabeleland, Zulu tribes
+crossed the Zambezi at various periods (commencing from about 1820), and
+gradually extended their ravages and dominion over the plateaus to the
+west, north and north-east of Lake Nyasa. The Zulu language is still spoken
+by the dominating caste in West Nyasaland (see further ZULULAND:
+_Ethnology_; RHODESIA: _Ethnology_; and YAOS). As regards foreign settlers
+in this part of Africa, the Arabs may be mentioned first, though they are
+now met with only in very small numbers. The Arabs undoubtedly first
+_heard_ of this rich country--rich not alone in natural products such as
+ivory, but also in slaves of good quality--from their settlements near the
+delta of the river Zambezi, and these settlements may date back to an early
+period, and might be coeval with the suggested pre-Islamite Arab
+settlements in the gold-bearing regions of South East Africa. But the Arabs
+do not seem to have made much progress in their penetration of the country
+in the days before firearms; and when firearms came into use they were for
+a long time forestalled by the Portuguese, who ousted them from the
+Zambezi. But about the beginning of the 19th century the increasing power
+and commercial enterprise of the Arab sultanate of Zanzibar caused the
+Arabs of Maskat and Zanzibar to march inland from the east coast. They
+gradually founded strong slave-trading settlements on the east and west
+coasts of Lake Nyasa, and thence westwards to Tanganyika and the Luapula.
+They never came in great numbers, however, and, except here and there on
+the coast of Lake Nyasa, have left no mixed descendants in the population.
+The total native population of all British Central Africa is about
+2,000,000, that of the Nyasaland Protectorate being officially estimated in
+1907 at 927,355. Of Europeans the protectorate possesses about 600 to 700
+settlers, including some 100 officials. (For the European population of the
+other territories, see RHODESIA.) The Europeans of British Central Africa
+are chiefly natives of the United Kingdom or South Africa, but there are a
+few Germans, Dutchmen, French, Italians and Portuguese. The protectorate
+has also attracted a number of Indian traders (over 400), besides whom
+about 150 British Indian soldiers (Sikhs) are employed as the nucleus of an
+armed force.[2]
+
+_Trade and Communications._--The total value of the trade of the
+protectorate in the year 1899-1900 was £255,384, showing an increase of 75%
+on the figures for the previous year, 1898-1899. Imports were valued at
+£176,035, an increase of 62%, and exports at £79,449, an increase of 109%.
+In 1905-1906 the imports reached £222,581 and the exports £56,778. The
+value of imports into the Rhodesian provinces during the same period was
+about £50,000, excluding railway material, and the exports £18,000. The
+principal exports are (besides minerals) coffee, cotton, tobacco, rubber
+and ivory. A number of Englishmen and Scotsmen (perhaps 200) are settled,
+mainly in the Shiré Highlands, as coffee planters.
+
+From the Chinde mouth of the Zambezi to Port Herald on the lower Shiré
+communication is maintained by light-draught steamers, though in the dry
+season (April-November) steamers cannot always ascend as far as Port
+Herald, and barges have to be used to complete the voyage. A railway runs
+from Port Herald to Blantyre, the commercial capital of the Shiré
+Highlands. The "Cape to Cairo" railway, which crossed the Zambezi in 1905
+and the Kafukwe in 1906, reached the Broken Hill mine in 1907, and in 1909
+was continued to the frontier of Belgian Congo. There are regular services
+by steamer between the ports on Lakes Nyasa and Tanganyika. The African
+trans-continental telegraph line (founded by Cecil Rhodes) runs through the
+protectorate, and a branch line has been established from Lake Nyasa to
+Fort Jameson, the present headquarters of the Chartered Company in North
+Eastern Rhodesia.
+
+_Towns._--The principal European settlement or town is Blantyre (_q.v._),
+at a height of about 3000 ft. above the sea, in the Shiré Highlands. This
+place was named after Livingstone's birthplace, and was founded in 1876 by
+the Church of Scotland mission. The government capital of the protectorate,
+however, is Zomba, at the base of the mountain of that name. Other
+townships or sites of European settlements are Port Herald (on the lower
+Shiré), Chiromo (at the junction of the Ruo and the Shiré), Fort Anderson
+(on Mount Mlanje), Fort Johnston (near the outlet of the river Shiré from
+the south end of Lake Nyasa), Kotakota and Bandawe (on the west coast of
+Lake Nyasa), Likoma (on an island off the east coast of Lake Nyasa),
+Karonga (on the north-west coast of Lake Nyasa), Fife (on the
+Nyasa-Tanganyika plateau), Fort Jameson (capital of N.E. Rhodesia, near the
+river Luangwa), Abercorn (on the south end of Lake Tanganyika), Kalungwisi
+(on the east coast of Lake Mweru) and Fort Rosebery (near the Johnston
+Falls on the Luapula [upper Congo]).
+
+_Administration._--The present political divisions of the country [v.04
+p.0597] are as follows:--The Nyasaland Protectorate, _i.e._ the districts
+surrounding Lake Nyasa and the Shiré province, are administered directly
+under the imperial government by a governor, who acts under the orders of
+the colonial office. The governor is assisted by an executive council and
+by a nominated legislative council, which consists of at least three
+members. The districts to the westward, forming the provinces of North
+Eastern and North Western Rhodesia, are governed by two administrators of
+the British South Africa Chartered Company, in consultation with the
+governor of Nyasaland and the colonial office.
+
+_History._--The history of the territory dealt with above is recent and
+slight. Apart from the vague Portuguese wanderings during the 16th and 17th
+centuries, the first European explorer of any education who penetrated into
+this country was the celebrated Portuguese official, Dr F.J.M. de Lacerda e
+Almeida, who journeyed from Tete on the Zambezi to the vicinity of Lake
+Mweru. But the real history of the country begins with the advent of David
+Livingstone, who in 1859 penetrated up the Shiré river and discovered Lake
+Nyasa. Livingstone's subsequent journeys, to the south end of Tanganyika,
+to Lake Mweru and to Lake Bangweulu (where he died in 1873), opened up this
+important part of South Central Africa and centred in it British interests
+in a very particular manner. Livingstone's death was soon followed by the
+entry of various missionary societies, who commenced the evangelization of
+the country; and these missionaries, together with a few Scottish settlers,
+steadily opposed the attempts of the Portuguese to extend their sway in
+this direction from the adjoining provinces of Moçambique and of the
+Zambezi. From out of the missionary societies grew a trading company, the
+African Lakes Trading Corporation. This body came into conflict with a
+number of Arabs who had established themselves on the north end of Lake
+Nyasa. About 1885 a struggle began between Arab and Briton for the
+possession of the country, which was not terminated until the year 1896.
+The African Lakes Corporation in its unofficial war enlisted volunteers,
+amongst whom were Captain (afterwards Sir F.D.) Lugard and Mr (afterwards
+Sir) Alfred Sharpe. Both these gentlemen were wounded, and the operations
+they undertook were not crowned with complete success. In 1889 Mr
+(afterwards Sir) H.H. Johnston was sent out to endeavour to effect a
+possible arrangement of the dispute between the Arabs and the African Lakes
+Corporation, and also to ensure the protection of friendly native chiefs
+from Portuguese aggression beyond a certain point. The outcome of these
+efforts and the treaties made was the creation of the British protectorate
+and sphere of influence north of the Zambezi (see AFRICA; § 5). In 1891
+Johnston returned to the country as imperial commissioner and
+consul-general. In the interval between 1889 and 1891 Mr Alfred Sharpe, on
+behalf of Cecil Rhodes, had brought a large part of the country into treaty
+with the British South Africa Company, These territories (Northern
+Rhodesia) were administered for four years by Sir Harry Johnston in
+connexion with the British Central Africa protectorate. Between 1891 and
+1895 a long struggle continued, between the British authorities on the one
+hand and the Arabs and Mahommedan Yaos on the other, regarding the
+suppression of the slave trade. By the beginning of 1896 the last Arab
+stronghold was taken and the Yaos were completely reduced to submission.
+Then followed, during 1896-1898, wars with the Zulu (Angoni) tribes, who
+claimed to dominate and harass the native populations to the west of Lake
+Nyasa. The Angoni having been subdued, and the British South Africa Company
+having also quelled the turbulent Awemba and Bashukulumbwe, there is a
+reasonable hope of the country enjoying a settled peace and considerable
+prosperity. This prospect has been, indeed, already realized to a
+considerable extent, though the increase of commerce has scarcely been as
+rapid as was anticipated. In 1897, on the transference of Sir Harry
+Johnston to Tunis, the commissionership was conferred on Mr Alfred Sharpe,
+who was created a K.C.M.G. in 1903. In 1904 the administration of the
+protectorate, originally directed by the foreign office, was transferred to
+the colonial office. In 1907, on the change in the title of the
+protectorate, the designation of the chief official was altered from
+commissioner to governor, and executive and legislative councils were
+established. The mineral surveys and railway construction commenced under
+the foreign office were carried on vigorously under the colonial office.
+The increased revenue, from £51,000 in 1901-1902 to £76,000 in 1905-1906,
+for the protectorate alone (see also RHODESIA), is an evidence of
+increasing prosperity. Expenditure in excess of revenue is met by grants in
+aid from the imperial exchequer, so far as the Nyasaland Protectorate is
+concerned. The British South Africa Company finances the remainder. The
+native population is well disposed towards European rule, having, indeed,
+at all times furnished the principal contingent of the armed force with
+which the African Lakes Company, British South Africa Company or the
+British government endeavoured to oppose Arab, Zulu or Awemba aggression.
+The protectorate government maintains three gunboats on Lake Nyasa, and the
+British South Africa Company an armed steamer on Lake Tanganyika.
+
+Unfortunately, though so rich and fertile, the land is not as a rule very
+healthy for Europeans, though there are signs of improvement in this
+respect. The principal scourges are black-water fever and dysentery,
+besides ordinary malarial fever, malarial ulcers, pneumonia and bronchitis.
+The climate is agreeable, and except in the low-lying districts is never
+unbearably hot; while on the high mountain plateaus frost frequently occurs
+during the dry season.
+
+See _Narrative of an Expedition to the Zambezi_, &c., by David and Charles
+Livingstone (1865); _Last Journals of David Livingstone_, edited by the
+Rev. Horace Waller (1874); L. Monteith Fotheringham, _Adventures in
+Nyasaland_ (1891); Henry Drummond, _Tropical Africa_ (4th ed., 1891); Rev.
+D.C. Scott, _An Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Mang'anja Language, as
+spoken in British Central Africa_ (1891); Sir H.H. Johnston, _British
+Central Africa_ (2nd ed., 1898); Miss A. Werner, _The Natives of British
+Central Africa_ (1906); John Buchanan, _The Shiré Highlands_ (1885); Lionel
+Décle, _Three Years in Savage Africa_ (1898); H.L. Duff, _Nyasaland under
+the Foreign Office_ (1903); J.E.S. Moore, _The Tanganyika Problem_ (1904);
+articles on North Eastern and North Western Rhodesia (chiefly by Frank
+Melland) in the _Journal of the African Society_ (1902-1906); annual
+_Reports_ on British Central Africa published by the Colonial Office;
+various linguistic works by Miss A. Werner, the Rev. Govan Robertson, Dr R.
+Laws, A.C. Madan, Father Torrend and Monsieur E. Jacottet.
+
+(H. H. J.)
+
+[1] The nomenclature of several of these rivers is perplexing. It should be
+borne in mind that the Luanga (also known as the Lunga) is a tributary of
+the Luengwe-Kafukwe, itself often called Kafue, and that the Luangwa (or
+Loangwa) is an independent affluent of the Zambezi (_q.v._).
+
+[2] The organized armed forces and police are under the direction of the
+imperial government throughout British Central Africa, and number about 880
+(150 Sikhs, 730 negroes and 14 British officers).
+
+BRITISH COLUMBIA, the western province of the Dominion of Canada. It is
+bounded on the east by the continental watershed in the Rocky Mountains,
+until this, in its north-westerly course, intersects 120° W., which is
+followed north to 60° N., thus including within the province a part of the
+Peace river country to the east of the mountains. The southern boundary is
+formed by 49° N. and the strait separating Vancouver Island from the state
+of Washington. The northern boundary is 60° N., the western the Pacific
+Ocean, upon which the province fronts for about 600 m., and the coast strip
+of Alaska for a further distance of 400 m. Vancouver Island and the Queen
+Charlotte Islands, as well as the smaller islands lying off the western
+coast of Canada, belong to the province of British Columbia.
+
+_Physical Features._--British Columbia is essentially a mountainous
+country, for the Rocky Mountains which in the United States lie to the east
+of the Great Basin, on running to the north bear toward the west and
+approach the ranges which border the Pacific coast. Thus British Columbia
+comprises practically the entire width of what has been termed the
+Cordillera or Cordilleran belt of North America, between the parallels of
+latitude above indicated. There are two ruling mountain systems in this
+belt--the Rocky Mountains proper on the north-east side, and the Coast
+Range on the south-west or Pacific side. Between these are subordinate
+ranges to which various local names have been given, as well as the
+"Interior Plateau"--an elevated tract of hilly country, the hill summits
+having an accordant altitude, which lies to the east of the Coast Range.
+The several ranges, having been produced by successive foldings of the
+earth's crust in a direction parallel to the border of the Pacific Ocean,
+have a common trend which is south-east and north-west. Vancouver Island
+and the Queen Charlotte Islands are remnants of still another mountain
+range, which runs parallel to the coast but is now almost entirely
+submerged beneath the waters of the Pacific. The province might be said to
+consist of a series of parallel mountain ranges with long narrow valleys
+lying between them.
+
+The Rocky Mountains are composed chiefly of palaeozoic sediments ranging in
+age from the Cambrian to the Carboniferous, with subordinate infolded areas
+of Cretaceous which hold coal. The average height of the range along the
+United States boundary is 8000 ft., but the range culminates between the
+latitudes of 51° and 53°, the highest peak in the Canadian Rockies being
+Mount Robson, 13,700 [v.04 p.0598] ft., although the highest peak in
+British Columbia is Mount Fairweather on the International Boundary, which
+rises to 15,287 ft. Other high peaks in the Rocky Mountains of Canada are
+Columbia, 12,740 ft.; Forbes, 12,075; Assiniboine, 11,860; Bryce. 11,686;
+Temple, 11,626; Lyell, 11,463. There are a number of passes over the Rocky
+Mountains, among which may be mentioned, beginning from the south, the
+South Kootenay or Boundary Pass, 7100 ft.; the Crow's Nest Pass, 5500 (this
+is traversed by the southern branch of the Canadian Pacific railway and
+crosses great coal fields); the Kicking Horse or Wapta Pass, 5300 (which is
+traversed by the main line of the Canadian Pacific railway); the Athabasca
+Pass, 6025; the Yellow Head Pass, 3733 (which will probably be used by the
+Grand Trunk Pacific railway); the Pine River Pass, 2850; and the Peace
+River Pass, 2000, through which the Peace river flows.
+
+The Coast Range, sometimes called the Cascade Range, borders the Pacific
+coast for 900 m. and gives to it its remarkable character. To its partially
+submerged transverse valleys are due the excellent harbours on the coast,
+the deep sounds and inlets which penetrate far inland at many points, as
+well as the profound and gloomy fjords and the stupendous precipices which
+render the coast line an exaggerated reproduction of that of Norway. The
+coast is, in fact, one of the most remarkable in the world, measuring with
+all its indentations 7000 m. in the aggregate, and being fringed with an
+archipelago of innumerable islands, of which Vancouver Island and the Queen
+Charlotte Islands are the largest.
+
+Along the south-western side of the Rocky Mountains is a very remarkable
+valley of considerable geological antiquity, in which some seven of the
+great rivers of the Pacific slope, among them the Kootenay, Columbia,
+Fraser and Finlay, flow for portions of their upper courses. This valley,
+which is from 1 to 6 m. in width, can be traced continuously for a length
+of at least 800 m. One of the most important rivers of the province is the
+Fraser, which, rising in the Rocky Mountains, flows for a long distance to
+the north-west, and then turning south eventually crosses the Coast Range
+by a deep canton-like valley and empties into the Strait of Georgia, a few
+miles south of the city of Vancouver. The Columbia, which rises farther
+south in the same range, flows north for about 150 m., crossing the main
+line of the Canadian Pacific railway at Donald, and then bending abruptly
+back upon its former course, flows south, recrossing the Canadian Pacific
+railway at Revelstoke, and on through the Arrow Lakes in the Kootenay
+country into the United States, emptying into the Pacific Ocean at Astoria
+in the state of Oregon. These lakes, as well as the other large lakes in
+southern British Columbia, remain open throughout the winter. In the
+north-western part of the province the Skeena flows south-west into the
+Pacific, and still farther to the north the Stikine rises in British
+Columbia, but before entering the Pacific crosses the coast strip of
+Alaska. The Liard, rising in the same district, flows east and falls into
+the Mackenzie, which empties into the Arctic Ocean. The headwaters of the
+Yukon are also situated in the northern part of the province. All these
+rivers are swift and are frequently interrupted by rapids, so that, as
+means of communication for commercial purposes, they are of indifferent
+value. Wherever lines of railway are constructed, they lose whatever
+importance they may have held in this respect previously.
+
+At an early stage in the Glacial period British Columbia was covered by the
+Cordilleran glacier, which moved south-eastwards and north-westwards, in
+correspondence with the ruling features of the country, from a
+gathering-ground situated in the vicinity of the 57th parallel. Ice from
+this glacier poured through passes in the coast ranges, and to a lesser
+extent debouched upon the edge of the great plains, beyond the Rocky
+Mountain range. The great valley between the coast ranges and Vancouver
+Island was also occupied by a glacier that moved in both directions from a
+central point in the vicinity of Valdez Island. The effects of this glacial
+action and of the long periods of erosion preceding it and of other
+physiographic changes connected with its passing away, have most important
+bearings on the distribution and character of the gold-bearing alluviums of
+the province.
+
+_Climate._--The subjoined figures relating to temperature and precipitation
+are from a table prepared by Mr R.F. Stupart, director of the
+meteorological service. The station at Victoria may be taken as
+representing the conditions of the southern part of the coast of British
+Columbia, although the rainfall is much greater on exposed parts of the
+outer coast. Agassiz represents the Fraser delta and Kamloops the southern
+interior district. The mean temperature naturally decreases to the
+northward of these selected stations, both along the coast and in the
+interior, while the precipitation increases. The figures given for Port
+Simpson are of interest, as the Pacific terminus of the Grand Trunk Pacific
+railway will be in this vicinity.
+
+  +----------------+-----------------------------+----------------+
+  |                |                             |    Absolute    |
+  |                |       Mean Temp., Fahr.     |  Temperature.  |
+  +----------------+----------+----------+-------+--------+-------+
+  |                |  Coldest |  Warmest |Average|Highest.|Lowest.|
+  |                |   Month. |   Month. |Annual.|        |       |
+  +----------------+----------+----------+-------+--------+-------+
+  | Victoria[1]    |Jan. 37.5°|July 60.3°| 48.8° |   90°  |   -1° |
+  | Agassiz[2]     |Jan. 33.0°|Aug. 64.7°| 48.9° |   97°  |  -13° |
+  | Kamloops[3]    |Jan. 24.2°|Aug. 68.5°| 47.1° |  101°  |  -27° |
+  | Port Simpson[4]|Jan. 34.9°|Aug. 56.9°| 45.1° |   88°  |  -10° |
+  +----------------+----------+----------+-------+--------+-------+
+
+  +--------------+-----------------------------+
+  |              |                             |
+  |              |      Rainfall--Inches.      |
+  +--------------+----------+----------+-------+
+  |              |  Wettest |  Driest  |Average|
+  |              |   Month. |  Month.  |Annual.|
+  +--------------+----------+----------+-------+
+  | Victoria     |Dec.  7.98|July   .4 | 37.77 |
+  | Agassiz      |Dec.  9.43|July  1.55| 66.85 |
+  | Kamloops     |July  1.61|April  .37| 11.46 |
+  | Port Simpson |Oct. 12.42|June  4.37| 94.63 |
+  +--------------+----------+----------+-------+
+
+[1] 48° 24' N., 123° 19' W., height 85 ft.
+
+[2] 49° 14' N., 121° 31' W., height 52 ft.
+
+[3] 50° 41' N., 120° 29' W., height 1193 ft.
+
+[4] 54° 34' N., 130° 26' W., height 26 ft.
+
+_Fauna._--Among the larger mammals are the big-horn or mountain sheep
+(_Ovis canadensis_), the Rocky Mountain goat (_Mazama montana_), the
+grizzly bear, moose, woodland caribou, black-tailed or mule deer,
+white-tailed deer, and coyote. All these are to be found only on the
+mainland. The black bear, wolf, puma, lynx, wapiti, and Columbian or coast
+deer are common to parts of both mainland and islands. Of marine mammals
+the most characteristic are the sea-lion, fur-seal, sea-otter and
+harbour-seal. About 340 species of birds are known to occur in the
+province, among which, as of special interest, may be mentioned the
+burrowing owl of the dry, interior region, the American magpie, Steller's
+jay and a true nut-cracker, Clark's crow (_Picicorvus columbianus_). True
+jays and orioles are also well represented. The gallinaceous birds include
+the large blue grouse of the coast, replaced in the Rocky Mountains by the
+dusky grouse. The western form of the "spruce partridge" of eastern Canada
+is also abundant, together with several forms referred to the genus
+_Bonasa_, generally known as "partridges" or ruffed grouse. Ptarmigans also
+abound in many of the higher mountain regions. Of the _Anatidae_ only
+passing mention need be made. During the spring and autumn migrations many
+species are found in great abundance, but in the summer a smaller number
+remain to breed, chief among which are the teal, mallard, wood-duck,
+spoon-bill, pin-tail, buffle-head, red-head, canvas-back, scaup-duck, &c.
+
+_Area and Population._--The area of British Columbia is 357,600 sq. m., and
+its population by the census of 1901 was 190,000. Since that date this has
+been largely increased by the influx of miners and others, consequent upon
+the discovery of precious metals in the Kootenay, Boundary and Atlin
+districts. Much of this is a floating population, but the opening up of the
+valleys by railway and new lines of steamboats, together with the
+settlements made in the vicinity of the Canadian Pacific railway, has
+resulted in a considerable increase of the permanent population. The white
+population comprises men of many nationalities. There is a large Chinese
+population, the census of 1901 returning 14,201. The influx of Chinamen
+has, however, practically ceased, owing to the tax of $500 per head imposed
+by the government of the dominion. Many Japanese have also come in. The
+Japanese are engaged chiefly in lumbering and fishing, but the Chinese are
+found everywhere in the province. Great objection is taken by the white
+population to the increasing number of "Mongolians," owing to their
+competition with whites in the labour markets. The Japanese do not appear
+to be so much disliked, as they adapt themselves to the ways of white men,
+but they are equally objected to on the score of cheap labour; and in
+1907-1908 considerable friction occurred with the Dominion government over
+the Anti-Japanese attitude of British Columbia, which was shown in some
+rather serious riots. In the census of 1901 the Indian population is
+returned at 25,488; of these 20,351 are professing Christians and 5137 are
+pagans. The Indians are divided into very many tribes, under local names,
+but fall naturally on linguistic grounds into a few large groups. Thus the
+southern part of the interior is occupied by the Salish and Kootenay, and
+the northern interior by the Tinneh or Athapackan people. On the coast are
+the Haida, Tsimshian, Kwakiatl, Nootka, and about the Gulf of Georgia
+various tribes related to the Salish proper. There is no treaty with the
+Indians of British Columbia, as with those of the plains, for the
+relinquishment of their title to the land, but the government otherwise
+assists them. There is an Indian superintendent at Victoria, and under him
+are nine agencies throughout the province to attend to the
+Indians--relieving their sick and destitute, supplying them with seed and
+implements, settling their disputes and administering justice. The Indian
+fishing stations and burial grounds are reserved, and other land has been
+set apart for them for agricultural and pastoral purposes. A number of
+schools have been established for their education. They were at one time a
+dangerous element, but are now quiet and peaceable.
+
+The chief cities are Victoria, the capital, on Vancouver Island; and
+Vancouver on the mainland, New Westminster on the Fraser and Nanaimo on
+Vancouver Island. Rossland and Nelson in West Kootenay, as well as Fernie
+in East Kootenay and Grand Forks in the Boundary district, are also places
+of importance.
+
+_Mining._--Mining is the principal industry of British Columbia. The
+country is rich in gold, silver, copper, lead and coal, and has also iron
+deposits. From 1894 to 1904 the mining output increased from $4,225,717 to
+$18,977,359. In 1905 it had reached $22,460,295. The principal minerals, in
+order of value of output, are gold, copper, coal, lead and silver. Between
+1858--the year of the placer discoveries on the Fraser river and in the
+Cariboo district--and 1882, the placer yields were much heavier than in
+subsequent years, running from one to nearly four million dollars annually,
+but there was no quartz mining. Since 1899 placer mining has increased
+considerably, although the greater part of the return has been from lode
+mining. The Rossland, the Boundary and the Kootenay districts are the chief
+centres of vein-mining, yielding auriferous and cupriferous sulphide ores,
+as well as large quantities of silver-bearing lead ores. Ores of copper and
+the precious metals are being prospected and worked also, in several places
+along the coast and on Vancouver Island. The mining laws are liberal, and
+being based on the experience gained in the adjacent mining centres of the
+Western States, are convenient and effective. The most important smelting
+and reducing plants are those at Trail and Nelson in the West Kootenay
+country, and at Grand Forks and Greenwood in the Boundary district. There
+are also numerous concentrating plants. Mining machinery of the most modern
+types is employed wherever machinery is required.
+
+The province contains enormous supplies of excellent coal, most of which
+are as yet untouched. It is chiefly of Cretaceous age. The producing
+collieries are chiefly on Vancouver Island and on the western slope of the
+Rockies near the Crow's Nest Pass in the extreme south-eastern portion of
+the provinces. Immense beds of high grade bituminous coal and
+semi-anthracite are exposed in the Bulkley Valley, south of the Skeena
+river, not far from the projected line of the Grand Trunk Pacific railway.
+About one-half the coal mined is exported to the United States.
+
+_Fisheries._--A large percentage of the commerce is derived from the sea,
+the chief product being salmon. Halibut, cod (several varieties), oolachan,
+sturgeon, herring, shad and many other fishes are also plentiful, but with
+the exception of the halibut these have not yet become the objects of
+extensive industries. There are several kinds of salmon, and they run in
+British Columbia waters at different seasons of the year. The quinnat or
+spring salmon is the largest and best table fish, and is followed in the
+latter part of the summer by the sockeye, which runs in enormous numbers up
+the Fraser and Skeena rivers. This is the fish preferred for canning. It is
+of brighter colour, more uniform in size, and comes in such quantities that
+a constant supply can be reckoned upon by the canneries. About the mouth of
+the Fraser river from 1800 to 2600 boats are occupied during the run. There
+is an especially large run of sockeye salmon in the Fraser river every
+fourth year, while in the year immediately following there is a poor run.
+The silver salmon or cohoe arrives a little later than the sockeye, but is
+not much used for packing except when required to make up deficiencies. The
+dog-salmon is not canned, but large numbers are caught by the Japanese, who
+salt them for export to the Orient. The other varieties are of but little
+commercial importance at present, although with the increasing demand for
+British Columbia salmon, the fishing season is being extended to cover the
+runs of all the varieties of this fish found in the waters of the province.
+
+Great Britain is the largest but not the only market for British Columbia
+salmon. The years vary in productiveness, 1901 having been unusually large
+and 1903 the smallest in eleven years, but the average pack is about
+700,000 cases of forty-eight 1-lb tins, the greater part of all returns
+being from the Fraser river canneries, the Skeena river and the Rivers
+Inlet coming next in order. There are between 60 and 70 canneries, of which
+about 40 are on the banks of [v.04 p.0600] the Fraser river. There is
+urgent need for the enactment of laws restricting the catch of salmon, as
+the industry is now seriously threatened. The fish oils are extracted
+chiefly from several species of dog-fish, and sometimes from the basking
+shark, as well as from the oolachan, which is also an edible fish.
+
+The fur-seal fishery is an important industry, though apparently a
+declining one. Owing to the scarcity of seals and international
+difficulties concerning pelagic sealing in Bering Sea, where the greatest
+number have been taken, the business of seal-hunting is losing favour.
+Salmon fish-hatcheries have been established on the chief rivers frequented
+by these fish. Oysters and lobsters from the Atlantic coast have been
+planted in British Columbia waters.
+
+_Timber._--The province is rich in forest growth, and there is a steady
+demand for its lumber in the other parts of Canada as well as in South
+America, Africa, Australia and China. The following is a list of some of
+the more important trees--large leaved maple (_Acer macrophyllum_), red
+alder (_Alnus rubra_), western larch (_Larix occidentalis_), white spruce
+(_Picea alba_), Engellmann's spruce (_Picea Engelmanii_), Menzies's spruce
+(_Picea sitchensis_), white mountain pine (_Pinus monticola_), black pine
+(_Pinus murrayana_), yellow pine (_Pinus ponderosa_), Douglas fir
+(_Pseudotsuga Douglasii_), western white oak (_Quercus garryana_), giant
+cedar (_Thuya gigantea_), yellow cypress or cedar (_Thuya excelsa_),
+western hemlock (_Tsuga mertensiana_). The principal timber of commerce is
+the Douglas fir. The tree is often found 300 ft. high and from 8 to 10ft.
+in diameter. The wood is tough and strong and highly valued for ships'
+spars as well as for building purposes. Red or giant cedar, which rivals
+the Douglas fir in girth, is plentiful, and is used for shingles as well as
+for interior work. The western white spruce is also much employed for
+various purposes. There are about eighty sawmills, large and small, in the
+province. The amount of timber cut on Dominion government lands in 1904 was
+22,760,222 ft., and the amount cut on provincial lands was 325,271,568 ft.,
+giving a total of 348,031,790 ft. In 1905 the cut on dominion lands
+exceeded that in 1904, while the amount cut on provincial lands reached
+450,385,554 ft. The cargo shipments of lumber for the years 1904 and 1905
+were as follows:--
+
+                                 1904.                 1905.
+                                  Ft.                   Ft.
+  United Kingdom               7,498,301            13,690,869
+  South America               15,647,808            13.332,993
+  Australia                   10,045,094            11,596,482
+  South Africa                 2,517,154             7,093,681
+  China and Japan              4,802,426             4,787,784
+  Germany                                              983,342
+  Fiji Islands                   308,332                29,949
+  France                       1,308,662
+                               ---------             ----------
+                              42,199,777            51,515,100
+
+There is a very large market for British Columbia lumber in the western
+provinces of Canada.
+
+_Agriculture._--Although mountainous in character the province contains
+many tracts of good farming land. These lie in the long valleys between the
+mountain ranges of the interior, as well as on the lower slopes of the
+mountains and on the deltas of the rivers running out to the coast. On
+Vancouver Island also there is much good farming land. The conditions are
+in most places best suited to mixed farming; the chief crops raised are
+wheat, oats, potatoes and hay. Some areas are especially suited for cattle
+and sheep raising, among which may be mentioned the Yale district and the
+country about Kamloops. Much attention has been given to fruit raising,
+especially in the Okanagan valley. Apples, plums and cherries are grown, as
+well as peaches, apricots, grapes and various small fruits, notably
+strawberries. All these are of excellent quality. Hops are also cultivated.
+A large market for this fruit is opening up in the rapidly growing
+provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan.
+
+_Imports and Exports._--For the year ending June 30th 1905 the total
+exports and imports (showing a slight gradual increase on the two preceding
+years) were valued at $16,677,882 and $12,565,019 respectively. The exports
+were classified as follows:--Mines, $9,777,423; fisheries, $2,101,533;
+forests, $1,046,718; animals, $471,231; agriculture, $119,426;
+manufactures, $1,883,777; miscellaneous, $1,106,643; coin and bullion,
+$171,131.
+
+_Railways._--The Pacific division of the Canadian Pacific railway enters
+British Columbia through the Rocky Mountains on the east and runs for about
+500 m. across the province before reaching the terminus at Vancouver. A
+branch of the same railway leaves the main line at Medicine Hat, and
+running to the south-west, crosses the Rocky Mountains through the Crow's
+Nest Pass, and thus enters British Columbia a short distance north of the
+United States boundary. This continues across the province, running
+approximately parallel to the boundary as far as Midway in what is known as
+the Boundary district. The line has opened up extensive coal fields and
+crosses a productive mining district. On Vancouver Island there are two
+railways, the Esquimalt & Nanaimo railway (78 m.) connecting the coal
+fields with the southern ports, and the Victoria & Sydney railway, about 16
+m. in length. The Great Northern has also a number of short lines in the
+southern portion of the province, connecting with its system in the United
+States. In 1905 there were 1627m. of railway in the province, of which 1187
+were owned or controlled by the Canadian Pacific railway.
+
+_Shipping._--The Canadian Pacific Railway Company has two lines of mail
+steamer running from Vancouver and Victoria: (l) the Empress line, which
+runs to Japan and China once in three weeks, and (2) the Australian line to
+Honolulu, Fiji and Sydney, once a month. The same company also has a line
+of steamers running to Alaska, as well as a fleet of coasting steamers.
+
+_Government._--The province is governed by a lieutenant-governor, appointed
+by the governor-general in council for five years, but subject to removal
+for cause, an executive council of five ministers, and a single legislative
+chamber. The executive council is appointed by the lieutenant-governor on
+the advice of the first minister, and retains office so long as it enjoys
+the support of a majority of the legislature. The powers of the
+lieutenant-governor in regard to the provincial government are analogous to
+those of governor-general in respect of the dominion government.
+
+The British North America Act (1867) confederating the colonies, defines
+the jurisdiction of the provincial legislature as distinguished from that
+of the federal parliament, but within its own jurisdiction the province
+makes the laws for its own governance. The act of the legislature may be
+disallowed, within one year of its passage, by the governor-general in
+council, and is also subject to challenge as to its legality in the supreme
+court of Canada or on appeal to the juridical committee of the privy
+council of the United Kingdom. British Columbia sends three senators and
+seven members to the lower house of the federal parliament, which sits at
+Ottawa.
+
+_Justice._--There is a supreme court of British Columbia presided over by a
+chief justice and five puisne judges, and there are also a number of county
+courts. In British Columbia the supreme court has jurisdiction in divorce
+cases, this right having been invested in the colony before confederation.
+
+_Religion and Education._--In 1901 the population was divided by creeds as
+follows: Church of England, 40,687; Methodist, 25,047; Presbyterian,
+34,081; Roman Catholic, 33,639; others, 40,197; not stated, 5003; total,
+178,654. The educational system of British Columbia differs slightly from
+that of other provinces of Canada. There are three classes of
+schools--common, graded and high--all maintained by the government and all
+free and undenominational. There is only one college in the province, the
+"McGill University College of British Columbia" at Vancouver, which is one
+of the colleges of McGill University, whose chief seat is at Montreal. The
+schools are controlled by trustees selected by the ratepayers of each
+school district, and there is a superintendent of education acting under
+the provincial secretary.
+
+_Finance._--Under the terms of union with Canada, British Columbia receives
+from the dominion government annually a certain contribution, which in 1905
+amounted to $307,076. This, with provincial taxes on real property,
+personal property, income tax, sales of public land, timber dues, &c.,
+amounted in the year 1905 to $2,920,461. The expenditure for the year was
+$2,302,417. The gross debt of the province in 1905 was $13,252,097, with
+assets of $4,463,869, or a net debt of $8,788,228. These assets do not
+include new legislative buildings or other public works. The income tax is
+on a sliding scale. In 1899 a fairly close estimate was made of the capital
+invested in the province, which amounted to $307,385,000 including timber,
+$100,000,000; railways and telegraphs, $47,500,000; mining plant and
+smelters, $10,500,000; municipal assessments, $45,000,000; provincial
+assessments, $51,500,000; in addition to private wealth, $280,000,000.
+There are branch offices of one or more of the Canadian banks in each of
+the larger towns.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+_History._--The discovery of British Columbia was made by the Spaniard
+Perez in 1774. With Cook's visit the geographical exploration of the coast
+began in 1778. Vancouver, in 1792-1794, surveyed almost the entire coast of
+British Columbia with much of that to the north and south, for the British
+government. The interior, about the same time, was entered by Mackenzie and
+traders of the N.W. Company, which in 1821 became amalgamated with the
+Hudson's Bay Company. For the next twenty-eight years the Hudson's Bay
+Company ruled this immense territory with beneficent despotism. In 1849
+Vancouver Island was proclaimed a British colony. In 1858, consequent on
+the discovery of gold and the large influx of miners, the mainland
+territory was erected into a colony under the name of British Columbia, and
+in 1866 this was united with the colony of Vancouver Island, under the same
+name. In 1871 British Columbia entered the confederation and became part of
+the Dominion of Canada, sending three senators and six (now seven) members
+to the House of Commons of the federal parliament. One of the conditions
+under which the colony entered the dominion was the speedy construction of
+the Canadian Pacific railway, and in 1876 the non-fulfilment of this
+promise and the apparent indifference of the government at Ottawa to the
+representations of British Columbia created [v.04 p.0601] strained
+relations, which were only ameliorated when the construction of a
+transcontinental road was begun. In subsequent years the founding of the
+city of Vancouver by the C.P.R., the establishment of the first Canadian
+steamship line to China and Japan, and that to Australia, together with the
+disputes with the United States on the subject of pelagic sealing, and the
+discovery of the Kootenay and Boundary mining districts, have been the
+chief events in the history of the province.
+
+AUTHORITIES.--Cook's _Voyage to the Pacific Ocean_ (London, 1784);
+Vancouver, _Voyage of Discovery to the Pacific Ocean_ (London, 1798); H.H.
+Bancroft's works, vol. xxxii., _History of British Columbia_ (San
+Francisco, 1887); Begg's _History of British Columbia_ (Toronto, 1894);
+Gosnell, _Year Book_ (Victoria, British Columbia, 1897 and 1903); _Annual
+Reports British Columbia Board of Trade_ (Victoria); _Annual Reports of
+Minister of Mines and other Departmental Reports of the Provincial and
+Dominion Governments; Catalogue of Provincial Museum_ (Victoria); _Reports
+Geological Survey of Canada_ (from 1871 to date); _Reports of Canadian
+Pacific (Government) Surveys_ (1872-1880); _Reports of Committee of Brit.
+Assn. Adv. Science on N.W. Tribes_ (1884-1895); Lord, _Naturalist in
+Vancouver Island_ (London, 1866); _Bering Sea Arbitration_ (reprint of
+letters to _Times_), (London, 1893); _Report of Bering Sea Commission_
+(London, Government, 1892); A. Métin, _La Colombie Britannique_ (Paris,
+1908). See also various works of reference under CANADA.
+
+(G. M. D.; M. ST J.; F. D. A.)
+
+BRITISH EAST AFRICA, a term, in its widest sense, including all the
+territory under British influence on the eastern side of Africa between
+German East Africa on the south and Abyssinia and the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan
+on the north. It comprises the protectorates of Zanzibar, Uganda and East
+Africa. Apart from a narrow belt of coastland, the continental area belongs
+almost entirely to the great plateau of East Africa, rarely falling below
+an elevation of 2000 ft., while extensive sections rise to a height of 6000
+to 8000 ft. From the coast lowlands a series of steps with intervening
+plateaus leads to a broad zone of high ground remarkable for the abundant
+traces of volcanic action. This broad upland is furrowed by the eastern
+"rift-valley," formed by the subsidence of its floor and occupied in parts
+by lakes without outlet. Towards the west a basin of lower elevation is
+partially occupied by Victoria Nyanza, drained north to the Nile, while
+still farther inland the ground again rises to a second volcanic belt,
+culminating in the Ruwenzori range. (See ZANZIBAR, and for Uganda
+protectorate see UGANDA.) The present article treats of the East Africa
+protectorate only.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+_Topography._--The southern frontier, coterminous with the northern
+frontier of German East Africa, runs north-west from the mouth of the Umba
+river in 4° 40' S. to Victoria Nyanza, which it strikes at 1° S.,
+deviating, however, so as to leave Mount Kilimanjaro wholly in German
+territory. The eastern boundary is the Indian Ocean, the coast line being
+about 400 m. On the north the protectorate is bounded by Abyssinia and
+Italian Somaliland; on the west by Uganda. It has an area of about 240,000
+sq. m., and a population estimated at from 2,000,000 to 4,000,000,
+including some 25,000 Indians and 3000 Europeans. Of the Europeans many are
+emigrants from South Africa; they include some hundreds of Boer families.
+
+The first of the parallel zones--the coast plain or "Temborari"--is
+generally of insignificant width, varying from 2 to 10 m., except in the
+valleys of the main rivers. The shore line is broken by bays and branching
+creeks, often cutting off islands from the mainland. Such are Mvita or
+Mombasa in 4° 4' S., and the larger islands of Lamu, Manda and Patta (the
+Lamu archipelago), between 2° 20' and 2° S. Farther north the coast becomes
+straighter, with the one indentation of Port Durnford in 1° 10' S., but
+skirted seawards by a row of small islands. Beyond the coast plain the
+country rises in a generally well defined step or steps to an altitude of
+some 800 ft., forming the wide level plain called "Nyika" (uplands),
+largely composed of quartz. It contains large waterless areas, such as the
+Taru desert in the Mombasa district. The next stage in the ascent is marked
+by an intermittent line of mountains--gneissose or schistose--running
+generally north-north-west, sometimes in parallel chains, and representing
+the primitive axis of the continent. Their height varies from 5000 to 8000
+ft. Farther inland grassy uplands extend to the eastern edge of the
+rift-valley, though varied with cultivated ground and forest, the former
+especially in Kikuyu, the latter between 0° and 0° 40' S. The most
+extensive grassy plains are those of Kapte or Kapote and Athi, between 1°
+and 2° S. The general altitude of these uplands, the surface of which is
+largely composed of lava, varies from 5000 to 8000 ft. This zone contains
+the highest elevations in British East Africa, including the volcanic pile
+of Kenya (_q.v._) (17,007 ft.), Sattima (13,214 ft.) and Nandarua (about
+12,900 ft.). The Sattima (Settima) range, or Aberdare Mountains, has a
+general elevation of fully 10,000 ft. To the west the fall to the
+rift-valley is marked by a line of cliffs, of which the best-defined
+portions are the Kikuyu escarpment (8000 ft.), just south of 1° S., and the
+Laikipia escarpment, on the equator. One of the main watersheds of East
+Africa runs close to the eastern wall of the rift-valley, separating the
+basins of inland drainage from the rivers of the east coast, of which the
+two largest wholly within British East Africa are the Sabaki and Tana, both
+separately noticed. The Guaso Nyiro rises in the hills north-west of Kenya
+and flows in a north-east direction. After a course of over 350 m. the
+river in about 1° N., 39° 30' E. is lost in a marshy expanse known as the
+Lorian Swamp.
+
+The rift-valley, though with a generally level floor, is divided by
+transverse ridges into a series of basins, each containing a lake without
+outlet. The southernmost section within British East Africa is formed by
+the arid Dogilani plains, drained south towards German territory. At their
+north end rise the extinct volcanoes of Suswa (7800 ft.) and Longonot
+(8700), the latter on the ridge dividing off the next basin--that of Lake
+Naivasha. This is a small fresh-water lake, 6135 ft. above the sea,
+measuring some 13 m each way. Its basin is closed to the north by the ridge
+of Mount Buru, beyond which is the basin of the [v.04 p.0602] still smaller
+Lakes Nakuro (5845 ft.) and Elmenteita (5860 ft.), followed in turn by that
+of Lakes Hannington and Baringo (_q.v._). Beyond Baringo the valley is
+drained north into Lake Sugota, in 2° N., some 35 m. long, while north of
+this lies the much larger Lake Rudolf (_q.v._), the valley becoming here
+somewhat less defined.
+
+On the west of the rift-valley the wall of cliffs is best marked between
+the equator and 1° S., where it is known as the Mau Escarpment, and about
+1° N., where the Elgeyo Escarpment falls to a longitudinal valley separated
+from Lake Baringo by the ridge of Kamasia. Opposite Lake Naivasha the Mau
+Escarpment is over 8000 ft. high. Its crest is covered with a vast forest.
+To the south the woods become more open, and the plateau falls to an open
+country drained towards the Dogilani plains. On the west the cultivated
+districts of Sotik and Lumbwa, broken by wooded heights, fall towards
+Victoria Nyanza. The Mau plateau reaches a height of 9000 ft. on the
+equator, north of which is the somewhat lower Nandi country, well watered
+and partly forested. In the treeless plateau of Uasin Gishu, west of
+Elgeyo, the land again rises to a height of over 8000 ft., and to the west
+of this is the great mountain mass of Elgon (_q.v._). East of Lake Rudolf
+and south of Lake Stefanie is a large waterless steppe, mainly volcanic in
+character, from which rise mountain ranges. The highest peak is Mount
+Kanjora, 6900 ft. high. South of this arid region, strewn with great lava
+stones, are the Rendile uplands, affording pasturage for thousands of
+camels. Running north-west and south-east between Lake Stefanie and the
+Daua tributary of the Juba is a mountain range with a steep escarpment
+towards the south. It is known as the Goro Escarpment, and at its eastern
+end it forms the boundary between the protectorate and Abyssinia.
+South-east of it the country is largely level bush covered plain, mainly
+waterless.
+
+[_Geology._--The geological formations of British East Africa occur in four
+regions possessing distinct physiographical features. The coast plain,
+narrow in the south and rising somewhat steeply, consists of recent rocks.
+The foot plateau which succeeds is composed of sedimentary rocks dating
+from Trias to Jurassic. The ancient plateau commencing at Taru extends to
+the borders of Kikuyu and is composed of ancient crystalline rocks on which
+immense quantities of volcanic rocks--post-Jurassic to Recent--have
+accumulated to form the volcanic plateau of Central East Africa.
+
+The formations recognized are given in the following table:--
+
+  _Sedimentary._
+
+               (  1. Alluvium and superficial sands.
+  Recent       <  2. Modern lake deposits, living coral rock.
+               (  3. Raised coral rock, conglomerate of Mombasa Island.
+
+  Pleistocene  (  4. Gravels with flint implements.
+               (  5. Glacial beds of Kenya
+
+  Jurassic        6. Shales and limestones of Changamwe.
+
+  Karroo       (  7. Flags and sandstones.
+               (  8. Grits and shales of Masara and Taru.
+
+  Carboniferous?  9. Shales of the Sabaki river.
+
+  Archaean     ( 10. Schists and quartzites of Nandi.
+               ( 11. Gneisses, schists, granites.
+
+  _Igneous and Volcanic._
+
+  Recent        Active, dormant and extinct volcanoes.
+
+  Post-Jurassic ( Kibo and volcanoes of the rift-valley.
+  to Pleistocene( Kimawenzi, Kenya and plateau eruptions.
+
+_Archaean._--These rocks prevail in the districts of Taru, Nandi and
+throughout Ukamba. A course gneiss is the predominant rock, but is
+associated with garnetiferous mica-schists and much intrusive granite.
+Hornblende schists and beds of metamorphic limestone are rare. Cherty
+quartzites interbedded with mylonites occur on the flanks of the Nandi
+hills, but their age is not known.
+
+_Carboniferous?_--From shales on the Sabaki river Dr Gregory obtained
+fish-scales and specimens of _Palaeanodonta Fischeri._
+
+_Karroo._--The grits of Masara, near Rabai mission station and Mombasa,
+have yielded specimens of _Glossopteris browniana_ var. _indica_, thus
+indicating their Karroo age.
+
+_Jurassic._--Shales and limestones of this age are well seen along the
+railway near Changamwe. They contain gigantic ammonites. According to Dr
+Waagen the ammonites show a striking analogy to forms from the Acanthicus
+zone of East India. Belemnites are plentiful.
+
+_Pleistocene._--These are feebly represented by some boulder beds on the
+higher slopes of Kilimanjaro and Kenya. They show that in Pleistocene times
+the glaciers of Kilimanjaro and Kenya extended much farther down the
+mountain slopes.
+
+_Recent._--The ancient and more modern lake deposits have so far yielded no
+mammalian or other organic remains of interest.
+
+_Igneous and Volcanic._--A belt of volcanic rocks, over 150,000 sq. m. in
+area, extends from beyond the southern to beyond the northern territorial
+limits. They belong to an older and a newer set. The older group commenced
+with a series of fissure eruptions along the site of the present
+rift-valley and parallel with it. From these fissures immense and repeated
+flows of lava spread over the Kapte and Laikipia plateaus. At about the
+same time, or a little later, Kenya and Kimawenzi, Elgon and Chibcharagnani
+were in eruption. The age of these volcanic outbursts cannot be more
+definitely stated than that they are post-Jurassic, and probably extended
+through Cretaceous into early Tertiary times. This great volcanic period
+was followed by the eruptions of Kibo and some of the larger volcanoes of
+the rift-valley. The flows from Kibo include nepheline and leucite basanite
+lavas rich in soda felspars. They bear a close resemblance to the Norwegian
+"Rhombenporphyrs." The chain of volcanic cones along the northern lower
+slopes of Kilimanjaro, those of the Kyulu mountains, Donyo Longonot and
+numerous craters in the rift-valley region, are of a slightly more recent
+date. A few of the volcanoes in the latter region have only recently become
+extinct; a few may be only dormant. Donyo Buru still emits small quantities
+of steam, while Mount Teleki, in the neighbourhood of Lake Rudolf, was in
+eruption at the close of the 19th century.]
+
+_Climate, Flora and Fauna._--In its climate and vegetation British East
+Africa again shows an arrangement of zones parallel to the coast. The coast
+region is hot but is generally more healthy than the coast lands of other
+tropical countries, this being due to the constant breeze from the Indian
+Ocean and to the dryness of the soil. The rainfall on the coast is about 35
+in. a year, the temperature tropical. The succeeding plains and the outer
+plateaus are more arid. Farther inland the highlands--in which term may be
+included all districts over 5000 ft. high--are very healthy, fever being
+almost unknown. The average temperature is about 66° F. in the cool season
+and 73° F. in the hot season. Over 7000 ft. the climate becomes distinctly
+colder and frosts are experienced. The average rainfall in the highlands is
+between 40 and 50 in. The country bordering Victoria Nyanza is typically
+tropical; the rainfall exceeds 60 in. in the year, and this region is quite
+unsuitable to Europeans. The hottest period throughout the protectorate is
+December to April, the coolest, July to September. The "greater rains" fall
+from March to June, the "smaller rains" in November and December. The
+rainfall is not, however, as regular as is usual in countries within the
+tropics, and severe droughts are occasionally experienced.
+
+In the districts bordering Victoria Nyanza the flora resembles that of
+Uganda (_q.v._). The characteristic trees of the coast regions are the
+mangrove and coco-nut palm. Ebony grows in the scrub-jungle. Vast forests
+of olives and junipers are found on the Mau escarpment; the cotton, fig and
+bamboo on the Kikuyu escarpment; and in several regions are dense forests
+of great trees whose lowest branches are 50 ft. from the ground. Two
+varieties of the valuable rubber-vine, _Landolphia florida_ and _Landolphia
+Kirkii_, are found near the coast and in the forests. The higher mountains
+preserve distinct species, the surviving remnants of the flora of a cooler
+period.
+
+The fauna is not abundant except in large mammals, which are very numerous
+on the drier steppes. They include the camel (confined to the arid northern
+regions), elephant (more and more restricted to unfrequented districts),
+rhinoceros, buffalo, many kinds of antelope, zebra, giraffe, hippopotamus,
+lion and other carnivora, and numerous monkeys. In many parts the
+rhinoceros is particularly abundant and dangerous. Crocodiles are common in
+the larger rivers and in Victoria Nyanza. Snakes are somewhat rare, the
+most dangerous being the puff-adder. Centipedes and scorpions, as well as
+mosquitoes and other insects, are also less common than in most tropical
+countries. In some districts bees are exceedingly numerous. The birds
+include the ostrich, stork, bustard and secretary-bird among the larger
+varieties, the guinea fowl, various kinds of spur fowl, and the lesser
+bustard, the wild pigeon, weaver and hornbill. By the banks of lakes and
+rivers are to be seen thousands of cranes, pelicans and flamingoes.
+
+_Inhabitants._--The white population is chiefly in the Kikuyu uplands, the
+rift-valley, and in the Kenya region. The whites are mostly agriculturists.
+There are also numbers of Indian settlers in the same districts. The
+African races include representatives of various stocks, as the country
+forms a borderland between the Negro and Hamitic peoples, and contains many
+tribes of doubtful affinities. The Bantu division of the negroes is
+represented chiefly in the south, the principal tribes being the Wakamba,
+Wakikuyu and Wanyika. By the north-east shores of Victoria Nyanza dwell the
+Kavirondo (_q.v._), a race remarkable among the tribes of the protectorate
+for their nudity. Nilotic tribes, including the Nandi (_q.v._), Lumbwa, Suk
+and Turkana, are found in the north-west. Of Hamitic strain are the Masai
+(_q.v._), a race of cattle-rearers speaking a Nilotic language, who occupy
+part of the uplands bordering on the eastern rift-valley. A branch of the
+Masai which has adopted the settled life of agriculturists is known as the
+Wakuafi. The Galla section of the Hamites is represented, among others, by
+Borani living [v.04 p.0603] south of the Goro Escarpment (though the true
+Boran countries are Liban and Dirri in Abyssinian territory), while Somali
+occupy the country between the Tana and Juba rivers. Of the Somali tribes
+the Herti dwell near the coast and are more or less stationary. Further
+inland is the nomadic tribe of Ogaden Somali. The Gurre, another Somali
+tribe, occupy the country south of the lower Daua. Primitive hunting tribes
+are the Wandorobo in Masailand, and scattered tribes of small stature in
+various parts. The coast-land contains a mixed population of Swahili, Arab
+and Indian immigrants, and representatives of numerous interior tribes.
+
+_Provinces and Towns._--The protectorate has been divided into the
+provinces of Seyyidie (the south coast province, capital Mombasa); Ukamba,
+which occupies the centre of the protectorate (capital Nairobi); Kenya, the
+district of Mt. Kenya (capital Fort Hall); Tanaland, to the north of the
+two provinces first named (capital Lamu); Jubaland, the northern region
+(capital Kismayu); Naivasha (capital Naivasha); and Kisumu (capital
+Kisumu); each being in turn divided into districts and sub-districts.
+Naivasha and Kisumu, which adjoin the Victoria Nyanza, formed at first the
+eastern province of Uganda, but were transferred to the East Africa
+protectorate on the 1st of April 1902. The chief port of the protectorate
+is Mombasa (_q.v._) with a population of about 30,000. The harbour on the
+south-west side of Mombasa island is known as Kilindini, the terminus of
+the Uganda railway. On the mainland, nearly opposite Mombasa town, is the
+settlement of freed slaves named Freretown, after Sir Bartle Frere.
+Freretown (called by the natives Kisaoni) is the headquarters in East
+Africa of the Church Missionary Society. It is the residence of the bishop
+of the diocese of Mombasa and possesses a fine church and mission house.
+Lamu, on the island of the same name, 150 m. north-east of Mombasa, is an
+ancient settlement and the headquarters of the coast Arabs. Here are some
+Portuguese ruins, and a large Arab city is buried beneath the sands. The
+other towns of note on the coast are Malindi, Patta, Kipini and Kismayu. At
+Malindi, the "Melind" of _Paradise Lost_, is the pillar erected by Vasco da
+Gama when he visited the port in 1498. The harbour is very shallow.
+Kismayu, the northernmost port of the protectorate, 320 m. north-east of
+Mombasa, is the last sheltered anchorage on the east coast and is
+invaluable as a harbour of refuge. Flourishing towns have grown up along
+the Uganda railway. The most important, Nairobi (_q.v._), 327 m. from
+Mombasa, 257 from Port Florence, was chosen in 1907 as the administrative
+capital of the protectorate. Naivasha, 64 m. north-north-west of Nairobi,
+lies in the rift-valley close to Lake Naivasha, and is 6230 ft. above the
+sea. It enjoys an excellent climate and is the centre of a European
+agricultural settlement. Kisumu or Port Florence (a term confined to the
+harbour) is a flourishing town built on a hill overlooking Victoria Nyanza.
+It is the entrepôt for the trade of Uganda.
+
+_Communications._--Much has been done to open up the country by means of
+roads, including a trunk road from Mombasa, by Kibwezi in the upper Sabaki
+basin, and Lake Naivasha, to Berkeley Bay on Victoria Nyanza. But the most
+important engineering work undertaken in the protectorate was the
+construction of a railway from Mombasa to Victoria Nyanza, for which a
+preliminary survey was executed in 1892, and on which work was begun in
+1896. The line chosen roughly coincides with that of the road, until the
+equator is reached, after which it strikes by a more direct route across
+the Mau plateau to the lake, which it reaches at Port Florence on Kavirondo
+Gulf. The railway is 584 m. long and is of metre (3.28 ft.) gauge, the
+Sudan, and South and Central African lines being of 3 ft. 6 in. gauge. The
+Uganda railway is essentially a mountain line, with gradients of one in
+fifty and one in sixty. From Mombasa it crosses to the mainland by a bridge
+half a mile long, and ascends the plateau till it reaches the edge of the
+rift-valley, 346 m. from its starting point, at the Kikuyu Escarpment,
+where it is 7600 ft. above the sea. It then descends across ravines bridged
+by viaducts to the valley floor, dropping to a level of 6011 ft., and next
+ascending the opposite (Mau) escarpment to the summit, 8321 ft. above
+sea-level--the highest point on the line. In the remaining 100 m. of its
+course the level sinks to 3738 ft., the altitude of the station at Port
+Florence. The railway was built by the British government at a cost of
+£5,331,000, or about £9500 per mile. The first locomotive reached Victoria
+Nyanza on the 26th of December 1901; and the permanent way was practically
+completed by March 1903, when Sir George Whitehouse, the engineer who had
+been in charge of the construction from the beginning, resigned his post.
+The railway, by doing away with the carriage of goods by men, gave the
+final death-blow to the slave trade in that part of East Africa. It also
+facilitated the continued occupation and development of Uganda, which was,
+previous to its construction, an almost impossible task, owing to the
+prohibitive cost of the carriage of goods from the coast--£60 per ton. The
+two avowed objects of the railway--the destruction of the slave trade and
+the securing of the British position in Uganda--have been attained;
+moreover, the railway by opening up land suitable for European settlement
+has also done much towards making a prosperous colony of the protectorate,
+which was regarded before the advent of the line as little better than a
+desert (see below, _History_). The railway also shows a fair return on the
+capital expenditure, the surplus after defraying all working expenses being
+£56,000 in 1905-1906 and £76,000 in 1906-1907.
+
+Mombasa is visited by the boats of several steamship companies, the German
+East Africa line maintaining a fortnightly service from Hamburg. There is
+also a regular service to and from India. A cable connecting Mombasa with
+Zanzibar puts the protectorate in direct telegraphic communication with the
+rest of the world. There is also an inland system of telegraphs connecting
+the chief towns with one another and with Uganda.
+
+_Agriculture and other Industries._--In the coast region and by the shores
+of Victoria Nyanza the products are tropical, and cultivation is mainly in
+the hands of the natives or of Indian immigrants. There are, however,
+numerous plantations owned by Europeans. Rice, maize and other grains are
+raised in large quantities; cotton and tobacco are cultivated. The coco-nut
+palm plantations yield copra of excellent quality, and the bark of the
+mangrove trees is exported for tanning purposes. In some inland districts
+beans of the castor oil plant, which grows in great abundance, are a
+lucrative article of trade. The sugar-cane, which grows freely in various
+places, is cultivated by the natives. The collection of rubber likewise
+employs numbers of people.
+
+Among the European settlers in the higher regions much attention is devoted
+to the production of vegetables, and very large crops of potatoes are
+raised. Oats, barley, wheat and coffee are also grown. The uplands are
+peculiarly adapted for the raising of stock, and many of the white settlers
+possess large flocks and herds. Merino sheep have been introduced from
+Australia. Ostrich farms have also been established. Clover, lucerne,
+ryegrass and similar grasses have been introduced to improve and vary the
+fodder. Other vegetable products of economic value are many varieties of
+timber trees, and fibre-producing plants, which are abundant in the scrub
+regions between the coast and the higher land bordering the rift-valley.
+Over the greater part of the country the soil is light reddish loam; in the
+eastern plains it is a heavy black loam. As a rule it is easily cultivated.
+While the majority of the African tribes in the territory are not averse
+from agricultural labour, the number of men available for work on European
+holdings is small. Moreover, on some of the land most suited for
+cultivation by white men there is no native population.
+
+In addition to the fibre industry and cotton ginning there are factories
+for the curing of bacon. Native industries include the weaving of cloth and
+the making of mats and baskets. Stone and lime quarries are worked, and
+copper is found in the Tsavo district. Diamonds have been discovered in the
+Thika river, one of the headstreams of the Tana.
+
+_Trade._--The imports consist largely of textiles, hardware and
+manufactured goods from India and Europe; Great Britain and India between
+them supplying over 50% of the total imports. Of other countries Germany
+has the leading share in the trade. The exports, which include the larger
+part of the external trade of Uganda, are chiefly copra, hides and skins,
+grains, potatoes, rubber, ivory, chillies, beeswax, cotton and fibre. The
+retail trade is largely in the hands of Indians. The value of the exports
+rose from £89,858 in 1900-1901 to £234,664 in 1904-1905, in which year the
+value of the imports for the first time exceeded £500,000. In 1906-1907 the
+volume of trade was £1,194,352, imports being valued at £753,647 and
+exports at £440,705. The United States takes 33% of the exports, Great
+Britain coming next with 15%.
+
+_Government._--The system of government resembles that of a British crown
+colony. At the head of the administration is a governor, who has a deputy
+styled lieutenant-governor, provincial commissioners presiding over each
+province. There are also executive and legislative councils, unofficial
+nominated members serving on the last-named council. In the "ten-mile
+strip" (see below, _History_), the sultan of Zanzibar being territorial
+sovereign, the laws of Islam apply to the native and Arab population. The
+extra-territorial jurisdiction granted by the sultan to various Powers was
+in 1907 transferred to Great Britain. Domestic slavery formerly existed;
+but on the advice of the British government a decree was issued by the
+sultan on the 1st of August 1890, enacting that no one born after that date
+could be a slave, and this was followed in 1907 by a decree abolishing the
+legal status of slavery. In the rest of the protectorate slavery is not
+recognized in any form. Legislation is by ordinances made by the governor,
+with the assent of the legislative council. The judicial system is based on
+Indian models, though in cases in which Africans are concerned regard is
+had to [v.04 p.0604] native customs. Europeans have the right to trial by
+jury in serious cases. There is a police force of about 2000 men, and two
+battalions of the King's African Rifles are stationed in the protectorate.
+Revenue is derived chiefly from customs, licences and excise, railway
+earnings, and posts and telegraphs. Natives pay a hut tax. Since the
+completion of the Uganda railway, trade, and consequently revenue, has
+increased greatly. In 1900-1901 the revenue was £64,275 and the expenditure
+£193,438; in 1904-1905 the figures were: revenue £154,756, expenditure
+£302,559; in 1905-1906 the totals were £270,362 and £418,839, and in
+1906-1907 (when the railway figures were included for the first time)
+£461,362 and £616,088. The deficiencies were made good by grants-in-aid
+from the imperial exchequer. The standard coin used is the rupee (16d.).
+
+Education is chiefly in the hands of the missionary societies, which
+maintain many schools where instruction is given in handicrafts, as well as
+in the ordinary branches of elementary education. There are Arab schools in
+Mombasa, and government schools for Europeans and Indians at Nairobi.
+
+_History._--From the 8th century to the 11th Arabs and Persians made
+settlements along the coast and gained political supremacy at many places,
+leading to the formation of the so-called Zenj empire. The history of the
+coast towns from that time until the establishment of British rule is
+identified with that of Zanzibar (_q.v._). The interior of what is now
+British East Africa was first made known in the middle of the 19th century
+by the German missionaries Ludwig Krapf and Johannes Rebmann, and by Baron
+Karl von der Decken (1833-1865) and others. Von der Decken and three other
+Europeans were murdered by Somali at a town called Bardera in October 1865,
+whilst exploring the Juba river. The countries east of Victoria Nyanza
+(Masailand, &c.) were, however, first traversed throughout their whole
+extent by the Scottish traveller Joseph Thomson (_q.v._) in 1883-1884. In
+1888 Count S. Teleki (a Hungarian) discovered Lakes Rudolf and Stefanie.
+
+The growth of British interests in the country now forming the protectorate
+arises from its connexion with the sultanate of Zanzibar. At Zanzibar
+British influence was very strong in the last quarter of the 19th century,
+and the seyyid or sultan, Bargash, depended greatly on the advice of the
+British representative, Sir John Kirk. In 1877 Bargash offered to Mr
+(afterwards Sir) William Mackinnon (1823-1893), chairman of the British
+India Steam Navigation Company, a merchant in whom he had great confidence,
+or to a company to be formed by him, a lease for 70 years of the customs
+and administration of the whole of the mainland dominions of Zanzibar
+including, with certain reservations, rights of sovereignty. This was
+declined owing to a lack of support by the foreign office, and concessions
+obtained in 1884 by Mr (afterwards Sir) H.H. Johnston in the Kilimanjaro
+district were, at the time, disregarded. The large number of concessions
+acquired by Germans in 1884-1885 on the East African coast aroused,
+however, the interest of those who recognized the paramount importance of
+the maintenance of British influence in those regions. A British claim,
+ratified by an agreement with Germany in 1886, was made to the districts
+behind Mombasa; and in May 1887 Bargash granted to an association formed by
+Mackinnon a concession for the administration of so much of his mainland
+territory as lay outside the region which the British government had
+recognized as the German sphere of operations. By international agreement
+the mainland territories of the sultan were defined as extending 10 m.
+inland from the coast. Mackinnon's association, whose object [Sidenote: A
+chartered company formed.] was to open up the hinterland as well as this
+ten-mile strip, became the Imperial British East Africa Company by a
+founder's agreement of April 1888, and received a royal charter in
+September of the same year. To this company the sultan made a further
+concession dated October 1888. On the faith of these concessions and the
+charters a sum of £240,000 was subscribed, and the company received formal
+charge of their concessions. The path of the company was speedily beset
+with difficulties, which in the first instance arose out of the aggressions
+of the German East African Company. This company had also received a grant
+from the sultan in October 1888, and its appearance on the coast was
+followed by grave disturbances among the tribes which had welcomed the
+British. This outbreak led to a joint British and German blockade, which
+seriously hampered trade operations. It had also been anticipated, in
+reliance on certain assurances of Prince Bismarck, emphasized by Lord
+Salisbury, that German enterprise in the interior of the country would be
+confined to the south of Victoria Nyanza. Unfortunately this expectation
+was not realized. Moreover German subjects put forward claims to coast
+districts, notably Lamu, within the company's sphere and in many ways
+obstructed the company's operations. In all these disputes the German
+government countenanced its own subjects, while the British foreign office
+did little or nothing to assist the company, sometimes directly
+discouraging its activity. Moreover, the company had agreed by the
+concession of October 1888 to pay a high revenue to the sultan--Bargash had
+died in the preceding March and the Germans were pressing his successor to
+give them a grant of Lamu--in lieu of the customs collected at the ports
+they took over. The disturbance caused by the German claims had a
+detrimental effect on trade and put a considerable strain on the resources
+of the company. The action of the company in agreeing to onerous financial
+burdens was dictated partly by regard for imperial interests, which would
+have been seriously weakened had Lamu gone to the Germans.
+
+By the hinterland doctrine, accepted both by Great Britain and Germany in
+the diplomatic correspondence of July 1887, Uganda would fall within Great
+Britain's "sphere of influence"; but German public opinion did not so
+regard the matter. German maps assigned the territory to Germany, while in
+England public opinion as strongly expected British influence to be
+paramount. In 1889 Karl Peters, a German official, led what was practically
+a raiding expedition into that country, after running a blockade of the
+ports. An expedition under F.J. Jackson had been sent by the company in the
+same year to Victoria Nyanza, but with instructions to avoid Uganda. In
+consequence of representations from Uganda, and of tidings he received of
+Peters's doings, Jackson, however, determined to go to that country. Peters
+retired at Jackson's approach, claiming, nevertheless, to have made certain
+treaties which constituted "effective occupation." Peters's treaty was
+dated the 1st of March 1890: Jackson concluded another in April. Meantime
+negotiations were proceeding in Europe; and by the Anglo-German agreement
+of the 1st of July 1890 Uganda was assigned to the British sphere. To
+consolidate their position in Uganda--the French missionaries there were
+hostile to Great Britain--the company sent thither Captain F.D. Lugard, who
+reached Mengo, the capital, in December 1890 and established the authority
+of the company despite French intrigues. In July 1890 representatives of
+the powers assembled at Brussels had agreed on common efforts for the
+suppression of the slave trade. The interference of the company in Uganda
+had been a material step towards that object, which they sought to further
+and at the same time to open up the country by the construction of a
+railway from Mombasa to Victoria Nyanza. But their resources being
+inadequate for such an undertaking they sought imperial aid. Although Lord
+Salisbury, then prime minister, paid the highest tribute to the company's
+labours, and a preliminary grant for the survey had been practically agreed
+upon, the scheme was wrecked in parliament. At a later date, however, the
+railway was built entirely at government cost (_supra_, §
+_Communications_). Owing to the financial strain imposed upon it the
+company decided to withdraw Captain Lugard and his forces in August 1891;
+and eventually the British government assumed a protectorate over the
+country (see UGANDA).
+
+Further difficulties now arose which led finally to the extinction of the
+company. Its pecuniary interests sustained a severe [Sidenote: The company
+and the crown.] blow owing to the British government--which had taken
+Zanzibar under its protection in November 1890--declaring (June 1892) the
+dominions of the sultan within the free trade zone. This act extinguished
+the treaties regulating all tariffs and duties with foreign powers, and
+gave free trade all along the coast. The result for the company was that
+dues were now swept away without compensation, and the company was left
+saddled with the payment of the rent, and with the cost, in addition, of
+administration, [v.04 p.0605] the necessary revenue for which had been
+derived from the dues thus abolished. Moreover, a scheme of taxation which
+it drew up failed to gain the approval of the foreign office.
+
+In every direction the company's affairs had drifted into an _impasse_.
+Plantations had been taken over on the coast and worked at a loss, money
+had been advanced to native traders and lost, and expectations of trade had
+been disappointed. At this crisis Sir William Mackinnon, the guiding spirit
+of the company, died (June 1893). At a meeting of shareholders on the 8th
+of May 1894 an offer to surrender the charter to the government was
+approved, though not without strong protests. Negotiations dragged on for
+over two years, and ultimately the terms of settlement were that the
+government should purchase the property, rights and assets of the company
+in East Africa for £250,000. Although the company had proved unprofitable
+for the shareholders (when its accounts were wound up they disclosed a
+total deficit of £193,757) it had accomplished a great deal of good work
+and had brought under British sway not only the head waters of the upper
+Nile, but a rich and healthy upland region admirably adapted for European
+colonization. To the judgment, foresight and patriotism of Sir William
+Mackinnon British East Africa practically owes its foundation. Sir William
+and his colleagues of the company were largely animated by humanitarian
+motives--the desire to suppress slavery and to improve the condition of the
+natives. With this aim they prohibited the drink traffic, started
+industrial missions, built roads, and administered impartial justice. In
+the opinion of a later administrator (Sir C. Eliot), their work and that of
+their immediate successors was the greatest philanthropic achievement of
+the latter part of the 19th century.
+
+On the 1st of July 1895 the formal transfer to the British crown of the
+territory administered by the company took place at Mombasa, the foreign
+office assuming responsibility for its administration. The territory,
+hitherto known as "Ibea," from the initials of the company, was now styled
+the East Africa protectorate. The small sultanate of Witu (_q.v._) on the
+mainland opposite Lamu, from 1885 to 1890 a German protectorate, was
+included in the British protectorate. Coincident with the transfer of the
+administration to the imperial government a dispute as to the succession to
+a chieftainship in the Mazrui, the most important Arab family on the coast,
+led to a revolt which lasted ten months and involved much hard fighting. It
+ended in April 1896 in the flight of the rebel leaders to German territory,
+where they were interned. The rebellion marks an important epoch in the
+history of the protectorate as its suppression definitely substituted
+European for Arab influence. "Before the rebellion," says Sir C. Eliot,
+"the coast was a protected Arab state; since its suppression it has been
+growing into a British colony."
+
+From 1896, when the building of the Mombasa-Victoria Nyanza railway was
+begun, until 1903, when the line was [Sidenote: A white man's country.]
+practically completed, the energies of the administration were largely
+absorbed in that great work, and in establishing effective control over the
+Masai, Somali, and other tribes. The coast lands apart, the protectorate
+was regarded as valuable chiefly as being the high road to Uganda. But as
+the railway reached the high plateaus the discovery was made that there
+were large areas of land--very sparsely peopled--where the climate was
+excellent and where the conditions were favourable to European
+colonization. The completion of the railway, by affording transport
+facilities, made it practicable to open the country to settlers. The first
+application for land was made in April 1902 by the East Africa Syndicate--a
+company in which financiers belonging to the Chartered Company of South
+Africa were interested--which sought a grant of 500 sq. m.; and this was
+followed by other applications for considerable areas, a scheme being also
+propounded for a large Jewish settlement.
+
+During 1903 the arrival of hundreds of prospective settlers, chiefly from
+South Africa, led to the decision to entertain no more applications for
+large areas of land, especially as questions were raised concerning the
+preservation for the Masai of their rights of pasturage. In the carrying
+out of this policy a dispute arose between Lord Lansdowne, foreign
+secretary, and Sir Charles Eliot, who had been commissioner since 1900. The
+foreign secretary, believing himself bound by pledges given to the
+syndicate, decided that they should be granted the lease of the 500 sq. m.
+they had applied for; but after consulting officials of the protectorate
+then in London, he refused Sir Charles Eliot permission to conclude leases
+for 50 sq. m. each to two applicants from South Africa. Sir Charles
+thereupon resigned his post, and in a public telegram to the prime
+minister, dated Mombasa, the 21st of June 1904, gave as his reason:--"Lord
+Lansdowne ordered me to refuse grants of land to certain private persons
+while giving a monopoly of land on unduly advantageous terms to the East
+Africa Syndicate. I have refused to execute these instructions, which I
+consider unjust and impolitic."[1]
+
+On the day Sir Charles sent this telegram the appointment of Sir Donald W.
+Stewart, the chief commissioner of Ashanti, to succeed him was announced.
+Sir Donald induced the Masai whose grazing rights were threatened to remove
+to another district, and a settlement of the land claims was arranged. An
+offer to the Zionist Association of land for colonization by Jews was
+declined in August 1905 by that body, after the receipt of a report by a
+commissioner sent to examine the land (6000 sq. m.) offered. Sir Donald
+Stewart died on the 1st of October 1905, and was succeeded by Colonel Hayes
+Sadler, the commissioner of Uganda. Meantime, in April 1905, the
+administration of the protectorate had been transferred from the foreign to
+the colonial office. By the close of 1905 considerably over a million acres
+of land had been leased or sold by the protectorate authorities--about half
+of it for grazing purposes. In 1907, to meet the demands of the increasing
+number of white inhabitants, who had formed a Colonists' Association[2] for
+the promotion of their interests, a legislative council was established,
+and on this council representatives of the settlers were given seats. The
+style of the chief official was also altered, "governor" being substituted
+for "commissioner". In the same year a scheme was drawn up for assisting
+the immigration of British Indians to the regions adjacent to the coast and
+to Victoria Nyanza, districts not suitable for settlement by Europeans.
+
+In general the relations of the British with the tribes of the interior
+have been satisfactory. The Somali in Jubaland have given some trouble, but
+the Masai, notwithstanding their warlike reputation, accepted peaceably the
+control of the whites. This was due, in great measure, to the fact that at
+the period in question plague carried off their cattle wholesale and
+reduced them for years to a state of want and weakness which destroyed
+their warlike habits. One of the most troublesome tribes proved to be the
+Nandi, who occupied the southern part of the plateau west of the Mau
+escarpment. They repeatedly raided their less warlike neighbours and
+committed wholesale thefts from the railway and telegraph lines. In
+September 1905 an expedition was sent against them which reduced the tribe
+to submission in the following November; and early in 1906 the Nandi were
+removed into a reserve. The majority of the natives, unaccustomed to
+regular work, showed themselves averse from taking service under the white
+farmers. The inadequacy of the labour supply was an early cause of trouble
+to the settlers, while the labour regulations enforced led, during
+1907-1908, to considerable friction between the colonists and the
+administration.
+
+For several years after the establishment of the protectorate the northern
+region remained very little known and no attempt was made to administer the
+district. The natives were frequently raided by parties of Gallas and
+Abyssinians, and in the absence of a defined frontier Abyssinian government
+posts were pushed south to Lake Rudolf. The Abyssinians also made
+themselves masters of the Boran country. After long negotiations an
+agreement as to the boundary line between the lake and [v.04 p.0606] the
+river Juba was signed at Adis Ababa on the 6th of December 1907, and in
+1908-1909 the frontier was delimited by an Anglo-Abyssinian commission,
+Major C.W. Gwynn being the chief British representative. Save for its
+north-eastern extremity Lake Rudolf was assigned to the British, Lake
+Stefanie falling to Abyssinia, while from about 4° 20' N. the Daua to its
+junction with the Juba became the frontier.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The most comprehensive account of the protectorate to the
+close of 1904, especially of its economic resources, is _The East Africa
+Protectorate_, by Sir Charles Eliot (London, 1905). The progress of the
+protectorate is detailed in the _Reports_ by the governor issued annually
+by the British government since 1896, and in _Drumkey's Year Book for East
+Africa_ (Bombay), first issued in 1908. The _Précis of Information_
+concerning the British East Africa Protectorate (issued by the War Office,
+London, 1901) is chiefly valuable for its historical information. The work
+of the Imperial British East Africa Company is concisely and
+authoritatively told from official documents in _British East Africa or
+Ibea_, by P.L. McDermont (new ed., London, 1895). Another book, valuable
+for its historical perspective, is _The Foundation of British East Africa_,
+by J.W. Gregory (London, 1901). Bishop A.R. Tucker's _Eighteen Years in
+Uganda and East Africa_ (London, 1908) contains a summary of missionary
+labours. Of the works of explorers _Through Masai Land_, by Joseph Thomson
+(London, 1886), is specially valuable. For the northern frontier see Capt.
+P. Maud's report in _Africa No. 13_ (1904). For geology see, besides
+Thomson's book, _The Great Rift Valley_, by J.W. Gregory (London, 1896);
+_Across an East African Glacier_, by Hans Meyer (London and Leipzig, 1890);
+and _Report relating to the Geology of the East Africa Protectorate_, by
+H.B. Muff (Colonial Office, London, 1908). For big game and ornithology see
+_On Safari_, by A. Chapman (London, 1908). The story of the building of the
+Uganda railway is summarized in the _Final Report of the Uganda Railway
+Committee, Africa, No. 11_ (1904), published by the British government.
+
+(F. R. C.)
+
+[1] See _Correspondence relating to the Resignation of Sir C. Eliot,
+Africa, No. 8_ (1904).
+
+[2] The Planters and Farmers' Association, as this organization was
+originally called, dates from 1903.
+
+BRITISH EMPIRE, the name now loosely given to the whole aggregate of
+territory, the inhabitants of which, under various forms of government,
+ultimately look to the British crown as the supreme head. The term "empire"
+is in this connexion obviously used rather for convenience than in any
+sense equivalent to that of the older or despotic empires of history.
+
+The land surface of the earth is estimated to extend over about 52,500,000
+sq. m. Of this area the British empire occupies [Sidenote: Extent.] nearly
+one-quarter, extending over an area of about 12,000,000 sq. m. By far the
+greater portion lies within the temperate zones, and is suitable for white
+settlement. The notable exceptions are the southern half of India and
+Burma; East, West and Central Africa; the West Indian colonies; the
+northern portion of Australia; New Guinea, British Borneo and that portion
+of North America which extends into Arctic regions. The area of the
+territory of the empire is divided almost equally between the southern and
+the northern hemispheres, the great divisions of Australasia and South
+Africa covering between them in the southern hemisphere 5,308,506 sq. m.,
+while the United Kingdom, Canada and India, including the native states,
+cover between them in the northern hemisphere 5,271,375 sq. m. The
+alternation of the seasons is thus complete, one-half of the empire
+enjoying summer, while one-half is in winter. The division of territory
+between the eastern and western hemispheres is less equal, Canada occupying
+alone in the western hemisphere 3,653,946 sq. m., while Australasia, South
+Africa, India and the United Kingdom occupy together in the eastern
+hemisphere 6,925,975 sq. m. As a matter of fact, however, the eastern
+portions of Australasia border so nearly upon the western hemisphere that
+the distribution of day and night throughout the empire is, like the
+alternations of the seasons, almost complete, one-half enjoying daylight,
+while the other half is in darkness. These alternations of time and of
+seasons, combined with the variety of soils and climates, are calculated to
+have an increasingly important effect upon the material and industrial, as
+well as upon the social and political developments of the empire. This will
+become evident in considering the industrial productions of the different
+divisions, and the harvest seasons which permit the summer produce of one
+portion of the empire to supply the winter requirements of its other
+markets, and conversely.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The empire contains or is bounded by some of the highest mountains, the
+greatest lakes, and the most important rivers of the world. Its climates
+may be said to include all the known climates of the world; its soils are
+no less various. In the prairies of central Canada it possesses some of the
+most valuable wheat-producing land; in the grass lands of the interior of
+Australia the best pasture country; and in the uplands of South Africa the
+most valuable gold- and diamond-bearing beds which exist. The United
+Kingdom at present produces more coal than any other single country except
+the United States. The effect of climate throughout the empire in modifying
+the type of the Anglo-Saxon race has as yet received only partial
+attention, and conclusions regarding it are of a somewhat empiric nature.
+The general tendency in Canada is held to be towards somewhat smaller size,
+and a hardy active habit; in Australia to a tall, slight, pale development
+locally known as "cornstalkers," characterized by considerable nervous and
+intellectual activity. In New Zealand the type preserves almost exactly the
+characteristics of the British Isles. The South African, both Dutch and
+British, is readily recognized by an apparently sun-dried, lank and hard
+habit of body. In the tropical possessions of the empire, where white
+settlement does not take place to any considerable extent, the individual
+alone is affected. The type undergoes no modification. It is to be observed
+in reference to this interesting aspect of imperial development, that the
+multiplication and cheapening of channels of communication and means of
+travel throughout the empire will tend to modify the future accentuation of
+race difference, while the variety of elements in the vast area occupied
+should have an important, though as yet not scientifically traced, effect
+upon the British imperial type.
+
+The white population of the empire[1] reached in 1901 a total of over
+53,000,000, or something over one-eighth of its entire [Sidenote:
+Population.] population, which, including native races, is estimated at
+about 400,000,000. The white population includes some French, Dutch and
+Spanish peoples, but is mainly of Anglo-Saxon race. It is distributed
+roughly as follows:--
+
+  United Kingdom and home dependencies  41,608,791
+  Australasia                            4,662,000
+  British North America                  5,500,000
+  Africa (Dutch and British)             1,000,000[2]
+  India                                    169,677
+  West Indies and Bermuda                  100,000
+                                        ----------
+                                        53,040,468
+
+The native population of the empire includes types of the principal black,
+yellow and brown races, classing with these the high-type races of the
+East, which may almost be called white. The native population of India,
+mainly high type, brown, was returned at the census of 1901 as 294,191,379.
+The population of India is divided into 118 groups on the basis of
+language. These may, however, be collected into the following principal
+groups:--
+
+  (A) Malayo-Polynesian.
+  (B) Indo-Chinese:
+      i. Mon-Khmer.
+      ii. Tibeto-Burman.
+      iii. Siamese-Chinese.
+  (C) Dravido-Mu[n.]da:
+      i. Mu[n.]da (Kolarian).
+      ii. Dravidian.
+  (D) Indo-European.
+      Indo-Aryan sub-family.
+  (E) Semitic.
+  (F) Hamitic.
+  (G) Unclassed, e.g. Gipsy.
+
+_Eastern Colonies_
+
+
+  Ceylon, high type, brown and mixed            3,568,824
+  Straits Settlements, brown, mixed and Chinese   570,000
+  Hong-Kong, Chinese and brown                    306,130
+  North Borneo, mixed brown and Sarawak           700,000
+                                                ---------
+                                                5,144,954
+
+[v.04 p.0607] Of the various races which inhabit these Eastern dependencies
+the most important are the 2,000,000 Sinhalese and the 954,000 Tamil that
+make up the greater part of the population of Ceylon. The rest is made up
+of Arabs, Malays, Chinese (in the Straits Settlements and Hong-Kong),
+Dyaks, Eurasians and others.
+
+_West Indies._
+
+The West Indies, including the continental colonies of British Guiana and
+Honduras, and seventeen islands or groups of islands, have a total coloured
+population of about 1,912,655. The colonies of this group which have the
+largest coloured populations are:--
+
+  Jamaica--Chiefly black, some brown and yellow    790,000
+  Trinidad and Tobago--Black and brown             250,000
+  British Guiana--Black and brown                  286,000
+                                                 ---------
+                                                 1,326,000
+
+The populations of the West Indies are very various, being made up largely
+of imported African negroes. In Jamaica these contribute four-fifths of the
+population. There are also in the islands a considerable number of imported
+East Indian coolies and some Chinese. The aboriginal races include American
+Indians of the mainland and Caribs. With these there has been intermixture
+of Spanish and Portuguese blood, and many mixed types have appeared. The
+total European population of this group of colonies amounts to upwards of
+80,000, to which 15,000 on account of Bermuda may be added.
+
+_Africa._
+
+  Chiefly black, estimated
+  South                                          5,211,329
+  Central                                        2,000,000
+
+The aboriginal races of South Africa were the Bushmen and Hottentots. Both
+these races are rapidly diminishing in numbers, and in British South Africa
+it is expected that they will in the course of the twentieth century become
+extinct. Besides these primitive races there are the dark-skinned negroids
+of Bantu stock, commonly known in their tribal groups as Kaffirs, Zulu,
+Bechuana and Damara, which are again subdivided into many lesser groups.
+The Bantu compose the greater part of the native population. There are also
+in South Africa Malays and Indians and others, who during the last two
+hundred years have been introduced from Java, Ceylon, Madagascar,
+Mozambique and British India, and by intermarriage with each other and with
+the natives have produced a hybrid population generally classed together
+under the heading of the Mixed Races. These are of all colours, varying
+from yellow to dark brown. The tribes of Central Africa are as yet less
+known. Many of them exhibit racial characteristics allied to those of the
+tribes of South Africa, but with in some cases an admixture of Arab blood.
+
+_East Africa._
+
+
+  Protectorate--Black and brown:
+      Natives  (estimated)                     4,000,000
+      Asiatics (estimated)                        25,000
+  Zanzibar--Black and brown                      200,000
+  Uganda                                       3,200,000
+                                               ---------
+                           Total               7,425,000
+
+_West Africa._
+
+                                                Estimated.
+  Nigeria (including Lagos)--Black and brown   15,000,000
+  Gold Coast and hinterland--Chiefly black      2,700,000
+  Sierra Leone                   "     "        1,000,000
+  Gambia                         "     "          163,000
+                                               ----------
+                                               18,863,000
+
+From east to west across Africa the aboriginal nations are mostly of the
+black negroid type, their varieties being only imperfectly known. The
+tendency of some of the lower negroid types has been to drift towards the
+west coast, where they still practise cannibalistic and fetish rites. On
+the east coast are found much higher types approaching to the Christian
+races of Abyssinia, and from east to west there has been a wide admixture
+of Arab blood producing a light-brown type. In Uganda and Nigeria a large
+proportion of the population is Arab and relatively light-skinned.
+
+_Australasia_.
+
+  Australia--Black, very low type                      200,000
+             Chinese and half castes, yellow            50,000
+  New Zealand--Maoris, brown, Chinese and half castes   53,000
+  Fiji--Polynesian, black and brown                    121,000
+  Papua--Polynesian, black and brown                   400,000
+                                                       -------
+                                                       824,000
+
+The native races of Australia and the Polynesian groups of islands are
+divided into two main types known as the dark and light Polynesian. The
+dark type, which is black, is of a very low order, and in some of the
+islands still retains its cannibal habits. The aboriginal tribes of
+Australia are of a low-class black race, but generally peaceful and
+inoffensive in their habits. The white Polynesian races are of a very
+superior type, and exhibit, as in the Maoris of New Zealand,
+characteristics of a high order. The natives of Papua (New Guinea) are in a
+very low state of civilization. The estimate given of their numbers is
+approximate, as no census has been taken.
+
+_Canada._
+
+  Indians--Brown                                     100,000
+
+The only coloured native races of Canada are the Red Indians, many in
+tribal variety, but few in number.
+
+_Summary_.
+
+  Native Populations:
+  India                                          294,191,379
+  Ceylon and Eastern Colonies                      5,144,954
+  West Indies                                      1,912,655
+  South Africa                                     5,211,329
+  British Central Africa                           2,000,000
+  East Africa                                      7,425,000
+  West Africa                                     18,863,000
+  Australasia and Islands                            824,000
+  Canada                                             100,000
+                                                 -----------
+                                                 335,672,317
+  White populations                               53,040,468
+                                  Total          388,712,785
+
+This is without taking into account the population of the lesser crown
+colonies or allowing for the increase likely to be shown by later censuses.
+Throughout the empire, and notably in the United Kingdom, there is among
+the white races a considerable sprinkling of Jewish blood.
+
+The latest calculation of the entire population of the world, including a
+liberal estimate of 650,000,000 for peoples not brought under any census,
+gives a total of something over 1,500,000,000. The population of the empire
+may therefore be calculated as amounting to something more than one-fourth
+of the population of the world.
+
+It is a matter of first importance in the geographical distribution of the
+empire that the five principal divisions, the United [Sidenote: Divisions.]
+Kingdom, South Africa, India, Australia and Canada are separated from each
+other by the three great oceans of the world. The distance as usually
+calculated in nautical miles: from an English port to the Cape of Good Hope
+is 5840 m.; from the Cape of Good Hope to Bombay is 4610; from Bombay to
+Melbourne is 5630; from Melbourne to Auckland is 1830; from Auckland to
+Vancouver is 6210; from Halifax to Liverpool is 2744. From a British port
+direct to Bombay by way of the Mediterranean it is 6272; from a British
+port by the same route to Sydney 11,548 m. These great distances have
+necessitated the acquisition of intermediate ports suitable for coaling
+stations on the trade routes, and have determined the position of many of
+the lesser crown colonies which are held simply for military and commercial
+purposes. Such are the Bermudas, Gibraltar, Malta, Aden, Ceylon, the
+Straits Settlements, Labuan, Hong-Kong, which complete the [v.04 p.0608]
+chain of connexion on the eastern route, and such on other routes are the
+lesser West African stations, Ascension, St. Helena, the Mauritius and
+Seychelles, the Falklands, Tristan da Cunha, and the groups of the western
+Pacific. Other annexations of the British empire have been rocky islets of
+the northern Pacific required for the purpose of telegraph stations in
+connexion with an all-British cable.
+
+For purposes of political administration the empire falls into the three
+sections of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, with the
+dependencies of the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man; the Indian empire,
+consisting of British India and the feudatory native states; and the
+colonial empire, comprising all other colonies and dependencies.
+
+In the modern sense of extension beyond the limits of the United Kingdom
+the growth of the empire is of comparatively [Sidenote: Growth.] recent
+date. The Channel Islands became British as a part of the Norman
+inheritance of William the Conqueror. The Isle of Man, which was for a
+short time held in conquest by Edward I. and restored, was sold by its
+titular sovereign to Sir William Scrope, earl of Wiltshire, in 1393, and by
+his subsequent attainder for high treason and the confiscation of his
+estates, became a fief of the English crown. It was granted by Henry IV. in
+1406 to Sir John Stanley, K.C., ancestor of the earls of Derby, by whom it
+was held till 1736, when it passed to James Murray, 2nd duke of Atholl, as
+heir-general of the 10th earl. It was inherited by his daughter Charlotte,
+wife of the 3rd duke of Atholl, who sold it to the crown for £70,000 and an
+annuity of £2000. With these exceptions and the nominal possession taken of
+Newfoundland by Sir Humphrey Gilbert in 1583, all the territorial
+acquisitions of the empire have been made in the 17th and subsequent
+centuries.
+
+The following is a list of the British colonies and dependencies (other
+than those belonging to the Indian empire) together with a summary
+statement of the date and method of their acquisition. Arranged in
+chronological order they give some idea of the rate of growth of the
+empire. The dates are not, however, in all cases those in which British
+sovereignty was established. They indicate in some instances only the first
+definite step, such as the building of a fort, the opening of a trading
+station, or other act, which led later to the incorporation in the empire
+of the country indicated. In the case of Australian states or Canadian
+provinces originally part of other states or provinces the date is that,
+approximately, of the first settlement of British in the district named;
+_e.g._ there were British colonists in Saskatchewan in the last half of the
+18th century, but the province was not constituted until 1905. Save where
+otherwise stated, British authority has been continuous from the first date
+mentioned in the table. Reference should be made to the articles on the
+various colonies.
+
+Name.                           Date.     Method of Acquisition.
+
+Newfoundland                    1583     Possession taken by Sir H. Gilbert
+                                           for the crown.
+
+                 _17th Century._
+
+Barbados                      1605-1625  Settlement.
+Bermudas                        1609         "
+Gambia                       c. 1618         "   A second time in 1816.
+St Christopher                  1623         "   Did not become wholly
+                                                   British until 1713.
+Novia Scotia                    1628         "   Ceded to France 1632;
+                                           recovered 1713.
+Nevis                           1628         "
+Montserrat                      1632         "
+Antigua                         1632         "
+Honduras                        1638         "
+St Lucia                        1638         "    Finally passed to Great
+                                           Britain in 1803.
+Gold Coast                   c. 1650     Settlement. Danish forts bought
+                                           1850, Dutch forts 1871. Northern
+                                           Territories added 1897.
+St Helena                       1651     Settled by East India Co.
+                                           Government vested in British
+                                           crown 1833.
+Jamaica                         1655     Conquest.
+Bahamas                         1666     Settlement.
+Virgin Islands               1666-1672   Settlement and conquest.
+N.W. Territories of Canada      1669     Settlement under royal charter of
+                                           Hudson's Bay Co. Purchased from
+                                           imp. gov. 1869, and transferred
+                                           to Canada 1870.
+Turks and Caicos Is.            1678     Settlement.
+
+                 _18th Century._
+Gibraltar                       1704     Capitulation.
+New Brunswick                   1713     Cession.
+Prince Edward Is.               1758     Conquest.
+Ontario                       1759-1790  With New Brunswick and Nova
+Quebec                        1759-1790  Scotia constituted Dominion of
+                                           Canada 1867. Prince Edward Is.
+                                           enters the confederation 1873.
+                                           In 1880 all British possessions
+                                           (other than Newfoundland) in
+                                           North America annexed to the
+                                           Dominion.
+Dominica                        1761     Conquest.
+St Vincent                      1762     Capitulation.
+Grenada                         1762          "
+Tobago                          1763     Cession. Afterwards in French
+                                           possession. Reconquered 1803.
+Falkland Is.                    1765     Settlement. Reoccupied 1832.
+Saskatchewan                    1766     Settlement. Separation from N.W.
+                                           Territories of Canada 1905.
+Pitcairn I.                     1780     Settlement.
+Straits Settlements         1786 to 1824  Settlement and cession. Vested
+                                           (1858) in crown by E.I. Co.
+                                           Transferred from Indian to
+                                           colonial possessions 1867.
+                                           Malacca in British occupation
+                                           1795-1818.
+Sierra Leone                    1787     Settlement.
+Alberta                        c. 1788   Separated from N. W. Territories
+                                           of Canada 1905.
+New South Wales                 1788     Settlement.
+Ceylon                          1795     Capitulation.
+Trinidad                        1797          "
+Malta                           1800          "
+
+              _19th Century._
+
+British Guiana                  1803     Capitulation.
+Tasmania                        1803     Settlement.
+Cape of Good Hope               1806     Capitulation. Present limits not
+                                           attained until 1895. First
+                                           British occupation 1795-1803.
+Seychelles                      1806     Capitulation.
+Mauritius                       1810          "
+Manitoba                        1811     Settlement by Red River or Selkirk
+                                           colony. Created province of
+                                           Canada 1870.
+Ascension and Tristan da Cunha  1815     Military occupation.
+B. Columbia and Vancouver Island  1821   Settlement under Hudson's Bay Co.
+                                           Entered Canadian confederation
+                                           1871.
+Natal                           1824     Settlement. Natal Boers submit
+                                           1843.
+Queensland                      1824     Separated from New South Wales
+                                           1859.
+West Australia                  1826     Settlement.
+Victoria                        1834     Separated from New South Wales
+                                           1851.
+South Australia                 1836     Settlement.
+New Zealand                     1840     Settlement and treaty.
+Hong-Kong                       1841     Treaties. Kowloon on the mainland
+                                           added in 1860; additional area
+                                           leased 1898.
+Labuan                          1846     Cession. Incorporated in Straits
+                                           Settlements 1906.
+Lagos                           1861     Cession. South Nigeria amalgamated
+                                           with Lagos, under style of
+                                           Colony and Protectorate of
+                                           Southern Nigeria 1906.
+Basutoland                      1868     Annexation.
+Fiji                            1874     Cession.
+[v.04 p.0609]
+W. Pacific Islands, including   1877     High commission created by order
+  including Union, Ellice,                 in council, giving jurisdiction
+  Gilbert, Southern Solomon,               over islands not included in
+  and other groups                         other colonial governments, nor
+                                           within jurisdiction of other
+                                           civilized powers. Protectorates
+                                           over all these islands by 1900.
+Federated Malay States        1874-1895  Treaty.
+Cyprus                          1878     Occupied by treaty.
+North Borneo                    1881     Treaty and settlement under royal
+                                           charter. Protectorate assumed
+                                           1888.
+Papua                           1884     Protectorate declared.
+Nigeria                       1884-1886  Treaty, conquest and settlement
+                                           under royal charter. Chartered
+                                           Co.'s territory transferred to
+                                           crown, and whole divided into
+                                           North and South Nigeria 1900.
+Somaliland                    1884-1886  Occupation and cession.
+                                         Protectorate declared 1887.
+Bechuanaland                  1885-1891  Protectorate declared. Southern
+                                           portion annexed to Cape Colony
+                                           1895.
+Zululand                        1887     Annexation. Incorporated in Natal
+                                           1897.
+Sarawak                         1888     Protectorate declared.
+Brunei                          1888           "          "
+British East Africa             1888     Treaty, conquest and settlement
+                                         under royal charter. Transferred
+                                         to crown 1895.
+Rhodesia                      1888-1893  Treaty, conquest and settlement
+                                         under royal charter.
+Zanzibar                        1890     Protectorate declared.
+Uganda                        1890-1896  Treaty and protectorate.
+Nyasaland                       1891     Protectorate declared.
+Ashanti                         1896     Military occupation.
+Wei-hai-wei                     1898     Lease from China.
+Pacific Islands--
+  Christmas, Fanning,           1898     Annexed for purposes of projected
+  Penrhyn, Suvarov                       Pacific cable.
+  Choiseul and Isabel Is.       1899     Cession.
+    (Solomon Group)
+  Tonga and Niué                1900     Protectorate declared.
+Orange Free State               1900     Annexation. Formerly British
+                                           1848-1854.
+Transvaal and Swaziland         1900     Annexation. Formerly British
+                                           1877-1881.
+
+                               _20th Century._
+Kelantan, Trengganu, &c.        1909     Cession from Siam.
+
+In the Pacific are also Bird Island, Bramble Cay, Cato Island, Cook
+Islands, Danger Islands, Ducie Island, Dudosa, Howland Island, Jarvis
+Island, Kermadec Islands, Macquarie Island, Manihiki Islands, Nassau
+Island, Palmerston Island, Palmyra Island, Phoenix Group, Purdy Group,
+Raine Island, Rakaanga Island, Rotumah Island, Surprise Island, Washington
+or New York Island, Willis Group and Wreck Reef.
+
+In the Indian Ocean there are, besides the colonies already mentioned,
+Rodriguez, the Chagos Islands, St Brandon Islands, Amirante Islands,
+Aldabra, Kuria Muria Islands, Maldive Islands and some other small groups.
+
+In certain dependencies the sovereignty of Great Britain is not absolute.
+The island of Cyprus is nominally still part of the Turkish empire, but in
+1878 was handed over to Great Britain for occupation and administration;
+Great Britain now making to the Porte on account of the island an annual
+payment of £5000. The administration is in the hands of an official styled
+high commissioner, who is invested with the powers usually conferred on a
+colonial governor. In Zanzibar and other regions of equatorial Africa the
+native rulers retain considerable powers; in the Far East certain areas are
+held on lease from China.
+
+Egypt, without forming part of the British empire, came under the military
+occupation of Great Britain in 1882. "By right of conquest" Great Britain
+subsequently claimed a share in the administration of the former Sudan
+provinces of Egypt, and an agreement of the 19th of January 1899
+established the joint sovereignty of Great Britain and Egypt over what is
+now known as the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.
+
+The Indian section of the empire was acquired during the 17th-19th
+centuries under a royal charter granted to the East India Company by Queen
+Elizabeth in 1600. It was transferred to the imperial government in 1858,
+and Queen Victoria was proclaimed empress under the Royal Titles Act in
+1877. The following list gives the dates and method of acquisition of the
+centres of the main divisions of the Indian empire. They have, in most
+instances, grown by general process of extension to their present
+dimensions.
+
+  Name.                 Date.     Method of Acquisition.
+
+  Madras                1639      By treaty and subsequent conquest.
+                         to         Fort St George, the foundation
+                        1748        of Madras was the first territorial
+                                    possession of the E.I. Co. in India.
+                                    It was acquired by treaty with its
+                                    Indian ruler. Madras was raised into
+                                    a presidency in 1683; ceded to France
+                                    1746; recovered 1748.
+
+  Bombay                1608      Treaty and cession. Trade first
+                         to         established 1608. Ceded to British
+                        1685        crown by Portugal 1661. Transferred
+                                    to E.I. Co. 1668. Presidency removed
+                                    from Surat 1687.
+
+  Bengal                1633      Treaty and subsequent conquests. First
+                         to         trade settlement established by
+                        1765        treaty at Pipli in Orissa 1633.
+                                    Erected into presidency by separation
+                                    from Madras 1681. Virtual sovereignty
+                                    announced by E.I. Co., as result of
+                                    conquests of Clive, 1765.
+
+  United Provinces      1764      By conquests and treaty through
+    of Agra and Oudh     to         successive stages, of which the
+                        1856        principal dates were 1801-3-14-15.
+                                    In 1832 the nominal sovereignty of
+                                    Delhi, till then retained by the
+                                    Great Mogul, was resigned into the
+                                    hands of the E.I. Co. Oudh, of which
+                                    the conquest may be said to have
+                                    begun with the battle of Baxar in
+                                    1764, was finally annexed in 1856.
+
+  Central Provinces   1802-1817   By conquest and treaty.
+  Eastern Bengal      1825-1826   Conquest and cession. The Bengal
+    and Assam                       portion of the province by
+                                    separation from Bengal in 1905.
+  Burma               1824-1852   Conquest and cession.
+  Punjab                1849      Conquest and annexation. Made into
+                                    distinct province 1859.
+  N.-W. Frontier        1901      Subdivision.
+    Province
+  Ajmere and Merwara    1818      By conquest and cession.
+  Coorg                 1834      Conquest and annexation.
+  British Baluchistan 1854-1876   Conquest and treaty.
+  Andaman Islands       1858      Annexation.
+
+The following is a list of some of the principal Indian states which are
+more or less under the control of the British government:--
+
+1. In direct political relations with the governor-general in council.
+
+  Hyderabad.
+  Baroda.
+  Mysote.
+  Kashmir.
+
+2. Under the Rajputana agency.
+
+  Udaipur.
+  Jodhpur.
+  Bikanir.
+  Jaipur (and feudatories).
+  Bharatpur.
+  Dholpur.
+  Alwar.
+  Tonk.
+
+3. Under the Central Indian agency.
+
+  Indore.
+  Rewa.
+  Bhopal.
+  Gwalior.
+
+4. Under the Bombay government.
+
+  Cutch.
+  Kolhapur (and dependencies).
+  Khairpur (Sind).
+  Bhaunagar.
+
+[v.04 p.0610] 5. Under the Madras government.
+
+  Travancore.
+  Cochin.
+
+6. Under the Central Provinces government.
+
+  Bastar.
+
+7. Under the Bengal government.
+
+  Kuch Behar.
+  Sikkim.
+
+8. Under United Provinces government.
+
+  Rampur.
+  Garhwal.
+
+9. Under the Punjab government.
+
+  Patiala.
+  Bahawalpur.
+  Jind.
+  Nabha.
+  Kapurthala.
+  Mandi.
+  Sirmur (Nahan).
+  Faridkot.
+  Chamba.
+
+10. Under the government of Burma.
+
+  Shan states.
+  Karen states.
+
+In addition to these there are British tracts known as the Upper Burma
+frontier and the Burma frontier. There is also a sphere of British
+influence in the border of Afghanistan. The state of Nepal, though
+independent as regards its internal administration, has been since the
+campaign of 1814-15 in close relations with Great Britain. It is bound to
+receive a British resident, and its political relations with other states
+are controlled by the government of India. All these native states have
+come into relative dependency upon Great Britain as a result of conquest or
+of treaty consequent upon the annexation of the neighbouring provinces. The
+settlement of Aden, with its dependencies of Perim and Sokotra Island,
+forms part of the government of Bombay.
+
+This vast congeries of states, widely different in character, and acquired
+by many different methods, holds together under [Sidenote: Administration.]
+the supreme headship of the crown on a generally acknowledged triple
+principle of self-government, self-support and self-defence. The principle
+is more fully applied in some parts of the empire than in others; there are
+some parts which have not yet completed their political evolution; some
+others in which the principle is temporarily or for special reasons in
+abeyance; others, again--chiefly those of very small extent, which are held
+for purposes of the defence or advantage of the whole--to which it is not
+applicable; but the principle is generally acknowledged as the structural
+basis upon which the constitution of the empire exists.
+
+In its relation to the empire the home section of the British Isles is
+distinguished from the others as the place of origin of the British race
+and the residence of the crown. The history and constitutional development
+of this portion of the empire will be found fully treated under separate
+headings. (See ENGLAND; WALES; IRELAND; SCOTLAND; UNITED KINGDOM; ENGLISH
+HISTORY; INDIA; AFRICA; AUSTRALIA; CANADA; &c.)
+
+It is enough to say that for purposes of administration the Indian empire
+is divided into nine great provinces and four minor commissionerships. The
+nine great provinces are presided over by two governors (Bombay and
+Madras), five lieut.-governors (Bengal, Eastern Bengal and Assam, United
+Provinces [Agra and Oudh], the Punjab and Burma), a chief commissioner (the
+Central Provinces) and an agent to the governor-general (the N.-W. Frontier
+Province). The four minor commissionerships are presided over each by a
+chief commissioner. Above these the supreme executive authority in India is
+vested in the viceroy in council. The council consists of six ordinary
+members besides the existing commander-in-chief. For legislative purposes
+the governor-general's council is increased by the addition of fifteen
+members nominated by the crown, and has power under certain restrictions to
+make laws for British India, for British subjects in the native states, and
+for native Indian subjects of the crown in any part of the world. The
+administration of the Indian empire in England is carried on by a secretary
+of state for India assisted by a council of not less than ten members. The
+expenditure of the revenues is under the control of the secretary in
+council.
+
+The colonial empire comprises over fifty distinct governments. It is
+divided into colonies of three classes and dependencies; these, again, are
+in some instances associated for administrative purposes in federated
+groups. The three classes of colonies are crown colonies, colonies
+possessing representative institutions but not responsible government, and
+colonies possessing representative institutions and responsible government.
+In crown colonies the crown has entire control of legislation, and the
+public officers are under the control of the home government. In
+representative colonies the crown has only a veto on legislation, but the
+home government retains control of the public officers. In responsible
+colonies the crown retains a veto upon legislation, but the home government
+has no control of any public officer except the governor.
+
+In crown colonies--with the exception of Gibraltar and St Helena, where
+laws may be made by the governor alone--laws are made by the governor with
+the concurrence of a council nominated by the crown. In some crown
+colonies, chiefly those acquired by conquest or cession, the authority of
+this council rests wholly on the crown; in others, chiefly those acquired
+by settlement, the council is created by the crown under the authority of
+local or imperial laws. The crown council of Ceylon may be cited as an
+example of the first kind, and the crown council of Jamaica of the second.
+
+In colonies possessing representative institutions without responsible
+government, the crown cannot (generally) legislate by order in council, and
+laws are made by the governor with the concurrence of the legislative body
+or bodies, one at least of these bodies in cases where a second chamber
+exists possessing a preponderance of elected representatives. The Bahamas,
+Barbados, and Bermuda have two legislative bodies--one elected and one
+nominated by the crown; Malta and the Leeward Islands have but one, which
+is partly elected and partly nominated.
+
+Under responsible government legislation is carried on by parliamentary
+means exactly as at home, with a cabinet responsible to parliament, the
+crown reserving only a right of veto, which is exercised at the discretion
+of the governor in the case of certain bills. The executive councils in
+those colonies, designated as at home by parliamentary choice, are
+appointed by the governor alone, and the other public officers only
+nominally by the governor on the advice of his executive council.
+
+Colonial governors are classed as governors-general; governors;
+lieut.-governors; administrators; high commissioners; and commissioners,
+according to the status of the colony and dependency, or group of colonies
+and dependencies, over which they preside. Their powers vary according to
+the position which they occupy. In all cases they represent the crown.
+
+As a consequence of this organization the finance of crown colonies is
+under the direct control of the imperial government; the finance of
+representative colonies, though not directly controlled, is usually
+influenced in important departures by the opinion of the imperial
+government. In responsible colonies the finance is entirely under local
+control, and the imperial government is dissociated from either moral or
+material responsibility for colonial debts.
+
+In federated groups of colonies and dependencies matters which are of
+common interest to a given number of separate governments are by mutual
+consent of the federating communities adjudged to the authority of a common
+government, which, in the case of self-governing colonies, is voluntarily
+created for the purpose. The associated states form under the federal
+government one federal body, but the parts retain control of local matters,
+and exercise all their original rights of government in regard to these.
+The two great self-governing groups of federated colonies within the empire
+are the Dominion of Canada and the Commonwealth of Australia. In South
+Africa unification was preferred to federation, the then self-governing
+colonies being united in 1910 into one state--the Union of South Africa.
+India, of which the associated provinces are under the control of the
+central government, may be given as an example of the practical federation
+of dependencies. Examples [v.04 p.0611] of federated crown colonies and
+lesser dependencies are to be found in the Leeward Island group of the West
+Indies and the federated Malay States.
+
+This rough system of self-government for the empire has been evolved not
+without some strain and friction, by the recognition through the
+vicissitudes of three hundred years of the value of independent initiative
+in the development of young countries. Queen Elizabeth's first patent to
+Sir Walter Raleigh permitted British subjects to accompany him to America,
+"with guarantee of a continuance of the enjoyment of all the rights which
+her subjects enjoyed at home."
+
+This guarantee may presumably have been intended at the time only to assure
+the intending settlers that they should lose no rights of British
+citizenship at home by taking up their residence in America. Its mutual
+interpretation in a wider sense, serving at once to establish in the colony
+rights of citizenship equivalent to those enjoyed in England, and to
+preserve for the colonist the status of British subject at home and abroad,
+has formed in application to all succeeding systems of British colonization
+the unconscious charter of union of the empire.
+
+The first American colonies were settled under royal grants, each with its
+own constitution. The immense distance in time which in those days
+separated America from Great Britain secured them from interference by the
+home authorities. They paid their own most moderate governing expenses, and
+they contributed largely to their own defence. From the middle of the 17th
+century their trade was not free, but this was the only restriction from
+which they suffered. The great war with France in the middle of the 18th
+century temporarily destroyed this system. That war, which resulted in the
+conquest of Canada and the delivery of the North American colonies from
+French antagonism, cost the imperial exchequer £90,000,000. The attempt to
+avert the repetition of such expenditure by the assertion of a right to tax
+the colonies through the British parliament led to the one great rupture
+which has marked the history of the empire. It has to be noted that at home
+during the latter half of the 17th century and the earlier part of the 18th
+century parliamentary power had to a great extent taken the place of the
+divine right of kings. But parliamentary power meant the power of the
+English people and taxpayers. The struggle which developed itself between
+the American colonies and the British parliament was in fact a struggle on
+the part of the people and taxpayers of one portion of the empire to resist
+the domination of the people and taxpayers of another portion. In this
+light it may be accepted as having historically established the fundamental
+axiom of the constitution of the empire, that the crown is the supreme head
+from which the parts take equal dependence.
+
+The crown requiring advice in the ordinary and constitutional manner
+receives it in matters of colonial administration from the secretaries of
+state for the colonies and for India. After the great rupture separate
+provision in the home government for the administration of colonial affairs
+was at first judged to be unnecessary, and the "Council[3] of Trade and
+Plantations," which up to that date had supplied the place now taken by the
+two offices of the colonies and India, was suppressed in 1782. There was a
+reaction from the liberal system of colonial self-government, and an
+attempt was made to govern the colonies simply as dependencies.
+
+In 1791, not long after the extension of the range of parliamentary
+authority in another portion of the empire, by the creation in 1784 of the
+Board of Control for India, Pitt made the step forward of granting to
+Canada representative institutions, of which the home government kept the
+responsible control. Similar institutions were also given at a later period
+to Australia and South Africa. But the long peace of the early part of the
+19th century was marked by great colonial developments; Australia, Canada
+and South Africa became important communities. Representative institutions
+controlled by the home government were insufficient, and they reasserted
+the claim for liberty to manage their own affairs.
+
+Fully responsible government was granted to Canada in 1840, and gradually
+extended to the other colonies. In 1854 a separate secretary of state for
+the colonies was appointed at home, and the colonial office was established
+on its present footing. In India, as in the colonies, there came with the
+growing needs of empire a recognition of the true relations of the parts to
+each other and of the whole to the crown. In 1858, on the complete
+transference of the territories of the East India Company to the crown, the
+board of control was abolished, and the India Council, under the presidency
+of a secretary of state for India, was created. It was especially provided
+that the members of the council may not sit in parliament.
+
+Thus, although it has not been found practicable in the working of the
+British constitution to carry out the full theory of the direct and
+exclusive dependence of colonial possessions on the crown, the theory is
+recognized as far as possible. It is understood that the principal sections
+of the empire enjoy equal rights under the crown, and that none is
+subordinate to another. The intervention of the imperial parliament in
+colonial affairs is only admitted theoretically in so far as the support of
+parliament is required by the constitutional advisers of the crown. To
+bring the practice of the empire into complete harmony with the theory it
+would be necessary to constitute, for the purpose of advising the crown on
+imperial affairs, a council in which all important parts of the empire
+should be represented.
+
+The gradual recognition of the constitutional theory of the British empire,
+and the assumption by the principal [Sidenote: Imperialism.] colonies of
+full self-governing responsibilities, has cleared the way for a movement in
+favour of a further development which should bring the supreme headship of
+the empire more into accord with modern ideas.
+
+It was during the period of domination of the "Manchester school," of which
+the most effective influence in public affairs was exerted for about thirty
+years, extending from 1845 to 1875, that the fullest development of
+colonial self-government was attained, the view being generally accepted at
+that time that self-governing institutions were to be regarded as the
+preliminary to inevitable separation. A general inclination to withdraw
+from the acceptance of imperial responsibilities throughout the world gave
+to foreign nations at the same time an opportunity by which they were not
+slow to profit, and contributed to the force of a reaction of which the
+part played by Great Britain in the scramble for Africa marked the
+culmination. Under the increasing pressure of foreign enterprise, the value
+of a federation of the empire for purposes of common interest began to be
+discussed. Imperial federation was openly spoken of in New Zealand as early
+as 1852. A similar suggestion was officially put forward by the general
+association of the Australian colonies in London in 1857. The Royal
+Colonial Institution, of which the motto "United Empire" illustrates its
+aims, was founded in 1868. First among leading British statesmen to
+repudiate the old interpretation of colonial self-government as a
+preliminary to separation, Lord Beaconsfield, in 1872, spoke of the
+constitutions accorded to the colonies as "part of a great policy of
+imperial consolidation." In 1875 W. E. Forster, afterwards a member of the
+Liberal government, made a speech in which he advocated imperial federation
+as a means by which it might become practicable to "replace dependence by
+association." The foundation of the Imperial Federation League--in 1884,
+with Forster for its first president, shortly to be succeeded by Lord
+Rosebery--marked a distinct step forward. The Colonial Conferences of 1887
+and subsequent years (the title being changed to Imperial Conference in
+1907), in which colonial opinion was sought and accepted in respect of
+important questions of imperial organization and defence, and the
+enthusiastic loyalty displayed by the colonies towards the crown on the
+occasion of the jubilee manifestations of Queen Victoria's reign, were
+further indications of progress in the same direction. Coincidently with
+this development, the achievements of Sir George Goldie and Cecil Rhodes,
+who, the one in West Africa and the other in South Africa, added between
+them to the empire in a space of less than twenty years a dominion of
+greater extent than the whole of British [v.04 p.0612] India, followed by
+the action of a host of distinguished disciples in other parts of the
+world, effectually stemmed the movement initiated by Cobden and Bright. A
+tendency which had seemed temporarily to point towards a complacent
+dissolution of the empire was arrested, and the closing years of the 19th
+century were marked by a growing disposition to appreciate the value and
+importance of the unique position which the British empire has created for
+itself in the world. No stronger demonstration of the reality of imperial
+union could be needed than that which was afforded by the support given to
+the imperial forces by the colonies and India in the South African War. It
+remained only to be seen by what process of evolution the further
+consolidation of the empire would find expression in the machinery of
+government. A step in this direction was taken in 1907, when at the
+Colonial Conference held in London that year it was decided to form a
+permanent secretariat to deal with the common interests of the
+self-governing colonies and the mother-country. It was further decided that
+conferences, to be called in future Imperial Conferences, between the home
+government and the governments of the self-governing dominions, should be
+held every four years, and that the prime minister of Great Britain should
+be _ex officio_ president of the conference. No executive power was,
+however, conferred upon the conference.
+
+The movement in favour of tariff reform initiated by Mr Chamberlain
+(_q.v._) in 1903 with the double object of giving a preference to colonial
+goods and of protecting imperial trade by the imposition in certain cases
+of retaliative duties on foreign goods, was a natural evolution of the
+imperialist idea, and of the fact that by this time the trade-statistics of
+the United Kingdom had proved that trade with the colonies was forming an
+increasingly large proportion of the whole. In spite of the defeat of the
+Unionist party in England in 1906, and the accession to power of a Liberal
+government opposed to anything which appeared to be inconsistent with free
+trade, the movement for colonial preference, based on tariff reform,
+continued to make headway in the United Kingdom, and was definitely adopted
+by the Unionist party. And at the Imperial Conference of 1907 it was
+advocated by all the colonial premiers, who could point to the progress
+made in their own states towards giving a tariff preference to British
+goods and to those of one another.
+
+The question of self-government is closely associated with the question of
+self-support. Plenty of good land and the liberty to manage their own
+affairs were the causes assigned by Adam Smith for the marked prosperity of
+the British colonies towards the end of the 18th century. The same causes
+are still observed to produce the same effects, and it may be pointed out
+that, since the date of the latest of Adam Smith's writings, upwards of
+6,000,000 sq. m. of virgin soil, rich with possibilities of agricultural,
+pastoral and mineral wealth, have been added to the empire. In the same
+period the white population has grown from about 12,000,000 to 53,000,000,
+and the developments of agricultural and industrial machinery have
+multiplied, almost beyond computation, the powers of productive labour.
+
+It is scarcely possible within this article to deal with so widely varied a
+subject as that of the productions and industry of the [Sidenote: The
+imperial factor in industry and trade.] empire. For the purposes of a
+general statement, it is interesting to observe that concurrently with the
+acquisition of the vast continental areas during the 19th century, the
+progress of industrial science in application to means of transport and
+communication brought about a revolution of the most radical character in
+the accepted laws of economic development. Railways did away with the old
+law that the spread of civilization is necessarily governed by facilities
+for water carriage and is consequently confined to river valleys and
+sea-shores. Steam and electricity opened to industry the interior of
+continents previously regarded as unapproachable. The resources of these
+vast inland spaces which have lain untouched since history began became
+available to individual enterprise, and over a great portion of the earth's
+surface were brought within the possessions of the British empire. The
+production of raw material within the empire increased at a rate which can
+only be appreciated by a careful study of figures, and by a comparison of
+the total of these figures with the total figures of the world. The
+tropical and temperate possessions of the empire include every field of
+production which can be required for the use of man. There is no main
+staple of human food which is not grown; there is no material of textile
+industry which is not produced. The British empire gives occupation to more
+than one-third of the persons employed in mining and quarrying in the
+world. It may be interesting, as an indication of the relative position in
+this respect of the British empire to the world, to state that at present
+it produces one-third of the coal supply of the world, one-sixth of the
+wheat supply, and very nearly two-thirds of the gold supply. But while
+these figures may be taken as in themselves satisfactory, it is far more
+important to remember that as yet the potential resources of the new lands
+opened to enterprise have been barely conceived, and their wealth has been
+little more than scratched. Population as yet has been only very sparsely
+sprinkled over the surface of many of the areas most suitable for white
+settlement. In the wheat lands of Canada, the pastoral country of
+Australasia, and the mineral fields of South Africa and western Canada
+alone, the undeveloped resources are such as to ensure employment to the
+labour and satisfaction to the needs of at least as many millions as they
+now contain thousands of the British race. In respect of this promise of
+the future the position of the British empire is unique.
+
+It is not too much to say that trade has been at once the most active cause
+of expansion and the most potent bond of union in the development of the
+empire. Trade with the tropical and settlement in the temperate regions of
+the world formed the basis upon which the foundations of the empire were
+laid. Trading companies founded most of the American and West Indian
+colonies; a trading company won India; a trading company colonized the
+north-western districts of Canada; commercial wars during the greater part
+of the 18th century established the British command of the sea, which
+rendered the settlement of Australasia possible. The same wars gave Great
+Britain South Africa, and chartered companies in the 19th century carried
+the British flag into the interior of the African continent from south and
+east and west. Trading companies developed Borneo and Fiji. The bonds of
+prosperous trade have kept the Australasian colonies within the empire. The
+protection of colonial commerce by the imperial navy is one of the
+strongest of material links which connect the crown with the outlying
+possessions of the empire.
+
+The trade of the empire, like the other developments of imperial public
+life, has been profoundly influenced by the variety of [Sidenote: Imperial
+trade policy.] local conditions under which it has flourished. In the early
+settlement of the North American colonies their trade was left practically
+free; but by the famous Navigation Act of 1660 the importation and
+exportation of goods from British colonies were restricted to British
+ships, of which the master and three-fourths of the mariners were English.
+This act, of which the intention was to encourage British shipping and to
+keep the monopoly of British colonial trade for the benefit of British
+merchants, was followed by many others of a similar nature up to the time
+of the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846 and the introduction of free trade
+into Great Britain. The Navigation Acts were repealed in 1849. Thus for
+very nearly two hundred years British trade was subject to restrictions, of
+which the avowed intention was to curtail the commercial intercourse of the
+empire with the world. During this period the commercial or mercantile
+system, of which the fallacies were exposed by the economists of the latter
+half of the 18th century, continued to govern the principles of British
+trade. Under this system monopolies were common, and among them few were
+more important than that of the East India Company. In 1813 the trade of
+India was, however, thrown open to competition, and in 1846, after the
+introduction of free trade at home, the principal British colonies which
+had not yet at that date received the grant of responsible government were
+specially empowered to abolish differential duties upon foreign trade. A
+first result of the commercial emancipation of the [v.04 p.0613] colonies
+was the not altogether unnatural rise in the manufacturing centres of the
+political school known as the Manchester school, which was disposed to
+question the value to Great Britain of the retention of colonies which were
+no longer bound to give her the monopoly of their commercial markets. An
+equally natural desire on the part of the larger colonies to profit by the
+opportunity which was opened to them of establishing local manufactures of
+their own, combined with the convenience in new countries of using the
+customs as an instrument of taxation, led to something like a reciprocal
+feeling of resentment, and there followed a period during which the policy
+of Great Britain was to show no consideration for colonial trade, and the
+policy of the principal colonies was to impose heavy duties upon British
+trade. By a gradual process of better understanding, largely helped by the
+development of means of communication, the antagonistic extreme was
+abandoned, and a tendency towards a system of preferential duties within
+the empire displayed itself.
+
+At the Colonial Conference held in London in 1887 a proposal was formally
+submitted by the South [Sidenote: Colonial preference.] African delegate
+for the establishment within the empire of a preferential system, imposing
+a duty of 2% upon all foreign goods, the proceeds to be directed to the
+maintenance of the imperial navy. To this end it was requested that certain
+treaties with foreign nations which imposed restrictions on the trade of
+various parts of the empire with each other should be denounced. Some years
+later, a strong feeling having been manifested in England against any
+foreign engagement standing in the way of new domestic trade arrangements
+between a colony and the mother-country, the German and Belgian treaties in
+question were denounced (1897). Meanwhile, simultaneously with the movement
+in favour of reciprocal fiscal advantages to be granted within the empire
+by the many local governments to each other, there was a growth of the
+perception that an increase of the foreign trade of Great Britain, carried
+on chiefly in manufactured goods, was accompanied by a corresponding
+enlargement of the home markets for colonial raw material, and consequently
+that injury to the foreign trade of Great Britain, while as yet it so
+largely outweighed the trade between the United Kingdom and the colonies,
+must necessarily react upon the colonies. This view was definitely
+expressed at the Colonial Conference at Ottawa in 1894, and was one of the
+factors which led to the relinquishment of the demand that in return for
+colonial concessions there should be an imposition on the part of Great
+Britain of a differential duty upon foreign goods. Canada was the first
+important British colony to give substantial expression to the new imperial
+sentiment in commercial matters by the introduction in 1897 of an imperial
+tariff, granting without any reciprocal advantage a deduction of 25% upon
+customs duties imposed upon British goods. The same advantage was offered
+to all British colonies trading with her upon equal terms. In later years
+the South African states, Australia and New Zealand also granted
+preferential treatment to British goods. Meanwhile in Great Britain the
+system of free imports, regarded as "free trade" (though only one-sided
+free trade), had become the established policy, customs duties being only
+imposed for purposes of revenue on a few selected articles, and about half
+the national income was derived from customs and excise. In most of the
+colonies customs form of necessity one of the important sources of revenue.
+It is, however, worthy of remark that in the self-governing colonies, even
+those which are avowedly protectionist, a smaller proportion of the public
+revenue was derived from customs and excise than was derived from these
+sources in the United Kingdom. The proportion in Australasia before
+federation was about one quarter. In Canada it is more difficult to
+estimate it, as customs and excise form the principal provision made for
+federal finance, and note must therefore be taken of the separate sources
+of revenue in the provinces. With these reservations it will still be seen
+that customs, or, in other words, a tax upon the movements of trade, forms
+one of the chief sources of imperial revenue.
+
+The development of steam shipping and electricity gave to the movements of
+trade a stimulus no less remarkable than that given by the introduction of
+railroads and industrial machinery to production and manufactures. Whereas
+at the beginning of the 19th century the journey to Australia occupied
+eight months, and business communications between Sydney and London could
+not receive answers within the year, at the beginning of the 20th century
+the journey could be accomplished in thirty-one days, and telegraphic
+despatches enabled the most important business to be transacted within
+twenty-four hours. For one cargo carried in the year at the beginning of
+the 19th century at least six could now be carried by the same ship, and
+from the point of view of trade the difference of a venture which realizes
+its profits in two months, as compared with one which occupied a whole
+year, does not need to be insisted on. The increased rapidity of the voyage
+and the power of daily communication by telegraph with the most distant
+markets have introduced a wholly new element into the national trade of the
+empire, and commercial intercourse between the southern and the northern
+hemispheres has received a development from the natural alternation of the
+seasons, of which until quite recent years the value was not even
+conceived. Fruit, eggs, butter, meat, poultry and other perishable
+commodities pass in daily increasing quantities between the northern and
+the southern hemispheres with an alternate flow which contributes to raise
+in no inconsiderable degree the volume of profitable trade. Thus the butter
+season of Australasia is from October to March, while the butter season of
+Ireland and northern Europe is from March to October. In three years after
+the introduction of ice-chambers into the steamers of the great shipping
+lines, Victoria and New South Wales built up a yearly butter trade of
+£1,000,000 with Great Britain without seriously affecting the Irish and
+Danish markets whence the summer supply is drawn. These facilities,
+combined with the enormous additions made to the public stock of land and
+labour, contributed to raise the volume of trade of the empire from a total
+of less than £100,000,000 in the year 1800 to a total of nearly
+£1,500,000,000 in 1900. The declared volume of British exports to all parts
+of the world in 1800 was £38,120,120, and the value of British imports from
+all parts of the world was £30,570,605; total, £68,690,725. As in those
+days the colonies were not allowed to trade with any other country this
+must be taken as representing imperial trade. The exact figures of the
+trade of India, the colonies, and the United Kingdom for 1900 were:
+imports, £809,178,209; exports, £657,899,363; total, £1,467,077,572.
+
+A question of sovereign importance to the continued existence of the empire
+is the question of defence. A country of which [Sidenote: Imperial
+defence.] the main thoroughfares are the oceans of the world demands in the
+first instance a strong navy. It has of late years been accepted as a
+fundamental axiom of defence that the British navy should exceed in
+strength any reasonable combination of foreign navies which could be
+brought against it, the accepted formula being the "two-power standard,"
+_i.e._ a 10% margin over the joint strength of the two next powers. The
+expense of maintaining such a floating armament must be colossal, and until
+within the decade 1890-1900 it was borne exclusively by the taxpayers of
+the United Kingdom. As the benefits of united empire have become more
+consciously appreciated in the colonies, and the value of the fleet as an
+insurance for British commerce has been recognized, a desire has manifested
+itself on the part of the self-governing colonies to contribute towards the
+formation of a truly imperial navy. In 1895 the Australasian colonies voted
+a subsidy of £126,000 per annum for the maintenance of an Australasian
+squadron, and in 1897 the Cape Colony also offered a contribution of
+£30,000 a year to be used at the discretion of the imperial government for
+naval purposes. The Australian contribution was in 1902 increased to
+£240,000, and that of the Cape to £50,000, while Natal voted £35,000 a year
+and Newfoundland £3000. But apart from these comparatively slight
+contributions, and the local up-keep of colonial fortifications,--and the
+beginning in 1908-1909 of an Australian torpedo-boat flotilla provided by
+the Commonwealth,--the whole cost of the imperial navy, on which ultimately
+the security of the empire rested, remained to be [v.04 p.0614] borne by
+the taxpayers in the British islands. The extent of this burden was
+emphasized in 1909 by the revelations as to the increase of the German (and
+the allied Austrian) fleet. At this crisis in the history of the two-power
+standard a wave of enthusiasm started in the colonies, resulting in the
+offer of "Dreadnoughts" from New Zealand and elsewhere; and the British
+government called an Imperial Conference to consider the whole question
+afresh.
+
+Land defence, though a secondary branch of the great question of imperial
+defence, has been intimately connected with the development and internal
+growth of the empire. In the case of the first settlement of the American
+colonies they were expected to provide for their own land defence. To some
+extent in the early part of their career they carried out this expectation,
+and even on occasion, as in the taking of Louisburg, which was subsequently
+given back at the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle as the price of the French
+evacuation of Madras, rendered public service to the empire at large. In
+India the principle of local self-defence was from the beginning carried
+into practice by the East India Company. But in America the claim of the
+French wars proved too heavy for local resources. In 1755 Great Britain
+intervened with troops sent from home under General Braddock, and up to the
+outbreak of the American War the cost of the defence of the North American
+colonies was borne by the imperial exchequer. To meet this expense the
+imperial parliament took upon itself the right to tax the American
+colonies. In 1765 a Quartering Act was passed by which 10,000 imperial
+troops were quartered in the colonies. As a result of the American War
+which followed and led to the loss of the colonies affected, the imperial
+authorities accepted the charge of the land defences of the empire, and
+with the exception of India and the Hudson Bay territories, where the
+trading companies determined to pay their own expenses, the whole cost of
+imperial defence was borne, like the cost of the navy, by the taxpayers of
+the United Kingdom. This condition of affairs lasted till the end of the
+Napoleonic Wars. During the thirty years' peace which followed there came
+time for consideration. The fiscal changes which towards the middle of the
+19th century gave to the self-governing colonies the command of their own
+resources very naturally carried with them the consequence that a call
+should be made on colonial exchequers to provide for their own governing
+expenses. Of these defence is obviously one of the most essential.
+Coincidently, therefore, with the movements of free trade at home, the
+renunciation of what was known as the mercantile system and the
+accompanying grants of constitutional freedom to the colonies, a movement
+for the reorganization of imperial defence was set on foot. In the decade
+which elapsed between 1846 and 1856 the movement as regards the colonies
+was confined chiefly to calls made upon them to contribute to their own
+defence by providing barracks, fortifications, &c., for the accommodation
+of imperial troops, and in some cases paying for the use of troops not
+strictly required for imperial purposes. In 1857 the Australian colonies
+agreed to pay the expenses of the imperial garrison quartered in Australia.
+This was a very wide step from the imperial attempt to tax the American
+colonies for a similar purpose in the preceding century. Nevertheless, in
+evidence given before a departmental committee in 1859, it was shown that
+at that time the colonies of Great Britain were free from almost every
+obligation of contributing either by personal service or money payment
+towards their own defence, and that the cost of military expenditure in the
+colonies in the preceding year had amounted in round figures to £4,000,000.
+A committee of the House of Commons sat in 1861 to consider the question,
+and in 1862 it was resolved, without a division, that "colonies exercising
+the right of self-government ought to undertake the main responsibility of
+providing for their own internal order and security, and ought to assist in
+their own external defence." The decision was accepted as the basis of
+imperial policy. The first effect was the gradual withdrawing of imperial
+troops from the self-governing colonies, together with the encouragement of
+the development of local military systems by the loan, when desired, of
+imperial military experts. A call was also made for larger military
+contributions from some of the crown colonies. The committee of 1859 had
+emphasized in its report the fact that the principal dependence of the
+colonies for defence is necessarily upon the British navy, and in 1865,
+exactly 100 years after the Quartering Act, which had been the cause of the
+troubles that led to the independence of the United States, a Colonial
+Naval Defence Act was passed which gave power to the colonies to provide
+ships of war, steamers, and volunteers for their own defence, and in case
+of necessity to place them at the disposal of the crown. In 1868 the
+Canadian Militia Act gave the fully organized nucleus of a local army to
+Canada. In the same year the imperial troops were withdrawn from New
+Zealand, leaving the colonial militia to deal with the native war still in
+progress. In 1870 the last imperial troops were withdrawn from Australia,
+and in 1873 it was officially announced that military expenditure in the
+colonies was almost "wholly for imperial purposes." In 1875 an imperial
+officer went to Australia to report for the Australian government upon
+Australian defence. The appointment in 1879 of a royal commission to
+consider the question of imperial defence, which presented its report in
+1882, led to a considerable development and reorganization of the system of
+imperial fortifications. Coaling stations were also selected with reference
+to the trade routes. In 1885 rumours of war roused a very strong feeling in
+connexion with the still unfinished and in many cases unarmed condition of
+the fortifications recommended by the commission of 1879. Military activity
+was stimulated throughout the empire, and the Colonial Defence Committee
+was created to supply a much-felt need for organized direction and advice
+to colonial administrations acting necessarily in independence of each
+other. The question of colonial defence was among the most important of the
+subjects discussed at the colonial conference held in London in 1887, and
+it was at this conference that the Australasian colonies first agreed to
+contribute to the expense of their own naval defence. From this date the
+principle of local responsibility for self-defence has been fully accepted.
+India has its own native army, and pays for the maintenance within its
+frontiers of an imperial garrison. Early in the summer of 1899, when
+hostilities in South Africa appeared to be imminent, the governments of the
+principal colonies took occasion to express their approval of the South
+African policy pursued by the imperial government, and offers were made by
+the governments of India, the Australasian colonies, Canada, Hong-Kong, the
+Federal Malay states, some of the West African and other colonies, to send
+contingents for active service in the event of war. On the outbreak of
+hostilities these offers, on the part of the self-governing colonies, were
+accepted, and colonial contingents upwards of 30,000 strong were among the
+most efficient sections of the British fighting force. The manner in which
+these colonial contingents were raised, their admirable fighting qualities,
+and the service rendered by them in the field, disclosed altogether new
+possibilities of military organization within the empire, and in subsequent
+years the subject continued to engage the attention of the statesmen of the
+empire. Progress in this field lay chiefly in the increased support given
+in the colonial states to the separate local movements for self-defence;
+but in 1909 a scheme was arranged by Mr Haldane, by which the British War
+Office should co-operate with the colonial governments in providing for the
+training of officers and an interchange of views on a common military
+policy.
+
+The important questions of justice, religion and instruction will be found
+dealt with in detail under the headings of separate [Sidenote: Justice,
+&c.] sections of the empire. Systems of justice throughout the empire have
+a close resemblance to each other, and the judicial committee of the privy
+council, on which the self-governing colonies and India are represented,
+constitutes a supreme court of appeal (_q.v._) for the entire empire. In
+the matter of religion, while no imperial organization in the strict sense
+is possible, the progress made by the Lambeth Conferences and otherwise
+(see ANGLICAN COMMUNION) has done much to bring the work of the Church of
+England in different parts of the world into a co-operative system.
+Religion, of which the forms are infinitely varied, is however everywhere
+free, [v.04 p.0615] except in cases where the exercise of religious rites
+leads to practices foreign to accepted laws of humanity. It is perhaps
+interesting to state that the number of persons in the empire nominally
+professing the Christian religion is 58,000,000, of Mahommedans 94,000,000,
+of Buddhists 12,000,000, of Hindus 208,000,000, of pagans and others
+25,000,000. Systems of instruction, of which the aim is generally similar
+in the white portions of the empire and is directed towards giving to every
+individual the basis of a liberal education, are governed wholly by local
+requirements. Native schools are established in all settled communities
+under British rule.
+
+LITERATURE.--In recent years the subject of British imperialism has
+inspired a growing literature, and it is only possible here to name a
+selected number of the more important works which may usefully be consulted
+on different topics: Sir C.P. Lucas, _Historical Geography of the British
+Colonies_ (1888, et seq.); H.E. Egerton, _Short History of British Colonial
+Policy_ (1897); H.J. Mackinder, _Britain and the British Seas_ (1902); Sir
+J.R. Seeley, _Expansion of England_ (1883); _Growth of British Policy_
+(1895); Sir Charles Dilke, _Greater Britain_ (1869), _Problems of Greater
+Britain_ (1890), _The British Empire_ (1899); G.R. Parkin, _Imperial
+Federation_ (1892); Sir John Colomb, _Imperial Federation, Naval and
+Military_ (1886); Sir G.S. Clarke, _Imperial Defence_ (1897); Sidney
+Goldmann and others, _The Empire and the Century_ (1905); J.L. Garvin,
+_Imperial Reciprocity_ (1903); J.W. Welsford, _The Strength of a Nation_
+(1907); _Compatriots Club Essays_ (1906); Sir H. Jenkyns, _British Rule and
+Jurisdiction beyond the Seas_ (1902); Bernard Holland, _Imperium et
+libertas_ (1901); (for an anti-imperialist view) J.A. Hobson, _Imperialism_
+(1902). See also the Reports of the various colonial conferences,
+especially that of the Imperial Conference of 1907; and for trade
+statistics, J. Holt Schooling s _British Trade Book_. For the tariff reform
+movement in England see the articles FREE TRADE and PROTECTION.
+
+(F. L. L.)
+
+[1] The census returns for 1901 from the various parts of the empire were
+condensed for the first time in 1906 into a blue-book under the title of
+_Census of the British Empire, Report with Summary_.
+
+[2] The white population of British South Africa according to the census of
+1904 was 1,132,226.
+
+[3] Or "Board," as it became in 1605.
+
+BRITISH HONDURAS, formerly called BALIZE, or BELIZE, a British crown colony
+in Central America; bounded on the N. and N.W. by the Mexican province of
+Yucatan, N.E. and E. by the Bay of Honduras, an inlet of the Caribbean Sea,
+and S. and W. by Guatemala. (For map, see CENTRAL AMERICA.) Pop. (1905)
+40,372; area, 7562 sq. m. The frontier of British Honduras, as defined by
+the conventions of 1859 and 1893 between Great Britain and Guatemala,
+begins at the mouth of the river Sarstoon or Sarstun, in the Bay of
+Honduras; ascends that river as far as the rapids of Gracias à Dios; and
+thence, turning to the right, runs in a straight line to Garbutt's Rapids,
+on the Belize river. From this point it proceeds due north to the Mexican
+frontier, where it follows the river Hondo to its mouth in Chetumal Bay.
+
+British Honduras differs little from the rest of the Yucatan peninsula. The
+approach to the coast is through the islets known as cays, and through
+coral reefs. It is both difficult and dangerous. For some miles inland the
+ground is low and swampy, thickly covered with mangroves and tropical
+jungle. Next succeeds a narrow belt of rich alluvial land, not exceeding a
+mile in width, beyond which, and parallel to the rivers, are vast tracts of
+sandy, arid land, called "pine ridges," from the red pines with which they
+are covered. Farther inland these give place, first, to the less elevated
+"broken ridges," and then to what are called "cahoon ridges," with a deep
+rich soil covered with myriads of palm trees. Next come broad savannas,
+studded with clumps of, trees, through which the streams descending from
+the mountains wind in every direction. The mountains themselves rise in a
+succession of ridges parallel to the coast. The first are the Manatee
+Hills, from 800 to 1000 ft. high; and beyond these are the Cockscomb
+Mountains, which are about 4000 ft. high. No less than sixteen streams,
+large enough to be called rivers, descend from these mountains to the sea,
+between the Hondo and Sarstoon. The uninhabited country between Garbutt's
+Rapids and the coast south of Deep river was first explored in 1879, by
+Henry Fowler, the colonial secretary of British Honduras; it was then found
+to consist of open and undulating grasslands, affording fine pasturage in
+the west and of forests full of valuable timber in the east. Its elevation
+varies from 1200 to 3300 ft. Auriferous quartz and traces of other minerals
+have been discovered, but not in sufficient quantity to repay the cost of
+mining. The geology, fauna and flora of British Honduras do not materially
+differ from those of the neighbouring regions (see CENTRAL AMERICA).
+
+Although the colony is in the tropics, its climate is subtropical. The
+highest shade temperature recorded is 98° F., the lowest 50°. Easterly
+sea-winds prevail during the greater part of the year. The dry season lasts
+from the middle of February to the middle of May; rain occurs at intervals
+during the other months, and almost continuously in October, November and
+December. The annual rainfall averages about 81½ in., but rises in some
+districts to 150 in. or more. Cholera, yellow fever and other tropical
+diseases occur sporadically, but, on the whole, the country is not
+unhealthy by comparison with the West Indies or Central American states.
+
+_Inhabitants._--British Honduras is a little larger than Wales, and has a
+population smaller than that of Chester (England). In 1904 the inhabitants
+of European descent numbered 1500, the Europeans 253, and the white
+Americans 118. The majority belong to the hybrid race descended from negro
+slaves, aboriginal Indians and white settlers. At least six distinct racial
+groups can be traced. These consist of (1) native Indians, to be found
+chiefly in forest villages in the west and north of the colony away from
+the sea coast; (2) descendants of the English buccaneers, mixed with
+Scottish and German traders; (3) the woodcutting class known as "Belize
+Creoles," of more or less pure descent from African negroes imported, as
+slaves or as labourers, from the West Indies; (4) the Caribs of the
+southern districts, descendants of the population deported in 1796 from St
+Vincent, who were of mixed African and Carib origin; (5) a mixed population
+in the south, of Spanish-Indian origin, from Guatemala and Honduras; and
+(6) in the north another Spanish-Indian group which came from Yucatan in
+1848. The population tends slowly to increase; about 45% of the births are
+illegitimate, and males are more numerous than females. Many tracts of
+fallow land and forest were once thickly populated, for British Honduras
+has its ruined cities, and other traces of a lost Indian civilization, in
+common with the rest of Central America.
+
+_Natural Products._---For more than two centuries British Honduras has been
+supported by its trade in timber, especially in mahogany, logwood, cedar
+and other dye-woods and cabinet-woods, such as lignum-vitae, fustic,
+bullet-wood, santa-maria, ironwood, rosewood, &c. The coloured inhabitants
+are unsurpassed as woodmen, and averse from agriculture; so that there are
+only about 90 sq. m. of tilled land. Sugar-cane, bananas, cocoanut-palms,
+plantains, and various other fruits are cultivated; vanilla, sarsaparilla,
+sapodilla or chewing-gum, rubber, and the cahoon or coyol palm, valuable
+for its oil, grow wild in large quantities. In September 1903 all the pine
+trees on crown lands were sold to Mr B. Chipley, a citizen of the United
+States, at one cent (½ d.) per tree; the object of the sale being to secure
+the opening up of undeveloped territory. Unsuccessful attempts have been
+made to establish sponge fisheries on a large scale.
+
+_Chief Towns and Communications._--Belize (pop. in 1904, 9969), the capital
+and principal seaport, is described in a separate article. Other towns are
+Stann Creek (2459), Corosal (1696), Orange Walk (1244), Punta Gorda (706),
+the Cayo (421), Monkey River (384) and Mullins River (243). All these are
+administered by local boards, whose aggregate revenue amounts to some
+£7000. Telegraph and telephone lines connect the capital with Corosal in
+the north, and Punta Gorda in the south; but there are no railways, and few
+good roads beyond municipal limits. Thus the principal means of
+communication are the steamers which ply along the coast. Mail steamers
+from New Orleans, Liverpool, Colon and Puerto Cortes in Honduras, regularly
+visit Belize.
+
+_Commerce and Finance._--Between 1901 and 1905 the tonnage of vessels
+accommodated at the ports of British Honduras rose from 300,000 to 496,465;
+the imports rose from £252,500 to £386,123; the exports from £285,500 to
+£377,623. The exports consist of the timber, fruit and other vegetable
+products already mentioned, besides rum, deerskins, tortoiseshell, turtles
+and sponges, while the principal imports are cotton goods, hardware, beer,
+wine, spirits, groceries and specie. The sea-borne trade is mainly shared
+by Great Britain and the United States. On the 14th of October 1894, the
+American gold dollar was adopted as the standard coin, in place of the
+Guatemalan dollar; and the silver of North, South and Central America
+ceased to be legal tender. Government notes are issued to the value of 1,
+2, 5, 10, 50 and 100 dollars, and there is a local currency of one cent
+bronze pieces, and of 5, 10, 25 and 50 cent silver pieces. The British
+sovereign and half sovereign are legal tender. In 1846 the government
+savings bank was founded in Belize; branches were afterwards opened in the
+principal towns; and in 1903 the British Bank of Honduras was established
+at Belize. The revenue, chiefly derived from customs, rose from £60,150 in
+1901 to £68,335 in 1905. The expenditure, in which the cost of police [v.04
+p.0616] and education are important items, rose, during the same period,
+from £51,210 to £61,800. The public debt, amounting in 1905 to £34,736,
+represents the balance due on three loans which were raised in 1885, 1887,
+and 1891, for public works in Belize. The loans are repayable between 1916
+and 1923.
+
+_Constitution and Administration._--From 1638 to 1786 the colonists were
+completely independent, and elected their own magistrates, who performed
+all judicial and executive functions. The customs and precedents thus
+established were codified and published under the name of "Burnaby's Laws,"
+after the visit of Admiral Sir W. Burnaby, in 1756, and were recognized as
+valid by the crown. In 1786 a superintendent was appointed by the home
+government, and although this office was vacant from 1790 to 1797, it was
+revived until 1862. An executive council was established in 1839, and a
+legislative assembly, of three nominated and eighteen elected members, in
+1853. British Honduras was declared a colony in 1862, with a lieutenant
+governor, subject to the governor of Jamaica, as its chief magistrate. In
+1870 the legislative assembly was abolished, and a legislative council
+substituted--the constitution of this body being fixed, in 1892, at three
+official and five unofficial members. In 1884 the lieutenant governor was
+created governor and commander-in-chief, and rendered independent of
+Jamaica. He is assisted by an executive council of three official and three
+unofficial members. For administrative purposes the colony is divided into
+six districts--Belize, Corosal, Orange Walk, the Cayo, Stann Creek and
+Toledo. The capital of the last named is Punta Gorda; the other districts
+take the names of their chief towns. English common law is valid throughout
+British Honduras, subject to modification by local enactments, and to the
+operation of the _Consolidated Laws of British Honduras_. This collection
+of ordinances, customs, &c., was officially revised and published between
+1884 and 1888. Appeals may be carried before the privy council or the
+supreme court of Jamaica,
+
+_Religion and Education._--The churches represented are Roman Catholic,
+Anglican, Wesleyan, Baptist and Presbyterian; but none of them receives
+assistance from public funds. The bishopric of British Honduras is part of
+the West Indian province of the Church of England. Almost all the schools,
+secondary as well as primary, are denominational. School fees are charged,
+and grants-in-aid are made to elementary schools. Most of these, since
+1894, have been under the control of a board, on which the religious bodies
+managing the schools are represented.
+
+_Defence._--The Belize volunteer light infantry corps, raised in 1897,
+consists of about 200 officers and men; a mounted section, numbering about
+40, was created in 1904. For the whole colony, the police Dumber about 120.
+There is also a volunteer fire brigade of 335 officers and men.
+
+_History._--"His Majesty's Settlement in the Bay of Honduras," as the
+territory was formerly styled in official documents, owes, its origin, in
+1638, to log-wood cutters who had formerly been buccaneers. These were
+afterwards joined by agents of the Chartered Company which exploited the
+pearl fisheries of the Mosquito coast. Although thus industriously
+occupied, the settlers so far retained their old habits as to make frequent
+descents on the logwood establishments of the Spaniards, whose attempts to
+expel them were generally successfully resisted. The most formidable of
+these was made by the Spaniards in April 1754, when, in consequence of the
+difficulty of approaching the position from the sea, an expedition,
+consisting of 1500 men, was organized inland at the town of Peten. As it
+neared the coast, it was met by 250 British, and completely routed. The
+log-wood cutters were not again disturbed for a number of years, and their
+position had become so well established that, in the treaty of 1763 with
+Spain, Great Britain, while agreeing to demolish "all fortifications which
+English subjects had, erected in the Bay of Honduras," insisted oh a clause
+in favour of the hitters of logwood, that "they or their Workmen were not
+to be disturbed or molested, under any pretext whatever, in their said
+places of cutting and loading logwood." Strengthened by the recognition of
+the crown, the British settlers made fresh encroachments on Spanish
+territory. The Spaniards, asserting that they were engaged in smuggling and
+other illicit practices, organized a large force, and on the 15th of
+September 1779, suddenly attacked and destroyed the establishment at
+Belize, taking the inhabitants prisoners to Mérida in Yucatan, and
+afterwards to Havana, where most of them died, The survivors were liberated
+in 1782, and allowed to go to Jamaica. In 1783 they returned with many new
+adventurers, and were soon engaged in cutting woods. On the 3rd of
+September in that year a new treaty was signed between Great Britain and
+Spain, in which it was expressly agreed that his Britannic Majesty's
+subjects should have "the right of cutting, loading, and carrying away
+logwood in the district lying between the river Wallis or Belize and Rio
+Hondo, taking the course of these two rivers for unalterable boundaries."
+These concessions "were not to be considered as derogating from the rights
+of sovereignty of the king of Spain" over the district in question, where
+all the English dispersed in the Spanish territories were to concentrate
+themselves within eighteen months. This did not prove a satisfactory
+arrangement; for in 1786 a new treaty was concluded, in which the king of
+Spain made an additional grant of territory, embracing the area between the
+rivers Sibun or Jabon and Belize. But these extended limits were coupled
+with still more rigid restrictions. It is not to be supposed that a
+population composed of so lawless a set of men was remarkably exact in its
+observance of the treaty. They seem to have greatly annoyed their Spanish
+neighbours, who eagerly availed themselves of the breaking out of war
+between the two countries in 1796 to concert a formidable attack on Belize.
+They concentrated a force of 2000 men at Campeachy, which, under the
+command of General O'Neill, set sail in thirteen vessels for Belize, and
+arrived on the 10th of July, 1798. The settlers, aided by the British sloop
+of war "Merlin," had strongly fortified a small island in the harbour,
+called St George's Cay. They maintained a determined resistance against the
+Spanish forces, which were obliged to retire to Campeachy. This was the
+last attempt to dislodge the British.
+
+The defeat of the Spanish attempt of 1798 has been adduced as an act of
+conquest, thereby permanently establishing British sovereignty. But those
+who take this view overlook the important fact that, in 1814, by a new
+treaty with Spain, the provisions of the earlier treaty were revived. They
+forget also that for many years the British government never laid claim to
+any rights acquired in virtue of the successful defence; for so late as
+1817-1819 the acts of parliament relating to Belize always refer to it as
+"a settlement, for certain purposes, under the protection of His Majesty."
+After Central America had attained its independence (1819-1822) Great
+Britain secured its position by incorporating the provisions of the treaty
+of 1786 in a new treaty with Mexico (1826), and in the drafts of treaties
+with New Granada (1825) and the United States of Central America (1831).
+The territories between the Belize and Sarstoon rivers were claimed by the
+British in 1836. The subsequent peaceful progress of the country under
+British rule; the exception of Belize from that provision of the
+Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (_q.v._) of 1850 which forbade Great Britain and the
+United States to fortify or colonize any point on the Central American
+mainland; and the settlement of the boundary disputes with Guatemala in
+1859, finally confirmed the legal sovereignty of Great Britain over the
+whole colony, including the territories claimed in 1836. The Bay Islands
+were recognized as part of the republic of Honduras in 1859. Between 1849,
+when the Indians beyond the Hondo rose against their Mexican rulers, and
+1901, when they were finally subjugated, rebel bands occasionally attacked
+the northern and north-western marches of the colony. The last serious raid
+was foiled in 1872.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For all statistical matter relating to the colony, see the
+annual reports to the British Colonial Office (London). For the progress of
+exploration, see _A Narrative of a Journey across the unexplored Portion of
+British Honduras_, by H. Fowler (Belize, 1879); and "An Expedition to the
+Cockscomb Mountains," by J. Bellamy, in _Proceedings of the Royal
+Geographical Society_, vol. xi. (London, 1889). A good general description
+is given in the _Handbook of British Honduras_, by L.W. Bristowe and P.B.
+Wright (Edinburgh, 1892); and the local history is recounted in the
+_History of British Honduras_, by A.R. Gibbs (London, 1883); in _Notes on
+Central America_, by E.J. Squier (New York, 1855); and in _Belize or
+British Honduras_, a paper read before the Society of Arts by Chief Justice
+Temple (London, 1847).
+
+(K. G. J.)
+
+BRITOMARTIS ("sweet maiden"), an old Cretan goddess, later identified with
+Artemis. According to Callimachus (_Hymn to Diana_, 190), she was a nymph,
+the daughter of Zeus and Carme, and a favourite companion of Artemis. Being
+pursued by Minos, king of Crete, who was enamoured of her, she sprang from
+a rock into the sea, but was saved from drowning by falling into some
+fishermen's nets. She was afterwards made a goddess by Artemis under the
+name of Dictynna ([Greek: diktuon], "a [v.04 p.0617] net"). She was the
+patroness of hunters, fishermen and sailors, and also a goddess of birth
+and health. The centre of her worship was Cydonia, whence it extended to
+Sparta and Aegina (where she was known as Aphaea) and the islands of the
+Mediterranean. By some she is considered to have been a moon-goddess, her
+flight from Minos and her leap into the sea signifying the revolution and
+disappearance of the moon (Pausanias ii. 30, iii. 14; Antoninus Liberalis
+40).
+
+BRITON-FERRY, a seaport in the mid-parliamentary division of
+Glamorganshire, Wales, on the eastern bank of the estuary of the Neath
+river in Swansea Bay, with stations on the Great Western and the Rhondda &
+Swansea Bay railways, being 174 m. by rail from London. Pop. of urban
+district (1901) 6973. A tram-line connects it with Neath, 2 m. distant, and
+the Vale of Neath Canal (made in 1797) has its terminus here. The district
+was formerly celebrated for its scenery, but this has been considerably
+marred by industrial development which received its chief impetus from the
+construction in 1861 of a dock of 13 acres, the property of the Great
+Western Railway Company, and the opening up about the same time of the
+mining districts of Glyncorrwg and Maesteg by means of the South Wales
+mineral railway, which connects them with the dock and supplies it with its
+chief export, coal. Steel and tinplates are manufactured here on a large
+scale. There are also iron-works and a foundry.
+
+The name La Brittone was given by the Norman settlers of the 12th century
+to its ferry across the estuary of the Neath (where Archbishop Baldwin and
+Giraldus crossed in 1188, and which is still used), but the Welsh name of
+the town from at least the 16th century has been Llansawel.
+
+BRITTANY, or BRITANNY (Fr. _Bretagne_), known as Armorica (_q.v._) until
+the influx of Celts from Britain, an ancient province and duchy of France,
+consisting of the north-west peninsula, and nearly corresponding to the
+departments of Finistère, Côtes-du-Nord, Morbihan, Ille-et-Vilaine and
+Lower Loire. It is popularly divided into Upper or Western, and Lower or
+Eastern Brittany. Its greatest length between the English Channel and the
+Atlantic Ocean is 250 kilometres (about 155 English miles), and its
+superficial extent is 30,000 sq. kilometres (about 18,630 English sq. m.).
+It comprises two distinct zones, a maritime zone and an inland zone. In the
+centre there are two plateaus, partly covered with _landes_, unproductive
+moorland: the southern plateau is continued by the Montagnes Noires, and
+the northern is dominated by the Monts d'Arrée. These ranges nowhere exceed
+1150 ft. in height, but from their wild nature they recall the aspect of
+high mountains. The waterways of Brittany are for the most part of little
+value owing to their torrent-like character. The only river basin of any
+importance is that of the Vilaine, which flows through Rennes. The coast is
+very much indented, especially along the English Channel, and is rocky and
+lined with reefs and islets. The mouths of the rivers form deep estuaries.
+Thus nature itself condemned Brittany to remain for a long time shut out
+from civilization. But in the 19th century the development of railways and
+other means of communication drew Brittany from its isolation. In the 19th
+century also agriculture developed in a remarkable manner. Many of the
+_landes_ were cleared and converted into excellent pasturage, and on the
+coast market-gardening made great progress. In the fertile districts
+cereals too are cultivated. Industrial pursuits, except in a few seaport
+towns, which are rather French than Breton, have hitherto received but
+little attention.
+
+The Bretons are by nature conservative. They cling with almost equal
+attachment to their local customs and their religious superstitions. It was
+not till the 17th century that paganism was even nominally abolished in
+some parts, and there is probably no district in Europe where the popular
+Christianity has assimilated more from earlier creeds. Witchcraft and the
+influence of fairies are still often believed in. The costume of both sexes
+is very peculiar both in cut and colour, but varies considerably in
+different districts. Bright red, violet and blue are much used, not only by
+the women, but in the coats and waistcoats of the men. The reader will find
+full illustrations of the different styles in Bouet's _Breiz-izel, ou vie
+des Breions de l'Armorique_ (1844). The Celtic language is still spoken in
+lower Brittany. Four dialects are pretty clearly marked (see the article
+CELT: _Language_, "_Breton_," p. 328). Nowhere has the taste for marvellous
+legends been kept so green as in Brittany; and an entire folk-literature
+still flourishes there, as is manifested by the large number of folk-tales
+and folk-songs which have been collected of late years.
+
+The whole duchy was formerly divided into nine bishoprics:--Rennes, Dol,
+Nantes, St Malo and St Brieuc, in Upper Brittany and Tréguier, Vannes,
+Quimper and St Pol de Léon in Lower.
+
+_History._--Of Brittany before the coming of the Romans we have no exact
+knowledge. The only traces left by the primitive populations are the
+megalithic monuments (dolmens, menhirs and cromlechs), which remain to this
+day in great numbers (see STONE MONUMENTS). In 56 B.C. the Romans destroyed
+the fleet of the Veneti, and in 52 the inhabitants of Armorica took part in
+the great insurrection of the Gauls against Caesar, but were subdued
+finally by him in 51. Roman civilization was then established for several
+centuries in Brittany.
+
+In the 5th century numbers of the Celtic inhabitants of Britain, flying
+from the Angles and Saxons, emigrated to Armorica, and populated a great
+part of the peninsula. Converted to Christianity, the new-comers founded
+monasteries which helped to clear the land, the greater part of which was
+barren and wild. The Celtic immigrants formed the counties of Vannes,
+Cornouaille, Léon and Domnonée. A powerful aristocracy was constituted,
+which owned estates and had them cultivated by serfs or villeins. The Celts
+sustained a long struggle against the Frankish kings, who only nominally
+occupied Brittany. Louis the Pious placed a native chief Nomenoë at the
+head of Brittany. There was then a fairly long period of peace; but Nomenoë
+rebelled against Charles the Bald, defeated him, and forced him, in 846, to
+recognize the independence of Brittany. The end of the 9th century and the
+beginning of the 10th were remarkable for the invasions of the Northmen. On
+several occasions they were driven back--by Salomon (d. 874) and afterwards
+by Alain, count of Vannes (d. 907)--but it was Alain Barbetorte (d. 952)
+who gained the decisive victory over them.
+
+In the second half of the 10th century and in the 11th century the counts
+of Rennes were predominant in Brittany. Geoffrey, son of Conan, took the
+title of duke of Brittany in 992. Conan II., Geoffrey's grandson,
+threatened by the revolts of the nobles, was attacked also by the duke of
+Normandy (afterwards William I. of England). Alain Fergent, one of his
+successors, defeated William in 1085, and forced him to make peace. But in
+the following century the Plantagenets succeeded in establishing themselves
+in Brittany. Conan IV., defeated by the revolted Breton nobles, appealed to
+Henry II. of England, who, in reward for his help, forced Conan to give his
+daughter in marriage to his son Geoffrey. Thus Henry II. became master of
+Brittany, and Geoffrey was recognized as duke of Brittany. But this new
+dynasty was not destined to last long. Geoffrey's posthumous son, Arthur,
+was assassinated by John of England in 1203, and Arthur's sister Alix, who
+succeeded to his rights, was married in 1212 to Pierre de Dreux, who became
+duke. This was the beginning of a ducal dynasty of French origin, which
+lasted till the end of the 15th century.
+
+From that moment the ducal power gained strength in Brittany and succeeded
+in curbing the feudal nobles. Under French influence civilization made
+notable progress. For more than a century peace reigned undisturbed in
+Brittany. But in 1341 the death of John III., without direct heir, provoked
+a war of succession between the houses of Blois and Montfort, which lasted
+till 1364. This war of succession was, in reality, an incident of the
+Hundred Years' War, the partisans of Blois and Montfort supporting
+respectively the kings of France and England. In 1364 John of Montfort (d.
+1399) was recognized as duke of Brittany under the style of John IV.[1],
+but his reign [v.04 p.0618] was constantly troubled, notably by his
+struggle with Olivier de Clisson (1336-1407). John V. (d. 1442), on the
+other hand, distinguished himself by his able and pacific policy. During
+his reign and the reigns of his successors, Francis I., Peter II. and
+Arthur III., the ducal authority developed in a remarkable manner. The
+dukes formed a standing army, and succeeded in levying hearth taxes
+(_fouages_) throughout Brittany. Francis II. (1435-1488) fought against
+Louis XI., notably during the War of the Public Weal, and afterwards
+engaged in the struggle against Charles VIII., known as "The Mad War" (_La
+Guerre Folle_). After the death of Francis II. the king of France invaded
+Brittany, and forced Francis's daughter, Anne of Brittany, to marry him in
+1491. Thus the reunion of Brittany and France was prepared. After the death
+of Charles VIII. Anne married Louis XII. Francis I., who married Claude,
+the daughter of Louis XII. and Anne, settled the definitive annexation of
+the duchy by the contract of 1532, by which the maintenance of the
+privileges and liberties of Brittany was guaranteed. Until the Revolution
+Brittany retained its own estates. The royal power, however, was exerted to
+reduce the privileges of the province as much as possible. It often met
+with vigorous resistance, notably in the 18th century. The struggle was
+particularly keen between 1760 and 1769, when E. A. de V. du Plessis
+Richelieu, duc d'Aiguillon, had to fight simultaneously the estates and the
+parliament, and had a formidable adversary in L. R. de C. de la Chalotais.
+But under the monarchy the only civil war in Brittany in which blood was
+shed was the revolt of the duc de Mercoeur (d. 1602) against the crown at
+the time of the troubles of the League, a revolt which lasted from 1589 to
+1598. Mention, however, must also be made of a serious popular revolt which
+broke out in 1675--"the revolt of the stamped paper."
+
+See Bertrand d'Argentré, _Histoire de Bretagne_ (Paris, 1586); Dom
+Lobineau, _Histoire de Bretagne_ (Paris, 1702); Dom Morice, _Histoire de
+Bretagne_ (1742-1756); T. A. Trollope, _A Summer in Brittany_ (1840); A. du
+Chatellier, _L'Agriculture et les classes agricoles de la Bretagne_ (1862);
+F. M. Luzel, _Légendes chrétiennes de la Basse-Bretagne_ (Paris, 1881), and
+_Veillées bretonnes_ (Paris, 1879); A. Dupuy, _La Réunion de la Bretagne à
+la France_ (Paris, 1880), and _Études sur l'administration municipale en
+Bretagne au XVIII^e siècle_ (1891); J. Loth, _L'Émigration bretonne en
+Armorique du V^e au VII^e siècle_ (Rennes, 1883); H. du Cleuziou, _Bretagne
+artistique et pittoresque_ (Paris, 1886); Arthur de la Borderie, _Histoire
+de Bretagne_ (Rennes, 1896 seq.); J. Lemoine, _La Révolte du papier timbré
+ou des bonnets rouges en Bretagne en 1675_ (1898); M. Marion, _La Bretagne
+et le duc d'Aiguillon_ (Paris, 1898); B. Pocquet, _Le Duc d'Aiguillon et la
+Chalotais_ (Paris, 1900-1902); Anatole le Braz, _Vieilles Histoires du pays
+breton_ (1897), and _La Légende de la mort_ (Paris, 1902); Ernest Lavisse,
+_Histoire de France_, vol. i. (Paris, 1903); Henri Sée, _Étude sur les
+classes rurales en Bretagne au moyen âge_ (1896), and _Les Classes rurales
+en Bretagne du XVI^e siècle à la Revolution_ (1906).
+
+[1] Certain authorities count the father of this duke, another John of
+Montfort (d. 1345), among the dukes of Brittany, and according to this
+enumeration the younger John becomes John V., not John IV., and his
+successor John VI. and not John V.
+
+BRITTON, JOHN (1771-1857), English antiquary, was born on the 7th of July
+1771 at Kington-St-Michael, near Chippenham. His parents were in humble
+circumstances, and he was left an orphan at an early age. At sixteen he
+went to London and was apprenticed to a wine merchant. Prevented by
+ill-health from serving his full term, he found himself adrift in the
+world, without money or friends. In his fight with poverty he was put to
+strange shifts, becoming cellarman at a tavern and clerk to a lawyer,
+reciting and singing at a small theatre, and compiling a collection of
+common songs. After some slight successes as a writer, a Salisbury
+publisher commissioned him to compile an account of Wiltshire and, in
+conjunction with his friend Edward Wedlake Brayley, Britton produced _The
+Beauties of Wiltshire_ (1801; 2 vols., a third added in 1825), the first of
+the series _The Beauties of England and Wales_, nine volumes of which
+Britton and his friend wrote. Britton was the originator of a new class of
+literary works. "Before his time," says Digby Wyatt, "popular topography
+was unknown." In 1805 Britton published the first part of his
+_Architectural Antiquities of Great Britain_ (9 vols., 1805-1814); and this
+was followed by _Cathedral Antiquities of England_ (14 vols., 1814-1835).
+In 1845 a Britton Club was formed, and a sum of £1000 was subscribed and
+given to Britton, who was subsequently granted a civil list pension by
+Disraeli, then chancellor of the exchequer. Britton was an earnest advocate
+of the preservation of national monuments, proposing in 1837 the formation
+of a society such as the modern Society for the Preservation of Ancient
+Monuments. Britton himself supervised the reparation of Waltham Cross and
+Stratford-on-Avon church. He died in London on the 1st of January 1857.
+
+Among other works with which Britton was associated either as author or
+editor are _Historical Account of Redcliffe Church, Bristol_ (1813);
+_Illustrations of Fonthill Abbey_ (1823); _Architectural Antiquities of
+Normandy_, with illustrations by Pugin (1825-1827); _Picturesque
+Antiquities of English Cities_ (1830); and _History of the Palace and
+Houses of Parliament at Westminster_ (1834-1836), the joint work of Britton
+and Brayley. He contributed much to the _Gentleman's Magazine_ and other
+periodicals.
+
+His _Autobiography_ was published in 1850. A _Descriptive Account of his
+Literary Works_ was published by his assistant T.E. Jones.
+
+BRITTON, the title of the earliest summary of the law of England in the
+French tongue, which purports to have been written by command of King
+Edward I. The origin and authorship of the work have been much disputed. It
+has been attributed to John le Breton, bishop of Hereford, on the authority
+of a passage found in some MSS. of the history of Matthew of Westminster;
+there are difficulties, however, involved in this theory, inasmuch as the
+bishop of Hereford died in 1275, whereas allusions are made in _Britton_ to
+several statutes passed after that time, and more particularly to the
+well-known statute _Quia emptores terrarum_, which was passed in 1290. It
+was the opinion of Selden that the book derived its title from Henry de
+Bracton, the last of the chief justiciaries, whose name is sometimes
+spelled in the fine Rolls "Bratton" and "Bretton", and that it was a royal
+abridgment of Bracton's great work on the customs and laws of England, with
+the addition of certain subsequent statutes. The arrangement, however, of
+the two works is different, and but a small proportion of Bracton's work is
+incorporated in _Britton_. The work is entitled in an early MS. of the 14th
+century, which was once in the possession of Selden, and is now in the
+Cambridge university library, _Summa de legibus Anglie que vocatur
+Bretone_; and it is described as "a book called Bretoun" in the will of
+Andrew Horn, the learned chamberlain of the city of London, who bequeathed
+it to the chamber of the Guildhall in 1329, together with another book
+called _Mirroir des Justices_.
+
+_Britton_ was first printed in London by Robert Redman, without a date,
+probably about the year 1530. Another edition of it was printed in 1640,
+corrected by E. Wingate. A third edition of it, with an English
+translation, was published at the University Press, Oxford, 1865, by F. M.
+Nichol. An English translation of the work without the Latin text had been
+previously published by R. Kelham in 1762.
+
+BRITZSKA, or BRITSKA (from the Polish _bryczka_; a diminutive of _bryka_, a
+goods-wagon), a form of carriage, copied in England from Austria early in
+the 19th century; as used in Poland and Russia it had four wheels, with a
+long wicker-work body constructed for reclining and a calash (hooded) top.
+
+BRIVE, or BRIVES-LA-GAILLARDE, a town of south-central France, capital of
+an arrondissement in the department of Corrèze, 62 m. S.S.E. of Limoges on
+the main line of the Orléans railway from Paris to Montauban. Pop. (1906)
+town 14,954; commune 20,636. It lies on the left bank of the Corrèze in an
+ample and fertile plain, which is the meeting-place of important roads and
+railways. The _enceinte_ which formerly surrounded the town has been
+replaced by shady boulevards, and a few wide thoroughfares have been made,
+but many narrow winding streets and ancient houses still remain. Outside
+the boulevards lie the modern quarters, also the fine promenade planted
+with plane trees which stretches to the Corrèze and contains the chief
+restaurants and the theatre. Here also is the statue of Marshal Guillaume
+Marie Anne Brune, who was a native of Brive. A fine bridge leads over the
+river to suburbs on its right bank. The public buildings are of little
+interest apart from the church of St Martin, which stands in the heart of
+the old town. It is a building of the 12th century in the Romanesque style
+of Limousin, with three narrow naves of almost equal height. The
+ecclesiastical seminary occupies a graceful mansion of the 16th century,
+with a façade, a staircase and fireplaces of fine Renaissance workmanship.
+Brive is the seat of a sub-prefect [v.04 p.0619] and has a tribunal of
+first instance, a tribunal of commerce, a communal college and a school of
+industry. Its position makes it a market of importance, and it has a very
+large trade in the early vegetables and fruit of the valley of the Corrèze,
+and in grain, live-stock and truffles. Table-delicacies, paper, wooden
+shoes, hats, wax and earthenware are manufactured, and there are slate and
+millstone workings and dye-works.
+
+In the vicinity are numerous rock caves, many of them having been used as
+dwellings in prehistoric times. The best known are those of Lamouroux,
+excavated in stages in a vertical wall of rock, and four grotto-chapels
+resorted to by pilgrims in memory of St Anthony of Padua, who founded a
+Franciscan monastery at Brive in 1226. Under the Romans Brive was known as
+_Briva Curretiae_ (bridge of the Corrèze). In the middle ages it was the
+capital of lower Limousin.
+
+BRIXEN (Ital. _Bressanone_), a small city in the Austrian province of
+Tirol, and the chief town of the administrative district of Brixen. Pop.
+(1900) 5767. It is situated in the valley of the Eisack, at the confluence
+of that stream with the Rienz, and is a station on the Brenner railway,
+being 34 m. south-east of that pass, and 24 m. north-east of Botzen. The
+aspect of the city is very ecclesiastical; it is still the see of a bishop,
+and contains an 18th-century cathedral church, an episcopal palace and
+seminary, twelve churches and five monasteries. The see was founded at the
+end of the 8th century (possibly of the 6th century) at Säben on the rocky
+heights above the town of Klausen (some way to the south of Brixen), but in
+992 was transferred to Brixen, which, perhaps a Roman station, became later
+a royal estate, under the name of _Prichsna_, and in 901 was given by Louis
+the Child to the bishop. In 1027 the bishop received from the emperor
+Conrad II. very extensive temporal powers, which he only lost to Austria in
+1803. The town was surrounded in 1030 by walls. In 1525 it was the scene of
+the first outbreak of the great peasants' revolt. About 5½ m. north of
+Brixen is the great fortress of Franzensfeste, built 1833-1838, to guard
+the route over the Brenner and the way to the east up the Pusterthal. (W.
+A. B. C.)
+
+BRIXHAM, a seaport and market town in the Torquay parliamentary division of
+Devonshire, England, 33 m. S. of Exeter, on a branch of the Great Western
+railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 8092. The town is irregularly built
+on the cliffs to the south of Torbay, and its harbour is sheltered by a
+breakwater. Early in the 19th century it was an important military post,
+with fortified barracks on Berry Head. It is the headquarters of the
+Devonshire sea-fisheries, having also a large coasting trade. Shipbuilding
+and the manufacture of ropes, paint and sails are industries. There is
+excellent bathing, and Brixham is in favour as a seaside resort. St Mary's,
+the ancient parish church, has an elaborate 14th-century font and some
+monuments of interest. At the British Seamen's Orphans' home boys are fed,
+clothed and trained as apprentices for the merchant service. A statue
+commemorates the landing, in 1688, of William of Orange.
+
+_Brixham Cave_, called also Windmill Hill Cavern, is a well-known
+ossiferous cave situated near Brixham, on the brow of a hill composed of
+Devonian limestone. It was discovered by chance in 1858, having been until
+then hermetically sealed by a mass of limestone breccia. Dr Hugh Falconer
+with the assistance of a committee of geologists excavated it. The
+succession of beds in descending order is as follows:--(1) Shingle
+consisting of pebbles of limestone, slate and other local rocks, with
+fragments of stalagmite and containing a few bones and worked flints. The
+thickness varies from five to sixteen feet. (2) Red cave earth with angular
+fragments of limestone, bones and worked flints, and having a thickness of
+3 to 4 ft. (3) Remnants (_in situ_) of an old stalagmitic floor about nine
+inches thick. (4) Black peaty soil varying in thickness, the maximum being
+about a foot. (5) Angular debris fallen from above varying in thickness
+from one to ten feet. (6) Stalagmite with a few bones and antlers of
+reindeer, the thickness varying from one to fifteen inches. Of particular
+interest is the presence of patches or ledges of an old stalagmitic floor,
+three to four feet above the present floor. On the under-side, there are
+found attached fragments of limestone and quartz, showing that the shingle
+bed once extended up to it, and that it then formed the original floor. The
+shingle therefore stood some feet higher than it does now, and it is
+supposed that a shock or jar, such as that of an earthquake, broke up the
+stalagmite, and the pebbles and sand composing the shingle sunk deeper into
+the fissures in the limestone. This addition to the size of the cave was
+partially filled up by the cave earth. At a later period the fall of
+angular fragments at the entrance finally closed the cave, and it ceased to
+be accessible except to a few burrowing animals, whose remains are found
+above the second and newer stalagmite floor.
+
+The fauna of Brixham cavern closely resembles that of Kent's Hole. The
+bones of the bear, horse, rhinoceros, lion, elephant, hyena and of many
+birds and small rodents were unearthed. Altogether 1621 bones, nearly all
+broken and gnawed, were found; of these 691 belonged to birds and small
+rodents of more recent times. The implements are of a roughly-chipped type
+resembling those of the Mousterian period. From these structural and
+palaeontological evidences, geologists suppose that the formation of the
+cave was carried on simultaneously with the excavation of the valley; that
+the small streams, flowing down the upper ramifications of the valley,
+entered the western opening of the cave, and traversing the fissures in the
+limestone, escaped by the lower openings in the chief valley; and that the
+rounded pebbles found in the shingle bed were carried in by these streams.
+It would be only at times of drought that the cave was frequented by
+animals, a theory which explains the small quantity of animal remains in
+the shingle. The implements of man are relatively more common, seventeen
+chipped flints having been found. As the excavation of the valley
+proceeded, the level of the stream was lowered and its course diverted; the
+cave consequently became drier and was far more frequently inhabited by
+predatory animals. It was now essentially an animal den, the occasional
+visits of man being indicated by the rare occurrence of flint-implements.
+Finally, the cave became a resort of bears; the remains of 334 specimens,
+in all stages of growth, including even sucking cubs, being discovered.
+
+See Sir Joseph Prestwich, _Geology_ (1888); Sir John Evans, _Ancient Stone
+Implements of Great Britain_, p. 512; Report on the Cave, _Phil. Trans._
+(Royal Society, 1873).
+
+BRIXTON, a district in the south of London, England, included in the
+metropolitan borough of Lambeth (_q.v._).
+
+BRIZEUX, JULIEN AUGUSTE PÉLAGE (1803-1858), French poet, was born at
+Lorient (Morbihan) on the 12th of September 1803. He belonged to a family
+of Irish origin, long settled in Brittany, and was educated for the law,
+but in 1827 he produced at the Théâtre Français a one-act verse comedy,
+_Racine_, in collaboration with Philippe Busoni. A journey to Italy in
+company with Auguste Barbier made a great impression on him, and a second
+visit (1834) resulted in 1841 in the publication of a complete translation
+of the _Divina Commedia_ in _terza rima_. With _Primel el Nola_ (1852) he
+included poems written under Italian influence, entitled _Les Ternaires_
+(1841), but in the rustic idyl of _Marie_ (1836) turned to Breton country
+life; in _Les Bretons_ (1845) he found his inspiration in the folklore and
+legends of his native province, and in _Telen-Aroor_ (1844) he used the
+Breton dialect. His _Histoires poétiques_ (1855) was crowned by the French
+Academy. His work is small in bulk, but is characterized by simplicity and
+sincerity. Brizeux was an ardent student of the philology and archaeology
+of Brittany, and had collected materials for a dictionary of Breton
+place-names He died at Montpellier on the 3rd of May 1858.
+
+His _Oeuvres complètes_ (2 vols., 1860) were edited with a notice of the
+author by Saint-René Taillandier. Another edition appeared in 1880-1884 (4
+vols.). A long list of articles on his work may be consulted in an
+exhaustive monograph, _Brizeux; sa vie et ses oeuvres_ (1898), by the abbé
+C. Lecigne.
+
+BRIZO, an ancient goddess worshipped in Delos. She delivered oracles in
+dreams to those who consulted her about fishery and seafaring. The women of
+Delos offered her presents consisting of little boats filled with all kinds
+of eatables (with the exception of [v.04 p.0620] fish) in order to obtain
+her protection for those engaged on the sea (Athenaeus viii. p. 335).
+
+BROACH, or BHARUCH, an ancient city and modern district of British India,
+in the northern division of Bombay. The city is on the right bank of the
+Nerbudda, about 30 m. from the sea, and 203 m. N. of Bombay. The area,
+including suburbs, occupies 2-1/6 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 42,896. The sea-borne
+trade is confined to a few coasting vessels. Handloom-weaving is almost
+extinct, but several cotton mills have been opened. There are also large
+flour-mills. Broach is the Barakacheva of the Chinese traveller Hsüan Tsang
+and the Barygaza of Ptolemy and Arrian. Upon the conquest of Gujarat by the
+Mahommedans, and the formation of the state of that name, Broach formed
+part of the new kingdom. On its overthrow by Akbar in 1572, it was annexed
+to the Mogul empire and governed by a Nawab. The Mahrattas became its
+masters in 1685, from which period it was held in subordination to the
+peshwa until 1772, when it was captured by a force under General Wedderburn
+(brother to Lord Loughborough), who was killed in the assault. In 1783 it
+was ceded by the British to Sindhia in acknowledgment of certain services.
+It was stormed in 1803 by a detachment commanded by Colonel Woodington, and
+was finally ceded to the East India Company by Sindhia under the treaty of
+Sarji Anjangaom.
+
+The DISTRICT OF BROACH contains an area of 1467 sq. m. Consisting chiefly
+of the alluvial plain at the mouth of the river Nerbudda, the land is rich
+and highly cultivated, and though it is without forests it is not wanting
+in trees. The district is well supplied with rivers, having in addition to
+the Nerbudda the Mahi in the north and the Kim in the south. The population
+comprises several distinct races or castes, who, while speaking a common
+dialect, Gujarati, inhabit separate villages. Thus there are Koli, Kunbi or
+Voro (Bora) villages, and others whose lands are almost entirely held and
+cultivated by high castes, such as Rajputs, Brahmans or Parsees. In 1901
+the population was 291,763, showing a decrease of 15%, compared with an
+increase of 5% in the preceding decade. The principal crops are cotton,
+millet, wheat and pulse. Dealing in cotton is the chief industry, the
+dealers being organized in a gild. Besides the cotton mills in Broach city
+there are several factories for ginning and pressing cotton, some of them
+on a very large scale. The district is traversed throughout its length by
+the Bombay & Baroda railway, which crosses the Nerbudda opposite Broach
+city on an iron-girder bridge of 67 spans. The district suffered severely
+from the famine of 1899-1900.
+
+BROACH (Fr. _broche_, a pointed instrument, Med. Lat. _brocca_, cf. the
+Latin adjective _brochus_ or _broccus_, projecting, used of teeth), a word,
+of which the doublet "brooch" (_q.v._) has a special meaning, for many
+forms of pointed instruments, such as a bodkin, a wooden needle used in
+tapestry-making, a spit for roasting meat, and a tool, also called a
+"rimer," used with a wrench for enlarging or smoothing holes (see TOOL).
+From the use of a similar instrument to tap casks, comes "to broach" or
+"tap" a cask. A particular use in architecture is that of "broach-spire," a
+term employed to designate a particular form of spire, found only in
+England, which takes its name from the stone roof of the lower portion. The
+stone spire being octagonal and the tower square on plan, there remained
+four angles to be covered over. This was done with a stone roof of slight
+pitch, compared with that of the spire, and it is the intersection of this
+roof with the octagonal faces of the spire which forms the broach.
+
+BROADSIDE, sometimes termed BROADSHEET, a single sheet of paper containing
+printed matter on one side only. The broadside seems to have been employed
+from the very beginning of printing for royal proclamations, papal
+indulgences and similar documents. England appears to have been its chief
+home, where it was used chiefly for ballads, particularly in the 16th
+century, but also as a means of political agitation and for personal
+statements of all kinds, especially for the dissemination of the dying
+speeches and confessions of criminals. It is prominent in the history of
+literature because, particularly during the later part of the 17th century,
+several important poems, by Dryden, Butler and others, originally appeared
+printed on the "broad side" of a sheet. The term is also used of the
+simultaneous discharge of the guns on one side of a ship of war.
+
+BROADSTAIRS, a watering-place, in the Isle of Thanet parliamentary division
+of Kent, England, 3 m. S.E. of Margate, on the South-Eastern & Chatham
+railway. Pop. of urban district, Broadstairs and St Peter's (1901) 6466.
+From 1837 to 1851 Broadstairs was a favourite summer resort of Charles
+Dickens, who, in a sketch called "Our English Watering-Place," described it
+as a place "left high and dry by the tide of years." This seaside village,
+with its "semicircular sweep of houses," grew into a considerable town
+owing to the influx of summer visitors, for whose entertainment there are,
+besides the "Albion" mentioned by Dickens, numerous hotels and
+boarding-houses, libraries, a bathing establishment and a fine promenade.
+Dickens' residence was called Fort House, but it became known as Bleak
+House, through association with his novel of that name, though this was
+written after his last visit to Broadstairs in 1851. Broadstairs has a
+small pier for fishing-boats, first built in the reign of Henry VIII. An
+archway leading down to the shore bears an inscription showing that it was
+erected by George Culmer in 1540, and not far off is the site of a chapel
+of the Virgin, to which ships were accustomed to lower their top-sails as
+they passed. St Peter's parish, lying on the landward side of Broadstairs,
+and included in the urban district, has a church dating from the 12th to
+the end of the 16th century. Kingsgate, on the North Foreland, north of
+Broadstairs on the coast, changed its name from St Bartholomew's Gate in
+honour of Charles II.'s landing here with the duke of York in 1683 on his
+way from London to Dover. Stonehouse, close by, now a preparatory school
+for boys, was the residence of Archbishop Tait, whose wife established the
+orphanage here.
+
+BROCA, PAUL (1824-1880), French surgeon and anthropologist, was born at
+Sainte-Foy la Grande, Gironde, on the 28th of June 1824. He early developed
+a taste for higher mathematics, but circumstances decided him in adopting
+medicine as his profession. Beginning his studies at Paris in 1841, he made
+rapid progress, becoming house-surgeon in 1844, assistant anatomical
+lecturer in 1846, and three years later professor of surgical anatomy. He
+had already gained a reputation by his pathological researches. In 1853 he
+was named fellow of the Faculty of Medicine, and in 1867 became member of
+the Academy of Medicine and professor of surgical pathology to the Faculty.
+During the years occupied in winning his way to the head of his profession
+he had published treatises of much value on cancer, aneurism and other
+subjects. It was in 1861 that he announced his discovery of the seat of
+articulate speech in the left side of the frontal region of the brain,
+since known as the convolution of Broca. But famous as he was as a surgeon,
+his name is associated most closely with the modern school of anthropology.
+Establishing the Anthropological Society of Paris in 1859, of which he was
+secretary till his death, he was practically the inventor of the modern
+science of craniology. He rendered distinguished service in the
+Franco-German War, and during the Commune by his organization and
+administration of the public hospitals. He founded _La Revue
+d'Anthropologie_ in 1872, and it was in its pages that the larger portion
+of his writings appeared. In his last years Broca turned from his labours
+in the region of craniology to the exclusive study of the brain, in which
+his greatest triumphs were achieved (see APHASIA). He was decorated with
+the Legion of Honour in 1868, and was honorary fellow of the leading
+anatomical, biological and anthropological societies of the world. He died
+on the 9th of July 1880. A statue of him by Choppin was erected in 1887 in
+front of the Faculty of Medicine in Paris.
+
+BROCADE, the name usually given to a class of richly decorative
+shuttle-woven fabrics, often made in coloured silks and with or without
+gold and silver threads. Ornamental features in brocade are emphasized and
+wrought as additions to the main fabric, sometimes stiffening it, though
+more frequently producing on its face the effect of low relief. These
+additions present a distinctive appearance on the back of the stuff where
+[v.04 p.0621] the weft or floating threads of the brocaded or broached
+parts hang in loose groups or are clipped away.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Brocade woven in red and olive green silks and gold
+thread on a cream-coloured ground. Along the top is the Kufic inscription
+"Arrahman" (The Merciful) several times repeated in olive green on a
+gold-thread ground. Pairs of seated animals, _addorsed regardant_ and geese
+_vis-à-vis_ are worked within the lozenge-shaped compartments of the
+trellis framework which regulates the pattern. Both animals and birds are
+separated by conventional trees, and the latter are enclosed in
+inscriptions of Kufic characters. _Siculo-Saracenic_; 11th or 12th century.
+5½ in. sq.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Part of a Siculo-Saracenic brocade woven in the
+12th century. l6½ in. wide.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Piece of stuff woven or brocaded with red silk and
+gold thread, with an ogival framing enclosing alternately, pairs of
+parrots, _addorsed regardant_, and a well-known Persian (or Sassanian)
+leaf-shaped fruit device. Probably of Rhenish-Byzantine manufacture in the
+12th or 13th century. 9 in. long.]
+
+The Latin word _broccus_ is related equally to the Italian _brocato_, the
+Spanish _brocar_ and the French _brocarts_ and _brocher_, and implies a
+form of stitching or broaching, so that textile fabrics woven with an
+appearance of stitching or broaching have consequently come to be termed
+"brocades." A Spanish document dated 1375 distinguishes between _los draps
+d'or é d'argent o de seda_ and _brocats d'or é d'argent_, a difference
+which is readily perceived, upon comparing for instance cloths of gold,
+Indian kincobs, with Lyons silks that are _brochés_ with threads of gold,
+silk or other material. Notwithstanding this, many Indian kincobs and
+dainty gold and coloured silk-weavings of Persian workmanship, both without
+floating threads, are often called brocades, although in neither is the
+ornamentation really _broché_ or brocaded. Contemporary in use with the
+Spanish _brocats_ is the word _brocado_. In addition to _brocarts_ the
+French now use the word _brocher_ in connexion with certain silk stuffs
+which however are not brocades in the same sense as the _brocarts_. A
+wardrobe account of King Edward IV. (1480) has an entry of "satyn broched
+with gold"--a description that fairly applies to such an enriched satin as
+that for instance shown in fig. 4. But some three centuries earlier than
+the date of that specimen, decorative stuffs were partly _brochés_ with
+gold threads by oriental weavers, especially those of Persia, Syria and
+parts of southern Europe and northern Africa under the domination of the
+Saracens, to whom the earlier germs, so to speak, of brocading may be
+traced. Of such is the 11th or 12th century Siculo-Saracenic specimen in
+fig. 1, in which the heads only of the pairs of animals and birds are
+broched with gold thread. Another sort of brocaded material is indicated in
+fig. 2, taken from a part of a sumptuous Siculo-Saracenic weaving produced
+in coloured silks and gold threads at the famous Hotel des Tiraz in Palermo
+for an official robe of Henry IV. (1165-1197) as emperor of the Holy Roman
+Empire, and still preserved in the cathedral of Regensburg. Fig. 3 is a
+further variety of textile that would be classed as _brocat_. This is of
+the 12th or 13th century manufacture, possibly by German or
+Rhenish-Byzantine weavers, or even by Spanish weavers, many of whom at
+Almeria, Malaga, Grenada and Seville rivalled those at Palermo. In the 14th
+century the making of satins heavily brocaded with gold threads was
+associated conspicuously with such Italian towns as Lucca, Genoa, Venice
+and Florence. Fig. 4 is from a piece of 14th-century dark-blue satin
+broached in relief with gold thread in a design the like of which appears
+in the background of Orcagna's "Coronation of the Virgin," now in the
+National Gallery, London. During the 17th century Genoa, Florence and Lyons
+vied with each other in making brocades in which the enrichments were as
+frequently of coloured silks as of gold intermixed with silken threads.
+Fig. 5 is from a piece of crimson silk damask flatly brocaded with flowers,
+scroll forms, fruit and birds in gold. This is probably of Florentine
+workmanship. Rather more closely allied to modern brocades is the Lyons
+specimen given in fig. 6, in which the brocading is done not only with
+silver but also with coloured silks. Early in the 18th century Spitalfields
+was busy as a competitor with Lyons in manufacturing many sorts of
+brocades, specified in a collection of designs preserved in the national
+art library of the Victoria and [v.04 p.0622] Albert Museum, under such
+trade titles as "brocade lutstring, brocade tabby, brocade tissue, brocade
+damask, brocade satin, Venetian brocade, and India figured brocade."
+Brocading in China seems to be of considerable antiquity, and Dr Bushell in
+his valuable handbook on Chinese art cites a notice of five rolls of
+brocade with dragons woven upon a crimson ground, presented by the emperor
+Ming Ti of the Wei dynasty, in the year A.D. 238, to the reigning empress
+of Japan; and varieties of brocade patterns are recorded as being in use
+during the Sung dynasty (960-1279). The first edition of an illustrated
+work upon tillage and weaving was published in China in 1210, and contains
+an engraving of a loom constructed to weave flowered-silk brocades such as
+are woven at the present time at Suchow and Hangchow and elsewhere. On the
+other hand, although they are described usually as brocades, certain
+specimens of imperial Chinese robes sumptuous in ornament, sheen of
+coloured silks and the glisten of golden threads, are woven in the
+tapestry-weaving manner and without any floating threads. It seems
+reasonable to infer that Persians and Syrians derived the art of weaving
+brocades from the Chinese, and as has been indicated, passed it on to
+Saracens as well as Europeans.
+
+(A. S. C.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Piece of blue satin brocaded with gold threads. The
+unit of the pattern is a symmetrical arrangement of fantastic birds, vine
+leaves and curving stems. The bird shapes are remotely related to, if not
+derived from, the Chinese mystical "fonghoang." North Italian weaving of
+the 14th century; about 11 in. square.]
+
+Illustration: FIG. 5.--Piece of crimson silk damask brocaded in gold thread
+with symmetrically arranged flowers, scrolls, birds, &c. Italian
+(?Florentine). Late 17th century; about 2 ft. 6 in. long.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Piece of pink silk brocaded in silver and white and
+coloured silks. French middle 18th century; about 15 in. square.]
+
+BROCCHI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1772-1826), Italian mineralogist and geologist,
+was born at Bassano on the 18th of February 1772. He studied at the
+university of Pisa, where his attention was turned to mineralogy and
+botany. In 1802 he was appointed professor of botany in the new lyceum of
+Brescia; but he more especially devoted himself to geological researches in
+the adjacent districts. The fruits of these labours appeared in different
+publications, particularly in his _Trattato mineralogico e chemico sulle
+miniere di ferro del dipartimento del Mella_ (1808)--treatise on the iron
+mines of Mella. These researches procured him the office of inspector of
+mines in the recently established kingdom of Italy, and enabled him to
+extend his investigations over great part of the country. In 1811 he
+produced a valuable essay entitled _Memoria mineralogica sulla Valle di
+Fassa in Tirolo_; but his most important work is the _Conchiologia fossile
+subapennina con osservazioni geologiche sugli Apennini, e sul suolo
+adiacente_ (2 vols., 4to, Milan, 1814), containing accurate details of the
+structure of the Apennine range, and an account of the fossils of the
+Italian Tertiary strata compared with existing species. These subjects were
+further illustrated by his geognostic map, and his _Catalogo ragionato di
+una raccolta di rocce, disposto con ordine geografico, per servire alla
+geognosia dell' Italia_ (Milan, 1817). His work _Dello stato fisico del
+suolo di Roma_ (1820), with its accompanying map, is likewise noteworthy.
+In it he corrected the erroneous views of Breislak, who conceived that Rome
+occupies the site of a volcano, to which he ascribed the volcanic materials
+that cover the seven hills. Brocchi pointed out that these materials were
+derived either from Mont Albano, [v.04 p.0623] an extinct volcano, 12 m.
+from the city, or from Mont Cimini, still farther to the north. Several
+papers by him, on mineralogical subjects, appeared in the _Biblioteca
+Italiana_ from 1816 to 1823. In the latter year Brocchi sailed for Egypt,
+in order to explore the geology of that country and report on its mineral
+resources. Every facility was granted by Mehemet Ali, who in 1823 appointed
+him one of a commission to examine the district of Sennaar; but Brocchi,
+unfortunately for science, fell a victim to the climate, and died at
+Khartum on the 25th of September 1826.
+
+BROCHANT DE VILLIERS, ANDRÉ JEAN FRANÇOIS MARIE (1772-1840), French
+mineralogist and geologist, was born at Villiers, near Nantes, on the 6th
+of August 1772. After studying at the École Polytechnique, he was in 1794
+the first pupil admitted to the École des Mines. In 1804 he was appointed
+professor of geology and mineralogy in the École des Mines, which had been
+temporarily transferred to Pezay in Savoy, and he returned with the school
+to Paris in 1815. Later on he became inspector general of mines and a
+member of the Academy of Sciences. He investigated the transition strata of
+the Tarantaise, wrote on the position of the granite rocks of Mont Blanc,
+and on the lead minerals of Derbyshire and Cumberland. He was charged with
+the superintendence of the construction of the geological map of France,
+undertaken by his pupils Dufrénoy and Elie de Beaumont. He died in Paris on
+the 16th of May 1840. His publications include _Traité élémentaire de
+minéralogie_ (2 vols., 1801-1802; 2nd ed., 1808), and _Traité abrégé de
+cristallographie_ (Paris, 1818).
+
+[Illustration]
+
+BROCHANTITE, a mineral species consisting of a basic copper sulphate
+Cu_4(OH)_6SO_4, crystallizing in the orthorhombic system. The crystals are
+usually small and are prismatic or acicular in habit; they have a perfect
+cleavage parallel to the face lettered a in the adjoining figure. They are
+transparent to translucent, with a vitreous lustre, and are of an
+emerald-green to blackish-green colour. Specific gravity 3.907; hardness
+3½-4. The mineral was first found associated with malachite and native
+copper in the copper mines of the Urals, and was named by A. Lévy in 1824
+after A.J.M. Brochant de Villiers. Several varieties, differing somewhat in
+crystalline form, have been distinguished, some of them having originally
+been described as distinct species, but afterwards proved to be essentially
+identical with brochantite; these are königine from the Urals,
+brongniartine from Mexico, krisuvigite from Iceland, and warringtonite from
+Cornwall. Of other localities, mention may be made of Roughten Gill,
+Caldbeck Fells, Cumberland, where small brilliant crystals are associated
+with malachite and chrysocolla in a quartzose rock; Rézbánya in the Bihar
+Mountains, Hungary; Atacama in Chile, with atacamite, which closely
+resembles brochantite in general appearance; the Tintic district in Utah. A
+microscopical examination of the green copper ores of secondary origin in
+the Clifton and Morenci district of Arizona proves brochantite to be of
+extremely common occurrence mostly intergrown with malachite which
+effectually masks its presence: it is not unlikely that the malachite of
+other localities will on examination be found to be intergrown with
+brochantite.
+
+Mention may be here made of another orthorhombic basic copper sulphate not
+unlike brochantite in general characters, but differing from it in
+containing water of crystallization and in its fine blue colour; this is
+the Cornish mineral langite, which has the composition
+CuSO_4·3Cu(OH)_2+H_2O.
+
+(L. J. S.)
+
+BROCK, SIR ISAAC (1769-1812), British soldier and administrator, was born
+at St Peter Port, Guernsey, on the 6th of October 1769. Joining the army at
+the age of fifteen as an ensign of the 8th regiment, he became a
+lieutenant-colonel in 1797, after less than thirteen years' service. He
+commanded the 49th regiment in the expedition to North Holland in 1799, was
+wounded at the battle of Egmont-op-Zee, and subsequently served on board
+the British fleet at the battle of Copenhagen. From 1802 to 1805 he was
+with his regiment in Canada, returning thither in 1806 in view of the
+imminence of war between Great Britain and the United States. From
+September 1806 till August 1810 he was in charge of the garrison at Quebec;
+in the latter year he assumed the command of the troops in Upper Canada,
+and soon afterwards took over the civil administration of that province as
+provisional lieutenant-governor. On the outbreak of the war of 1812 Brock
+had to defend Upper Canada against invasion by the United States. In the
+face of many difficulties and not a little disaffection, he organized the
+militia of the province, drove back the invaders, and on the 16th of August
+1812, with about 730 men and 600 Indians commanded by their chief Tecumseh,
+compelled the American force of 2500 men under General William Hull
+(1753-1825) to surrender at Detroit, an achievement which gained him a
+knighthood of the Bath and the popular title of "the hero of Upper Canada"
+From Detroit he hurried to the Niagara frontier, but on the 13th of October
+in the same year was killed at the battle of Queenston Heights. The House
+of Commons voted a public monument to his memory, which was erected in
+Saint Paul's cathedral, London. On the 13th of October 1824, the twelfth
+anniversary of his death, his remains were removed from the bastions of
+Fort George, where they had been originally interred, and placed beneath a
+monument on Queenston Heights, erected by the provincial legislature. This
+was blown up by a fanatic in 1840, but as the result of a mass-meeting of
+over 8000 citizens held on the spot, a new and more stately monument was
+erected.
+
+His _Life and Correspondence_ by his nephew, Ferdinand Brock Tupper (2nd
+edition, London, 1847), still remains the best; later lives are by D.R.
+Read (Toronto, 1894), and by Lady Edgar (Toronto and London,1905).
+
+(W. L. G.)
+
+BROCK, THOMAS (1847- ), English sculptor, was the chief pupil of Foley, and
+later became influenced by the new romantic movement. His group "The Moment
+of Peril" was followed by "The Genius of Poetry," "Eve," and other ideal
+works that mark his development. His busts, such as those of Lord Leighton
+and Queen Victoria; his statues, such as "Sir Richard Owen" and "Dr
+Philpott, bishop of Worcester"; his sepulchral monuments, such as that to
+Lord Leighton in St Paul's cathedral, a work of singular significance,
+refinement and beauty; and his memorial statues of Queen Victoria, at Hove
+and elsewhere, are examples of his power as a portraitist, sympathetic in
+feeling, sound and restrained in execution, and dignified and decorative in
+arrangement. The colossal equestrian statue of "Edward the Black Prince"
+was set up in the City Square in Leeds in 1901, the year in which the
+sculptor was awarded the commission to execute the vast Imperial Memorial
+to Queen Victoria in front of Buckingham Palace. Brock was elected an
+associate of the Royal Academy in 1883 and full member in 1891.
+
+BROCKEN, a mountain of Germany, in Prussian Saxony, the highest point (3733
+ft.) of the Harz. It is a huge, bare, granite-strewn, dome-shaped mass and,
+owing to its being the greatest elevation in north Germany, commands
+magnificent views in all directions. From it Magdeburg and the Elbe, the
+towers of Leipzig and the Thuringian forest are distinctly visible in clear
+weather. Access to the summit is attained by a mountain railway (12 m.)
+from Dreiannen-Hohne, a station on the normal gauge line
+Wernigerode-Nordhausen, and by two carriage roads from the Bodetal and
+Ilsenburg respectively. In the folklore of north Germany the Brocken holds
+an important place, and to it cling many legends. Long after Christianity
+had penetrated to these regions, the Brocken remained a place of heathen
+worship. Annually, on Walpurgis night (1st of May), curious rites were here
+enacted, which, condemned by the priests of the Christian church, led to
+the belief that the devil and witches here held their orgies. Even to this
+day, this superstition possesses the minds of many country people around,
+who believe the mountain to be haunted on this night. In literature [v.04
+p.0624] it is represented by the famous "Brocken scene" in Goethe's
+_Faust_.
+
+See Jacobs, _Der Brocken in Geschichte und Sage_ (Halle, 1878); and Pröhle,
+_Brockensagen_ (Magdeburg, 1888).
+
+BROCKEN, SPECTRE OF THE (so named from having been first observed in 1780
+on the Brocken), an enormously magnified shadow of an observer cast upon a
+bank of cloud when the sun is low in high mountain regions, reproducing
+every motion of the observer in the form of a gigantic but misty image of
+himself.
+
+BROCKES, BARTHOLD HEINRICH (1680-1747), German poet, was born at Hamburg on
+the 22nd of September 1680. He studied jurisprudence at Halle, and after
+extensive travels in Italy, France and Holland, settled in his native town
+in 1704. In 1720 he was appointed a member of the Hamburg senate, and
+entrusted with several important offices. Six years (from 1735 to 1741) he
+spent as _Amtmann_ (magistrate) at Ritzebtütel. He died in Hamburg on the
+16th of January 1747. Brockes' poetic works were published in a series of
+nine volumes under the fantastic title _Irdisches Vergnügen in Gott_
+(1721-1748); he also translated Marini's _La Strage degli innocenti_
+(1715), Pope's _Essay on Man_ (1740) and Thomson's _Seasons_ (1745). His
+poetry has small intrinsic value, but it is symptomatic of the change which
+came over German literature at the beginning of the 18th century. He was
+one of the first German poets to substitute for the bombastic imitations of
+Marini, to which he himself had begun by contributing, a clear and simple
+diction. He was also a pioneer in directing the attention of his countrymen
+to the new poetry of nature which originated in England. His verses,
+artificial and crude as they often are, express a reverential attitude
+towards nature and a religious interpretation of natural phenomena which
+was new to German poetry and prepared the way for Klopstock.
+
+Brockes' autobiography was published by J.M. Lappenberg in the _Zeitschrift
+des Vereins für Hamburger Geschichte,_ ii. pp. 167 ff. (1847). See also A.
+Brandl, _B. H. Brockes_ (1878), and D.F. Strauss, _Brockes und H.S.
+Reimarus_ (_Gesammelte Schriften_, ii.). A short selection of his poetry
+will be found in vol. 39 (1883) of Kürschner's _Deutsche
+Nationalliteratur_.
+
+BROCKHAUS, FRIEDRICH ARNOLD (1772-1823), German publisher, was born at
+Dortmund, on the 4th of May 1772. He was educated at the gymnasium of his
+native place, and from 1788 to 1793 served an apprenticeship in a
+mercantile house at Düsseldorf. He then devoted two years at Leipzig to the
+study of modern languages and literature, after which he set up at Dortmund
+an emporium for English goods. In 1801 he transferred this business to
+Arnheim, and in the following year to Amsterdam. In 1805, having given up
+his first line of trade, he began business as a publisher. Two journals
+projected by him were not allowed by the government to survive for any
+length of time, and in 1810 the complications in the affairs of Holland
+induced him to return homewards. In 1811 he settled at Altenburg. About
+three years previously he had purchased the copyright of the
+_Konversations-Lexikon_, started in 1796, and in 1810-1811 he completed the
+first edition of this celebrated work (14th ed. 1901-4). A second edition
+under his own editorship was begun in 1812, and was received with universal
+favour. His business extended rapidly, and in 1818 Brockhaus removed to
+Leipzig, where he established a large printing-house. Among the more
+extensive of his many literary undertakings were the critical
+periodicals--_Hermes_, the _Literarisches Konversationsblatt_ (afterwards
+the _Blätter für literarische Unterhaltung_), and the _Zeitgenossen_, and
+some large historical and bibliographical works, such as Raumer's
+_Geschichte der Hohenstaufen_, and Ebert's _Allgemeines bibliographisches
+Lexikon_. F.A. Brockhaus died at Leipzig on the 20th of August 1823. The
+business was carried on by his sons, Friedrich Brockhaus (1800-1865) who
+retired in 1850, and Heinrich Brockhaus (1804-1874), under whom it was
+considerably extended. The latter especially rendered great services to
+literature and science, which the university of Jena recognized by making
+him, in 1858, honorary doctor of philosophy. In the years 1842-1848,
+Heinrich Brockhaus was member of the Saxon second chamber, as
+representative for Leipzig, was made honorary citizen of that city in 1872,
+and died there on the 15th of November 1874.
+
+See H. E. Brockhaus, _Friedrich A. Brockhaus, sein Leben und Wirken nach
+Briefen und andern Aufzeichnungen_ (3 vols., Leipzig, 1872-1881); also by
+the same author, _Die Firma F. A. Brockhaus von der Begrundung bis zum
+hundertjahrigen Jubilaum_ (1805-1905, Leipzig, 1905).
+
+Another of Friedrich's sons, HERMANN BROCKHAUS (1806-1877), German
+Orientalist, was born at Amsterdam on the 28th of January 1806. While his
+two brothers carried on the business he devoted himself to an academic
+career. He was appointed extraordinary professor in Jena in 1838, and in
+1841 received a call in a similar capacity to Leipzig, where in 1848 he was
+made ordinary professor of ancient Semitic. He died at Leipzig on the 5th
+of January 1877. Brockhaus was an Oriental scholar in the old sense of the
+word, devoting his attention, not to one language only, but to acquiring a
+familiarity with the principal languages and literature of the East. He
+studied Hebrew, Arabic and Persian, and was able to lecture on Sanskrit,
+afterwards his specialty, Pali, Zend and even on Chinese. His most
+important work was the _editio princeps_ of the _Katha-sarit-sagara_, "The
+Ocean of the Streams of Story," the large collection of Sanskrit stories
+made by Soma Deva in the 12th century. By this publication he gave the
+first impetus to a really scientific study of the origin and spreading of
+popular tales, and enabled Prof. Benfey and others to trace the great bulk
+of Eastern and Western stories to an Indian, and more especially to a
+Buddhistic source. Among Prof. Brockhaus's other publications were his
+edition of the curious philosophical play _Prabodhachandrodaya_, "The Rise
+of the Moon of Intelligence," his critical edition of the "Songs of Hafiz,"
+and his publication in Latin letters of the text of the "Zend-Avesta."
+
+BROCKLESBY, RICHARD (1722-1797), English physician, was born at Minehead,
+Somersetshire, on the 11th of August 1722. He was educated at Ballitore, in
+Ireland, where Edmund Burke was one of his schoolfellows, studied medicine
+at Edinburgh, and finally graduated at Leiden in 1745. Appointed physician
+to the army in 1758, he served in Germany during part of the Seven Years'
+War, and on his return settled down to practise in London. In 1764 he
+published _Economical and Medical Observations_, which contained
+suggestions for improving the hygiene of army hospitals. In his latter
+years he withdrew altogether into private life. The circle of his friends
+included some of the most distinguished literary men of the age. He was
+warmly attached to Dr Johnson, to whom about 1784 he offered an annuity of
+£100 for life, and whom he attended on his death-bed, while in 1788 he
+presented Burke, of whom he was an intimate friend, with £1000, and offered
+to repeat the gift "every year until your merit is rewarded as it ought to
+be at court." He died on the 11th of December 1797, leaving his house and
+part of his fortune to his grand-nephew, Dr Thomas Young.
+
+BROCKTON, a city of Plymouth county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., about 20 m. S.
+of Boston, and containing an area of 21 sq. m. of rolling surface. Pop.
+(1870) 8007; (1880)13,608; (1890) 27,294; (1900) 40,063, of whom 9484 were
+foreign-born, including 2667 Irish, 2199 English Canadians and 1973 Swedes;
+(1910, census) 56,878. It is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford
+railway. Brockton has a public library, with 54,000 volumes, in 1908. By
+popular vote, beginning in 1886 (except in 1898), the liquor traffic was
+prohibited annually. The death-rate, 13.18 in 1907, is very low for a
+manufacturing city of its size. Brockton is the industrial centre of a
+large population surrounding it (East and West Bridgewater, North Easton,
+Avon, Randolph, Holbrook and Whitman), and is an important manufacturing
+place. Both in 1900 and in 1905 it ranked first among the cities of the
+United States in the manufacture of boots and shoes. The city's total
+factory product in 1900 was valued at $24,855,362, and in 1905 at
+$37,790,982, an increase during the five years of 52%. The boot and shoe
+product in 1905 was valued at $30,073,014 (9.4% of the value of the total
+boot and shoe product of the United States), the boot [v.04 p.0625] and
+shoe cut stock at $1,344,977, and the boot and shoe findings at
+$2,435,137--the three combined representing 89.6% of the city's total
+manufactured product. In 1908 there were 35 shoe factories, including the
+W.L. Douglas, the Ralston, the Walkover, the Eaton, the Keith and the
+Packard establishments, and, in 1905, 14,000,000 (in 1907 about 17,000,000)
+pairs of shoes were produced in the city. Among the other products are
+lasts, blacking, paper and wooden packing boxes, nails and spikes, and shoe
+fittings and tools. The assessed valuation of the city rose from $6,876,427
+in 1881 to $37,408,332 in 1907. Brockton was a part of Bridgewater until
+1821, when it was incorporated as the township of North Bridgewater. Its
+present name was adopted in 1874, and it was chartered as a city in 1881.
+Brockton was the first city in Massachusetts to abolish all grade crossings
+(1896) within its limits.
+
+BROCKVILLE, a town and port of entry of Ontario, Canada, and capital of
+Leeds county, named after General Sir Isaac Brock, situated 119 m. S.W. of
+Montreal, on the left bank of the St Lawrence, and on the Grand Trunk, and
+Brockville & Westport railways. A branch line connects it with the Canadian
+Pacific. It has steamer communication with the St Lawrence and Lake Ontario
+ports, and is a summer resort. The principal manufactures are hardware,
+furnaces, agricultural implements, carriages and chemicals. It is the
+centre of one of the chief dairy districts of Canada, and ships large
+quantities of cheese and butter. Pop. (1881) 7609; (1901) 8940.
+
+BROD, a town of Croatia-Slavonia, in the county of Pozega, on the left bank
+of the river Save, 124 m. by rail S.E. by E. of Agram. Pop. (1900) 7310.
+The principal Bosnian railway here crosses the river, to meet the Hungarian
+system. Brod has thus a considerable transit trade, especially in cereals,
+wine, spirits, prunes and wood. It is sometimes called Slavonisch-Brod, to
+distinguish it from Bosna-Brod, or Bosnisch-Brod, across the river. The
+town owes its name to a ford (Servian _brod_) of the Save, and dates at
+least from the 15th century. Brod was frequently captured and recaptured in
+the wars between Turkey and Austria; and it was here that the Austrian army
+mustered, in 1879, for the occupation of Bosnia.
+
+BRODERIP, WILLIAM JOHN (1789-1859), English naturalist, was born in Bristol
+on the 21st of November 1789. After graduating at Oxford he was called to
+the bar in 1817, and for some years was engaged in law-reporting. In 1822
+he was appointed a metropolitan police magistrate, and filled that office
+until 1856, first at the Thames police court and then at Westminster. His
+leisure was devoted to natural history, and his writings did much to
+further the study of zoology in England. The zoological articles in the
+_Penny Cyclopaedia_ were written by him, and a series of articles
+contributed to _Fraser's Magazine_ were reprinted in 1848 as _Zoological
+Recreations_, and were followed in 1852 by _Leaves from the Note-book of a
+Naturalist_. He was one of the founders of the Zoological Society of
+London, and a large collection of shells which he formed was ultimately
+bought by the British Museum. He died in London on the 27th of February
+1859.
+
+BRODHEAD, JOHN ROMEYN (1814-1873), American historical scholar, was born in
+Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 2nd of January 1814, the son of Jacob
+Brodhead (1782-1855), a prominent clergyman of the Dutch Reformed Church.
+He graduated at Rutgers College in 1831, and in 1835 was admitted to the
+bar in New York City. After 1837, however, he devoted himself principally
+to the study of American colonial history, and in order to have access to
+the records of the early Dutch settlements in America he obtained in 1839
+an appointment as attaché of the American legation at the Hague. His
+investigations here soon proved that the Dutch archives were rich in
+material on the early history of New York, and led the state legislature to
+appropriate funds for the systematic gathering from various European
+archives of transcripts of documents relating to New York. Brodhead was
+appointed (1841) by Governor William H. Seward to undertake the work, and
+within several years gathered from England, France and Holland some eighty
+manuscript volumes of transcriptions, largely of documents which had not
+hitherto been used by historians. These transcriptions were subsequently
+edited by Edward O'Callaghan (vols. i.-xi. incl.) and by Berthold Fernow
+(vols. xii.-xv., incl.), and published by the state under the title
+_Documents relating to the Colonial History of New York_ (15 vols.,
+1853-1883). From 1846 to 1849, while George Bancroft was minister to Great
+Britain, Brodhead held under him the post of secretary of legation. In
+1853-1857 he was naval officer of the port of New York. He published
+several addresses and a scholarly _History of the State of New York_ (2
+vols., 1853-1871), generally considered the best for the brief period
+covered (1609-1690). He died in New York City on the 6th of May 1873.
+
+BRODIE, SIR BENJAMIN COLLINS, 1st Bart. (1783-1862), English physiologist
+and surgeon, was born in 1783 at Winterslow, Wiltshire. He received his
+early education from his father; then choosing medicine as his profession
+he went to London in 1801, and attended the lectures of John Abernethy. Two
+years later he became a pupil of Sir Everard Home at St George's hospital,
+and in 1808 was appointed assistant surgeon at that institution, on the
+staff of which he served for over thirty years. In 1810 he was elected a
+fellow of the Royal Society, to which in the next four or five years he
+contributed several papers describing original investigations in
+physiology. At this period also he rapidly obtained a large and lucrative
+practice, and from time to time he wrote on surgical questions,
+contributing numerous papers to the Medical and Chirurgical Society, and to
+the medical journals. Probably his most important work is that entitled
+_Pathological and Surgical Observations on the Diseases of the Joints_, in
+which he attempts to trace the beginnings of disease in the different
+tissues that form a joint, and to give an exact value to the symptom of
+pain as evidence of organic disease. This volume led to the adoption by
+surgeons of measures of a conservative nature in the treatment of diseases
+of the joints, with consequent reduction in the number of amputations and
+the saving of many limbs and lives. He also wrote on diseases of the
+urinary organs, and on local nervous affections of a surgical character. In
+1854 he published anonymously a volume of _Psychological Inquiries_; to a
+second volume which appeared in 1862 his name was attached. He received
+many honours during his career. He attended George IV., was
+sergeant-surgeon to William IV. and Queen Victoria, and was made a baronet
+in 1834. He became a corresponding member of the French Institute in 1844,
+D.C.L. of Oxford in 1855, and president of the Royal Society in 1858, and
+he was the first president of the general medical council. He died at
+Broome Park, Surrey, on the 21st of October 1862. His collected works, with
+autobiography, were published in 1865 under the editorship of Charles
+Hawkins.
+
+His eldest son, Sir Benjamin Collins Brodie, 2nd Bart. (1817-1880), was
+appointed professor of chemistry at Oxford in 1865, and is chiefly known
+for his investigations on the allotropic states of carbon and for his
+discovery of graphitic acid.
+
+BRODIE, PETER BELLINGER (1815-1897), English geologist, son of P.B. Brodie,
+barrister, and nephew of Sir Benjamin C. Brodie, was born in London in
+1815. While still residing with his father at Lincoln's Inn Fields, he
+gained some knowledge of natural history and an interest in fossils from
+visits to the museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, at a time when W.
+Clift was curator. Through the influence of Clift he was elected a fellow
+of the Geological Society early in 1834. Proceeding afterwards to Emmanuel
+College, Cambridge, he came under the spell of Sedgwick, and henceforth
+devoted all his leisure time to geology. Entering the church in 1838, he
+was curate at Wylye in Wiltshire, and for a short time at Steeple Claydon
+in Buckinghamshire, becoming later rector of Down Hatherley in
+Gloucestershire, and finally (1855) vicar of Rowington in Warwickshire, and
+rural dean. Records of geological observations in all these districts were
+published by him. At Cambridge he obtained fossil shells from the
+Pleistocene deposit at Barn well; in the Vale of Wardour he discovered in
+Purbeck Beds the isopod named by Milne-Edwards _Archaeoniscus Brodiei_; in
+Buckinghamshire he described the outliers of Purbeck and [v.04 p.0626]
+Portland Beds; and in the Vale of Gloucester the Lias and Oolites claimed
+his attention. Fossil insects, however, formed the subject of his special
+studies (_History of the Fossil Insects of the Secondary Rocks of England_,
+1845), and many of his published papers relate to them. He was an active
+member of the Cotteswold Naturalists' Club and of the Warwickshire Natural
+History and Archaeological Society, and in 1854 he was chief founder of the
+Warwickshire Naturalists' and Archaeologists' Field Club. In 1887 the
+Murchison medal was awarded to him by the Geological Society of London. He
+died at Rowington, on the 1st of November 1897.
+
+See Memoir by H. B. Woodward in _Geological Magazine_, 1897, p. 481 (with
+portrait).
+
+BRODY, a town of Austria, in Galicia, 62 m. E. of Lemberg by rail. Pop.
+(1900) 17,360, of which about two-thirds are Jews. It is situated near the
+Russian frontier, and has been one of the most important commercial centres
+in Galicia, especially for the trade with Russia. But since 1879, when its
+charter as a free commercial city was withdrawn, its trade has also greatly
+diminished. Brody was created a town in 1684, and was raised to the rank of
+a free commercial city in 1779.
+
+BROEKHUIZEN, JAN VAN [JANUS BROUKHUSIUS], (1649-1707), Dutch classical
+scholar and poet, was born on the 20th of November 1649, at Amsterdam.
+Having lost his father when very young, he was placed with an apothecary,
+with whom he lived several years. Not liking this employment, he entered
+the army, and in 1674 was sent with his regiment to America, in the fleet
+under Admiral de Ruyter, but returned to Holland the same year. In 1678 he
+was sent to the garrison at Utrecht, where he contracted a friendship with
+the celebrated Graevius; here he had the misfortune to be so deeply
+implicated in a duel that, according to the laws of Holland, his life was
+forfeited. Graevius, however, wrote immediately to Nicholas Heinsius, who
+obtained his pardon. Not long afterwards he became a captain of one of the
+companies then at Amsterdam. After the peace of Ryswick, 1697, his company
+was disbanded, and he retired on a pension to a country house near
+Amsterdam and pursued his classical and literary studies at leisure. His
+Dutch poems, in which he followed the model of Pieter Hooft, were first
+published in 1677; a later edition, with a biography by D. van Hoogstraten,
+appeared in 1712, the last edition, 1883, was edited by R.A. Kollewijn. His
+classical reputation rests on his editions of Propertius (1702) and
+Tibullus (1707). His Latin poems (_Carmina_) appeared in 1684; a later
+edition(_Poemata_) by D. van Hoogstraten appeared in 1711. The _Select
+Letters_ (_Jani Browkhusii Epistolae Selectae_, 1889 and 1893) were edited
+by J.A. Worp, who also wrote his biography, 1891. Broekhuizen died on the
+15th of December 1707.
+
+BRÖGGER, WALDEMAR CHRISTOFER (1851- ), Norwegian geologist, was born in
+Christiania on the 10th of November 1851, and educated in that city. In
+1876 he was appointed curator of the geological museum in his native city,
+and assistant on the Geological Survey. He was professor of mineralogy and
+geology from 1881 to 1890 in the university of Stockholm, and from 1890 in
+the university of Christiania. He also became rector and president of the
+senate of the royal university of Christiania. His observations on the
+igneous rocks of south Tirol compared with those of Christiania afford much
+information on the relations of the granitic and basic rocks. The subject
+of the differentiation of rock-types in the process of solidification as
+plutonic or volcanic rocks from a particular magma received much attention
+from him. He dealt also with the Palaeozoic rocks of Norway, and with the
+late glacial and post-glacial changes of level in the Christiania region.
+The honorary degree of Ph.D. was conferred upon him by the university of
+Heidelberg and that of LL.D. by the university of Glasgow. The Murchison
+medal of the Geological Society of London was awarded to him in 1891.
+
+BROGLIE, DE, the name of a noble French family which, originally
+Piedmontese, emigrated to France in the year 1643. The head of the family,
+FRANÇOIS MARIE (1611-1656), then took the title of comte de Broglie. He had
+already distinguished himself as a soldier, and died, as a
+lieutenant-general, at the siege of Valenza on the 2nd of July 1656. His
+son, VICTOR MAURICE, COMTE DE BROGLIE (1647-1727), served under Condé,
+Turenne and other great commanders of the age of Louis XIV., becoming
+_maréchal de camp_ in 1676, lieutenant-general in 1688, and finally marshal
+of France in 1724.
+
+The eldest son of Victor Marie, FRANÇOIS MARIE, afterwards DUC DE BROGLIE
+(1671-1745), entered the army at an early age, and had a varied career of
+active service before he was made, at the age of twenty-three,
+lieutenant-colonel of the king's regiment of cavalry. He served
+continuously in the War of the Spanish Succession and was present at
+Malplaquet. He was made lieutenant-general in 1710, and served with Villars
+in the last campaign of the war and at the battle of Denain. During the
+peace he continued in military employment, and in 1719 he was made
+director-general of cavalry and dragoons. He was also employed in
+diplomatic missions, and was ambassador in England in 1724. The war in
+Italy called him into the field again in 1733, and in the following year he
+was made marshal of France. In the campaign of 1734 he was one of the chief
+commanders on the French side, and he fought the battles of Parma and
+Guastalla. A famous episode was his narrow personal escape when his
+quarters on the Secchia were raided by the enemy on the night of the 14th
+of September 1734. In 1735 he directed a war of positions with credit, but
+he was soon replaced by Marshal de Noailles. He was governor-general of
+Alsace when Frederick the Great paid a secret visit to Strassburg (1740).
+In 1742 de Broglie was appointed to command the French army in Germany, but
+such powers as he had possessed were failing him, and he had always been
+the "man of small means," safe and cautious, but lacking in elasticity and
+daring. The only success obtained was in the action of Sahay (25th May
+1742), for which he was made a duke. He returned to France in 1743, and
+died two years later.
+
+His son, VICTOR FRANÇOIS, DUC DE BROGLIE (1718-1804), served with his
+father at Parma and Guastalla, and in 1734 obtained a colonelcy. In the
+German War he took part in the storming of Prague in 1742, and was made a
+brigadier. In 1744 and 1745 he saw further service on the Rhine, and in
+1756 he was made _maréchal de camp_. He subsequently served with Marshal
+Saxe in the low countries, and was present at Roucoux, Val and Maastricht.
+At the end of the war he was made a lieutenant-general. During the Seven
+Years' War he served successively under d'Estrées, Soubise and Contades,
+being present at all the battles from Hastenbeck onwards. His victory over
+Prince Ferdinand at Bergen (1759) won him the rank of marshal of France
+from his own sovereign and that of prince of the empire from the emperor
+Francis I. In 1760 he won an action at Corbach, but was defeated at
+Vellinghausen in 1761. After the war he fell into disgrace and was not
+recalled to active employment until 1778, when he was given command of the
+troops designed to operate against England. He played a prominent part in
+the Revolution, which he opposed with determination. After his emigration,
+de Broglie commanded the "army of the princes" for a short time (1792). He
+died at Münster in 1804.
+
+Another son of the first duke, CHARLES FRANÇOIS, COMTE DE BROGLIE
+(1719-1781), served for some years in the army, and afterwards became one
+of the foremost diplomatists in the service of Louis XV. He is chiefly
+remembered in connexion with the _Secret du Roi_, the private, as distinct
+from the official, diplomatic service of Louis, of which he was the ablest
+and most important member. The son of Victor François, VICTOR CLAUDE,
+PRINCE DE BROGLIE (1757-1794), served in the army, attaining the rank of
+_maréchal de camp_. He adopted revolutionary opinions, served with
+Lafayette and Rochambeau in America, was a member of the Jacobin Club, and
+sat in the Constituent Assembly, constantly voting on the Liberal side. He
+served as chief of the staff to the Republican army on the Rhine; but in
+the Terror he was denounced, arrested and executed at Paris on the 27th of
+June 1794. His dying admonition to his little son was to remain [v.04
+p.0627] faithful to the principles of the Revolution, however unjust and
+ungrateful.
+
+ACHILLE CHARLES LÉONCE VICTOR, DUC DE BROGLIE (1785-1870), statesman and
+diplomatist, son of the last-named, was born at Paris on the 28th of
+November 1785. His mother had shared her husband's imprisonment, but
+managed to escape to Switzerland, where she remained till the fall of
+Robespierre. She now returned to Paris with her children and lived there
+quietly until 1796, when she married a M. d'Argenson, grandson of Louis
+XV.'s minister of war. Under the care of his step-father young de Broglie
+received a careful and liberal education and made his entrée into the
+aristocratic and literary society of Paris under the Empire. In 1809, he
+was appointed a member of the council of state, over which Napoleon
+presided in person; and was sent by the emperor on diplomatic missions, as
+attaché, to various countries. Though he had never been in sympathy with
+the principles of the Empire, de Broglie was not one of those who rejoiced
+at its downfall. In common with all men of experience and sense he realized
+the danger to France of the rise to power of the forces of violent
+reaction. With Decazes and Richelieu he saw that the only hope for a calm
+future lay in "the reconciliation of the Restoration with the Revolution."
+By the influence of his uncle, Prince Amédée de Broglie, his right to a
+peerage had been recognized; and to his own great surprise he received, in
+June 1814, a summons from Louis XVIII. to the Chamber of Peers. There,
+after the Hundred Days, he distinguished himself by his courageous defence
+of Marshal Ney, for whose acquittal he, alone of all the peers, both spoke
+and voted. After this defiant act of opposition it was perhaps fortunate
+that his impending marriage gave him an excuse for leaving the country. On
+the 15th of February 1816, he was married at Leghorn to the daughter of
+Madame de Staël. He returned to Paris at the end of the year, but took no
+part in politics until the elections of September 1817 broke the power of
+the "ultra-royalists" and substituted for the _Chambre introuvable_ a
+moderate assembly. De Broglie's political attitude during the years that
+followed is best summed up in his own words: "From 1812 to 1822 all the
+efforts of men of sense and character were directed to reconciling the
+Restoration and the Revolution, the old régime and the new France. From
+1822 to 1827 all their efforts were directed to resisting the growing power
+of the counter-revolution. From 1827 to 1830 all their efforts aimed at
+moderating and regulating the reaction in a contrary sense." During the
+last critical years of Charles X.'s reign, de Broglie identified himself
+with the _doctrinaires_, among whom Royer-Collard and Guizot were the most
+prominent. The July revolution placed him in a difficult position; he knew
+nothing of the intrigues which placed Louis Philippe on the throne; but,
+the revolution once accomplished, he was ready to uphold the _fait
+accompli_ with characteristic loyalty, and on the 9th of August took office
+in the new government as minister of public worship and education. As he
+had foreseen, the ministry was short-lived, and on the 2nd of November he
+was once more out of office. During the critical time that followed he
+consistently supported the principles which triumphed with the fall of
+Laffitte and the accession to power of Casimir Périer in March 1832. After
+the death of the latter and the insurrection of June 1832, de Broglie took
+office once more as minister for foreign affairs (October 11th). His tenure
+of the foreign office was coincident with a very critical period in
+international relations. But for the sympathy of Great Britain under
+Palmerston, the July monarchy would have been completely isolated in
+Europe; and this sympathy the aggressive policy of France in Belgium and on
+the Mediterranean coast of Africa had been in danger of alienating. The
+Belgian crisis had been settled, so far as the two powers were concerned,
+before de Broglie took office; but the concerted military and naval action
+for the coercion of the Dutch, which led to the French occupation of
+Antwerp, was carried out under his auspices. The good understanding of
+which this was the symbol characterized also the relations of de Broglie
+and Palmerston during the crisis of the first war of Mehemet Ali (_q.v._)
+with the Porte, and in the affairs of the Spanish peninsula their common
+sympathy with constitutional liberty led to an agreement for common action,
+which took shape in the treaty of alliance between Great Britain, France,
+Spain and Portugal, signed at London on the 22nd of April 1834. De Broglie
+had retired from office in the March preceding, and did not return to power
+till March of the following year, when he became head of the cabinet. In
+1836, the government having been defeated on a proposal to reduce the five
+per cents, he once more resigned, and never returned to official life. He
+had remained in power long enough to prove what honesty of purpose,
+experience of affairs, and common sense can accomplish when allied with
+authority. The debt that France and Europe owed him may be measured by
+comparing the results of his policy with that of his successors under not
+dissimilar circumstances. He had found France isolated and Europe full of
+the rumours of war; he left her strong in the English alliance and the
+respect of Liberal Europe, and Europe freed from the restless apprehensions
+which were to be stirred into life again by the attitude of Thiers in the
+Eastern Question and of Guizot in the affair of the "Spanish marriages."
+From 1836 to 1848 de Broglie held almost completely aloof from politics, to
+which his scholarly temperament little inclined him, a disinclination
+strengthened by the death of his wife on the 22nd of September 1838. His
+friendship for Guizot, however, induced him to accept a temporary mission
+in 1845, and in 1847 to go as French ambassador to London. The revolution
+of 1848 was a great blow to him, for he realized that it meant the final
+ruin of the Liberal monarchy--in his view the political system best suited
+to France. He took his seat, however, in the republican National Assembly
+and in the Convention of 1848, and, as a member of the section known as the
+"Burgraves," did his best to stem the tide of socialism and to avert the
+reaction in favour of autocracy which he foresaw. He shared with his
+colleagues the indignity of the _coup d'état_ of the 2nd of December 1851,
+and remained for the remainder of his life one of the bitterest enemies of
+the imperial regime, though he was heard to remark, with that caustic wit
+for which he was famous, that the empire was "the government which the
+poorer classes in France desired and the rich deserved." The last twenty
+years of his life were devoted chiefly to philosophical and literary
+pursuits. Having been brought up by his step-father in the sceptical
+opinions of the time, he gradually arrived at a sincere belief in the
+Christian religion. "I shall die," said he, "a penitent Christian and an
+impenitent Liberal." His literary works, though few of them have been
+published, were rewarded in 1856 by a seat in the French Academy, and he
+was also a member of another branch of the French Institute, the Academy of
+Moral and Political Science. In the labours of those learned bodies he took
+an active and assiduous part. He died on the 25th of January 1870.
+
+Besides his _Souvenirs_, in 4 vols. (Paris, 1885-1888), the duc de Broglie
+left numerous works, of which only some have been published. Of these may
+be mentioned _Écrits et discours_ (3 vols., Paris, 1863); _Le Libre Échange
+et l'impôt_ (Paris, 1879); _Vues sur le gouvernement de la France_ (Paris,
+1861). This last was confiscated before publication by the imperial
+government. See Guizot, _Le Duc de Broglie_ (Paris, 1870), and _Mémoires_
+(Paris, 1858-1867); and the histories of Thureau-Dangin and Duvergier de
+Hauranne.
+
+JACQUES VICTOR ALBERT, DUC DE BROGLIE (1821-1901), his eldest son, was born
+at Paris on the 13th of June 1821. After a brief diplomatic career at
+Madrid and Rome, the revolution of 1848 caused him to withdraw from public
+life and devote himself to literature. He had already published a
+translation of the religious system of Leibnitz (1846). He now at once made
+his mark by his contributions to the _Revue des deux Mondes_ and the
+Orleanist and clerical organ _Le Correspondant_, which were afterwards
+collected under the titles of _Études morales et littéraires_ (1853) and
+_Questions de religion et d'histoire_ (1860). These were supplemented in
+1869 by a volume of _Nouvelles études de littérature et de morale_. His
+_L'Église et l'empire romain au IVe siècle_ (1856-1866) brought him the
+succession to Lacordaire's seat in the Academy in 1862. In 1870 he
+succeeded his father in the dukedom, having previously been known as the
+prince de Broglie. In the following year he was elected to the National
+[v.04 p.0628] Assembly for the department of the Eure, and a few days later
+(on the 19th of February) was appointed ambassador in London; but in March
+1872, in consequence of criticisms upon his negotiations concerning the
+commercial treaties between England and France, he resigned his post and
+took his seat in the National Assembly, where he became the leading spirit
+of the monarchical campaign against Thiers. On the replacement of the
+latter by Marshal MacMahon, the duc de Broglie became president of the
+council and minister for foreign affairs (May 1873), but in the
+reconstruction of the ministry on the 26th of November, after the passing
+of the septennate, transferred himself to the ministry of the interior. His
+tenure of office was marked by an extreme conservatism, which roused the
+bitter hatred of the Republicans, while he alienated the Legitimist party
+by his friendly relations with the Bonapartists, and the Bonapartists by an
+attempt to effect a compromise between the rival claimants to the monarchy.
+The result was the fall of the cabinet on the 16th of May 1874. Three years
+later (on the 16th of May 1877) he was entrusted with the formation of a
+new cabinet, with the object of appealing to the country and securing a new
+chamber more favourable to the reactionaries than its predecessor had been.
+The result, however, was a decisive Republican majority. The duc de Broglie
+was defeated in his own district, and resigned office on the 20th of
+November. Not being re-elected in 1885, he abandoned politics and reverted
+to his historical work, publishing a series of historical studies and
+biographies written in a most pleasing style, and especially valuable for
+their extensive documentation. He died in Paris on the 19th of January
+1901.
+
+Besides editing the _Souvenirs_ of his father (1886, &c.), the _Mémoires_
+of Talleyrand (1891, &c.), and the _Letters_ of the Duchess Albertine de
+Broglie (1896), he published _Le Secret du roi, Correspondance secrète de
+Louis XV avec ses agents diplomatiques, 1752-1774_ (1878); _Frédéric II et
+Marie Thérèse_ (1883); _Frédéric II et Louis XV_ (1885); _Marie Thérèse
+Impératrice_ (1888); _Le Père Lacordaire_ (1889); _Maurice de Saxe et le
+marquis d'Argenson_ (1891); _La Paix d'Aix-la-Chapelle_ (1892); _L'Alliance
+autrichienne_ (1895); _La Mission de M. de Gontaut-Biron à Berlin_ (1896);
+_Voltaire avant et pendant la Guerre de Sept Ans_ (1898); _Saint Ambroise_,
+translated by Margaret Maitland in the series of "The Saints" (1899).
+
+BROGUE, (1) A rough shoe of raw leather (from the Gael. _brog_, a shoe)
+worn in the wilder parts of Ireland and the Scottish Highlands. (2) A
+dialectical accent or pronunciation (of uncertain origin), especially used
+of the Irish accent in speaking English.
+
+BROHAN, AUGUSTINE SUSANNE (1807-1887), French actress, was born in Paris on
+the 22nd of January 1807. She entered the Conservatoire at the age of
+eleven, and took the second prize for comedy in 1820, and the first in
+1821. She served her apprenticeship in the provinces, making her first
+Paris appearance at the Odéon in 1832 as Dorine in _Tartuffe_. Her success
+there and elsewhere brought her a summons to the Comédie Française, where
+she made her _début_ on the 15th of February 1834, as Madelon in _Les
+Précieuses ridicules_, and Suzanne in _Le Mariage de Figaro_. She retired
+in 1842, and died on the 16th of August 1887.
+
+Her elder daughter, JOSEPHINE FÉLICITÉ AUGUSTINE BROHAN (1824-1893), was
+admitted to the Conservatoire when very young, twice taking the second
+prize for comedy. The soubrette part, entrusted for more than 150 years at
+the Comédie Française to a succession of artists of the first rank, was at
+the moment without a representative, and Mdlle Augustine Brohan made her
+_début_ there on the 19th of May 1841, as Dorine in _Tartuffe_, and Lise in
+_Rivaux d'eux-mêmes_. She was immediately admitted _pensionnaire_, and at
+the end of eighteen months unanimously elected _sociétaire_. She soon
+became a great favourite, not only in the plays of Molière and de Regnard,
+but also in those of Marivaux. On her retirement from the stage in 1866,
+she made an unhappy marriage with Edmond David de Gheest (d. 1885),
+secretary to the Belgian legation in Paris.
+
+Susanne Brohan's second daughter, ÉMILIE MADELEINE BROHAN (1833-1900), also
+took first prize for comedy at the Conservatoire (1850). She was engaged at
+once by the Comédie Française, but instead of making her _début_ in some
+play of the _répertoire_ of the theatre, the management put on for her
+benefit a new comedy by Scribe and Legouvé, _Les Contes de la reine de
+Navarre_, in which she created the part of Marguerite on the 1st of
+September 1850. Her talents and beauty made her a success from the first,
+and in less than two years from her _début_ she was elected _sociétaire_.
+In 1853 she married Mario Uchard, from whom she was soon separated, and in
+1858 she returned to the Comédie Française in leading parts, until her
+retirement in 1886. Her name is associated with a great number of plays,
+besides those in the classical _répertoire_, notably _Le Monde où l'on
+s'ennuie_, _Par droit de conquête_, _Les Deux Veuves_, and _Le Lion
+amoureux_, in which, as the "marquise de Maupas", she had one of her
+greatest successes.
+
+BROKE, or BROOKE, ARTHUR (d. 1563), English author, wrote the first English
+version of the story of Romeo and Juliet. _The Tragicall Historye of Romeus
+and Julieit_ (1562) is a rhymed account of the story, taken, not directly
+from Bandello's collection of novels (1554), but from the French
+translation (_Histoires tragiques_) of Pierre Boaistuau or Boisteau,
+surnamed Launay, and François de Belleforest. Broke adds some detail to the
+story as told by Boisteau. As the poem contains many scenes which are not
+known to exist elsewhere, but which were adopted by Shakespeare in _Romeo
+and Juliet_, there is no reasonable doubt that it may be regarded as the
+main source of the play. Broke perished by shipwreck in 1563, on his way
+from Newhaven to join the English troops fighting on the Huguenot side in
+France.
+
+The genesis of the Juliet story, and a close comparison of Shakespeare's
+play with Broke's version, are to be found in a reprint of the poem and of
+William Paynter's prose translation from the _Palace of Pleasure_, edited
+by Mr P. A. Daniel for the New Shakespere Society (1875).
+
+BROKE, SIR PHILIP BOWES VERE, BART. (1776-1841), British rear-admiral, was
+born at Broke Hall, near Ipswich, on the 9th of September 1776, a member of
+an old Suffolk family. Entering the navy in June 1792, he saw active
+service in the Mediterranean from 1793 to 1795, and was with the British
+fleet at the battle of Cape St Vincent, 1797. In 1798 he was present at the
+defeat and capture of the French squadron off the north coast of Ireland.
+From 1799 to 1801 he served with the North Sea fleet, and in the latter
+year was made captain. Unemployed for the next four years, he commanded in
+1805 a frigate in the English and Irish Channels. In 1806 he was appointed
+to the command of the "Shannon", 38-gun frigate, remaining afloat,
+principally in the Bay of Biscay, till 1811. The "Shannon" was then ordered
+to Halifax, Nova Scotia. For a year after the declaration of war between
+Great Britain and the United States in 1812, the frigate saw no important
+service, though she captured several prizes. Broke utilized this period of
+comparative inactivity to train his men thoroughly. He paid particular
+attention to gunnery, and the "Shannon" ere long gained a unique reputation
+for excellence of shooting. Broke's opportunity came in 1813. In May of
+that year the "Shannon" was cruising off Boston, watching the "Chesapeake",
+an American frigate of the same nominal force but heavier armament. On the
+1st of June Broke, finding his water supply getting low, wrote to Lawrence,
+the commander of the "Chesapeake", asking for a meeting between the two
+ships, stating the "Shannon's" force, and guaranteeing that no other
+British ship should take part in the engagement. Before this letter could
+be delivered, however, the "Chesapeake", under full sail, ran out of Boston
+harbour, crowds of pleasure-boats accompanying her to witness the
+engagement. Broke briefly addressed his men. "Don't cheer," he concluded,
+"go quietly to your quarters. I feel sure you will all do your duty." As
+the "Chesapeake" rounded to on the "Shannon's" weather quarter, at a
+distance of about fifty yards, the British frigate received her with a
+broadside. A hundred of the "Chesapeake's" crew were struck down at once,
+Lawrence himself being mortally wounded. A second broadside, equally
+well-aimed, increased the confusion, and, her tiller-ropes being shot away,
+the American frigate drifted foul of the "Shannon". Broke sprang on board
+with some sixty of his men following him. After a brief struggle [v.04
+p.0629] the fight was over. Within fifteen minutes of the firing of the
+first shot, the "Chesapeake" struck her flag, but Broke himself was
+seriously wounded. For his services he was rewarded with a baronetcy, and
+subsequently was made a K.C.B. His exploit captivated the public fancy, and
+his popular title of "Brave Broke" gives the standard by which his action
+was judged. Its true significance, however, lies deeper. Broke's victory
+was due not so much to courage as to forethought. "The 'Shannon,'" said
+Admiral Jurien de La Gravière, "captured the 'Chesapeake' on the 1st of
+June 1813; but on the 14th of September 1806, when he took command of his
+frigate, Captain Broke had begun to prepare the glorious termination to
+this bloody affair." Broke's wound incapacitated him from further service,
+and for the rest of his life caused him serious suffering. He died in
+London on the 2nd of January 1841.
+
+BROKEN HILL, a silver-mining town of Yancowinna county, New South Wales,
+Australia, 925 m. directly W. by N. of Sydney, and connected with Adelaide
+by rail. Pop. (1901) 27,518. One of the neighbouring mines, the
+Proprietary, is the richest in the world; gold is associated with the
+silver; large quantities of lead, good copper lodes, zinc and tin are also
+found. The problem of the profitable treatment of the sulphide ores has
+been practically solved here. In addition Broken Hill is the centre of one
+of the largest pastoral districts in Australia. The town is the seat of the
+Roman Catholic bishop of Wilcannia.
+
+BROKER (according to the _New English Dictionary_, from Lat. _brocca_,
+spit, spike, _broccare_, to "broach"--another Eng. form of the same word;
+hence O. Fr. _vendre à broche_, to retail, e.g. wine, from the tap, and
+thus the general sense of dealing; see also for a discussion of the
+etymology and early history of the use of the word, J.R. Dos Passos, _Law
+of Stockbrokers_, chap. i., New York, 1905). In the primary sense of the
+word, a broker is a mercantile agent, of the class known as general agents,
+whose office is to bring together intending buyers and sellers and make a
+contract between them, for a remuneration called brokerage or commission;
+e.g. cotton brokers, wool brokers or produce brokers. Originally the only
+contracts negotiated by brokers were for the sale or purchase of
+commodities; but the word in its present use includes other classes of
+mercantile agents, such as stockbrokers, insurance-brokers, ship-brokers or
+bill-brokers. Pawnbrokers are not brokers in any proper sense of the word;
+they deal as principals and do not act as agents. In discussing the chief
+questions of modern legal interest in connexion with brokers, we shall deal
+with them, firstly, in the original sense of agents for the purchase and
+sale of goods.
+
+_Relations between Broker and Principal._--A broker has not, like a factor,
+possession of his principal's goods, and, unless expressly authorized,
+cannot buy or sell in his own name; his business is to bring into privity
+of contract his principal and the third party. When the contract is made,
+ordinarily he drops out altogether. Brokers very frequently act as factors
+also, but, when they do so, their rights and duties as factors must be
+distinguished from their rights and duties as brokers. It is a broker's
+duty to carry out his principal's instructions with diligence, skill and
+perfect good faith. He must see that the terms of the bargain accord with
+his principal's orders from a commercial point of view, e.g. as to quality,
+quantity and price; he must ensure that the contract of sale effected by
+him be legally enforceable by his principal against the third party; and he
+must not accept any commission from the third party, or put himself in any
+position in which his own interest may become opposed to his principal's.
+As soon as he has made the contract which he was employed to make, in most
+respects his duty to, and his authority from, his principal alike cease;
+and consequently the law of brokers relates principally to the formation of
+contracts by them.
+
+The most important formality in English law, in making contracts for the
+sale of goods, with which a broker must comply, in order to make the
+contract legally enforceable by his principal against the third party, is
+contained in section 4 of the Sale of Goods Act 1893, which (in substance
+re-enacting section 17 of the Statute of Frauds) provides as follows:--"A
+contract for the sale of any goods of the value of ten pounds or upwards
+shall not be enforceable by action unless the buyer shall accept part of
+the goods as sold, and actually receive the same, or give something in
+earnest to bind the contract, or in part payment, or _unless some note or
+memorandum in writing of the contract be made and signed by the party to be
+charged or his agent in that behalf_."
+
+From the reign of James I. till 1884 brokers in London were admitted and
+licensed by the corporation, and regulated by statute; and it was common to
+employ one broker only, who acted as intermediary between, and was the
+agent of both buyer and seller. When the Statute of Frauds was passed in
+the reign of Charles II., it became the practice for the broker, acting for
+both parties, to insert in a formal book, kept for the purpose, a
+memorandum of each contract effected by him, and to sign such memorandum on
+behalf of both parties, in order that there might be a written memorandum
+of the contract of sale, signed by the agent of the parties as required by
+the statute. He would then send to the buyer a copy of this memorandum,
+called the "bought note", and to the seller a "sold note", which would run
+as follows:--
+
+  "I have this day bought for you from A B [or "my principal"] ..."
+                                [signed] "M, _Broker_."
+
+  "I have this day sold for you to A B [or "my principal"] ..."
+                                [signed] "M, _Broker_."
+
+There was in the earlier part of the 19th century considerable discussion
+in the courts as to whether the entry in a broker's book, or the bought and
+sold notes (singly or together), constituted the statutory memorandum; and
+judicial opinion was not unanimous on the point. But at the present day
+brokers are no longer regulated by statute, either in London or elsewhere,
+and keep no formal book; and as an entry made in a private book kept by the
+broker for another purpose, even if signed, would probably not be regarded
+as a memorandum signed by the agent of the parties in that behalf, the old
+discussion is now of little practical interest.
+
+Under modern conditions of business the written memorandum of the contract
+of sale effected by the broker is usually to be found in a "contract note";
+but the question whether, in the particular circumstances of each case, the
+contract note affords a sufficient memorandum in writing, depends upon a
+variety of considerations--e.g. whether the transaction is effected through
+one or through two brokers; whether the contract notes are rendered by one
+broker only, or by both; and, if the latter, whether exchanged between the
+brokers, or rendered by each broker to his own client; for under present
+practice any one of these methods may obtain, according to the trade in
+which the transaction is effected, and the nature of the particular
+transaction.
+
+Where one and the same broker is employed by both seller and buyer, bought
+and sold notes rendered in the old form provide the necessary memorandum of
+the contract. Where two brokers are employed, one by the seller and one by
+the buyer, sometimes one drops out as soon as the terms are negotiated, and
+the other makes out, signs and sends to the parties the bought and sold
+notes. The latter then becomes the agent of both parties for the purpose of
+signing the statutory memorandum, and the position is the same as if one
+broker only had been employed. On the other hand, if one broker does not
+drop out of the transaction, each broker remains to the end the agent of
+his own principal only, and neither becomes the agent of the other party
+for the purpose of signing the memorandum. In such a case it is the usual
+practice for the buyer's broker to send to the seller's broker a note of
+the contract,--"I, acting on account of A. B. [or, "of my principal,"],
+have this day bought _from_ you, acting on account of C. D. [or, "of your
+principal"],"--and to receive a corresponding note from the seller's
+broker. Thus each of the parties receives through his own agent a
+memorandum signed by the other party's agent. These contract notes are
+usually known as, and serve the purpose of, "bought" and "sold" notes. In
+all the above three cases the broker's duty of compliance with all
+formalities necessary to make the contract of sale legally enforceable is
+performed, [v.04 p.0630] and both parties obtain a written memorandum of
+the contract upon which they can sue.
+
+The broker, on performing his duty in accordance with the terms upon which
+he is employed, is entitled to be paid his "brokerage." This usually takes
+the form of a percentage, varying according to the nature and conditions of
+the business, upon the total price of the goods bought or sold through him.
+When he guarantees the solvency of the other party, he is said to be
+employed upon _del credere_ terms, and is entitled to a higher rate of
+remuneration. In some trades it is the custom for the selling broker to
+receive payment from the buyer or his broker; and in such case it is his
+duty to account to his principal for the purchase money. A broker who
+properly expends money or incurs liability on his principal's behalf in the
+course of his employment, is entitled to be reimbursed the money, and
+indemnified against the liability. Not having, like a factor, possession of
+the goods, a broker has no lien by which to enforce his rights against his
+principal. If he fails to perform his duty, he loses his right to
+remuneration, reimbursement and indemnity, and further becomes liable to an
+action for damages for breach of his contract of employment, at the suit of
+his principal.
+
+_Relations between Broker and Third Party._--A broker who signs a contract
+note _as broker_ on behalf of a principal, whether named or not, is not
+personally liable on the contract to the third party. But if he makes the
+contract in such a way as to make himself a party to it, the third party
+may sue either the broker or his principal, subject to the limitation that
+the third party, by his election to treat one as the party to the contract,
+may preclude himself from suing the other. In this respect the ordinary
+rules of the law of agency apply to a broker. Generally, a broker has not
+authority to receive payment, but in trades in which it is customary for
+him to do so, if the buyer pays the seller's broker, and is then sued by
+the seller for the price by reason of the broker having become insolvent or
+absconded, he may set up the payment to the broker as a defence to the
+action by the broker's principal. Brokers may render themselves liable for
+damages in tort for the conversion of the goods at the suit of the true
+owner if they negotiate a sale of the goods for a selling principal who has
+no title to the goods.
+
+_The Influence of Exchanges._--The relations between brokers and their
+principals, and also between brokers and third parties as above defined,
+have been to some extent modified in practice by the institution since the
+middle of the 19th century in important commercial centres of "Exchanges,"
+where persons interested in a particular trade, whether as merchants or as
+brokers, meet for the transaction of business. By the contract of
+membership of the association in whose hands is vested the control of the
+exchange, every person on becoming a member agrees to be bound by the rules
+of the association, and to make his contracts on the market in accordance
+with them. A governing body or committee elected by the members enforces
+observance of the rules, and members who fail to meet their engagements on
+the market, or to conform to the rules, are liable to suspension or
+expulsion by the committee. All disputes between members on their contracts
+are submitted to an arbitration tribunal composed of members; and the
+arbitrators in deciding the questions submitted to them are guided by the
+rules. A printed book of rules is available for reference; and various
+printed forms of contract suited to the various requirements of the
+business are specified by the rules and supplied by the association for the
+use of members. In order to simplify the settlement of accounts between
+members, particularly in respect of "futures," i.e. contracts for future
+delivery, a weekly or other periodical settlement is effected by means of a
+clearing-house; each member paying or receiving in respect of all his
+contracts which are still open, the balance of his weekly "differences,"
+i.e. the difference between the contract price and the market price fixed
+for the settlement, or between the last and the present settlement prices.
+
+As all contracts on the market are made subject to the rules, it follows
+that so far as the rules alter the rights and liabilities attached by law,
+the ordinary law is modified. The most important modification in the
+position of brokers effected by membership of such an exchange is due to
+the rule that as, between themselves, all members are principals, on the
+market no agents are recognized; a broker employed by a non-member to buy
+for him on the market is treated by the rules as buying for himself, and
+is, therefore, personally liable on the contract. If it be a contract in
+futures, he is required to conform to the weekly settlement rules. If his
+principal fails to take delivery, the engagement is his and he is required
+to make good to the member who sold to him any difference between the
+contract and market price at the date of delivery. But whilst this practice
+alters directly the relations of the broker to the third party, it also
+affects or tends to affect indirectly the relations of the broker to his
+own principal. The terms of the contract of employment being a matter of
+negotiation and agreement between them, it is open to a broker, if he
+chooses, to stipulate for particular terms; and it is the usual practice of
+exchanges to supply printed contract forms for the use of members in their
+dealings with non-members who employ them as brokers, containing a
+stipulation that the contract is made subject to the rules of the exchange;
+and frequently also a clause that the contract is made with the broker as
+_principal_. In addition to these express terms, there is in the contract
+of employment the term, implied by law in all trade contracts, that the
+parties consent to be bound by such trade usages as are consistent with the
+express terms of the contract, and reasonable. On executing an order the
+broker sends to his client a contract-note either in the form of the old
+bought and sold notes "I have this day [bought / sold] for you," or, when
+the principal clause is inserted, "I have this day [sold to / bought] from
+you." These are not bought and sold notes proper, for the broker is not the
+agent of the third party for the purpose of signing them as statutory
+memoranda of the sale. But they purport to record the terms of the contract
+of employment, and the principal may treat himself as bound by their
+provisions. Sometimes they are accompanied by a detachable form, known as
+the "client's return contract note," to be filled in, signed and returned
+by the client; but even the "client's return contract note" is retained by
+the client's own broker, and is only a memorandum of the terms of
+employment. The following is a form of contract note rendered by a broker
+to his client for American cotton, bought on the Liverpool Cotton Exchange
+for future delivery. The client's contract note is attached to it, and is
+in precisely corresponding form.
+
+    AMERICAN COTTON
+
+    _Delivery Contract Note._
+
+    Liverpool,................
+
+    M................
+
+    DEAR SIRS,
+
+    We have this day.............. to/from you .............. lb American
+    Cotton, net weight, to be contained in .............. American Bales,
+    more or less, to be delivered in Liverpool, during .............. on
+    the basis of .......... per lb for ............ on the terms of the
+    rules, bye-laws, and Clearing House regulations of the Liverpool Cotton
+    Association, Limited, whether endorsed hereon or not.
+
+    The contract, of which this is a note, is made between ourselves and
+    yourselves, and not by or with any person, whether disclosed or not, on
+    whose instructions or for whose benefit the same may have been entered
+    into. Yours faithfully,
+
+    ...................
+
+    The contract, of which the above is a note, was made on the date
+    specified, within the business hours fixed by the Liverpool Cotton
+    Association, Limited.
+
+    ......... per cent to us.
+
+    Please confirm by signing and returning the contract attached.
+
+The above form of contract note illustrates the tendency of exchanges to
+alter the relations between the broker and his principal. The object of
+inserting in the printed form the provision that the contract is made
+subject to the rules of the [v.04 p.0631] Liverpool Cotton Association is
+to make those rules binding upon the principal, and if he employs his
+broker upon the basis of the printed form, he does bind himself to any
+modification of the relations between himself and his broker which those
+rules may effect. The object of the principal clause in the above and
+similar printed forms is apparently to entitle the broker to sell to or buy
+from his principal on his own account and not as agent at all, thus
+disregarding the duty incumbent upon him as broker of making for his
+principal a contract with a third party.
+
+It is not possible, except very generally, to state how far exchanges have
+succeeded in imposing their own rules and usages on non-members, but it is
+probably correct to say that in most cases if the question came before the
+courts, the outside client would be held to have accepted the rules of the
+exchange so far as they did not alter the fundamental duties to him of his
+broker. On the other hand, provisions purporting to entitle the broker in
+disregard of his duties as broker himself to act as principal, would be
+rejected by the courts as radically inconsistent with the primary object of
+the contract of brokerage and, therefore, meaningless. But it is
+undoubtedly too often the practice of brokers who are members of exchanges
+to consider themselves entitled to act as principals and sell on their own
+account to their own clients, particularly in futures. The causes of this
+opinion, erroneously, though quite honestly held, are probably to be looked
+for partly in the habit of acting as principal on the market in accordance
+with the rules, partly in the forms of contract notes containing "principal
+clauses" which they send to their clients, and perhaps, also, in the
+occasional difficulty of effecting actual contracts on the market at the
+time when they are instructed so to do.
+
+A _stockbroker_ is a broker who contracts for the sale of stocks and
+shares. Stockbrokers differ from brokers proper chiefly in that stocks and
+shares are not "goods," and the requirement of a memorandum in writing,
+enacted by the Sale of Goods Act 1893, does not apply. Hence actions may be
+brought by the principals to a contract for the sale of stocks and shares
+although no memorandum in writing exists. For instance, the jobber, on
+failing to recover from the buyer's broker the price of shares sold, by
+reason of the broker having failed and been declared a defaulter, may sue
+the buyer whose "name was passed" by the broker. The employment of a
+stockbroker is subject to the rules and customs of the Stock Exchange, in
+accordance with the principles discussed above, which apply to the
+employment of brokers proper. A custom which is illegal, such as the Stock
+Exchange practice of disregarding Leeman's Act (1867), which enacts that
+contracts for the sale of joint-stock bank shares shall be void unless the
+registered numbers of the shares are stated therein, is not binding on the
+client to the extent of making the contract of sale valid. But if a client
+choose to instruct his broker to buy bank shares in accordance with that
+practice, the broker is entitled to be indemnified by his client for money
+which he pays on his behalf, even though the contract of sale so made is
+unenforceable. For further information the reader is referred to the
+article STOCK EXCHANGE and to the treatises on stock exchange law.
+
+An _insurance broker_ is an agent whose business is to effect policies of
+marine insurance. He is employed by the person who has an interest to
+insure, pays the premiums to the underwriter, takes up the policy, and
+receives from the underwriter payment in the event of a loss under the
+policy. By the custom of the trade the underwriter looks solely to the
+broker for payment of premiums, and has no right of action against the
+assured; and, on the other hand, the broker is paid his commission by the
+underwriter, although he is employed by the assured. Usually the broker
+keeps a current account with the underwriter, and premiums and losses are
+dealt with in account. It is only in the event of the underwriter refusing
+to pay on a loss, that the broker drops out and the assured sues the
+underwriter direct. Agents who effect life, fire or other policies, are not
+known as insurance brokers.
+
+_Ship-brokers_ are, firstly, "commission agents," and, secondly, very often
+also ships' managers. Their office is to act as agents for owners of ships
+to procure purchasers for ships, or ships for intending purchasers, in
+precisely the same manner as house-agents act in respect of houses. They
+also act as agents for ship-owners in finding charterers for their ships,
+or for charterers in finding ships available for charter, and in either
+case they effect the charter-party (see AFFREIGHTMENT).
+
+Chartering brokers are customarily paid by the ship-owner, when the
+charter-party is effected, whether originally employed by him or by the
+charterer. Charter-parties effected through brokers often contain a
+provision--"_2½% on estimated amount of freight to be paid to A B, broker,
+on the signing of this charter-party, and the ship to be consigned to him
+for ship's business at the port of X_ [inserting the name of the port where
+A B carries on business]." The broker cannot sue on the charter-party
+contract because he is not a party to it, but the insertion of the clause
+practically prevents his right from being disputed by the ship-owner. When
+the broker does the ship's business in port, it is his duty to clear her at
+the customs and generally to act as "ship's husband."
+
+A _bill-broker_ was originally an agent who, for a commission, procured for
+country bankers the discounting of their bills in London. But the practice
+arose of the broker guaranteeing the London banker or financier; and
+finally the brokers ceased to deposit with the London bankers the bills
+they received, and at the present day a bill-broker, as a rule, buys bills
+on his own account at a discount, borrows money on his own account and upon
+his own security at interest, and makes his profit out of the difference
+between the discount and the interest. When acting thus the bill-broker is
+not a broker at all, as he deals as principal and does not act as agent.
+
+AUTHORITIES.--Story, _Commentaries on the Law of Agency_ (Boston, 1882);
+Brodhurst, _Law and Practice of the Stock Exchange_ (London, 1897); Gow,
+_Handbook of Marine Insurance_ (London, 1900); Arnould, _On Marine
+Insurance_, edited by Messrs Hart & Simey (1901); J.R. Dos Passos, _Law of
+Stock-Brokers and Stock Exchanges_ (New York, 1905).
+
+(L. F. S.)
+
+BROMBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Posen, 32 m. by
+rail W.N.W. from the fortress of Thorn, 7 m. W. from the bank of the
+Vistula, and at the centre of an important network of railways, connecting
+it with the strategical points on the Prusso-Russian frontier. Pop. (1900)
+52,082; (1905) 54,229. Its public buildings comprise two Roman Catholic and
+three Protestant churches, a Jewish synagogue, a seminary, high grade
+schools and a theatre. The town also possesses a bronze statue of the
+emperor William I., a monument of the war of 1870-71, and a statue of
+Benkenhoff, the constructor of the Bromberg Canal. This engineering work,
+constructed in 1773-1774, by command of Frederick II., connects the Brahe
+with the Netze, and thus establishes communication between the Vistula, the
+Oder and the Elbe. The principal industrial works are iron foundries and
+machine shops, paper factories and flour mills; the town has, moreover, an
+active trade in agricultural and other products. In view of its strategical
+position, a large garrison is concentrated in and about the town. Bromberg
+is mentioned as early as 1252. It fell soon afterwards into the hands of
+the Poles, from whom it was taken in 1327 by the Teutonic Order, which held
+it till 1343, when the Poles recaptured it. Destroyed in the course of
+these struggles, it was restored by Casimir of Poland in 1346, and down to
+the close of the 16th century it continued to be a flourishing commercial
+city. It afterwards suffered so much from war and pestilence that about
+1772, when the Prussians took possession, it contained only from five to
+six hundred inhabitants. By the treaty of Tilsit it was transferred to the
+duchy of Warsaw; in 1813 it was occupied by the Russians, and in 1815 was
+restored to Prussia.
+
+BROME, ALEXANDER (1620-1666), English poet, was by profession an attorney,
+and was the author of many drinking songs and of satirical verses in favour
+of the Royalists and against the Rump. He published in 1661 _Songs and
+other Poems_, containing songs on various subjects, followed by a series of
+political songs; ballads, epistles, elegies and epitaphs; epigrams and
+translations. Izaak Walton wrote an introductory eclogue for this volume in
+praise of the writer, and his gaiety and wit won for him the title of the
+"English Anacreon" in Edward Phillips's _Theatrum Poetarum_. Brome
+published in 1666 a translation of Horace by himself and others, and was
+the author of a comedy entitled _The Cunning Lovers_ (1654). He also edited
+two volumes of Richard Brome's plays.
+
+BROME, RICHARD (d. 1652), English dramatist, was originally a servant of
+Ben Jonson, and owed much to his master. The development of his plots, the
+strongly marked characters and the amount of curious information to be
+found in his work, all show Jonson's influence. The relation of master and
+servant developed into friendship, and our knowledge of Brome's personal
+character is chiefly drawn from Ben Jonson's lines to him, prefixed to _The
+Northern Lasse_ (1632), the play which made Brome's reputation. Brome's
+genius lay entirely in comedy. He has left fifteen pieces. _Five New
+Playes_ (ed. by Alex. Brome, 1652?) contained _Madd Couple Well Matcht_
+(acted 1639?); [v.04 p.0632] _Novella_ (acted 1632); _Court Begger_ (acted
+1632); _City Witt; The Damoiselle or the New Ordinary. Five New Playes_
+(1659) included _The English Moor, or The Mock Marriage; The Love-Sick
+Court, or The Ambitious Politique; Covent Garden Weeded; The New Academy,
+or The New Exchange_; and _The Queen and Concubine_. _The Antipodes_ (acted
+1638, pr. 1640); _The Sparagus Garden_ (acted 1635, pr. 1640); _A Joviall
+Crew, or the Merry Beggars_ (acted 1641, pr. 1652, revised in 1731 as an
+"opera"), and _The Queenes Exchange_ (pr. 1657), were published separately.
+He collaborated with Thomas Heywood in _The late Lancashire Witches_ (pr.
+1634).
+
+See A.W. Ward, _History of English Dramatic Literature_, vol. iii. pp.
+125-131 (1899). _The Dramatic Works of Richard Brome ..._ were published in
+1873.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Fruit of the pine-apple (_Ananas sativa_),
+consisting of numerous flowers and bracts united together so as to form a
+collective or anthocarpous fruit. The crown of the pine-apple, c, consists
+of a series of empty bracts prolonged beyond the fruit.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--_Tillandsia usneoides_, Spanish moss, slightly
+reduced. 1, Small branch with flower; 2, flower cut vertically; 3, section
+of seed of _Bromelia_.
+
+(From _The Botanical Magazine_, by permission of Lovell, Reeve & Co)]
+
+BROMELIACEAE, in botany, a natural order of Monocotyledons, confined to
+tropical and sub-tropical America. It includes the pine-apple (fig. 1) and
+the so-called Spanish moss (fig. 2), a rootless plant, which hangs in long
+grey lichen-like festoons from the branches of trees, a native of Mexico
+and the southern United States; the water required for food is absorbed
+from the moisture in the air by peculiar hairs which cover the surface of
+the shoots. The plants are generally herbs with a much shortened stem
+bearing a rosette of leaves and a spike or panicle of flowers. They are
+eminently dry-country plants (xerophytes); the narrow leaves are protected
+from loss of water by a thick cuticle, and have a well-developed sheath
+which embraces the stem and forms, with the sheaths of the other leaves of
+the rosette, a basin in which water collects, with fragments of rotting
+leaves and the like. Peculiar hairs are developed on the inner surface of
+the sheath by which the water and dissolved substances are absorbed, thus
+helping to feed the plant. The leaf-margins are often spiny, and the
+leaf-spines of _Puya chilensis_ are used by the natives as fish-hooks.
+Several species are grown as hot-house plants for the bright colour of
+their flowers or flower-bracts, e.g. species of _Tillandsia_, _Billbergia_,
+_Aechmea_ and others.
+
+BROMINE (symbol Br, atomic weight 79.96), a chemical element of the halogen
+group, which takes its name from its pungent unpleasant smell ([Greek:
+brômos], a stench). It was first isolated by A.J. Balard in 1826 from the
+salts in the waters of the Mediterranean. He established its elementary
+character, and his researches were amplified by K.J. Löwig (1803-1890) in
+_Das Brom und seine chemischen Verhaltnisse_ (1829). Bromine does not occur
+in nature in the uncombined condition, but in combination with various
+metals is very widely but sparingly distributed. Potassium, sodium and
+magnesium bromides are found in mineral waters, in river and sea-water, and
+occasionally in marine plants and animals. Its chief commercial sources are
+the salt deposits at Stassfurt in Prussian Saxony, in which magnesium
+bromide is found associated with various chlorides, and the brines of
+Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania and West Virginia, U.S.A.; small quantities
+are obtained from the mother liquors of Chile saltpetre and kelp. In
+combination with silver it is found as the mineral bromargyrite (bromite).
+
+_Manufacture._--The chief centres of the bromine industry are Stassfurt and
+the central district of Michigan. It is manufactured from the magnesium
+bromide contained in "bittern" (the mother liquor of the salt industry), by
+two processes, the continuous and the periodic. The continuous process
+depends upon the decomposition of the bromide by chlorine, which is
+generated in special stills. A regular current of chlorine mixed with steam
+is led in at the bottom of a tall tower filled with broken bricks, and
+there meets a descending stream of hot bittern: bromine is liberated and is
+swept out of the tower together with some chlorine, by the current of
+steam, and then condensed in a worm. Any uncondensed bromine vapour is
+absorbed by moist iron borings, and the resulting iron bromide is used for
+the manufacture of potassium bromide. The periodic process depends on the
+interaction between manganese dioxide (pyrolusite), sulphuric acid, and a
+bromide, and the operation is carried out in sandstone stills heated to 60°
+C., the product being condensed as in the continuous process. The
+substitution of potassium chlorate for pyrolusite is recommended when
+calcium chloride is present in the bittern. The crude bromine is purified
+by repeated shaking with potassium, sodium or ferrous bromide and
+subsequent redistillation. Commercial bromine is rarely pure, the chief
+impurities present in it being chlorine, hydrobromic acid, and bromoform
+(M. Hermann, _Annalen_, 1855, 95, p. 211). E. Gessner (_Berichte_, 1876, 9,
+p. 1507) removes chlorine by repeated shaking with water, followed by
+distillation over sulphuric acid; hydrobromic acid is removed by
+distillation with pure manganese dioxide, or mercuric oxide, and the
+product dried over sulphuric acid. J.S. Stas, in his stoichiometric
+researches, prepared chemically pure bromine from potassium bromide, by
+converting it into the bromate which was purified by repeated
+crystallization. By heating the bromate it was partially converted into the
+bromide, and the resulting mixture was distilled with sulphuric acid. The
+distillate was further purified by digestion with milk of lime,
+precipitation with water, and further digestion with calcium bromide and
+barium oxide, and was finally redistilled.
+
+_Characters._--Bromine at ordinary temperatures is a mobile liquid of fine
+red colour, which appears almost black in thick layers. It boils at 59° C.
+According to Sir W. Ramsay and S. Young, bromine, when dried over sulphuric
+acid, boils at 57.65° C., and when dried over phosphorus pentoxide, boils
+at 58.85° C. (under a pressure of 755.8 mm.), forming a deep red vapour,
+which exerts an irritating and directly poisonous action on the respiratory
+organs. It solidifies at -21° C. (Quincke) to a dark brown solid. Its
+specific gravity is 3.18828 (0/4°), latent heat of fusion 16.185 calories,
+latent heat of vaporization 45.6 calories, specific heat 0.1071. The
+specific heat of bromine vapour, at constant pressure, is 0.05504 and at
+constant volume is 0.04251 (K. Strecker). Bromine is soluble in water, to
+the extent of 3.226 grammes of bromine per 100 grammes of solution at 15°
+C., the solubility being slightly increased by the presence of potassium
+bromide. The solution is of an orange-red colour, and is quite permanent in
+the dark, but on exposure to light, gradually becomes colourless, owing to
+decomposition into hydrobromic acid and oxygen. By cooling the aqueous
+solution, hyacinth-red octahedra of a crystalline hydrate of composition
+Br·4H_2O or Br_2·8H_2O are obtained (Bakhuis Roozeboom, _Zeits. phys.
+Chem._, 1888, 2. p. 449). Bromine is readily soluble in chloroform, alcohol
+and ether.
+
+Its chemical properties are in general intermediate between those of
+chlorine and iodine; thus it requires the presence of a catalytic agent, or
+a fairly high temperature, to bring about its union with hydrogen. It does
+not combine directly with oxygen, nitrogen or carbon. With the other
+elements it unites to form bromides, often with explosive violence;
+phosphorus detonates in liquid bromine and inflames in the vapour; iron is
+occasionally used to absorb bromine vapour, potassium reacts energetically,
+but sodium requires to be heated to 200° C. The chief use of bromine in
+analytical chemistry is based upon the oxidizing action of bromine water.
+Bromine and bromine water both bleach organic colouring matters. [v.04
+p.0633] The use of bromine in the extraction of gold (_q.v._) was proposed
+by R. Wagner (_Dingler's Journal_, 218, p. 253) and others, but its cost
+has restricted its general application. Bromine is used extensively in
+organic chemistry as a substituting and oxidizing agent and also for the
+preparation of addition compounds. Reactions in which it is used in the
+liquid form, in vapour, in solution, and in the presence of the so-called
+"bromine carriers," have been studied. Sunlight affects the action of
+bromine vapour on organic compounds in various ways, sometimes retarding or
+accelerating the reaction, while in some cases the products are different
+(J. Schramm, _Monatshefte fur Chemie_, 1887, 8, p. 101). Some reactions,
+which are only possible by the aid of nascent bromine, are carried out by
+using solutions of sodium bromide and bromate, with the amount of sulphuric
+acid calculated according to the equation 5NaBr + NaBrO_3 + 6H_2SO_4 =
+6NaHSO_4 + 3H_2O + 6Br. (German Patent, 26642.) The diluents in which
+bromine is employed are usually ether, chloroform, acetic acid,
+hydrochloric acid, carbon bisulphide and water, and, less commonly,
+alcohol, potassium bromide and hydrobromic acid; the excess of bromine
+being removed by heating, by sulphurous acid or by shaking with mercury.
+The choice of solvent is important, for the velocity of the reaction and
+the nature of the product may vary according to the solvent used, thus A.
+Baeyer and F. Blom found that on brominating orthoacetamido-acetophenone in
+presence of water or acetic acid, the bromine goes into the benzene
+nucleus, whilst in chloroform or sulphuric acid or by use of bromine vapour
+it goes into the side chain as well. The action of bromine is sometimes
+accelerated by the use of compounds which behave catalytically, the more
+important of these substances being iodine, iron, ferric chloride, ferric
+bromide, aluminium bromide and phosphorus. For oxidizing purposes bromine
+is generally employed in aqueous and in alkaline solutions, one of its most
+important applications being by Emil Fischer (_Berichte_, 1889, 22, p. 362)
+in his researches on the sugars. The atomic weight of bromine has been
+determined by J.S. Stas and C. Marignac from the analysis of potassium
+bromide, and of silver bromide. G.P. Baxter (_Zeit. anorg. Chem._ 1906, 50,
+p. 389) determined the ratios Ag: AgBr, and AgCl: Ag Br.
+
+_Hydrobromic Acid._--This acid, HBr, the only compound of hydrogen and
+bromine, is in many respects similar to hydrochloric acid, but is rather
+less stable. It may be prepared by passing hydrogen gas and bromine vapour
+through a tube containing a heated platinum spiral. It cannot be prepared
+with any degree of purity by the action of concentrated sulphuric acid on
+bromides, since secondary reactions take place, leading to the liberation
+of free bromine and formation of sulphur dioxide. The usual method employed
+for the preparation of the gas consists in dropping bromine on to a mixture
+of amorphous phosphorus and water, when a violent reaction takes place and
+the gas is rapidly liberated. It can be obtained also, although in a
+somewhat impure condition, by the direct action of bromine on various
+saturated hydrocarbons (e.g. paraffin-wax), while an aqueous solution may
+be obtained by passing sulphuretted hydrogen through bromine water.
+Alexander Scott (_Journal of Chem. Soc._, 1900, 77, p. 648) prepares pure
+hydrobromic acid by covering bromine, which is contained in a large flask,
+with a layer of water, and passing sulphur dioxide into the water above the
+surface of the bromine, until the whole is of a pale yellow colour; the
+resulting solution is then distilled in a slow current of air and finally
+purified by distillation over barium bromide. At ordinary temperatures
+hydrobromic acid is a colourless gas which fumes strongly in moist air, and
+has an acid taste and reaction. It can be condensed to a liquid, which
+boils at -64.9° C. (under a pressure of 738.2 mm.), and, by still further
+cooling, gives colourless crystals which melt at -88.5° C. It is readily
+soluble in water, forming the aqueous acid, which when saturated at 0° C.
+has a specific gravity of 1.78. When boiled, the aqueous acid loses either
+acid or water until a solution of constant boiling point is obtained,
+containing 48% of the acid and boiling at 126° C. under atmospheric
+pressure; should the pressure, however, vary, the strength of the solution
+boiling at a constant temperature varies also. Hydrobromic acid is one of
+the "strong" acids, being ionized to a very large extent even in
+concentrated solution, as shown by the molecular conductivity increasing by
+only a small amount over a wide range of dilution.
+
+_Bromides._--Hydrobromic acid reacts with metallic oxides, hydroxides and
+carbonates to form bromides, which can in many cases be obtained also by
+the direct union of the metals with bromine. As a class, the metallic
+bromides are solids at ordinary temperatures, which fuse readily and
+volatilize on heating. The majority are soluble in water, the chief
+exceptions being silver bromide, mercurous bromide, palladious bromide and
+lead bromide; the last is, however, soluble in hot water. They are
+decomposed by chlorine, with liberation of bromine and formation of
+metallic chlorides; concentrated sulphuric acid also decomposes them, with
+formation of a metallic sulphate and liberation of bromine and sulphur
+dioxide. The non-metallic bromides are usually liquids, which are readily
+decomposed by water. Hydrobromic acid and its salts can be readily detected
+by the addition of chlorine water to their aqueous solutions, when bromine
+is liberated; or by warming with concentrated sulphuric acid and manganese
+dioxide, the same result being obtained. Silver nitrate in the presence of
+nitric acid gives with bromides a pale yellow precipitate of silver
+bromide, AgBr, which is sparingly soluble in ammonia. For their
+quantitative determination they are precipitated in nitric acid solution by
+means of silver nitrate, and the silver bromide well washed, dried and
+weighed.
+
+No oxides of bromine have as yet been isolated, but three oxy-acids are
+known, namely hypobromous acid, HBrO, bromous acid, HBrO_2, and bromic
+acid, HBrO_3. Hypobromous acid is obtained by shaking together bromine
+water and precipitated mercuric oxide, followed by distillation of the
+dilute solution _in vacuo_ at low temperature (about 40° C.). It is a very
+unstable compound, breaking up, on heating, into bromine and oxygen. The
+aqueous solution is light yellow in colour, and possesses strong bleaching
+properties. Bromous acid is formed by adding bromine to a saturated
+solution of silver nitrate (A. H. Richards, _J. Soc Chem. Ind._, 1906, 25,
+p. 4). Bromic acid is obtained by the addition of the calculated amount of
+sulphuric acid (previously diluted with water) to the barium salt; by the
+action of bromine on the silver salt, in the presence of water, 5AgBrO_3 +
+3Br_2 + 3H_2O = 5AgBr + 6HBrO_3, or by passing chlorine through a solution
+of bromine in water. The acid is only known in the form of its aqueous
+solution; this is, however, very unstable, decomposing on being heated to
+100° C. into water, oxygen and bromine. By reducing agents such, for
+example, as sulphuretted hydrogen and sulphur-dioxide, it is rapidly
+converted into hydrobromic acid. Hydrobromic acid decomposes it according
+to the equation HBrO_3 + 5HBr = 3H_2O + 3Br_2. Its salts are known as
+bromates, and are as a general rule difficultly soluble in water, and
+decomposed by heat, with evolution of oxygen.
+
+_Applications._--The salts of bromine are widely used in photography,
+especially bromide of silver. For antiseptic purposes it has been prepared
+as "bromum solidificatum," which consists of kieselguhr or similar
+substance impregnated with about 75% of its weight of bromine. In medicine
+it is largely employed in the form of bromides of potassium, sodium and
+ammonium, as well as in combination with alkaloids and other substances.
+
+_Medicinal Use._--Bromide of potassium is the safest and most generally
+applicable sedative of the nervous system. Whilst very weak, its action is
+perfectly balanced throughout all nervous tissue, so much so that Sir
+Thomas Lauder Brunton has suggested its action to be due to its replacement
+of sodium chloride (common salt) in the fluids of the nervous system. Hence
+bromide of potassium--or bromide of sodium, which is possibly somewhat
+safer still though not quite so certain in its action--is used as a
+hypnotic, as the standard anaphrodisiac, as a sedative in mania and all
+forms of morbid mental excitement, and in hyperaesthesia of all kinds. Its
+most striking success is in epilepsy, for which it is the specific remedy.
+It may be given in doses of from ten to fifty grains or more, and may be
+continued without ill effect for long periods in grave cases of epilepsy
+(_grand mal_). Of the three bromides in common use the potassium salt is
+the most rapid and certain in its action, but may depress the heart in
+morbid states of that organ; in such cases the sodium salt--of which the
+base is inert--may be employed. In whooping-cough, when a sedative is
+required but a stimulant is also indicated, ammonium bromide is often
+invaluable. The conditions in which bromides are most frequently used are
+insomnia, epilepsy, whooping-cough, delirium tremens, asthma, migraine,
+laryngismus stridulus, the symptoms often attendant upon the climacteric in
+women, hysteria, neuralgia, certain nervous disorders of the heart,
+strychnine poisoning, nymphomania and spermatorrhoea. Hydrobromic acid is
+often used to relieve or prevent the headache and singing in the ears that
+may follow the administration of quinine and of salicylic acid or
+salicylates.
+
+BROMLEY, SIR THOMAS (1530-1587), English lord chancellor, was born in
+Staffordshire in 1530. He was educated at Oxford University and called to
+the bar at the Middle Temple. Through family influence as well as the
+patronage of Sir Nicholas Bacon, the lord keeper, he quickly made progress
+in his profession. In 1566 he was appointed recorder of London, and in 1569
+he became solicitor-general. He sat in parliament successively for
+Bridgnorth, Wigan and Guildford. On the death of Sir Nicholas Bacon in 1579
+he was appointed lord chancellor. As an equity judge he showed great and
+profound knowledge, and his judgment in Shelley's case (_q.v._) is a
+landmark in the history of English real property law. He presided over the
+commission which tried Mary, queen of Scots, in 1586, but the strain of the
+trial, coupled with the responsibility which her execution involved upon
+him, proved too much for his strength, and he died on the 12th of April
+1587. He was buried in Westminster Abbey.
+
+See Foss, _Lives of the Judges_; Campbell, _Lives of the Lord Chancellors_.
+
+BROMLEY, a municipal borough in the Sevenoaks parliamentary division of
+Kent, England, 10½ m. S.E. by S. of London by the South Eastern & Chatham
+railway. Pop. (1901) 27,354. It lies on high ground north of the small
+river Ravensbourne, in a well-wooded district, and has become a favourite
+residential locality for those whose business lies in London. The former
+palace of the bishops of Rochester was erected in 1777 in room [v.04
+p.0634] of an older structure. The manor belonged to this see as early as
+the reign of Ethelbert. In the gardens is a chalybeate spring known as St
+Blaize's Well, which was in high repute before the Reformation. The church
+of St Peter and St Paul, mainly Perpendicular, retains a Norman font and
+other remains of an earlier building. Here is the gravestone of the wife of
+Dr Johnson. Bromley College, founded by Bishop Warner in 1666 for "twenty
+poor widows of loyal and orthodox clergymen," has been much enlarged, and
+forty widows are in receipt of support. Sheppard College (1840) is an
+affiliated foundation for unmarried daughters of these widows. In the
+vicinity of Bromley, Bickley is a similar residential township, Hayes
+Common is a favourite place of excursion, and at Holwood Hill near Keston
+are remains of a large encampment known as Caesar's Camp. Bromley was
+incorporated in 1903, and is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18
+councillors. Area, 4703 acres.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+BROMLITE, a member of the aragonite group of minerals. It consists of an
+isomorphous mixture of calcium and barium carbonates in various
+proportions, (Ca, Ba) CO_3, and thus differs chemically from barytocalcite
+(_q.v._) which is a double salt of these carbonates in equal molecular
+proportions. Being isomorphous with aragonite, it crystallizes in the
+orthorhombic system, but simple crystals are not known. The crystals are
+invariably complex twins, and have the form of doubly terminated
+pseudo-hexagonal pyramids, like those of witherite but more acute; the
+faces are horizontally striated and are divided down their centre by a
+twin-suture, as represented in the adjoining figure. The examination in
+polarized light of a transverse section shows that each compound crystal is
+built up of six differently orientated individuals arranged in twelve
+segments. The crystals are translucent and white, sometimes with a shade of
+pink. Sp. gr. 3.706; hardness 4-4½. The mineral has been found at only two
+localities, both of which are in the north of England. At the Fallowfield
+lead mine, near Hexham in Northumberland, it is associated with witherite;
+and at Bromley Hill, near Alston in Cumberland, it occurs in veins with
+galena. The species was named bromlite by T. Thomson in 1837, and alstonite
+by A. Breithaupt in 1841, both of which names, derived from the locality,
+have been in common use.
+
+(L. J. S.)
+
+BROMPTON, a western district of London, England, in the south-east of the
+metropolitan borough of Kensington. Brompton Road, leading south-west from
+Knightsbridge, is continued as Old Brompton Road and Richmond Road, to join
+Lillie Road, at which point are the District and West London railway
+stations of West Brompton. The Oratory of St Philip Neri, commonly called
+Brompton Oratory, close by the Victoria and Albert Museum, the Brompton
+consumption hospital and the West London or Brompton cemetery are included
+in this district, which is mainly occupied by residences of the better
+class. (See KENSINGTON.)
+
+BROMSGROVE, a market town in the Eastern parliamentary division of
+Worcestershire, England, 12 m. N.N.E. of Worcester, with a station 1 m.
+from the town on the Bristol-Birmingham line of the Midland railway. Pop.
+of urban district (1901) 8418. It lies in a pleasant undulating district
+near the foot of the Lickey Hills, to surmount which the railway towards
+Birmingham here ascends for 2 m. one of the steepest gradients in England
+over such a distance. There remain several picturesque half-timbered
+houses, dating from 1572 and later. The church of St John is a fine
+building, Perpendicular and earlier in date, picturesquely placed on an
+elevation above the town, with a lofty tower and spire. There are a
+well-known grammar-school, founded by Edward VI., with university
+scholarships; a college school, a literary institute, and a school of art.
+Birmingham Sanatorium stands in the parish. Cloth was formerly a staple of
+trade, but manufactures of nails and buttons are now pre-eminent, while the
+river Salwarpe works a number of mills in the neighbourhood, and near the
+town are carriage works belonging to the Midland railway.
+
+BRONCHIECTASIS (Gr. [Greek: bronchia], bronchial tubes, and [Greek:
+ektasis], extension), dilatation of the bronchi, a condition occurring in
+connexion with many diseases of the lungs. Bronchitis both acute and
+chronic, chronic pneumonia and phthisis, acute pneumonia and
+broncho-pneumonia, may all leave after them a bronchiectasis whose position
+is determined by the primary lesion. Other causes, acting mechanically, are
+tracheal and bronchial obstruction, as from the pressure of an aneurism,
+new growth, &c. It used to be considered a disease of middle age, but of
+late years Dr Walter Carr has shown that the condition is a fairly common
+one among debilitated children after measles, whooping cough, &c. The
+dilatation is commonly cylindrical, more rarely saccular, and it is the
+medium and smaller sized tubes that are generally affected, except where
+the cause is mechanical. The affection is usually of one lung only.
+Emphysema is a very common accompaniment. Though at first the symptoms
+somewhat resemble those of bronchitis, later they are quite distinctive.
+Cough is very markedly paroxysmal in character, and though severe is
+intermittent, the patient being entirely free for many hours at the time.
+The effect of posture is very marked. If the patient lie on the affected
+side, he may be free from cough the whole night, but if he turn to the
+sound side, or if he rises and bends forward, he brings up large quantities
+of bronchial secretion. The expectoration is characterized by its abundance
+and manner of expulsion. Where the dilatation is of the saccular variety,
+it may come up in such quantities and with so much suddenness as to gush
+from the mouth. It is very commonly foetid, as it is retained and
+decomposed _in situ_. Dyspnoea and haemoptysis occasionally occur, but are
+by no means the rule. If pyrexia is present, it is a serious symptom, as it
+is a sign of septic absorption in the bronchi, and may be the forerunner of
+gangrene. If gangrene does set in, it will be accompanied by severe attacks
+of shivering and sweating. Where the disease has lasted long, clubbing of
+fingers and toes is very common. The diagnosis from putrid bronchitis is
+usually fairly easily made, but at times it may be a matter of extreme
+difficulty to distinguish between this condition and a tuberculous cavity
+in the lung. Nothing can be done directly to cure this disease, but the
+patient's condition can be greatly alleviated. Creosote vapour baths are
+eminently satisfactory. A mechanical treatment much recommended by some of
+the German physicians is that of forced expiration.
+
+BRONCHITIS, the name given to inflammation of the mucous membrane of the
+bronchial tubes (see RESPIRATORY SYSTEM: _Pathology_). Two main varieties
+are described, specific and non-specific bronchitis. The bronchitis which
+occurs in infectious or specific disorders, as diphtheria, influenza,
+measles, pneumonia, &c., due to the micro-organisms observed in these
+diseases, is known as specific; whereas that which results from extension
+from above, or from chemical or mechanical irritation, is known as
+non-specific. It is convenient to describe it, however, under the chemical
+divisions of _acute_ and _chronic_ bronchitis.
+
+_Acute bronchitis_, like other inflammatory affections of the chest,
+generally arises as the result of exposure to cold, particularly if
+accompanied with damp, or of sudden change from a heated to a cool
+atmosphere. The symptoms vary according to the severity of the attack, and
+more especially according to the extent to which the inflammatory action
+spreads in the bronchial tubes. The disease usually manifests itself at
+first in the form of a catarrh, or common cold; but the accompanying
+feverishness and general constitutional disturbance proclaim the attack to
+be something more severe, and symptoms denoting the onset of bronchitis
+soon present themselves. A short, painful, dry cough, accompanied with
+rapid and wheezing respiration, a feeling of rawness and pain in the throat
+and behind the breast bone, and of oppression or tightness throughout the
+chest, mark the early stages of the disease. In some cases, from the first,
+symptoms of the form of asthma (_q.v._) known as the _bronchitic_ are
+superadded, and greatly aggravate the patient's suffering.
+
+[v.04 p.0635] After a few days expectoration begins to come with the cough,
+at first scanty and viscid or frothy, but soon becoming copious and of
+purulent character. In general, after free expectoration has been
+established the more urgent and painful symptoms abate; and while the cough
+may persist for a length of time, often extending to three or four weeks,
+in the majority of instances convalescence advances, and the patient is
+ultimately restored to health, although there is not unfrequently left a
+tendency to a recurrence of the disease on exposure to its exciting causes.
+
+When the ear or the stethoscope is applied to the chest of a person
+suffering from such an attack as that now described, there are heard in the
+earlier stages snoring or cooing sounds, mixed up with others of wheezing
+or fine whistling quality, accompanying respiration. These are denominated
+dry sounds, and they are occasionally so abundant and distinct, as to
+convey their vibrations to the hand applied to the chest, as well as to be
+audible to a bystander at some distance. As the disease progresses these
+sounds become to a large extent replaced by others of crackling or bubbling
+character, which are termed moist sounds or râles. Both these kinds of
+abnormal sounds are readily explained by a reference to the pathological
+condition of the parts. One of the first effects of inflammation upon the
+bronchial mucous membrane is to cause some degree of swelling, which,
+together with the presence of a tough secretion closely adhering to it,
+tends to diminish the calibre of the tubes. The respired air as it passes
+over this surface gives rise to the dry or sonorous breath sounds, the
+coarser being generated in the large, and the finer or wheezing sounds in
+the small divisions of the bronchi. Before long, however, the discharge
+from the bronchial mucous membrane becomes more abundant and less
+glutinous, and accumulates in the tubes till dislodged by coughing. The
+respired air, as it passes through this fluid, causes the moist râles above
+described. In most instances both moist and dry sounds are heard abundantly
+in the same case, since different portions of the bronchial tubes are
+affected at different times in the course of the disease.
+
+Such are briefly the main characteristics presented by an ordinary attack
+of acute bronchitis running a favourable course. The case is, however, very
+different when the inflammation spreads into, or when it primarily affects,
+the minute ramifications of the bronchial tubes which are in immediate
+relation to the air-cells of the lungs, giving rise to that form of the
+disease known as _capillary bronchitis_ or _broncho-pneumonia_ (see
+RESPIRATORY SYSTEM: _Pathology_; and PNEUMONIA). When this takes place all
+the symptoms already detailed become greatly intensified, and the patient's
+life is placed in imminent peril in consequence of the interruption to the
+entrance of air into the lungs, and thus to the due aeration of the blood.
+The feverishness and restlessness increase, the cough becomes incessant,
+the respiration extremely rapid and laboured, the nostrils dilating with
+each effort, and evidence of impending suffocation appears. The surface of
+the body is pale or dusky, the lips are livid, while breathing becomes
+increasingly difficult, and is attended with suffocative paroxysms which
+render the recumbent posture impossible. Unless speedy relief is obtained
+by successful efforts to clear the chest by coughing and expectoration, the
+patient's strength gives way, somnolence and delirium set in and death
+ensues. All this may be brought about in the space of a few days, and such
+cases, particularly among the very young, sometimes prove fatal within
+forty-eight hours.
+
+Acute bronchitis must at all times be looked upon as a severe and even
+serious ailment, but there are certain circumstances under which its
+occurrence is a matter of special anxiety to the physician. It is
+pre-eminently dangerous at the extremes of life, and mortality statistics
+show it to be one of the most fatal of the diseases of those periods. This
+is to be explained not only by the well-recognized fact that all acute
+diseases tell with great severity on the feeble frames alike of infants and
+aged people, but more particularly by the tendency which bronchitis
+undoubtedly has in attacking them to assume the capillary form, and when it
+does so to prove quickly fatal. The importance, therefore, of early
+attention to the slightest evidence of bronchitis among the very young or
+the aged can scarcely be overrated.
+
+Bronchitis is also apt to be very severe when it occurs in persons who are
+addicted to intemperance. Again, in those who suffer from any disease
+affecting directly or indirectly the respiratory functions, such as
+consumption or heart disease, the supervention of an attack of acute
+bronchitis is an alarming complication, increasing, as it necessarily does,
+the embarrassment of breathing. The same remark is applicable to those
+numerous instances of its occurrence in children who are or have been
+suffering from such diseases as have always associated with them a certain
+degree of bronchial irritation, such as measles and whooping-cough.
+
+One other source of danger of a special character in bronchitis remains to
+be mentioned, viz. collapse of the lung. Occasionally a branch of a
+bronchial tube becomes plugged up with secretion, so that the area of the
+lung to which this branch conducts ceases to be inflated on inspiration.
+The small quantity of air imprisoned in the portion of lung gradually
+escapes, but no fresh air enters, and the part collapses and becomes of
+solid consistence. Increased difficulty of breathing is the result, and
+where a large portion of lung is affected by the plugging up of a large
+bronchus, a fatal result may rapidly follow, the danger being specially
+great in the case of children. Fortunately, the obstruction may sometimes
+be removed by vigorous coughing, and relief is then obtained.
+
+With respect to the treatment of acute bronchitis, in those mild cases
+which are more of the nature of a simple catarrh, little else will be found
+necessary than confinement in a warm room, or in bed, for a few days, and
+the use of light diet, together with warm diluent drinks. Additional
+measures are however called for when the disease is more markedly
+developed. Medicines to allay fever and promote perspiration are highly
+serviceable in the earlier stages. Later, with the view of soothing the
+pain of the cough, and favouring expectoration, mixtures of tolu, with the
+addition of some opiate, such as the ordinary paregorics, may be
+advantageously employed. The use of opium, however, in any form should not
+be resorted to in the case of young children without medical advice, since
+its action on them is much more potent and less under control than it is in
+adults. Not a few of the so-called "soothing mixtures" have been found to
+contain opium in quantity sufficient to prove dangerous when administered
+to children, and caution is necessary in using them.
+
+From the outset of the attack the employment of fomentations, or especially
+a turpentine stupe, gives great relief, and occasionally in the
+non-specific form this treatment, combined with a good dose of calomel and
+salts, may render the attack abortive. Some relief is always obtained by
+inhalations, and theoretically, an acute specific bronchitis should be
+successfully treated by inhalation of antiseptic and soothing remedies. In
+practice, however, it is found that the strength cannot be sufficiently
+strong to destroy the bacteria in the bronchial tubes. However, much relief
+is obtained from the use of steam atomizers filled with an aqueous solution
+of compound tincture of benzoin, creosote or guaiacol. A still more
+practicable means of introducing volatile antiseptic oils is the globe
+nebulizer, which throws oleaginous solutions in the form of a fine fog,
+that can be deeply inhaled. Menthol, eucalyptol and white pine extract are
+some of the remedies that may be tried dissolved in benzoinol, to which
+cocaine or opium may be added if the cough is troublesome.
+
+When the bronchitis is of the capillary form, the great object is to
+maintain the patient's strength, and to endeavour to secure the expulsion
+of the morbid secretion from the fine bronchi. In addition to the remedies
+already alluded to, stimulants are called for from the first; and should
+the cough be ineffectual in relieving the bronchial tubes, the
+administration of an emetic dose of sulphate of zinc may produce a good
+effect.
+
+During the whole course of any attack of bronchitis attention must be paid
+to the due nourishment of the patient; and during the subsequent
+convalescence, which, particularly in elderly persons, is apt to be slow,
+tonics and stimulants may have to be prescribed.
+
+[v.04 p.0636] _Chronic bronchitis_ may arise as the result of repeated
+attacks of the acute form, or it may exist altogether independently. It
+occurs more frequently among persons advanced in life than among the young,
+although no age is exempt from it. The usual history of this form of
+bronchitis is that of a cough recurring during the colder seasons of the
+year, and in its earlier stages, departing entirely in summer, so that it
+is frequently called "winter cough." In many persons subject to it,
+however, attacks are apt to be excited at any time by very slight causes,
+such as changes in the weather; and in advanced cases of the disease the
+cough is seldom altogether absent. The symptoms and auscultatory signs of
+chronic bronchitis are on the whole similar to those pertaining to the
+acute form, except that the febrile disturbance and pain are much less
+marked. The cough is usually more troublesome in the morning than during
+the day. There is usually free and copious expectoration, and occasionally
+this is so abundant as to constitute what is termed _bronchorrhoea_.
+
+Chronic bronchitis leads to alterations of structure in the affected
+bronchial tubes, their mucous membrane becoming thickened or even
+ulcerated, while occasionally permanent dilatation of the bronchi takes
+place, often accompanied with profuse foetid expectoration. In
+long-standing cases of chronic bronchitis the nutrition of the lungs
+becomes impaired, and dilatation of the air-tubes (_emphysema_) and other
+complications result, giving rise to more or less constant breathlessness.
+
+Chronic bronchitis may arise secondarily to some other ailment. This is
+especially the case in Bright's disease of the kidneys and in heart
+disease, of both of which maladies it often proves a serious complication,
+also in gout and syphilis. The influence of occupation is seen in the
+frequency in which persons following certain employments suffer from
+chronic bronchitis. Hirt has shown that the inhalation of vegetable dust is
+very liable to produce bronchitis through the irritation produced by the
+dust particles and the growth of organisms carried in with the dust.
+Consequently, millers and grain-shovellers are especially liable to it,
+while next in order come weavers and workers in cotton factories.
+
+The treatment to be adopted in chronic bronchitis depends upon the severity
+of the case, the age of the patient and the presence or absence of
+complications. Attention to the general health is a matter of prime
+importance in all cases of the disease, more particularly among persons
+whose avocations entail exposure, and tonics with cod-liver oil will be
+found highly advantageous. The use of a respirator in very cold or damp
+weather is a valuable means of protection. In those aggravated forms of
+chronic bronchitis, where the slightest exposure to cold air brings on
+fresh attacks, it may become necessary, where circumstances permit, to
+enjoin confinement to a warm room or removal to a more genial climate
+during the winter months.
+
+BRONCHOTOMY (Gr. [Greek: bronchos], wind-pipe, and [Greek: temnein], to
+cut), a medical term used to describe a surgical incision into the throat;
+now largely superseded by the terms laryngotomy, thyrotomy and tracheotomy,
+which indicate more accurately the place of incision.
+
+BRONCO, usually incorrectly spelt BRONCHO (a Spanish word meaning rough,
+rude), an unbroken or untamed horse, especially in the United States, a
+mustang; the word entered America by way of Mexico.
+
+BRÖNDSTED, PETER OLUF (1780-1842), Danish archaeologist and traveller, was
+born at Fruering in Jutland on the 17th of November 1780. After studying at
+the university of Copenhagen he visited Paris in 1806 with his friend Georg
+Koes. After remaining there two years, they went together to Italy. Both
+were zealously attached to the study of antiquities; and congeniality of
+tastes and pursuits induced them, in 1810, to join an expedition to Greece,
+where they excavated the temples of Zeus in Aegina and of Apollo at Bassae
+in Arcadia. After three years of active researches in Greece, Bröndsted
+returned to Copenhagen, where, as a reward for his labours, he was
+appointed professor of Greek in the university. He then began to arrange
+and prepare for publication the vast materials he had collected during his
+travels; but finding that Copenhagen did not afford him the desired
+facilities, he exchanged his professorship for the office of Danish envoy
+at the papal court in 1818, and took up his abode at Rome. In 1820 and 1821
+he visited Sicily and the Ionian Isles to collect additional materials for
+his great work. In 1826 he went to London, chiefly with a view of studying
+the Elgin marbles and other remains of antiquity in the British Museum, and
+became acquainted with the principal archaeologists of England. From
+1828-1832 he resided in Paris, to superintend the publication of his
+_Travels_, and then returned to Copenhagen on being appointed director of
+the museum of antiquities and the collection of coins and medals. In 1842
+he became rector of the university; but a fall from his horse caused his
+death on the 26th of June. His principal work was the _Travels and
+Archaeological Researches in Greece_ (in German and French, 1826-1830), of
+which only two volumes were published, dealing with the island of Ceos and
+the metopes of the Parthenon.
+
+BRONGNIART, ADOLPHE THÉODORE (1801-1876), French botanist, son of the
+geologist Alexandre Brongniart, was born in Paris on the 14th of January
+1801. He soon showed an inclination towards the study of natural science,
+devoting himself at first more particularly to geology, and later to
+botany, thus equipping himself for what was to be the main occupation of
+his life--the investigation of fossil plants. In 1826 he graduated as
+doctor of medicine with a dissertation on the Rhamnaceae; but the career
+which he adopted was botanical, not medical. In 1831 he became assistant to
+R.L. Desfontaines at the Musée d'Histoire Naturelle, and two years later
+succeeded him as professor, a position which he continued to hold until his
+death in Paris on the 18th of February 1876.
+
+Brongniart was an indefatigable investigator and a prolific writer, so that
+he left behind him, as the fruit of his labours, a large number of books
+and memoirs. As early as 1822 he published a paper on the classification
+and distribution of fossil plants (_Mém. Mus. Hist. Nat._ viii.). This was
+followed by several papers chiefly bearing upon the relation between
+extinct and existing forms--a line of research which culminated in the
+publication of the _Histoire des végétaux fossiles_, which has earned for
+him the title of "father of palaeobotany." This great work was heralded by
+a small but most important "Prodrome" (contributed to the _Grand
+Dictionnaire d'Hist. Nat._, 1828, t. lvii.) which brought order into chaos
+by a classification in which the fossil plants were arranged, with
+remarkably correct insight, along with their nearest living allies, and
+which forms the basis of all subsequent progress in this direction. It is
+of especial botanical interest, because, in accordance with Robert Brown's
+discoveries, the Cycadeae and Coniferae were placed in the new group
+_Phanérogames gymnospermes_. In this book attention was also directed to
+the succession of forms in the various geological periods, with the
+important result (stated in modern terms) that in the Palaeozoic period the
+Pteridophyta are found to predominate; in the Mesozoic, the Gymnosperms; in
+the Cainozoic, the Angiosperms, a result subsequently more fully stated in
+his "Tableau des genres de végétaux fossiles" (D'Orbigny, _Dict. Univ.
+d'Hist. Nat._, 1849). But the great _Histoire_ itself was not destined to
+be more than a colossal fragment; the publication of successive parts
+proceeded regularly from 1828 to 1837, when the first volume was completed,
+but after that only three parts of the second volume appeared. Brongniart,
+no doubt, was overwhelmed with the continually increasing magnitude of the
+task that he had undertaken. Apart from his more comprehensive works, his
+most important palaeontological contributions are perhaps his observations
+on the structure of _Sigillaria_ (_Arch. Mus. Hist. Nat._ i., 1839) and his
+researches (almost the last he undertook) on fossil seeds, of which a full
+account was published posthumously in 1880. His activity was by no means
+confined to palaeobotany, but extended into all branches of botany, more
+particularly anatomy and phanerogamic taxonomy. Among his achievements in
+these directions the most notable is the memoir "Sur la génération et le
+développement de l'embryon des Phanérogames" (_Ann. Sci. Nat._ xii., 1827).
+This is remarkable in that it contains the [v.04 p.0637] first account of
+any value of the development of the pollen; as also a description of the
+structure of the pollen-grain, the confirmation of G. B. Amici's (1823)
+discovery of the pollen-tube, the confirmation of R. Brown's views as to
+the structure of the unimpregnated ovule (with the introduction of the term
+"sac embryonnaire"); and in that it shows how nearly Brongniart anticipated
+Amici's subsequent (1846) discovery of the entrance of the pollen-tube into
+the micropyle, fertilizing the female cell which then develops into the
+embryo. Of his anatomical works, those of the greatest value are probably
+the "_Recherches sur la structure et les fonctions des feuilles_" (_Ann.
+Sci. Nat._ xxi., 1830), and the "Nouvelles Recherches sur l'Épiderme"
+(_Ann. Sci. Nat._ i., 1834), in which, among other important observations,
+the discovery of the cuticle is recorded; and, further, the "Recherches sur
+l'organisation des tiges des Cycadées" (_Ann. Sci. Nat._ xvi., 1829),
+giving the results of the first investigation of the anatomy of those
+plants. His systematic work is represented by a large number of papers and
+monographs, many of which relate to the flora of New Caledonia; and by his
+_Énumération des genres de plantes cultivées au Musée d'Histoire Naturelle
+de Paris_ (1843), which is an interesting landmark in the history of
+classification in that it forms the starting-point of the system, modified
+successively by A. Braun, A.W. Eichler and A. Engler, which is now adopted
+in Germany. In addition to his scientific and professorial labours,
+Brongniart held various important official posts in connexion with the
+department of education, and interested himself greatly in agricultural and
+horticultural matters. With J.V. Audouin and J.B.A. Dumas, his future
+brothers-in-law, he established the _Annales des Sciences Naturelles_ in
+1824; he also founded the Société Botanique de France in 1854, and was its
+first president.
+
+For accounts of his life and work see _Bull. de la Soc. Géol. de France_,
+1876, and _La Nature_, 1876; the _Bulletin de la Soc. Bot. de France_ for
+1876, vol. xxiii., contains a list of his works and the orations pronounced
+at his funeral.
+
+(S. H. V.*)
+
+BRONGNIART, ALEXANDRE (1770-1847), French mineralogist and geologist, son
+of the eminent architect who designed the Bourse and other public buildings
+of Paris, was born in that city on the 5th of February 1770. At an early
+age he studied chemistry, under Lavoisier, and after passing through the
+École des Mines he took honours at the École de Médecine; subsequently he
+joined the army of the Pyrenees as _pharmacien_; but having committed some
+slight political offence, he was thrown into prison and detained there for
+some time. Soon after his release he was appointed professor of natural
+history in the Collège des Quatre Nations. In 1800 he was made director of
+the Sèvres porcelain factory, a post which he retained to his death, and in
+which he achieved his greatest work. In his hands Sèvres became the leading
+porcelain factory in Europe, and the researches of an able band of
+assistants enabled him to lay the foundations of ceramic chemistry. In
+addition to his work at Sèvres, quite enough to engross the entire energy
+of any ordinary man, he continued his more purely scientific work. He
+succeeded Haüy as professor of mineralogy in the Museum of Natural History;
+but he did not confine himself to mineralogy, for it is to him that we owe
+the division of Reptiles into the four orders of Saurians, Batrachians,
+Chelonians and Ophidians. Fossil as well as living animals engaged his
+attention, and in his studies of the strata around Paris he was
+instrumental in establishing the Tertiary formations. In 1816 he was
+elected to the Academy; and in the following year he visited the Alps of
+Switzerland and Italy, and afterwards Sweden and Norway. The result of his
+observations was published from time to time in the _Journal des Mines_ and
+other scientific journals. Wide as was the range of his interests his most
+famous work was accomplished at Sèvres, and his most enduring monument is
+his classic _Traité des arts céramiques_ (1844). He died in Paris on the
+7th of October 1847.
+
+His other principal works are :--_Traité élémentaire de minéralogie, avec
+des applications aux arts_(2 vols., Paris, 1807); _Histoire naturelle des
+crustacés fossiles_ (Paris, 1822); _Classification et caractères
+minéralogiques des roches homogènes et hétérogènes_ (Paris, 1827); the
+_Tableau des terrains qui composent l'écorce du globe, ou Essai sur la
+structure de la partie connue de la terre_ (Paris, 1829); and the _Traité
+des arts céramiques_ (1844). Brongniart was also the coadjutor of Cuvier in
+the admirable _Essai sur la géographie minéralogique des environs de Paris_
+(Paris, 1811); originally published in _Ann. Mus. Hist. Nat._ (Paris, xi.
+1808).
+
+BRONN, HEINRICH GEORG (1800-1862), German geologist, was born on the 3rd of
+March 1800 at Ziegelhausen near Heidelberg. Studying at the university at
+Heidelberg he took his doctor's degree in the faculty of medicine in 1821,
+and in the following year was appointed professor of natural history. He
+now devoted himself to palaeontological studies, and to fieldwork in
+various parts of Germany, Italy and France. From its commencement in 1830
+to 1862 he assisted in editing the _Jahrbuch für Mineralogie_, &c.,
+continued as _Neues Jahrbuch._ His principal work, _Lethaea Geognostica_ (2
+vols., Stuttgart, 1834-1838; 3rd ed. with F. Römer, 3 vols., 1851-1856),
+has been regarded as one of the foundations of German stratigraphical
+geology. His _Handbuch einer Geschichte der Natur_, of which the first part
+was issued in 1841, gave a general account of the physical history of the
+earth, while the second part dealt with the life-history, species being
+regarded as direct acts of creation. The third part included his famous
+_Index Palaeontologicus_, and was issued in 3 vols., 1848-1849, with the
+assistance of H. von Meyer and H. R. Göppert. This record of fossils has
+proved of inestimable value to all palaeontologists. An important work on
+recent and fossil zoology, _Die Klassen und Ordnungen des Thier-Reichs_,
+was commenced by Bronn. He wrote the volumes dealing with Amorphozoa,
+Actinozoa, and Malacozoa, published 1859-1862; the work was continued by
+other naturalists. In 1861 Bronn was awarded the Wollaston medal by the
+Geological Society of London. He died at Heidelberg on the 5th of July
+1862.
+
+BRONSART VON SCHELLENDORF, PAUL (1832-1891), Prussian general, was born at
+Danzig in 1832. He entered the Prussian Guards in 1849, and was appointed
+to the general staff in 1861 as a captain; after three years of staff
+service he returned to regimental duty, but was soon reappointed to the
+staff, and lectured at the war academy, becoming major in 1865 and
+lieut.-colonel in 1869. During the war of 1870 he was chief of a section on
+the Great General Staff, and conducted the preliminary negotiations for the
+surrender of the French at Sedan. After the war Bronsart was made a colonel
+and chief of staff of the Guard army corps, becoming major-general in 1876
+and lieut.-general (with a division command) in 1881. Two years later he
+became war minister, and during his tenure of the post (1883-1889) many
+important reforms were carried out in the Prussian army, in particular the
+introduction of the magazine rifle. He was appointed in 1889 to command the
+I. army corps at Königsberg. He died on the 23rd of June 1891 at his estate
+near Braunsberg. Bronsart's military writings include two works of great
+importance--_Ein Rückblick auf die taktischen Ruckblicke_ (2nd ed., Berlin,
+1870), a pamphlet written in reply to Captain May's _Tactical Retrospect of
+1866_; and _Der Dienst des Generalstabes_ (1st ed., Berlin, 1876; 3rd ed.
+revised by General Meckel, 1893; new ed. by the author's son, Major
+Bronsart von Schellendorf, Berlin, 1904), a comprehensive treatise on the
+duties of the general staff. The third edition of this work was soon after
+its publication translated into English and issued officially to the
+British army as _The Duties of the General Staff_. Major Bronsart's new
+edition of 1904 was reissued in English by the General Staff, under the
+same title, in 1905.
+
+BRONTË, CHARLOTTE (1816-1855), EMILY (1818-1848), and ANNE (1820-1849),
+English novelists, were three of the six children of Patrick Brontë, a
+clergyman of the Church of England, who for the last forty-one years of his
+life was perpetual incumbent of the parish of Haworth in the West Riding of
+Yorkshire. Patrick Brontë was born at Emsdale, Co. Down, Ireland, on the
+17th of March 1777. His parents were of the peasant class, their original
+name of Brunty apparently having been changed by their son on his entry at
+St John's College, Cambridge, in 1802. In the intervening years he had been
+successively a weaver and schoolmaster in his native country. From
+Cambridge [v.04 p.0638] he became a curate, first at Wethersfield in Essex,
+in 1806, then for a few months at Wellington, Salop, in 1809. At the end of
+1809 he accepted a curacy at Dewsbury, Yorkshire, following up this by one
+at Hartshead-cum-Clifton in the same county. At Hartshead Patrick Brontë
+married in 1812 Maria Branwell, a Cornishwoman, and there two children were
+born to him, Maria (1813-1825) and Elizabeth (1814-1825). Thence Patrick
+Brontë removed to Thornton, some 3 m. from Bradford, and here his wife gave
+birth to four children, Charlotte, Patrick Branwell (1817-1848), Emily
+Jane, and Anne, three of whom were to attain literary distinction.
+
+In April 1820, three months after the birth of Anne Brontë, her father
+accepted the living of Haworth, a village near Keighley in Yorkshire, which
+will always be associated with the romantic story of the Brontës. In
+September of the following year his wife died. Maria Brontë lives for us in
+her daughter's biography only as the writer of certain letters to her "dear
+saucy Pat," as she calls her lover, and as the author of a recently
+published manuscript, an essay entitled _The Advantages of Poverty in
+Religious Concerns_, full of a sententiousness much affected at the time.
+
+Upon the death of Mrs Brontë her husband invited his sister-in-law,
+Elizabeth Branwell, to leave Penzance and to take up her residence with his
+family at Haworth. Miss Branwell accepted the trust and would seem to have
+watched over her nephew and five nieces with conscientious care. The two
+eldest of those nieces were not long in following their mother. Maria and
+Elizabeth, Charlotte and Emily, were all sent to the Clergy Daughters'
+school at Cowan Bridge in 1824, and Maria and Elizabeth returned home in
+the following year to die. How far the bad food and drastic discipline were
+responsible cannot be accurately demonstrated. Charlotte gibbeted the
+school long years afterwards in _Jane Eyre_, under the thin disguise of
+"Lowood," and the principal, the Rev. William Carus Wilson (1792-1859), has
+been universally accepted as the counterpart of Mr Naomi Brocklehurst in
+the same novel. But congenital disease more probably accounts for the
+tragedy from which happily Charlotte and Emily escaped, both returning in
+1825 to a prolonged home life at Haworth. Here the four surviving children
+amused themselves in intervals of study under their aunt's guidance with
+precocious literary aspirations. The many tiny booklets upon which they
+laboured in the succeeding years have been happily preserved. We find
+stories, verses and essays, all in the minutest handwriting, none giving
+any indication of the genius which in the case of two of the four children
+was to add to the indisputably permanent in literature.
+
+At sixteen years of age--in 1831--Charlotte Brontë became a pupil at the
+school of Miss Margaret Wooler (1792-1885) at Roe Head, Dewsbury. She left
+in the following year to assist in the education of the younger sisters,
+bringing with her much additional proficiency in drawing, French and
+composition; she took with her also the devoted friendship of two out of
+her ten fellow-pupils--Mary Taylor (1817-1893) and Ellen Nussey
+(1817-1897). With Miss Taylor and Miss Nussey she corresponded for the
+remainder of her life, and her letters to the latter make up no small part
+of what has been revealed to us of her life story. Her next three years at
+Haworth were varied by occasional visits to one or other of these friends.
+In 1835 she returned to Miss Wooler's school at Roe Head as a governess,
+her sister Emily accompanying her as a pupil, but remaining only three
+months, and Anne then taking her place. The year following the school was
+removed to Dewsbury. In 1838 Charlotte went back to Haworth and soon
+afterwards received her first offer of marriage--from a clergyman, Henry
+Nussey, the brother of her friend Ellen. This was followed a little later
+by a second offer from a curate named Bryce. She refused both and took a
+situation as nursery governess, first with the Sidgwicks of Stonegappe,
+Yorkshire, and later with the Whites at Rawdon in the same county. A few
+months of this, however, filled her with an ambition to try and secure
+greater independence as the possessor of a school of her own, and she
+planned to acquire more proficiency in "languages" on the continent, as a
+preliminary step. The aunt advanced some money, and accompanied by her
+sister Emily she became in February 1842 a pupil at the Pensionnat Héger,
+Brussels. Here both girls worked hard, and won the goodwill and indeed
+admiration of the principal teacher, M. Héger, whose wife was at the head
+of the establishment. But the two girls were hastily called back to England
+before the year had expired by the announcement of the critical illness of
+their aunt. Miss Branwell died on the 29th of October 1842. She bequeathed
+sufficient money to her nieces to enable them to reconsider their plan of
+life. Instead of a school at Bridlington which had been talked of, they
+could now remain with their father, utilize their aunt's room as a
+classroom, and take pupils. But Charlotte was not yet satisfied with what
+the few months on Belgian soil had done for her, and determined to accept
+M. Héger's offer that she should return to Brussels as a governess. Hence
+the year 1843 was passed by her at the Pensionnat Héger in that capacity,
+and in this period she undoubtedly widened her intellectual sphere by
+reading the many books in French literature that her friend M. Héger lent
+her. But life took on a very sombre shade in the lonely environment in
+which she found herself. She became so depressed that on one occasion she
+took refuge in the confessional precisely as did her heroine Lucy Snowe in
+_Villette_. In 1844 she returned to her father's house at Haworth, and the
+three sisters began immediately to discuss the possibilities of converting
+the vicarage into a school. Prospectuses were issued, but no pupils were
+forthcoming.
+
+Matters were complicated by the fact that the only brother, Patrick
+Branwell, had about this time become a confirmed drunkard. Branwell had
+been the idol of his aunt and of his sisters. Educated under his father's
+care, he had early shown artistic leanings, and the slender resources of
+the family had been strained to provide him with the means of entering at
+the Royal Academy as a pupil. This was in 1835. Branwell, it would seem,
+indulged in a glorious month of extravagance in London and then returned
+home. His art studies were continued for a time at Leeds, but it may be
+assumed that no commissions came to him, and at last he became tutor to the
+son of a Mr Postlethwaite at Barrow-in-Furness. Ten months later he was a
+booking-clerk at Sowerby Bridge station on the Leeds & Manchester railway,
+and later at Luddenden Foot. Then he became tutor in the family of a
+clergyman named Robinson at Thorp Green, where his sister Anne was
+governess. Finally he returned to Haworth to loaf at the village inn, shock
+his sisters by his excesses, and to fritter his life away in painful
+sottishness. He died in September 1848, having achieved nothing reputable,
+and having disappointed all the hopes that had been centred in him. "My
+poor father naturally thought more of his _only_ son than of his
+daughters," is one of Charlotte's dreary comments on the tragedy. In early
+years he had himself written both prose and verse; and a foolish story
+invented long afterwards attributed to him some share in his sisters'
+novels, particularly in Emily Brontë's _Wuthering Heights_. But Charlotte
+distinctly tells us that her brother never knew that his sisters had
+published a line. He was too much under the effects of drink, too besotted
+and muddled in that last year or two of life, to have any share in their
+intellectual enthusiasms.
+
+The literary life had, however, opened bravely for the three girls during
+those years. In 1846 a volume of verse appeared from the shop of Aylott &
+Jones of Paternoster Row; "_Poems_, by Currer, Ellis and Acton Bell," was
+on the title-page. These names disguised the identity of Charlotte, Emily
+and Anne Brontë. The venture cost the sisters about £50 in all, but only
+two copies were sold. There were nineteen poems by Charlotte, twenty-one by
+Emily, and the same number by Anne. A consensus of criticism has accepted
+the fact that Emily's verse alone revealed true poetic genius. This was
+unrecognized then except by her sister Charlotte. It is obvious now to all.
+
+The failure of the poems did not deter the authors from further effort.
+They had each a novel to dispose of. Charlotte Brontë's was called _The
+Master_, which before it was sent off to London was retitled _The
+Professor_. Emily's story was entitled [v.04 p.0639] _Wuthering Heights_,
+and Anne's _Agnes Gray_. All these stories travelled from publisher to
+publisher. At last _The Professor_ reached the firm of Smith, Elder & Co.,
+of Cornhill. The "reader" for that firm, R. Smith Williams (1800-1875), was
+impressed, as were also his employers. Charlotte Brontë received in August
+1847 a letter informing her that whatever the merits of _The
+Professor_--and it was hinted that it lacked "varied interest"--it was too
+short for the three-volume form then counted imperative. The author was
+further told that a longer novel would be gladly considered. She replied in
+the same month with this longer novel, and _Jane Eyre_ appeared in October
+1847, to be wildly acclaimed on every hand, although enthusiasm was to
+receive a counterblast when more than a year later, in December 1848, Miss
+Rigby, afterwards Lady Eastlake (1809-1893), reviewed it in the
+_Quarterly_.
+
+Meanwhile the novels of Emily and Anne had been accepted by T. C. Newby.
+They were published together in three volumes in December 1847, two months
+later than _Jane Eyre_, although the proof sheets had been passed by the
+authors before their sister's novel had been sent to the publishers. The
+dilatoriness of Mr Newby was followed up by considerable energy when he saw
+the possibility of the novels by Ellis and Acton Bell sailing on the wave
+of Currer Bell's popularity, and he would seem very quickly to have
+accepted another manuscript by Anne Brontë, for _The Tenant of Wildfell
+Hall_ was published by Newby in three volumes in June 1848. It was Newby's
+clever efforts to persuade the public that the books he published were by
+the author of _Jane Eyre_ that led Charlotte and Anne to visit London this
+summer and interview Charlotte's publishers in Cornhill with a view to
+establishing their separate identity. Soon after their return home Branwell
+died (the 24th of September 1848), and less than three months later Emily
+died also at Haworth (the 19th December 1848). Then Anne became ill and on
+the 24th of May 1849 Charlotte accompanied her to Scarborough in the hope
+that the sea air would revive her. Anne died there on the 28th of May, and
+was buried in Scarborough churchyard. Thus in exactly eight months
+Charlotte Brontë lost all the three companions of her youth, and returned
+to sustain her father, fast becoming blind, in the now desolate home at
+Haworth.
+
+In the interval between the death of Branwell and of Emily, Charlotte had
+been engaged upon a new novel--_Shirley_. Two-thirds were written, but the
+story was then laid aside while its author was nursing her sister Anne. She
+completed the book after Anne's death, and it was published in October
+1849. The following winter she visited London as the guest of her
+publisher, Mr George Smith, and was introduced to Thackerary, to whom she
+had dedicated _Jane Eyre_. The following year she repeated the visit, sat
+for her portrait to George Richmond, and was considerably lionized by a
+host of admirers. In August 1850 she visited the English lakes as the guest
+of Sir James Kay-Shuttleworth, and met Mrs Gaskell, Miss Martineau, Matthew
+Arnold and other interesting men and women. During this period her
+publishers assiduously lent her books, and her criticisms of them contained
+in many letters to Mr George Smith and Mr Smith Williams make very
+interesting reading. In 1851 she received a third offer of marriage, this
+time from Mr James Taylor, who was in the employment of her publishers. A
+visit to Miss Martineau at Ambleside and also to London to the Great
+Exhibition made up the events of this year. On her way home she visited
+Manchester and spent two days with Mrs Gaskell. During the year 1852 she
+worked hard with a new novel, _Villette_, which was published in January of
+1853. In September of that year she received a visit from Mrs Gaskell at
+Haworth; in May 1854 she returned it, remaining three days at Manchester,
+and planning with her hostess the details of her marriage, for at this time
+she had promised to unite herself with her father's curate, Arthur Bell
+Nicholls (1817-1906), who had long been a pertinacious suitor for her hand
+but had been discouraged by Mr Brontë. The marriage took place in Haworth
+church on the 29th of June 1854, the ceremony being performed by the Rev.
+Sutcliffe Sowden, Miss Wooler and Miss Nussey acting as witnesses. The
+wedded pair spent their honeymoon in Ireland, returning to Haworth, where
+they made their home with Mr Brontë, Mr Nicholls having pledged himself to
+continue in his position as curate to his father-in-law. After less than a
+year of married life, however, Charlotte Nicholls died of an illness
+incidental to childbirth, on the 31st of March 1855. She was buried in
+Haworth church by the side of her mother, Branwell and Emily. The father
+followed in 1861, and then her husband returned to Ireland, where he
+remained some years afterwards, dying in 1906.
+
+The bare recital of the Brontë story can give no idea of its undying
+interest, its exceeding pathos. Their life as told by their biographer Mrs
+Gaskell is as interesting as any novel. Their achievement, however, will
+stand on its own merits. Anne Brontë's two novels, it is true, though
+constantly reprinted, survive principally through the exceeding vitality of
+the Brontë tradition. As a hymn writer she still has a place in most
+religious communities. Emily is great alike as a novelist and as a poet.
+Her "Old Stoic" and "Last Lines" are probably the finest achievement of
+poetry that any woman has given to English literature. Her novel _Wuthering
+Heights_ stands alone as a monument of intensity owing nothing to
+tradition, nothing to the achievement of earlier writers. It was a thing
+apart, passionate, unforgettable, haunting in its grimness, its grey
+melancholy. Among women writers Emily Brontë has a sure and certain place
+for all time. As a poet or maker of verse Charlotte Brontë is
+undistinguished, but there are passages of pure poetry of great
+magnificence in her four novels, and particularly in _Villette_. The novels
+_Jane Eyre_ and _Villette_ will always command attention whatever the
+future of English fiction, by virtue of their intensity, their
+independence, their rough individuality.
+
+The _Life of Charlotte Brontë_, by Mrs Gaskell, was first published in
+1857. Owing to the many controversial questions it aroused, as to the
+identity of Lowood in _Jane Eyre_ with Cowan Bridge school, as to the
+relations of Branwell Brontë with his employer's wife, as to the supposed
+peculiarities of Mr Brontë, and certain other minor points, the third
+edition was considerably changed. The _Life_ has been many times reprinted,
+but may be read in its most satisfactory form in the Haworth edition
+(1902), issued by the original publishers, Smith, Elder & Co. To this
+edition are attached a great number of letters written by Miss Brontë to
+her publisher, George Smith. The first new material supplied to supplement
+Mrs Gaskell's _Life_ was contained in _Charlotte Brontë: a Monograph_, by
+T. Wemyss Reid (1877). This book inspired Mr A.C. Swinburne to issue
+separately a forcible essay on Charlotte and Emily Brontë, under the title
+of _A Note on Charlotte Brontë_ (1877). A further collection of letters
+written by Miss Brontë was contained in _Charlotte Brontë and her Circle_,
+by Clement Shorter (1896), and interesting details can be gathered from the
+_Life of Charlotte Brontë_, by Augustine Birrell (1887), _The Brontës in
+Ireland_, by William Wright, D.D. (1893), _Charlotte Brontë and her
+Sisters_, by Clement Shorter (1906), and the Brontë Society publications,
+edited by Butler Wood (1895-1907). Miss A. Mary F. Robinson (Madame
+Duclaux) wrote a separate biography of Emily Brontë in 1883, and an essay
+in her _Grands Écrivains d'outre-Manche_. _The Brontës: Life and Letters_,
+by Clement Shorter (1907), contains the whole of C. Brontë's letters in
+chronological order.
+
+(C. K. S.)
+
+BRONTE, a town of the province of Catania, Sicily, on the western slopes of
+Mt. Etna, 24 m. N.N.W. of Catania direct, and 34 m. by rail. Pop. (1901)
+20,366. It was founded by the emperor Charles V. The town, with an
+extensive estate which originally belonged to the monastery of Maniacium
+(Maniace), was granted, as a dukedom, to Nelson by Ferdinand IV. of Naples
+in 1799.
+
+BRONX, THE, formerly a district comprising several towns in Westchester
+county, New York, U.S.A., now (since 1898) the northernmost of the five
+boroughs of New York City (_q.v._). Several settlements in the Bronx were
+made by the English and the Dutch between 1640 and 1650.
+
+BRONZE, an alloy formed wholly or chiefly of copper and tin in variable
+proportions. The word has been etymologically connected with the same root
+as appears in "brown," but according to M.P.E. Berthelot (_La Chimie au
+moyen âge_) it is a place-name derived from _aes Brundusianum_ (cf. Pliny,
+_Nat. Hist._ xxxiii. ch. ix. §45, "specula optima apud majores fuerunt
+Brundusiana, stanno et aere mixtis"). A Greek MS. of about the 11th century
+in the library of St Mark's, Venice, contains [v.04 p.0640] the form
+[Greek: brontêsion], and gives the composition of the alloy as 1 lb of
+copper with 2 oz. of tin. The product obtained by adding tin to copper is
+more fusible than copper and thus better suited for casting; it is also
+harder and less malleable. A soft bronze or _gun-metal_ is formed with 16
+parts of copper to 1 of tin, and a harder gun-metal, such as was used for
+bronze ordnance, when the proportion of tin is about doubled. The _steel
+bronze_ of Colonel Franz Uchatius (1811-1881) consisted of copper alloyed
+with 8% of tin, the tenacity and hardness being increased by cold-rolling.
+Bronze containing about 7 parts of copper to 1 of tin is hard, brittle and
+sonorous, and can be tempered to take a fine edge. _Bell-metal_ varies
+considerably in composition, from about 3 to 5 parts of copper to 1 of tin.
+In _speculum metal_ there are 2 to 2½ parts of copper to 1 of tin. Statuary
+bronze may contain from 80 to 90% of copper, the residue being tin, or tin
+with zinc and lead in various proportions. The bronze used for the British
+and French copper coinage consists of 95% copper, 4% tin and 1% zinc. Many
+copper-tin alloys employed for machinery-bearings contain a small
+proportion of zinc, which gives increased hardness. "Anti-friction metals,"
+also used in bearings, are copper-tin alloys in which the amount of copper
+is small and there is antimony in addition. Of this class an example is
+"Babbitt's metal," invented by Isaac Babbitt (1799-1862); it originally
+consisted of 24 parts of tin, 8 parts of antimony and 4 parts of copper,
+but in later compositions for the same purpose the proportion of tin is
+often considerably higher. Bronze is improved in quality and strength when
+fluxed with phosphorus. Alloys prepared in this way, and known as _phosphor
+bronze_, may contain only about 1% of phosphorus in the ingot, reduced to a
+mere trace after casting, but their value is nevertheless enhanced for
+purposes in which a hard strong metal is required, as for pump plungers,
+valves, the bushes of bearings, &c. Bronze again is improved by the
+presence of manganese in small quantity, and various grades of _manganese
+bronze_, in some of which there is little or no tin but a considerable
+percentage of zinc, are extensively used in mechanical engineering. Alloys
+of copper with aluminium, though often nearly or completely destitute of
+tin, are known as _aluminium bronze_, and are valuable for their strength
+and the resistance they offer to corrosion. By the addition of a small
+quantity of silicon the tensile strength of copper is much increased; a
+sample of such _silicon bronze_, used for telegraph wires, on analysis was
+found to consist of 99.94% of copper, 0.03% of tin, and traces of iron and
+silicon.
+
+The bronze (Gr. [Greek: chalkos], Lat. _aes_) of classical antiquity
+consisted chiefly of copper, alloyed with one or more of the metals, zinc,
+tin, lead and silver, in proportions that varied as times changed, or
+according to the purposes for which the alloy was required. Among bronze
+remains the copper is found to vary from 67 to 95%. From the analysis of
+coins it appears that for their bronze coins the Greeks adhered to an alloy
+of copper and tin till 400 B.C., after which time they used also lead with
+increasing frequency. Silver is rare in their bronze coins. The Romans also
+used lead as an alloy in their bronze coins, but gradually reduced the
+quantity, and under Caligula, Nero, Vespasian and Domitian, coined pure
+copper coins; afterwards they reverted to the mixture of lead. So far the
+words [Greek: chalkos] and _aes_ may be translated as bronze. Originally,
+no doubt, [Greek: chalkos] was the name for pure copper. It is so employed
+by Homer, who calls it [Greek: eruthros] (red), [Greek: aithups]
+(glittering), [Greek: phaennos] (shining), terms which apply only to
+copper. But instead of its following from this that the process of alloying
+copper with other metals was not practised in the time of the poet, or was
+unknown to him, the contrary would seem to be the case from the passage
+(_Iliad_ xviii. 474) where he describes Hephaestus as throwing into his
+furnace copper, tin, silver and gold to make the shield of Achilles, so
+that it is not always possible to know whether when he uses the word
+[Greek: chalkos] he means copper pure or alloyed. Still more difficult is
+it to make this distinction when we read of the mythical Dactyls of Ida in
+Crete or the Telchines or Cyclopes being acquainted with the smelting of
+[Greek: chalkos]. It is not, however, likely that later Greek writers, who
+knew bronze in its true sense, and called it [Greek: chalkos], would have
+employed this word without qualification for objects which they had seen
+unless they had meant it to be taken as bronze. When Pausanias (iii. 17. 6)
+speaks of a statue, one of the oldest figures he had seen of this material,
+made of separate pieces fastened together with nails, we understand him to
+mean literally bronze, the more readily since there exist very early
+figures and utensils of bronze so made.
+
+For the use of bronze in art, see METAL-WORK.
+
+BRONZE AGE, the name given by archaeologists to that stage in human
+culture, intermediate between the Stone and Iron Ages, when weapons,
+utensils and implements were, as a general rule, made of bronze. The term
+has no absolute chronological value, but marks a period of civilization
+through which it is believed that most races passed at one time or another.
+The "finds" of stone and bronze, of bronze and iron, and even of stone and
+iron implements together in tumuli and sepulchral mounds, suggest that in
+many countries the three stages in man's progress overlapped. From the
+similarity of types of weapons and implements of the period found
+throughout Europe a relatively synchronous commencement has been inferred
+for the Bronze Age in Europe, fixed by most authorities at between 2000
+B.C. to 1800 B.C. But it must have been earlier in some countries, and is
+certainly known to have been later in others; while the Mexicans and
+Peruvians were still in their bronze age in recent times. Not a few
+archaeologists have denied that there ever was a distinct Bronze Age. They
+have found their chief argument in the fact that weapons of these ages have
+been found side by side in prehistoric burial-places. But when it is
+admitted that the ages must have overlapped, it is fairly easy to undertand
+the mixed "finds." The beginning, the prevalence and duration of the Bronze
+Age in each country would have been ordered by the accessibility of the
+metals which form the alloy. Thus in some lands bronze may have continued
+to be a substance of extreme value until the Iron Age was reached, and in
+tumuli in which more than one body was interred, as was frequently the
+case, it would only be with the remains of the richer tenants of the tomb
+that the more valuable objects would be placed. There is, moreover, much
+reason to believe that sepulchral mounds were opened from age to age and
+fresh interments made, and in such a practice would be found a simple
+explanation of the mixing of implements. Another curious fact has been
+seized on by those who argue against the existence of a Bronze Age. Among
+all the "finds" examined in Europe there is a most remarkable absence of
+copper implements. The sources of tin in Europe are practically restricted
+to Cornwall and Saxony. How then are we to explain on the one hand the
+apparent stride made by primitive man when from a Stone Age civilization he
+passed to a comparatively advanced metallurgical skill? On the other, how
+account for a comparatively synchronous commencement of bronze civilization
+when one at least of the metals needed for the alloy would have been
+naturally difficult of access, if not unknown to many races? The answer is
+that there can be but little doubt that the knowledge of bronze came to the
+races of Europe from outside. Either by the Phoenicians or by the Greeks
+metallurgy was taught to men who no sooner recognized the nature and
+malleable properties of copper than they learnt that by application of heat
+a substance could be manufactured with tin far better suited to their
+purposes. Copper would thus have been but seldom used unalloyed; and the
+relatively synchronous appearance of bronze in Europe, and the scanty
+"finds" of copper implements, are explained. We may conclude then that
+there was a Bronze Age in most countries; that it was the direct result of
+increasing intercommunication of races and the spread of commerce; and that
+the discovery of metals was due to information brought to Stone-Age man in
+Europe by races which were already skilful metallurgists.
+
+The Bronze Age in Europe is characterized by weapons, utensils and
+implements, distinct in design and size from those in use in the preceding
+or succeeding stage of man's civilization. Moreover--and this has been
+employed as an argument in favour of the foreign origin of the knowledge of
+bronze--all the [v.04 p.0641] objects in one part of Europe are identical
+in pattern and size with those found in another part. The implements of the
+Bronze Age include swords, awls, knives, gouges, hammers, daggers and
+arrow-heads. A remarkable confirmation of the theory that the Bronze Age
+culture came from the East is to be found in the patterns of the arms,
+which are distinctly oriental; while the handles of swords and daggers are
+so narrow and short as to make it unlikely that they would be made for use
+by the large-handed races of Europe. The Bronze Age is also characterized
+by the fact that cremation was the mode of disposal of the dead, whereas in
+the Stone Age burial was the rule. Barrows and sepulchral mounds strictly
+of the Bronze Age are smaller and less imposing than those of the Stone
+Age. Besides varied and beautiful weapons, frequently exhibiting high
+workmanship, amulets, coronets, diadems of solid gold, and vases of elegant
+form and ornamentation in gold and bronze are found in the barrows. These
+latter appear to have been used as tribal or family cemeteries. In Denmark
+as many as seventy deposits of burnt bones have been found in a single
+mound, indicating its use through a long succession of years. The
+ornamentation of the period is as a rule confined to spirals, bosses and
+concentric circles. What is remarkable is that the swords not only show the
+design of the cross in the shape of the handle, but also in tracery what is
+believed to be an imitation of the Svastika, that ancient Aryan symbol
+which was probably the first to be made with a definite intention and a
+consecutive meaning. The pottery is all "hand-made," and the bulk of the
+objects excavated are cinerary urns, usually found full of burnt bones.
+These vary from 12 to 18 in. in height. Their decoration is confined to a
+band round the upper part of the pot, or often only a projecting flange
+lapped round the whole rim. A few have small handles, formed of pierced
+knobs of clay and sometimes projecting rolls of clay, looped, as it were,
+all round the urn. The ornamentation consists of dots, zigzags, chevrons or
+crosses. The lines were frequently made by pressing a twisted thong of skin
+against the moist clay; the patterns in all cases being stamped into the
+pot before it was hardened by fire.
+
+See ARCHAEOLOGY, &c. Also Lord Avebury, _Prehistoric Times_ (1900); Sir J.
+Evans, _Ancient Bronze Implements of Great Britain_ (1881); Chartre's _Age
+du bronze en France_.
+
+BRONZING, a process by which a bronze-like surface is imparted to objects
+of metal, plaster, wood, &c. On metals a green bronze colour is sometimes
+produced by the action of such substances as vinegar, dilute nitric acid
+and sal-ammoniac. An antique appearance may be given to new bronze articles
+by brushing over the clean bright metal with a solution of sal-ammoniac and
+salt of sorrel in vinegar, and rubbing the surface dry, the operation being
+repeated as often as necessary. Another solution for the same purpose is
+made with sal-ammoniac, cream of tartar, common salt and silver nitrate.
+With a solution of platinic chloride almost any colour can be produced on
+copper, iron, brass or new bronze, according to the dilution and the number
+of applications. Articles of plaster and wood may be bronzed by coating
+them with size and then covering them with a bronze powder, such as Dutch
+metal, beaten into fine leaves and powdered. The bronzing of gun-barrels
+may be effected by the use of a strong solution of antimony trichloride.
+
+BRONZINO, IL, the name given to ANGELO ALLORI (1502-1572), the Florentine
+painter. He became the favourite pupil of J. da Pontormo. He painted the
+portraits of some of the most famous men of his day, such as Dante,
+Petrarch and Boccaccio. Most of his best works are in Florence, but
+examples are in the National Gallery, London, and elsewhere.
+
+BRONZITE, a member of the pyroxene group of minerals, belonging with
+enstatite and hypersthene to the orthorhombic series of the group. Rather
+than a distinct species, it is really a ferriferous variety of enstatite,
+which owing to partial alteration has acquired a bronze-like sub-metallic
+lustre on the cleavage surfaces. Enstatite is magnesium metasilicate,
+MgSiO_3, with the magnesia partly replaced by small amounts (up to about
+5%) of ferrous oxide; in the bronzite variety, (Mg,Fe)SiO_3, the ferrous
+oxide ranges from about 5 to 14%, and with still more iron there is a
+passage to hypersthene. The ferriferous varieties are liable to a
+particular kind of alteration, known as "schillerization," which results in
+the separation of the iron as very fine films of oxide and hydroxides along
+the cleavage cracks of the mineral. The cleavage surfaces therefore exhibit
+a metallic sheen or "schiller," which is even more pronounced in
+hypersthene than in bronzite. The colour of bronzite is green or brown; its
+specific gravity is about 3.2-3.3, varying with the amount of iron present.
+Like enstatite, bronzite is a constituent of many basic igneous rocks, such
+as norites, gabbros, and especially peridotites, and of the serpentines
+which have been derived from them. It also occurs in some crystalline
+schists.
+
+Bronzite is sometimes cut and polished, usually in convex forms, for small
+ornamental objects, but its use for this purpose is less extensive than
+that of hypersthene. It often has a more or less distinct fibrous
+structure, and when this is pronounced the sheen has a certain resemblance
+to that of cat's-eye. Masses sufficiently large for cutting are found in
+the norite of the Kupferberg in the Fichtelgebirge, and in the serpentine
+of Kraubat near Leoben in Styria. In this connexion mention may be made of
+an altered form of enstatite or bronzite known as _bastite_ or
+_schiller-spar_. Here, in addition to schillerization, the original
+enstatite has been altered by hydration and the product has approximately
+the composition of serpentine. In colour bastite is brown or green with the
+same metallic sheen as bronzite. The typical locality is Baste in the
+Radauthal, Harz, where patches of pale greyish-green bastite are embedded
+in a darker-coloured serpentine. This rock when cut and polished makes an
+effective decorative stone, although little used for that purpose.
+
+(L. J. S.)
+
+BROOCH, or BROACH (from the Fr. _broche_, originally an awl or bodkin; a
+spit is sometimes called a broach, and hence the phrase "to broach a
+barrel"; see BROKER), a term now used to denote a clasp or fastener for the
+dress, provided with a pin, having a hinge or spring at one end, and a
+catch or loop at the other.
+
+Brooches of the safety-pin type (_fibulae_) were extensively used in
+antiquity, but only within definite limits of time and place. They seem to
+have been unknown to the Egyptians, and to the oriental nations untouched
+by Greek influence. In lands adjacent to Greece, they do not occur in Crete
+or at Hissarlik. The place of origin cannot as yet be exactly determined,
+but it would seem to have been in central Europe, towards the close of the
+Bronze Age, somewhat before 1000 B.C. The earliest form is little more than
+a pin, bent round for security, with the point caught against the head. One
+such actual pin has been found. In its next simplest form, very similar to
+that of the modern safety-pin (in which the coiled spring forces the point
+against the catch), it occurs in the lower city of Mycenae, and in late
+deposits of the Mycenaean Age, such as at Enkomi in Cyprus. It occurs also
+(though rarely) in the "terramare" deposits of the Po valley, in the Swiss
+lake-dwellings of the later Bronze Age, in central Italy, in Hungary and in
+Bosnia. (fig. 1).[1]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Early type from Peschiera.]
+
+From the comparatively simple initial form, the fibula developed in
+different lines of descent, into different shapes, varying according to the
+structural feature which was emphasized. On account of the number of local
+variations, the subject is extremely complex, but the main lines of
+development were approximately as follows.
+
+Towards the end of the Bronze Age the safety-pin was arched into a bow, so
+as to include a greater amount of stuff in its compass.
+
+In the older Iron Age or "Hallstatt period" the bow and its accessories are
+thickened and modified in various directions, so as to give greater
+rigidity, and prominences or surfaces for decoration. The chief types have
+been conveniently classed by [v.04 p.0642] Montelius in four main groups,
+according to the characteristic forms:--
+
+I. The wire of the catch-plate is hammered into a flat disk, on which the
+pin rests (fig. 2)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Type I. with disk for catch-plate.]
+
+II. The bow is thickened towards the middle, so as to assume the "leech"
+shape, or it is hollowed out underneath, into the "boat" form. The
+catch-plate is only slightly turned up, but it becomes elongated, in order
+to mask the end of a long pin (fig. 3).
+
+III. The catch-plate is flattened out as in group I., but additional
+convolutions are added to the bow (fig. 4).
+
+IV. The bow is convoluted (but the convolutions are sometimes represented
+by knobs); the catch-plate develops as in group II. (fig. 5). For further
+examples of the four types, see _Antiquities of Early Iron Age in British
+Museum_, p. 32.
+
+Among the special variations of the early form, mention should be made of
+the fibulae of the geometric age of Greece, with an exaggerated development
+of the vertical portion of the catch-plate (fig. 6).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Type II. with turned-up and elongated catch-plate.
+a, "Leech" fibula; b, "Boat" fibula; c. variation of "Boat" fibula.]
+
+The example shown in fig. 7 is an ornate development of type II. above.
+
+In the later Iron Age (or early La Tène period) the prolongation of the
+catch-plate described in the second and fourth groups above has a terminal
+knob ornament, which is reflexed upwards, at first slightly (fig. 8), and
+then to a marked extent, turning back towards the bow.
+
+A far-reaching change in the design was at the same time brought about by a
+simple improvement in principle, apparently introduced within the area of
+the La Tène culture. Instead of a unilateral spring--that is, of one coiled
+on one side only of the bow as commonly in the modern safety-pin--the
+brooch became bilateral. The spring was coiled on one side of the axis of
+the bow, and thence the wire was taken to the other side of the axis, and
+again coiled in a corresponding manner before starting in a straight line
+to form the pin. Once invented, the bilateral spring became almost
+universal, and its introduction serves to divide the whole mass of ancient
+fibulae into an older and a younger group.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Type III with disk for catch-plate, and convoluted
+bow.]
+
+With the progress of the La Tène period (300-1 B.C.) the reflection of the
+catch-plate terminal became yet more marked, until it became practically
+merged in the bow (fig. 9). Meanwhile, the bilateral spring described above
+was developing into two marked projections on each side of the axis. In
+order to give the double spring strength and protection it was given a
+metal core, and a containing tube. When the core had been provided the pin
+was no longer necessarily a continuation of the bow, and it became in fact
+a separate member, as in a modern brooch of a non-safety-pin type, and was
+no longer actuated by its own spring.
+
+The T-shaped or "cross-bow" fibula was thus developed. During the first
+centuries of the Empire it attained great size and importance (figs.
+10-12). The form is conveniently dated at its highest development by its
+occurrence on the ivory diptych of Stilicho at Monza (c. A.D. 400).
+
+In the tombs of the Frankish and kindred Teutonic tribes between the 5th
+and 9th centuries the crossbar of the T becomes a yet more elaborately
+decorated semicircle, often surrounded by radial knobs and a chased
+surface. The base of the shaft is flattened out, and is no less ornate
+(fig. 13). At the beginning of this period the fibula of King Childeric
+(A.D. 481) has a singularly complicated pin-fastening.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Type IV. with turned-up catch-plate and convoluted
+bow.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Greek geometric fibula.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Gold fibula from Naples.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Early La Tène period. Reflexed terminal ornament.]
+
+So far we have traced the history of the safety-pin form of brooch.
+Concurrently with it, other forms of brooch were developed in which the
+safety-pin principle is either absent or effectually disguised. One such
+form is that of the circular medallion brooch. It is found in Etruscan
+deposits of a fully developed style, and is commonly represented in Greek
+and Roman sculptures as a stud to fasten the cloak on the shoulder. In the
+Roman provinces the circular brooches are very numerous, and are frequently
+decorated with inlaid stone, paste or enamel. Another kind of brooch, also
+known from early times, is in the form of an animal. In the early types the
+animal is a decorative appendage, but in later examples it forms the body
+of the brooch, to which a pin like the modern brooch-pin is attached
+underneath. Both of these shapes, namely the medallion and the animal form,
+are found in Frankish cemeteries, together with the later variations of the
+T-shaped brooch described above. Such brooches were made in gold, silver or
+bronze, adorned with precious stones, filigree work, or enamel; but
+whatever the richness of the material, the pin was nearly always of iron.
+The Scandinavian or northern group of T-shaped brooches are in their early
+forms indistinguishable from those of the Frankish tombs, but as time went
+on they became more massive, and richly decorated with intricate devices
+(perhaps brought in by Irish missionary influence), into which animal forms
+were introduced. The period covered is from the 5th to the 8th centuries.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9, a-d.--Fibula of the La Tène period, showing the
+development of the reflexed terminal, and the bilateral spring.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Military Fibula. 3rd century A.D.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Fibula with niello work. 3rd century A.D.]
+
+The T-form, the medallion-form, and (occasionally) the animal forms occur
+in Anglo-Saxon graves in England. In Kent the medallion-form predominates.
+The Anglo-Saxon brooches [v.04 p.0643] were exquisite works of art,
+ingeniously and tastefully constructed. They are often of gold, with a
+central boss, exquisitely decorated, the flat part of the brooch being a
+mosaic of turquoises, garnets on gold foil, mother of pearl, &c. arranged
+in geometric patterns, and the gold work enriched with filigree or
+decorated with dragonesque engravings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Gold Fibula. 4th century A.D.]
+
+The Scandinavian brooches of the Viking period (A.D. 800-1050) were oval
+and convex, somewhat in the form of a tortoise. In their earliest form they
+occur in the form of a frog-like animal, itself developed from the previous
+Teutonic T-shaped type. With the introduction of the intricate system of
+ornament described above, the frog-like animal is gradually superseded by
+purely decorative lines. The convex bowls are then worked _à jour_ with a
+perforated upper shell of chased work over an under shell of impure bronze,
+gilt on the convex side. These outer cases are at last decorated with open
+crown-like ornament and massive projecting bosses. The geographical
+distribution of these peculiar brooches indicates the extent of the
+conquests of the Northmen. They occur in northern Scotland, England,
+Ireland, Iceland, Normandy and Livonia.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Fibula of the Frankish period.]
+
+The Celtic group is characterized by the penannular form of the ring of the
+brooch and the greater length of the pin. The penannular ring, inserted
+through a hole at the head of the long pin, could be partially turned when
+the pin had been thrust through the material in such a way that the brooch
+became in effect a buckle. These brooches are usually of bronze or silver,
+chased or engraved with intricate designs of interlaced or dragonesque work
+in the style of the illuminated Celtic manuscripts of the 7th, 8th and 9th
+centuries. The Hunterston brooch, which was found at Hawking Craig in
+Ayrshire, is a well-known example of this style. Silver brooches of immense
+size, some having pins 15 in. in length, and the penannular ring of the
+brooch terminating in large knobs resembling thistle heads, are
+occasionally found in Viking hoards of this period, consisting of bullion,
+brooches and Cufic and Anglo-Saxon coins buried on Scottish soil. In
+medieval times the form of the brooch was usually a simple, flat circular
+disk, with open centre, the pin being equal in length to the diameter of
+the brooch. They were often inscribed with religious and talismanic
+_formulae_. The Highland brooches were commonly of this form, but the disk
+was broader, and the central opening smaller in proportion to the size of
+the brooch. They were ornamented in the style so common on Highland
+powder-horns, with engraved patterns of interlacing work and foliage,
+arranged in geometrical spaces, and sometimes mingled with figures of
+animals.
+
+(A. H. SM.)
+
+[1] The illustrations of this article are from Dr Robert Forrer's
+_Reallexikon_, by permission of W. Spemann, Berlin and Stuttgart.
+
+BROOKE, FRANCES (1724-1789), English novelist and dramatist, whose maiden
+name was Moore, was born in 1724. Of her novels, some of which enjoyed
+considerable popularity in their day, the most important were _The History
+of Lady Julia Mandeville_ (1763), _Emily Montague_ (1769) and _The
+Excursion_ (1777). Her dramatic pieces and translations from the French are
+now forgotten. She died in January 1789.
+
+BROOKE, FULKE GREVILLE, 1ST BARON (1554-1628), English poet, only son of
+Sir Fulke Greville, was born at Beauchamp Court, Warwickshire. He was sent
+in 1564, on the same day as his life-long friend, Philip Sidney, to
+Shrewsbury school. He matriculated at Jesus College, Cambridge, in 1568.
+Sir Henry Sidney, president of Wales, gave him in 1576 a post connected
+with the court of the Marches, but he resigned it in 1577 to go to court
+with Philip Sidney. Young Greville became a great favourite with Queen
+Elizabeth, who treated him with less than her usual caprice, but he was
+more than once disgraced for leaving the country against her wishes. Philip
+Sidney, Sir Edward Dyer and Greville were members of the "Areopagus," the
+literary clique which, under the leadership of Gabriel Harvey, supported
+the introduction of classical metres into English verse. Sidney and
+Greville arranged to sail with Sir Francis Drake in 1585 in his expedition
+against the Spanish West Indies, but Elizabeth peremptorily forbade Drake
+to take them with him, and also refused Greville's request to be allowed to
+join Leicester's army in the Netherlands. Philip Sidney, who took part in
+the campaign, was killed on the 17th of October 1586, and Greville shared
+with Dyer the legacy of his books, while in his _Life of the Renowned Sir
+Philip Sidney_ he raised an enduring monument to his friend's memory. About
+1591 Greville served for a short time in Normandy under Henry of Navarre.
+This was his last experience of war. In 1583 he became secretary to the
+principality of Wales, and he represented Warwickshire in parliament in
+1592-1593, 1597, 1601 and 1620. In 1598 he was made treasurer of the navy,
+and he retained the office through the early years of the reign of James I.
+In 1614 he became chancellor and under-treasurer of the exchequer, and
+throughout the reign he was a valued supporter of the king's party,
+although in 1615 he advocated the summoning of a parliament. In 1618 he
+became commissioner of the treasury, and in 1621 he was raised to the
+peerage with the title of Baron Brooke, a title which had belonged to the
+family of his paternal grandmother, Elizabeth Willoughby. He received from
+James I. the grant of Warwick Castle, in the restoration of which he is
+said to have spent £20,000. He died on the 30th of September 1628 in
+consequence of a wound inflicted by a servant who was disappointed at not
+being named in his master's will. Brooke was buried in St Mary's church,
+Warwick, and on his tomb was inscribed the epitaph he had composed for
+himself: "Folk Grevill Servant to Queene Elizabeth Conceller to King James
+Frend to Sir Philip Sidney. Trophaeum Peccati."
+
+A rhyming elegy on Brooke, published in Huth's _Inedited Poetical
+Miscellanies_, brings charges of extreme penuriousness against him, but of
+his generous treatment of contemporary writers there is abundant testimony.
+His only works published during his lifetime were four poems, one of which
+is the elegy on Sidney which appeared in _The Phoenix Nest_ (1593), and the
+_Tragedy of Mustapha_. A volume of his works appeared in 1633, another of
+_Remains_ in 1670, and his biography of Sidney in 1652. He wrote two
+tragedies on the Senecan model, _Alaham_ and _Mustapha_. The scene of
+Alaham is laid in Ormuz. The development of the piece fully bears out the
+gloom of the prologue, in which the ghost of a former king of Ormuz reveals
+the magnitude of the curse about to descend on the doomed family. The theme
+of _Mustapha_ is borrowed from Madeleine de Scudéry's _Ibrahim ou
+l'illustre Bassa_, and turns on the ambition of the sultana Rossa. The
+choruses of these plays are really philosophical dissertations, and the
+connexion with the rest of the drama is often very slight. In _Mustapha_,
+for instance, the third chorus is a dialogue between Time and Eternity,
+while the fifth consists of an invective against the evils of superstition,
+followed by a chorus of priests that does nothing to dispel [v.04 p.0644]
+the impression of scepticism contained in the first part. He tells us
+himself that the tragedies were not intended for the stage. Charles Lamb
+says they should rather be called political treatises. Of Brooke Lamb says,
+"He is nine parts Machiavel and Tacitus, for one of Sophocles and
+Seneca.... Whether we look into his plays or his most passionate
+love-poems, we shall find all frozen and made rigid with intellect." He
+goes on to speak of the obscurity of expression that runs through all
+Brooke's poetry, an obscurity which is, however, due more to the intensity
+and subtlety of the thought than to any lack of mere verbal lucidity.
+
+It is by his biography of Sidney that Fulke Greville is best known. The
+full title expresses the scope of the work. It runs: _The Life of the
+Renowned Sr. Philip Sidney. With the true Interest of England as it then
+stood in relation to all Forrain Princes: And particularly for suppressing
+the power of Spain Stated by Him: His principall Actions, Counsels,
+Designes, and Death. Together with a short account of the Maximes and
+Policies used by Queen Elizabeth in her Government_. He includes some
+autobiographical matter in what amounts to a treatise on government. He had
+intended to write a history of England under the Tudors, but Robert Cecil
+refused him access to the necessary state papers.
+
+Brooke left no sons, and his barony passed to his cousin, Robert Greville
+(c. 1608-1643), who thus became 2nd Lord Brooke. This nobleman was
+imprisoned by Charles I. at York in 1639 for refusing to take the oath to
+fight for the king, and soon became an active member of the parliamentary
+party; taking part in the Civil War he defeated the Royalists in a skirmish
+at Kineton in August 1642. He was soon given a command in the midland
+counties, and having seized Lichfield he was killed there on the 2nd of
+March 1643. Brooke, who is eulogized as a friend of toleration by Milton,
+wrote on philosophical, theological and current political topics. In 1746
+his descendant, Francis Greville, the 8th baron (1710-1773), was created
+earl of Warwick, a title still in his family.
+
+Dr A.B. Grosart edited the complete works of Fulke Greville for the _Fuller
+Worthies Library_ in 1870, and made a small selection, published in the
+_Elizabethan Library_ (1894). Besides the works above mentioned, the
+volumes include _Poems of Monarchy, A Treatise of Religion, A Treatie of
+Humane Learning, An Inquisition upon Fame and Honour, A Treatie of Warres,
+Caelica in CX Sonnets_, a collection of lyrics in various forms, a letter
+to an "Honourable Lady," a letter to Grevill Varney in France, and a short
+speech delivered on behalf of Francis Bacon, some minor poems, and an
+introduction including some of the author's letters. The life of Sidney was
+reprinted by Sir S. Egerton Brydges in 1816; and with an introduction by N.
+Smith in the "Tudor and Stuart Library" in 1907; _Caelica_ was reprinted in
+M.F. Crow's "Elizabethan Sonnet Cycles" in 1898. See also an essay in Mrs.
+C.C. Stopes's _Shakespeare's Warwickshire Contemporaries_ (1907).
+
+BROOKE, HENRY (c. 1703-1783), Irish author, son of William Brooke, rector
+of Killinkere, Co. Cavan, was born at Rantavan in the same county, about
+1703. His mother was a daughter of Simon Digby, bishop of Elphin. Dr Thomas
+Sheridan was one of his schoolmasters, and he was entered at Trinity
+College, Dublin, in 1720; in 1724 he was sent to London to study law. He
+married his cousin and ward, Catherine Meares, before she was fourteen.
+Returning to London he published a philosophical poem in six books entitled
+_Universal Beauty_ (1735). He attached himself to the party of the prince
+of Wales, and took a small house at Twickenham near to Alexander Pope. In
+1738 he translated the first and second books of Tasso's _Gerusalemme
+liberata_, and in the next year he produced a tragedy, _Gustavas Vasa, the
+Deliverer of his Country_. This play had been rehearsed for five weeks at
+Drury Lane, but at the last moment the performance was forbidden. The
+reason of this prohibition was a supposed portrait of Sir Robert Walpole in
+the part of Trollio. In any case the spirit of fervent patriotism which
+pervaded the play was probably disliked by the government. The piece was
+printed and sold largely, being afterwards put on the Irish stage under the
+title of _The Patriot_. This affair provoked a satirical pamphlet from
+Samuel Johnson, entitled "A Complete Vindication of the Licensers of the
+Stage from the malicious and scandalous Aspersions of Mr Brooke" (1739).
+His wife feared that his connexion with the opposition was imprudent, and
+induced him to return to Ireland. He interested himself in Irish history
+and literature, but a projected collection of Irish stories and a history
+of Ireland from the earliest times were abandoned in consequence of
+disputes about the ownership of the materials. During the Jacobite
+rebellion of 1745 Brooke issued his _Farmer's Six Letters to the
+Protestants of Ireland_ (collected 1746) the form of which was suggested by
+Swift's _Drapier's Letters_. For this service he received from the
+government the post of barrack-master at Mullingar, which he held till his
+death. He wrote other pamphlets on the Protestant side, and was secretary
+to an association for promoting projects of national utility. About 1760 he
+entered into negotiations with leading Roman Catholics, and in 1761 he
+wrote a pamphlet advocating alleviation of the penal laws against them. He
+is said to have been the first editor of the _Freeman's Journal_,
+established at Dublin in 1763. Meanwhile he had been obliged to mortgage
+his property in Cavan, and had removed to Co. Kildare. Subsequently a
+bequest from Colonel Robert Brooke enabled him to purchase an estate near
+his old home, and he spent large sums in attempting to reclaim the
+waste-land. His best-known work is the novel entitled _The Fool of Quality;
+or the History of Henry Earl of Moreland_, the first part of which was
+published in 1765; and the fifth and last in 1770. The characters of this
+book, which relates the education of an ideal nobleman by an ideal
+merchant-prince, are gifted with a "passionate and tearful sensibility,"
+and reflect the real humour and tenderness of the writer. Brooke's
+religious and philanthropic temper recommended the book to John Wesley, who
+edited (1780) an abridged edition, and to Charles Kingsley, who published
+it with a eulogistic notice in 1859. Brooke had a large family, but only
+two children survived him. His wife's death seriously affected him, and he
+died at Dublin in a state of mental infirmity on the 10th of October 1783.
+
+His daughter, Charlotte Brooke, published _The Poetical Works of Henry
+Brooke_ in 1792, but was able to supply very little biographical material.
+Other sources for Brooke's biography are C. H. Wilson, _Brookiana_ (2
+vols., 1804), and a biographical preface by E. A. Baker prefixed to a new
+edition (1906) of _The Fool of Quality_. Brooke's other works include
+several tragedies, only some of which were actually staged. He also wrote:
+_Jack the Giant Queller_ (1748), an operatic satire, the repetition of
+which was forbidden on account of its political allusions; "Constantia, or
+the Man of Lawe's Tale" (1741), contributed to George Ogle's _Canterbury
+Tales modernized; Juliet Grenville; or the History of the Human Heart_
+(1773), a novel; and some fables contributed to Edward Moore's _Fables for
+the Female Sex_ (1744).
+
+BROOKE, SIR JAMES (1803-1868), English soldier, traveller and raja of
+Sarawak, was born at Coombe Grove near Bath, on the 29th of April 1803. His
+father, a member of the civil service of the East India Company, had long
+lived in Bengal. His mother was a woman of superior mind, and to her care
+he owed his careful early training. He received the ordinary school
+education, entered the service of the East India Company, and was sent out
+to India about 1825. On the outbreak of the Burmese War he was despatched
+with his regiment to the valley of the Brahmaputra; and, being dangerously
+wounded in an engagement near Rungpore, was compelled to return home
+(1826). After his recovery he travelled on the continent before going to
+India, and circumstances led him soon after to leave the service of the
+company. In 1830 he made a voyage to China, and during his passage among
+the islands of the Indian Archipelago, so rich in natural beauty,
+magnificence and fertility, but occupied by a population of savage tribes,
+continually at war with each other, and carrying on a system of piracy on a
+vast scale and with relentless ferocity, he conceived the great design of
+rescuing them from barbarism and bringing them within the pale of
+civilization. His purpose was confirmed by observations made during a
+second visit to China, and on his return to England he applied himself in
+earnest to making the necessary preparations. Having succeeded on the death
+of his father to a large property, he bought and equipped a yacht, the
+"Royalist," of 140 tons burden, and for three years tested its capacities
+and trained his crew of [v.04 p.0645] twenty men, chiefly in the
+Mediterranean. At length, on the 27th of October 1838, he sailed from the
+Thames on his great adventure. On reaching Borneo, after various delays, he
+found the raja Muda Hassim, uncle of the reigning sultan, engaged in war in
+the province of Sarawak with several of the Dyak tribes, who had revolted
+against the sultan. He offered his aid to the raja; and with his crew, and
+some Javanese who had joined them, he took part in a battle with the
+insurgents, and they were defeated. For his services the title of raja of
+Sarawak was conferred on him by Muda Hassim, the former raja being deprived
+in his favour. It was, however, some time before the sultan could be
+induced to confirm his title (September 1841). During the next five years
+Raja Brooke was engaged in establishing his power, in making just reforms
+in administration, preparing a code of laws and introducing just and humane
+modes of dealing with the degraded subjects of his rule. But this was not
+all. He looked forward to the development of commerce as the most effective
+means of putting an end to the worst evils that afflicted the archipelago;
+and in order to make this possible, the way must first be cleared by the
+suppression, or a considerable diminution, of the prevailing piracy, which
+was not only a curse to the savage tribes engaged in it, but a standing
+danger to European and American traders in those seas. Various expeditions
+were therefore organized and sent out against the marauders, Dyaks and
+Malays, and sometimes even Arabs. Captain (afterwards Admiral Sir Harry)
+Keppel, and other commanders of British ships of war, received permission
+to co-operate with Raja Brooke in these expeditions. The pirates were
+attacked in their strongholds, they fought desperately, and the slaughter
+was immense. Negotiations with the chiefs had been tried, and tried in
+vain. The capital of the sultan of Borneo was bombarded and stormed, and
+the sultan with his army routed. He was, however, soon after restored to
+his dominion. So large was the number of natives, pirates and others, slain
+in these expeditions, that the "head-money" awarded by the British
+government to those who had taken part in them amounted to no less than
+£20,000. In October 1847 Raja Brooke returned to England, where he was well
+received by the government; and the corporation of London conferred on him
+the freedom of the city. The island of Labuan, with its dependencies,
+having been acquired by purchase from the sultan of Borneo, was erected
+into a British colony, and Raja Brooke was appointed governor and
+commander-in-chief. He was also named consul-general in Borneo. These
+appointments had been made before his arrival in England. The university of
+Oxford conferred on him the honorary degree of D.C.L., and in 1848 he was
+created K.C.B. He soon after returned to Sarawak, and was carried thither
+by a British man-of-war. In the summer of 1849 he led an expedition against
+the Seribas and Sakuran Dyaks, who still persisted in their piratical
+practices and refused to submit to British authority. Their defeat and
+wholesale slaughter was a matter of course. At the time of this engagement
+Sir James Brooke was lying ill with dysentery. He visited twice the capital
+of the sultan of Sala, and concluded a treaty with him, which had for one
+of its objects the expulsion of the sea-gypsies and other tribes from his
+dominions. In 1851 grave charges with respect to the operations in Borneo
+were brought against Sir James Brooke in the House of Commons by Joseph
+Hume and other members, especially as to the "head-money" received. To meet
+these accusations, and to vindicate his proceedings, he came to England.
+The evidence adduced was so conflicting that the matter was at length
+referred to a royal commission, to sit at Singapore. As the result of its
+investigation the charges were declared to be "not proven." Sir James,
+however, was soon after deprived of the governorship of Labuan, and the
+head-money was abolished. In 1867 his house in Sarawak was attacked and
+burnt by Chinese pirates, and he had to fly from the capital, Kuching. With
+a small force he attacked the Chinese, recovered the town, made a great
+slaughter of them, and drove away the rest. In the following year he came
+to England, and remained there for three years. During this time he was
+attacked by paralysis, a public subscription was raised, and an estate in
+Devonshire was bought and presented to him. He made two more visits to
+Sarawak, and on each occasion had a rebellion to suppress. He spent his
+last days on his estate at Burrator in Devonshire, and died there, on the
+11th of June 1868, being succeeded as raja of Sarawak by his nephew. Sir
+James Brooke was a man of the highest personal character, and he displayed
+rare courage both in his conflicts in the East and under the charges
+advanced against him in England.
+
+His _Private Letters_ (1838 to 1853) were published in 1853. Portions of
+his _Journal_ were edited by Captains Munday and Keppel. (See also
+SARAWAK.)
+
+BROOKE, STOPFORD AUGUSTUS (1832- ), English divine and man of letters, born
+at Letterkenny, Donegal, Ireland, in 1832, was educated at Trinity College,
+Dublin. He was ordained in the Church of England in 1857, and held various
+charges in London. From 1863 to 1865 he was chaplain to the empress
+Frederick in Berlin, and in 1872 he became chaplain in ordinary to Queen
+Victoria. But in 1880 he seceded from the Church, being no longer able to
+accept its leading dogmas, and officiated as a Unitarian minister for some
+years at Bedford chapel, Bloomsbury. Bedford chapel was pulled down about
+1894, and from that time he had no church of his own, but his eloquence and
+powerful religious personality continued to make themselves felt among a
+wide circle. A man of independent means, he was always keenly interested in
+literature and art, and a fine critic of both. He published in 1865 his
+_Life and Letters of F. W. Robertson_ (of Brighton), and in 1876 wrote an
+admirable primer of _English Literature_ (new and revised ed., 1900),
+followed in 1892 by _The History of Early English Literature_ (2 vols.,
+1892) down to the accession of Alfred, and _English Literature from the
+Beginnings to the Norman Conquest_ (1898). His other works include various
+volumes of sermons; _Poems_ (1888); _Dove Cottage_ (1890); _Theology in the
+English Poets--Cowper, Coleridge, Wordsworth, Burns_ (1874); _Tennyson, his
+Art and Relation to Modern Life_ (1894); _The Poetry of Robert Browning_
+(1902); _On Ten Plays of Shakespeare_ (1905); and _The Life Superlative_
+(1906).
+
+BROOK FARM, the name applied to a tract of land in West Roxbury,
+Massachusetts, on which in 1841-1847 a communistic experiment was
+unsuccessfully tried. The experiment was one of the practical
+manifestations of the spirit of "Transcendentalism," in New England, though
+many of the more prominent transcendentalists took no direct part in it.
+The project was originated by George Ripley, who also virtually directed it
+throughout. In his words it was intended "to insure a more natural union
+between intellectual and manual labour than now exists; to combine the
+thinker and the worker, as far as possible, in the same individual; to
+guarantee the highest mental freedom by providing all with labour adapted
+to their tastes and talents, and securing to them the fruits of their
+industry; to do away with the necessity of menial services by opening the
+benefits of education and the profits of labour to all; and thus to prepare
+a society of liberal, intelligent and cultivated persons whose relations
+with each other would permit a more simple and wholesome life than can be
+led amidst the pressure of our competitive institutions." In short, its aim
+was to bring about the best conditions for an ideal civilization, reducing
+to a minimum the labour necessary for mere existence, and by this and by
+the simplicity of its social machinery saving the maximum of time for
+mental and spiritual education and development. At a time when Ralph Waldo
+Emerson could write to Thomas Carlyle, "We are all a little wild here with
+numberless projects of social reform; not a reading man but has a draft of
+a new community in his waistcoat pocket,"--the Brook Farm project certainly
+did not appear as impossible a scheme as many others that were in the air.
+At all events it enlisted the co-operation of men whose subsequent careers
+show them to have been something more than visionaries. The association
+bought a tract of land about 10 m. from Boston, and in the summer of 1841
+began its enterprise with about twenty members. In September the "Brook
+Farm Institute of Agriculture and Education" was formally organized, the
+members [v.04 p.0646] signing the Articles of Association and forming an
+unincorporated joint-stock company. The farm was assiduously, if not very
+skilfully, cultivated, and other industries were established--most of the
+members paying by labour for their board--but nearly all of the income, and
+sometimes all of it, was derived from the school, which deservedly took
+high rank and attracted many pupils. Among these were included George
+William Curtis and his brother James Burrill Curtis, Father Isaac Thomas
+Hecker (1819-1888), General Francis C. Barlow (1834-1896), who as
+attorney-general of New York in 1871-1873 took a leading part in the
+prosecution of the "Tweed Ring." For three years the undertaking went on
+quietly and simply, subject to few outward troubles other than financial,
+the number of associates increasing to seventy or eighty. It was during
+this period that Nathaniel Hawthorne had his short experience of Brook
+Farm, of which so many suggestions appear in the _Blithedale Romance_,
+though his preface to later editions effectually disposed of the
+idea--which gave him great pain--that he had either drawn his characters
+from persons there, or had meant to give any actual description of the
+colony. Emerson refused, in a kind and characteristic letter, to join the
+undertaking, and though he afterwards wrote of Brook Farm with not
+uncharitable humour as "a perpetual picnic, a French Revolution in small,
+an age of reason in a patty-pan," among its founders were many of his near
+friends. In 1844 the growing need of a more scientific organization, and
+the influence which F.M.C. Fourier's doctrines, as modified by Albert
+Brisbane (1809-1890), had gained in the minds of Ripley and many of his
+associates, combined to change the whole plan of the community. It was
+transformed, with the strong approval of all its chief members and the
+consent of the rest, into a Fourierist "phalanx" in 1845. There was an
+accession of new members, a momentary increase of prosperity, a brilliant
+new undertaking in the publication of a weekly journal, the _Harbinger_, in
+which Ripley, Charles A. Dana, Francis G. Shaw and John S. Dwight were the
+chief writers, and to which James Russell Lowell, J.G. Whittier, George
+William Curtis, Parke Godwin, T.W. Higginson, Horace Greeley and many more
+now and then contributed. But the individuality of the old Brook Farm was
+gone. The association was not rescued even from financial troubles by the
+change. With increasing difficulty it kept on till the spring of 1846, when
+a fire which destroyed its nearly completed "phalanstery" brought losses
+which caused, or certainly gave the final ostensible reason for, its
+dissolution. The experiment was abandoned in the autumn of 1847. Besides
+Ripley and Hawthorne, the principal members of the community were Charles
+A. Dana, John S. Dwight, Minot Pratt (c. 1805-1878), the head farmer, who,
+like George Partridge Bradford (1808-1890), left in 1845, and Warren Burton
+(1810-1866) a preacher and, later, a writer on educational subjects.
+Indirectly connected with the experiment, also, as visitors for longer or
+shorter periods but never as regular members, were Emerson, Amos Bronson
+Alcott, Orestes A. Brownson, Theodore Parker and William Henry Channing,
+Margaret Fuller and Elizabeth Palmer Peabody. The estate itself, after
+passing through various hands, came in 1870 into the possession of the
+"Association of the Evangelical Lutheran Church for Works of Mercy," which
+established here an orphanage, known as the "Martin Luther Orphan Home."
+
+The best account of Brook Farm is Lindsay Swift's _Brook Farm, Its Members,
+Scholars and Visitors_ (New York, 1900). _Brook Farm: Historic and Personal
+Memoirs_ (Boston, 1894), is by Dr J.T. Codman, one of the pupils in the
+school. See also Morris Hillquit's _History of Socialism in the United
+States_ (New York, 1903).
+
+(E. L. B.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--_Pellia epiphylla_. Group of plants bearing mature
+sporogonia.
+
+From Cooke, _Handbook of British Hepaticae_.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--_Pellia epiphylla_.
+
+A, Longitudinal section of thallus at the time of fertilization. an,
+Antheridia; ar, archegonia; in, involucre.
+
+B, Longitudinal section of almost mature sporogonium attached to the
+thallus. in, Involucre; cal, calyptra; f, foot; s, seta; caps, capsule
+(semi-diagrammatic).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--_Pellia epiphylla_. Group of plants bearing mature
+sporogonia.
+
+From Cooke, _Handbook of British Hepaticae_.]
+
+_Pellia epiphylla_ (fig. 2) can be found at any season growing in large
+patches on the damp soil of woods, banks, &c. The broad flat thallus is
+green and may be a couple of inches long. It is sparingly branched, the
+branching being apparently dichotomous; the growing point is situated in a
+depression at the anterior end of each branch. The wing-like lateral
+portions of the thallus gradually thin out from the midrib; from the
+projecting lower surface of this numerous rhizoids spring. These are
+elongated superficial cells, and serve to fix the thallus to the soil and
+obtain water and salts from it. No leaf-like appendages are borne on the
+thallus, but short glandular hairs occur behind the apex. The plant is
+composed throughout of very similar living cells, the more superficial ones
+containing numerous chlorophyll grains, while starch is stored in the
+internal cells of the midrib. The cells contain a number of oil-bodies the
+function of which is imperfectly understood. The growth of the thallus
+proceeds by the regular segmentation of a single apical cell. The sexual
+organs are borne on the upper surface, and both antheridia and archegonia
+occur on the same branch (fig. 3, A). The antheridia (an) are scattered
+over the middle region of the thallus, and each is surrounded by a tubular
+upgrowth from the surface. The archegonia (ar) are developed in a group
+behind the apex, and the latter continues to grow for a time after their
+formation, so that they come to be seated in a depression of the upper
+surface. They are further protected by the growth of the hinder margin of
+the depression to form a scale-like involucre (in). Fertilization takes
+place about June, and the sporogonium is fully developed by the winter. The
+embryo developed from the fertilized ovum consists at first of a number of
+tiers of cells. Its terminal tier gives rise to the capsule, the first
+divisions in the four cells of the tier marking off the wall of the capsule
+from the cells destined to produce the spores. In fig. 4, C, which
+represents a longitudinal section of a young embryo of _Pellia_, these
+archesporial cells are shaded. The tiers below give rise to the seta and
+foot. The mature sporogonium (fig. 3, B) consists of the foot embedded in
+the tissue of the thallus, the seta, which remains short until just before
+the shedding of the spores, and the spherical capsule. It remains for long
+enclosed within the calyptra formed by the further development of the
+archegonial wall and surmounted by the neck of the archegonium. The
+calyptra is ultimately burst through, and in early spring the seta
+elongates rapidly, raising the dark-coloured capsule (fig. 2). In the young
+condition the wall of the capsule, which consists of two layers of cells,
+encloses a mass of similar cells developed from the archesporium. Some of
+these become spore-mother-cells and give rise by cell division to four
+spores, while others remain undivided and become the elaters. The latter
+are elongated spindle-shaped cells with thick brown spiral bands on the
+inside of their thin walls. They radiate out from a small plug of sterile
+cells projecting into the base of the capsule, and some are attached to
+this, while others lie free among the spores. The latter are large, and at
+first are unicellular; but in _Pellia_, which in this respect is
+exceptional, they commence their further development within the capsule,
+and thus consist of several cells when shed. [v.04 p.0647] The cells of the
+capsule wall have incomplete, brown, thickened rings on their walls, and
+the capsule opens by splitting into four valves, which bend away from one
+another, allowing the loose spores to be readily dispersed by the wind,
+assisted by the hygroscopic movements of the elaters. On falling upon damp
+soil the spores germinate, growing into a thallus, which gradually attains
+its full size and bears sexual organs.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Semi-diagrammatic figures of young embryos of
+Liverworts in longitudinal section. The cells which will produce the
+sporogenous tissue are shaded. (After Kienitz-Gerloff and Leitgeb.)
+
+A, _Riccia_.
+
+B, _Marchantia polymorpha_.
+
+C, _Pellia epiphylla_.
+
+D, _Anthoceros laevis_.
+
+E, _Cephalozia bicuspidata_.
+
+F, _Radula complanata_.]
+
+While the general course of the life-history of all liverworts resembles
+that of _Pellia_, the three great groups into which they are divided differ
+from one another in the characters of both generations. Each group exhibits
+a series leading from more simple to more highly organized forms, and the
+differentiation has proceeded on distinct and to some extent divergent
+lines in the three groups. The Marchantiales are a series of thalloid
+forms, in which the structure of the thallus is specialized to enable them
+to live in more exposed situations. The lowest members of the series
+(_Riccia_) possess the simplest sporogonia known, consisting of a wall of
+one layer of cells enclosing the spores. In the higher forms a sterile foot
+and seta is present, and sterile cells or elaters occur with the spores.
+The lower members of the Jungermanniales are also thalloid, but the thallus
+never has the complicated structure characteristic of the Marchantiales,
+and progress is in the direction of the differentiation of the plant into
+stem and leaf. Indications of how this may have come about are afforded by
+the lower group of the Anacrogynous Jungermanniaceae, and throughout the
+Acrogynous Jungermanniacae the plant has well-marked stem and leaves. The
+sporogonium even in the simplest forms has a sterile foot, but in this
+series also the origin of elaters from sterile cells can be traced. The
+Anthocerotales are a small and very distinct group, in which the
+gametophyte is a thallus, while the sporogonium possesses a sterile
+columella and is capable of long-continued growth and spore production. The
+mode of development of the sporogonium presents important differences in
+the three series that may be briefly referred to here. In fig. 4 young
+sporogonia of a number of liverworts are shown in longitudinal section, and
+the archesporial cells from which the spores and elaters will arise are
+shaded. In _Riccia_ (fig. 4, A) the whole mass of cells derived from the
+ovum forms a spherical capsule, the only sterile tissue being the single
+layer of peripheral cells forming the wall. In other Marchantiales (fig. 4,
+B) the lower half of the embryo separated by the first transverse wall (1,
+I) forms the sterile foot and seta, while in the upper half (ka) the
+peripheral layer forms the wall of the capsule, enclosing the archesporial
+cells from which spores and elaters arise. In the Jungermanniales (fig. 4,
+C, E, F) the embryo is formed of a number of tiers of cells, and the
+archesporium is defined by the first divisions parallel to the surface in
+the cells of one or more of the upper tiers; a number of tiers go to form
+the seta and foot, while the lowest segment (a) usually forms a small
+appendage of the latter. In the Anthocerotales (fig. 4, D) the lowest tiers
+form the foot, and the terminal tier the capsule. The first periclinal
+divisions in the cells of the terminal tier separate a central group of
+cells which form the sterile columella (col). The archesporium arises by
+the next divisions in the outer layer of cells, and thus extends over the
+summit of the columella. In none of the liverworts does the sporogonium
+develop by means of an apical cell, as is the rule in mosses.
+
+Leaving details of form and structure to be considered under the several
+groups, some general features of the Hepaticae may be looked at here in
+relation to the conditions under which the plants live. The organization of
+the gametophyte stands in the closest relation to the factors of light and
+moisture in the environment. With hardly an exception the liverworts are
+dorsiventral, and usually one side is turned to the substratum and the
+other exposed to the light. In thalloid forms a thinner marginal expansion
+or a definite wing increasing the surface exposed to the light can be
+distinguished from a thicker midrib serving for storage and conduction. The
+leaves and stem of the foliose forms effect the same division of labour in
+another way. The relation of the plant to its water supply varies within
+the group. In the Marchantiales the chief supply is obtained from the soil
+by the rhizoids, and its loss in transpiration is regulated and controlled.
+In most liverworts, on the other hand, water is absorbed directly by the
+whole general surface, and the rhizoids are of subordinate importance. Many
+forms only succeed in a constantly humid atmosphere, while others sustain
+drying for a period, though their powers of assimilation and growth are
+suspended in the dry state. The cell-walls are capable of imbibing water
+rapidly, and their thickness stands in relation to this rather than to the
+prevention of loss of water from the plant. The large surface presented by
+the leafy forms facilitates the retention and absorption of water. The
+importance of prolonging the moistened condition as long as possible is
+further shown by special adaptations to retain water either between the
+appressed lobes of the leaves or in special pitcher-like sacs. In thalloid
+forms fimbriate or lobed margins or outgrowths from the surface lead to the
+same result. Sometimes adaptations to protect the plant during seasons of
+drought, such as the rolling up of the thallus in many xerophytic
+Marchantiales, can be recognized, but more often a prolonged dry season is
+survived in some resting state. The formation of subterranean tubers, which
+persist when the rest of the plant is killed by drought, is an interesting
+adaptation to this end, and is found in all three groups (_e.g._ in species
+of _Riccia_, _Fossombronia_ and _Anthoceros_). No examples of total
+saprophytism or of parasitism are known, but two interesting cases of a
+symbiosis with other organisms which is probably a mutually beneficial one,
+though the nature of the physiological relation between the organisms is
+not clearly established, may be mentioned. Fungal hyphae occur in the
+rhizoids and in the cells of the lower region of the thallus of many
+liverworts, as in the endotrophic mycorhiza of higher plants. Colonies of
+_Nostoc_ are constantly found in the Anthocerotaceae and in _Blasia_. In
+the latter they are protected by special concave scales, while in the
+Anthocerotaceae they occupy some of the mucilage slits between the cells of
+the lower surface of the thallus.
+
+Other adaptations concern the protection of the sexual organs and
+sporogonia, and the retention of water in the neighbourhood of the
+archegonia to enable the spermatozoid to reach the ovum. In thalloid forms
+the sexual organs are often sunk in depressions, while in the foliose forms
+protection is afforded by the surrounding leaves. In addition special
+involucres around the archegonia have arisen independently in several
+series. The characters of the sporogonium have as their object the
+nutrition and effective distribution of the spores, and only exceptionally,
+as in the Anthocerotaceae, are concerned with independent assimilation. In
+most forms the capsule is raised above the general surface at the time of
+opening, usually by the rapid growth of the seta, but in the Marchantiaceae
+by the sporogonia being raised on a special archegoniophore. The elaters
+serve as lines of conduction of plastic material to the developing spores,
+and later usually assist in their dispersal. The spores, with few
+exceptions, are unicellular when shed, and may develop at once or after a
+resting period. In their germination a short filament of a few cells is
+usually developed, and the apical cell of the plant is established in the
+terminal cell. In other cases a small plate or mass of cells is formed.
+With one or two exceptions, however, this preliminary [v.04 p.0648] phase,
+which may be compared with the protonema of mosses, is of short duration.
+
+The power of vegetative propagation is widely spread. When artificially
+divided small fragments of the gametophyte are found to be capable of
+growing into new individuals. Apart from the separation of branches by the
+decay of older portions, special gemmae are found in many species. In
+_Aneura_ the contents of superficial cells, after becoming surrounded by a
+new wall and dividing, escape as bi-cellular gemmae. Usually the gemmae
+arise by the outgrowth of superficial cells, and become free by breaking
+away from their stalk. When separated they may be single cells or consist
+of two or numerous cells. In _Blasia_ and _Marchantia_ the gemmae are
+formed within tubular or cup-shaped receptacles, out of which they are
+forced by the swelling of mucilage secreted by special hairs.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--_Marchantia polymorpha_. (After Sachs.)
+
+A. Portion of thallus (t) bearing two stalked antheridiophores (hu).
+
+B. Longitudinal section through a young antheridiophore. The antheridia (a)
+are seated in depressions of the upper surface (o); b, scales; h, rhizoids.
+
+C. Longitudinal section of antheridium; st, stalk; w, wall.
+
+D. Two spermatozoids.]
+
+_Marchantiales._--The plants of this group are most abundant in warm sunny
+localities, and grow for the most part on soil or rocks often in exposed
+situations. Nine genera are represented in Britain. _Targionia_ is found on
+exposed rocks, but the other forms are less strikingly xerophytic;
+_Marchantia polymorpha_ and _Lunularia_ spread largely by the gemmae formed
+in the special gemma-cups on the thallus, and occur commonly in
+greenhouses. The large thallus of _Conocephalus_ covers stones by the
+waterside, while _Dumortiera_ is a hygrophyte confined to damp and shady
+situations. Among the Ricciaceae, most of which grow on soil,
+_Ricciocarpus_ and _Riccia natans_ occur floating on still water. The
+dorsiventral thallus is constructed on the same plan throughout the group,
+and shows a lower region composed of cells containing little chlorophyll
+and an upper stratum specialized for assimilation and transpiration. The
+lower region usually forms a more or less clearly marked midrib, and
+consists of parenchymatous cells, some of which may contain oil-bodies or
+be differentiated as mucilage cells or sclerenchyma fibres. Behind the
+apex, which has a number of initial cells, a series of amphigastria or
+ventral scales is formed. These consist of a single layer of cells, and
+their terminal appendages often fold over the apex and protect it. Usually
+they stand in two rows, but sometimes accessory rows occur, and in _Riccia_
+only a single median row is present. The thallus bears two sorts of
+rhizoids, wider ones with smooth walls which grow directly down into the
+soil, and longer, narrower ones, with peg-like thickenings of the wall
+projecting into the cell-cavity. The peg-rhizoids, which are peculiar to
+the group, converge under shelter of the amphigastria to the midrib,
+beneath which they form a wick-like strand. Through this water is conducted
+by capillarity as well as in the cell cavities. The upper stratum of the
+thallus is constructed to regulate the giving off of the water thus
+absorbed. It consists of a series of air-chambers (fig. 6, B) formed by
+certain lines of the superficial cells growing up from the surface, and as
+the thallus increases in area continuing to divide so as to roof in the
+chamber. The layer forming the roof is called the "epidermis," and the
+small opening left leading into the chamber is bounded by a special ring of
+cells and forms the "stoma" or air-pore. In most species of _Riccia_ the
+air-chambers are only narrow passages, but in the other Marchantiales they
+are more extended. In the simplest cases the sides and base of the chambers
+perform the work of assimilation (_e.g._ _Corsinia_). Usually the surface
+is extended by the development of partitions in the chambers (_Reboulia_),
+or by the growth from the floor of the chamber of short filaments of
+chlorophyllous cells (_Targionia_. _Marchantia_, fig. 6). The stomata may
+be simply surrounded by one or more series of narrower cells, or, as in the
+thallus of _Marchantia_ and on the archegoniophores of other forms, may
+become barrel-shaped structures by the division of the ring of cells
+bounding the pore. In some cases the lowermost circle of cells can be
+approximated so as to close the pore. In _Dumortiera_ the air-chambers are
+absent, their formation being only indicated at the apex.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--_Marchantia polymorpha._ A, Stoma in surface view.
+B, Air-chamber with the filaments of assimilating cells and stoma in
+vertical section.
+
+From Strasburger's _Text-book of Botany_.]
+
+The sexual organs are always situated on the morphologically upper surface
+of the thallus. In _Riccia_ they are scattered singly and protected by the
+air-chamber layer. The scattered position of the antheridia is also found
+in some of the higher forms, but usually they are grouped on special
+antheridiophores which in _Marchantia_ are stalked, disk-shaped
+branch-systems (fig. 5). The individual antheridia are sunk in depressions
+from which the spermatozoids are in some cases forcibly ejected. The
+archegonial groups in _Corsinia_ are sunk in a depression of the upper
+surface, while in _Targionia_ they are displaced to the lower side of the
+anterior end of a branch. In all the other forms they are borne on special
+archegoniophores which have the form of a disk-shaped head borne on a
+stalk. The archegoniophore may be an upgrowth from the dorsal surface of
+the thallus (_e.g._ _Plagiochasma_), or the apex of the branch may take
+part in its formation. When the disk, around which archegonia are developed
+at intervals, is simply raised on a stalk-like continuation of the branch,
+a single groove protecting a strand of peg-rhizoids is found on the ventral
+face of the stalk (_Reboulia_). In the highest forms (_e.g._ _Marchantia_)
+the archegoniophore corresponds to the repeatedly branched continuation of
+the thallus, and the archegonia arise in relation to the growing points
+which are displaced to the lower surface of the disk. In this case two
+grooves are found in the stalk. The archegonia are protected by being sunk
+in depressions of the disk or by a special two-lipped involucre. In
+_Marchantia_ and _Fimbriaria_ an additional investment termed in
+descriptive works the perianth, grows up around each fertilized archegonium
+(fig. 1, 3, d). The simple sporogonium found in the Ricciaceae (fig. 4, A)
+has been described above; as the spores develop, the wall of the spherical
+capsule is absorbed and the spores lie free in the calyptra, by the decay
+of which they are set free. In _Corsinia_ the capsule has a well-developed
+foot, but the sterile cells found among the spore-mother-cells do not
+become elaters, but remain thin-walled and simply contribute to the
+nutrition of the spores. In all other forms elaters with spirally thickened
+walls are found. The seta is short, the capsule being usually raised upon
+the archegoniophore. Dehiscence takes place either by the upper portion of
+the capsule splitting into short teeth or falling away as a whole or in
+fragments as a sort of operculum. The spores on germination form a short
+germ-tube, in the terminal cell of which the apical cell is established,
+but the direction of growth of the young thallus is usually not in the same
+straight line as the germ-tube. The Marchantiales are divided into a number
+of groups which represent distinct lines of advance from forms like the
+Ricciaceae, but the details of their classification cannot be entered upon
+here. The general nature of the progression exhibited by the group as a
+whole will, however, be evident from the above account.
+
+_Jungermanniales._--This large series of liverworts, which presents great
+variety in the organization of the sexual generation, is divided into two
+main groups according to whether the formation of archegonia terminates the
+growth of the branch or does not utilize the apex. The latter condition is
+characteristic of the more primitive group of the Anacrogynous
+Jungermanniaceae, in which the branch continues its growth after the
+formation of archegonia so that they (and later the sporogonia) stand on
+the dorsal surface of the thallus or leafy plant. In the Acrogynous
+Jungermanniaceae the plant is throughout foliose, and the archegonia occupy
+the ends of the main shoot or of its branches. The antheridia are usually
+globular and long-stalked. The capsule opens by splitting into four halves.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--_Blasia pusilla._ The margin of the thallus bears
+leaf-life lobes. r, Rhizoids; s, sporogonium.
+
+From Strasburger's _Text-book of Botany_.]
+
+_Jungermanniaceae Anacrogynae._--The great range of form in the sexual
+plant is well illustrated by the nine genera of this group [v.04 p.0649]
+which occur in Britain. One thalloid form has already been described in
+_Pellia_ (fig. 2). _Sphaerocarpus_, which occurs rarely in stubble fields,
+is in many respects one of the simplest of the liverworts. The small
+thallus bears the antheridia and archegonia, each of which is surrounded by
+a tubular involucre, on the upper surface of distinct individuals. The
+sporogonium has a small foot, but the sterile cells among the spores do not
+develop into elaters. The same is true of the capsule of _Riella_. The
+plants of this genus, none of the species of which are British, grow in
+shallow water rooted in the mud, and are unlike all other liverworts in
+appearance. The usually erect thallus has a broad wing-like outgrowth from
+the dorsal surface and two rows of rather large scales below. No provision
+for the opening of the capsule exists in either of these genera. In
+_Aneura_ the form of the plant may be complicated by a division of labour
+between root-like, stem-like and assimilating branches of the thallus. The
+sexual organs are borne on short lateral branches, while in the related
+genus _Metzgeria_, which occurs on rocks and tree trunks, the small sexual
+branches spring from the lower surface of the midrib of the narrow thallus.
+In these two genera the elaters are attached to a sterile group of cells
+projecting into the upper end of the capsule, and on dehiscence remain
+connected with the tips of the valves. _Pallavicinia_ and some related
+genera have a definite midrib and broad wings formed of one layer of cells,
+and are of interest owing to the presence of a special water-conducting
+strand in the midrib. This consists of elongated lignified cells with
+pitted walls. _Blasia pusilla_, which occurs commonly by ditches and
+streams, affords a transition to the foliose types. Its thallus (fig. 7)
+has thin marginal lobes of limited growth, which are comparable to the more
+definite leaves of other anacrogynous forms. The ventral surface bears flat
+scales in addition to the concave scales which, as mentioned above, are
+inhabited by _Nostoc_. This interesting liverwort produces two kinds of
+gemmae, and in the localities in which it grows is largely reproduced by
+their means. In _Fossombronia_, of which there are a number of British
+species, the plant consists of a flattened stem creeping on muddy soil and
+bearing two rows of large obliquely-placed leaves. The sexual organs are
+borne on the upper surface of the midrib, and the sporogonium is surrounded
+by a bell-shaped involucre which grows up after fertilization. _Treubia_,
+which grows on rotting wood in the mountain forests of Java, is similarly
+differentiated into stem and leaf, and is the largest liverwort known,
+reaching a length of thirty centimetres. Lastly _Haplomitrium_, a rare
+British genus, forms with the exotic _Calobryum_, an isolated group which
+is most naturally placed among the anacrogynous forms although the
+archegonia are in terminal groups. The erect branches bear three rows of
+leaves, and spring from a creeping axis from which root-like branches
+destitute of rhizoids extend into the substratum.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--_Chiloscyphus polyanthos._ The plant bears three
+mature sporogonia which show the elongation of the seta. One of the
+sporogonia has opened. B, The "perianth" with the small perichaetial leaves
+below it. (After Goebel.)]
+
+_Jungermanniaceae Acrogynae._--The plant consists of leafy shoots, the
+origin of which can be understood in the light of the foliose forms
+described above. The great majority of existing liverworts belong to this
+group, the general plan of construction of which is throughout very
+similar. In Britain thirty-nine genera with numerous species are found.
+With few exceptions the stem grows by means of a pyramidal apical cell
+cutting off three rows of segments. Each segment gives rise to a leaf, but
+usually the leaves of the ventral row (amphigastria) are smaller and
+differently shaped from those of the two lateral rows; in a number of
+genera they are wanting altogether. Sometimes the leaves retain their
+transverse insertion on the stem, and the two lobes of which they consist
+are developed equally. More often they come to be obliquely inserted, the
+anterior edge of each leaf lying under or over the edge of the leaf in
+front. The two lobes are often unequally developed. In _Scapania_ the upper
+lobe is the smaller, while in _Radula_, _Poretta_ and the _Lejeuneae_ this
+is the case with the lower lobe. The folding of one lobe against another
+assists in the retention of water. Pitcher-like structures have arisen in
+different ways in a number of genera, and are especially common in
+epiphytic forms (_Frullania_, _Lepidolaena_, _Pleurozia_). In some forms
+the leaves are finely divided, and along with the hair-like paraphyllia
+form a loose weft around the stem (_Trichocolea_). The rhizoids spring from
+the lower surface of the stem, and sometimes from the bases of the leaves.
+The branches arise below and by the side of the leaves.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--_Cephalozia bicuspidata._ Longitudinal section of
+the summit of a shoot bearing a nearly mature sporogonium, sg, still
+enclosed in the calyptra; ar', archegonia which have remained unfertilized;
+st, stem; b, leaf; p, perianth. (After Hofmeister.)]
+
+The sexual organs may occur on the same or on distinct individuals. The
+antheridia are protected by leaves which are often modified in shape. The
+archegonia are borne at the apex of the main stem or of a lateral branch. A
+single archegonium may arise from the apical cell (_Lejeunea_); more
+commonly a number of others are formed from the surrounding segments. The
+leaves below the archegonial group are frequently modified in size and
+shape, but the chief protection is afforded by a tubular perianth, which
+corresponds to a coherent whorl of leaves and grows up independently of
+fertilization. The perianth serves also to enclose and protect the
+sporogonium during its development. In a number of forms belonging to
+different groups the end of the stem on which the sporogonium is borne
+grows downwards so as to form a hollow tubular sac enclosing the
+sporogonium; in other cases this marsupial sac is formed by the base of the
+sporogonium boring into the thickened end of the stem. The sac usually
+penetrates into the soil and bears rhizoids on its outer surface. _Kantia_,
+_Calypogeia_ and _Saccogyna_ are British forms, which have their sporogonia
+protected in this way. The sporogonium is very similar throughout the group
+(figs. 8, 9). At maturity the seta elongates rapidly, and the wall of the
+capsule splits more or less completely into four valves, allowing the
+elaters and spores to escape. In the Jubuloideae, which in other respects
+form a well-marked group, the seta is short and the elaters extend from the
+upper part of the capsule to the base; at dehiscence they remain fixed to
+the valves into which the capsule splits. The germinating spore usually
+forms a short filament, but in other cases a flat plate of cells growing by
+a two-sided apical cell is first formed (_Radula_, _Lejeunea_). In one or
+two tropical forms the pro-embryonic stage is prolonged, and leafy shoots
+only arise in connexion with the sexual organs. In _Protocephalozia_, which
+grows on bare earth in South America, this pro-embryo is filamentous, while
+in _Lejeunea Metzgeriopsis_, which grows on the leaves of living plants, it
+is a flat branched thallus closely applied to the substratum. Other cases
+of the plant being, with the exception of the sexual branches, apparently
+thalloid, are on the other hand to be explained as due to the reduction of
+the leaves and flattening of the stem of a shoot (_Pteropsiella_,
+_Zoopsis_).
+
+The Acrogynous Jungermanniaceae fall into a number of natural groups, which
+cannot, however, be followed out here. They occur in very various
+situations, on the ground, on rocks and stones, on tree trunks, and, in the
+damp tropics, on leaves. Usually they form larger or smaller tufts of a
+green colour, but some forms have a reddish tint.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--_Anthoceros laevis._ sp, Sporogonium; c,
+columella.
+
+From Strasburger's _Text-book of Botany_.]
+
+_Anthocerotales._--This small and very natural group includes the three
+genera _Anthoceros_, _Dendroceros_ and _Notothylas_, and stands in [v.04
+p.0650] many respects in an isolated position among the Bryophyta. Three
+species of _Anthoceros_ occur in Britain, growing on the damp soil of
+fields, ditches, &c. The dark green thallus has an ill-defined midrib, and
+is composed of parenchymatous cells. In each assimilating cell there is
+usually a single large chloroplast. The apical region, which has a single
+initial cell, is protected by mucilage secreted by the mucilage slits,
+which are small pit-like depressions between superficial cells of the lower
+surface. Mucilage is also often formed in intercellular spaces within the
+thallus. Colonies of _Nostoc_ are constantly found living in some of the
+mucilage slits which then become enlarged. The sexual organs are scattered
+over the upper surface. The stalked globular antheridia are exceptional in
+being formed endogenously, and are situated in groups in special
+intercellular spaces. The superficial layer of cells bounding the cavity
+does not break down until the antheridia are nearly mature. Occasionally
+antheridia develop on the surface of shaded portions of the thallus. The
+necks of the archegonia hardly project above the general surface of the
+thallus. In structure and development they agree with other Hepaticae,
+though differences of detail exist. The young sporogonium is protected by a
+thick calyptra derived from the tissue of the thallus around the
+archegonium. The sporogonium consists of a large bulbous foot, the
+superficial cells of which grow out into processes, and a long capsule,
+which continues to grow for months by the activity of a zone of cells
+between it and the foot, and may attain the length of an inch and a half.
+The wall of the capsule is several layers of cells thick, and since the
+epidermis contains functional stomata and the underlying cells possess
+chlorophyll it is capable of assimilation. In the centre of the capsule is
+a strand of narrow elongated cells forming the columella, and between this
+and the wall spores mixed with elaters are formed from the dome-shaped
+archesporium, the origin of which has already been described (fig. 4, D).
+The capsule opens by splitting into two valves from the apex downwards, and
+the mature spores escape while others are developing in succession below.
+In _Dendroceros_, which grows as an epiphyte in the tropics, the thallus
+has a well-defined midrib and broad wings composed of a single layer of
+cells. The capsule is similar to that of _Anthoceros_, but has no stomata,
+and the elaters have spirally thickened walls. Some species of _Anthoceros_
+agree with it in these respects. _Notothylas_ resembles _Anthoceros_ in its
+thallus, but the sporogonium is much smaller. In some species, although the
+columella and archesporium arise in the usual way, both give rise to
+mingled spores and elaters, and no sterile columella is developed.
+
+_Musci_ (Mosses).
+
+Though the number of species of mosses is far greater than of liverworts,
+the group offers much less diversity of form. The sexual generation is
+always a leafy plant, which is not developed directly from the spore but is
+borne on a well-marked and usually filamentous protonema. The general
+course of the life-history and the main features of form and structure will
+be best understood by a brief account of a particular example.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--_Funaria hygrometrica._
+
+A, Leafy shoot (g) bearing a young sporogonium enclosed in the calyptra
+(c).
+
+B, Similar plant with an almost mature sporogonium; s, seta; f, capsule; c,
+calyptra.
+
+C, Median longitudinal section of a capsule, with the seta gradually
+widening into the apophysis at its base; d, operculum; p, peristome; a,
+annulus; c, columella; s, archesporium; h, air-space between the spore-sac
+and the wall of the capsule.
+
+(From Goebel's _Pflanzenmorphologie_, by permission of W Engelmann)]
+
+_Funaria hygrometrica_ is a moss of very common occurrence even in towns on
+the soil of paths, at the foot of walls and in similar places. The small
+plants grow closely crowded in tufts, and consist of short leafy shoots
+attached to the soil by numerous fine rhizoids. The latter, in contrast to
+the rhizoids of liverworts, are composed of rows of elongated cells and are
+branched. The leaves are simple, and except for the midrib are only one
+layer of cells thick. The structure of the stem though simple is more
+complicated than in any liverwort. The superficial cells are thick-walled,
+and there is a central strand of narrow cells forming a water-conducting
+tissue. The small strand of elongated cells in the midrib of the leaf runs
+down into the stem, but is not usually connected with the central strand.
+The sexual organs are developed in groups at the apices, the antheridial
+group usually terminating the main axis while the archegonia are borne on a
+lateral branch. The brown tint of the hair-like paraphyses mixed with
+antheridia (fig. 15) makes the male branch conspicuous, while the
+archegonia have to be carefully looked for enclosed by the surrounding
+leaves (fig. 16, B). The sporogonium developed from the fertilized ovum
+grows by means of a two-sided apical cell (fig. 16 A), and is at first of
+uniform thickness. After a time the upper region increases in diameter and
+forms the capsule, while the lower portion forms the long seta and the foot
+which is embedded in the end of the stem. With the growth of the
+sporogonium the archegonial wall, which for a time kept pace with it, is
+broken through, the larger upper part terminated by the neck being carried
+up on the capsule as the calyptra, while the basal portion remains as a
+tubular sheath round the lower end of the seta (cf. figs. 16, C, and fig.
+11, A, B). The seta widens out at the base of the capsule into a region
+known as the apophysis. The peripheral cells of the seta are thick-walled,
+and it has a central strand of elongated conducting cells. In the epidermis
+of the apophysis functional stomata, similar to those of the higher plants,
+are present and, since cells containing chlorophyll are present below the
+superficial layers of the apophysis and capsule, the sporogonium is capable
+of independent assimilation. The construction of the capsule will be best
+understood from the median longitudinal section (fig. 11, C). The central
+region extending between the apophysis and the operculum is composed of
+sterile tissue and forms the columella (c). Immediately around this is the
+layer of cells from which the spores will be developed (s), and the layers
+of cells on either side of this form the walls of the spore-sac, which will
+contain the spores. Between the wall of the capsule, which is composed of
+several layers of cells, and the spore-sac is a wide intercellular space
+(h) bridged across by trabeculae consisting of rows of
+chlorophyll-containing cells. At the junction of the operculum (d) with the
+rest of the capsule is a circle of cells forming the annulus (a), by help
+of which the operculum is detached at maturity as a small lid. Its removal
+does not, however, leave the mouth of the capsule wide open, for around the
+margin are two circles of pointed teeth forming the peristome. These are
+the thickened cell-walls of a definite layer of cells (p), and appear [v.04
+p.0651] as separate teeth owing to the breaking down of the unthickened
+cell-walls. The numerous spores which have been developed in the spore sac
+can thus only escape from the pendulous capsule through narrow slits
+between the teeth, and these are closed in damp air. The unicellular spores
+when supplied with moisture germinate (fig. 12) and give rise to the sexual
+generation. A filamentous protonema is first developed, some of the
+branches of which are exposed to the light and contain abundant
+chlorophyll, while others penetrate the substratum as brown or colourless
+rhizoids. The moss-plants arise from single projecting cells, and numerous
+plants may spring from the protonema developed from a single spore.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--_Funaria hygrometrica._ (After Goebel.)
+
+A, Germinating spores. s, Wall of spore; v, vacuole; w, rhizoid.
+
+B, Part of a developed protonema. h, Creeping filament with brown walls
+from which the filaments of chlorophyll-containing cells (b) arise; k,
+young moss-plant; w, its first rhizoid.]
+
+The majority of the mosses belong to the same great group as _Funaria_, the
+Bryales. The other two subdivisions of the Musci are each represented by a
+single genus. In the Andreaeales the columella does not extend to the upper
+end of the capsule, and the latter opens by a number of lateral slits. The
+Sphagnales also have a dome-shaped spore-sac continued over the columella,
+and, though their capsule opens by an operculum, they differ widely from
+other mosses in the development of the sporogonium as well as in the
+characters of the sexual generation. The three groups are described
+separately below, but some more general features of the mosses may be
+considered here.
+
+On the whole mosses grow in drier situations than the liverworts, and the
+arrangements they present for the conduction of water in the plant are also
+more complete and suggest in some cases comparisons with the higher plants.
+In spite of this, however, they are in great part dependent on the
+absorption of water through the general surface of the shoot, and the power
+of rapid imbibition possessed by their cell-walls, the crowded position of
+the small leaves on the stem, and special adaptations for the retention of
+water on the surface, have the same significance as in the foliose
+liverworts. The different appearance of exposed mosses in dry weather and
+after a shower illustrates this relation to the water supply. The protonema
+is always a well-marked stage in the life-history. Not only does a
+moss-plant never arise directly from the spore, but in all cases of
+vegetative reproduction, apart from the separation of branches by decay of
+older regions of the plant, a protonema is found. Usually the protonema is
+filamentous and ceases to be evident after the plants have developed. But
+in some small mosses (e.g. _Ephemerum_) it plays the chief part in
+assimilation and lives on from year to year. In _Sphagnum_, _Andreaea_ and
+some genera of the Bryales the protonema or some of its branches have the
+form of flat plates or masses of cells. The formation of the moss-plant on
+the protonema is always from a single cell and is similar in all mosses.
+The first three walls in this cell intersect one another, and define the
+three-sided pyramidal apical cell by means of which the shoot continues to
+grow. In _Fissidens_ and a few other mosses the apical cell is two-sided.
+The leaves formed by the successive segments gradually attain their normal
+size and structure. Each segment of the initial cell gives rise to a leaf
+and a portion of the stem; the branches arise from the lower portion of a
+segment and stand immediately below a leaf. The leaves may form three
+vertical rows, but usually their arrangement, owing to the direction of the
+segment walls at the apex, becomes more complicated. Their growth proceeds
+by means of a two-sided apical cell, and the midrib does not become more
+than one cell thick until later. In addition to the leaves the stem often
+bears hair-like structures of different kinds, some of which correspond to
+modified branches of protonema. The branched filamentous rhizoids which
+spring from the lower region of the stem also correspond to protonemal
+branches. The structure of both stem and leaf reaches a high grade of
+organization in some mosses. Not only are thick-walled sclerenchymatous
+cells developed to give rigidity to the periphery of the stem and the
+midrib of the leaf, but in many cases a special water-conducting tissue,
+consisting of elongated cells, the end walls of which are thin and oblique,
+forms a definite central strand in the stem. In the forms in which it is
+most highly developed (Polytrichaceae) this tissue, which is comparable
+with the xylem of higher plants, is surrounded by a zone of tissue
+physiologically comparable to phloem, and in the rhizome may be limited by
+an endodermis. The conducting strands in the leaves show the same tissues
+as in the central strand of the stem, and in the Polytrichaceae and some
+other mosses are in continuity with it. The independent origin of this
+conducting system is of great interest for comparison with the vascular
+system of the sporophyte of the higher plants.
+
+The sexual organs, with the exception of the antheridia of _Sphagnum_, are
+borne at the apices of the main shoot or of branches. Their general
+similarity to the mature antheridia and archegonia of liverworts and the
+main difference in their development have been referred to. The antheridia
+open by means of a cap cell or groups of cells with mucilaginous contents.
+The details of construction of the sporogonium are referred to below. In
+all cases (except _Archidium_) a columella is present, and all the cells
+derived from the archesporium produce spores, no elaters being formed. In a
+few cases the germination of the spore commences within the capsule. The
+development of the sporogonium proceeds in all cases (except in _Sphagnum_)
+by means of an apical cell cutting off two rows of segments. The first
+periclinal division in the region forming the capsule separates an inner
+group of cells (the endothecium) form the peripheral layer (amphithecium).
+In _Sphagnum_, as in _Anthoceros_, the archesporium is derived from the
+amphithecium; in all other mosses it is the outermost layer of the
+endothecium.
+
+Vegetative propagation is widely spread in the mosses, and, as mentioned
+above, a protonema is always formed in the development of the new plant.
+The social growth of the plants characteristic of many mosses is a result
+of the formation of numerous plants on the original protonema and on
+developments from the rhizoids. Besides this, gemmae may be formed on the
+protonema, on the leaves or at the apex, and some mosses have specialized
+shoots for their better protection or distribution. Thus in _Georgia_ the
+stalked, multicellular gemmae are borne at the ends of shoots surrounded by
+a rosette of larger leaves, and in _Aulacomnium androgynum_ they are raised
+on an elongated leafless region of the shoot. In other cases detached
+leaves or shoots may give rise to new plants, and when a moss is
+artificially divided almost any fragment may serve for reproduction.
+
+Even in those rare cases in which the sexual generation can be developed
+without the intervention of spore production from the tissues of the
+sporogonium, a protonema is formed from cut pieces of the seta or in some
+cases from intact sporogonia still attached to the plant. This phenomenon
+of _apospory_ was first discovered in mosses, but is now also known in a
+number of ferns (see PTERIDOPHYTA).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--_Sphagnum acutifolium._ (After Schimper.)
+
+A. Longitudinal section of apex of a bud bearing archegonia (ar), enclosed
+by the large leaves (y); ch, small perichaetial leaves.
+
+B. Longitudinal section of the sporogonium borne on the pseudopodium (ps);
+c, calyptra; ar, neck of archegonium; sg', foot; sg, capsule.
+
+C. _S. squarrosum._ Ripe sporogonium raised on the pseudopodium (qs) above
+the enclosing leaves (ch); c, the ruptured calyptra; sg, capsule; d,
+operculum.]
+
+_Sphagnales._--The single genus _Sphagnum_ occupies a very distinct and
+isolated position among mosses. The numerous species, which are familiar as
+the bog-mosses, are so similar that minute structural characters have to be
+relied on in their identification. The plants occur in large patches of a
+pale green or reddish colour on moors, and, when filling up small lakes or
+pools, may attain a length of some feet. Their growth has played a large
+part in the formation of peat. The species are distributed in temperate and
+arctic climates, but in the tropics only occur at high levels. The
+protonema forms a flat, lobed, thalloid structure attached to the soil by
+rhizoids, and the plants arise from marginal cells. The main shoot bears
+numerous branches which appear to stand in whorls; some of them bend down
+and become applied to the surface of the main axis. The structure of the
+stem and leaves is peculiar. The former shows on cross-section a
+thin-walled central tissue surrounded by a zone of thick-walled cells.
+Outside this come one to five layers of large clear cells, which when
+mature are dead and empty; their walls are strengthened with a spiral
+thickening and perforated with round pores. They serve to absorb and
+conduct water by capillarity. The leaves have no midrib and similar empty
+cells occur regularly among the narrow chlorophyll-containing cells, which
+thus appear as a green network. The antheridia are globular and have long
+stalks. They stand by the side of leaves of special club-shaped branches.
+The archegonial groups occupy the apices of short branches (fig. 13, A.).
+The mature sporogonium consists of a wide foot separated by a constriction
+from the globular capsule (B). There is no distinct seta, but the capsule
+is raised on a leafless outgrowth of the end of the branch called a
+pseudopodium (C, qs). The capsule, the wall of which bears rudimentary
+stomata, has a small operculum but no peristome. There is a short, wide
+columella, over which the dome-shaped spore-sac extends, and no air-space
+is present between the spore-sac and the wall. In the embryo a number of
+tiers of cells are first formed. The lower tiers [v.04 p.0652] form the
+foot, while in the upper part the first divisions mark off the columella,
+around which the archesporium, derived from the amphithecium, extends. The
+sporogonium when nearly mature bursts the calyptra irregularly. The capsule
+opens explosively in dry weather, the operculum and spores being thrown to
+a distance. The spore on germination forms a short filament which soon
+broadens out into the thalloid protonema. Some twelve species of _Sphagnum_
+are found in Britain.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.--_Andreaea petrophila_. Plant bearing opened
+capsule.
+
+(k) ps, Pseudopodium.
+
+c, Calyptra.
+
+spf, Foot of sporogonium.
+
+From Strasburger's _Textbook of Botany_]
+
+_Andreaeales._--The species of the single genus _Andreaea_ (fig. 14) are
+small, dark-coloured mosses growing for the most part in tufts on bare
+rocks in alpine and arctic regions. Four species occur on alpine rocks in
+Britain. The spore on germination gives rise to a small mass of cells from
+which one or more short filaments grow. The filament soon broadens into a
+ribbon-shaped thallus, several cells thick, which is closely applied to the
+rock. Erect branches may arise from the protonema, and gemmae may be
+developed on it. The stem of the plant, which arises in the usual way, has
+no conducting strand and the leaves may or may not have midribs. The leaf
+grows by a dome-shaped instead of by the usual two-sided initial cell. The
+antheridia are long-stalked. The upper portion of the archegonial wall is
+carried up as a calyptra on the sporogonium, which, as in _Sphagnum_, has
+no seta and is raised on a pseudopodium. The development of the sporogonium
+proceeds as in the Bryales, but the dome-shaped archesporium extends over
+the summit of the columella and an air-space is wanting. The capsule does
+not open by an operculum but by four or six longitudinal slits, which do
+not reach either the base or apex. In one exotic species the splits occur
+only at the upper part of the capsule, and the terminal cap breaks away.
+This isolated example thus appears to approach the Bryales in its mode of
+dehiscence.
+
+_Bryales._--In contrast to the preceding two this group includes a very
+large number of genera and species. Thus even in Britain between five and
+six hundred species belonging to more than one hundred genera are found.
+They occur in the most varied situations, on soil, on rocks and trees, and,
+in a few instances (_Fontinalis_), in water. Although exhibiting a wide
+range in size and in the structural complexity of both generations, they
+all conform to a general type, so that _Funaria_, described above, will
+serve as a fair example of the group. The protonema is usually filamentous,
+and in some of the simplest forms is long-lived, while the small plants
+borne on it serve mainly to protect the sexual organs and sporogonia. This
+is the case in _Ephemerum_, which grows on the damp soil of clayey fields,
+and the plants are even more simply constructed in _Buxbaumia_, which
+occurs on soil rich in humus and is possibly partially saprophytic. In this
+moss the filamentous protonema is capable of assimilation, but the leaves
+of the small plants are destitute of chlorophyll, so that they are
+dependent on the protonema. The male plant has no definite stem, and
+consists of a single concave leaf protecting the antheridium. The female
+plant is rather more highly organized, consisting of a short stem bearing a
+few leaves around the group of archegonia. The sporogonium is of large size
+and highly organized, though it presents peculiar features in the
+peristome. _Buxbaumia_ has been regarded by Goebel as representing a stage
+which other mosses have passed, and has been described by him as the
+simplest type of moss. In _Ephemerum_ also we may probably regard the
+relation of the small plants to the protonema as a primitive one. On the
+other hand, in the case of _Ephemeropsis_, which grows on the leaves of
+living plants in Java, the high organization of the sporogonium makes it
+probable that the persistent protonema is an adaptation to the peculiar
+conditions of life. A highly developed protonema provided with leaf-like
+assimilating organs is found in _Georgia_, _Diphyscium_ and _Oedipodium_,
+all of which show peculiarities in the sporogonium as well. The cells of
+the protonema of _Schistostega_, which lives in the shade of caves, are so
+constructed as to concentrate the feeble available light on the
+chloroplasts.
+
+We may perhaps regard the persistent protonema bearing small leafy plants
+as a primitive condition, and look upon those larger plants which remain
+unbranched and bear the sexual organs at the apex (e.g. _Schistostega_) as
+representing the next stage. From this condition different lines of
+specialization in the form and structure of the plant can be recognized. A
+large number of mosses stand at about the same grade as _Funaria_, in that
+the plants are small, sparingly branched, usually radial, and do not show a
+very highly differentiated internal structure. In others the form of the
+plant becomes more complex by copious branching and the differentiation of
+shoots of different orders. In these cases the shoot system is often more
+or less dorsiventral, and the sexual organs are borne on short lateral
+branches (e.g. _Thuidium tamariscinum_). The Polytrichaceae, on the other
+hand, show a specialization in structure rather than in form. The high
+organization of their conducting system has been referred to above, but
+though many species are able to exist in relatively dry situations, the
+plants are still dependent on the absorption of water by the general
+surface. The parallel lamellae of assimilating cells which grow from the
+upper surface of the leaf in these and some other mosses probably serve to
+retain water in the neighbourhood of the assimilating cells and so prolong
+their activity. As common adaptive features in the leaves the occurrence of
+papillae or outgrowths of the cell-walls to retain water, and the white
+hairlike leaf tips, which assist in protecting the young parts at the apex
+of many xerophytic mosses, may be mentioned. The leaves of _Leucobryum_,
+which occurs in pale green tufts in shaded woods, show a parallel
+adaptation to that found in _Sphagnum_. They are several cells thick, and
+the small assimilating cells lie between two layers of empty water-storage
+cells, the walls of which are perforated by pores.
+
+With the possible exception of _Archidium_, the sporogonium is throughout
+the Bryales constructed on one plan. _Archidium_ is a small moss occurring
+occasionally on the soil of wet fields. The protonema is not persistent,
+and the plants are well developed, resembling those of _Pleuridium_. The
+sporogonium has a small foot and practically no seta, and differs in the
+development and structure of its capsule from all other mosses. The spores
+are derived from the endothecium, but no distinction of a sterile columella
+and an archesporium is established in this, a variable number of its cells
+becoming spore-mother-cells while the rest serve to nourish the spores. The
+layer of cells immediately around the endothecium becomes the spore-sac,
+and an air-space forms between this and the wall of the capsule. The very
+large, thin-walled spores escape on the decay of the capsule, which
+ruptures the archegonial wall irregularly. On account of the absence of a
+columella _Archidium_ is sometimes placed in a distinct group, but since
+its peculiarities have possibly arisen by reduction it seems at present
+best retained among the Bryales. In all other Bryales there is a definite
+columella extending from the base to the apex of the capsule, the
+archesporium is derived from the outermost layer of cells of the
+endothecium, and an air space is formed between the spore-sac and the wall.
+In the Polytrichaceae another air space separates the spore-sac from the
+columella. There is great variety in the length of the seta, which is
+sometimes practically absent. The apophysis, which may be a more or less
+distinct region, usually bears stomata and is the main organ of
+assimilation. In the Splachnaceae it is expanded for this purpose, while in
+_Oedipodium_ it constitutes most of the long pale stalk which supports the
+capsule. A distinct operculum is usually detached by the help of the
+annulus, and its removal may leave the mouth of the capsule widely open.
+More usually there is a peristome, consisting of one or two series of
+teeth, which serves to narrow the opening and in various ways to ensure the
+gradual shedding of the spores in dry weather. In most mosses the teeth are
+portions of thickened cell-walls but in the Polytrichaceae they are formed
+of a number of sclerenchymatous cells. In _Polytrichum_ a membranous
+epiphragm stretches across the wide mouth of the capsule between the tips
+of the short peristome teeth, and closes the opening except for the
+interspaces of the peristome.
+
+In a number of forms, which were formerly grouped together, the capsule
+does not open to liberate the spores. These cleistocarpous forms are now
+recognized as related to various natural groups, in which the majority of
+the species possess an operculum. In such forms as _Phascum_ the columella
+persists, and the only peculiarity is in the absence of arrangements for
+dehiscence. In _Ephemerum_ [v.04 p.0653] (and the closely related
+_Nanomitrium_ which has a small operculum) the columella becomes absorbed
+during the development of the spores. Stomata are present on the wall of
+the small capsule. Such facts as these suggest that in many cases the
+cleistocarpous condition is the result of reduction rather than primitive,
+and that possibly the same holds for _Archidium_.
+
+The former subdivision of the Bryales into Musci Cleistocarpi and Musci
+Stegocarpi according to the absence or presence of an operculum is thus
+clearly artificial. The same holds even more obviously for the grouping of
+the stegocarpous forms into those in which the archegonial group terminates
+a main axis (acrocarpi) and those in which it is borne on a more or less
+developed lateral branch (pleurocarpi). Modern classifications of the
+Bryales depend mainly on the construction of the peristome.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.--_Funaria hygrometrica._ Longitudinal section
+through the summit of a male branch. (After Sachs.)
+
+e, Leaves.
+
+d, Leaves cut through the mid-ribs.
+
+c, Paraphyses.
+
+b, Antheridia.]
+
+It remains to be considered to what extent the several natural groups of
+plants classed together in the Bryophyta can be placed in a phylogenetic
+relation to one another. Practically no help is afforded by palaeobotany,
+and only the comparison of existing forms can be depended on. The
+indications of probable lines of evolution are clearest in the Hepaticae.
+The Marchantiales form an obviously natural evolutionary group, and the
+same is probably true of the Jungermanniales, although in neither case can
+the partial lines of progression within the main groups be said to be quite
+clear. Such a form as _Sphaerocarpus_, which has features in common with
+the lower Marchantiales, enables us to form an idea of the divergence of
+the two groups from a common ancestry. The Anthocerotales, on the other
+hand, stand in an isolated position, and recent researches have served to
+emphasize this rather than to confirm the relationship with the
+Jungermanniales suggested by Leitgeb. The indications of a serial
+progression are not so clear in the mosses, but the majority of the forms
+may be regarded as forming a great phylogenetic group in the evolution of
+which the elaboration of the moss-plant has proceeded until the protonema
+appears as a mere preliminary stage to the formation of the plants.
+Parallel with the evolution of the gametophyte in form and structure, a
+progression can be traced in the sporogonium, although the simplest
+sporogonia available for study may owe much of their simplicity to
+reduction. The Andreaeales may perhaps be looked on as a divergent
+primitive branch of the same stock. On the other hand, the Sphagnales show
+such considerable and important differences from the rest of the mosses,
+that like the Anthocerotales among the liverworts, they may be regarded as
+a group, the relationship of which to the main stem is at least
+problematical. Between the Hepaticae, Anthocerotales, Sphagnales and Musci,
+there are no connecting forms known, and it must be left as an open
+question whether the Bryophyta are a monophyletic or polyphyletic group.
+
+The question of the relationship of the Bryophyta on the one hand to the
+Thallophyta and on the other to the Pteridophyta lies even more in the
+region of speculation, on slender grounds without much hope of decisive
+evidence. In a general sense we may regard the Bryophyta as derived from an
+algal ancestry, without being able to suggest the nature of the ancestral
+forms or the geological period at which they arose. Recent researches on
+those Algae such as _Coleochaete_ which appeared to afford a close
+comparison in their alternation of generations with _Riccia_, have shown
+that the body resulting from the segmentation of the fertilized ovum is not
+so strictly comparable in the two cases as had been supposed. The series of
+increasingly complex sporogonia among Bryophytes appears to be most
+naturally explained on an hypothesis of progressive sterilization of
+sporogenous tissue, such as has been advanced by Bower. On the other hand
+there are not wanting indications of reduction in the Bryophyte sporogonium
+which make an alternative view of its origin at least possible. With regard
+to the relationship of the Bryophyta and Pteridophyta the article on the
+latter group should be consulted. It will be sufficient to say in
+conclusion that while the alternating generations in the two groups are
+strictly comparable, no evidence of actual relationship is yet forthcoming.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.--_Funaria hygrometrica._ (After Goebel.)
+
+A. Longitudinal section of the very young sporogonium (f, f') enclosed in
+the archegonial wall (b, h).
+
+B, C. Further stages of the development of the sporogonium (f) enclosed in
+the calyptra formed from the archegonial wall (c) and still bearing the
+neck (h). The foot of the sporogonium has penetrated into the underlying
+tissue of the stem of the moss-plant.]
+
+For further information consult: Campbell, _Mosses and Ferns_ (London,
+1906); Engler and Prantl, _Die naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien_, Teil i. Abt.
+3 (Leipzig, 1893-1907); Goebel, _Organography of Plants_ (Oxford, 1905).
+Full references to the literature of the subject will be found in these
+works. For the identification of the British species of liverworts and
+mosses the following recent works will be of use: Pearson, _The Hepaticae
+of the British Isles_ (London, 1902); Dixon and Jameson, _The Student's
+Handbook of British Mosses_ (London, 1896); Braithwaite, _British Moss
+Flora_ (London, 1887-1905).
+
+(W. H. L.)
+
+BRZOZOWSKI, THADDEUS (d. 1820), nineteenth general of the Jesuits, was
+appointed in succession to Gabriel Gruber on the 2nd of September 1805. In
+1801 Pius VII. had given the Jesuits liberty to reconstitute themselves in
+north Russia (see JESUITS: _History_), and in 1812 Brzozowski secured the
+recognition of the Jesuit college of Polotsk as a university, though he
+could not obtain permission to go to Spain to agitate for the recognition
+[v.04 p.0654] of the Spanish Jesuits. In 1814 Pius VII., in accordance with
+the bull _Sollicitudo omnium ecclesiarum_, gave to Brzozowski among others
+full authority to receive those who desired to enter the society. The
+Russian government, however, soon began to be alarmed at the growth of the
+Jesuits, and on the 20th of December 1815 published an edict expelling them
+from St Petersburg. Brzozowski, having vainly requested to be allowed to
+retire to Rome, died on the 5th of February 1820. He is interesting mainly
+from the fact that he was general of the Society at the time of its
+restoration throughout Europe.
+
+BUBASTIS, the Graecized name of the Egyptian goddess Ubasti, meaning "she
+of [the city] Bast" (B;s-t), a city better known by its later name,
+P-ubasti, "place of Ubasti"; thus the goddess derived her name Ubasti from
+her city (Bast), and in turn the city derived its name P-ubasti from that
+of the goddess; the Greeks, confusing the name of the city with that of the
+goddess, called the latter Bubastis, and the former also Bubastis (later
+Bubastos). Bubastis, capital of the 19th nome of Lower Egypt, is now
+represented by a great mound of ruins called Tell Basta, near Zagazig,
+including the site of a large temple (described by Herodotus) strewn with
+blocks of granite. The monuments discovered there, although only those in
+hard stone have survived, are more important than at any other site in the
+Delta except Tanis and cover a wider range, commencing with Khufu (Cheops)
+and continuing to the thirtieth dynasty.
+
+Ubasti was one of many feline goddesses, figured with the head of a
+lioness. In the great development of reverence for sacred animals which
+took place after the New Kingdom, the domestic cat was especially the
+animal of Bubastis, although it had also to serve for all the other feline
+goddesses, owing no doubt to the scarcity and intractability of its
+congeners. Her hieratic and most general form was still lioness-headed, but
+a popular form, especially in bronze, was a cat-headed women, often holding
+in her right hand a lion aegis, i.e. a broad semicircular pectoral
+surmounted by the head of a lioness, and on the left arm a basket. The cat
+cemetery on the west side of the town consisted of numbers of large brick
+chambers, crammed with burnt and decayed mummies, many of which had been
+enclosed in cat-shaped cases of wood and bronze. Herodotus describes the
+festival of Bubastis, which was attended by thousands from all parts of
+Egypt and was a very riotous affair; it has its modern equivalent in the
+Moslem festival of the sheikh Said el Badawi at Tanta. The tablet of
+Canopus shows that there were two festivals of Bubastis, the great and the
+lesser: perhaps the lesser festival was held at Memphis, where the quarter
+called Ankhto contained a temple to this goddess. Her name is found on
+monuments from the third dynasty onwards, but a great stimulus was given to
+her worship by the twenty-second (Bubastite) dynasty and generally by the
+increased importance of Lower Egypt in later times. Her character seems to
+have been essentially mild and playful, in contrast to Sokhmi and other
+feline goddesses. The Greeks equated Ubasti with their Artemis, confusing
+her with the leonine Tafne, sister of Shöou (Apollo). The Egyptians
+themselves delighted in identifying together goddesses of the most diverse
+forms and attributes; but Ubasti was almost indistinguishable in form from
+Tafne. The name of her son Iphthimis (Nfr-tm), pronounced Eftem, may mean
+"All-good," and, in the absence of other information about him, suggests a
+reason why he was identified with Prometheus.
+
+See K. Sethe in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopädie_; E. Naville, _Bubastis_,
+and _Festival Hall of Osorkon II._; Herodotus ii. 67, 137-156; Grenfell and
+Hunt, _Hibeh Papyri_, i.
+
+(F. LL. G.)
+
+BUCARAMANGA, a city of Colombia, capital of the department of Santandér,
+about 185 m. N.N.E. of Bogotá. Pop. (estimate, 1902) 25,000. It is situated
+on the Lebrija river, 3248 ft. above sea-level, in a mountainous country
+rich in gold, silver and iron mines, and having superior coffee-producing
+lands in the valleys and on the lower slopes. The city is laid out with
+wide, straight streets, is well built, and has many public buildings of a
+substantial character.
+
+BUCCANEERS, the name given to piratical adventurers of different
+nationalities united in their opposition to Spain, who maintained
+themselves chiefly in the Caribbean Sea during the 17th century.
+
+The island of Santo Domingo was one of several in the West Indies which had
+early in the 16th century been almost depopulated by the oppressive
+colonial policy of Spain. Along its coast there were several isolated
+establishments presided over by Spaniards, who were deprived of a
+convenient market for the produce of the soil by the monopolies imposed by
+the mother country. Accordingly English, Dutch and French vessels were
+welcomed and their cargoes readily bought. The island, thinned of its
+former inhabitants, had become the home of immense herds of wild cattle;
+and it became the habit of smugglers to provision at Santo Domingo. The
+natives still left were skilled in preserving flesh at their little
+establishments called _boucans_. The adventurers learned "boucanning" from
+the natives; and gradually Hispaniola became the scene of an extensive and
+illicit butcher trade. Spanish monopolies filled the seamen who sailed the
+Caribbean with a natural hate of everything Spanish. The pleasures of a
+roving life, enlivened by occasional skirmishes with forces organized and
+led by Spanish officials, gained upon them. Out of such conditions arose
+the buccaneer, alternately sailor and hunter, even occasionally a
+planter--roving, bold, unscrupulous, often savage, with an intense
+detestation of Spain. As the Spaniards would not recognize the right of
+other races to make settlements, or even to trade in the West Indies, the
+governments of France, England and Holland would do nothing to control
+their subjects who invaded the islands. They left them free to make
+settlements at their own risk. Each nation contributed a band of colonists,
+who selected the island of St Kitts or St Christopher, in the West Indies,
+where the settlers of both nations were simultaneously planted. The English
+and French were, however, not very friendly; and in 1629, after the
+retirement of several of the former to an adjoining island, the remaining
+colonists were surprised and partly dispersed by the arrival of a Spanish
+fleet of thirty-nine sail. But on the departure of the fleet the scattered
+bands returned, and encouragement was given to their countrymen in Santo
+Domingo. For buccaneering had now become a most profitable employment,
+operations were extended, and a storehouse secure from the attacks of the
+Spaniards was required. The small island of Tortuga (north-west of
+Hispaniola) was seized for this purpose in 1630, converted into a magazine
+for the goods of the rivals, and made their headquarters, Santo Domingo
+itself still continuing their hunting ground. A purely English settlement
+directed by a company in London was made at Old Providence, an island in
+the Caribbean Sea, now belonging to Colombia. It began a little before
+1630, and was suppressed by the Spaniards in 1641.
+
+Spain was unable to take immediate action. Eight years later, however,
+watching their opportunity when many buccaneers were absent in the larger
+island, the Spaniards attacked Tortuga, and massacred every settler they
+could seize. But the others returned; and the buccaneers, now in open
+hostility to the Spanish arms, began to receive recruits from every
+European trading nation, and for three-quarters of a century became the
+scourge of the Spanish-American trade and dominions.
+
+France, throughout all this, had not been idle. She had named the governor
+of St Kitts "Governor-General for the French West India Islands," and in
+1641 he took possession of Tortuga, expelled all English from the island,
+and attempted the same with less success in Santo Domingo. England was
+absorbed in the Civil War, and the buccaneers had to maintain themselves as
+best they could,--now mainly on the sea.
+
+In 1654 the Spaniards regained Tortuga from the French, into whose hands it
+again, however, fell after six years. But this state of affairs was too
+insecure even for these rovers, and they would speedily have succumbed had
+not a refuge been found for them by the fortunate conquest of Jamaica in
+1655 by the navy of the English Commonwealth. These conquests were not made
+without the aid of the buccaneers themselves. The taking and re-taking of
+Tortuga by the French was always with the assistance of the roving
+community; and at the conquest of Jamaica the English navy had the same
+influence in its favour. The [v.04 p.0655] buccaneers, in fact, constituted
+a mercenary navy, ready for employment against the power of Spain by any
+other nation, on condition of sharing the plunder; and they were noted for
+their daring, their cruelty and their extraordinary skill in seamanship.
+
+Their history now divides itself into three epochs. The first of these
+extends from the period of their rise to the capture of Panama by Morgan in
+1671, during which time they were hampered neither by government aid nor,
+till near its close, by government restriction. The second, from 1671 to
+the time of their greatest power, 1685, when the scene of their operations
+was no longer merely the Caribbean, but principally the whole range of the
+Pacific from California to Chile. The third and last period extends from
+that year onwards; it was a time of disunion and disintegration, when the
+independence and rude honour of the previous periods had degenerated into
+unmitigated vice and brutality.
+
+It is chiefly during the first period that those leaders flourished whose
+names and doings have been associated with all that was really influential
+in the exploits of the buccaneers--the most prominent being Mansfield and
+Morgan. The floating commerce of Spain had by the middle of the 17th
+century become utterly insignificant. But Spanish settlements remained; and
+in 1654 the first great expedition on land made by the buccaneers, though
+attended by considerable difficulties, was completed by the capture and
+sack of New Segovia, on the mainland of America. The Gulf of Venezuela,
+with its towns of Maracaibo and Gibraltar, were attacked and plundered
+under the command of a Frenchman named L'Ollonois, who performed, it is
+said, the office of executioner upon the whole crew of a Spanish vessel
+manned with ninety seamen. Such successes removed the buccaneers further
+and further from the pale of civilized society, fed their revenge, and
+inspired them with an avarice almost equal to that of the original settlers
+from Spain. Mansfield indeed, in 1664, conceived the idea of a permanent
+settlement upon a small island of the Bahamas, named New Providence, and
+Henry Morgan, a Welshman, intrepid and unscrupulous, joined him. But the
+untimely death of Mansfield nipped in the bud the only rational scheme of
+settlement which seems at any time to have animated this wild community;
+and Morgan, now elected commander, swept the whole Caribbean, and from his
+headquarters in Jamaica led triumphant expeditions to Cuba and the
+mainland. He was leader of the expedition wherein Porto Bello, one of the
+best-fortified ports in the West Indies, was surprised and plundered.
+
+This was too much for even the adverse European powers; and in 1670 a
+treaty was concluded between England and Spain, proclaiming peace and
+friendship among the subjects of the two sovereigns in the New World,
+formally renouncing hostilities of every kind. Great Britain was to hold
+all her possessions in the New World as her own property (a remarkable
+concession on the part of Spain), and consented, on behalf of her subjects,
+to forbear trading with any Spanish port without licence obtained.
+
+The treaty was very ill observed in Jamaica, where the governor, Thomas
+Modyford (1620-1679), was in close alliance with the "privateers," which
+was the official title of the buccaneers. He had already granted
+commissions to Morgan and others for a great attack on the Isthmus of
+Panama, the route by which the bullion of the South American mines was
+carried to Porto Bello, to be shipped to Spain. The buccaneers to the
+number of 2000 began by seizing Chagres, and then marched to Panama in
+1671. After a difficult journey on foot and in canoes, they found
+themselves nearing the shores of the South Sea and in view of the city. On
+the morning of the tenth day they commenced an engagement which ended in
+the rout of the defenders of the town. It was taken, and, accidentally or
+not, it was burnt. The sack of Panama was accompanied by great barbarities.
+The Spaniards had, however, removed the treasure before the city was taken.
+When the booty was divided, Morgan is accused of having defrauded his
+followers. It is certain that the share per man was small, and that many of
+the buccaneers died of starvation while trying to return to Jamaica.
+Modyford was recalled, and in 1672 Morgan was called home and imprisoned in
+the Tower. In 1674 he was allowed to come back to the island as
+lieutenant-governor with Lord Vaughan. He had become so unpopular after the
+expedition of 1671 that he was followed in the streets and threatened by
+the relations of those who had perished. During his later years he was
+active in suppressing the buccaneers who had now inconvenient claims on
+him.
+
+From 1671 to 1685 is the time of the greatest daring, prosperity and power
+of the buccaneers. The expedition against Panama had not been without its
+influence. Notwithstanding their many successes in the Caribbean and on
+land, including a second plunder of Porto Bello, their thoughts ran
+frequently on the great expedition across the isthmus, and they pictured
+the South Sea as a far wider and more lucrative field for the display of
+their united power.
+
+In 1680 a body of marauders over 300 strong, well armed and provisioned,
+landed on the shore of Darien and struck across the country; and the
+cruelty and mismanagement displayed in the policy of the Spaniards towards
+the Indians were now revenged by the assistance which the natives eagerly
+rendered to the adventurers. They acted as guides during a difficult
+journey of nine days, kept the invaders well supplied with food, provided
+them with canoes, and only left them after the taking of the fort of Santa
+Maria, when the buccaneers were fairly embarked on a broad and safe river
+which emptied itself into the South Sea. With John Coxon as commander they
+entered the Bay of Panama, where rumour had been before them, and where the
+Spaniards had hastily prepared a small fleet to meet them. But the valour
+of the buccaneers won for them another victory; within a week they took
+possession of four Spanish ships, and now successes flowed upon them. The
+Pacific, hitherto free from their intrusion, showed many sail of merchant
+vessels, while on land opposition south of the Bay of Panama was of little
+avail, since few were acquainted with the use of fire-arms. Coxon and
+seventy men returned as they had gone, but the others, under Sawkins, Sharp
+and Watling, roamed north and south on islands and mainland, and remained
+for long ravaging the coast of Peru. Never short of silver and gold, but
+often in want of the necessaries of life, they continued their practices
+for a little longer; then, evading the risk of recrossing the isthmus, they
+boldly cleared Cape Horn, and arrived in the Indies. Again, in 1683,
+numbers of them under John Cook departed for the South Sea by way of Cape
+Horn. On Cook's death his successor, Edward Davis, undoubtedly the greatest
+and most prudent commander who ever led the forces of the buccaneers at
+sea, met with a certain Captain Swan from England, and the two captains
+began a cruise which was disastrous to the Spanish trade in the Pacific.
+
+In 1685 they were joined in the Bay of Panama by large numbers of
+buccaneers who had crossed the isthmus under Townley and others. This
+increased body of men required an enlarged measure of adventure, and this
+in a few months was supplied by the viceroy of Peru. That officer, seeing
+the trade of the colony cut off, supplies stopped, towns burned and raided,
+and property harassed by continual raids, resolved by vigorous means to put
+an end to it. But his aim was not easily accomplished. In this same year a
+Spanish fleet of fourteen sail met, but did not engage, ten buccaneer
+vessels which were found in the Bay of Panama.
+
+At this period the power of the buccaneers was at its height. But the
+combination was too extensive for its work, and the different nationality
+of those who composed it was a source of growing discord. Nor was the dream
+of equality ever realized for any length of time. The immense spoil
+obtained on the capture of wealthy cities was indeed divided equally. But
+in the gambling and debauchery which followed, nothing was more common than
+that one-half of the conquerors should find themselves on the morrow in
+most pressing want; and while those who had retained or increased their
+share would willingly have gone home, the others clamoured for renewed
+attacks. The separation of the English and French buccaneers, who together
+presented a united front to the Spanish fleet in 1685, marks the beginning
+of the third and last epoch in their history.
+
+The brilliant exploits begun by the sack of Leon and Realejo [v.04 p.0656]
+by the English under Davis have, even in their variety and daring, a
+sameness which deprives them of interest, and the wonderful confederacy is
+now seen to be falling gradually to pieces. The skill of Davis at sea was
+on one occasion displayed in a seven days' engagement with two large
+Spanish vessels, and the interest undoubtedly centres in him. Townley and
+Swan had, however, by this time left him, and after cruising together for
+some time, they, too, parted. In 1688 Davis cleared Cape Horn and arrived
+in the West Indies, while Swan's ship, the "Cygnet," was abandoned as
+unseaworthy, after sailing as far as Madagascar. Townley had hardly joined
+the French buccaneers remaining in the South Sea ere he died, and the
+Frenchmen with their companions crossed New Spain to the West Indies. And
+thus the Pacific, ravaged so long by this powerful and mysterious band of
+corsairs, was at length at peace.
+
+The West Indies had by this time become hot enough even for the banded
+pirates. They hung doggedly along the coasts of Jamaica and Santo Domingo,
+but their day was nearly over. Only once again--at the siege of
+Carthagena--did they appear great; but even then the expedition was not of
+their making, and they were mere auxiliaries of the French regular forces.
+After the treachery of the French commander of this expedition a spirit of
+unity and despairing energy seemed reawakened in them; but this could not
+avert and scarcely delayed the rapidly approaching extinction of the
+community.
+
+The French and English buccaneers could not but take sides in the war which
+had arisen between their respective countries in 1689. Thus was broken the
+bond of unity which had for three-quarters of a century kept the subjects
+of the two nations together in schemes of aggression upon a common foe. In
+the short peace of 1697-1700 England and France were using all their
+influence, both in the Old World and in the New, to ingratiate themselves
+into the favour of the king of Spain. With the resumption of hostilities in
+1700 and the rise of Spain consequent upon the accession of the French
+claimant to the throne the career of the buccaneers was effectually closed.
+
+But the fall of the buccaneers is no more accounted for fully by these
+circumstances than is their rise by the massacre of the islanders of Santo
+Domingo. There was that in the very nature of the community which, from its
+birth, marked it as liable to speedy decline.
+
+The principles which bound the buccaneers together were, first the desire
+for adventure and gain, and, in the second place, hatred of the Spaniard.
+The first was hardly a sufficient bond of union, among men of different
+nationalities, when booty could be had nearly always by private venture
+under the colours of the separate European powers. Of greater validity was
+their second and great principle of union, namely, that they warred not
+with one another, nor with every one, but with a single and a common foe.
+For while the buccaneer forces included English, French and Dutch sailors,
+and were complemented occasionally by bands of native Indians, there are
+few instances during the time of their prosperity and growth of their
+falling upon one another, and treating their fellows with the savagery
+which they exulted in displaying against the subjects of Spain. The
+exigencies, moreover, of their perilous career readily wasted their
+suddenly acquired gains.
+
+Settled labour, the warrant of real wealth, was unacceptable to those who
+lived by promoting its insecurity. Regular trade--though rendered
+attractive by smuggling--and pearl gathering and similar operations which
+were spiced with risk, were open in vain to them, and in the absence of any
+domestic life, a hand-to-mouth system of supply and demand rooted out
+gradually the prudence which accompanies any mode of settled existence. In
+everything the policy of the buccaneers, from the beginning to the end of
+their career, was one of pure destruction, and was, therefore, ultimately
+suicidal.
+
+Their great importance in history lies in the fact that they opened the
+eyes of the world, and specially of the nations from whom these buccaneers
+had sprung, to the whole system of Spanish-American government and
+commerce--the former in its rottenness, and the latter in its possibilities
+in other hands. From this, then, along with other causes, dating primarily
+from the helplessness and presumption of Spain, there arose the West Indian
+possessions of Holland, England and France.
+
+A work published at Amsterdam in 1678, entitled _De Americaensche Zee
+Roovers_, from the pen of a buccaneer named Exquemelin, was translated into
+several European languages, receiving additions at the hands of the
+different translators. The French translation by Frontignières is named
+_Histoire des avanturiers qui se sont signalez dans les Indes_; the English
+edition is entitled _The Bucaniers of America._ Other works are Raynal's
+_History of the Settlements and Trade of the Europeans in the East and West
+Indies_, book x., English translation 1782; Dampier's _Voyages_; Geo. W.
+Thornbury's _Monarchs of the Main, &c._ (1855); Lionel Wafer's _Voyage and
+Description of the Isthmus of America_ (1699); and the _Histoire de l'isle
+Espagnole, &c._, and _Histoire et description générale de la Nouvelle
+France_ of Père Charlevoix. The statements in these works are to be
+received with caution. A really authentic narrative, however, is Captain
+James Burney's _History of the Buccaneers of America_ (London, 1816). The
+_Calendar of State Papers_, Colonial Series (London, 1860 et seq.),
+contains much evidence for the history of the buccaneers in the West
+Indies.
+
+(D. H.)
+
+BUCCARI (Serbo-Croatian _Bakar_), a royal free town of Croatia-Slavonia,
+Hungary; situated in the county of Modrus-Fiume, 7 m. S.E. of Fiume, on a
+small bay of the Adriatic Sea. Pop. (1900) 1870. The Hungarian state
+railway from Zákány and Agram terminates 2½ m. from Buccari. The harbour,
+though sometimes dangerous to approach, affords good anchorage to small
+vessels. Owing to competition from Fiume, Buccari lost the greater part of
+its trade during the 19th century. The staple industry is boatbuilding, and
+there is an active coasting trade in fish, wine, wood and coal. The
+tunny-fishery is of some importance. In the neighbourhood of the town is
+the old castle of Buccarica, and farther south the flourishing little port
+of Porto Ré or Kraljevica.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Buccina in the National Museum, Naples.
+
+From a photo by Brogi.]
+
+BUCCINA (more correctly _Bucina_, Gr. [Greek: Bukanê], connected with
+_bucca_, cheek, and Gr. [Greek: Buzô], a brass wind instrument extensively
+used in the ancient Roman army. The Roman instrument consisted of a brass
+tube measuring some 11 to 12 ft. in length, of narrow cylindrical bore, and
+played by means of a cup-shaped mouthpiece. The tube is bent round upon
+itself from the mouthpiece to the bell in the shape of a broad C and is
+strengthened by means of a bar across the curve, which the performer grasps
+while playing, in order to steady the instrument; the bell curves over his
+head or shoulder as in the modern helicon. Three Roman buccinas were found
+among the ruins of Pompeii and are now deposited in the museum at Naples.
+V. C. Mahillon, of Brussels[1] has made a facsimile of one of these
+instruments; it is in G and has almost the same harmonic series as the
+French horn and the trumpet. The buccina, the cornu (see HORN), and the
+tuba were used as signal instruments in the Roman army and camp to sound
+the four night watches (hence known as _buccina prima, secunda, &c._), to
+summon them by means of the special signal known as _classicum_, and to
+give orders.[2] Frontinus relates[3] that a Roman general, who had been
+surrounded by the enemy, escaped during the night by means of the stratagem
+of leaving behind him a _buccinator_ (trumpeter), who sounded [v.04 p.0657]
+the watches throughout the night.[4] Vegetius gives brief descriptions of
+the three instruments, which suffice to establish their identity; the tuba,
+he says, is straight; the buccina is of bronze bent in the form of a
+circle.[5]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Busine, 14th century. (From MS. R. 10 E. IV. Brit.
+Mus.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Busine, 14th century. (From MS. R. 10 E. IV. Brit.
+Mus.)]
+
+The buccina, in respect of its technical construction and acoustic
+properties, was the ancestor of both trumpet and trombone; the connexion is
+further established by the derivation of the words Sackbut and _Posaune_
+(the German for trombone) from buccina. The relation was fully recognized
+in Germany during the 15th and 16th centuries, as two translations of
+Vegetius, published at Ulm in 1470, and at Augsburg in 1534, clearly
+demonstrate: "Bucina das ist die trumet oder pusan"[6] ("the bucina is the
+trumpet or trombone") and ("Bucina ist die trummet die wirt ausz und
+eingezogen"[7] ("the bucina is the trumpet which is drawn out and in"). A
+French translation by Jean de Meung (Paris, 1488),[8] renders the passage
+(chap. iii. 5) thus: "Trompe est longue et droite; buisine est courte et
+reflechist en li meisme si comme partie de cercle." On Trajan's column[9]
+the tuba, the cornu and the buccina are distinguishable. Other
+illustrations of the buccina may be seen in François Mazois' _Les Ruines de
+Pompéi_ (Paris, 1824-1838), pt. iv, pl. xlviii. fig. 1, and in J.N. von
+Wilmowsky's _Eine römische Villa zu Nennig_ (Bonn, 1865), pl. xii.
+(mosaics), where the buccinator is accompanied on the hydraulus. The
+military buccina described is a much more advanced instrument than its
+prototype the _buccina marina_, a primitive trumpet in the shape of a
+conical shell, often having a spiral twist, which in poetry is often called
+_concha_. The buccina marina is frequently depicted in the hands of Tritons
+(Macrobius i. 8), or of sailors, as for instance on terra-cotta lamp shown
+by G.P. Bellori (_Lucernae veterum sepulcrales iconicae_, 1702, iii. 12).
+The highly imaginative writer of the apocryphal letter of St Jerome to
+Dardanus also has a word to say concerning the buccina among the Semitic
+races: "Bucca vocatur tuba apud Hebreos: deinde per diminutionem buccina
+dicitur." After the fall of the Roman empire the art of bending metal tubes
+was gradually lost, and although the buccina survived in Europe both in
+name and in principle of construction during the middle ages, it lost for
+ever the characteristic curve like a "C" which it possessed in common with
+the cornu, an instrument having a conical bore of wider calibre. Although
+we regard the buccina as essentially Roman, an instrument of the same type,
+but probably straight and of kindred name, was widely known and used in the
+East, in Persia, Arabia and among the Semitic races. After a lapse of years
+during which records are almost wanting, the buccina reappeared all over
+Europe as the busine, buisine, pusin, busaun, pusun, posaun, busna (Slav),
+&c.; whether it was a Roman survival or a re-introduction through the Moors
+of Spain in the West and the Byzantine empire in the East, we have no
+records to show. An 11th-century mural painting representing the Last
+Judgment in the cathedral of S. Angelo in Formis (near Capua), shows the
+angels blowing the last trump on busines.[10]
+
+There are two distinct forms of the busine which may be traced during the
+middle ages:--(i) a long straight tube (fig. 2) consisting of 3 to 5 joints
+of narrow cylindrical bore, the last joint alone being conical and ending
+in a pommel-shaped bell, precisely as in the curved buccina (fig. 1); (2) a
+long straight cylindrical tube of somewhat wider bore than the busine,
+ending in a wide bell curving out abruptly from the cylindrical tube (fig.
+3).
+
+The history of the development of the trumpet, the sackbut and the trombone
+from the buccina will be found more fully treated under those headings; for
+the part played by the buccina in the evolution of the French horn see
+HORN.
+
+(K. S.)
+
+[1] See _Catalogue descriptif_ (Ghent, 1880), p. 330, and illustration,
+vol. ii. (1896), p. 30.
+
+[2] Livy vii. 35, xxvi. 15; Prop. v. 4, 63; Tac. _Ann._ xv. 30; Vegetius,
+_De re militari_, ii. 22, iii. 5; Polyb. vi. 365, xiv. 3, 7.
+
+[3] _Stratagematicon_, i. 5, § 17.
+
+[4] For another instance see Caesar, _Comm. Bell. Civ._ ii. 35.
+
+[5] Vegetius, op. cit. iii. 5.
+
+[6] Idem, ii. 7.
+
+[7] Idem, iii. 5.
+
+[8] A reprint edited by Ulysse Robert has been published by the Soc. des
+Anciens Textes Français (Paris, 1897).
+
+[9] See Conrad Cichorius, _Die Reliefs der Traiansaule_, 3 vols. of text
+and 2 portfolios of heliogravures (Berlin, 1896, &c.), Bd. i. pl. x.
+buccina and tubae; pl. viii. buccina; pl. lxxvi. buccina and two cornua;
+pl. xx. cornu, &c.; or W. Froehner, _La Colonne de Trajan_ (Paris, 1872),
+vol. i. pl. xxxii., xxxvi., li., tome ii. pl. lxvi., tome iii. pl. cxxxiv.,
+&c.
+
+[10] See F.X. Kraus, "Die Wandgemälde von San Angelo in Formis," in
+_Jahrbuch der kgl. preuss. Kunstsamml._ (1893), pl. i.
+
+BUCCLEUCH, DUKES OF. The substantial origin of the ducal house of the
+Scotts of Buccleuch dates back to the large grants of lands in Scotland to
+Sir Walter Scott of Kirkurd and Buccleuch, a border chief, by James II., in
+consequence of the fall of the 8th earl of Douglas (1452); but the family
+traced their descent back to a Sir Richard le Scott (1240-1285). The estate
+of Buccleuch is in Selkirkshire. Sir Walter Scott of Branxholm and
+Buccleuch (d. 1552) distinguished himself at the battle of Pinkie (1547),
+and furnished material for his later namesake's famous poem, _The Lay of
+the Last Minstrel_; and his great-grandson Sir Walter (1565-1611) was
+created Lord Scott of Buccleuch in 1606. An earldom followed in 1619. The
+second earl's daughter Anne (1651-1732), who succeeded him as a countess in
+her own right, married in 1663 the famous duke of Monmouth (_q.v._), who
+was then created 1st duke of Buccleuch; and her grandson Francis became 2nd
+duke. The latter's son Henry (1746-1812) became 3rd duke, and in 1810
+succeeded also, on the death of William Douglas, 4th duke of Queensberry,
+to that dukedom as well as its estates and other honours, according to the
+entail executed by his own great-grandfather, the 2nd duke of Queensberry,
+in 1706; he married the duke of Montagu's daughter, and was famous for his
+generosity and benefactions. His son Charles William Henry (d. 1819),
+grandson Walter Francis Scott (1806-1884), and great-grandson William Henry
+Walter Montagu Douglas Scott (b. 1831), succeeded in turn as 4th, 5th and
+6th dukes of Buccleuch and 6th, 7th, and 8th dukes of Queensberry. The 5th
+duke was lord privy seal 1842-1846, and president of the council 1846. It
+was he who at a cost of over £500,000 made the harbour at Granton, near
+Edinburgh. He was president of the Highland and Agricultural Society, the
+Society of Antiquaries and of the British Association. The 6th duke sat in
+the House of Commons as Conservative M.P. for Midlothian, 1853-1868 and
+1874-1880; his wife, a daughter of the 1st duke of Abercorn, held the
+office of mistress of the robes.
+
+See Sir W. Fraser, _The Scotts of Buccleuch_ (1878).
+
+BUCENTAUR (Ital. _bucintoro_), the state gallery of the doges of Venice, on
+which, every year on Ascension day up to 1789, they put into the Adriatic
+in order to perform the ceremony of "wedding the sea." The name _bucintoro_
+is derived from the Ital. _buzino d' oro_, "golden bark," latinized in the
+middle ages as _bucentaurus_ on the analogy of a supposed Gr. [Greek:
+boukentauros], ox-centaur (from [Greek: bous] and [Greek: Kentauros]). This
+led to the explanation of the name as derived from the head of an ox having
+served as the galley's figurehead. This derivation is, however, fanciful;
+the name _bucentaurus_ is unknown in ancient mythology, and the figurehead
+of the bucentaurs, of which representations have come down to us, is the
+lion of St Mark. [v.04 p.0658] The name bucentaur seems, indeed, to have
+been given to any great and sumptuous Venetian galley. Du Cange (_Gloss._,
+_s.v._ "Bucentaurus") quotes from the chronicle of the doge Andrea Dandolo
+(d. 1354): _cum uno artificioso et solemni Bucentauro, super quo venit
+usque ad S. Clementem, quo jam pervenerat principalior et solemnior
+Bucentaurus cum consiliariis_, &c. The last and most magnificent of the
+bucentaurs, built in 1729, was destroyed by the French in 1798 for the sake
+of its golden decorations. Remains of it are preserved at Venice in the
+Museo Civico Correr and in the Arsenal; in the latter there is also a fine
+model of it.
+
+The "Marriage of the Adriatic," or more correctly "of the sea" (_Sposalizio
+del Mar_) was a ceremony symbolizing the maritime dominion of Venice. The
+ceremony, established about A.D. 1000 to commemorate the doge Orseolo II.'s
+conquest of Dalmatia, was originally one of supplication and placation,
+Ascension day being chosen as that on which the doge had set out on his
+expedition. The form it took was a solemn procession of boats, headed by
+the doge's _maesta nave_, afterwards the Bucentaur (from 1311) out to sea
+by the Lido port. A prayer was offered that "for us and all who sail
+thereon the sea may be calm and quiet," whereupon the doge and the others
+were solemnly aspersed with holy water, the rest of which was thrown into
+the sea while the priests chanted "Purge me with hyssop and I shall be
+clean." To this ancient ceremony a sacramental character was given by Pope
+Alexander III in 1177, in return for the services rendered by Venice in the
+struggle against the emperor Frederick I. The pope drew a ring from his
+finger and, giving it to the doge, bade him cast such a one into the sea
+each year on Ascension day, and so wed the sea. Henceforth the ceremonial,
+instead of placatory and expiatory, became nuptial. Every year the doge
+dropped a consecrated ring into the sea, and with the words _Desponsamus
+te, mare_ (We wed thee, sea) declared Venice and the sea to be indissolubly
+one (see H. F. Brown, _Venice_, London, 1893, pp. 69, 110).
+
+BUCEPHALUS (Gr. [Greek: boukephalos]), the favourite Thracian horse of
+Alexander the Great, which died in 326 B.C., either of wounds received in
+the battle on the Hydaspes, or of old age. In commemoration Alexander built
+the city of Bucephala (Boukephala), the site of which is almost certainly
+to be identified with a mound on the bank of the river opposite the modern
+Jhelum.
+
+See especially Arrian v. 20; other stories in Plutarch, _Alex._ 6; Curtius
+vi. 8. For the identification of Bucephala, Vincent A. Smith, _Early Hist.
+of India_ (2nd ed., 1908), pp. 65, 66 note.
+
+BUCER (or BUTZER), MARTIN (1491-1551), German Protestant reformer, was born
+in 1491 at Schlettstadt in Alsace. In 1506 he entered the Dominican order,
+and was sent to study at Heidelberg. There he became acquainted with the
+works of Erasmus and Luther, and was present at a disputation of the latter
+with some of the Romanist doctors. He became a convert to the reformed
+opinions, abandoned his order by papal dispensation in 1521, and soon
+afterwards married a nun. In 1522 he was pastor at Landstuhl in the
+palatinate, and travelled hither and thither propagating the reformed
+doctrine. After his excommunication in 1523 he made his headquarters at
+Strassburg, where he succeeded Matthew Zell. Henry VIII of England asked
+his advice in connexion with the divorce from Catherine of Aragon. On the
+question of the sacrament of the Lord's Supper, Bucer's opinions were
+decidedly Zwinglian, but he was anxious to maintain church unity with the
+Lutheran party, and constantly endeavoured, especially after Zwingli's
+death, to formulate a statement of belief that would unite Lutheran, south
+German and Swiss reformers. Hence the charge of ambiguity and obscurity
+which has been laid against him. In 1548 he was sent for to Augsburg to
+sign the agreement, called the _Interim_, between the Catholics and
+Protestants. His stout opposition to this project exposed him to many
+difficulties, and he was glad to accept Cranmer's invitation to make his
+home in England. On his arrival in 1549 he was appointed regius professor
+of divinity at Cambridge. Edward VI. and the protector Somerset showed him
+much favour and he was consulted as to the revision of the Book of Common
+Prayer. But on the 27th of February 1551 he died, and was buried in the
+university church, with great state. In 1557, by Mary's commissioners, his
+body was dug up and burnt, and his tomb demolished; it was subsequently
+reconstructed by order of Elizabeth. Bucer is said to have written
+ninety-six treatises, among them a translation and exposition of the Psalms
+and a work _Deregno Christi_. His name is familiar in English literature
+from the use made of his doctrines by Milton in his divorce treatises.
+
+A collected edition of his writings has never been published. A volume
+known as the _Tomus Anglicanus_ (Basel, 1577) contains those written in
+England. See J.W. Baum, _Capito and Butzer_ (Strassburg, 1860); A.
+Erichson, _Martin Butzer_ (1891); and the articles in the _Dict. Nat.
+Biog._ (by A.W. Ward), and in Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopädie_ (by Paul
+Grünberg).
+
+BUCK, CHRISTIAN LEOPOLD VON, BARON (1774-1853), German geologist and
+geographer, a member of an ancient and noble Prussian family, was born at
+Stolpe in Pomerania on the 26th of April 1774. In 1790-1793 he studied at
+the mining school of Freiberg under Werner, one of his fellow-students
+there being Alexander von Humboldt. He afterwards completed his education
+at the universities of Halle and Göttingen. His _Versuch einer
+mineralogischen Beschreibung von Landeck_ (Breslau, 1797) was translated
+into French (Paris, 1805), and into English as _Attempt at a Mineralogical
+Description of Landeck_ (Edinburgh, 1810); he also published in 1802
+_Entwurf einer geognostischen Beschreibung von Schlesien (Geognostische
+Beobachtungen auf Reisen durch Deutschland und Italien_, Band i.). He was
+at this time a zealous upholder of the Neptunian theory of his illustrious
+master. In 1797 he met Humboldt at Salzburg, and with him explored the
+geological formations of Styria, and the adjoining Alps. In the spring of
+the following year, von Buch extended his excursions into Italy, where his
+faith in the Neptunian theory was shaken. In his previous works he had
+advocated the aqueous origin of basaltic and other formations. In 1799 he
+paid his first visit to Vesuvius, and again in 1805 he returned to study
+the volcano, accompanied by Humboldt and Gay Lussac. They had the good
+fortune to witness a remarkable eruption, which supplied von Buch with data
+for refuting many erroneous ideas then entertained regarding volcanoes. In
+1802 he had explored the extinct volcanoes of Auvergne. The aspect of the
+Puy de Dôme, with its cone of trachyte and its strata of basaltic lava,
+induced him to abandon as untenable the doctrines of Werner on the
+formation of these rocks. The scientific results of his investigations he
+embodied in his _Geognostische Beobachtungen auf Reisen durch Deutschland
+und Italien_ (Berlin, 1802-1809). From the south of Europe von Buch
+repaired to the north, and spent two years among the Scandinavian islands,
+making many important observations on the geography of plants, on
+climatology and on geology. He showed that many of the erratic blocks on
+the North German plains must have come from Scandinavia. He also
+established the fact that the whole of Sweden is slowly but continuously
+rising above the level of the sea from Frederikshald to Abo. The details of
+these discoveries are given in his _Reise durch Norwegen und Lappland_
+(Berlin, 1810). In 1815 he visited the Canary Islands in company with
+Christian Smith, the Norwegian botanist. His observations here convinced
+him that these and other islands of the Atlantic owed their existence to
+volcanic action of the most intense kind, and that the groups of islands in
+the South Sea are the remains of a pre-existing continent. The physical
+description of the Canary Islands was published at Berlin in 1825, and this
+work alone is regarded as an enduring monument of his labours. After
+leaving the Canaries von Buch proceeded to the Hebrides and the coasts of
+Scotland and Ireland. Palaeontology also claimed his attention, and he
+described in 1831 and later years a number of Cephalopods, Brachiopods and
+Cystidea, and pointed out their stratigraphical importance. In addition to
+the works already mentioned von Buch published in 1832 the magnificent
+_Geological Map of Germany_ (42 sheets, Berlin). His geological excursions
+were continued without interruption till his 78th year. Eight months before
+his death he visited [v.04 p.0659] the mountains of Auvergne; and on
+returning home he read a paper on the Jurassic formation before the Academy
+of Berlin. He died at Berlin on the 4th of March 1853. Von Buch had
+inherited from his father a fortune more than sufficient for his wants. He
+was never married, and was unembarrassed by family ties. His excursions
+were always taken on foot, with a staff in his hand, and the large pockets
+of his overcoat filled with papers and geological instruments. Under this
+guise, the passer-by would not easily have recognized the man whom Humboldt
+pronounced the greatest geologist of his time.
+
+A complete edition of his works was published at Berlin (1867-1885).
+
+BUCHAN, EARLS OF. The earldom of Mar and Buchan was one of the seven
+original Scottish earldoms; later, Buchan was separated from Mar, and among
+the early earls of Buchan were Alexander Comyn (d. 1289), John Comyn (d. c.
+1313), both constables of Scotland, and Henry Beaumont (d. 1340), who had
+married a Comyn. John Comyn's wife, Isabel, was the countess of Buchan who
+crowned Robert the Bruce king at Scone in 1306, and was afterwards
+imprisoned at Berwick; not, however, in a cage hung on the wall of the
+castle. About 1382 Sir Alexander Stewart (d. c. 1404), the "wolf of
+Badenoch," a son of King Robert II., became earl of Buchan, and the
+Stewarts appear to have held the earldom for about a century and a half,
+although not in a direct line from Sir Alexander.[1] Among the most
+celebrated of the Stewart earls were the Scottish regent, Robert, duke of
+Albany, and his son John, who was made constable of France and was killed
+at the battle of Verneuil in 1424. In 1617 the earldom came to James
+Erskine (d. 1640), a son of John Erskine, 2nd (or 7th) earl of Mar, whose
+wife Mary had inherited it from her father, James Douglas (d. 1601), and
+from that time it has been retained by the Erskines.
+
+Perhaps the most celebrated of the later earls of Buchan was the eccentric
+David Steuart Erskine, 11th earl (1742-1829), a son of Henry David, 10th
+earl (d. 1767), and brother of Henry Erskine (_q.v._), and of Thomas, Lord
+Erskine (_q.v._). His pertinacity was instrumental in effecting a change in
+the method of electing Scottish representative peers, and in 1780 he
+succeeded in founding the Scottish Society of Antiquaries. Among his
+correspondents was Horace Walpole, and he wrote an _Essay on the Lives of
+Fletcher of Saltoun and the Poet Thomson_ (1792), and other writings. He
+died at his residence at Dryburgh in April 1829, leaving no legitimate
+children, and was followed as 12th earl by his nephew Henry David
+(1783-1857), the ancestor of the present peer. The 11th earl's natural son,
+Sir David Erskine (1772-1837), who inherited his father's unentailed
+estates, was an antiquary and a dramatist.
+
+[1] In August 1908, during some excavations at Dunkeld, remains were found
+which are supposed to be those of Alexander Stewart, the "wolf of
+Badenoch."
+
+BUCHAN, ELSPETH (1738-1791), founder of a Scottish religious sect known as
+the Buchanites, was the daughter of John Simpson, proprietor of an inn near
+Banff. Having quarrelled with her husband, Robert Buchan, a potter of
+Greenock, she settled with her children in Glasgow, where she was deeply
+impressed by a sermon preached by Hugh White, minister of the Relief church
+at Irvine. She persuaded White and others that she was a saint with a
+special mission, that in fact she was the woman, and White the man-child,
+described in Revelation xii. White was condemned by the presbytery, and the
+sect, which ultimately numbered forty-six adherents, was expelled by the
+magistrates in 1784 and settled in a farm, consisting of one room and a
+loft, known as New Cample in Dumfriesshire. Mrs Buchan claimed prophetic
+inspiration and pretended to confer the Holy Ghost upon her followers by
+breathing upon them; they believed that the millennium was near, and that
+they would not die, but be translated. It appears that they had community
+of wives and lived on funds provided by the richer members. Robert Burns,
+the poet, in a letter dated August 1784, describes the sect as idle and
+immoral. In 1785 White and Mrs Buchan published a _Divine Dictionary_, but
+the sect broke up on the death of its founder in spite of White's attempts
+to prove that she was only in a trance. Even White was eventually
+undeceived. Andrew Innes, the last survivor, died in 1848. See J. Train,
+_The Buchanites from First to Last_ (Edinburgh, 1846).
+
+BUCHAN, PETER (1790-1854), Scottish editor, was born at Peterhead,
+Aberdeenshire, in 1790. In 1816 he started in business as a printer at
+Peterhead, and was successful enough to be able eventually to retire and
+devote himself to the collection and editing of Scottish ballads. His
+_Ancient Ballads and Songs of the North of Scotland_ (1828) contained a
+large number of hitherto unpublished ballads, and newly discovered versions
+of existing ones. Another collection made by him was published by the Percy
+Society, under the title _Scottish Traditional Versions of Ancient Ballads_
+(1845). Two unpublished volumes of Buchan's ballad collections are in the
+British Museum. He died on the 19th of September 1854.
+
+BUCHANAN, CLAUDIUS (1766-1815), English divine, was born at Cambuslang,
+near Glasgow, and educated at the universities of Glasgow and Cambridge. He
+was ordained in 1795, and after holding a chaplaincy in India at Barrackpur
+(1797-1799) was appointed Calcutta chaplain and vice-principal of the
+college of Fort William. In this capacity he did much to advance
+Christianity and native education in India, especially by organizing
+systematic translations of the Scriptures. An account of his travels in the
+south and west of India, which added considerably to our knowledge of
+nature life, is given in his _Christian Researches in Asia_ (Cambridge,
+1811). After his return to England in 1808, he still took an active part in
+matters connected with India, and by his book entitled _Colonial
+Ecclesiastical Establishment_ (London, 1813), he assisted in settling the
+controversy of 1813, which ended in the establishment of the Indian
+episcopate.
+
+BUCHANAN, GEORGE (1506-1582), Scottish humanist, was born in February 1506.
+His father, a younger son of an old family, was the possessor of the farm
+of Moss, in the parish of Killearn, Stirlingshire, but he died at an early
+age, leaving his widow and children in poverty. His mother, Agnes Heriot,
+was of the family of the Heriots of Trabroun, Haddingtonshire, of which
+George Heriot, founder of Heriot's hospital, was also a member. Buchanan is
+said to have attended Killearn school, but not much is known of his early
+education. In 1520 he was sent by his uncle, James Heriot, to the
+university of Paris, where, as he tells us in an autobiographical sketch,
+he devoted himself to the writing of verses "partly by liking, partly by
+compulsion (that being then the one task prescribed to youth)." In 1522 his
+uncle died, and Buchanan being thus unable to continue longer in Paris,
+returned to Scotland. After recovering from a severe illness, he joined the
+French auxiliaries who had been brought over by John Stewart, duke of
+Albany, and took part in an unsuccessful inroad into England (see the
+account in his _Hist. of Scotland_). In the following year he entered the
+university of St Andrews, where he graduated B.A. in 1525. He had gone
+there chiefly for the purpose of attending the celebrated John Major's
+lectures on logic; and when that teacher removed to Paris, Buchanan
+followed him in 1526. In 1527 he graduated B.A., and in 1528 M.A. at Paris.
+Next year he was appointed regent, or professor, in the college of
+Sainte-Barbe, and taught there for upwards of three years. In 1529 he was
+elected Procurator of the "German Nation" in the university of Paris, and
+was re-elected four times in four successive months. He resigned his
+regentship in 1531, and in 1532 became tutor to Gilbert Kennedy, 3rd earl
+of Cassilis, with whom he returned to Scotland about the beginning of 1537.
+
+At this period Buchanan was content to assume the same attitude towards the
+Church of Rome that Erasmus maintained. He did not repudiate its doctrines,
+but considered himself free to criticize its practice. Though he listened
+with interest to the arguments of the Reformers, he did not join their
+ranks before 1553. His first production in Scotland, when he was in Lord
+Cassilis's household in the west country, was the poem _Somnium_, a
+satirical attack upon the Franciscan friars and monastic life generally.
+This assault on the monks was not displeasing to James V., who engaged
+Buchanan as tutor to one of his natural [v.04 p.0660] sons, Lord James
+Stewart (not the son who was afterwards the regent Murray), and encouraged
+him to a still more daring effort. In these circumstances the poems
+_Palinodia_ and _Franciscanus & Fratres_ were written, and, although they
+remained unpublished for many years, it is not surprising that the author
+became an object of bitterest hatred to the order and their friends. Nor
+was it yet a safe matter to assail the church. In 1539 there was a bitter
+persecution of the Lutherans, and Buchanan among others was arrested. He
+managed to effect his escape and with considerable difficulty made his way
+to London and thence to Paris. In Paris, however, he found his enemy,
+Cardinal David Beaton, who was there as an ambassador, and on the
+invitation of André de Gouvéa, proceeded to Bordeaux. Gouvéa was then
+principal of the newly founded college of Guienne at Bordeaux, and by his
+exertions Buchanan was appointed professor of Latin. During his residence
+here several of his best works, the translations of _Medea_ and _Alcestis_,
+and the two dramas, _Jephthes (sive Votum)_ and _Baptistes (sive
+Calumnia)_, were completed. Montaigne was Buchanan's pupil at Bordeaux and
+acted in his tragedies. In the essay _Of Presumption_ he classes Buchanan
+with Aurat, Béza, de L'Hopital, Montdore and Turnebus, as one of the
+foremost Latin poets of his time. Here also Buchanan formed a lasting
+friendship with Julius Caesar Scaliger; in later life he won the admiration
+of Joseph Scaliger, who wrote an epigram on Buchanan which contains the
+couplet, famous in its day:--
+
+  "Imperii fuerat Romani Scotia limes;
+  Romani eloquii Scotia limes erit?"
+
+In 1542 or 1543 he returned to Paris, and in 1544 was appointed regent in
+the college of Cardinal le Moine. Among his colleagues were the renowned
+Muretus and Turnebus.
+
+In 1547 Buchanan joined the band of French and Portuguese humanists who had
+been invited by André de Gouvéa to lecture in the Portuguese university of
+Coimbra. The French mathematician Élie Vinet, and the Portuguese historian,
+Jeronimo de Osorio, were among his colleagues; Gouvéa, called by Montaigne
+_le plus grand principal de France_, was rector of the university, which
+had reached the summit of its prosperity under the patronage of King John
+III. But the rectorship had been coveted by Diogo de Gouvéa, uncle of André
+and formerly head of Sainte-Barbe. It is probable that before André's death
+at the end of 1547 Diogo had urged the Inquisition to attack him and his
+staff; up to 1906, when the records of the trial were first published in
+full, Buchanan's biographers generally attributed the attack to the
+influence of Cardinal Beaton, the Franciscans, or the Jesuits, and the
+whole history of Buchanan's residence in Portugal was extremely obscure.
+
+A commission of inquiry was appointed in October 1549 and reported in June
+1550. Buchanan and two Portuguese, Diogo de Teive and Joao da Costa (who
+had succeeded to the rectorship), were committed for trial. Teive and Costa
+were found guilty of various offences against public order, and the
+evidence shows that there was ample reason for a judicial inquiry. Buchanan
+was accused of Lutheran and Judaistic practices. He defended himself with
+conspicuous ability, courage and frankness, admitting that some of the
+charges were true. About June 1551 he was sentenced to abjure his errors,
+and to be imprisoned in the monastery of Sao Bento in Lisbon. Here he was
+compelled to listen to edifying discourses from the monks, whom he found
+"not unkind but ignorant." In his leisure he began to translate the Psalms
+into Latin verse. After seven months he was released, on condition that he
+remained in Lisbon; and on the 28th of February 1552 this restriction was
+annulled. Buchanan at once sailed for England, but soon made his way to
+Paris, where in 1553 he was appointed regent in the college of Boncourt. He
+remained in that post for two years, and then accepted the office of tutor
+to the son of the Maréchal de Brissac. It was almost certainly during this
+last stay in France, where Protestantism was being repressed with great
+severity by Francis I., that Buchanan ranged himself on the side of the
+Calvinists.
+
+In 1560 or 1561 he returned to Scotland, and in April 1562 we find him
+installed as tutor to the young queen Mary, who was accustomed to read Livy
+with him daily. Buchanan now openly joined the Protestant, or Reformed
+Church, and in 1566 was appointed by the earl of Murray principal of St
+Leonard's College, St Andrews. Two years before he had received from the
+queen the valuable gift of the revenues of Crossraguel Abbey. He was thus
+in good circumstances, and his fame was steadily increasing. So great,
+indeed, was his reputation for learning and administrative capacity that,
+though a layman, he was made moderator of the general assembly in 1567. He
+had sat in the assemblies from 1563.
+
+Buchanan accompanied the regent Murray into England, and his _Detectio_
+(published in 1572) was produced to the commissioners at Westminster. In
+1570, after the assassination of Murray, he was appointed one of the
+preceptors of the young king, and it was through his tuition that James VI.
+acquired his scholarship. While discharging the functions of royal tutor he
+also held other important offices. He was for a short time director of
+chancery, and then became lord privy seal, a post which entitled him to a
+seat in the parliament. He appears to have continued in this office for
+some years, at least till 1579. He died on the 28th of September 1582.
+
+His last years had been occupied with two of his most important works. The
+first was the treatise _De Jure Regni apud Scotos_, published in 1579. In
+this famous work, composed in the form of a dialogue, and evidently
+intended to instil sound political principles into the mind of his pupil,
+Buchanan lays down the doctrine that the source of all political power is
+the people, that the king is bound by those conditions under which the
+supreme power was first committed to his hands, and that it is lawful to
+resist, even to punish, tyrants. The importance of the work is proved by
+the persistent efforts of the legislature to suppress it during the century
+following its publication. It was condemned by act of parliament in 1584,
+and again in 1664; and in 1683 it was burned by the university of Oxford.
+The second of his larger works is the history of Scotland, _Rerum
+Scoticarum Historia_, completed shortly before his death (1579), and
+published in 1582. It is of great value for the period personally known to
+the author, which occupies the greater portion of the book. The earlier
+part is based, to a considerable extent, on the legendary history of Boece.
+Buchanan's purpose was to "purge" the national history "of sum Inglis lyis
+and Scottis vanite" (_Letter to Randolph_), but he exaggerated his freedom
+from partisanship and unconsciously criticized his work when he said that
+it would "content few and displease many."
+
+Buchanan is one of Scotland's greatest scholars. For mastery over the Latin
+language he has seldom been surpassed by any modern writer. His style is
+not rigidly modelled upon that of any classical author, but has a certain
+freshness and elasticity of its own. He wrote Latin as if it had been his
+mother tongue. But in addition to this perfect command over the language,
+Buchanan had a rich vein of poetical feeling, and much originality of
+thought. His translations of the Psalms and of the Greek plays are more
+than mere versions; the smaller satirical poems abound in wit and in happy
+phrase; his two tragedies, _Baptistes_ and _Jephthes_, have enjoyed from
+the first an undiminished European reputation for academic excellence. In
+addition to the works already named, Buchanan wrote in prose _Chamaeleon_,
+a satire in the vernacular against Maitland of Lethington, first printed in
+1711; a Latin translation of Linacre's Grammar (Paris, 1533); _Libettus de
+Prosodia_ (Edinburgh, 1640); and _Vita ab ipso scripta biennio ante mortem_
+(1608), edited by R. Sibbald (1702). His other poems are _Fratres
+Fraterrimi_, _Elegiae_, _Silvae_, two sets of verses entitled
+_Hendecasyllabon Liber_ and _Iambon Liber_; three books of _Epigrammata_; a
+book of miscellaneous verse; _De Sphaera_ (in five books), suggested by the
+poem of Joannes de Sacrobosco, and intended as a defence of the Ptolemaic
+theory against the new Copernican view.
+
+There are two editions of Buchanan's works:--(a) _Georgii Buchanani Scoti,
+Poetarum sui seculi facile principis, Opera Omnia_, in two vols. fol.,
+edited by Ruddiman (Edinburgh, Freebairn, 1715); (b) edited by Burman, 4to,
+1725. The _Vernacular Writings_, [v.04 p.0661] consisting of the
+_Chamaeleon_ (_u.s._), a tract on the Reformation of St Andrews University,
+_Ane Admonitioun to the Trew Lordis_, and two letters, were edited for the
+Scottish Text Society by P. Hume Brown. The principal biographies
+are:--David Irving, _Memoirs of the Life and Writings of George Buchanan_
+(Edinburgh,1807 and 1817); P. Hume Brown, _George Buchanan, Humanist and
+Reformer_ (Edinburgh, 1890), _George Buchanan and his Times_ (Edinburgh,
+1906); Rev. D. Macmillan, _George Buchanan, a Biography_ (Edinburgh, 1906).
+Buchanan's quatercentenary was celebrated at different centres in Scotland
+in 1906, and was the occasion of several encomia and studies. The most
+important of these are: _George Buchanan: Glasgow Quatercentenary Studies_
+(Glasgow, 1906), and _George Buchanan, a Memoir_, edited by D.A. Millar (St
+Andrews, 1907). A verse translation of the _Baptistes_, entitled
+_Tyrannicall-Government Anatomized_ (1642), has been attributed to Milton;
+its authorship is discussed in the _Glasgow Quatercentenary Studies_. The
+records of Buchanan's trial, discovered by the Portuguese historian, G.J.C.
+Henriques, were published by him under the title _George Buchanan in the
+Lisbon Inquisition. The Records of his Trial, with a Translation thereof
+into English, Facsimiles of some of the Papers, and an Introduction_
+(Lisbon, 1906).
+
+BUCHANAN, JAMES (1791-1868), fifteenth president of the United States, was
+born near Foltz, Franklin county, Pennsylvania, on the 23rd of April 1791.
+Both parents were of Scottish-Irish Presbyterian descent. He graduated at
+Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pennsylvania, in 1809, studied law at
+Lancaster in 1809-1812, and was admitted to the bar in 1812. He served in
+the lower house of the state legislature in 1814-1816, and as a
+representative in Congress from 1821 to 1831. As chairman of the judiciary
+committee he conducted the impeachment trial (1830) of Judge James H. Peck,
+led an unsuccessful movement to increase the number of Supreme Court judges
+and to relieve them of their circuit duties, and succeeded in defeating an
+attempt to repeal the twenty-fifth section of the Judiciary Act of 1789,
+which gave the Supreme Court appellate jurisdiction by writ of error to the
+state courts in cases where federal laws and treaties are in question.
+After the dissolution of the Federalist party, of which he had been a
+member, he supported the Jackson-Van Buren faction, and soon came to be
+definitely associated with the Democrats. He represented the United States
+at the court of St Petersburg in 1832-1833, and there negotiated an
+important commercial treaty. He was a Democratic member of the United
+States Senate from December 1834 until March 1845, ardently supporting
+President Jackson, and was secretary of state in the cabinet of President
+Polk from 1845 to 1849--a period marked by the annexation of Texas, the
+Mexican War, and negotiations with Great Britain relative to the Oregon
+question. After four years of retirement spent in the practice of his
+profession, he was appointed by President Pierce minister to Great Britain
+in 1853.
+
+Up to this time Buchanan's attitude on the slavery question had been that
+held by the conservative element among Northern Democrats. He felt that the
+institution was morally wrong, but held that Congress could not interfere
+with it in the states in which it existed, and ought not to hinder the
+natural tendency toward territorial expansion through a fear that the evil
+would spread. He voted for the bill to exclude anti-slavery literature from
+the mails, approved of the annexation of Texas, the war with Mexico, and
+the Compromise of 1850, and disapproved of the Wilmot Proviso. Fortunately
+for his career he was abroad during the Kansas-Nebraska debates, and hence
+did not share in the unpopularity which attached to Stephen A. Douglas as
+the author of the bill, and to President Pierce as the executive who was
+called upon to enforce it. At the same time, by joining with J.Y. Mason and
+Pierre Soule in issuing the Ostend Manifesto in 1854, he retained the
+good-will of the South.[1] Accordingly on his return from England in 1856
+he was nominated by the Democrats as a compromise candidate for president,
+and was elected, receiving 174 electoral votes to 114 for John C. Frémont,
+Republican, and 8 for Millard Fillmore, American or "Know-Nothing."
+
+His high moral character, the breadth of his legal knowledge, and his
+experience as congressman, cabinet member and diplomat, would have made
+Buchanan an excellent president in ordinary times; but he lacked the
+soundness of judgment, the self-reliance and the moral courage needed to
+face a crisis. At the beginning of his administration he appointed Robert
+J. Walker of Mississippi, territorial governor of Kansas, and Frederick P.
+Stanton of Tennessee, secretary, and assured them of his determination to
+adhere to the popular sovereignty principle. He soon began to use his
+influence, however, to force the admission of Kansas into the Union under
+the pro-slavery Lecompton Constitution, contrary to the wishes of the
+majority of the settlers. Stanton was removed from office for opposing the
+scheme, and Walker resigned in disgust. This change of policy was doubtless
+the result of timidity rather than of a desire to secure re-election by
+gaining the favour of the Southern Democracy. Under the influence of Howell
+Cobb of Georgia, secretary of the treasury, and Jacob Thompson of
+Mississippi, secretary of the interior, the president was convinced that it
+was the only way to avoid civil war. Federal patronage was freely used to
+advance the Lecompton measure and the compromise English Bill, and to
+prevent Douglas's election to the Senate in 1858. Some of these facts were
+brought out in the famous Covode Investigation conducted by a committee of
+the House of Representatives in 1860. The investigations, however, were
+very partisan in character, and there is reason to doubt the constitutional
+power of the House to make it, except as the basis for an impeachment
+trial.
+
+The call issued by the South Carolina legislature just after the election
+of Lincoln for a state convention to decide upon the advisability of
+secession brought forward the most serious question of Buchanan's
+administration. The part of his annual message of the 4th of December 1860
+dealing with it is based upon a report prepared by Attorney-General
+Jeremiah S. Black of Pennsylvania. He argued that a state had no legal
+right to secede, but denied that the federal government had any power
+forcibly to prevent it. At the same time it was the duty of the president
+to call out the army and navy of the United States to protect federal
+property or to enforce federal laws. Soon after the secession movement
+began the Southern members of the cabinet resigned, and the president
+gradually came under the influence of Black, Stanton, Dix, and other
+Northern leaders. He continued, however, to work for a peaceful settlement,
+supporting the Crittenden Compromise and the work of the Peace Congress. He
+disapproved of Major Anderson's removal of his troops from Fort Moultrie to
+Fort Sumter in December 1860; but there is probably no basis for the charge
+made by Southern writers that the removal itself was in violation of a
+pledge given by the president to preserve the _status quo_ in Charleston
+harbour until the arrival of the South Carolina commissioners in
+Washington. Equally unfounded is the assertion first made by Thurlow Weed
+in the London _Observer_ (9th of February 1862) that the president was
+prevented from ordering Anderson back to Fort Moultrie only by the threat
+of four members of the cabinet to resign.
+
+[v.04 p.0662] On the expiration of his term of office (March 4, 1861)
+Buchanan retired to his home at Wheatland, near Lancaster, Pennsylvania,
+where he died on the 1st of June 1868. His mistakes as president have been
+so emphasized as to obscure the fact that he was a man of unimpeachable
+honesty, of the highest patriotism, and of considerable ability. He never
+married.
+
+See George Ticknor Curtis, _The Life of James Buchanan_ (2 vols., New York,
+1883), the standard biography; Curtis, however, was a close personal and
+political friend, and his work is too eulogistic. More trustworthy, but at
+times unduly severe, is the account given by James Ford Rhodes in the first
+two volumes of his _History of the United States since the Compromise of
+1850_ (New York, new edition, 1902-1907). John Bassett Moore has edited
+_The Works of James Buchanan, comprising his Speeches, State Papers, and
+Private Correspondence_ (Philadelphia, 1908-1910).
+
+[1] This "manifesto," which was bitterly attacked in the North, was agreed
+upon (October 18, 1854) by the three ministers after several meetings at
+Ostend and at Aix-la-Chapelle, arranged in pursuance of instructions to
+them from President Pierce to "compare opinions, and to adopt measures for
+perfect concert of action in aid of the negotiations at Madrid" on the
+subject of reparations demanded from Spain by the United States for alleged
+injuries to American commerce with Cuba. In the manifesto the three
+ministers asserted that "from the peculiarity of its geographical position,
+and the considerations attendant upon it, Cuba is as necessary to the North
+American republic as any of its present members"; spoke of the danger to
+the United States of an insurrection in Cuba; asserted that "we should be
+recreant to our duty, be unworthy of our gallant forefathers, and commit
+base treason against our posterity, should we permit Cuba to be Africanized
+and become a second Santo Domingo, with all its attendant horrors to the
+white race, and suffer the flames to extend to our own neighboring shores,
+seriously to endanger or actually destroy the fair fabric of our Union";
+and recommended that "the United States ought, if practicable, to purchase
+Cuba as soon as possible." To Spain, they argued, the sale of the island
+would be a great advantage. The most startling declaration of the manifesto
+was that if Spain should refuse to sell "after we shall have offered a
+price for Cuba far beyond its present value," and if Cuba, in the
+possession of Spain, should seriously endanger "our internal peace and the
+existence of our cherished Union," then "by every law, human and divine, we
+shall be justified in wresting it from Spain if we have the power."
+
+BUCHANAN, ROBERT WILLIAMS (1841-1901), British poet, novelist and
+dramatist, son of Robert Buchanan (1813-1866), Owenite lecturer and
+journalist, was born at Caverswall, Staffordshire, on the 18th of August
+1841. His father, a native of Ayr, after living for some years in
+Manchester, removed to Glasgow, where Buchanan was educated, at the high
+school and the university, one of his fellow-students being the poet David
+Gray. His essay on Gray, originally contributed to the _Cornhill Magazine_,
+tells the story of their close friendship, and of their journey to London
+in 1860 in search of fame. After a period of struggle and disappointment
+Buchanan published _Undertones_ in 1863. This "tentative" volume was
+followed by _Idyls and Legends of Inverburn_ (1865), _London Poems_ (1866),
+and _North Coast and other Poems_ (1868), wherein he displayed a faculty
+for poetic narrative, and a sympathetic insight into the humbler conditions
+of life. On the whole, Buchanan is at his best in these narrative poems,
+though he essayed a more ambitious flight in _The Book of Orm: A Prelude to
+the Epic_, a study in mysticism, which appeared in 1870. He was a frequent
+contributor to periodical literature, and obtained notoriety by an article
+which, under the _nom de plume_ of Thomas Maitland, he contributed to the
+_Contemporary Review_ for October 1871, entitled "The Fleshly School of
+Poetry." This article was expanded into a pamphlet (1872), but he
+subsequently withdrew from the criticisms it contained, and it is chiefly
+remembered by the replies it evoked from D.G. Rossetti in a letter to the
+_Athenaeum_ (16th December 1871), entitled "The Stealthy School of
+Criticism," and from Mr Swinburne in _Under the Microscope_ (1872).
+Buchanan himself afterwards regretted the violence of his attack, and the
+"old enemy" to whom _God and the Man_ is dedicated was Rossetti. In 1876
+appeared _The Shadow of the Sword_, the first and one of the best of a long
+series of novels. Buchanan was also the author of many successful plays,
+among which may be mentioned _Lady Clare_, produced in 1883; _Sophia_
+(1886), an adaptation of _Tom Jones; A Man's Shadow_ (1890); and _The
+Charlatan_ (1894). He also wrote, in collaboration with Harriett Jay, the
+melodrama _Alone in London_. In 1896 he became, so far as some of his work
+was concerned, his own publisher. In the autumn of 1900 he had a paralytic
+seizure, from which he never recovered. He died at Streatham on the 10th of
+June 1901.
+
+Buchanan's poems were collected into three volumes in 1874, into one volume
+in 1884; and as _Complete Poetical Works_ (2 vols., 1901). Among his poems
+should also be mentioned: "The Drama of Kings" (1871); "St Abe and his
+Seven Wives," a lively tale of Salt Lake City, published anonymously in
+1872; and "Balder the Beautiful" (1877); "The City of Dream" (1888); "The
+Outcast: a Rhyme for the Time" (1891); and "The Wandering Jew" (1893). His
+earlier novels, _The Shadow of the Sword_, and _God and the Man_ (1881), a
+striking tale of a family feud, are distinguished by a certain breadth and
+simplicity of treatment which is not so noticeable in their successors,
+among which may be mentioned _The Martyrdom of Madeline_ (1882); _Foxglove
+Manor_ (1885); _Effie Hetherington_ (1896); and _Father Anthony_ (1898).
+_David Gray and other Essays, chiefly on Poetry_ (1868); _Master Spirits_
+(1873); _A Poet's Sketch Book_ (1883), in which the interesting essay on
+Gray is reprinted; and _A Look round Literature_ (1887), contain Buchanan's
+chief contributions to periodical literature. More valuable is _The Land of
+Lorne_ (2 vols., 1871), a vivid record of yachting experiences on the west
+coast of Scotland.
+
+See also Harriett Jay, _Robert Buchanan; some Account of his Life_ (1903).
+
+BUCHAREST (_Bucuresci_), also written Bucarest, Bukarest, Bukharest,
+Bukorest and Bukhorest, the capital of Rumania, and chief town of the
+department of Ilfov. Although _Bucharest_ is the conventional English
+spelling, the forms _Bucarest_ and _Bukarest_ more nearly represent the
+correct pronunciation. The population in 1900 was 282,071, including 43,274
+Jews, and 53,056 aliens, mostly Austro-Hungarian subjects. With its
+outlying parts, Bucharest covers more than 20 sq. m. It lies in a hollow,
+traversed from north-west to south-east by the river Dimbovitza
+(_Dâmbovita_ or _Dîmbovita_), and is built mainly on the left bank. A range
+of low hills affords shelter on the west and south-west; but on every other
+side there are drained, though still unhealthy, marshes, stretching away to
+meet the central Walachian plains. From a distance, the multitude of its
+gardens, and the turrets and metal-plated or gilded cupolas of its many
+churches give Bucharest a certain picturesqueness. In a few of the older
+districts, too, where land is least valuable, there are antique
+one-storeyed houses, surrounded by poplars and acacias; while the gipsies
+and Rumans, wearing their brightly coloured native costumes, the Russian
+coachmen, or sleigh-drivers, of the banished Lipovan sect, and the pedlars,
+with their doleful street cries, render Bucharest unlike any western
+capital. Nevertheless, the city is modern. Until about 1860, indeed, the
+dimly lit lanes were paved with rough stone blocks, imbedded in the clay
+soil, which often subsided, so as to leave the surface undulating like a
+sea. Drains were rare, epidemics common. Owing to the frequency of
+earthquakes, many houses were built of wood, and in 1847 fully a quarter of
+the city was laid waste by fire. The plague visited Bucharest in 1718,
+1738, 1793, when an earthquake destroyed a number of old buildings, and in
+1813, when 70,000 of the inhabitants died in six weeks. From the accession
+of Prince Charles, in 1866, a gradual reform began. The river was enclosed
+between stone embankments; sewerage and pure water were supplied, gas and
+electric light installed; and horse or electric tramways laid down in the
+principal thoroughfares, which were paved with granite or wood. The older
+houses are of brick, overlaid with white or tinted plaster, and ornamented
+with figures or foliage in terra-cotta; but owing to the great changes of
+temperature in Rumania, the plaster soon cracks and peels off, giving a
+dilapidated appearance to many streets. The chief modern buildings, such as
+the Athenaeum, with its Ionic façade and Byzantine dome, are principally on
+the quays and boulevards, and are constructed of stone.
+
+Bucharest is often called "The Paris of the East," partly from a supposed
+social resemblance, partly from the number of its boulevards and avenues.
+Three main thoroughfares, the Plevna, Lipscani, and Vacaresci, skirt the
+left bank of the river; the Elizabeth Boulevard, and the Calea Victoriei,
+or "Avenue of Victory," which commemorates the Rumanian success at Plevna,
+in 1877, radiate east and north, respectively, from the Lipscani, and meet
+a broad road which surrounds all sides of Bucharest, except the north-west.
+The Lipscani was originally the street of merchants who obtained their
+wares from the annual fair at Leipzig; for almost all crafts or gilds,
+other than the bakers and tavern-keepers, were long confined to separate
+quarters; and the old names have survived, as in the musicians', furriers',
+and money-changers' quarters. Continuous with the Calea Victoriei, on the
+north, is the Kisilev Park, traversed by the Chausée, a favourite drive,
+leading to the pretty Baneasa race-course, where spring and autumn meetings
+are held. The Cismegiu or Cismigiu Park, which has a circumference of about
+1 m., is laid out between the Plevna road and the Calea Victoriei; and
+there are botanical and zoological gardens.
+
+The Orthodox Greek churches are generally small, with very narrow windows,
+and are built of brick in a modified Byzantine style. They are usually
+surmounted by two or three towers, but the bells are hung in a kind of
+wooden porch, resembling a [v.04 p.0663] lych-gate, and standing about
+twenty paces from the church. The cathedral, or metropolitan church, where
+the metropolitan primate of Rumania officiates, was built between 1656 and
+1665. It has the shape of a Greek cross, surrounded by a broad cloister,
+with four main entrances, each surmounted by a turret. The whole culminates
+in three brick towers. Standing on high ground, the cathedral overlooks all
+Bucharest, and commands a view of the Carpathians. Other interesting
+churches are St Spiridion the New (1768), the loftiest and most beautiful
+of all; the Doamna Balasa (1751), noteworthy for its rich carved work
+without, and frescoes within; and the ancient Biserica Bucur, said, in
+local traditions, to derive its name from Bucur, a shepherd whom legend
+makes the founder of Bucharest. The real founder and date of this church,
+and of many others, are unknown, thanks to the frequent obliteration of
+Slavonic inscriptions by the Greek clergy. The Protestants, Armenians and
+Lipovans worship in their own churches, and the Jews have several
+synagogues. Bucharest is also the seat of a Roman Catholic archbishop; but
+the Roman Catholics, though numbering nearly 37,000 in 1899, possess only
+three churches, including the cathedral of St Joseph.
+
+Bucharest is a great educational centre. Besides the ordinary
+ecclesiastical seminaries, lyceums, gymnasia and elementary schools, it
+possesses schools of commerce, science and art institutes, and training
+colleges, for engineers and veterinary surgeons; while the university,
+founded in 1864, has faculties of theology, philosophy, literature, law,
+science, medicine and pharmacy. Students pay no fees except for board. The
+national library, containing many precious Oriental documents, and the
+meeting-hall of the Rumanian senate, are both included in the university
+buildings, which, with the Athenaeum (used for literary conferences and for
+music), and the central girls' school, are regarded as the best example of
+modern Rumanian architecture. Other libraries are those of the Nifon
+seminary, of the Charles University Foundation (_Fundatiunea universitara
+Carol_), which endows research, and rewards literary or scientific merit;
+the central library, and the library of the Academy, which also contains a
+museum of natural history and antiquities. Among philanthropic institutions
+may be mentioned the Coltei, Brancovan, Maternitate, Philantropia and
+Pantelimon hospitals; the Marcutza lunatic asylum; and the Princess Elena
+refuge (_Asilul Elena Doamna_), founded by Princess Elena Couza in 1862, to
+provide for 230 orphan girls. The summer home of these girls is a convent
+in the Transylvanian Alps. Hotels and restaurants are numerous. There are
+two theatres, the National and the Lyric, which is mainly patronized by
+foreign players; but minor places of amusement abound; as also do
+clubs--political, social and sporting. Socially, indeed, the progress of
+Bucharest is remarkable, its political, literary and scientific circles
+being on a level with those of most European capitals.
+
+Bucharest is the winter residence of the royal family, the meeting-place of
+parliament, and the seat of an appeal court (_Curtea de Apel_), of the
+supreme court (_Curtea de Casatie_), of the ministries, the national bank,
+the bank of Rumania, many lesser credit establishments, and a chamber of
+commerce. The railway lines which meet on the western limit of the city
+give access to all parts, and the telephone system, besides being
+internally complete, communicates with Braila, Galatz, Jassy and Sinaia.
+Bucharest has a very large transit trade in petroleum, timber and
+agricultural produce; above all, in wheat and maize. Its industries include
+petroleum-refining, extraction of vegetable oils, cabinet-making,
+brandy-distilling, tanning, and the manufacture of machinery, wire, nails,
+metal-ware, cement, soap, candles, paste, starch, paper, cardboard, pearl
+buttons, textiles, leather goods, ropes, glucose, army supplies, preserved
+meat and vegetables, and confectionery. An important fair is held for seven
+days in each year. The mercantile community is largely composed of
+Austrians, Frenchmen, Germans, Greeks and Swiss, who form exclusive
+colonies. Bucharest is the headquarters of the II. army corps, and a
+fortress of the first rank. The fortifications were constructed in
+1885-1896 on a project drafted by the Belgian engineer, General Brialmont,
+in 1883. The mean distance of the forts from the city is 4 m., and the
+perimeter of the defences (which are technically of special importance as
+embodying the system of Brialmont) is about 48 m., this perimeter being
+defended by 36 armoured forts and batteries. There are barracks for over
+30,000 cavalry and infantry, an arsenal, a military hospital and three
+military academies.
+
+The legend of Bucur is plainly unhistorical, and the meaning of _Bucharest_
+has been much disputed. One account derives it from an Albanian word
+_Bukur_, meaning joy, in memory of a victory won by Prince Mircea of
+Walachia (c. 1383-1419) over the Turks. For this reason Bucharest is often
+called "The City of Joy". Like most ancient cities of Rumania, its
+foundation has also been ascribed to the first Walachian prince, the
+half-mythical Radu Negru (c. 1290-1314). More modern historians declare
+that it was originally a fortress, erected on the site of the Daco-Roman
+Thyanus, to command the approaches to Tîrgovishtea, formerly the capital of
+Walachia. It soon became the summer residence of the court. In 1595 it was
+burned by the Turks; but, after its restoration, continued to grow in size
+and prosperity, until, in 1698, Prince Constantine Brancovan chose it for
+his capital. During the 18th century the possession of Bucharest was
+frequently disputed by the Turks, Austrians and Russians. In 1812 it gave
+its name to the treaty by which Bessarabia and a third of Moldavia were
+ceded to Russia. In the war of 1828 it was occupied by the Russians, who
+made it over to the prince of Walachia in the following year. A rebellion
+against Prince Bibescu in 1848 brought both Turkish and Russian
+interference, and the city was again held by Russian troops in 1853-1854.
+On their departure an Austrian garrison took possession and remained till
+March 1857. In 1858 the international congress for the organization of the
+Danubian principalities was held in the city; and when, in 1861, the union
+of Walachia and Moldavia was proclaimed, Bucharest became the Rumanian
+capital. Prince Cuza, the first ruler of the united provinces, was driven
+from his throne by an insurrection in Bucharest in 1866. For the subsequent
+history of the city see RUMANIA: _History_.
+
+BÜCHELER, FRANZ (1837-1908), German classical scholar, was born in
+Rheinberg on the 3rd of June 1837, and educated at Bonn. He held
+professorships successively at Freiburg (1858), Greifswald (1866), and Bonn
+(1870), and in 1878 became joint-editor of the _Rheinisches Museum für
+Philologie_. Both as a teacher and as a commentator he was extremely
+successful. Among his editions are: _Frontini de aquis urbis Romae_
+(Leipzig, 1858); _Pervigilium Veneris_ (Leipzig, 1859); _Petronii satirarum
+reliquiae_ (Berlin, 1862; 3rd ed., 1882); _Hymnus Cereris Homericus_
+(Leipzig, 1869); _Q. Ciceronis reliquiae_ (1869); _Herondae mimiambi_
+(Bonn, 1892). He wrote also _Grundriss der lateinischen Deklination_
+(1866); _Das Recht von Gortyn_ (Frankfort, 1885, with Zitelmann); and
+supervised the third edition (1893) of O. Jahn's _Persii, Juvenalis,
+Sulpiciae saturae_.
+
+BUCHAR, LOTHAR (1817-1892), German publicist, was born on the 25th of
+October 1817 at Neu Stettin, in Pomerania, his father being master at a
+gymnasium. After studying at the university of Berlin he adopted the legal
+profession. Elected a member of the National Assembly in Berlin in 1848, he
+was an active leader of the extreme democratic party. With others of his
+colleagues he was in 1850 brought to trial for having taken part in
+organizing a movement for refusal to pay taxes; he was condemned to fifteen
+months' imprisonment in a fortress, but left the country before the
+sentence was executed. For ten years he lived in exile, chiefly in London;
+he acted as special correspondent of the _National Zeitung_, and gained a
+great knowledge of English life; and he published a work, _Der
+Parliamentarismus wie er ist_, a criticism of parliamentary government,
+which shows a marked change in his political opinions. In 1860 he returned
+to Germany, and became intimate with Lassalle, who made him his literary
+executor. In 1864 he was offered by Bismarck, and accepted, a high position
+in the Prussian foreign office. The reasons that led him to a step which
+involved so complete a break with his earlier friends and associations are
+not clearly known. From this time till his death he acted as Bismarck's
+secretary, and was the man who probably enjoyed the greatest [v.04 p.0664]
+amount of his confidence. It was he who drew up the text of the
+constitution of the North German Confederation; in 1870 he was sent on a
+very confidential mission to Spain in connexion with the Hohenzollern
+candidature for the Spanish crown; he assisted Bismarck at the final
+negotiations for the treaty of Frankfort, and was one of the secretaries to
+the congress of Berlin; he also assisted Bismarck in the composition of his
+memoirs. Bucher, who was a man of great ability, had considerable
+influence, which was especially directed against the economic doctrines of
+the Liberals; in 1881 he published a pamphlet criticizing the influence and
+principles of the Cobden Club. He identified himself completely with
+Bismarck's later commercial and colonial policy, and probably had much to
+do with introducing it, and he did much to encourage anti-British feeling
+in Germany. He died at Glion, in Switzerland, on the 12th of October 1892.
+
+See Heinrich v. Poschinger, _Ein 48er: Lothar Buchers Leben und Werke_ (3
+vols., Berlin, 1890); Busch, _Bismarck: Some Secret Pages of his History_
+(London, 1898).
+
+(J. W. HE.)
+
+BUCHEZ, PHILIPPE JOSEPH BENJAMIN (1796-1865), French author and politician,
+was born on the 31st of March 1796 at Matagne-la-Petite, now in Belgium,
+then in the French department of the Ardennes. He finished his general
+education in Paris, and afterwards applied himself to the study of natural
+science and medicine. In 1821 he co-operated with Saint-Amand Bazard and
+others in founding a secret association, modelled on that of the Italian
+Carbonari, with the object of organizing a general armed rising against the
+government. The organization spread rapidly and widely, and displayed
+itself in repeated attempts at revolution. In one of these attempts, the
+affair at Belfort, Buchez was gravely compromised, although the jury which
+tried him did not find the evidence sufficient to warrant his condemnation.
+In 1825 he graduated in medicine, and soon after he published with Ulisse
+Trélat a _Précis élémentaire d'hygiène_. About the same time he became a
+member of the Saint-Simonian Society, presided over by Bazard, Barthélemy
+Prosper Enfantin, and Olinde Rodrigues, and contributed to its organ, the
+_Producteur_. He left it in consequence of aversion to the strange
+religious ideas developed by its "Supreme Father," Enfantin, and began to
+elaborate what he regarded as a Christian socialism. For the exposition and
+advocacy of his principles he founded a periodical called _L'Européen_. In
+1833 he published an _Introduction à la science de l'histoire_, which was
+received with considerable favour (2nd ed., improved and enlarged, 2 vols.,
+1842). Notwithstanding its prolixity, this is an interesting work. The part
+which treats of the aim, foundation and methods of the science of history
+is valuable; but what is most distinctive in Buchez's theory--the division
+of historical development into four great epochs originated by four
+universal revelations, of each epoch into three periods corresponding to
+desire, reasoning and performance, and of each of these periods into a
+theoretical and practical age--is merely ingenious (see Flint's _Philosophy
+of History in Europe_, i. 242-252). Buchez next edited, along with M.
+Roux-Lavergne (1802-1874), the _Histoire parlementaire de la Révolution
+française_ (1833-1838; 40 vols.). This vast and conscientious publication
+is a valuable store of material for the early periods of the first French
+Revolution. There is a review of it by Carlyle (_Miscellanies_), the first
+two parts of whose own history of the French Revolution are mainly drawn
+from it. The editors worked under the inspiration of a strong admiration of
+the principles of Robespierre and the Jacobins, and in the belief that the
+French Revolution was an attempt to realize Christianity. In the _Essai
+d'un traité complet de philosophie au point de vue du Catholicisme et du
+progrès_ (1839-1840) Buchez endeavoured to co-ordinate in a single system
+the political, moral, religious and natural phenomena of existence. Denying
+the possibility of innate ideas, he asserted that morality comes by
+revelation, and is therefore not only certain, but the only real certainty.
+
+It was partly owing to the reputation which he had acquired by these
+publications, but still more owing to his connexion with the _National_
+newspaper, and with the secret societies hostile to the government of Louis
+Philippe, that he was raised, by the Revolution of 1848, to the presidency
+of the Constituent Assembly. He speedily showed that he was not possessed
+of the qualities needed in a situation so difficult and in days so
+tempestuous. He retained the position only for a very short time. After the
+dissolution of the assembly he was not re-elected. Thrown back into private
+life, he resumed his studies, and added several works to those which have
+been already mentioned. A _Traité de politique_ (published 1866), which may
+be considered as the completion of his _Traité de philosophie_, was the
+most important of the productions of the last period of his life. His
+brochures are very numerous and on a great variety of subjects, medical,
+historical, political, philosophical, &c. He died on the 12th of August
+1865. He found a disciple of considerable ability in M.A. Ott, who
+advocated and applied his principles in various writings.
+
+See also A. Ott, "P.B.J. Buchez," in _Journal des économistes_ for 1865.
+
+BUCHHOLZ, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, 1700 ft. above the
+sea, on the Sehma, 18 m. S. by E. of Chemnitz by rail. Pop. (1905) 9307. It
+has a Gothic Evangelical church and monuments of Frederick the Wise of
+Saxony, and Bismarck. There is a school for instruction in lace-making, an
+industry dating from 1589, which still forms the chief employment of the
+inhabitants.
+
+BÜCHNER, FRIEDRICH KARL CHRISTIAN LUDWIG (1824-1899), German philosopher
+and physician, was born at Darmstadt. He studied at Giessen, Strassburg,
+Würzburg and Vienna. In 1852 he became lecturer in medicine at the
+university of Tübingen, where he published his great work _Kraft und Stoff_
+(1855). In this work, the product, according to Lange, of a fanatical
+enthusiasm for humanity, he sought to demonstrate the indestructibility of
+matter and force, and the finality of physical force. The extreme
+materialism of this work excited so much opposition that he was compelled
+to give up his post at Tübingen. He retired to Darmstadt, where he
+practised as a physician and contributed regularly to pathological and
+physiological magazines. He continued his philosophical work in defence of
+materialism, and published _Natur und Geist_ (1857), _Aus Natur und
+Wissenschaft_ (vol. i., 1862; vol. ii., 1884), _Fremdes und Eigenes aus dem
+geistigen Leben der Gegenwart_ (1890), _Darwinismus und Socialismus_
+(1894), _Im Dienste der Wahrheit_ (1899). He died at Darmstadt on the 1st
+of May 1899. In estimating Büchner's philosophy it must be remembered that
+he was primarily a physiologist, not a metaphysician. Matter and force (or
+energy) are infinite; the conservation of force follows from the
+imperishability of matter, the ultimate basis of all science. Büchner is
+not always clear in his theory of the relation between matter and force. At
+one time he refuses to explain it, but generally he assumes that all
+natural and spiritual forces are indwelling in matter. "Just as a
+steam-engine," he says in _Kraft und Stoff_ (7th ed., p. 130), "produces
+motion, so the intricate organic complex of force-bearing substance in an
+animal organism produces a total sum of certain effects, which, when bound
+together in a unity, are called by us mind, soul, thought." Here he
+postulates force and mind as emanating from original matter--a
+materialistic monism. But in other parts of his works he suggests that mind
+and matter are two different aspects of that which is the basis of all
+things--a monism which is not necessarily materialistic, and which, in the
+absence of further explanation, constitutes a confession of failure.
+Büchner was much less concerned to establish a scientific metaphysic than
+to protest against the romantic idealism of his predecessors and the
+theological interpretations of the universe. Nature according to him is
+purely physical; it has no purpose, no will, no laws imposed by extraneous
+authority, no supernatural ethical sanction.
+
+See Frauenstädt, _Der Materialismus_ (Leipzig, 1856); Janet, _The
+Materialism of the Present Day: A Criticism of Dr Büchner's System_, trans.
+Masson (London, 1867).
+
+BUCHON, JEAN ALEXANDRE (1791-1849), French scholar, was born on the 21st of
+May 1791 at Menetou-Salon (Cher), and died on the 29th of August 1849. An
+ardent Liberal, he took an active part in party struggles under the
+Restoration, while [v.04 p.0665] throwing himself with equal vigour into
+the great work of historical regeneration which was going on at that
+period. During 1822 and the succeeding years he travelled about Europe on
+the search for materials for his _Collection des chroniques nationales
+françaises écrites en langue vulgaire du XIII^e au XVI^e siècle_ (47 vols.,
+1824-1829). After the revolution of 1830 he founded the _Panthéon
+litteraire_, in which he published a _Choix d'ouvrages mystiques_ (1843), a
+_Choix de monuments primitifs de l'église chrétienne_ (1837), a _Choix des
+historiens grecs_ (1837), a collection of _Chroniques étrangères relatives
+aux expéditions françaises pendant le XIII^e siècle_ (1840), and, most
+important of all, a _Choix de chroniques et mémoires sur l'histoire de
+France_ (1836-1841). His travels in southern Italy and in the East had put
+him upon the track of the medieval French settlements in those regions, and
+to this subject he devoted several important works: _Recherches et
+matériaux pour servir a une histoire de la domination française dans les
+provinces démembrées de l'empire grec_ (1840); _Nouvelles recherches
+historiques sur la principauté française de Morée et ses hautes baronnies_
+(2 vols., 1843-1844); _Histoire des conquêtes et de l'établissement des
+Français dans les états de l'ancienne Grèce sous es Villehardouin_ (1846,
+unfinished). None of the numerous publications which we owe to Buchon can
+be described as thoroughly scholarly; but they have been of great service
+to history, and those concerning the East have in especial the value of
+original research.
+
+BUCHU, or BUKA LEAVES, the produce of several shrubby plants belonging to
+the genus Barosma (nat. order Rutaceae), natives of the Cape of Good Hope.
+The principal species, _B. crenulata_, has leaves of a smooth leathery
+texture, oblong-ovate in shape, from an inch to an inch and a half in
+length, with serrulate or crenulate margins, on which as well as on the
+under side are conspicuous oil-glands. The other species which yield buchu
+are _B. serratifolia_, having linear-lanceolate sharply serrulate leaves,
+and _B. betulina_, the leaves of which are cuneate-obovate, with
+denticulate margins. They are all, as found in commerce, of a pale
+yellow-green colour; they emit a peculiar aromatic odour, and have a
+slightly astringent bitter taste. Buchu leaves contain a volatile oil,
+which is of a dark yellow colour, and deposits a form of camphor on
+exposure to air, a liquid hydro-carbon being the solvent of the camphor
+within the oil-glands. There is also present a minute quantity of a bitter
+principle. The leaves of a closely allied plant, _Empleurum serratulum_,
+are employed as a substitute or adulterant for buchu. As these possess no
+glands they are a worthless substitute. The British Pharmacopoeia contains
+an infusion and tincture of buchu. The former may be given in doses of an
+ounce and the latter in doses of a drachm. The drug has the properties
+common to all substances that contain a volatile oil. The infusion contains
+very little of the oil and is of very slight value. Until the advent of the
+modern synthetic products buchu was valued in diseases of the urinary
+tract, but its use is now practically obsolete.
+
+BUCK, CARL DARLING (1866- ), American philologist, was born on the 2nd of
+October 1866, at Bucksport, Maine. He graduated at Yale in 1886, was a
+graduate student there for three years, and studied at the American School
+of Classical Studies in Athens (1887-1889) and in Leipzig (1889-1892). In
+1892 he became professor of Sanskrit and Indo-European comparative
+philology in the University of Chicago; but it is in the narrower field of
+the Italic dialects that his important work lies, including _Der Vocalismus
+der oskischen Sprache_ (1892), _The Oscan-Umbrian Verb-System_ (1895), and
+_Grammar of Oscan and Umbrian_ (1904), as well as an excellent _précis_ of
+the Italic languages in _Johnson's Universal Cyclopaedia_. He collaborated
+with W.G. Hale (_q.v._) in the preparation of _A Latin Grammar_ (1903). Of
+his contributions to reviews on phonological topics, perhaps the most
+important is his discussion of "Brugmann's Law."
+
+BUCK, DUDLEY (1839-1909), American musical composer, was born in Hartford,
+Connecticut, on the 10th of March 1839, the son of a merchant who gave him
+every opportunity for cultivating his musical talents; and for four years
+(1858-1862) he studied at Leipzig, Dresden and Paris. On returning to
+America he held the position of organist at Hartford, Chicago (1869), and
+Boston (1871). In 1875 he went to New York to assist Theodore Thomas as
+conductor of the orchestral concerts, and from 1877 to 1903 was organist at
+Holy Trinity church. Meanwhile he had become well known as a composer of
+church music, a number of cantatas (_Columbus_, 1876; _Golden Legend_,
+1880; _Light of Asia_, 1885, &c), a grand opera, _Serapis_, a comic opera,
+_Deseret_ (1880), a symphonic overture, _Marmion_, a symphony in E flat,
+and other orchestral and vocal works. He died on the 6th of October 1909.
+
+BUCK, (1) (From the O. Eng. _buc_, a he-goat, and _bucca_, a male deer),
+the male of several animals, of goats, hares and rabbits, and particularly
+of the fallow-deer. During the 18th century the word was used of a
+spirited, reckless young man of fashion, and later, with particular
+reference to extravagance in dress, of a dandy. (2) (From a root common to
+Teutonic and Romance languages, cf. the Ger. _Bauch_, Fr. _buée_, and Ital.
+_bucata_), the bleaching of clothes in lye, also the lye itself, and the
+clothes to be bleached, so a "buck-basket" means a basket of clothes ready
+for the wash. (3) Either from an obsolete word meaning "body," or from the
+sense of bouncing or jumping, derived from (1), a word now only found in
+compound words, as "buck-board," a light four-wheeled vehicle, the
+primitive form of which has one or more seats on a springy board, joining
+the front and rear axles and serving both as springs and body; a
+"buck-wagon" (Dutch, _bok-wagen_) is a South African cart with a frame
+projecting over the wheels, used for the transport of heavy loads. (4)
+(Either from "buck" a he-goat, or from a common Teutonic root, to bend, as
+seen in the Ger. _bücken_, and Eng. "bow"), a verb meaning "to leap"; seen
+especially in the compound "buck-jumper," a horse which leaps clear off the
+ground, with feet tucked together and arched back, descending with
+fore-feet rigid and head down and drawn inwards.
+
+BUCK-BEAN, or BOG-BEAN (_Menyanthes trifoliata_, a member of the Gentian
+family), a bog-plant with a creeping stem, alternately arranged large
+leaves each with three leaflets, and spikes of white or pink flowers. The
+stout stem is bitter and has tonic and febrifuge properties. The plant is
+widely distributed through the north temperate zone.
+
+BÜCKEBURG, a town of Germany, capital of the principality of
+Schaumburg-Lippe, pleasantly situated at the foot of the Harrelberg on the
+river Aue, 6 m. from Minden, on the main railway from Cologne to Berlin.
+Pop. 6000. It has a palace standing in extensive grounds, a gymnasium, a
+normal seminary, a library, a synagogue, and three churches, one of which
+has the appropriate inscription, _Religionis non structurae exemplum_. The
+first houses of Bückeburg began to gather round the castle about 1365; and
+it was not till the 17th century that the town was surrounded with walls,
+which have given place to a ring of pretty promenades. The poet J.G. von
+Herder was court preacher here from 1771 to 1776.
+
+BUCKERIDGE, JOHN (c. 1562-1631), English divine, was a son of William
+Buckeridge, and was educated at the Merchant Taylors school and at St
+John's College, Oxford. He became a fellow of his college, and acted as
+tutor to William Laud, whose opinions were perhaps shaped by him. Leaving
+Oxford, Buckeridge held several livings, and was highly esteemed by King
+James I., whose chaplain he became. In 1605 he was elected president of St
+John's College, a position which he vacated on being made bishop of
+Rochester in 1611. He was transferred to the bishopric of Ely in 1628, and
+died on the 23rd of May 1631. The bishop won some fame as a theologian and
+a controversialist. Among his intimate friends was Bishop Lancelot
+Andrewes, whose "Ninety-one Sermons" were published by Laud and Buckeridge
+in 1629.
+
+BUCKETSHOP, a slang financial term for the office or business of an
+inferior class of stockbroker, who is not a member of an official exchange
+and conducts speculative operations for his clients, who deposit a margin
+or cover. The operations consist, as a rule, of a simple bet or wager
+between the broker and client, no pretence of an actual purchase or sale
+being attempted. The term is sometimes, though loosely and wrongfully,
+applied to [v.04 p.0666] all stockbrokers who are not members of the
+recognized local exchange. The origin of the word is American. According to
+the _New English Dictionary_ it is supposed to have arisen in Chicago. The
+Board of Trade there forbade dealings in "options" in grain of less than
+5000 bushels. An "Open Board of Trade" or unauthorized exchange was opened,
+for the purpose of small gamblers, in a neighbouring street below the rooms
+of the Board of Trade. The lift used by members of the Board of Trade would
+be sent down to bring up from the open Board what was known as a
+"bucketful" of the smaller speculators, when business was slack.
+
+BUCKHOLDT [properly BEUKELSZ, or BOCKELSZOON], JOHANN (c. 1508-1535), Dutch
+Anabaptist fanatic, better known as JOHN OF LEIDEN, from his place of
+birth, was the illegitimate son of Bockel, burgomaster of Soevenhagen, who
+afterwards married his mother. He was born about 1508, apprenticed to a
+tailor, became infected with the opinions of Thomas Münzer, travelled in
+pursuit of his trade (being four years in London), married a widow, became
+bankrupt, and in September 1533 joined the Anabaptist movement under Johann
+Matthysz (Matthyszoon), baker of Haarlem. He had little education, but some
+literary faculty, and had written plays. On the 13th of January 1534 he
+appeared in Münster as an apostle of Matthysz. Good-looking and fluent, he
+fascinated women, and won the confidence of Bernard Knipperdollinck, a
+revolutionary cloth merchant, who gave him his daughter in marriage. The
+Münster Anabaptists took up arms on the 9th of February 1534 (see
+ANABAPTISTS). On the death of Matthysz (1534), Buckholdt succeeded him as
+prophet, added his widow to the number of his wives, and organized a new
+constitution for Münster, with twelve elders (suggested by the tribes of
+Israel) and other officers of a theocracy, but soon superseded these,
+making himself king of the new Zion. His arbitrary rule was marked by pomp
+and severity. Münster was retaken (June 25, 1535) by its prince-bishop,
+Franz von Waldeck. Buckholdt, after many indignities, was cruelly executed
+on the 22nd of January 1536; his body, and those of his companions, were
+hung in cages to the tower of the Lamberti church. His portrait is in
+_Grouwelen der Hooftketteren_ (Leiden, 1607; an English edition is appended
+to Alexander Ross's _Pansebeia_, 2nd ed., 1655); a better example of the
+same is given by Arend.
+
+See Arend, _Algemeene Geschiedenis des Vaderlands_ (1846), ii., iii., 629;
+Van der Aa, _Biographisch Woordenboek der Nederlanden_ (1853); E. Belfort
+Bax, _Rise and Fail of the Anabaptists_ (1903).
+
+(A. GO.*)
+
+BUCKIE, a fishing town and police burgh of Banffshire, Scotland, on the
+Moray Firth, at the mouth of Buckie burn, about 17 m. W. of Banff, with a
+station on the Great North of Scotland railway. Pop. (1891) 5849; (1901)
+6549. Its public buildings include a hall and literary institute with
+library and recreation rooms. It attracts one of the largest Scottish
+fleets in the herring season, and is also the chief seat of line fishing in
+Scotland. The harbour, with an outer and an inner basin, covers an area of
+9 acres and has half a mile of quayage. Besides the fisheries, there are
+engineering works, distilleries, and works for the making of ropes, sails
+and oil. The burn, which divides the town into Nether Buckie and Eastern
+Buckie, rises near the Hill of Clashmadin, about 5 m. to the south-west.
+Portgordon, 1½ m. west of Buckie, is a thriving fishing village, and
+Rathven, some 2 m. east, lies in a fertile district, where there are
+several interesting Danish cairns and other relics of the remote past.
+
+BUCKINGHAM, EARLS, MARQUESSES AND DUKES OF. The origin of the earldom of
+Buckingham (to be distinguished from that of Buckinghamshire, _q.v._) is
+obscure. According to Mr J.H. Round (in G.E.C.'s _Peerage_, _s.v._) there
+is some charter evidence for its existence under William Rufus; but the
+main evidence for reckoning Walter Giffard, lord of Longueville in
+Normandy, who held forty-eight lordships in the county, as the first earl,
+is that of Odericus Vitalis, who twice describes Walter as "Comes
+Bucchingehamensis," once in 1097, and again at his death in 1102. After the
+death of Walter Giffard, 2nd earl in 1164, the title was assumed by Richard
+de Clare, earl of Pembroke ("Strongbow"), in right of his wife, Rohais,
+sister of Walter Giffard I.; and it died with him in 1176. In 1377 Thomas
+of "Woodstock" (duke of Gloucester) was created earl of Buckingham at the
+coronation of Richard II. (15th of July), and the title of Gloucester
+having after his death been given to Thomas le Despenser, his son Humphrey
+bore that of earl of Buckingham only. On Humphrey's death, his sister Anne
+became countess of Buckingham in her own right. She married Edmund
+Stafford, earl of Stafford, and on her death (1438) the title of Buckingham
+passed to her son Humphrey Stafford, earl of Stafford, who in 1444 was
+created duke of Buckingham. This title remained in the Stafford family
+until the attainder and execution of Edward, 3rd duke, in 1521 (see
+BUCKINGHAM, HENRY STAFFORD, 2nd duke of).
+
+In 1617 King James I. created George Villiers earl, in 1618 marquess, and
+in 1623 duke of Buckingham (see BUCKINGHAM, GEORGE VILLIERS, 1st duke of).
+The marquessate and dukedom became extinct with the death of the 2nd
+(Villiers) duke (_q.v._) in 1687; but the earldom was claimed, under the
+special remainder in the patent of 1617, by a collateral line of doubtful
+legitimacy claiming descent from John Villiers, 1st Viscount Purbeck. The
+title was not actually borne after the death of John Villiers, styling
+himself earl of Buckingham, in 1723. The claim was extinguished by the
+death of George Villiers, a clergyman, in 1774.
+
+In 1703 John Sheffield, marquess of Normanby, was created "duke of the
+county of Buckingham and of Normanby" (see below). He was succeeded by his
+son Edmund who died in October 1735 when the titles became extinct.
+
+The title of marquess and duke of Buckingham in the Grenville family (to
+the holders of which the remainder of this article applies) was derived,
+not from the county, but from the town of Buckingham. It originated in
+1784, when the 2nd Earl Temple was created marquess of Buckingham "in the
+county of Buckingham," this title being elevated into the dukedom of
+Buckingham and Chandos for his son in 1822.
+
+GEORGE NUGENT TEMPLE GRENVILLE, 1st marquess of Buckingham (1753-1813), was
+the second son of George Grenville, and was born on the 17th of June 1753.
+Educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, he was appointed a teller of
+the exchequer in 1764, and ten years later was returned to parliament as
+one of the members for Buckinghamshire. In the House of Commons he was a
+sharp critic of the American policy of Lord North. In September 1779 he
+succeeded his uncle as 2nd Earl Temple; in 1782 was appointed
+lord-lieutenant of Buckinghamshire; and in July of the same year became a
+member of the privy council and lord-lieutenant of Ireland in the ministry
+of the earl of Shelburne. On his advice the Renunciation Act of 1783 was
+passed, which supplemented the legislative independence granted to Ireland
+in 1782. By royal warrant he created the order of St Patrick in February
+1783, with himself as the first grand master. Temple left Ireland in 1783,
+and again turned his attention to English politics. He enjoyed the
+confidence of George III., and having opposed Fox's East India Bill, he was
+authorized by the king to say that "whoever voted for the India Bill was
+not only not his friend, but would be considered by him as an enemy," a
+message which ensured the defeat of the bill. He was appointed a secretary
+of state when the younger Pitt formed his ministry in December 1783, but
+resigned two days later. In December 1784 he was created marquess of
+Buckingham "in the county of Buckingham." In November 1787 he was appointed
+lord-lieutenant of Ireland under Pitt, but his second tenure of this office
+was hardly as successful as the first. He was denounced by Grattan for
+extravagance; was censured by the Irish Houses of parliament for refusing
+to transmit to England in address calling upon the prince of Wales to
+assume the regency; and he could only maintain his position by resorting to
+bribery on a large scale. Having become very unpopular he resigned his
+office in September 1789, and subsequently took very little part in
+politics, although he spoke in favour of the union with Ireland. He died at
+his residence, Stowe House, [v.04 p.0667] Buckingham, on the 11th of
+February 1813, and was buried at Wotton. In 1775 he had married Mary
+Elizabeth (d. 1812), daughter of Robert, Earl Nugent.
+
+His elder son, RICHARD GRENVILLE, 1st duke of Buckingham and Chandos
+(1776-1839), was one of the members of parliament for Buckinghamshire from
+1797 to 1813, and, as Earl Temple, took an active part in politics. In
+February 1813 he succeeded his father as marquess of Buckingham; and having
+married the only child of the 3rd duke of Chandos, he was created duke of
+Buckingham and Chandos in 1822. He died in 1839. Owing to financial
+embarrassments, the duke lived out of England for some time, and in 1862 an
+account of his travels was published, as _The Private Diary of Richard,
+Duke of Buckingham and Chandos_.
+
+He was succeeded by his only child, RICHARD GRENVILLE, 2nd duke of
+Buckingham and Chandos (1797-1861). Educated at Eton and Oriel College,
+Oxford, he was known as Earl Temple and subsequently as marquess of
+Chandos. He was member of parliament for Buckinghamshire from 1818 to 1839,
+and was responsible for the "Chandos clause" in the Reform Bill of 1832. He
+was lord privy seal from September 1841 to January 1842, and partly owing
+to his opposition to the repeal of the corn laws was known as the "Farmers'
+Friend." He found the estates heavily encumbered when he succeeded to the
+dukedom in 1839, and his own generous and luxurious tastes brought matters
+to a climax. In 1847 his residences were seized by his creditors, and the
+duke left England. His personal property and many of his landed estates
+were sold, and returning to England he devoted himself to literature. He
+died in London, on the 29th of July 1861. His wife, whom he married in
+1819, was Mary (d. 1862), daughter of John, 1st marquess of Breadalbane,
+and she obtained a divorce from him in 1850. Buckingham's chief
+publications are, _Memoirs of the Court and Cabinets of George III._
+(London, 1853-1855); _Memoirs of the Court of England_, 1811-1820 (London,
+1856); _Memoirs of the Court of George IV._ (London, 1859); and _Memoirs of
+the Court and Cabinets of William IV. and Victoria_ (London, 1861).
+
+RICHARD GRENVILLE, 3rd duke of Buckingham and Chandos (1823-1889), the only
+son of the 2nd duke, was educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, and,
+as marquess of Chandos, represented the borough of Buckingham in parliament
+from 1846 to 1857. He was chairman of the London & North-Western railway
+from 1853 to 1861. After succeeding to the dukedom he became lord president
+of the council, and subsequently secretary for the colonies in the
+Conservative government of 1866-1868. From 1875 to 1880 he was governor of
+Madras, and in 1886 was chosen chairman of committees in the House of
+Lords. He was twice married and left three daughters. As he left no son the
+dukedom became extinct on his death; but the Scottish barony of Kinloss (to
+which he established his title in 1868) passed to his eldest daughter,
+Mary, the wife of Captain L. F. H. C. Morgan; the earldom of Temple to his
+nephew, William Stephen Gore-Langton; and the viscounty of Cobham to his
+kinsman, Charles George, 5th Baron Lyttelton. His widow married the 1st
+Earl Egerton of Tatton in 1894.
+
+BUCKINGHAM, GEORGE VILLIERS, 1ST DUKE OF[1] (1592-1628), English statesman,
+born in August 1592,[2] was a younger son of Sir George Villiers of
+Brooksby. His mother, Mary, daughter of Anthony Beaumont of Glenfield,
+Leicestershire, who was left a widow early, educated him for a courtier's
+life, sending him to France with Sir John Eliot; and the lad, being "by
+nature contemplative," took kindly to the training. He could dance well,
+fence well, and talk a little French, when in August 1614 he was brought
+before the king's notice, in the hope that he would take a fancy to him.
+
+The moment was favourable. Since Salisbury's death James had taken the
+business of government upon himself. But he wanted some one who would chat
+with him, and amuse him, and would also fill the office of private
+secretary, and save him from the trouble of saying no to importunate
+suitors. It would be an additional satisfaction if he could train the youth
+whom he might select in those arts of statesmanship of which he believed
+himself to be a perfect master. His first choice had not proved a happy
+one. Robert Carr, who had lately become earl of Somerset, had had his head
+turned by his elevation. He had grown peevish toward his master, and had
+placed himself at the head of the party which was working for a close
+alliance with Spain.
+
+The appearance of Villiers, beaming with animal spirits and good humour,
+was therefore welcomed by all who had an interest in opposing the designs
+of Spain, and he was appointed cupbearer the same year. For some little
+time still Somerset's pre-eminence was maintained. But on the 23rd of April
+1615, Villiers, in spite of Somerset, was promoted to be gentleman of the
+bedchamber, and was knighted on the 24th; the charge of murdering Overbury,
+brought against Somerset in September, completed his downfall, and Villiers
+at once stepped into the place which he had vacated. On the 3rd of January
+1616 he became master of the horse, on the 24th of April he received the
+order of the Garter, and on the 27th of August 1616 was created Viscount
+Villiers and Baron Waddon, receiving a grant of land valued at £80,000,
+while on the 5th of January 1617 he was made earl, and on the 1st of
+January 1618 marquess of Buckingham. With the exception of the earl of
+Pembroke he was the richest nobleman in England.
+
+Those who expected him to give his support to the anti-Spanish party were
+at first doomed to disappointment. As yet he was no politician, and he
+contented himself with carrying out his master's orders, whatever they
+were. In his personal relations he was kindly and jovial towards all who
+did not thwart his wishes. But James had taught him to consider that the
+patronage of England was in his hands, and he took good care that no man
+should receive promotion of any kind who did not in one way or another pay
+court to him. As far as can be ascertained, he cared less for money than
+for the gratification of his vanity. But he had not merely himself to
+consider. His numerous kinsfolk were to be enriched by marriage, if in no
+other way, and Bacon, the great philosopher and statesman, was all but
+thrust from office because he had opposed a marriage suggested for one of
+Buckingham's brothers, while Cranfield, the first financier of the day, was
+kept from the treasury till he would forsake the woman whom he loved, to
+marry a penniless cousin of the favourite. On the 19th of January 1619
+James made him lord high admiral of England, hoping that the ardent,
+energetic youth would impart something of his own fire to those who were
+entrusted with the oversight of that fleet which had been almost ruined by
+the peculation and carelessness of the officials. Something of this, no
+doubt, was realized under Buckingham's eye. But he himself never pretended
+to the virtues of an administrator, and he was too ready to fill up
+appointments with men who flattered him, and too reluctant to dismiss them,
+if they served their country ill, to effect any permanent change for the
+better.
+
+It was about this time that he first took an independent part in politics.
+All England was talking of the revolution in Bohemia in the year before,
+and men's sympathy with the continental Protestants was increased when it
+was known that James's son-in-law had accepted the crown of Bohemia, and
+that in the summer of 1620 a Spanish force was preparing to invade the
+Palatinate. Buckingham at first had thrown himself into the popular
+movement. Before the summer of 1620 was at end, incensed by injuries
+inflicted on English sailors by the Dutch in the East Indies, he had swung
+round, and was in close agreement with Gondomar, the Spanish ambassador. He
+had now married Lady Katherine Manners, the daughter of the earl of
+Rutland, who was at heart a Roman Catholic, though she outwardly conformed
+to the English Church, and this alliance may have had something to do with
+the change.
+
+Buckingham's mistakes were owing mainly to his levity. If he passed briskly
+from one camp to the other, an impartial [v.04 p.0668] observer might
+usually detect some personal motive at the bottom. But it is hardly
+probable that he was himself conscious of anything of the sort. When he was
+in reality acting under the influence of vanity or passion it was easy for
+him to persuade himself that he was doing his duty to his country.
+
+The parliament which met in 1621, angry at discovering that no help was to
+be sent to the Palatinate, broke out into a loud outcry against the system
+of monopolies, from which Buckingham's brothers and dependants had drawn a
+profit, which was believed to be greater than it really was. At first he
+pleaded for a dissolution. But he was persuaded by Bishop Williams that it
+would be a wiser course to put himself at the head of the movement, and at
+a conference of the Commons with the Lords acknowledged that his two
+brothers had been implicated, but declared that his father had begotten a
+third who would aid in punishing them. In the impeachment of Bacon which
+soon followed, Buckingham, who owed much to his wise counsels, gave him
+that assistance which was possible without imperilling his own position and
+influence. He at first demanded the immediate dissolution of parliament,
+but afterwards, when the cry rose louder against the chancellor, joined in
+the attack, making however some attempt to mitigate the severity of the
+charges against him during the hearing of his case before the House of
+Lords. Notwithstanding, he took advantage of Bacon's need of assistance to
+wring from him the possession of York House.
+
+In the winter of 1621, and the succeeding year, Buckingham was entirely in
+Gondomar's hands; and it was only with some difficulty that in May 1622
+Laud argued him out of a resolution to declare himself a Roman Catholic. In
+December 1621 he actively supported the dissolution of parliament, and
+there can be little doubt that when the Spanish ambassador left England the
+following May, he had come to an understanding with Buckingham that the
+prince of Wales should visit Madrid the next year, on which occasion the
+Spanish court hoped to effect his conversion to the Roman Catholic Church
+before giving him the hand of the infanta Maria. They set out on their
+adventurous expedition on the 17th of February 1623, arriving at Madrid,
+after passing through Paris on the 7th of March. Each party had been the
+dupe of the other. Charles and Buckingham were sanguine in hoping for the
+restitution of the Palatinate to James's son-in-law, as a marriage gift to
+Charles; while the Spaniards counted on the conversion of Charles to Roman
+Catholicism and other extreme concessions (see CHARLES I.). The political
+differences were soon accentuated by personal disputes between Buckingham
+and Olivares and the grandees, and when the two young men sailed together
+from Santander in September, it was with the final resolution to break
+entirely with Spain.
+
+James had gratified his favourite in his absence by raising him to a
+dukedom. But the splendour which now gathered round Buckingham was owing to
+another source than James's favour. He had put himself at the head of the
+popular movement against Spain, and when James, acknowledging sorely
+against his will that the Palatinate could only be recovered by force,
+summoned the parliament which met in February 1624, Buckingham, with the
+help of the heir apparent, took up an independent political position. James
+was half driven, half persuaded to declare all negotiations with Spain at
+an end. For the moment Buckingham was the most popular man in England.
+
+It was easier to overthrow one policy than to construct another. The
+Commons would have been content with sending some assistance to the Dutch,
+and with entering upon a privateering war with Spain. James, whose object
+was to regain the Palatinate, believed this could only be accomplished by a
+continental alliance, in which France took part. As soon as parliament was
+prorogued, negotiations were opened for a marriage between Charles and the
+sister of Louis XIII., Henrietta Maria. But a difficulty arose. James and
+Charles had engaged to the Commons that there should be no concessions to
+the English Roman Catholics, and Louis would not hear of the marriage
+unless very large concessions were made. Buckingham, impatient to begin the
+war as soon as possible, persuaded Charles, and the two together persuaded
+James to throw over the promises to the Commons, and to accept the French
+terms. It was no longer possible to summon parliament to vote supplies for
+the war till the marriage had been completed, when remonstrances to its
+conditions would be useless.
+
+Buckingham, for Buckingham was now virtually the ruler of England, had thus
+to commence war without money. He prepared to throw 12,000 Englishmen,
+under a German adventurer, Count Mansfeld, through France into the
+Palatinate. The French insisted that he should maroh through Holland. It
+mattered little which way he took. Without provisions, and without money to
+buy them, the wretched troops sickened and died in the winter frosts.
+Buckingham's first military enterprise ended in disastrous failure.
+
+Buckingham had many other schemes in his teeming brain. He had offered to
+send aid to Christian IV., king of Denmark, who was proposing to make war
+in Germany, and had also a plan for sending an English fleet to attack
+Genoa, the ally of Spain, and a plan for sending an English fleet to attack
+Spain itself.
+
+Before these schemes could be carried into operation James died on the 27th
+of March 1625. The new king and Buckingham were at one in their aims and
+objects. Both were anxious to distinguish themselves by the chastisement of
+Spain, and the recovery of the Palatinate. Both were young and
+inexperienced. But Charles, obstinate when his mind was made up, was
+sluggish in action and without fertility in ideas, and he had long
+submitted his mind to the versatile and brilliant favourite, who was never
+at a loss what to do next, and who unrolled before his eyes visions of
+endless possibilities in the future. Buckingham was sent over to Paris to
+urge upon the French court the importance of converting its alliance into
+active co-operation.
+
+There was a difficulty in the way. The Huguenots of La Rochelle were in
+rebellion, and James had promised the aid of English ships to suppress that
+rebellion. Buckingham, who seems at first to have consented to the scheme,
+was anxious to mediate peace between the king of France and his subjects,
+and to save Charles from compromising himself with his parliament by the
+appearance of English ships in an attack upon Protestants. When he returned
+his main demands were refused, but hopes were given him that peace would be
+made with the Huguenots. On his way through France he had the insolence to
+make love to the queen of France.
+
+Soon after his return parliament was opened. It would have been hard for
+Charles to pass through the session with credit. Under Buckingham's
+guidance he had entered into engagements involving an enormous expenditure,
+and these engagements involved a war on the continent, which had never been
+popular in the House of Commons. The Commons, too, suspected the marriage
+treaty contained engagements of which they disapproved. They asked for the
+full execution of the laws against the Roman Catholics, and voted but
+little money in return. Before they reassembled at Oxford on the 1st of
+August, the English ships had found their way into the hands of the French,
+to be used against La Rochelle. The Commons met in an ill-humour. They had
+no confidence in Buckingham, and they asked that persons whom they could
+trust should be admitted to the king's council before they would vote a
+penny. Charles stood by his minister, and on the 12th of August he
+dissolved his first parliament.
+
+Buckingham and his master set themselves to work to conquer public opinion.
+On the one hand, they threw over their engagements to France on behalf of
+the English Roman Catholics. On the other hand they sent out a large fleet
+to attack Cadiz, and to seize the Spanish treasure-ships. Buckingham went
+to the Hague to raise an immediate supply by pawning the crown jewels, to
+place England at the head of a great Protestant alliance, and to enter into
+fresh obligations to furnish money to the king of Denmark. It all ended in
+failure. The fleet returned from Cadiz, having effected nothing. The crown
+jewels produced but a small sum, and the money for the king of Denmark
+could only be raised by an appeal to parliament. In the meanwhile the king
+of France was deeply offended by the treatment of [v.04 p.0669] the Roman
+Catholics, and by the seizure of French vessels on the ground that they
+were engaged in carrying goods for Spain.
+
+When Charles's second parliament met on the 6th of February 1626, it was
+not long before, under Eliot's guidance, it asked for Buckingham's
+punishment. He was impeached before the House of Lords on a long string of
+charges. Many of these charges were exaggerated, and some were untrue. His
+real crime was his complete failure as the leader of the administration.
+But as long as Charles refused to listen to the complaints of his
+minister's incompetency, the only way in which the Commons could reach him
+was by bringing criminal charges against him. Charles dissolved his second
+parliament as he had dissolved his first. Subsequently the Star Chamber
+declared the duke innocent of the charges, and on the 1st of June
+Buckingham was elected chancellor of Cambridge University.
+
+To find money was the great difficulty. Recourse was had to a forced loan,
+and men were thrown into prison for refusing to pay it. Disasters had
+occurred to Charles's allies in Germany. The fleet sent out under Lord
+Willoughby (earl of Lindsey) against the Spaniards returned home shattered
+by a storm, and a French war was impending in addition to the Spanish one.
+The French were roused to reprisals by Charles's persistence in seizing
+French vessels. Unwilling to leave La Rochelle open to the entrance of an
+English fleet, Richelieu laid siege to that stronghold of the French
+Huguenots. On the 27th of June 1627 Buckingham sailed from Portsmouth at
+the head of a numerous fleet, and a considerable land force, to relieve the
+besieged city.
+
+His first enterprise was the siege of the fort of St Martin's, on the Isle
+of Ré. The ground was hard, and the siege operations were converted into a
+blockade. On the 27th of September the defenders of the fort announced
+their readiness to surrender the next morning. In the night a fresh gale
+brought over a flotilla of French provision boats, which dashed through the
+English blockading squadron. The fort was provisioned for two months more.
+Buckingham resolved to struggle on, and sent for reinforcements from
+England. Charles would gladly have answered to his call. But England had
+long since ceased to care for the war. There was no money in the exchequer,
+no enthusiasm in the nation to supply the want. Before the reinforcements
+could arrive the French had thrown a superior force upon the island, and
+Buckingham was driven to retreat on the 29th of October with heavy loss,
+only 2989 troops out of nearly 7000 returning to England.
+
+His spirits were as buoyant as ever. Ill luck, or the misconduct of others,
+was the cause of his failure. He had new plans for carrying on the war. But
+the parliament which met on the 17th of March 1628 was resolved to exact
+from the king an obligation to refrain from encroaching for the future on
+the liberties of his subjects.
+
+In the parliamentary battle, which ended in the concession of the Petition
+of Right, Buckingham took an active share as a member of the House of
+Lords. He resisted as long as it was possible to resist the demand of the
+Commons, that the king should abandon his claim to imprison without showing
+cause. When the first unsatisfactory answer to the petition was made by the
+king on the 2nd of June, the Commons suspected, probably with truth, that
+it had been dictated by Buckingham. They prepared a remonstrance on the
+state of the nation, and Coke at last named the duke as the cause of all
+the misfortunes that had occurred. "The duke of Bucks is the cause of all
+our miseries ... that man is the grievance of grievances." Though on the
+7th of June the king granted a satisfactory answer to the petition, the
+Commons proceeded with their remonstrance, and on the 11th demanded that he
+might no longer continue in office.
+
+Once more Charles refused to surrender Buckingham, and a few days later he
+prorogued parliament in anger. The popular feeling was greatly excited.
+Lampoons circulated freely from hand to hand, and Dr Lambe, a quack doctor,
+who dabbled in astrology, and was believed to exercise influence over
+Buckingham, was murdered in the streets of London. Rude doggerel lines
+announced that the duke should share the doctor's fate.
+
+With the clouds gathering round him, Buckingham went down to Portsmouth to
+take the command of one final expedition for the relief of La Rochelle. For
+the first time even he was beginning to acknowledge that he had undertaken
+a task beyond his powers. There was a force of inertia in the officials
+which resisted his efforts to spur them on to an enterprise which they
+believed to be doomed to failure. He entered gladly into a scheme of
+pacification proposed by the Venetian ambassador. But before he could know
+whether there was to be peace or war, the knife of an assassin put an end
+to his career. John Felton, who had served at Ré, had been disappointed of
+promotion, and had not been paid that which was due to him for his
+services, read the declaration of the Commons that Buckingham was a public
+enemy, and eagerly caught at the excuse for revenging his private wrongs
+under cover of those of his country. Waiting, on the morning of the 23rd of
+August, beside the door of the room in which Buckingham was breakfasting,
+he stabbed him to the heart as he came out.
+
+Buckingham married Lady Katherine Manners, daughter of Francis, 6th earl of
+Rutland, by whom he left three sons and one daughter, of whom George, the
+second son (1628-1687), succeeded to the dukedom.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Article in the _Dict. of Nat. Biography_, by S.R. Gardiner;
+_Life of Buckingham_, by Sir Henry Wotton (1642), reprinted in _Harleian
+Miscellany_, viii. 613; _A Parallel between Robert Earl of Essex and George
+late Duke of Buckingham_, by the same writer (1641), in the _Thomason
+Tracts_, 164 (20); _Characters_ of the same by Edward, Earl of Clarendon
+(1706); _Life of George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham, &c._ (London, 1740);
+_Historical and Biographical Memoirs of George Villiers, Duke of
+Buckingham_ (London, 1819); _Letters of the Duke and Duchess of Buckingham_
+(Edinburgh, 1834); _Historia Vitae ... Ricardi II., &c._, by Thos. Hearne
+(1729); _Documents illustrating the Impeachment of Buckingham_, published
+by the Camden Society and edited by S.R. Gardiner (1889); _Epistolae
+Hoelianae_ (James Howell), 187, 189, 203; _Poems and Songs relating to
+George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham_, ed. by R. W. Fairholt for the Percy
+Society (1850); Rous's _Diary_ (Camden Soc., 1856), p. 27; _Gent. Mag._
+(1845), ii. 137-144 (portrait of Buckingham dead); _Cal. of State Papers_,
+and MSS. in the British Museum (various collections). Hist. MSS. Comm.
+Series. See also P. Gibbs, _The Romance of George Villiers, 1st Duke of
+Buckingham_ (1908).
+
+(S. R. G.; P. C. Y.)
+
+[1] _i.e._ in the Villiers line; see above.
+
+[2] The _Life_, by Sir Henry Wotton, gives August 28th as the date of his
+birth, but, when relating his death on August 23rd, adds, "thus died the
+great peer in the 36th year of his age compleat and three days over."
+August 28th was therefore probably a misprint for August 20th.
+
+BUCKINGHAM, GEORGE VILLIERS, 2ND DUKE OF[1] (1628-1687), English statesman,
+son of the 1st duke, was born on the 30th of January 1628. He was brought
+up, together with his younger brother Francis, by King Charles I. with his
+own children, and was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he
+obtained the degree of M.A. in 1642. He fought for the king in the Civil
+War, and took part in the attack on Lichfield Close in April 1643.
+Subsequently, under the care of the earl of Northumberland, the two
+brothers travelled abroad and lived at Florence and Rome. When the Second
+Civil War broke out they joined the earl of Holland in Surrey, in July
+1648. Lord Francis was killed near Kingston, and Buckingham and Holland
+were surprised at St Neots on the 10th, the duke succeeding in escaping to
+Holland. In consequence of his participation in the rebellion, his lands,
+which had been restored to him in 1647 on account of his youth, were now
+again confiscated, a considerable portion passing into the possession of
+Fairfax; and he refused to compound. Charles II. conferred on him the
+Garter on the 19th of September 1649, and admitted him to the privy council
+on the 6th of April 1650. In opposition to Hyde he supported the alliance
+with the Scottish presbyterians, accompanied Charles to Scotland in June,
+and allied himself with Argyll, dissuading Charles from joining the
+royalist plot of October 1650, and being suspected of betraying the plan to
+the convenanting leaders. In May he had been appointed general of the
+eastern association in England, and was commissioned to raise forces
+abroad; and in the following year he was chosen to lead the projected
+movement in Lancashire and to command the Scottish royalists. He was
+present with Charles at the battle of Worcester on the 3rd of September
+1651, and escaped safely [v.04 p.0670] alone to Rotterdam in October. His
+subsequent negotiations with Cromwell's government, and his readiness to
+sacrifice the interests of the church, separated him from the rest of
+Charles's advisers and diminished his influence; while his estrangement
+from the royal family was completed by his audacious courtship of the
+king's sister, the widowed princess of Orange, and by a money dispute with
+Charles. In 1657 he returned to England, and on the 15th of September
+married Mary, daughter of Lord Fairfax, who had fallen in love with him
+although the banns of her intended marriage with the earl of Chesterfield
+had been twice called in church. Buckingham was soon suspected of
+organizing a presbyterian plot against the government, and in spite of
+Fairfax's interest with Cromwell an order was issued for his arrest on the
+9th of October. He was confined at York House about April 1658, and having
+broken bounds was rearrested on the 18th of August and imprisoned in the
+Tower, where he remained till the 23rd of February 1659, being then
+liberated on his promise not to abet the enemies of the government, and on
+Fairfax's security of £20,000. He joined the latter in his march against
+Lambert in January 1660, and afterwards claimed to have gained Fairfax to
+the cause of the Restoration.
+
+On the king's return Buckingham, who met him at his landing at Dover, was
+at first received coldly; but he was soon again in favour, was appointed a
+gentleman of the bedchamber, carried the orb at the coronation on the 23rd
+of April 1661, and was made lord-lieutenant of the West Riding of Yorkshire
+on the 21st of September. The same year he accompanied the princess
+Henrietta to Paris on her marriage with the duke of Orleans, but made love
+to her himself with such imprudence that he was recalled. On the 28th of
+April 1662 he was admitted to the privy council. His confiscated estates
+amounting to £26,000 a year were restored to him, and he was reputed the
+king's richest subject. He took part in the suppression of the projected
+insurrection in Yorkshire in 1663, went to sea in the first Dutch war in
+1665, and was employed in taking measures to resist the Dutch or French
+invasion in June 1666.
+
+He was, however, debarred from high office by Clarendon's influence.
+Accordingly Buckingham's intrigues were now directed to effect the
+chancellor's ruin. He organized parties in both houses of parliament in
+support of the bill of 1666 prohibiting the import of Irish cattle, partly
+to oppose Clarendon and partly to thwart the duke of Ormonde. Having
+asserted during the debates that "whoever was against the bill had either
+an Irish interest or an Irish understanding," he was challenged by Lord
+Ossory. Buckingham avoided the encounter, and Ossory was sent to the Tower.
+A short time afterwards, during a conference between the two houses on the
+19th of December, he came to blows with the marquess of Dorchester, pulling
+off the latter's periwig, while Dorchester at the close of the scuffle "had
+much of the duke's hair in his hand."[2] According to Clarendon no
+misdemeanour so flagrant had ever before offended the dignity of the House
+of Lords. The offending peers were both sent to the Tower, but were
+released after apologizing; and Buckingham vented his spite by raising a
+claim to the title of Lord Roos held by Dorchester's son-in-law. His
+opposition to the government had forfeited the king's favour, and he was
+now accused of treasonable intrigues, and of having cast the king's
+horoscope. His arrest was ordered on the 25th of February 1667, and he was
+dismissed from all his offices. He avoided capture till the 27th of June,
+when he gave himself up and was imprisoned in the Tower. He was released,
+however, by July 17th, was restored to favour and to his appointments on
+the 15 of September, and took an active part in the prosecution of
+Clarendon. On the latter's fall he became the chief minister, though
+holding no high office except that of master of the horse, bought from the
+duke of Albermarle in 1668. In 1671 he was elected chancellor of Cambridge,
+and in 1672 high steward of Oxford university. He favoured religious
+toleration, and earned the praise of Richard Baxter; he supported a scheme
+of comprehension in 1668, and advised the declaration of indulgence in
+1672. He upheld the original jurisdiction of the Lords in Skinner's case.
+With these exceptions Buckingham's tenure of office was chiefly marked by
+scandals and intrigues. His illicit connexion with the countess of
+Shrewsbury led to a duel with her husband at Barn Elms on the 16th of
+January 1668, in which Shrewsbury was fatally wounded. The tale that the
+countess, disguised as a page, witnessed the encounter, appears to have no
+foundation; but Buckingham, by installing the "widow of his own creation"
+in his own and his wife's house, outraged even the lax opinion of that day.
+He was thought to have originated the project of obtaining the divorce of
+the childless queen. He intrigued against James, against Sir William
+Coventry--one of the ablest statesmen of the time, whose fall he procured
+by provoking him to send him a challenge--and against the great duke of
+Ormonde, who was dismissed in 1669. He was even suspected of having
+instigated Thomas Blood's attempt to kidnap and murder Ormonde, and was
+charged with the crime in the king's presence by Ormonde's son, Lord
+Ossory, who threatened to shoot him dead in the event of his father's
+meeting with a violent end. Arlington, next to Buckingham himself the most
+powerful member of the cabal and a favourite of the king, was a rival less
+easy to overcome; and he derived considerable influence from the control of
+foreign affairs entrusted to him. Buckingham had from the first been an
+adherent of the French alliance, while Arlington concluded through Sir
+William Temple in 1668 the Triple Alliance. But on the complete
+_volte-face_ and surrender made by Charles to France in 1670, Arlington as
+a Roman Catholic was entrusted with the first treaty of Dover of the 20th
+of May--which besides providing for the united attack on Holland, included
+Charles's undertaking to proclaim himself a Romanist and to reintroduce the
+Roman Catholic faith into England,--While Buckingham was sent to France to
+carry on the sham negotiations which led to the public treaties of the 31st
+of December 1670 and the 2nd of February 1672. He was much pleased with his
+reception by Louis XIV., declared that he had "more honours done him than
+ever were given to any subject," and was presented with a pension of 10,000
+livres a year for Lady Shrewsbury. In June 1672 he accompanied Arlington to
+the Hague to impose terms on the prince of Orange, and with Arlington
+arranged the new treaty with Louis. After all this activity he suffered a
+keen disappointment in being passed over for the command of the English
+forces in favour of Schomberg. He now knew of the secret treaty of Dover,
+and towards the end of 1673 his jealousy of Arlington became open
+hostility. He threatened to impeach him, and endeavoured with the help of
+Louis to stir up a faction against him in parliament. This, however, was
+unsuccessful, and in January 1674 an attack was made upon Buckingham
+himself simultaneously in both houses. In the Lords the trustees of the
+young earl of Shrewsbury complained that Buckingham continued publicly his
+intimacy with the countess, and that a son of theirs had been buried in
+Westminster Abbey with the title of earl of Coventry; and Buckingham, after
+presenting an apology, was required, as was the countess, to give security
+for £10,000 not to cohabit together again. In the Commons he was attacked
+as the promoter of the French alliance, of "popery" and arbitrary
+government. He defended himself chiefly by endeavouring to throw the blame
+upon Arlington; but an address was voted petitioning the king to remove him
+from his councils, presence and from employment for ever. Charles, who had
+only been waiting for a favourable opportunity, and who was enraged at
+Buckingham's disclosures, consented with alacrity. Buckingham retired into
+private life, reformed his ways, attended church with his wife, began to
+pay his debts, became a "patriot," and was claimed by the country or
+opposition party as one of their leaders. In the spring of 1675 he was
+conspicuous for his opposition to the Test oath and for his abuse of the
+bishops, and on the 16th of November he introduced a bill for the relief of
+the nonconformists. On the 15th of February 1677 he was one of the four
+lords who endeavoured to embarrass the government by raising the question
+whether the parliament, not having assembled according to the act of Edward
+III. once in the year, had not been dissolved by [v.04 p.0671] the recent
+prorogation. The motion was rejected and the four lords were ordered to
+apologize. On their refusing, they were sent to the Tower, Buckingham in
+particular exasperating the House by ridiculing its censure. He was
+released in July, and immediately entered into intrigues with Barillon, the
+French ambassador, with the object of hindering the grant of supplies to
+the king; and in 1678 he visited Paris to get the assistance of Louis XIV.
+for the cause of the opposition. He took an active part in the prosecution
+of those implicated in the supposed Popish Plot, and accused the lord chief
+justice (Sir William Scroggs) in his own court while on circuit of
+favouring the Roman Catholics. In consequence of his conduct a writ was
+issued for his apprehension, but it was never served. He promoted the
+return of Whig candidates to parliament, constituted himself the champion
+of the dissenters, and was admitted a freeman of the city of London. He,
+however, separated himself from the Whigs on the exclusion question,
+probably on account of his dislike of Monmouth and Shaftesbury, was absent
+from the great debate in the Lords on the 15th of November 1680, and was
+restored to the king's favour in 1684.
+
+He took no part in public life after James's accession, but returned to his
+manor of Helmsley in Yorkshire, the cause of his withdrawal being probably
+exhausted health and exhausted finances. In 1685 he published a pamphlet,
+entitled _A short Discourse on the Reasonableness of Man's having a
+Religion_ (reprinted in _Somers Tracts_ (1813, ix. 13), in which after
+discussing the main subject he returned to his favourite topic, religious
+toleration. The tract provoked some rejoinders and was defended, amongst
+others, by William Penn, and by the author himself in _The Duke of
+Buckingham's Letter to the unknown author of a short answer to the Duke of
+Buckingham's Paper_ (1685). In hopes of converting him to Roman Catholicism
+James sent him a priest, but Buckingham turned his arguments into ridicule.
+He died on the 16th of April 1687, from a chill caught while hunting, in
+the house of a tenant at Kirkby Moorside in Yorkshire, expressing great
+repentance and feeling himself "despised by my country and I fear forsaken
+by my God."[3] The miserable picture of his end drawn by Pope, however, is
+greatly exaggerated. He was buried on the 7th of June 1687 in Henry VII.'s
+chapel in Westminster Abbey, in greater state, it was said, than the late
+king, and with greater splendour. With his death the family founded by the
+extraordinary rise to power and influence of the first duke ended. As he
+left no legitimate children the title became extinct, and his great estate
+had been completely dissipated; of the enormous mansion constructed by him
+at Cliveden in Buckinghamshire not a stone remains.
+
+The ostentatious licence and the unscrupulous conduct of the Alcibiades of
+the 17th century have been deservedly censured. But even his critics agree
+that he was good-humoured, good-natured, generous, an unsurpassed mimic and
+the leader of fashion; and with his good looks, in spite of his moral
+faults and even crimes, he was irresistible to his contemporaries. Many
+examples of his amusing wit have survived. His portrait has been drawn by
+Burnet, Count Hamilton in the _Mémoires de Grammont_, Dryden, Pope in the
+_Epistle to Lord Bathurst_, and Sir Walter Scott in _Peveril of the Peak_.
+He is described by Reresby as "the first gentleman of person and wit I
+think I ever saw," and Burnet bears the same testimony. Dean Lockier, after
+alluding to his unrivalled skill in riding, dancing and fencing, adds,
+"When he came into the presence-chamber it was impossible for you not to
+follow him with your eye as he went along, he moved so gracefully." Racing
+and hunting were his favourite sports, and his name long survived in the
+hunting songs of Yorkshire. He was the patron of Cowley, Sprat, Matthew
+Clifford and Wycherley. He dabbled in chemistry, and for some years,
+according to Burnet, "he thought he was very near the finding of the
+philosopher's stone." He set up glass works at Lambeth the productions of
+which were praised by Evelyn; and he spent much money, according to his
+biographer Brian Fairfax, in building _insanae substructions_. Dryden
+described him under the character of Zimri in the celebrated lines in
+_Absalom and Achitophel_ (to which Buckingham replied in _Poetical
+Reflections on a late Poem ... by a Person of Honour, 1682_):--
+
+  "A man so various, that he seemed to be
+  Not one, but all mankind's epitome;
+  Stiff in opinions, always in the wrong,
+  Was everything by starts and nothing long;
+  But in the course of one revolving moon,
+  Was chymist, fiddler, statesman and buffoon....
+  Beggar'd by fools, whom still he found too late,
+  He had his jest, but they had his estate."
+
+Buckingham, however, cannot with any truth be called the "epitome of
+mankind." On the contrary, the distinguishing features of his life are its
+incompleteness, aimlessness, imperfection, insignificance, neglect of
+talents and waste of opportunities. "He saw and approved the best," says
+Brian Fairfax, "but did too often _deteriora sequi_." He is more severely
+but more justly judged by himself. In gay moments indeed he had written--
+
+  "Methinks, I see the wanton houres flee,
+  And as they passe, turne back and laugh at me,"[4]--
+
+but his last recorded words on the approach of death, "O! what a prodigal
+have I been of that most valuable of all possessions--Time!" express with
+exact truth the fundamental flaw of his character and career, of which he
+had at last become conscious.
+
+Buckingham wrote occasional verses and satires showing undoubted but
+undeveloped poetical gifts, a collection of which, containing however many
+pieces not from his pen, was first published by Tom Brown in 1704; while a
+few extracts from a commonplace book of Buckingham of some interest are
+given in an article in the _Quarterly Review_ of January 1898. He was the
+author of _The Rehearsal_, an amusing and clever satire on the heroic drama
+and especially on Dryden (first performed on the 7th of December 1671, at
+the Theatre Royal, and first published in 1672), a deservedly popular play
+which was imitated by Fielding in _Tom Thumb the Great_, and by Sheridan in
+the _Critic_. Buckingham also published two adapted plays, _The Chances_,
+altered from Fletcher's play of the same name (1682) and _The Restoration
+or Right will take place_, from Beaumont and Fletcher's _Philaster_ (publ.
+1714); and also _The Battle of Sedgmoor_ and _The Militant Couple_ (publ.
+1704). The latest edition of his works is that by T. Evans (2 vols. 8vo,
+1775). Another work is named by Wood _A Demonstration of the Deity_, of
+which there is now no trace.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The life of Buckingham has been well and accurately traced
+and the chief authorities collected in the article in the _Dict, of Nat.
+Biography_ (1899) by C.H. Firth, and in _George Villiers, 2nd Duke of
+Buckingham_, by Lady Burghclere (1903). Other biographies are in Wood's
+_Athenae Oxon_ (Bliss), iv. 207; in _Biographia Britannica_; by Brian
+Fairfax, printed in H. Walpole's _Catalogue of Pictures of George Duke of
+Buckingham_ (1758); in Arber's edition of the _Rehearsal_ (1868); and by
+the author of _Hudibras_ in _The Genuine Remains of Mr Samuel Butler_, by
+R. Thyer (1759), ii. 72. The following may also be mentioned:--_Quarterly
+Review, Jan. 1898_ (commonplace book); _A Conference on the Doctrine of
+Transubstantiation between ... the Duke of Buckingham and Father
+FitzGerald_ (1714); _A Narrative of the Cause and Manner of the
+Imprisonment of the Lords_ (1677); _The Declaration of the ... Duke of
+Buckingham and the Earls of Holland and Peterborough ... associated for the
+King_ (1648); S.R. Gardiner's _Hist. of the Commonwealth_ (1894-1901);
+_Hist. of Eng. Poetry_, by W.J. Courthope (1903), iii. 460; Horace
+Walpole's _Royal and Noble Authors_, iii. 304; _Miscellania Aulica_, by T.
+Brown (1702); and the _Fairfax Correspondence_ (1848-1849). For the
+correspondence see _Charles II. and Scotland in 1650_ (Scottish History
+Soc., vol. xvii., 1894); _Calendars of St. Pap. Dom.; Hist. MSS. Comm.
+Series, MSS. of Duke of Buccleuch at Montagu House, of Mrs
+Frankland-Russell-Astley_, of _Marq. of Ormonde_, and _Various
+Collections_; and _English Hist. Rev._ (April 1905), xx. 373.
+
+(P. C. Y.)
+
+[1] i.e. in the Villiers line; see above.
+
+[2] Clarendon, _Life and Continuation_, 979.
+
+[3] _Quarterly Review_, January 1898, p. 110.
+
+[4] From his Common place Book (_Quarterly Rev._ vol. 187, p. 87).
+
+BUCKINGHAM, HENRY STAFFORD, 2ND DUKE OF[1] (1454-1483), was the son of
+Humphrey Stafford, killed at the first battle of St Albans in 1455, and
+grandson of Humphrey the 1st duke (cr. 1444), killed at Northampton in
+1460, both fighting for Lancaster. The 1st duke, who bore the title of earl
+of Buckingham in right of his mother, was the son of Edmund, 5th earl of
+Stafford, and of Anne, daughter of Thomas, duke [v.04 p.0672] of
+Gloucester, youngest son of Edward III.; Henry's mother was Margaret,
+daughter of Edmund Beaufort, 2nd duke of Somerset, grandson of John of
+Gaunt. Thus he came on both sides of the blood royal, and this, coupled
+with the vastness of his inheritance, made the young duke's future of
+importance to Edward IV. He was recognized as duke in 1465, and next year
+was married to Catherine Woodville, the queen's sister. On reaching manhood
+he was made a knight of the Garter in 1474, and in 1478 was high steward at
+the trial of George, duke of Clarence. He had not otherwise filled any
+position of importance, but his fidelity might seem to have been secured by
+his marriage. However, after Edward's death, Buckingham was one of the
+first persons worked upon by Richard, duke of Gloucester. It was through
+his help that Richard obtained possession of the young king, and he was at
+once rewarded with the offices of justiciar and chamberlain of North and
+South Wales, and constable of all the royal castles in the principality and
+Welsh Marches. In the proceedings which led to the deposition of Edward V.
+he took a prominent part, and on the 24th of June 1483 he urged the
+citizens at the Guildhall to take Richard as king, in a speech of much
+eloquence, "for he was neither unlearned and of nature marvellously well
+spoken." (More). At Richard's coronation he served as chamberlain, and
+immediately afterwards was made constable of England and confirmed in his
+powers in Wales. Richard might well have believed that the duke's support
+was secured. But early in August Buckingham withdrew from the court to
+Brecon. He may have thought that he deserved an even greater reward, or
+possibly had dreams of establishing his own claims to the crown. At all
+events, at Brecon he fell somewhat easily under the influence of his
+prisoner, John Morton (_q.v._), who induced him to give his support to his
+cousin Henry Tudor, earl of Richmond. A widespread plot was soon formed,
+but Richard had early warning, and on the 15th of October, issued a
+proclamation against Buckingham. Buckingham, as arranged, prepared to enter
+England with a large force of Welshmen. His advance was stopped by an
+extraordinary flood on the Severn, his army melted away without striking a
+blow, and he himself took refuge with a follower, Ralph Bannister, at Lacon
+Hall, near Wem. The man betrayed him for a large reward, and on the 1st of
+November, Buckingham was brought to the king at Salisbury. Richard refused
+to see him, and after a summary trial had him executed next day (2nd of
+November 1483), though it was a Sunday.
+
+Buckingham's eldest son, Edward (1478-1521), eventually succeeded him as
+3rd duke, the attainder being removed in 1485; the second son, Henry, was
+afterwards earl of Wiltshire. The 3rd duke played an important part as lord
+high constable at the opening of the reign of Henry VIII., and is
+introduced into Shakespeare's play of that king, but he fell through his
+opposition to Wolsey, and in 1521 was condemned for treason and executed
+(17th of May); the title was then forfeited with his attainder, his only
+son Henry (1501-1563), who in his father's lifetime was styled earl of
+Stafford, being, however, given back his estates in 1522, and in 1547
+restored in blood by parliament with the title of Baron Stafford, which
+became extinct in this line with Roger, 5th Baron in 1640. In that year the
+barony of Stafford was granted to William Howard (1614-1680), who after two
+months was created Viscount Stafford; he was beheaded in 1680, and his son
+was created earl of Stafford in 1688, a title which became extinct in 1762;
+but in 1825 the descent to the barony of 1640 was established, to the
+satisfaction of the House of Lords, in the person of Sir G.W. Jerningham,
+in whose family it then continued.
+
+The chief original authorities for the life of the 2nd duke of Buckingham
+are the _Continuation of the Croyland Chronicle_; Sir Thomas More's
+_Richard III._; and Fabyan's _Chronicle_. Amongst modern authorities
+consult J. Gairdner's _Richard III._; and Sir. J. Ramsay's _Lancaster and
+York_.
+
+(C. L. K.)
+
+[1] i.e. in the Stafford line; see above.
+
+BUCKINGHAM, JAMES SILK (1786-1855), English author and traveller, was born
+near Falmouth on the 25th of August 1786, the son of a farmer. His youth
+was spent at sea. After years of wandering he established in 1818 the
+_Calcutta Journal_. This venture at first proved highly successful, but in
+1823 the paper's outspoken criticisms of the East India Company led to the
+expulsion of Buckingham from India and to the suppression of the paper by
+John Adam, the acting governor-general. His case was brought before
+parliament, and a pension of £200 a year was subsequently awarded him by
+the East India Company as compensation. Buckingham continued his
+journalistic ventures on his return to England, and started the _Oriental
+Herald_ (1824) and the _Athenaeum_ (1828) which was not a success in his
+hands. In parliament, where he sat as member for Sheffield from 1832-1837,
+he was a strong advocate of social reform. He was a most voluminous writer.
+He had travelled much in Europe, America and the East, and wrote a great
+number of useful books of travel. In 1851 the value of these and of his
+other literary work was recognized by the grant of a civil list pension of
+£200 a year. At the time of his death in London, on the 30th of June 1855,
+Buckingham was at work on his autobiography, two volumes of the intended
+four being completed and published (1855).
+
+His youngest son, Leicester Silk Buckingham (1825-1867), achieved no little
+popularity as a playwright, several of his free adaptations of French
+comedies being produced in London between 1860 and 1867.
+
+BUCKINGHAM, a market town and municipal borough and the county town of
+Buckinghamshire, England, in the Buckingham parliamentary division, 61 m.
+N.W. of London by a branch of the London & North-Western railway. Pop.
+(1901) 3152. It lies in an open valley on the upper part of the river Ouse,
+which encircles the main portion of the town on three sides. The church of
+St Peter and St Paul, which was extensively restored by Sir Gilbert Scott,
+a native of this neighbourhood, is of the 18th century, and stands on the
+site of the old castle; the town hall dates from the close of the previous
+century; and the grammar school was founded by Edward VI., in part
+occupying buildings of earlier date, which retain Perpendicular and
+Decorated windows, and a Norman door. A chantry, founded in 1268 by Matthew
+Stratton, archdeacon of Buckingham, previously occupied the site; the
+Norman work may be a remnant of the chapel of a gild of the Holy Trinity.
+The manor house is of the early part of the 17th century, and other old
+houses remain. The adjacent mansion of Stowe, approached from the town by a
+magnificent avenue of elms, and surrounded by gardens very beautifully laid
+out, was the seat of the dukes of Buckingham until the extinction of the
+title in 1889. Buckingham is served by a branch of the Grand Junction
+Canal, and has agricultural trade, manufactures of condensed milk and
+artificial manure, maltings and flour-mills; while an old industry survives
+to a modified extent in the manufacture of pillow-lace. The borough is
+under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 5006 acres.
+
+Buckingham (Bochingeham, Bukyngham) was an important stronghold in
+pre-Conquest times, and in 918 Edward the Elder encamped there with his
+army for four weeks, and threw up two forts on either side of the water. At
+the time of the Domesday survey there were twenty-six burgesses in
+Buckingham, which, together with the hamlet of Bourton, was assessed at one
+hide. Although it appears as a borough thus early, the town received no
+charter until 1554, when Queen Mary created it a free borough corporate
+with a bailiff, twelve principal burgesses and a steward, and defined the
+boundaries as extending in width from Dudley bridge to Thornborowe bridge
+and in length from Chackmore bridge to Padbury Mill bridge. A charter from
+Charles II. in 1684 was very shortly abandoned in favour of the original
+grant, which held force until the Municipal Corporations Act of 1835. In
+1529 and from 1545 onwards Buckingham returned two members to parliament,
+until deprived by the Representation of the People Act of 1867 of one
+member, and by the Redistribution of Seats Act of 1885 of the other. Early
+mentions occur of markets and fairs, and from 1522, when Henry VIII.
+granted to Sir Henry Marney the borough of Buckingham with a Saturday
+market and two annual fairs, grants of fairs by various sovereigns were
+numerous. Buckingham was formerly an important agricultural centre, and
+Edward III. fixed here one of the staples for wool, but after the removal
+of these to Calais the trade suffered such decay that in an act of 32 Henry
+VIII. Buckingham is mentioned among thirty-six impoverished towns.
+
+BUCKINGHAM AND NORMANBY, JOHN SHEFFIELD, 1ST DUKE OF (1648-1721), English
+statesman and poet, was born on [v.04 p.0673] the 7th of April 1648. He was
+the son of Edmund, 2nd earl of Mulgrave, and succeeded to that title on his
+father's death in 1658. At the age of eighteen he joined the fleet, to
+serve in the first Dutch war; on the renewal of hostilities in 1672 he was
+present at the battle of Southwold Bay, and in the next year received the
+command of a ship. He was also made a colonel of infantry, and served for
+some time under Turenne. In 1680 he was put in charge of an expedition sent
+to relieve the town of Tangier. It was said that he was provided with a
+rotten ship in the hope that he would not return, but the reason of this
+abortive plot, if plot there was, is not exactly ascertained. At court he
+took the side of the duke of York, and helped to bring about Monmouth's
+disgrace. In 1682 he was dismissed from the court, apparently for putting
+himself forward as a suitor for the princess Anne, but on the accession of
+King James he received a seat in the privy council, and was made lord
+chamberlain. He supported James in his most unpopular measures, and stayed
+with him in London during the time of his flight. He also protected the
+Spanish ambassador from the dangerous anger of the mob. He acquiesced,
+however, in the Revolution, and in 1694 was made marquess of Normanby. In
+1696 he refused in company with other Tory peers to sign an agreement to
+support William as their "rightful and lawful king" against Jacobite
+attempts, and was consequently dismissed from the privy council. On the
+accession of Anne, with whom he was a personal favourite, he became lord
+privy seal and lord-lieutenant of the North Riding of Yorkshire, and in
+1703 duke of Buckingham and Normanby. During the predominance of the Whigs
+between 1705 and 1710, Buckingham was deprived of his office as lord privy
+seal, but in 1710 he was made lord steward, and in 1711 lord president of
+the council. After the death of Anne he held no state appointment. He died
+on the 24th of February 1721 at his house in St James's Park, which stood
+on the site of the present Buckingham Palace. Buckingham was succeeded by
+his son, Edmund (1716-1735) on whose death the titles became extinct.
+
+Buckingham, who is better known by his inherited titles as Lord Mulgrave,
+was the author of "An Account of the Revolution" and some other essays, and
+of numerous poems, among them the _Essay on Poetry_ and the _Essay on
+Satire_. It is probable that the _Essay on Satire_, which attacked many
+notable persons, "sauntering Charles" amongst others, was circulated in MS.
+It was often attributed at the time to Dryden, who accordingly suffered a
+thrashing at the hands of Rochester's bravoes for the reflections it
+contained upon the earl. Mulgrave was a patron of Dryden, who may possibly
+have revised it, but was certainly not responsible, although it is commonly
+printed with his works. Mulgrave adapted Shakespeare's _Julius Caesar_,
+breaking it up into two plays, _Julius Caesar_ and _Marcus Brutus_. He
+introduced choruses between the acts, two of these being written by Pope,
+and an incongruous love scene between Brutus and Portia. He was a constant
+friend and patron of Pope, who expressed a flattering opinion of his _Essay
+on Poetry_. This, although smoothly enough written, deals chiefly with
+commonplaces.
+
+In 1721 Edmund Curll published a pirated edition of his works, and was
+brought before the bar of the House of Lords for breach of privilege
+accordingly. An authorized edition under the superintendence of Pope
+appeared in 1723, but the authorities cut out the "Account of the
+Revolution" and "The Feast of the Gods" on account of their alleged
+Jacobite tendencies. These were printed at the Hague in 1727. Pope
+disingenuously repudiated any knowledge of the contents. Other editions
+reappeared in 1723, 1726, 1729, 1740 and 1753. His _Poems_ were included in
+Johnson's and other editions of the British poets.
+
+BUCKINGHAMSHIRE, EARLS OF. The first earl of Buckinghamshire (to be
+distinguished from the earls of Buckingham, _q.v._) was John Hobart (c.
+1694-1756), a descendant of Sir Henry Hobart (d. 1625), attorney-general
+and chief justice of the common pleas under James I., who was made a
+baronet in 1611, and who was the great-grandson of Sir James Hobart (d.
+1507), attorney-general to Henry VII. The Hobarts had been settled in
+Norfolk and Suffolk for many years, when in 1728 John Hobart, who was a son
+of Sir Henry Hobart, the 4th baronet (d. 1698), was created Baron Hobart of
+Blickling. In 1740 Hobart became lord-lieutenant of Norfolk and in 1746
+earl of Buckinghamshire, his sister, Henrietta Howard, countess of Suffolk,
+being the mistress of George II. He died on the 22nd of September 1756, and
+was succeeded as 2nd earl[1] by his eldest son John (1723-1793), who was
+member of parliament for Norwich and comptroller of the royal household
+before his accession to the title. From 1762 to 1766 he was ambassador to
+Russia, and from 1776 to 1780 lord-lieutenant of Ireland, but he was hardly
+equal to the exceptional difficulties with which he had to deal in the
+latter position. He died without sons at Blickling Hall, Norfolk, on the
+3rd of August 1793, when his half-brother George (c. 1730-1804), became 3rd
+earl. Blickling Hall and his Norfolk estates, however, passed to his
+daughter, Henrietta (1762-1805), the wife of William Kerr, afterwards 6th
+marquess of Lothian.
+
+Robert Hobart, 4th earl of Buckinghamshire (1760-1816), the eldest son of
+the 3rd earl, was born on the 6th of May 1760. He was a soldier, and then a
+member of both the English and the Irish Houses of Commons; from 1789 to
+1793 he was chief secretary to the lord-lieutenant of Ireland, exerting his
+influence in this country to prevent any concessions to the Roman
+Catholics. In 1793, being known by the courtesy title of Lord Hobart, he
+was sent to Madras as governor, but in 1798, after serious differences
+between himself and the governor-general of India, Sir John Shore,
+afterwards Lord Teignmouth, he was recalled. Returning to British politics,
+Hobart was called up to the House of Lords in 1798 (succeeding to the
+earldom of Buckinghamshire in 1804); he favoured the union between England
+and Ireland; from March 1801 to May 1804 he was secretary for war and the
+colonies (his family name being taken for Hobart Town in Tasmania), and in
+1805 he became chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster under Pitt. For a short
+time he was joint postmaster-general, and from 1812 until his death on the
+4th of February 1816 he was president of the Board of Control, a post for
+which his Indian experience had fitted him.
+
+The 4th earl left no sons, and his titles passed to his nephew, George
+Robert Hobart (1789-1849), a son of George Vere Hobart (1761-1802),
+lieutenant-governor of Grenada. In 1824 the 5th earl inherited the
+Buckinghamshire estates of the Hampden family and took the name of Hampden,
+his ancestor, Sir John Hobart, 3rd baronet, having married Mary Hampden
+about 1655. On his death in February 1849 his brother, Augustus Edward
+Hobart (1793-1884), who took the name of Hobart-Hampden in 1878, became 6th
+earl. His two sons, Vere Henry, Lord Hobart (1818-1875), governor of Madras
+from 1872, and Frederick John Hobart (1821-1875), predeceased him, and when
+the 6th earl died he was succeeded by his grandson, Sidney Carr
+Hobart-Hampden (b. 1860), who became 7th earl of Buckinghamshire, and who
+added to his name that of Mercer-Henderson. Another of the 6th earl's sons
+was Augustus Charles Hobart-Hampden, generally known as Hobart Pasha
+(_q.v._).
+
+See Lord Hobart's _Essays and Miscellaneous Writings_, edited with
+biography by Lady Hobart (1885).
+
+[1] Until 1784, when George Grenville, Earl Temple, was created marquess of
+Buckingham, the 2nd earl of Buckinghamshire always signed himself
+"Buckingham"; his contemporaries knew him by this name, and hence a certain
+amount of confusion has arisen.
+
+BUCKINGHAMSHIRE (abbreviated _Bucks_) a south midland county of England,
+bounded N. by Northamptonshire, E. by Bedfordshire, Hertfordshire and
+Middlesex, S. for a short distance by Surrey, and by Berkshire, and W. by
+Oxfordshire. Its area is 743.2 sq. m. The county is divided between the
+basins of the rivers Ouse and Thames. The first in its uppermost course
+forms part of the north-western boundary, passes the towns of Buckingham,
+Stony Stratford, Wolverton, Newport Pagnell and Olney, and before quitting
+the county forms a short stretch of the north-eastern boundary. The
+principal tributary it receives within the county is the Ouzel. The Thames
+forms the entire southern boundary; and of its tributaries Buckinghamshire
+includes the upper part of the Thames. To the north-west of Buckingham, and
+both east and west of the Ouzel, the land rises in gentle undulations to a
+height of nearly 500 ft., and north of the Thames valley a few nearly
+isolated hills stand boldly, such as Brill Hill and Muswell Hill, each over
+600 ft., but the hilliest [v.04 p.0674] part of the county is the south,
+which is occupied by part of the Chiltern system, the general direction of
+which is from south-west to north-east. The crest-line of these hills
+crosses the county at its narrowest point, along a line, above the towns of
+Prince's Risborough and Wendover, not exceeding 11 m. in length. This line
+divides the county into two parts of quite different physical character;
+for to the south almost the whole land is hilly (the longer slope of the
+Chiltern system lying in this direction), well wooded, and pleasantly
+diversified with narrow vales. The chief of these are watered by the Wye,
+Misbourne and Chess streams. The beech tree is predominant in the woods, in
+so much that William Camden, writing c. 1585, supposed the county to take
+name from this feature (A.S. _boc_, beech). In the south a remnant of
+ancient forest is preserved as public ground under the name of Burnham
+Beeches. The Chilterns reach a height of nearly 900 ft. within the county.
+
+_Geology._--The northern half of the county is occupied by Jurassic strata,
+in the southern half Cretaceous rocks predominate except in the
+south-eastern corner, where they are covered by Tertiary beds. Thus the
+oldest rocks are in the north, succeeded continuously by younger strata to
+the south; the general dip of all the rocks is south-easterly. A few
+patches of Upper Lias Clay appear near the northern boundary near Grafton
+Regis and Castle Thorpe, and again in the valley of the Ouse near Stoke
+Goldington and Weston Underwood. The Oolitic series is represented by the
+Great Oolite, with limestones in the upper part, much quarried for building
+stones at Westbury, Thornborough, Brock, Whittlewood Forest, &c.; the lower
+portions are more argillaceous. The Forest Marble is seen about Thornton as
+a thin bed of clay with an oyster-bearing limestone at the base. Next above
+is the Cornbrash, a series of rubbly and occasionally hard limestones and
+thin clays. The outcrop runs by Tingwick, Buckingham, Berehampton and
+Newport Pagnell, it is quarried at Wolverton and elsewhere for road metal.
+Inliers of these rocks occur at Marsh Gibbon and Stan Hill. The Oxford Clay
+and Kimmeridge Clay, with the Gault, lie in the vale of Aylesbury. The clay
+is covered by numerous outliers of Portland, Purbeck and Lower Greensand
+beds. The Portland beds are sandy below, calcareous above; the outcrop
+follows the normal direction in the county, from south-west to north-east,
+from Thame through Aylesbury; they are quarried at several places for
+building stone and fossils are abundant. The Hartwell Clay is in the Lower
+Portland. Freshwater Purbeck beds lie below the Portland and Lower
+Greensand beds; they cap the ridge between Oving and Whitchurch.
+Glass-making sands have been worked from the Lower Greensand at Hartwell,
+and phosphatic nodules from the same beds at Brickhill as well as from the
+Gault at Towersey. A broad band of Gault, a bluish clay, extends from
+Towersey across the county in a north-easterly direction. Resting upon the
+Gault is the Upper Greensand; at the junction of the two formations
+numerous springs arise, a circumstance which has no doubt determined the
+site of several villages. The Chalk rises abruptly from the low lying
+argillaceous plain to form the Chiltern Hills. The form of the whole of the
+hilly district round Chesham, High Wycombe and the Chalfonts is determined
+by the Chalk. Reading beds, mottled clays and sands, repose upon the Chalk
+at Woburn, Barnham, Fulmer and Denham, and these are in turn covered by the
+London Clay, which is exposed on the slopes about Stoke Common and Iver.
+Between the Tertiary-capped Chalk plateau and the Thames, a gentler slope,
+covered with alluvial gravel and brick earth, reaches down to the river.
+Thick deposits of plateau gravel cover most of the high ground in the
+southern corner of the county, while much of the northern part is obscured
+by glacial clays and gravels.
+
+_Industries._--The agricultural capacities of the soil vary greatly in
+different localities. On the lower lands, especially in the Vale of
+Aylesbury, about the headwaters of the Thame, it is extremely fertile;
+while on the hills it is usually poor and thin. The proportion of
+cultivated land is high, being about 83% of the whole. Of this a large and
+growing portion is in permanent pasture; cattle and sheep being reared in
+great numbers for the London markets, to which also are sent quantities of
+ducks, for which the district round Aylesbury is famous. Wheat and oats are
+the principal grain crops, though both decrease in importance. Turnips and
+swedes for the cattle are the chief green crops; and dairy-farming is
+largely practised. There is no general manufacturing industry, but a
+considerable amount of lace-making and straw-plaiting is carried on
+locally; and at High Wycombe and in its neighbourhood there is a thriving
+trade in various articles of turnery, such as chairs and bowls, from beech
+and other hard woods. The introduction of lace-making in this and
+neighbouring counties is attributed to Flemish, and later to French
+immigrants, but also to Catharine of Aragon during her residence (c. 1532)
+at Ampthill. Down to the later part of the 19th century a general holiday
+celebrated by lace-makers on the 25th of November was known as "Cattarn's
+Day."
+
+_Communications._--The main line of the London & North-Western railway
+crosses the north-east part of the county. Bletchley is an important
+junction on this system, branches diverging east to Fenny Stratford,
+Bedford and Cambridge, and west to Oxford and Banbury, Buckingham being
+served by the western branch. There is also a branch from Cheddington to
+Aylesbury. The Metropolitan-Great Central joint line serves Amersham,
+Chesham (by a branch), and Aylesbury, joining the North-Western Oxford
+branch at Verney Junction; this line is used by the Great Central railway,
+the main line of which continues north-westward from Quainton Road. A light
+railway connects this station with the large village of Brill to the
+south-west. The Great Central and the Great Western companies jointly own a
+line passing through Beaconsfield, High Wycombe, and Prince's Risborough,
+which is connected northward with the Great Central system. Before the
+opening of this line in 1906 the Great Western branch from Maidenhead to
+Oxford was the only line serving High Wycombe and Prince's Risborough, from
+which there are branches to Watlington and Aylesbury. The main line of this
+company crosses the extreme south of the county by Slough and Taplow. The
+Grand Junction Canal, reaching the valley of the Ouse by way of the Ouzel
+valley from the south, has branches to Aylesbury and to Buckingham. Except
+the Thames none of the rivers in the county is continuously navigable.
+
+Bletchley is an important junction on this system, branches diverging east
+to Fenny Stratford, Bedford and Cambridge, and west to Oxford and Banbury,
+Buckingham being served by the western branch. There is also a branch from
+Cheddington to Aylesbury. The Metropolitan-Great Central joint line serves
+Amersham, Chesham (by a branch), and Aylesbury, joining the North-Western
+Oxford branch at Verney Junction; this line is used by the Great Central
+railway, the main line of which continues north-westward from Quainton
+Road. A light railway connects this station with the large village of Brill
+to the south-west. The Great Central and the Great Western companies
+jointly own a line passing through Beaconsfield, High Wycombe. and Prince's
+Risborough, which is connected northward with the Great Central system.
+Before the opening of this line in 1906 the Great Western branch from
+Maidenhead to Oxford was the only line serving High Wycombe and Prince's
+Risborough, from which there are branches to Watlington and Aylesbury. The
+main line of this company crosses the extreme south of the county by Slough
+and Taplow. The Grand Junction Canal, reaching the valley of the Ouse by
+way of the Ouzel valley from the south, has branches to Aylesbury and to
+Buckingham. Except the Thames none of the rivers in the county is
+continuously navigable.
+
+_Population and Administration._--The area of the ancient county is 475,682
+acres, with a population in 1891 of 185,284, and in 1901 of 195,764. The
+area of the administrative county is 479,358 acres. The county contains
+eight hundreds, of which three, namely Stoke, Burnham and Desborough, form
+the "Chiltern Hundreds" (_q.v._). The hundred of Aylesbury retains its
+ancient designation of the "three hundreds of Aylesbury." The municipal
+boroughs are Buckingham, the county town (pop. 3152), and Wycombe,
+officially Chepping Wycombe, also Chipping or High Wycombe (15,542). The
+other urban districts are Aylesbury (9243), Beaconsfield (1570), Chesham
+(7245), Eton (3301), Fenny Stratford (4799), Linslade, on the Ouzel
+opposite to Leighton Buzzard in Bedfordshire (2157), Marlow (4526), Newport
+Pagnell (4028), Slough (11,453). Among the lesser market towns may be
+mentioned Amersham (2674), Ivinghoe (808), Olney (2684), Prince's
+Risborough (2189), Stony Stratford (2353), Wendover (2009) and Winslow
+(1703). At Wolverton (5323) are the carriage works of the London &
+North-Western railway. Several of the villages on and near the banks of the
+Thames have become centres of residence, such as Taplow, Cookham and Bourne
+End, Burnham and Wooburn. Buckinghamshire is in the midland circuit, and
+assizes are held at Aylesbury. It has one court of quarter sessions, and is
+divided into thirteen petty sessional divisions. The boroughs of Buckingham
+and Wycombe have separate commissions of the peace. The administrative
+county contains 230 civil parishes. Buckinghamshire is almost entirely
+within the diocese of Oxford, and 215 ecclesiastical parishes are situated
+wholly or in part within it. There are three parliamentary divisions,
+Northern or Buckingham, Mid or Aylesbury, and Southern or Wycombe, each
+returning one member; and the county contains a small part of the
+parliamentary borough of Windsor (chiefly in Berkshire). The most notable
+institution within the county is Eton College, the famous public school
+founded by Henry VI.
+
+_History._--The district which was to become Buckinghamshire was reached by
+the West Saxons in 571, as by a series of victories they pushed their way
+north along the Thames valley. With the grouping of the settlements into
+kingdoms and the consolidation of Mercia under Offa, Buckinghamshire was
+included in Mercia until, with the submission of that kingdom to the
+Northmen, it became part of the Danelaw. In the 10th century
+Buckinghamshire suffered frequently from the ravages of the Danes, and
+numerous barrows and earthworks mark the scenes [v.04 p.0675] of struggles
+against the invaders. These relics are especially abundant in the vale of
+Aylesbury, probably at this time one of the richest and best protected of
+the Saxon settlements. The Chiltern district, on the other hand, is said to
+have been an impassable forest infested by hordes of robbers and wild
+beasts. In the reign of Edward the Confessor, Leofstan, 12th abbot of St
+Albans, cut down large tracts of wood in this district and granted the
+manor of Hamstead (Herts) to a valiant knight and two fellow-soldiers on
+condition that they should check the depredations of the robbers. The same
+reason led at an early period to the appointment of a steward of the
+Chiltern Hundreds, and this office being continued long after the necessity
+for it had ceased to exist, gradually became the sinecure it is to-day. The
+district was not finally disforested until the reign of James I.
+
+At the time of the Norman invasion Buckinghamshire was probably included in
+the earldom of Leofwine, son of Godwin, and the support which it lent him
+at the battle of Hastings was punished by sweeping confiscations after the
+Conquest. The proximity of Buckinghamshire to London caused it to be
+involved in most of the great national events of the ensuing centuries.
+During the war between King John and his barons William Mauduit held
+Hanslape Castle against the king, until in 1216 it was captured and
+demolished by Falkes de Bréauté. The county was visited severely by the
+Black Death, and Winslow was one of many districts which were almost
+entirely depopulated. In the civil war Buckinghamshire was one of the first
+counties to join in an association for mutual defence on the side of the
+parliament, which had important garrisons at Aylesbury, Brill and
+elsewhere. Newport Pagnell was for a short time garrisoned by the royalist
+troops, and in 1644 the king fixed his headquarters at Buckingham.
+
+The shire of Buckingham originated with the division of Mercia in the reign
+of Edward the Elder, and was probably formed by the aggregation of
+pre-existing hundreds round the county town, a fact which explains the
+curious irregularities of the boundary line. The eighteen hundreds of the
+Domesday survey have now been reduced to eight, of which the three Chiltern
+hundreds, Desborough, Burnham and Stoke, are unaltered in extent as well as
+in name. The remainder have been formed each by the union of three of the
+ancient hundreds, and Aylesbury is still designated "the three hundreds of
+Aylesbury." All, except Newport and Buckingham, retain the names of
+Domesday hundreds, and the shire has altered little on its outer lines
+since the survey. Until the time of Queen Elizabeth Buckinghamshire and
+Bedfordshire had a common sheriff. The shire court of the former county was
+held at Aylesbury.
+
+The ecclesiastical history of Buckinghamshire is not easy to trace, as
+there is no local chronicler, but the earliest churches were probably
+subject to the West Saxon see of Dorchester, and when after the Conquest
+the bishop's stool was transferred to Lincoln no change of jurisdiction
+ensued. After the dissolution of the monasteries it was proposed to form a
+new diocese to include Bedfordshire and Buckinghamshire, but the project
+was abandoned, and both remained in the Lincoln diocese until 1837, when
+the latter was transferred to Oxford. The arch-deaconry was probably
+founded towards the close of the 11th century by Bishop Rémy, and the
+subdivision into rural deaneries followed shortly after. A dean of
+Thornborough is mentioned in the 12th century, and in the taxation of
+Nicholas IV. eight deaneries are given, comprising 186 parishes. In 1855
+the deaneries were reconstructed and made eighteen in number.
+
+On the redistribution of estates after the Conquest only two Englishmen
+continued to retain estates of any importance, and the chief landowners at
+this date were Walter Giffard, first earl of Buckingham, and Odo, bishop of
+Bayeux. Few of the great Buckinghamshire estates, however, remained with
+the same proprietors for any length of time. Many became annexed by
+religious establishments, while others reverted to the crown and were
+disposed of by various grants. The family of Hampden alone claim to have
+held the estate from which the name is derived in an unbroken line from
+Saxon times.
+
+Buckinghamshire has always ranked as an agricultural rather than a
+manufacturing county, and has long been famed for its corn and cattle.
+Fuller mentions the vale of Aylesbury as producing the biggest bodied sheep
+in England, and "Buckinghamshire bread and beef" is an old proverb.
+Lace-making, first introduced into this county by the Fleming refugees from
+the Alva persecution, became a very profitable industry. The monopolies of
+James I. considerably injured this trade, and in 1623 a petition was
+addressed to the high sheriff of Buckinghamshire representing the distress
+of the people owing to the decay of bone lace-making. Newport Pagnell and
+Olney were especially famous for their lace, and the parish of Hanslape is
+said to have made an annual profit of £8000 to £9000 from lace manufacture.
+The straw-plait industry was introduced in the reign of George I., and
+formerly gave employment to a large number of the population.
+
+The county was first represented in parliament by two members in 1290. The
+representation increased as the towns acquired representative rights, until
+in 1603 the county with its boroughs made a total return of fourteen
+members. By the Reform Act of 1832 this was reduced to eleven, and by the
+Redistribution of Seats Act of 1885 the boroughs were deprived of
+representation and the county returned three members for three divisions.
+
+_Antiquities._--Buckinghamshire contains no ecclesiastical buildings of the
+first rank. Monastic remains are scanty, but two former abbeys may be
+noted. At Medmenham, on the Thames above Marlow, there are fragments,
+incorporated into a residence, of a Cistercian abbey founded in 1201; which
+became notorious in the middle of the 18th century as the meeting-place of
+a convivial club called the "Franciscans" after its founder, Sir Francis
+Dashwood, afterwards Lord le Despencer (1708-1781), and also known as the
+"Hell-Fire Club," of which John Wilkes, Bubb Dodington and other political
+notorieties were members. The motto of the club, _fay ce que voudras_ (do
+what you will), inscribed on a doorway at the abbey, was borrowed from
+Rabelais' description of the abbey of Thelema in _Gargantua_. The remains
+of the Augustinian Notley Abbey (1162), incorporated with a farm-house,
+deserve mention rather for their picturesque situation by the river Thame
+than for their architectural value. Turning to churches, there is
+workmanship considered to be of pre-Norman date in Wing church, in the
+neighbourhood of Leighton Buzzard, including a polygonal apse and crypt.
+Stewkley church, in the same locality, shows the finest Norman work in the
+county; the building is almost wholly of the later part of this period, and
+the ornamentation is very rich. The Early English work of Chetwode and
+Haddenham churches, both in the west of the county, is noteworthy;
+especially in the first, which, as it stands, is the eastern part of a
+priory church of Augustinians (1244). Good specimens of the Decorated style
+are not wanting, though none is of special note; but the county contains
+three fine examples of Perpendicular architecture in Eton College chapel
+and the churches of Maids Moreton to the north, and Hillesden to the south,
+of Buckingham. Ancient domestic architecture is chiefly confined to a few
+country houses, of which Chequers Court, dating from the close of the 16th
+century, is of interest not only from the architectural standpoint but from
+its beautiful situation high among the Chiltern Hills between Prince's
+Risborough and Wendover, and from a remarkable collection of relics of
+Oliver Cromwell, preserved here as a consequence of the marriage, in 1664,
+of John Russell, a grandson of the Protector, into the family to which the
+house then belonged. The manor-house of Hampden, among the hills east of
+Prince's Risborough, was for many generations the abode of the family of
+that name, and is still in the possession of descendants of John Hampden,
+who fell at the battle of Chalgrove in 1643, and is buried in Hampden
+church. Fine county seats are numerous--there may be mentioned Stowe
+(Buckingham), formerly the seat of the dukes of Buckingham; Cliveden and
+Hedsor, two among the many beautifully situated mansions by the bank of the
+Thames; and Claydon House in the west of the county. Among the Chiltern
+Hills, also, there are several [v.04 p.0676] splendid domains. Associations
+with eminent men have given a high fame to several towns or villages of
+Buckinghamshire. Such are the connexion of Beaconsfield with Edmund Waller
+and Edmund Burke, that of Hughenden near Wycombe with Benjamin Disraeli,
+Lord Beaconsfield, whose father's residence was at Bradenham; of Olney and
+Stoke Pogis with the poets Cowper and Gray respectively. At Chalfont St
+Giles a cottage still stands in which Milton completed _Paradise Lost_ and
+began _Paradise Regained_. In earlier life he had lived and worked at
+Horton, near the Thames below Windsor.
+
+AUTHORITIES.--The original standard history is the laborious work of G.
+Lipscomb, _History and Antiquities of the County of Buckingham_ (London,
+1831-1847). Other works are: Browne Willis, _History and Antiquities of the
+Town, Hundred, and Deanery of Buckingham_ (London, 1755); D. and S. Lysons,
+_Magna Britannia_, vol. i.; R. Gibbs, _Buckingham_ (Aylesbury, 1878-1882);
+_Worthies of Buckingham_ (Aylesbury, 1886); and _Buckingham Miscellany_
+(Aylesbury, 1891); G.S. Roscoe, _Buckingham Sketches_ (London, 1891); P.H.
+Ditchfield, _Memorials of Old Buckinghamshire_ (London, 1901); _Victoria
+County History_, "Buckinghamshire."
+
+BUCKLAND, FRANCIS TREVELYAN (1826-1880), English zoologist, son of Dean
+William Buckland the geologist, was born at Oxford on the 17th of December
+1826. He was educated at Winchester and Christ Church, taking his degree in
+1848, and then adopted the medical profession, studying at St George's
+hospital, London, where he became house-surgeon in 1852. The pursuit of
+anatomy led him to a good deal of out-of-the-way research in zoology, and
+in 1856 he became a regular writer on natural history for the newly
+established _Field_, particularly on the subject of fish. In 1866 he
+started _Land and Water_ on similar lines. In 1867 he was appointed
+government inspector of fisheries, and in the course of his work travelled
+constantly about the country, being largely responsible for the increased
+attention paid to the scientific side of pisciculture. Among his
+publications, besides articles and official reports, were _Fish Hatching_
+(1863), _Curiosities of Natural History_ (4 vols., 1857-1872), _Logbook of
+a Fisherman_ (1875), _Natural History of British Fishes_ (1881). He died on
+the 19th of December 1880.
+
+See _Life_ by G.C. Bompas (1885).
+
+BUCKLAND, WILLIAM (1784-1856), English divine and geologist, eldest son of
+the Rev. Charles Buckland, rector of Templeton and Trusham, in Devon, was
+born at Axminster on the 12th of March 1784. He was educated at the grammar
+school of Tiverton, and at Winchester, and in 1801 was elected a scholar of
+Corpus Christi College, Oxford, becoming B.A. in 1804. In 1809 he was
+elected a fellow of his college, and was admitted into holy orders. From
+early boyhood he had exhibited a strong taste for natural science, which
+was subsequently stimulated by the lectures of Dr John Kidd on mineralogy
+and chemistry; and his attention was especially drawn to the then infant
+science of geology. He also attended the lectures of Sir Christopher Pegge
+(1765-1822) on anatomy. He now devoted himself systematically to an
+examination of the geological structure of Great Britain, making
+excursions, and investigating the order of superposition of the strata and
+the characters of the organic remains which they contained. In 1813, on the
+resignation of Dr Kidd, he was appointed reader in mineralogy in Oxford;
+and the interest excited by his lectures was so great that in 1819 a
+readership in geology was founded and especially endowed by the treasury,
+Dr Buckland being the first holder of the new appointment. In 1818 Dr
+Buckland was elected a fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1824 and again
+in 1840 he was chosen president of the Geological Society of London. In
+1825 he was presented by his college to the living of Stoke Charity, near
+Whitchurch, Hants, and in the same year he was appointed by Lord Liverpool
+to a canonry of the cathedral of Christ Church, Oxford, when the degree of
+D.D. was conferred upon him. In 1825, also, he married Mary, the eldest
+daughter of Mr Benjamin Morland of Sheepstead House, near Abingdon, Berks,
+by whose abilities and excellent judgment he was materially assisted in his
+literary labours. In 1832 he presided over the second meeting of the
+British Association, which was then held at Oxford. In 1845 he was
+appointed by Sir Robert Peel to the vacant deanery of Westminster, and was
+soon after inducted to the living of Islip, near Oxford, a preferment
+attached to the deanery. In 1847 he was appointed a trustee in the British
+Museum; and in 1848 he was awarded the Wollaston medal by the Geological
+Society of London. In 1849 his health began to give way under the
+increasing pressure of his multifarious duties; and the later years of his
+life were overshadowed by a serious illness, which compelled him to live in
+retirement. He died on the 24th of August 1856, and was buried in a spot
+which he had himself chosen, in Islip churchyard.
+
+Buckland was a man many-sided in his abilities, and of a singularly wide
+range of attainments. Apart from his published works and memoirs in
+connexion with the special department of geology, and in addition to the
+work entailed upon him by the positions which he at different times held in
+the Church of England, he entered with great enthusiasm into many practical
+questions connected with agricultural and sanitary science, and various
+social and even medical problems. As a teacher he possessed powers of the
+highest order; and the university of Oxford is enriched by the large and
+valuable private collections, illustrative of geology and mineralogy, which
+he amassed in the course of his active life. It is, however, upon his
+published scientific works that Dr Buckland's great reputation is mainly
+based. His first great work was the well-known _Reliquiae Diluvianae, or
+Observations on the Organic Remains contained in caves, fissures, and
+diluvial gravel attesting the Action of a Universal Deluge_, published in
+1823 (2nd ed. 1824), in which he supplemented his former observations on
+the remains of extinct animals discovered in the cavern of Kirkdale in
+Yorkshire, and expounded his views as to the bearing of these and similar
+cases on the Biblical account of the Deluge. Thirteen years after the
+publication of the _Reliquiae_, Dr Buckland w as called upon, in accordance
+with the will of the earl of Bridgewater, to write one of the series of
+works known as the _Bridgewater Treatises_. The design of these treatises
+was to exhibit the "power, wisdom, and goodness of God, as manifested in
+the Creation," and none of them was of greater value, as evinced by its
+vitality, than that on "Geology and Mineralogy." Originally published in
+1836, it has gone through three editions, and though not a "manual" of
+geological science, it still possesses high value as a storehouse of
+geological and palaeontological facts bearing upon the particular argument
+which it was designed to illustrate. The third edition, issued in 1858, was
+edited by his son Francis T. Buckland, and is accompanied by a memoir of
+the author and a list of his publications.
+
+Of Dr Buckland's numerous original contributions to the sciences of Geology
+and Palaeontology, the following may be mentioned:--(1) "On the Structure
+of the Alps and adjoining parts of the Continent, and their relation to the
+Secondary and Transition Rocks of England" (_Annals of Phil._, 1821); (2)
+"Account of an Assemblage of Fossil Teeth and Bones of Elephant,
+Rhinoceros, Hippopotamus, &c., discovered in a cave at Kirkdale in
+Yorkshire in the year 1821" (_Phil. Trans._); (3) "On the Quartz Rock of
+the Lickey Hill in Worcestershire" (_Trans. Geol. Soc._); (4) "On the
+Megalosaurus or Great Fossil Lizard of Stonesfield" (Ibid.); (5) "On the
+Cycadeoideae, a Family of Plants found in the Oolite Quarries of the Isle
+of Portland" (Ibid.); (6) "On the Discovery of a New Species of
+Pterodactyle in the Lias of Lyme Regis" (Ibid.); (7) "On the Discovery of
+Coprolites or Fossil Faeces in the Lias of Lyme Regis, and in other
+Formations" (Ibid.); (8) "On the Evidences of Glaciers in Scotland and the
+North of England" (_Proc. Geol. Soc. Lond._); (9) "On the South-Western
+Coal District of England" (joint paper with the Rev. W.D. Conybeare,
+_Trans. Geol. Soc. Lond._); (10) "On the Geology of the neighbourhood of
+Weymouth, and the adjacent parts of the Coast of Dorset" (joint paper with
+Sir H. De la Beche, _Trans. Geol. Soc. Lond._).
+
+With regard to the Glacial theory propounded by Agassiz, no one welcomed it
+with greater ardour than Buckland, and he zealously sought to trace out
+evidences of former glaciation in Britain. A record of the interesting
+discussion which took place at the Geological Society's meeting in London
+in November 1840, [v.04 p.0677] after the reading of a paper by Buckland,
+was printed in the _Midland Naturalist_, October 1883.
+
+BUCKLE, HENRY THOMAS (1821-1862), English historian, author of the _History
+of Civilization_, the son of Thomas Henry Buckle, a wealthy London
+merchant, was born at Lee, in Kent, on the 24th of November 1821. Owing to
+his delicate health he was only a very short time at school, and never at
+college, but the love of reading having been early awakened in him, he was
+allowed ample means of gratifying it. He gained his first distinctions not
+in literature but in chess, being reputed, before he was twenty, one of the
+first players in the world. After his father's death in January 1840 he
+spent some time with his mother on the continent (1840-1844). He had by
+that time formed the resolution to direct all his reading and to devote all
+his energies to the preparation of some great historical work, and during
+the next seventeen years he bestowed ten hours each day in working out his
+purpose. At first he contemplated a history of the middle ages, but by 1851
+he had decided in favour of a history of civilization. The six years which
+followed were occupied in writing and rewriting, altering and revising the
+first volume, which appeared in June 1857. It at once made its author a
+literary and even social celebrity,--the lion of a London season. On the
+1st of March 1858 he delivered at the Royal Institution a public lecture
+(the only one he ever gave) on the _Influence of Women on the Progress of
+Knowledge_, which was published in _Fraser's Magazine_ for April 1858, and
+reprinted in the first volume of the _Miscellaneous and Posthumous Works_.
+On the 1st of April 1859 a crushing and desolating affliction fell upon him
+in the death of his mother. It was under the immediate impression of his
+loss that he concluded a review he was writing of J.S. Mill's _Essay on
+Liberty_ with an argument for immortality, based on the yearning of the
+affections to regain communion with the beloved dead,--on the impossibility
+of standing up and living, if we believed the separation were final. The
+argument is a strange one to have been used by a man who had maintained so
+strongly that "we have the testimony of all history to prove the extreme
+fallibility of consciousness." The review appeared in _Fraser's Magazine_,
+May 1859, and is to be found also in the _Miscellaneous and Posthumous
+Works_ (1872). The second volume of his history was published in May 1861.
+Soon after he left England for the East, in order to recruit his spirits
+and restore his health. From the end of October 1861 to the beginning of
+March 1862 was spent by him in Egypt, from which he went over the desert of
+Sinai and of Edom to Syria, reaching Jerusalem on the 19th of April 1862.
+After staying there eleven days, he set out for Europe by Beyrout, but at
+Nazareth he was attacked by fever; and he died at Damascus on the 29th of
+May 1862.
+
+Buckle's fame, which must rest wholly on his _History of Civilization in
+England_, is no longer what it was in the decade following his death. His
+_History_ is a gigantic unfinished introduction, of which the plan was,
+first to state the general principles of the author's method and the
+general laws which govern the course of human progress; and secondly, to
+exemplify these principles and laws through the histories of certain
+nations characterized by prominent and peculiar features,--Spain and
+Scotland, the United States and Germany. Its chief ideas are--(1) That,
+owing partly to the want of ability in historians, and partly to the
+complexity of social phenomena, extremely little had as yet been done
+towards discovering the principles which govern the character and destiny
+of nations, or, in other words, towards establishing a science of history;
+(2) That, while the theological dogma of predestination is a barren
+hypothesis beyond the province of knowledge, and the metaphysical dogma of
+free will rests on an erroneous belief in the infallibility of
+consciousness, it is proved by science, and especially by statistics, that
+human actions are governed by laws as fixed and regular as those which rule
+in the physical world; (3) That climate, soil, food, and the aspects of
+nature are the primary causes of intellectual progress,--the first three
+indirectly, through determining the accumulation and distribution of
+wealth, and the last by directly influencing the accumulation and
+distribution of thought, the imagination being stimulated and the
+understanding subdued when the phenomena of the external world are sublime
+and terrible, the understanding being emboldened and the imagination curbed
+when they are small and feeble; (4) That the great division between
+European and non-European civilization turns on the fact that in Europe man
+is stronger than nature, and that elsewhere nature is stronger than man,
+the consequence of which is that in Europe alone has man subdued nature to
+his service; (5) That the advance of European civilization is characterized
+by a continually diminishing influence of physical laws, and a continually
+increasing influence of mental laws; (6) That the mental laws which
+regulate the progress of society cannot be discovered by the metaphysical
+method, that is, by the introspective study of the individual mind, but
+only by such a comprehensive survey of facts as will enable us to eliminate
+disturbances, that is, by the method of averages; (7) That human progress
+has been due, not to moral agencies, which are stationary, and which
+balance one another in such a manner that their influence is unfelt over
+any long period, but to intellectual activity, which has been constantly
+varying and advancing:--"The actions of individuals are greatly affected by
+their moral feelings and passions; but these being antagonistic to the
+passions and feelings of other individuals, are balanced by them, so that
+their effect is, in the great average of human affairs, nowhere to be seen,
+and the total actions of mankind, considered as a whole, are left to be
+regulated by the total knowledge of which mankind is possessed"; (8) That
+individual efforts are insignificant in the great mass of human affairs,
+and that great men, although they exist, and must "at present" be looked
+upon as disturbing forces, are merely the creatures of the age to which
+they belong; (9) That religion, literature and government are, at the best,
+the products and not the causes of civilization; (10) That the progress of
+civilization varies directly as "scepticism," the disposition to doubt and
+to investigate, and inversely as "credulity" or "the protective spirit," a
+disposition to maintain, without examination, established beliefs and
+practices.
+
+Unfortunately Buckle either could not define, or cared not to define, the
+general conceptions with which he worked, such as those denoted by the
+terms "civilization," "history," "science," "law," "scepticism," and
+"protective spirit"; the consequence is that his arguments are often
+fallacies. Moreover, the looseness of his statements and the rashness of
+his inferences regarding statistical averages make him, as a great
+authority has remarked, the _enfant terrible_ of moral statisticians. He
+brought a vast amount of information from the most varied and distant
+sources to confirm his opinions, and the abundance of his materials never
+perplexed or burdened him in his argumentation, but examples of
+well-conducted historical argument are rare in his pages. He sometimes
+altered and contorted the facts; he very often unduly simplified his
+problems; he was very apt when he had proved a favourite opinion true to
+infer it to be the whole truth. On the other hand, many of his ideas have
+passed into the common literary stock, and have been more precisely
+elaborated by later writers on sociology and history; and though his own
+work is now somewhat neglected, its influence was immensely valuable in
+provoking further research and speculation.
+
+See his _Life_ by A.W. Huth (1880).
+
+BUCKNER, SIMON BOLIVAR (1823- ), American soldier and political leader, was
+born in Hart county, Kentucky, on the 1st of April 1823. He graduated at
+West Point in 1844, and was assistant professor of geography, history and
+ethics there in 1845-1846. He fought in several battles of the Mexican War,
+received the brevet of first lieutenant for gallantry at Churubusco, where
+he was wounded, and later, after the storming of Chapultepec, received the
+brevet of captain. In 1848-1850 he was assistant instructor of infantry
+tactics at West Point. During the succeeding five years he was in the
+recruiting service, on frontier duty, and finally in the subsistence
+department. He resigned from the army in March 1855. During the futile
+attempt of Governor Beriah Magoffin to maintain Kentucky in a position of
+neutrality, he was commander of the state [v.04 p.0678] guard; but in
+September 1861, after the entry of Union forces into the state, he openly
+espoused the Confederate cause and was commissioned brigadier-general,
+later becoming lieutenant-general. He was third in command of Fort Donelson
+at the time of General Grant's attack (February 1862), and it fell to him,
+after the escape of Generals Floyd and Pillow, to surrender the post with
+its large garrison and valuable supplies. General Buckner was exchanged in
+August of the same year, and subsequently served under General Bragg in the
+invasion of Kentucky and the campaign of Chickamauga. He was governor of
+Kentucky in 1887-1891, was a member of the Kentucky constitutional
+convention of 1890, and in 1896 was the candidate of the National or "Gold"
+Democrats for vice-president of the United States.
+
+BUCKRAM (a word common, in various early forms, to many European languages,
+as in the Fr. _bouqueran_ or Ital. _bucherame_, the derivation of which is
+unknown), in early usage the name of a fine linen or cotton cloth, but now
+only of a coarse fabric of linen or cotton stiffened with glue or other
+substances, used for linings of clothes and in bookbinding. Falstaff's "men
+in buckram" (Shakespeare, _Henry IV._, pt. i. II. 4) has become a
+proverbial phrase for any imaginary persons.
+
+BUCKSTONE, JOHN BALDWIN (1802-1879), English actor and dramatic writer, was
+born at Hoxton on the 14th of September 1802. He was articled to a
+solicitor, but soon exchanged the law for the stage. After some years as a
+provincial actor he made his first London appearance, on the 30th of
+January 1823, at the Surrey theatre, as Ramsay in the _Fortunes of Nigel_.
+His success led to his engagement in 1827 at the Adelphi, where he remained
+as leading low comedian until 1833. At the Haymarket, which he joined for
+summer seasons in 1833, and of which he was lessee from 1853 to 1878, he
+appeared as Bobby Trot in his own _Luke the Labourer_; and here were
+produced a number of his plays and farces, _Ellen Wareham, Uncle Tom_ and
+others. After his return from a visit to the United States in 1840 he
+played at several London theatres, among them the Lyceum, where he was Box
+at the first representation of _Box and Cox_. As manager of the Haymarket
+he surrounded himself with an admirable company, including Sothern and the
+Kendals. He produced the plays of Gilbert, Planché, Tom Taylor and
+Robertson, as well as his own, and in most of these he acted. He died on
+the 31st of October 1879. He was the author of 150 plays, some of which
+have been very popular. His daughter, Lucy Isabella Buckstone (1858-1893),
+was an actress, who made her first London appearance at the Haymarket
+theatre as Ada Ingot in _David Garrick_ in 1875.
+
+BUCKTHORN, known botanically as _Rhamnus cathartica_ (natural order
+Rhamnaceae), a much-branched shrub reaching 10 ft. in height, with a
+blackish bark, spinous branchlets, and ovate, sharply-serrated leaves, 1 to
+2 in. long, arranged several together at the ends of the shoots. The small
+green flowers are regular and have the parts in fours; male and female
+flowers are borne on different plants. The fruit is succulent, black and
+globose, and contains four stones. The plant is a native of England,
+occurring in woods and thickets chiefly on the chalk; it is rare in Ireland
+and not wild in Scotland. It is native in Europe, north Africa and north
+Asia, and naturalized in some parts of eastern North America. The fruit has
+strong purgative properties, and the bark yields a yellow dye.
+
+An allied species, _Rhamnus Frangula_, is also common in England, and is
+known as berry-bearing or black alder. It is distinguished from buckthorn
+by the absence of spiny branchlets, its non-serrated leaves, and bisexual
+flowers with parts in fives. The fruits are purgative and yield a green dye
+when unripe. The soft porous wood, called black dogwood, is used for
+gunpowder. Dyes are obtained from fruits and bark of other species of
+_Rhamnus_, such as _R. infectoria_, _R. tinctoria_ and _R. davurica_--the
+two latter yielding the China green of commerce. Several varieties of _R.
+Alaternus_, a Mediterranean species, are grown in shrubberies.
+
+Sea-buckthorn is _Hippophae rhamnoides_, a willow-like shrub, 1 to 8 ft. in
+height, with narrow leaves silvery on the underside, and globose
+orange-yellow fruits one-third of an inch in diameter. It occurs on sandy
+seashores from York to Kent and Sussex, but is not common.
+
+American buckthorns are: _Rhamnus purshiana_ or _Cascara sagrada_, of the
+Pacific coast, producing cascara bark, and _R. Caroliniana_, the
+alder-buckthorn. _Bumelia lycioides_ (or _lanuginosa_) is popularly called
+"southern buckthorn."
+
+BUCKWHEAT, the fruit (so-called seeds) of _Fagopyrum esculentum_ (natural
+order Polygonaceae), a herbaceous plant, native of central Asia, but
+cultivated in Europe and North America; also extensively cultivated in the
+Himalaya, as well as an allied species _F. tataricum_. The fruit has a dark
+brown tough rind enclosing the kernel or seed, and is three-sided in form,
+with sharp angles, similar in shape to beech-mast, whence the name from the
+Ger. _Buchweizen_, beechwheat. Buckwheat is grown in Great Britain only to
+supply food for pheasants and to feed poultry, which devour the seeds with
+avidity. In the northern countries of Europe, however, the seeds are
+employed as human food, chiefly in the form of cakes, which when baked thin
+have an agreeable taste, with a darkish somewhat violet colour. The meal of
+buckwheat is also baked into crumpets, as a favourite dainty among Dutch
+children, and in the Russian army buckwheat groats are served out as part
+of the soldiers' rations, which they cook with butter, tallow or hemp-seed
+oil. Buckwheat is also used as food in the United States, where "buckwheat
+cakes" are a national dish; and by the Hindus it is eaten on "bart" or fast
+days, being one of the phalahas, or lawful foods for such occasions. When
+it is used as food for cattle the hard sharp angular rind must first be
+removed. As compared with the principal cereal grains, buckwheat is poor in
+nitrogenous substances and fat; but the rapidity and ease with which it can
+be grown render it a fit crop for very poor, badly tilled land. An immense
+quantity of buckwheat honey is collected in Russia, bees showing a marked
+preference for the flowers of the plant. The plant is also used as a green
+fodder.
+
+In the United States buckwheat is sown at the end of June or beginning of
+July, the amount of seed varying from 3 to 5 pecks to the acre. The crop
+matures rapidly and continues blooming till frosts set in, so that at
+harvest, which is usually set to occur just before this period, the grain
+is in various stages of ripeness. It is cut by hand or with the
+self-delivery reaper, and allowed to lie in the swath for a few days and
+then set up in shocks. The stalks are not tied into bundles as in the case
+of other grain crops, the tops of the shocks being bound round and held
+together by twisting stems round them. The threshing is done on the field
+in most cases.
+
+BUCOLICS (from the Gr. [Greek: boukolikos], "pertaining to a herdsman"), a
+term occasionally used for rural or pastoral poetry. The expression has
+been traced back in English to the beginning of the 14th century, being
+used to describe the "Eclogues" of Virgil. The most celebrated collection
+of bucolics in antiquity is that of Theocritus, of which about thirty, in
+the Doric dialect, and mainly written in hexameter verse, have been
+preserved. This was the name, as is believed, originally given by Virgil to
+his pastoral poems, with the direct object of challenging comparison with
+the writings of Theocritus. In modern times the term "bucolics" has not
+often been specifically given by the poets to their pastorals; the main
+exception being that of Ronsard, who collected his eclogues under the title
+of "Les Bucoliques." In general practice the word is almost a synonym for
+pastoral poetry, but has come to bear a slightly more agricultural than
+shepherd signification, so that the "Georgics" of Virgil has grown to seem
+almost more "bucolic" than his "Eclogues." (See also PASTORAL.)
+
+(E. G.)
+
+BUCYRUS, a city and the county-seat of Crawford county, Ohio, U.S.A., on
+the Sandusky river, 62 m. N. of Columbus. Pop. (1890) 5974; (1900) 6560
+(756 foreign-born); (1910) 8122. It is served by the Pennsylvania, the
+Toledo, Walhonding Valley & Ohio (Pennsylvania system), and the Ohio
+Central railways, and by interurban electric lines. The Ohio Central, of
+which Bucyrus is a division terminal, has shops here. The city lies at an
+elevation of about 1000 ft. above sea-level, and is surrounded [v.04
+p.0679] by a country well adapted to agriculture and stock-raising. Among
+its manufactures are machinery, structural steel, ventilating and heating
+apparatus, furniture, interior woodwork, ploughs, wagons, carriages, copper
+products and clay-working machines. Bucyrus was first settled in 1817; it
+was laid out as a town in 1822, was incorporated as a village in 1830, and
+became a city in 1885. The county-seat was permanently established here in
+1830.
+
+BUDAPEST, the capital and largest town of the kingdom of Hungary, and the
+second town of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, 163 m. S.E. of Vienna by
+rail. Budapest is situated on both banks of the Danube, and is formed of
+the former towns of Buda (Ger. _Ofen_) together with O-Buda (Ger.
+_Alt-Ofen_) on the right bank, and of Pest together with Köbánya (Ger.
+_Steinbruch_) on the left bank, which were all incorporated into one
+municipality in 1872. It lies at a point where the Danube has definitely
+taken its southward course, and just where the outlying spurs of the outer
+ramifications of the Alps, namely, the Bakony Mountains, meet the
+Carpathians. Budapest is situated nearly in the centre of Hungary, and
+dominates by its strategical position the approach from the west to the
+great Hungarian plain. The imposing size of the Danube, 300 to 650 yds.
+broad, and the sharp contrast of the two banks, place Budapest among the
+most finely situated of the larger towns of Europe. On the one side is a
+flat sandy plain, in which lies Pest, modern of aspect regularly laid out,
+and presenting a long frontage of handsome buildings to the river. On the
+other the ancient town of Buda straggles capriciously over a series of
+small and steep hills, commanded by the fortress and the Blocksberg (770
+ft. high, 390 ft. above the Danube), and backed beyond by spurs of
+mountains, which rise in the form of terraces one above the other. The
+hills are generally devoid of forests, while those near the towns were
+formerly covered with vineyards, which produced a good red wine. The
+vineyards have been almost completely destroyed by the phylloxera.
+
+Budapest covers an area of 78 sq. m., and is divided into ten municipal
+districts, namely Vár (Festung), Viziváros (Wasserstadt), Ó-Buda
+(Alt-Ofen), all on the right bank, belonging to Buda, and Belváros (Inner
+City), Lipótváros (Leopoldstadt), Terézváros (Theresienstadt),
+Erzsébetváros (Elisabethstadt), Józsefváros (Josephstadt), Ferenczváros
+(Franzstadt), and Köbánya (Steinbruch), all on the left bank, belonging to
+Pest. Buda, with its royal palace, the various ministries, and other
+government offices, is the official centre, while Pest is the commercial
+and industrial part, as well as the centre of the nationalistic and
+intellectual life of the town. The two banks of the Danube are united by
+six bridges, including two fine suspension bridges; the first of them,
+generally known as the Ketten-Brücke, constructed by the brothers Tiernay
+and Adam Clark in 1842-1849, is one of the largest in Europe. It is 410
+yds. long, 39 ft. broad, 36 ft. high above the mean level of the water, and
+its chains rest on two pillars 160 ft. high; its ends are ornamented with
+four colossal stone lions. At one end is a tunnel, 383 yds. long,
+constructed by Adam Clark in 1854, which pierces the castle hill and
+connects the quarter known as the Christinenstadt with the Danube. The
+other suspension bridge is the Schwurplatz bridge, completed in 1903, 56
+ft. broad, with a span of 317 yds. The other bridges are the Margaret
+bridge, with a junction bridge towards the Margaret island, the Franz
+Joseph bridge, and two railway bridges.
+
+Perhaps the most attractive part of Budapest is the line of broad quays on
+the left bank of the Danube, which extend for a distance of 2½ m. from the
+Margaret bridge to the custom-house, and are lined with imposing buildings.
+The most important of these is the Franz Joseph Quai, 1 m. long, which
+contains the most fashionable cafés and hotels, and is the favourite
+promenade. The inner town is surrounded by the Innere Ring-Strasse, a
+circle of wide boulevards on the site of the old wall. Wide tree-shaded
+streets, like the Király Utcza, the Kerrepesi Ut, and the Üllöi Ut, also
+form the lines of demarcation between the different districts. The inner
+ring is connected by the Váczi Körut (Waitzner-Ring) with the Grosse
+Ring-Strasse, a succession of boulevards, describing a semicircle beginning
+at the Margaret bridge and ending at the Boráros Platz, near the
+custom-house quay, through about the middle of the town. One of the most
+beautiful streets in the town is the Andrássy Ut, 1½ m. long, connecting
+Váczi Körut with Városliget (_Stadtwäldchen_), the favourite public park of
+Budapest. It is a busy thoroughfare, lined in its first half with
+magnificent new buildings, and in its second half, where it attains a width
+of 150 ft., with handsome villas standing in their own gardens, which give
+the impression rather of a fashionable summer resort than the centre of a
+great city. Budapest possesses numerous squares, generally ornamented with
+monuments of prominent Hungarians, usually the work of Hungarian artists.
+
+_Buildings._--Though of ancient origin, neither Buda nor Pest has much to
+show in the way of venerable buildings. The oldest church is the Matthias
+church in Buda, begun by King Bela IV. in the 13th century, completed in
+the 15th century, and restored in 1890-1896. It was used as a mosque during
+the Turkish occupation, and here took place the coronation of Franz Joseph
+as king of Hungary in 1867. The garrison church, a Gothic building of the
+13th century, and the Reformed church, finished in 1898, are the other
+ecclesiastical buildings in Buda worth mentioning. The oldest church in
+Pest is the parish church situated in the Eskü-Ter (Schwur-Platz) in the
+inner town; it was built in 1500, in the Gothic style, and restored in
+1890. The most magnificent church in Pest is the Leopoldstadt Basilica, a
+Romanesque building with a dome 315 ft. in height, begun in 1851; next
+comes the Franzstadt church, also a Romanesque building, erected in 1874.
+Besides several modern churches, Budapest possesses a beautiful synagogue,
+in the Moorish style, erected in 1861, and another, in the
+Moorish-Byzantine style, built in 1872, while in 1901 the construction of a
+much larger synagogue was begun. In Buda, near the Kaiserbad, and not far
+from the Margaret bridge, is a small octagonal Turkish mosque, with a dome
+25 ft. high, beneath which is the grave of a Turkish monk. By a special
+article in the treaty of Karlowitz of 1699 the emperor of Austria undertook
+to preserve this monument.
+
+Among the secular buildings the first place is taken by the royal palace in
+Buda, which, together with the old fortress, crowns the summit of a hill,
+and forms the nucleus of the town. The palace erected by Maria Theresa in
+1748-1771 was partly burned in 1849, but has been restored and largely
+extended since 1894. In the court chapel are preserved the regalia of
+Hungary, namely, the crown of St Stephen, the sceptre, orb, sword and the
+coronation robes. It is surrounded by a magnificent garden, which descends
+in steep terraces to the Danube, and which offers a splendid view of the
+town lying on the opposite bank. New and palatial buildings of the various
+ministries, several high and middle schools, a few big hospitals, and the
+residences of several Hungarian magnates, are among the principal edifices
+in this part of the town.
+
+The long range of substantial buildings fronting the left bank of the
+Danube includes the Houses of Parliament (see ARCHITECTURE, Plate IX. fig.
+115), a huge limestone edifice in the late Gothic style, covering an area
+of 3¾ acres, erected in 1883-1902; the Academy, in Renaissance style,
+erected in 1862-1864, containing a lofty reception room, a library, a
+historic picture gallery, and a botanic collection; the Redoute buildings,
+a large structure in a mixed Romanesque and Moorish style, erected for
+balls and other social purposes; the extensive custom-house at the lower
+end of the quays, and several fine hotels and insurance offices. In the
+beautiful Andrássy Ut are the opera-house (1875-1884), in the Italian
+Renaissance style; the academy of music; the old and new exhibition
+building; the national drawing school; and the museum of fine arts
+(1900-1905), in which was installed in 1905 the national gallery, formed by
+Prince Esterházy, bought by the government in 1865 for £130,000, and
+formerly housed in the academy, and the collection of modern pictures from
+the national museum. At the end of the street is one of the numerous
+monuments erected in various parts of the country to commemorate the
+thousandth anniversary of the foundation of the kingdom of Hungary. Other
+buildings remarkable for their [v.04 p.0680] size and interest are: the
+national museum (1836-1844); the town-hall (1869-1875), in the early
+Renaissance style; the university, with a baroque façade (rebuilt 1900),
+and the university library (opened in 1875), a handsome Renaissance
+building; the palace of justice (1896), a magnificent edifice situated not
+far from the Houses of Parliament. In its neighbourhood also are the
+palatial buildings of the ministries of justice and of agriculture. There
+are also the exchange (1905); the Austro-Hungarian bank (1904); the central
+post and telegraph office; the art-industrial museum (1893-1897), in
+oriental style, with some characteristically Hungarian ornamentations;
+several handsome theatres; large barracks; technical and secondary schools;
+two great railway termini and a central market (1897) to be mentioned. To
+the south-east of the town lies the vast slaughter-house (1870-1872),
+which, with the adjacent cattle-market, covers nearly 30 acres of ground.
+The building activity of Budapest since 1867 has been extraordinary, and
+the town has undergone a thorough transformation. The removal of slums and
+the regulation of the older parts of the town, in connexion with the
+construction of the two new bridges across the Danube and of the railway
+termini, went hand-in-hand with the extension of the town, new quarters
+springing up on both banks of the Danube. This process is still going on,
+and Budapest has become one of the handsomest capitals of Europe.
+
+_Education._--Budapest is the intellectual capital of Hungary. At the head
+of its educational institutions stands the university, which was attended
+in 1900 by 4983 students--only about 2000 in 1880--and has a staff of
+nearly 200 professors and lecturers. It has been completely transformed
+into a national Hungarian seat of learning since 1867, and great efforts
+have been made to keep at home the Hungarian students, who before then
+frequented other universities and specially that of Vienna. It is well
+provided with scientific laboratories, botanic garden, and various
+collections, and possesses a library with nearly a quarter of a million
+volumes. The university of Budapest, the only one in Hungary proper, was
+established at Tyrnau in 1635, removed to Buda in 1777, and transferred to
+Pest in 1783. Next to it comes the polytechnic, attended by 1816 students
+in 1900, which is also thoroughly equipped for a scientific training. Other
+high schools are a veterinary academy, a Roman Catholic seminary, a
+Protestant theological college, a rabbinical institute, a commercial
+academy, to which has been added in 1899 an academy for the study of
+oriental languages, and military academies for the training of Hungarian
+officers. Budapest possesses an adequate number of elementary and secondary
+schools, as well as a great number of special and technical schools. At the
+head of the scientific societies stands the academy of sciences, founded in
+1825, for the encouragement of the study of the Hungarian language and the
+various sciences except theology. Next to it comes the national museum,
+founded in 1807 through the donations of Count Stephan Széchényi, which
+contains extensive collections of antiquities, natural history and
+ethnology, and a rich library which, in its manuscript department of over
+20,000 MSS., contains the oldest specimens of the Hungarian language.
+Another society which has done great service for the cultivation of the
+Hungarian language is the Kisfaludy society, founded in 1836. It began by
+distributing prizes for the best literary productions of the year, then it
+started the collection and publication of the Hungarian folklore, and
+lastly undertook the translation into the Hungarian language of the
+masterpieces of foreign literatures. The influence exercised by this
+society is very great, and it has attracted within its circle the best
+writers of Hungary. Another society similar in aim with this one is the
+Petöfi society, founded in 1875. Amongst the numerous scientific
+associations are the central statistical department, and the Budapest
+communal bureau of statistics, which under the directorship of Dr Joseph de
+Körösy has gained a European reputation.
+
+The artistic life in Budapest is fostered by the academy of music, which
+once had Franz Liszt as its director, a _conservatoire_ of music, a
+dramatic school, and a school for painting and for drawing, all maintained
+by the government. Budapest possesses, besides an opera house, eight
+theatres, of which two are subsidized by the government and one by the
+municipality. The performances are almost exclusively in Hungarian, the
+exceptions being the occasional appearance of French, Italian and other
+foreign artists. Performances in German are under a popular taboo, and they
+are never given in a theatre at Budapest.
+
+_Trade._---In commerce and industry Budapest is by far the most important
+town in Hungary, and in the former, if not also in the latter, it is second
+to Vienna alone in the Austro-Hungarian monarchy. The principal industries
+are steam flour-milling, distilling, and the manufacture of machinery,
+railway plant, carriages, cutlery, gold and silver wares, chemicals,
+bricks, jute, and the usual articles produced in large towns for home
+consumption. The trade of Budapest is mainly in corn, flour, cattle,
+horses, pigs, wines, spirits, wool, wood, hides, and in the articles
+manufactured in the town. The efforts of the Hungarian government to
+establish a great home industry, and the measures taken to that effect,
+have benefited Budapest to a greater degree than any other Hungarian town,
+and the progress made is remarkable. The increase in the number of
+joint-stock companies, and the capital thus invested in industrial
+undertakings, furnish a valuable indication. In 1873 there were 28 such
+companies with a total capital of £2,224,900; in 1890, 75 with a capital of
+£9,352,000; and in 1899 no fewer than 242 with a total capital of
+£31,378,655. Budapest owes its great commercial importance to its situation
+on the Danube, on which the greater part of its trade is carried. The
+introduction of steamboats on the Danube in 1830 was one of the earliest
+material causes of the progress of Budapest, and gave a great stimulus to
+its corn trade. This still continues to operate, having been promoted by
+the flour-milling industry, which was revolutionized by certain local
+inventions. Budapest is actually one of the greatest milling centres in the
+world, possessing a number of magnificent establishments, fitted with
+machinery invented and manufactured in the city. Budapest is, besides,
+connected with all the principal places in Austria and Hungary by a
+well-developed net of railways, which all radiate from here.
+
+_Population._--Few European towns grew so rapidly as Budapest generally,
+and Pest particularly, during the 19th century, and probably none has
+witnessed such a thorough transformation since 1867. In 1799 the joint
+population of Buda and Pest was 54,179, of which 24,306 belonged to Buda,
+and 29,870 belonged to Pest, being the first time that the population of
+Pest exceeded that of Buda. By 1840, however, Buda had added but 14,000 to
+its population while that of Pest had more than doubled; and of the joint
+population of 270,685 in 1869, fully 200,000 fell to the share of Pest. In
+1880 the civil population of Budapest was 360,551, an increase since 1869
+of 32%; and in 1890 it was 491,938, and increase of 36.57% in the decade.
+In the matter of the increase of its population alone, Budapest has only
+been slightly surpassed by one European town, namely, Berlin. Both capitals
+multiplied their population by nine in the first nine decades of the
+century. According to an interesting and instructive comparison of the
+growth of twenty-eight European cities made by Dr Joseph de Körösy, Berlin
+in 1890 showed an increase, as compared with the beginning of the century,
+of 818% and Budapest of 809%. Within the same period the increase of Paris
+was 343%, and of London 340%. In 1900 the civil population of Budapest was
+716,476 inhabitants, showing an increase of 44.82% in the decade. To this
+must be added a garrison of 15,846 men, making a total population 732,322.
+Of the total population, civil and military, 578,458 were Magyars, 104,520
+were Germans, 25,168 were Slovaks, and the remainder was composed of
+Croatians, Servians, Rumanians, Russians, Greeks, Armenians, Gypsies, &c.
+According to religion, there were 445,023 Roman Catholics, 5806 Greek
+Catholics, 4422 Greek Orthodox; 67,319 were Protestants of the Helvetic,
+and 38,811 were Protestants of the Augsburg Confessions; 168,985 were Jews,
+and the remainder belonged to various other creeds. A striking feature in
+the progress of Budapest is the decline in the death-rate, which sank from
+43.4 per thousand in 1874 to 20.6 per thousand in 1900. In addition to the
+increased influx of [v.04 p.0681] persons in the prime of life, this is due
+largely to the improved water-supply and better sanitary conditions
+generally, including increased hospital accommodation.
+
+_Social Position._--Budapest is the seat of the government of Hungary, of
+the parliament, and of all the highest official authorities--civil,
+military, judicial and financial. It is the meeting-place, alternately with
+Vienna, of the Austro-Hungarian delegations, and it was elected to an
+equality with Vienna as a royal residence in 1892. It is the see of a Roman
+Catholic archbishop. The town is administered by an elected municipal
+council, which consists of 400 members. As Paris is sometimes said to be
+France, so may Budapest with almost greater truth be said to be Hungary.
+Its composite population is a faithful reflection of the heterogeneous
+elements in the dominions of the Habsburgs, while the trade and industry of
+Hungary are centralized at Budapest in a way that can scarcely be affirmed
+of any other European capital. In virtue of its cultural institutions, it
+is also the intellectual and artistic centre of Hungary. The movement in
+favour of Magyarizing all institutions has found its strongest development
+in Budapest, where the German names have all been removed from the
+buildings and streets. The wonderful progress of Budapest is undoubtedly
+due to the revival of the Hungarian national spirit in the first half of
+the 19th century, and to the energetic and systematic efforts of the
+government and people of Hungary since the restoration of the constitution.
+So far as Hungary was concerned, Budapest in 1867 at once became the
+favoured rival of Vienna, with the important additional advantage that it
+had no such competitors within its own sphere as Vienna had in the Austrian
+provincial capitals. The political, intellectual, and social life of
+Hungary was centred in Budapest, and had largely been so since 1848, when
+it became the seat of the legislature, as it was that of the Austrian
+central administration which followed the revolution. The ideal of a
+prosperous, brilliant and attractive Magyar capital, which would keep the
+nobles and the intellectual flower of the country at home, uniting them in
+the service of the Fatherland, had received a powerful impetus from Count
+Stephan Széchényi, the great Hungarian reformer of the pre-Revolutionary
+period. His work, continued by patriotic and able successors, was now taken
+up as the common task of the government and the nation. Thus the promotion
+of the interests of the capital and the centralization of the public and
+commercial life of the country have formed an integral part of the policy
+of the state since the restoration of the constitution. Budapest has
+profited largely by the encouragement of agriculture, trade and industry,
+by the nationalization of the railways, by the development of inland
+navigation, and also by the neglect of similar measures in favour of
+Vienna.
+
+From that time to the present day the record of the Hungarian capital has
+been one of uninterrupted advance, not merely in externals, such as the
+removal of slums, the reconstruction of the town, the development of
+communications, industry and trade, and the erection of important public
+buildings, but also in the mental, moral and physical elevation of the
+inhabitants; besides another important gain from the point of view of the
+Hungarian statesman, namely, the progressive increase and improvement of
+status of the Magyar element of the population. When it is remembered that
+the ideal of both the authorities and the people is the ultimate monopoly
+of the home market by Hungarian industry and trade, and the strengthening
+of the Magyar influence by centralization, it is easy to understand the
+progress of Budapest.
+
+Politically, this ambitious and progressive capital is the creation of the
+Magyar upper classes. Commercially and industrially, it may be said to be
+the work of the Jews. The sound judgment of the former led them to welcome
+and appreciate the co-operation of the latter. Indeed, a readiness to
+assimilate foreign elements is characteristic of Magyar patriotism, which
+has, particularly within the last generation, made numerous converts among
+the other nationalities of Hungary, and--for national purposes--may be
+considered to have quite absorbed the Hungarian Jews. It has thus come to
+pass that there is no anti-Semitism in Budapest, although the Hebrew
+element is proportionately much larger (21% as compared with 9%) than it is
+in Vienna, the Mecca of the Jew-baiter.
+
+Budapest has long been celebrated for its mineral springs and baths, some
+of them having been already used during the Roman period. They rise at the
+foot of the Blocksberg, and are powerful chalybeate and sulphureous hot
+springs, with a temperature of 80°-150° Fahr. The principal baths are the
+Bruckbad and the Kaiserbad, both dating from the Turkish period; the St
+Lucasbad; and the Raitzenbad, rebuilt in 1860, one of the most magnificent
+establishments of its kind, which was connected through a gallery with the
+royal palace in the time of Matthias Corvin. There is an artesian well of
+sulphureous water with a temperature of 153° Fahr. in the Stadtwäldchen;
+and another, yielding sulphureous water with a temperature of 110° Fahr.,
+which is used for both drinking and bathing, in the Margaret island. The
+mineral springs, which yield bitter alkaline waters, are situated in the
+plain south of the Blocksberg, and are over 40 in number. The principal are
+the Hunyadi-János spring, of which about 1,000,000 bottles are exported
+annually, the Arpad spring, and the Apenta spring.
+
+The largest and most popular of the parks in Budapest is the Városliget, on
+the north-east side of the town. It has an area of 286 acres, and contains
+the zoological garden. On an island in its large pond are situated the
+agricultural (1902-1904) and the ethnographical museums. It was in this
+park that the millennium exhibition of 1896 took place. A still more
+delightful resort is the Margaret island, a long narrow island in the
+Danube, the property of the archduke Joseph, which has been laid out in the
+style of an English park, with fine trees, velvety turf and a group of
+villas and bath-houses. The name of the island is derived from St Margaret,
+the daughter of King Bela IV. (13th century), who built here a convent, the
+ruins of which are still in existence. To the west of Buda extends the hill
+(1463 ft.) of Sváb-Hegy (_Schwabenberg_), with extensive view and numerous
+villas; it is ascended by a rack-and-pinion railway. A favourite spot is
+the Zugliget (_Auwinkel_), a wooded dale on the northern slope of the hill.
+To the north of Ó-Buda, about 4 m. from the Margaret island, on the right
+bank of the Danube, are the remains of the Roman colony of Aquincum. They
+include the foundations of an amphitheatre, of a temple, of an aqueduct, of
+baths and of a castrum. The objects found here are preserved in a small
+museum. To the north of Pest lies the historic Rákos field, where the
+Hungarian diets were held in the open air from the 10th to the 14th
+century; and 23 m. to the north lies the royal castle of Gödöllö, with its
+beautiful park.
+
+_History._--The history of Budapest consists of the separate history of the
+two sister towns, Buda and Pest. The Romans founded, in the 2nd century
+A.D., on the right bank of the Danube, on the site of the actual Ó-Buda, a
+colony, on the place of a former Celtic settlement. This colony was named
+Aquincum, a transformation from the former Celtic name of _Ak-ink_, meaning
+"rich waters." The Roman occupation lasted till A.D. 376, and then the
+place was invaded by Huns, Ostrogoths, and later by Avars and Slavs. When
+the Magyars came into the country, at the end of the 10th century, they
+preserved the names of Buda and Pest, which they found for these two
+places. The origin of Pest proper is obscure, but the name, apparently
+derived from the old Slavonic _pestj_, a stove (like Ofen, the German name
+of Buda), seems to point to an early Slavonic settlement. The Romans never
+gained a foothold on this side of the river.
+
+When it first appears in history Pest was essentially a German settlement,
+and a chronicler of the 13th century describes it as "Villa Teutonica
+ditissima." Christianity was introduced early in the 11th century. In 1241
+Pest was destroyed by the Tatars, after whose departure in 1244 it was
+created a royal free city by Bela IV., and repeopled with colonists of
+various nationalities. The succeeding period seems to have been one of
+considerable prosperity, though Pest was completely eclipsed by the sister
+town of Buda with its fortress and palace. This fortress and palace were
+built by King Bela IV. in 1247, and were the nucleus round which the town
+of Buda was built, which soon gained [v.04 p.0682] great importance, and
+became in 1361 the capital of Hungary. In 1526 Pest was taken and pillaged
+by the Turks, and from 1541 to 1686 Buda was the seat of a Turkish pasha.
+Pest in the meantime entirely lost its importance, and on the departure of
+the Turks was left little more than a heap of ruins. Its favourable
+situation and the renewal of former privileges helped it to revive, and in
+1723 it became the seat of the highest Hungarian officials. Maria Theresa
+and Joseph II. did much to increase its importance, but the rapid growth
+which enabled it completely to outstrip Buda belongs entirely to the 19th
+century. A signal proof of its vitality was given in 1838 by the speed and
+ease with which it recovered from a disastrous inundation that destroyed
+3000 houses. In 1848 Pest became the seat of the revolutionary diet, but in
+the following year the insurgents had to retire before the Austrians under
+Windischgrätz. A little later the Austrians had to retire in their turn,
+leaving a garrison in the fortress of Buda, and, while the Hungarians
+endeavoured to capture this position, General Hentzi retaliated by
+bombarding Pest, doing great damage to the town. In 1872 both towns were
+united into one municipality. In 1896 took place here the millennium
+exhibition, in celebration of the thousandth anniversary of the foundation
+of the kingdom of Hungary.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The official publications of the Budapest Communal Bureau of
+Statistics have acquired a European repute for their completeness, and
+their fearless exposure of shortcomings has been an element in the progress
+of the town. Reference should also be made to separate works of the
+director of that institution, Dr Joseph de Körösy, known in England for his
+discovery of the law of marital fertility, published by the Royal Society,
+and by his labours in the development of comparative international
+statistics. His _Statistique Internationale des grandes villes_ and
+_Bulletin annuel des finances des grandes villes_ give valuable comparative
+data. See also _Die Österreichisch-Ungarische Monarchie in Wort und Bild_
+(Wien, 1886-1902, 24 vols.); volume xii., published in 1893, is devoted to
+Budapest.
+
+(O. BR.)
+
+BUDAUN, a town and district of British India, in the Rohilkhand division of
+the United Provinces. The town is near the left bank of the river Sot. Pop.
+(1901) 39,031. There are ruins of an immense fort and a very handsome
+mosque of imposing size, crowned with a dome, and built in 1223 in great
+part from the materials of an ancient Hindu temple. The American Methodist
+mission maintains several girls' schools, and there is a high school for
+boys. According to tradition Budaun was founded about A.D. 905, and an
+inscription, probably of the 12th century, gives a list of twelve Rathor
+kings reigning at Budaun (called Vodamayuta). The first authentic
+historical event connected with it, however, is its capture by Kutb-ud-din
+in 1196, after which it became a very important post on the northern
+frontier of the Delhi empire. In the 13th century two of its governors,
+Shams-ud-din Altamsh, the builder of the great mosque referred to above,
+and his son Rukn-ud-din Firoz, attained the imperial throne. In 1571 the
+town was burnt, and about a hundred years later, under Shah Jahan, the seat
+of the governorship was transferred to Bareilly; after which the importance
+of Budaun declined. It ultimately came into the power of the Rohillas, and
+in 1838 was made the headquarters of a British district. In 1857 the people
+of Budaun sided with the mutineers, and a native government was set up,
+which lasted until General Penny's victory at Kakrala (April 1858) led to
+the restoration of British authority.
+
+The DISTRICT OF BUDAUN has an area of 1987 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 1,025,753.
+The country is low, level, and is generally fertile, and watered by the
+Ganges, the Ramganga, the Sot or Yarwafadar, and the Mahawa. Budaun
+district was ceded to the British government in 1801 by the nawab of Oudh.
+There are several indigo factories. The district is crossed by two lines of
+the Oudh & Rohilkhand railway, and by a narrow-gauge line from Bareilly.
+The chief centre of trade is Bilsi.
+
+BUDDEUS, JOHANN FRANZ (1667-1729), German Lutheran divine, was born at
+Anklam, a town of Pomerania, where his father was pastor. He studied with
+great distinction at Greifswald and at Wittenberg, and having made a
+special study of languages, theology and history, was appointed professor
+of Greek and Latin at Coburg in 1692, professor of moral philosophy in the
+university of Halle in 1693, and in 1705 professor of theology at Jena.
+Here he was held in high esteem, and in 1715 became Primarius of his
+faculty and member of the Consistory. His principal works are: _Leipzig,
+allgemeines historisches Lexikon_ (Leipzig, 1709 ff.); _Historia,
+Ecclesiastica Veteris Testamenti_ (4 vols., Halle, 1709); _Elementa
+Philosophiae Practicae, Instrumentalis, et Theoreticae_ (3 vols., 1697);
+_Selecta Juris Naturae et Gentium_ (Halle, 1704); _Miscellanea Sacra_ (3
+vols., Jena, 1727); and _Isagoge Historico-Theologica ad Theologiam
+Universam, singulasque ejus partes_ (2 vols., 1727).
+
+BUDDHA. According to the Buddhist theory (see BUDDHISM), a "Buddha" appears
+from time to time in the world and preaches the true doctrine. After a
+certain lapse of time this teaching is corrupted and lost, and is not
+restored till a new Buddha appears. In Europe, Buddha is used to designate
+the last historical Buddha, whose family name was Gotama, and who was the
+son of Suddhodana, one of the chiefs of the tribe of the Sakiyas, one of
+the republican clans then still existent in India.
+
+We are accustomed to find the legendary and the miraculous gathering, like
+a halo, around the early history of religious leaders, until the sober
+truth runs the risk of being altogether neglected for the glittering and
+edifying falsehood. The Buddha has not escaped the fate which has befallen
+the founders of other religions; and as late as the year 1854 Professor
+Wilson of Oxford read a paper before the Royal Asiatic Society of London in
+which he maintained that the supposed life of Buddha was a myth, and
+"Buddha himself merely an imaginary being." No one, however, would now
+support this view; and it is admitted that, under the mass of miraculous
+tales which have been handed down regarding him, there is a basis of truth
+already sufficiently clear to render possible an intelligent history.
+
+The circumstances under which the future Buddha was born were somewhat as
+follows.[1] In the 6th century B.C. the Aryan tribes had long been settled
+far down the valley of the Ganges. The old child-like joy in life so
+manifest in the Vedas had died away; the worship of nature had developed or
+degenerated into the worship of new and less pure divinities; and the Vedic
+songs themselves, whose freedom was little compatible with the spirit of
+the age, had faded into an obscurity which did not lessen their value to
+the priests. The country was politically split up into little
+principalities, most of them governed by some petty despot, whose interests
+were not often the same as those of the community. There were still,
+however, about a dozen free republics, most of them with aristocratic
+government, and it was in these that reforming movements met with most
+approval and support. A convenient belief in the doctrine of the
+transmigration of souls satisfied the unfortunate that their woes were the
+natural result of their own deeds in a former birth, and, though
+unavoidable now, might be escaped in a future state of existence by present
+good conduct. While hoping for a better fate in their next birth, the poor
+turned for succour and advice in this to the aid of astrology, witchcraft
+and animism--a belief in which seems to underlie all [v.04 p.0683]
+religions, and still survives even in England.[2] The inspiriting wars
+against the enemies of the Aryan people, the infidel deniers of the Aryan
+gods, had given place to a succession of internecine feuds between the
+chiefs of neighbouring clans. In literature an age of poets had long since
+made way for an age of commentators and grammarians, who thought that the
+old poems must have been the work of gods. But the darkest period was
+succeeded by the dawn of a reformation; travelling logicians were willing
+to maintain these against all the world; whilst here and there ascetics
+strove to raise themselves above the gods, and hermits earnestly sought for
+some satisfactory solution of the mysteries of life. These were the
+teachers whom the people chiefly delighted to honour. Though the ranks of
+the priesthood were for ever firmly closed against intruders, a man of lay
+birth, a Kshatriya or Vaisya, whose mind revolted against the orthodox
+creed, and whose heart was stirred by mingled zeal and ambition, might find
+through these irregular orders an entrance to the career of a religious
+teacher and reformer.
+
+The Sakiya clan was then seated in a tract of country probably two or three
+thousand square miles in extent, the chief town of which was Kapilavastu,
+situate about 27° 37' N. by 83° 11' E., some days' journey north of
+Benares. Their territory stretched up into the lower slopes of the
+mountains, and was mostly in what is now Nepal, but it included territory
+now on the British side of the frontier. It is in this part of the Sakiya
+country that the interesting discovery was made of the monument they
+erected to their famous clansman. From their well-watered rice-fields, the
+main source of their wealth, they could see the giant Himalayas looming up
+against the clear blue of the Indian sky. Their supplies of water were
+drawn from the river Rohini, the modern Kohana; and though the use of the
+river was in times of drought the cause of disputes between the Sakiyas and
+the neighbouring Koliyans, the two clans were then at peace; and two
+daughters of a chieftain of Koli, which was only 11 m. east of Kapilavastu,
+were the principal wives of Suddhodana. Both were childless, and great was
+the rejoicing when, in about the forty-fifth year of her age, the elder
+sister, Maha Maya, promised her husband a son. In due time she started with
+the intention of being confined at her parents' home, but the party halting
+on the way under the shade of some lofty satin-trees, in a pleasant garden
+called Lumbini on the river-side, her son, the future Buddha, was there
+unexpectedly born. The exact site of this garden has been recently
+rediscovered, marked by an inscribed pillar put up by Asoka (see
+_J.R.A.S._, 1898).
+
+He was in after years more generally known by his family name of Gotama,
+but his individual name was Siddhattha. When he was nineteen years old he
+was married to his cousin Yasodhara, daughter of a Koliyan chief, and gave
+himself up to a life of luxury. This is the solitary record of his youth;
+we hear nothing more till, in his twenty-ninth year, it is related that,
+driving to his pleasure-grounds one day, he was struck by the sight of a
+man utterly broken down by age, on another occasion by the sight of a man
+suffering from a loathsome disease, and some months after by the horrible
+sight of a decomposing corpse. Each time his charioteer, whose name was
+Channa, told him that such was the fate of all living beings. Soon after he
+saw an ascetic walking in a calm and dignified manner, and asking who that
+was, was told by his charioteer the character and aims of the Wanderers,
+the travelling teachers, who played so great a part in the intellectual
+life of the time. The different accounts of these visions vary so much as
+to cast great doubts on their accuracy; and the oldest one of all
+(_Anguttara_, i. 145) speaks of ideas only, not of actual visions. It is,
+however, clear from what follows, that about this time the mind of the
+young Räjput must, from some cause or other, have been deeply stirred. Many
+an earnest heart full of disappointment or enthusiasm has gone through a
+similar struggle, has learnt to look upon all earthly gains and hopes as
+worse than vanity, has envied the calm life of the cloister, troubled by
+none of these things, and has longed for an opportunity of entire
+self-surrender to abstinence and meditation.
+
+Subjectively, though not objectively, these visions may be supposed to have
+appeared to Gotama. After seeing the last of them, he is said, in the later
+accounts, to have spent the afternoon in his pleasure-grounds by the
+river-side; and having bathed, to have entered his chariot in order to
+return home. Just then a messenger arrived with the news that his wife
+Yasodhara had given birth to a son, his only child. "This," said Gotama
+quietly, "is a new and strong tie I shall have to break." But the people of
+Kapilavastu were greatly delighted at the birth of the young heir, the
+raja's only grandson. Gotama's return became an ovation; musicians preceded
+and followed his chariot, while shouts of joy and triumph fell on his ear.
+Among these sounds one especially attracted his attention. It was the voice
+of a young girl, his cousin, who sang a stanza, saying, "Happy the father,
+happy the mother, happy the wife of such a son and husband." In the word
+"happy" lay a double meaning; it meant also freed from the chains of
+rebirth, delivered, _saved_. Grateful to one who, at such a time, reminded
+him of his highest hopes, Gotama, to whom such things had no longer any
+value, took off his collar of pearls and sent it to her. She imagined that
+this was the beginning of a courtship, and began to build daydreams about
+becoming his principal wife, but he took no further notice of her and
+passed on. That evening the dancing-girls came to go through the Natch
+dances, then as now so common on festive occasions in many parts of India;
+but he paid them no attention, and gradually fell into an uneasy slumber.
+At midnight he awoke; the dancing-girls were lying in the ante-room; an
+overpowering loathing filled his soul. He arose instantly with a mind fully
+made up--"roused into activity," says the Sinhalese chronicle, "like a man
+who is told that his house is on fire." He called out to know who was on
+guard, and finding it was his charioteer Channa, he told him to saddle his
+horse. While Channa was gone Siddhattha gently opened the door of the room
+where Yasodhara was sleeping, surrounded by flowers, with one hand on the
+head of their child. He had hoped to take the babe in his arms for the last
+time before he went, but now he stood for a few moments irresolute on the
+threshold looking at them. At last the fear of awakening Yasodhara
+prevailed; he tore himself away, promising himself to return to them as
+soon as his mind had become clear, as soon as he had become a
+Buddha,--_i.e._ Enlightened,--and then he could return to them not only as
+husband and father, but as teacher and saviour. It is said to have been
+broad moonlight on the full moon of the month of July, when the young
+chief, with Channa as his sole companion, leaving his father's home, his
+wealth and social position, his wife and child behind him, went out into
+the wilderness to become a penniless and despised student, and a homeless
+wanderer. This is the circumstance which has given its name to a Sanskrit
+work, the Mahabhinishkramana Sutra, or Sutra of the Great Renunciation.
+
+Next is related an event in which we may again see a subjective experience
+given under the form of an objective reality. Mara, the great tempter,
+appears in the sky, and urges Gotama to stop, promising him, in seven days,
+a universal kingdom over the four great continents if he will but give up
+his enterprise.[3] When his words fail to have any effect, the tempter
+consoles himself by the confident hope that he will still overcome his
+enemy, saying, "Sooner or later some lustful or malicious or angry thought
+must arise in his mind; in that moment I shall be his master"; and from
+that hour, adds the legend, "as a shadow always follows the body, so he too
+from that day always followed the Blessed One, striving to throw every
+obstacle in his way towards the Buddhahood." Gotama rides a long distance
+that night, only stopping at the banks of the Anoma beyond the Koliyan
+territory. There, on the sandy bank of the river, at a spot where later
+piety erected a dagaba (a solid dome-shaped relic shrine), he cuts off with
+his sword his long flowing locks, and, taking off his ornaments, sends them
+and the horse back in charge of the unwilling Channa to Kapilavastu. The
+next seven days were spent alone in a grove of mango trees [v.04 p.0684]
+near by, whence the recluse walks on to Rajagriha, the capital of Magadha,
+and residence of Bimbisara, one of the then most powerful rulers in the
+valley of the Ganges. He was favourably received by the raja; but though
+asked to do so, he would not as yet assume the responsibilities of a
+teacher. He attached himself first to a brahmin sophist named Alara, and
+afterwards to another named Udraka, from whom he learnt all that Indian
+philosophy had then to teach. Still unsatisfied, he next retired to the
+jungle of Uruvela, on the most northerly spur of the Vindhya range of
+mountains, and there for six years, attended by five faithful disciples, he
+gave himself up to the severest penance and self-torture, till his fame as
+an ascetic spread in all the country round about "like the sound," says the
+Burmese chronicle, "of a great bell hung in the canopy of the skies."[4] At
+last one day, when he was walking in a much enfeebled state, he felt on a
+sudden an extreme weakness, like that caused by dire starvation, and unable
+to stand any longer he fell to the ground. Some thought he was dead, but he
+recovered, and from that time took regular food and gave up his severe
+penance, so much so that his five disciples soon ceased to respect him, and
+leaving him went to Benares.
+
+There now ensued a second struggle in Gotama's mind, described with all the
+wealth of poetry and imagination of which the Indian mind is master. The
+crisis culminated on a day, each event of which is surrounded in the
+Buddhist accounts with the wildest legends, on which the very thoughts
+passing through the mind of Buddha appear in gorgeous descriptions as
+angels of darkness or of light. To us, now taught by the experiences of
+centuries how weak such exaggerations are compared with the effect of a
+plain unvarnished tale, these legends may appear childish or absurd, but
+they have a depth of meaning to those who strive to read between the lines
+of such rude and inarticulate attempts to describe the indescribable. That
+which (the previous and subsequent career of the teacher being borne in
+mind) seems to be possible and even probable, appears to be somewhat as
+follows.
+
+Disenchanted and dissatisfied, Gotama had given up all that most men value,
+to seek peace in secluded study and self-denial. Failing to attain his
+object by learning the wisdom of others, and living the simple life of a
+student, he had devoted himself to that intense meditation and penance
+which all philosophers then said would raise men above the gods. Still
+unsatisfied, longing always for a certainty that seemed ever just beyond
+his grasp, he had added vigil to vigil, and penance to penance, until at
+last, when to the wondering view of others he had become more than a saint,
+his bodily strength and his indomitable resolution and faith had together
+suddenly and completely broken down. Then, when the sympathy of others
+would have been most welcome, he found his friends falling away from him,
+and his disciples leaving him for other teachers. Soon after, if not on the
+very day when his followers had left him, he wandered out towards the banks
+of the Neranjara, receiving his morning meal from the hands of Sujata, the
+daughter of a neighbouring villager, and set himself down to eat it under
+the shade of a large tree (a _Ficus religiosa_), to be known from that time
+as the sacred Bo tree or tree of wisdom. There he remained through the long
+hours of that day debating with himself what next to do. All his old
+temptations came back upon him with renewed force. For years he had looked
+at all earthly good through the medium of a philosophy which taught him
+that it, without exception, contained within itself the seeds of
+bitterness, and was altogether worthless and impermanent; but now to his
+wavering faith the sweet delights of home and love, the charms of wealth
+and power, began to show themselves in a different light, and glow again
+with attractive colours. He doubted, and agonized in his doubt; but as the
+sun set, the religious side of his nature had won the victory, and seems to
+have come out even purified from the struggle. He had attained to Nirvana,
+had become clear in his mind, a Buddha, an Enlightened One. From that night
+he not only did not claim any merit on account of his self-mortification,
+but took every opportunity of declaring that from such penances no
+advantage at all would be derived. All that night he is said to have
+remained in deep meditation under the Bo tree; and the orthodox Buddhists
+believe that for seven times seven nights and days he continued fasting
+near the spot, when the archangel Brahma came and ministered to him. As for
+himself, his heart was now fixed,--his mind was made up,--but he realized
+more than he had ever done before the power of temptation, and the
+difficulty, the almost impossibility, of understanding and holding to the
+truth. For others subject to the same temptations, but without that
+earnestness and insight which he felt himself to possess, faith might be
+quite impossible, and it would only be waste of time and trouble to try to
+show to them "the only path of peace." To one in his position this thought
+would be so very natural, that we need not hesitate to accept the fact of
+its occurrence as related in the oldest records. It is quite consistent
+with his whole career that it was love and pity for others--otherwise, as
+it seemed to him, helplessly doomed and lost---which at last overcame every
+other consideration, and made Gotama resolve to announce his doctrine to
+the world.
+
+The teacher, now 35 years of age, intended to proclaim his new gospel first
+to his old teachers Alara and Udraka, but finding that they were dead, he
+determined to address himself to his former five disciples, and accordingly
+went to the Deer-forest near Benares where they were then living. An old
+_gathha_, or hymn (translated in _Vinaya Texts_, i. 90) tells us how the
+Buddha, rapt with the idea of his great mission, meets an acquaintance, one
+Upaka, a wandering sophist, on the way. The latter, struck with his
+expression, asks him whose religion it is that makes him so glad, and yet
+so calm. The reply is striking. "I am now on my way," says the Buddha, "to
+the city of Benares, to beat the drum of the Ambrosia (to set up the light
+of the doctrine of Nirvana) in the darkness of the world!" and he proclaims
+himself the Buddha who alone knows, and knows no teacher. Upaka says: "You
+profess yourself, then, friend, to be an Arahat and a conqueror?" The
+Buddha says: "Those indeed are conquerors who, as I have now, have
+conquered the intoxications (the mental intoxication arising from
+ignorance, sensuality or craving after future life). Evil dispositions have
+ceased in me; therefore is it that I am conqueror!" His acquaintance
+rejoins: "In that case, venerable Gotama, your way lies yonder!" and he
+himself, shaking his head, turns in the opposite direction.
+
+Nothing daunted, the new prophet walked on to Benares, and in the cool of
+the evening went on to the Deer-forest where the five ascetics were living.
+Seeing him coming, they resolved not to recognize as a superior one who had
+broken his vows; to address him by his name, and not as "master" or
+"teacher"; only, he being a Kshatriya, to offer him a seat. He understands
+their change of manner, calmly tells them not to mock him by calling him
+"the venerable Gotama"; that he has found the ambrosia of truth and can
+lead them to it. They object, naturally enough, from the ascetic point of
+view, that he had failed before while he was keeping his body under, and
+how can his mind have won the victory now, when he serves and yields to his
+body. Buddha replies by explaining to them the principles of his new
+gospel, in the form of noble truths, and the Noble Eightfold Path (see
+BUDDHISM).
+
+It is nearly certain that Buddha had a commanding presence, and one of
+those deep, rich, thrilling voices which so many of the successful leaders
+of men have possessed. We know his deep earnestness, and his thorough
+conviction of the truth of his new gospel. When we further remember the
+relation which the five students mentioned above had long borne to him, and
+that they had passed through a similar culture, it is not difficult to
+understand that his persuasions were successful, and that his old disciples
+were the first to acknowledge him in his new character. The later books say
+that they were all converted at once; but, according to the most ancient
+Pali record--though their old love and reverence had been so rekindled when
+the Buddha came near that their cold resolutions quite broke down, and they
+vied with each other in such acts of personal attention as an [v.04 p.0685]
+Indian disciple loves to pay to his teacher,--yet it was only after the
+Buddha had for five days talked to them, sometimes separately, sometimes
+together, that they accepted in its entirety his plan of salvation.[5]
+
+The Buddha then remained at the Deer-forest near Benares until the number
+of his personal followers was about threescore, and that of the outside
+believers somewhat greater. The principal among the former was a rich young
+man named Yasa, who had first come to him at night out of fear of his
+relations, and afterwards shaved his head, put on the yellow robe, and
+succeeded in bringing many of his former friends and companions to the
+teacher, his mother and his wife being the first female disciples, and his
+father the first lay devotee. It should be noticed in passing that the idea
+of a priesthood with mystical powers is altogether repugnant to Buddhism;
+every one's salvation is entirely dependent on the modification or growth
+of his own inner nature, resulting from his own exertions. The life of a
+recluse is held to be the most conducive to that state of sweet serenity at
+which the most ardent disciples aim; but that of a layman, of a believing
+householder, is held in high honour; and a believer who does not as yet
+feel himself able or willing to cast off the ties of home or of business,
+may yet "enter the paths," and by a life of rectitude and kindness ensure
+for himself a rebirth under more favourable conditions for his growth in
+holiness.
+
+After the rainy season Gotama called together those of his disciples who
+had devoted themselves to the higher life, and said to them: "I am free
+from the five hindrances which, like an immense net, hold men and angels in
+their power; you too (owing to my teaching) are set free. Go ye now,
+brethren, and wander for the gain and welfare of the many, out of
+compassion for the world, to the benefit of gods and men. Preach the
+doctrine, beauteous in inception, beauteous in continuation, beauteous in
+its end. Proclaim the pure and perfect life. Let no two go together. I also
+go, brethren, to the General's village in the wilds of Uruvela."[6]
+Throughout his career, Gotama yearly adopted the same plan, collecting his
+disciples round him in the rainy season, and after it was over travelling
+about as an itinerant preacher; but in subsequent years he was always
+accompanied by some of his most attached disciples.
+
+In the solitudes of Uruvela there were at this time three brothers,
+fire-worshippers and hermit philosophers, who had gathered round them a
+number of scholars, and enjoyed a considerable reputation as teachers.
+Gotama settled among them, and after a time they became believers in his
+system,--the elder brother, Kassapa, taking henceforth a principal place
+among his followers. His first set sermon to his new disciples is called by
+Bishop Bigandet the Sermon on the Mount. Its subject was a jungle-fire
+which broke out on the opposite hillside. He warned his hearers against the
+fires of concupiscence, anger, ignorance, birth, death, decay and anxiety;
+and taking each of the senses in order he compared all human sensations to
+a burning flame which seems to be something it is not, which produces
+pleasure and pain, but passes rapidly away, and ends only in
+destruction.[7]
+
+Accompanied by his new disciples, the Buddha walked on to Rajagaha, the
+capital of King Bimbisara, who, not unmindful of their former interview,
+came out to welcome him. Seeing Kassapa, who as the chronicle puts it, was
+as well known to them as the banner of the city, the people at first
+doubted who was the teacher and who the disciple, but Kassapa put an end to
+their hesitation by stating that he had now given up his belief in the
+efficacy of sacrifices either great or small; that Nirvana was a state of
+rest to be attained only by a change of heart; and that he had become a
+disciple of the Buddha. Gotama then spoke to the king on the miseries of
+the world which arise from passion, and on the possibility of release by
+following the way of salvation. The raja invited him and his disciples to
+eat their simple mid-day meal at his house on the following morning; and
+then presented the Buddha with a garden called Veluvana or Bamboo-grove,
+afterwards celebrated as the place where the Buddha spent many rainy
+seasons, and preached many of his most complete discourses. There he taught
+for some time, attracting large numbers of hearers, among whom two,
+Sariputta and Moggallana, who afterwards became conspicuous leaders in the
+new crusade, then joined the Sangha or Society, as the Buddha's order of
+mendicants was called.
+
+Meanwhile the prophet's father, Suddhodana, who had anxiously watched his
+son's career, heard that he had given up his asceticism, and had appeared
+as a Wanderer, an itinerant preacher and teacher. He sent therefore to him,
+urging him to come home, that he might see him once more before he died.
+The Buddha accordingly started for Kapilavastu, and stopped according to
+his custom in a grove outside the town. His father and uncles and others
+came to see him there, but the latter were angry, and would pay him no
+reverence. It was the custom to invite such teachers and their disciples
+for the next day's meal, but they all left without doing so. The next day,
+therefore, Gotama set out at the usual hour, carrying his bowl to beg for a
+meal. As he entered the city, he hesitated whether he should not go
+straight to his father's house, but determined to adhere to his custom. It
+soon reached his father's ears that his son was walking through the streets
+begging. Startled at such news he rose up, seizing the end of his outer
+robe, and hastened to the place where Gotama was, exclaiming, "Illustrious
+Buddha, why do you expose us all to such shame? Is it necessary to go from
+door to door begging your food? Do you imagine that I am not able to supply
+the wants of so many mendicants?" "My noble father," was the reply, "this
+is the custom of all our race." "How so?" said his father. "Are you not
+descended from an illustrious line? no single person of our race has ever
+acted so indecorously." "My noble father," said Gotama, "you and your
+family may claim the privileges of Kshatriya descent; my descent is from
+the prophets (Buddhas) of old, and they have always acted so; the customs
+of the law (Dharma) are good both for this world and the world that is to
+come. But, my father, when a man has found a treasure, it is his duty to
+offer the most precious of the jewels to his father first. Do not delay,
+let me share with you the treasure I have found." Suddhodana, abashed, took
+his son's bowl and led him to his house.
+
+Eighteen months had now elapsed since the turning-point of Gotama's
+career--his great struggle under the Bo tree. Thus far all the accounts
+follow chronological order. From this time they simply narrate disconnected
+stories about the Buddha, or the persons with whom he was brought into
+contact,--the same story being usually found in more than one account, but
+not often in the same order. It is not as yet possible, except very
+partially, to arrange chronologically the snatches of biography to be
+gleaned from these stories. They are mostly told to show the occasion on
+which some memorable act of the Buddha took place, or some memorable saying
+was uttered, and are as exact as to place as they are indistinct as to
+time. It would be impossible within the limits of this article to give any
+large number of them, but space may be found for one or two.
+
+A merchant from Sunaparanta having joined the Society was desirous of
+preaching to his relations, and is said to have asked Gotama's permission
+to do so. "The people of Sunaparanta," said the teacher, "are exceedingly
+violent. If they revile you what will you do?" "I will make no reply," said
+the mendicant. "And if they strike you?" "I will not strike in return," was
+the reply. "And if they try to kill you?" "Death is no evil in itself; many
+even desire it, to escape from the vanities of life, but I shall take no
+steps either to hasten or to delay the time of my departure." These answers
+were held satisfactory, and the monk started on his mission.
+
+At another time a rich farmer held a harvest home, and the Buddha, wishing
+to preach to him, is said to have taken his alms-bowl and stood by the side
+of the field and begged. The farmer, a wealthy brahmin, said to him, "Why
+do you come and beg? [v.04 p.0686] I plough and sow and earn my food; you
+should do the same." "I too, O brahmin," said the beggar, "plough and sow;
+and having ploughed and sown I eat." "You profess only to be a farmer; no
+one sees your ploughing, what do you mean?" said the brahmin. "For my
+cultivation," said the beggar, "faith is the seed, self-combat is the
+fertilizing rain, the weeds I destroy are the cleaving to existence, wisdom
+is my plough, and its guiding-shaft is modesty; perseverance draws my
+plough, and I guide it with the rein of my mind; the field I work is in the
+law, and the harvest that I reap is the never-dying nectar of Nirvana,
+Those who reap this harvest destroy all the weeds of sorrow."
+
+On another occasion he is said to have brought back to her right mind a
+young mother whom sorrow had for a time deprived of reason. Her name was
+Kisagotami. She had been married early, as is the custom in the East, and
+had a child when she was still a girl. When the beautiful boy could run
+alone he died. The young girl in her love for it carried the dead child
+clasped to her bosom, and went from house to house of her pitying friends
+asking them to give her medicine for it. But a Buddhist convert thinking
+"she does not understand," said to her, "My good girl, I myself have no
+such medicine as you ask for, but I think I know of one who has." "Oh, tell
+me who that is?" said Kisagotami. "The Buddha can give you medicine; go to
+him," was the answer. She went to Gotama; and doing homage to him said,
+"Lord and master, do you know any medicine that will be good for my child?"
+"Yes, I know of some," said the teacher. Now it was the custom for patients
+or their friends to provide the herbs which the doctors required; so she
+asked what herbs he would want. "I want some mustard-seed," he said; and
+when the poor girl eagerly promised to bring some of so common a drug, he
+added, "you must get it from some house where no son, or husband, or parent
+or slave has died." "Very good," she said; and went to ask for it, still
+carrying her dead child with her. The people said, "Here is mustard-seed,
+take it"; but when she asked, "In my friend's house has any son died, or a
+husband, or a parent or slave?" They answered, "Lady! what is this that you
+say? the living are few, but the dead are many." Then she went to other
+houses, but one said "I have lost a son," another "We have lost our
+parents," another "I have lost my slave." At last, not being able to find a
+single house where no one had died, her mind began to clear, and summoning
+up resolution she left the dead body of her child in a forest, and
+returning to the Buddha paid him homage. He said to her, "Have you the
+mustard-seed?" "My lord," she replied, "I have not; the people tell me that
+the living are few, but the dead are many." Then he talked to her on that
+essential part of his system, the impermanency of all things, till her
+doubts were cleared away, she accepted her lot, became a disciple, and
+entered the "first path."
+
+For forty-five years after entering on his mission Gotama itinerated in the
+valley of the Ganges, not going farther than about 250 m. from Benares, and
+always spending the rainy months at one spot--usually at one of the
+_viharas_,[8] or homes, which had been given to the society. In the
+twentieth year his cousin Ananda became a mendicant, and from that time
+seems to have attended on the Buddha, being constantly near him, and
+delighting to render him all the personal service which love and reverence
+could suggest. Another cousin, Devadatta, the son of the raja of Koli, also
+joined the society, but became envious of the teacher, and stirred up
+Ajatasattu (who, having killed his father Bimbisara, had become king of
+Rajagaha) to persecute Gotama. The account of the manner in which the
+Buddha is said to have overcome the wicked devices of this apostate cousin
+and his parricide protector is quite legendary; but the general fact of
+Ajatasattu's opposition to the new sect and of his subsequent conversion
+may be accepted.
+
+The confused and legendary notices of the journeyings of Gotama are
+succeeded by tolerably clear accounts of the last few days of his life.[9]
+On a journey towards Kusinara, a town about 120 m. north-north-east of
+Benares, and about 80 m. due east of Kapilavastu, the teacher, being then
+eighty years of age, had rested for a short time in a grove at Pawa,
+presented to the society by a goldsmith of that place named Chunda. Chunda
+prepared for the mendicants a mid-day meal, and after the meal the Buddha
+started for Kusinara. He had not gone far when he was obliged to rest, and
+soon afterwards he said, "Ananda, I am thirsty," and they gave him water to
+drink. Half-way between the two towns flows the river Kukushta. There
+Gotama rested again, and bathed for the last time. Feeling that he was
+dying, and careful lest Chunda should be reproached by himself or others,
+he said to Ananda, "After I am gone tell Chunda that he will receive in a
+future birth very great reward; for, having eaten of the food he gave me, I
+am about to die; and if he should still doubt, say that it was from my own
+mouth that you heard this. There are two gifts which will be blest above
+all others, namely, Sujata's gift before I attained wisdom under the Bo
+tree, and this gift of Chunda's before I pass away." After halting again
+and again the party at length reached the river Hiranyavati, close by
+Kusinara, and there for the last time the teacher rested. Lying down under
+some Sal trees, with his face towards the south, he talked long and
+earnestly with Ananda about his burial, and about certain rules which were
+to be observed by the society after his death. Towards the end of this
+conversation, when it was evening, Ananda broke down and went aside to
+weep, but the Buddha missed him, and sending for him comforted him with the
+promise of Nirvana, and repeated what he had so often said before about the
+impermanence of all things,--"O Ananda! do not weep; do not let yourself be
+troubled. You known what I have said; sooner or later we must part from all
+we hold most dear. This body of ours contains within itself the power which
+renews its strength for a time, but also the causes which lead to its
+destruction. Is there anything put together which shall not dissolve? But
+you, too, shall be free from this delusion, this world of sense, this law
+of change. Beloved," added he, speaking to the rest of the disciples,
+"Ananda for long years has served me with devoted affection." And he spoke
+to them at some length on the kindness of Ananda.
+
+About midnight Subhadra, a brahmin philosopher of Kusinara, came to ask
+some questions of the Buddha, but Ananda, fearing that this might lead to a
+longer discussion than the sick teacher could bear, would not admit him.
+Gotama heard the sound of their talk, and asking what it was, told them to
+let Subhadra come. The latter began by asking whether the six great
+teachers knew all laws, or whether there were some that they did not know,
+or knew only partially. "This is not the time," was the answer, "for such
+discussions. To true wisdom there is only one way, the path that is laid
+down in my system. Many have already followed it, and conquering the lust
+and pride and anger of their own hearts, have become free from ignorance
+and doubt and wrong belief, have entered the calm state of universal
+kindliness, and have reached Nirvana even in this life. O Subhadra! I do
+not speak to you of things I have not experienced. Since I was twenty-nine
+years old till now I have striven after pure and perfect wisdom, and
+following the good path, have found Nirvana." A rule had been made that no
+follower of a rival system should be admitted to the society without four
+months' probation. So deeply did the words or the impressive manner of the
+dying teacher work upon Subhadra that he asked to be admitted at once, and
+Gotama granted his request. Then turning to his disciples he said, "When I
+have passed away and am no longer with you, do not think that the Buddha
+has left you, and is not still in your midst. You have my words, my
+explanations of the deep things of truth, the laws I have laid down for the
+society; let them be your guide; the Buddha has not left you." Soon
+afterwards he again spoke to them, urging them to reverence one another,
+and rebuked one of the disciples who spoke [v.04 p.0687] indiscriminately
+all that occurred to him. Towards the morning he asked whether any one had
+any doubt about the Buddha, the law or the society; if so, he would clear
+them up. No one answered, and Ananda expressed his surprise that amongst so
+many none should doubt, and all be firmly attached to the law. But the
+Buddha laid stress on the final perseverance of the saints, saying that
+even the least among the disciples who had entered the first path only,
+still had his heart fixed on the way to perfection, and constantly strove
+after the three higher paths. "No doubt," he said, "can be found in the
+mind of a true disciple." After another pause he said: "Behold now,
+brethren, this is my exhortation to you. Decay is inherent in all component
+things. Work out, therefore, your emancipation with diligence!" These were
+the last words the Buddha spoke; shortly afterwards he became unconscious,
+and in that state passed away.
+
+AUTHORITIES ON THE LIFE OF THE BUDDHA.--Canonical Pali (reached their
+present shape before the 4th century B.C.); episodes only, three of them
+long: (1) _Birth_; text in _Majjhima Nikaya_, ed. Trenckner and Chalmers
+(London, Pali Text Society, 1888-1899), vol. iii. pp. 118-124; also in
+_Anguttara Nikaya_, ed. Morris and Hardy (Pali Text Society, 1888-1900),
+vol. ii. pp. 130-132. (2) _Adoration of the babe_; old ballad; text in
+_Sutta Nipata_, ed. Fausböll (Pali Text Society, 1884), pp. 128-131;
+translation by the same in _Sacred Books of the East_ (Oxford, 1881), vol.
+x. pp. 124-131. (3) _Youth at home_; text in _Anguttara Nikaya_, i. 145.
+(4) _The going forth_; old ballad; text in _Sutta Nipata_, pp. 70-74
+(London, 1896), pp. 99-101; prose account in _Digha Nikaya_, ed. Rhys
+Davids and Carpenter (Pali Text Society, 1890-1893), vol. i. p. 115,
+translated by Rhys Davids in _Dialogues of the Buddha_ (Oxford, 1899), pp.
+147-149. (5) _First long episode_; the going forth, years of study and
+penance, attainment of Nirvana and Buddhahood, and conversion of first five
+converts; text in _Majjhima_, all together at ii. 93; parts repeated at i.
+163-175, 240-249; ii. 212; _Vinaya_, ed. Oldenberg (London, 1879-1883),
+vol. i. pp. 1-13. (6) _Second long episode_; from the conversation of the
+five down to the end of the first year of the teaching; text in _Vinaya_,
+i. 13-44, translated by Oldenberg in _Vinaya Texts_, i. 73-151. (7) _Visit
+to Kapilavastu_; text in _Vinaya_, i. 82; translation by Oldenberg in
+_Vinaya Texts_ (Oxford, 1881-1885), vol. i. pp. 207-210. (8) _Third long
+episode_; the last days; text in _Digha Nikaya_ (the _Mahaparinibbana
+Suttanta_), vol. ii. pp. 72-168, translated by Rhys Davids _in Buddhist
+Suttas_ (Oxford, 1881), pp. 1-136. Buddhist Sanskrit Texts: (i) _Mahavastu_
+(probably 2nd century B.C.); edited by Senart (3 vols., Paris, 1882-1897),
+summary in French prefixed to each volume; down to the end of first year of
+the teaching. (2) _Lalita Vistara_ (probably 1st century B.C.); edited by
+Mitra (Calcutta, 1877); translated into French by Foucaux (Paris, 1884);
+down to the first sermon. (3) _Buddha Carita_, by Asvaghosha, probably 2nd
+century A.D. edited by Cowell (Oxford, 1892); translated by Cowell (Oxford,
+1894, S.B.E. vol. xlix.); an elegant poem; stops just before the attainment
+of Buddhahood. (These three works reproduce and amplify the above episodes
+Nos. 1-6; they retain here and there a very old tradition as to arrangement
+of clauses or turns of expression.) Later Pali: The commentary on the
+_Jataka_, written probably in the 5th century A.D., gives a consecutive
+narrative, from the birth to the end of the second year of the teaching,
+based on the canonical texts, but much altered and amplified; edited by
+Fausböll in _Jataka_, vol. i. (London, 1877), pp. 1-94; translated by Rhys
+Davids in _Buddhist Birth Stories_ (London, 1880), pp. 1-133. Modern Works:
+(i) Tibetan; _Life of the Buddha_; episodes collected and translated by W.
+Woodville Rockhill (London, 1884), from Tibetan texts of the 9th and 10th
+centuries A.D. (2) Sinhalese; episodes collected and translated by Spence
+Hardy from Sinhalese texts of the 12th and later centuries, in _Manual of
+Buddhism_ (London, 1897, 2nd edition), pp. 138-359. (3) Burmese: _The Life
+or Legend of Gaudama_ (3rd edition, London, 1880), by the Right Rev. P.
+Bigandet, translated from a Burmese work of A.D. 1773. (The Burmese is, in
+its turn, a translation from a Pali work of unknown date; it gives the
+whole life, and is the only consecutive biography we have.) (4) Kambojian:
+_Pathama Sambodhian_; translated into French by A. Leclère in _Livres
+sacrés du Cambodge_ (Paris, 1906).
+
+(T. W. R. D.)
+
+[1] _Note on the Date of the Buddha._--The now generally accepted date of
+the Buddha is arrived at by adding together two numbers, one being the date
+of the accession of Asoka to the throne, the second being the length of the
+interval between that date and that of the death of the Buddha. The first
+figure, that of the date of Asoka, is arrived at by the mention in one of
+his edicts of certain Greek kings, as then living. The dates of these last
+are approximately known; and arguing from these dates the date of Asoka's
+accession has been fixed by various scholars (at dates varying only by a
+difference of five years more or less) at about 270 B.C. The second figure,
+the total interval between Asoka's accession and the Buddha's death, is
+given in the Ceylon Chronicles as 218 years. Adding these two together, the
+date of the Buddha's death would be 488 B.C., and, as he was eighty years
+old at the time of his death, the date of his birth would be 568 B.C. The
+dates for his death and birth accepted in Burma, Siam and Ceylon are about
+half a century earlier, namely, 543 and 623 B.C., the difference being in
+the date of Asoka's accession. It will be seen that the dates as adopted in
+Europe are approximate only, and liable to correction if better data are
+obtainable. The details of this chronological question are discussed at
+length in Professor Rhys Davids' _Ancient Coins and Measures of Ceylon_
+(London, 1877), where the previous discussions are referred to.
+
+[2] See report of _Rex_. v. _Neuhaus_, Clerkenwell Sessions, September 15,
+1906.
+
+[3] The various legends of Mara are the subject of an exhaustive critical
+analysis in Windsisch's _Mara and Buddha_ (Leipzig, 1895).
+
+[4] Bigandet, p. 49; and compare _Jataka_, p. 67, line 27.
+
+[5] _Vinaya Texts_, i. 97-99; cf. _Jataka_, vol. i. p. 82, lines 11-19.
+
+[6] _Samyutta_, i. 105.
+
+[7] Cf. Big. p. 99, with Hardy, _M.B._ p. 191. The Pali name is
+_aditta-pariyaya_: the sermon on the lessons to be drawn from burning. The
+text is _Vinaya_, i. 34 = _Samyutta_, iv. 19. A literal translation will be
+found in _Vinaya Texts_, i. 134, 135.
+
+[8] These were at first simple huts, built for the mendicants in some grove
+of palm-trees as a retreat during the rainy season; but they gradually
+increased in splendour and magnificence till the decay of Buddhism set in.
+See the authorities quoted in _Buddhist India_, pp. 141, 142.
+
+[9] The text of the account of this last journey is the _Mahaparinibbana
+Suttanta_, vol. ii. of the _Digha_ (ed. Rhys Davids and Carpenter) The
+translation is in Rhys Davids' _Buddhist Suttas_.
+
+BUDDHAGHOSA, a celebrated Buddhist writer. He was a Brahmin by birth and
+was born near the great Bodhi tree at Budh Gaya; in north India about A.D.
+390, his father's name being Kesi. His teacher, Revata, induced him to go
+to Ceylon, where the commentaries on the scriptures had been preserved in
+the Sinhalese language, with the object of translating them into Pali. He
+went accordingly to Anuradhapura, studied there under Sanghapala, and asked
+leave of the fraternity there to translate the commentaries. With their
+consent he then did so, having first shown his ability by writing the work
+_Visuddhi Magga_ (the Path of Purity, a kind of summary of Buddhist
+doctrine). When he had completed his many years' labours he returned to the
+neighbourhood of the Bodhi tree in north India. Before he came to Ceylon he
+had already written a book entitled _Nanodaya_ (the Rise of Knowledge), and
+had commenced a commentary on the principal psychological manual contained
+in the _Pitakas_. This latter work he afterwards rewrote in Ceylon, as the
+present text (now published by the Pali Text Society) shows. One volume of
+the _Sumangala Vilasini_ (a portion of the commentaries mentioned above)
+has been edited, and extracts from his comment on the Buddhist canon law.
+This last work has been discovered in a nearly contemporaneous Chinese
+translation (an edition in Pali is based on a comparison with that
+translation). The works here mentioned form, however, only a small portion
+of what Buddhaghosa wrote. His industry must have been prodigious. He is
+known to have written books that would fill about 20 octavo volumes of
+about 400 pages each; and there are other writings ascribed to him which
+may or may not be really his work. It is too early therefore to attempt a
+criticism of it. But it is already clear that, when made acceptable, it
+will be of the greatest value for the history of Indian literature and of
+Indian ideas. So much is uncertain at present in that history for want of
+definite dates that the voluminous writings of an author whose date is
+approximately certain will afford a standard by which the age of other
+writings can be tested. And as the original commentaries in Sinhalese are
+now lost his works are the only evidence we have of the traditions then
+handed down in the Buddhist community. The main source of our information
+about Buddhaghosa is the _Mahavamsa_, written in Anuradhapura about fifty
+years after he was working there. But there are numerous references to him
+in Pali books on Pali literature; and a Burmese author of unknown date, but
+possibly of the 15th century, has compiled a biography of him, the
+_Buddhaghos' Uppatti_, of little value and no critical judgment.
+
+See _Mahavamsa_, ch. xxxvii. (ed. Turnour, Colombo, 1837); "Gandhavaramsa,"
+p. 59, in _Journal of the Pali Text Society_ (1886); _Buddhghosuppatti_
+(text and translation, ed. by E. Gray, London, 1893); _Sumangala Vilasini_,
+edited by T. W. Rhys Davids and J. E. Carpenter, vol. i. (London, Pali Text
+Society, 1886). (T. W. R. D.)
+
+BUDDHISM, the religion held by the followers of the Buddha (_q.v._), and
+covering a large area in India and east and central Asia.
+
+_Essential Doctrines._--We are fortunate in having preserved for us the
+official report of the Buddha's discourse, in which he expounded what he
+considered the main features of his system to the five men he first tried
+to win over to his new-found faith. There is no reason to doubt its
+substantial accuracy, not as to words, but as to purport. In any case it is
+what the compilers of the oldest extant documents believed their teacher to
+have regarded as the most important points in his teaching. Such a summary
+must be better than any that could now be made. It is incorporated into two
+divisions of their sacred books, first among the _suttas_ containing the
+doctrine, and again in the rules of the society or order he founded
+(_Samyutta_, v. 421 = _Vinaya_, i. 10). The gist of it, omitting a few
+repetitions, is as follows:--
+
+    "There are two aims which he who has given up the world ought not to
+    follow after--devotion, on the one hand, to those things whose
+    attractions depend upon the passions, a low and pagan ideal, fit only
+    for the worldly-minded, ignoble, unprofitable, and the practice on the
+    other hand of asceticism, which is painful, ignoble, unprofitable.
+    There is a Middle Path discovered by the Tathagata[1]--a path which
+    opens the eyes, and bestows understanding, which leads to peace, to
+    insight, to the higher wisdom, to Nirvana. Verily! it is this Noble
+    Eightfold Path; that is to say, Right Views, Right Aspirations, Right
+    Speech, Right Conduct, Right Mode of Livelihood, Right Effort, Right
+    Mindfulness, and Right Rapture.
+
+    "Now this is the Noble Truth as to suffering. Birth is attended with
+    pain, decay is painful, disease is painful, death is painful. Union
+    with the unpleasant is painful, painful is separation from the
+    pleasant; and any craving unsatisfied, that too is painful. In brief,
+    the five aggregates of clinging (that is, the conditions of
+    individuality) are painful.
+
+    "Now this is the Noble Truth as to the origin of suffering. Verily! it
+    is the craving thirst that causes the renewal of becomings, that is
+    accompanied by sensual delights, and seeks satisfaction now here, now
+    there--that is to say, the craving for the gratification of the senses,
+    or the craving for a future life, or the craving for prosperity.
+
+    [v.04 p.0688] "Now this is the Noble Truth as to the passing away of
+    pain. Verily! it is the passing away so that no passion remains, the
+    giving up, the getting rid of, the being emancipated from, the
+    harbouring no longer of this craving thirst.
+
+    "Now this is the Noble Truth as to the way that leads to the passing
+    away of pain. Verily! it is this Noble Eightfold Path, that is to say,
+    Right Views, Right Aspirations, Right speech, conduct and mode of
+    livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness and Right Rapture."
+
+A few words follow as to the threefold way in which the speaker claimed to
+have grasped each of these Four Truths. That is all. There is not a word
+about God or the soul, not a word about the Buddha or Buddhism. It seems
+simple, almost jejune; so thin and weak that one wonders how it can have
+formed the foundation for a system so mighty in its historical results. But
+the simple words are pregnant with meaning. Their implications were clear
+enough to the hearers to whom they were addressed. They were not intended,
+however, to answer the questionings of a 20th-century European questioner,
+and are liable now to be misunderstood. Fortunately each word, each clause,
+each idea in the discourse is repeated, commented on, enlarged upon, almost
+_ad nauseam_, in the _suttas_, and a short comment in the light of those
+explanations may bring out the meaning that was meant.[2]
+
+The passing away of pain or suffering is said to depend on an emancipation.
+And the Buddha is elsewhere (_Vinaya_ ii. 239) made to declare: "Just as
+the great ocean has one taste only, the taste of salt, just so have this
+doctrine and discipline but one flavour only, the flavour of emancipation";
+and again, "When a brother has, by himself, known and realized, and
+continues to abide, here in this visible world, in that emancipation of
+mind, in that emancipation of heart, which is Arahatship; that is a
+condition higher still and sweeter still, for the sake of which the
+brethren lead the religious life under me."[3] The emancipation is found in
+a habit of mind, in the being free from a specified sort of craving that is
+said to be the origin of certain specified sorts of pain. In some European
+books this is completely spoiled by being represented as the doctrine that
+existence is misery, and that desire is to be suppressed. Nothing of the
+kind is said in the text. The description of suffering or pain is, in fact,
+a string of truisms, quite plain and indisputable until the last clause.
+That clause declares that the _Upadana Skandhas_, the five groups of the
+constituent parts of every individual, involve pain. Put into modern
+language this is that the conditions necessary to make an individual are
+also the conditions that necessarily give rise to sorrow. No sooner has an
+individual become separate, become an individual, than disease and decay
+begin to act upon it. Individuality involves limitation, limitation in its
+turn involves ignorance, and ignorance is the source of sorrow. Union with
+the unpleasant, separation from the pleasant, unsatisfied craving, are each
+a result of individuality. This is a deeper generalization than that which
+says, "A man is born to trouble as the sparks fly upward." But it is put
+forward as a mere statement of fact. And the previous history of religious
+belief in India would tend to show that emphasis was laid on the fact, less
+as an explanation of the origin of evil, than as a protest against a then
+current pessimistic idea that salvation could not be reached on earth, and
+must therefore be sought for in a rebirth in heaven, in the _Brahmaloka_.
+For if the fact--the fact that the conditions of individuality are the
+conditions, also, of pain--were admitted, then the individual there would
+still not have escaped from sorrow. If the five ascetics to whom the words
+were addressed once admitted this implication, logic would drive them also
+to admit all that followed.
+
+The threefold division of craving at the end of the second truth might be
+rendered "the lust of the flesh, the lust of life and the love of this
+present world." The two last are said elsewhere to be directed against two
+sets of thinkers called the Eternalists and the Annihilationists, who held
+respectively the everlasting-life-heresy and the
+let-us-eat-and-drink-for-tomorrow-we-die-heresy.[4] This may be so, but in
+any case the division of craving would have appealed to the five hearers as
+correct.
+
+The word translated "noble" in Noble Path, Noble Truth, is _ariya_, which
+also means Aryan.[5] The negative, un-Aryan, is used of each of the two low
+aims. It is possible that this rendering should have been introduced into
+the translation; but the ethical meaning, though still associated with the
+tribal meaning, had probably already become predominant in the language of
+the time.
+
+The details of the Path include several terms whose meaning and implication
+are by no means apparent at first sight. Right Views, for instance, means
+mainly right views as to the Four Truths and the Three Signs. Of the
+latter, one is identical, or nearly so, with the First Truth. The others
+are Impermanence and Non-soul (the absence of a soul)--both declared to be
+"signs" of every individual, whether god, animal or man. Of these two again
+the Impermanence has become an Indian rather than a Buddhist idea, and we
+are to a certain extent familiar with it also in the West. There is no
+Being, there is only a Becoming. The state of every individual is unstable,
+temporary, sure to pass away. Even in the lowest class of things, we find,
+in each individual, form and material qualities. In the higher classes
+there is a continually rising series of mental qualities also. It is the
+union of these that makes the individual. Every person, or thing, or god,
+is therefore a putting together, a compound; and in each individual,
+without any exception, the relation of its component parts is ever
+changing, is never the same for two consecutive moments. It follows that no
+sooner has separateness, individuality, begun, than dissolution,
+disintegration, also begins. There can be no individuality without a
+putting together: there can be no putting together without a becoming:
+there can be no becoming without a becoming different: and there can be no
+becoming different without a dissolution, a passing away, which sooner or
+later will inevitably be complete.
+
+Heracleitus, who was a generation or two later than the Buddha, had very
+similar ideas;[6] and similar ideas are found in post-Buddhistic Indian
+works.[7] But in neither case are they worked out in the same
+uncompromising way. Both in Europe, and in all Indian thought except the
+Buddhist, souls, and the gods who are made in imitation of souls, are
+considered as exceptions. To these spirits is attributed a Being without
+Becoming, an individuality without change, a beginning without an end. To
+hold any such view would, according to the doctrine of the Noble (or Aryan)
+Path, be erroneous, and the error would block the way against the very
+entrance on the Path.
+
+So important is this position in Buddhism that it is put in the forefront
+of Buddhist expositions of Buddhism. The Buddha himself is stated in the
+books to have devoted to it the very first discourse he addressed to the
+first converts.[8] The first in the collection of the _Dialogues of Gotama_
+discusses, and completely, categorically, and systematically rejects, all
+the current theories about "souls." Later books follow these precedents.
+Thus the _Katha Vatthu_, the latest book included in the canon, discusses
+points of disagreement that had arisen in the community. It places this
+question of "soul" at the head of all the points it deals with, and devotes
+to it an amount of space quite overshadowing all the rest.[9] So also in
+the earliest Buddhist book later than the canon--the very interesting and
+suggestive series of conversations between the Greek king Menander and the
+Buddhist teacher Nagasena. It is precisely this question of the "soul" that
+the unknown author takes up first, describing how Nagasena convinces the
+king that there is no such thing as the [v.04 p.0689] "soul" in the
+ordinary sense, and he returns to the subject again and again.[10]
+
+After Right Views come Right Aspirations. It is evil desires, low ideals,
+useless cravings, idle excitements, that are to be suppressed by the
+cultivation of the opposite--of right desires, lofty aspirations. In one of
+the Dialogues[11] instances are given--the desire for emancipation from
+sensuality, aspirations towards the attainment of love to others, the wish
+not to injure any living thing, the desire for the eradication of wrong and
+for the promotion of right dispositions in one's own heart, and so on. This
+portion of the Path is indeed quite simple, and would require no commentary
+were it not for the still constantly repeated blunder that Buddhism teaches
+the suppression of all desire.
+
+Of the remaining stages of the Path it is only necessary to mention two.
+The one is Right Effort. A constant intellectual alertness is required.
+This is not only insisted upon elsewhere in countless passages, but of the
+three cardinal sins in Buddhism (_raga_, _dosa_, _moha_) the last and worst
+is stupidity or dullness, the others being sensuality and ill-will. Right
+Effort is closely connected with the seventh stage, Right Mindfulness. Two
+of the dialogues are devoted to this subject, and it is constantly referred
+to elsewhere.[12] The disciple, whatsoever he does--whether going forth or
+coming back, standing or walking, speaking or silent, eating or
+drinking--is to keep clearly in mind all that it means, the temporary
+character of the act, its ethical significance, and above all that behind
+the act there is no actor (goer, seer, eater, speaker) that is an eternally
+persistent unity. It is the Buddhist analogue to the Christian precept:
+"Whether therefore ye eat or drink, or whatsoever ye do, do all to the
+glory of God."
+
+Under the head of Right Conduct the two most important points are Love and
+Joy. Love is in Pali _Metta_, and the _Metta Sutta_[13] says (no doubt with
+reference to the Right Mindfulness just described): "As a mother, even at
+the risk of her own life, protects her son, her only son, so let him
+cultivate love without measure towards all beings. Let him cultivate
+towards the whole world--above, below, around--a heart of love unstinted,
+unmixed with the sense of differing or opposing interests. Let a man
+maintain this mindfulness all the while he is awake, whether he be
+standing, walking, sitting or lying down. This state of heart is the best
+in the world."
+
+Often elsewhere four such states are described, the Brahma Viharas or
+Sublime Conditions. They are Love, Sorrow at the sorrows of others, Joy in
+the joys of others, and Equanimity as regards one's own joys and
+sorrows.[14] Each of these feelings was to be deliberately practised,
+beginning with a single object, and gradually increasing till the whole
+world was suffused with the feeling. "Our mind shall not waver. No evil
+speech will we utter. Tender and compassionate will we abide, loving in
+heart, void of malice within. And we will be ever suffusing such a one with
+the rays of our loving thought. And with that feeling as a basis we will
+ever be suffusing the whole wide world with thought of love far-reaching,
+grown great, beyond measure, void of anger or ill-will."[15]
+
+The relative importance of love, as compared with other habits, is thus
+described. "All the means that can be used as bases for doing right are not
+worth the sixteenth part of the emancipation of the heart through love.
+That takes all those up into itself, outshining them in radiance and glory.
+Just as whatsoever stars there be, their radiance avails not the sixteenth
+part of the radiance of the moon. That takes all those up into itself,
+outshining them in radiance and glory--just as in the last month of the
+rains, at harvest time, the sun, mounting up on high into the clear and
+cloudless sky, overwhelms all darkness in the realms of space, and shines
+forth in radiance and glory--just as in the night, when the dawn is
+breaking, the morning star shines out in radiance and glory--just so all
+the means that can be used as helps towards doing right avail not the
+sixteenth part of the emancipation of the heart through love."[16]
+
+The above is the positive side; the qualities (_dhamma_) that have to be
+acquired. The negative side, the qualities that have to be suppressed by
+the cultivation of the opposite virtues, are the Ten Bonds (_Samyojanas_),
+the Four Intoxications (_Asava_) and the Five Hindrances (_Nivaranas_).
+
+The Ten Bonds are: (1) Delusion about the soul; (2) Doubt; (3) Dependence
+on good works; (4) Sensuality; (5) Hatred, ill-feeling; (6) Love of life on
+earth; (7) Desire for life in heaven; (8) Pride; (9) Self-righteousness;
+(10) Ignorance. The Four Intoxications are the mental intoxication arising
+respectively from (1) Bodily passions, (2) Becoming, (3) Delusion, (4)
+Ignorance. The Five Hindrances are (1) Hankering after worldly advantages,
+(2) The corruption arising out of the wish to injure, (3) Torpor of mind,
+(4) Fretfulness and worry, (5) Wavering of mind.[17] "When these five
+hindrances have been cut away from within him, he looks upon himself as
+freed from debt, rid of disease, out of jail, a free man and secure. And
+gladness springs up within him on his realizing that, and joy arises to him
+thus gladdened, and so rejoicing all his frame becomes at ease, and being
+thus at ease he is filled with a sense of peace, and in that peace his
+heart is stayed."[18]
+
+To have realized the Truths, and traversed the Path; to have broken the
+Bonds, put an end to the Intoxications, and got rid of the Hindrances, is
+to have attained the ideal, the Fruit, as it is called, of Arahatship. One
+might fill columns with the praises, many of them among the most beautiful
+passages in Pali poetry and prose, lavished on this condition of mind, the
+state of the man made perfect according to the Buddhist faith. Many are the
+pet names, the poetic epithets bestowed upon it--the harbour of refuge, the
+cool cave, the island amidst the floods, the place of bliss, emancipation,
+liberation, safety, the supreme, the transcendent, the uncreated, the
+tranquil, the home of peace, the calm, the end of suffering, the medicine
+for all evil, the unshaken, the ambrosia, the immaterial, the imperishable,
+the abiding, the farther shore, the unending, the bliss of effort, the
+supreme joy, the ineffable, the detachment, the holy city, and many others.
+Perhaps the most frequent in the Buddhist text is Arahatship, "the state of
+him who is worthy"; and the one exclusively used in Europe is Nirvana, the
+"dying out"; that is, the dying out in the heart of the fell fire of the
+three cardinal sins--sensuality, ill-will and stupidity.[19]
+
+The choice of this term by European writers, a choice made long before any
+of the Buddhist canonical texts had been published or translated, has had a
+most unfortunate result. Those writers did not share, could not be expected
+to share, the exuberant optimism of the early Buddhists. Themselves giving
+up this world as hopeless, and looking for salvation in the next, they
+naturally thought the Buddhists must do the same, and in the absence of any
+authentic scriptures, to correct the mistake, they interpreted Nirvana, in
+terms of their own belief, as a state to be reached after death. As such
+they supposed the "dying out" must mean the dying out of a "soul"; and
+endless were the discussions as to whether this meant eternal trance, or
+absolute annihilation, of the "soul." It is now thirty years since the
+right interpretation, founded on the canonical texts, has been given, but
+outside the ranks of Pali scholars the old blunder is still often repeated.
+It should be added that the belief in salvation in this world, in this
+life, has appealed so strongly to Indian sympathies that from the time of
+the rise of Buddhism down to the present day it has been adopted as a part
+of general Indian belief, and _Jivanmukti_, salvation during this life, has
+become a commonplace in the religious language of India.
+
+_Adopted Doctrines._--The above are the essential doctrines of [v.04
+p.0690] the original Buddhism. They are at the same time its distinctive
+doctrines; that is to say, the doctrines that distinguish it from all
+previous teaching in India. But the Buddha, while rejecting the sacrifices
+and the ritualistic magic of the brahmin schools, the animistic
+superstitions of the people, the asceticism and soul-theory of the Jains,
+and the pantheistic speculations of the poets of the pre-Buddhistic
+_Upanishads_, still retained the belief in transmigration. This belief--the
+transmigration of the soul, after the death of the body, into other bodies,
+either of men, beasts or gods--is part of the animistic creed so widely
+found throughout the world that it was probably universal. In India it had
+already, before the rise of Buddhism, been raised into an ethical
+conception by the associated doctrine of _Karma_, according to which a
+man's social position in life and his physical advantages, or the reverse,
+were the result of his actions in a previous birth. The doctrine thus
+afforded an explanation, quite complete to those who believed it, of the
+apparent anomalies and wrongs in the distribution here of happiness or woe.
+A man, for instance, is blind. This is owing to his lust of the eye in a
+previous birth. But he has also unusual powers of hearing. This is because
+he loved, in a previous birth, to listen to the preaching of the law. The
+explanation could always be exact, for it was scarcely more than a
+repetition of the point to be explained. It fits the facts because it is
+derived from them. And it cannot be disproved, for it lies in a sphere
+beyond the reach of human inquiry.
+
+It was because it thus provided a moral cause that it was retained in
+Buddhism. But as the Buddha did not acknowledge a soul, the link of
+connexion between one life and the next had to be found somewhere else. The
+Buddha found it (as Plato also found it)[20] in the influence exercised
+upon one life by a desire felt in the previous life. When two thinkers of
+such eminence (probably the two greatest ethical thinkers of antiquity)
+have arrived independently at this strange conclusion, have agreed in
+ascribing to cravings, felt in this life, so great, and to us so
+inconceivable, a power over the future life, we may well hesitate before we
+condemn the idea as intrinsically absurd, and we may take note of the
+important fact that, given similar conditions, similar stages in the
+development of religious belief, men's thoughts, even in spite of the most
+unquestioned individual originality, tend though they may never produce
+exactly the same results, to work in similar ways.
+
+In India, before Buddhism, conflicting and contradictory views prevailed as
+to the precise mode of action of _Karma_; and we find this confusion
+reflected in Buddhist theory. The prevailing views are tacked on, as it
+were, to the essential doctrines of Buddhism, without being thoroughly
+assimilated to them, or logically incorporated with them. Thus in the story
+of the good layman Citta, it is an aspiration expressed on the
+deathbed;[21] in the dialogue on the subject, it is a thought dwelt on
+during life,[22] in the numerous stories in the _Peta_ and _Vimana Vatthus_
+it is usually some isolated act, in the discussions in the _Dhamma Sangani_
+it is some mental disposition, which is the _Karma_ (doing or action) in
+the one life determining the position of the individual in the next. These
+are really conflicting propositions. They are only alike in the fact that
+in each case a moral cause is given for the position in which the
+individual finds himself now; and the moral cause is his own act.
+
+In the popular belief, followed also in the brahmin theology, the bridge
+between the two lives was a minute and subtle entity called the soul, which
+left the one body at death, through a hole at the top of the head, and
+entered into the new body. The new body happened to be there, ready, with
+no soul in it. The soul did not make the body. In the Buddhist adaptation
+of this theory no soul, no consciousness, no memory, goes over from one
+body to the other. It is the grasping, the craving, still existing at the
+death of the one body that causes the new set of _Skandhas_, that is, the
+new body with its mental tendencies and capacities, to arise. How this
+takes place is nowhere explained.
+
+The Indian theory of _Karma_ has been worked out with many points of great
+beauty and ethical value. And the Buddhist adaptation of it, avoiding some
+of the difficulties common to it and to the allied European theories of
+fate and predestination, tries to explain the weight of the universe in its
+action on the individual, the heavy hand of the immeasurable past we cannot
+escape, the close connexion between all forms of life, and the mysteries of
+inherited character. Incidentally it held out the hope, to those who
+believed in it, of a mode of escape from the miseries of transmigration.
+For as the Arahat had conquered the cravings that were supposed to produce
+the new body, his actions were no longer _Karma_, but only _Kiriya_, that
+led to no rebirth.[23]
+
+Another point of Buddhist teaching adopted from previous belief was the
+practice of ecstatic meditation. In the very earliest times of the most
+remote animism we find the belief that a person, rapt from all sense of the
+outside world, possessed by a spirit, acquired from that state a degree of
+sanctity, was supposed to have a degree of insight, denied to ordinary
+mortals. In India from the soma frenzy in the _Vedas_, through the mystic
+reveries of the _Upanishads_, and the hypnotic trances of the ancient Yoga,
+allied beliefs and practices had never lost their importance and their
+charm. It is clear from the _Dialogues_, and other of the most ancient
+Buddhist records,[24] that the belief was in full force when Buddhism
+arose, and that the practice was followed by the Buddha's teachers. It was
+quite impossible for him to ignore the question; and the practice was
+admitted as a part of the training of the Buddhist Bhikshu. But it was not
+the highest or the most important part, and might be omitted altogether.
+The states of Rapture are called Conditions of Bliss, and they are regarded
+as useful for the help they give towards the removal of the mental
+obstacles to the attainment of Arahatship.[25] Of the thirty-seven
+constituent parts of Arahatship they enter into one group of four. To seek
+for Arahatship in the practice of the ecstasy alone is considered a deadly
+heresy.[26] So these practices are both pleasant in themselves, and useful
+as one of the means to the end proposed. But they are not the end, and the
+end can be reached without them. The most ancient form these exercises took
+is recorded in the often recurring paragraphs translated in Rhys Davids'
+_Dialogues of the Buddha_ (i. 84-92). More modern, and much more elaborate,
+forms are given in the _Yogavacaras Manual of Indian Mysticism as practised
+by Buddhists_, edited by Rhys Davids from a unique MS. for the Pali Text
+Society in 1896. In the Introduction to this last work the various phases
+of the question are discussed at length.
+
+_Buddhist Texts. The Canonical Books._--It is necessary to remember that
+the Buddha, like other Indian teachers of his period, taught by
+conversation only. A highly-educated man (according to the education
+current at the time), speaking constantly to men of similar education, he
+followed the literary habit of his day by embodying his doctrines in set
+phrases (_sutras_), on which he enlarged, on different occasions, in
+different ways. Writing was then widely known. But the lack of suitable
+writing materials made any lengthy books impossible. Such sutras were
+therefore the recognized form of preserving and communicating opinion. They
+were catchwords, as it were, _memoria technica_, which could easily be
+remembered, and would recall the fuller expositions that had been based
+upon them. Shortly after the Buddha's time the Brahmins had their sutras in
+Sanskrit, already a dead language. He purposely put his into the ordinary
+conversational idiom of the day, that is to say, into Pali. When the Buddha
+died these sayings were collected together by his disciples into what they
+call the Four Nikayas, or "collections." These cannot have reached their
+final form till about fifty or sixty years afterwards. Other sayings and
+verses, most of them ascribed, not to the Buddha, but to the disciples
+themselves, were put into a supplementary Nikaya. We know [v.04 p.0691] of
+slight additions made to this Nikaya as late as the time of Asoka, 3rd
+century B.C. And the developed doctrine, found in certain portions of it,
+shows that these are later than the four old Nikayas. For a generation or
+two the books so put together were handed down by memory, though probably
+written memoranda were also used. And they were doubtless accompanied from
+the first, as they were being taught, by a running commentary. About one
+hundred years after the Buddha's death there was a schism in the community.
+Each of the two schools kept an arrangement of the canon--still in Pali, or
+some allied dialect. Sanskrit was not used for any Buddhist works till long
+afterwards, and never used at all, so far as is known, for the canonical
+books. Each of these two schools broke up in the following centuries, into
+others. Several of them had their different arrangements of the canonical
+books, differing also in minor details. These books remained the only
+authorities for about five centuries, but they all, except only our extant
+Pali Nikayas, have been lost in India. These then are our authorities for
+the earliest period of Buddhism. Now what are these books?
+
+We talk necessarily of Pali _books_. They are not books in the modern
+sense. They are memorial sentences or verses intended to be learnt by
+heart. And the whole style and method of arrangement is entirely
+subordinated to this primary necessity. Each sutra (Pali, _sutta_) is very
+short; usually occupying only a page, or perhaps two, and containing a
+single proposition. When several of these, almost always those that contain
+propositions of a similar kind, are collected together in the framework of
+one dialogue, it is called a _sullanta_. The usual length of such a
+suttanta is about a dozen pages; only a few of them are longer, and a
+collection of such suttantas might be called a book. But it is as yet
+neither narrative nor essay. It is at most a string of passages, drawn up
+in similar form to assist the memory, and intended, not to be read, but to
+be learnt by heart. The first of the four Nikayas is a collection of the
+longest of these suttantas, and it is called accordingly the _Digha
+Nikaya_, that is "the Collection of Long Ones" (_sci._ Suttantas). The next
+is the _Majjhima Nikaya_, the "Collection of the suttantas of Medium
+Length"--medium, that is, as being shorter than the suttantas in the Digha,
+and longer than the ordinary suttas preserved in the two following
+collections. Between them these first two collections contain 186
+dialogues, in which the Buddha, or in a few cases one of his leading
+disciples, is represented as engaged in conversation on some one of the
+religious, or philosophic, or ethical points in that system which we now
+call Buddhism. In depth of philosophic insight, in the method of Socratic
+questioning often adopted, in the earnest and elevated tone of the whole,
+in the evidence they afford of the most cultured thought of the day, these
+dialogues constantly remind the reader of the dialogues of Plato. But not
+in style. They have indeed a style of their own; always dignified, and
+occasionally rising into eloquence. But for the reasons already given, it
+is entirely different from the style of Western writings which are always
+intended to be read. Historical scholars will, however, revere this
+collection of dialogues as one of the most priceless of the treasures of
+antiquity still preserved to us. It is to it, above all, that we shall
+always have to go for our knowledge of the most ancient Buddhism. Of the
+186, 175 had by 1907 been edited for the Pali Text Society, and the
+remainder were either in the press or in preparation.
+
+A disadvantage of the arrangement in dialogues, more especially as they
+follow one another according to length and not according to subject, is
+that it is not easy to find the statement of doctrine on any particular
+point which is interesting one at the moment. It is very likely just this
+consideration which led to the compilation of the two following Nikayas. In
+the first of these, called the _Anguttara Nikaya_, all those points of
+Buddhist doctrine capable of expression in classes are set out in order.
+This practically includes most of the psychology and ethics of Buddhism.
+For it is a distinguishing mark of the dialogues themselves that the
+results arrived at are arranged in carefully systematized groups. We are
+familiar enough in the West with similar classifications, summed up in such
+expressions as the Seven Deadly Sins, the Ten Commandments, the Thirty-nine
+Articles, the Four Cardinal Virtues, the Seven Sacraments and a host of
+others. These numbered lists (it is true) are going out of fashion. The aid
+which they afford to memory is no longer required in an age in which books
+of reference abound. It was precisely as a help to memory that they were
+found so useful in the early Buddhist times, when the books were all learnt
+by heart, and had never as yet been written. And in the Anguttara we find
+set out in order first of all the units, then all the pairs, then all the
+trios, and so on. It is the longest book in the Buddhist Bible, and fills
+1840 pages 8vo. The whole of the Pali text has been published by the Pali
+Text Society, but only portions have been translated into English. The
+next, and last, of these four collections contains again the whole, or
+nearly the whole, of the Buddhist doctrine; but arranged this time in order
+of subjects. It consists of 55 _Samyuttas_ or groups. In each of these the
+suttas on the same subject, or in one or two cases the suttas addressed to
+the same sort of people, are grouped together. The whole of it has been
+published in five volumes by the Pali Text Society. Only a few fragments
+have been translated.
+
+Many hundreds of the short suttas and verses in these two collections are
+found, word for word, in the dialogues. And there are numerous instances of
+the introductory story stating how, and when, and to whom the sutta was
+enunciated--a sort of narrative framework in which the sutta is
+set--recurring also. This is very suggestive as to the way in which the
+earliest Buddhist records were gradually built up. The suttas came first
+embodying, in set phrases, the doctrine that had to be handed down. Those
+episodes, found in two or three different places, and always embodying
+several suttas, came next. Then several of these were woven together to
+form a suttanta. And finally the suttantas were grouped together into the
+two Nikayas, and the suttas and episodes separately into the two others.
+Parallel with this evolution, so to say, of the suttas, the short
+statements of doctrine, in prose, ran the treatment of the verses. There
+was a great love of poetry in the communities in which Buddhism arose.
+Verses were helpful to the memory. And they were adopted not only for this
+reason. The adherents of the new view of life found pleasure in putting
+into appropriate verse the feelings of enthusiasm and of ecstasy which the
+reforming doctrines inspired. When particularly happy in literary finish,
+or peculiarly rich in religious feeling, such verses were not lost. These
+were handed on, from mouth to mouth, in the small companies of the brethren
+or sisters. The oldest verses are all lyrics, expressions either of
+emotion, or of some deep saying, some pregnant thought. Very few of them
+have been preserved alone. And even then they are so difficult to
+understand, so much like puzzles, that they were probably accompanied from
+the first by a sort of comment in prose, stating when, and why, and by whom
+they were supposed to have been uttered. As a general rule such a framework
+in prose is actually preserved in the old Buddhist literature. It is only
+in the very latest books included in the canon that the narrative part is
+also regularly in verse, so that a whole work consists of a collection of
+ballads. The last step, that of combining such ballads into one long epic
+poem, was not taken till after the canon was closed. The whole process,
+from the simple anecdote in mixed prose and verse, the so-called _akhyana_,
+to the complete epic, comes out with striking clearness in the history of
+the Buddhist canon. It is typical, one may notice in passing, of the
+evolution of the epic elsewhere; in Iceland, for instance, in Persia and in
+Greece. And we may safely draw the conclusion that if the great Indian
+epics, the Maha-bharata and the Ramayana, had been in existence when the
+formation of the Buddhist canon began, the course of its development would
+have been very different from what it was.
+
+As will easily be understood, the same reasons which led to literary
+activity of this kind, in the earliest period, continued to hold good
+afterwards. A number of such efforts, after the Nikayas had been closed,
+were included in a supplementary Nikaya called the _Khuddaka Nikaya_. It
+will throw very useful light upon the intellectual level in the Buddhist
+community just [v.04 p.0692] after the earliest period, and upon literary
+life in the valley of the Ganges in the 4th or 5th century B.C., if we
+briefly explain what the tractates in this collection contain. The first,
+the _Khuddaka Patha_, is a little tract of only a few pages. After a
+profession of faith in the Buddha, the doctrine and the order, there
+follows a paragraph setting out the thirty-four constituents of the human
+body--bones, blood, nerves and so on--strangely incongruous with what
+follows. For that is simply a few of the most beautiful poems to be found
+in the Buddhist scriptures. There is no apparent reason, except their
+exquisite versification, why these particular pieces should have been here
+brought together. It is most probable that this tiny volume was simply a
+sort of first lesson book for young neophytes when they joined the order.
+In any case that is one of the uses to which it is put at present. The text
+book is the _Dhammapada_. Here are brought together from ten to twenty
+stanzas on each of twenty-six selected points of Buddhist self-training or
+ethics. There are altogether 423 verses, gathered from various older
+sources, and strung together without any other internal connexion than that
+they relate more or less to the same subject. And the collector has not
+thought it necessary to choose stanzas written in the same metre, or in the
+same number of lines. We know that the early Christians were accustomed to
+sing hymns, both in their homes and on the occasions of their meeting
+together. These hymns are now irretrievably lost. Had some one made a
+collection of about twenty isolated stanzas, chosen from these hymns, on
+each of about twenty subjects--such as Faith, Hope, Love, the Converted
+Man, Times of Trouble, Quiet Days, the Saviour, the Tree of Life, the Sweet
+Name, the Dove, the King, the Land of Peace, the Joy Unspeakable--we should
+have a Christian Dhammapada, and very precious such a collection would be.
+The Buddhist Dhammapada has been edited by Professor Fausböll (2nd ed.,
+1900), and has been frequently translated. Where the verses deal with those
+ideas that are common to Christians and Buddhists, the versions are easily
+intelligible, and some of the stanzas appeal very strongly to the Western
+sense of religious beauty. Where the stanzas are full of the technical
+terms of the Buddhist system of self-culture and self-control, it is often
+impossible, without expansions that spoil the poetry, or learned notes that
+distract the attention, to convey the full sense of the original. In all
+these distinctively Buddhist verses the existing translations (of which
+Professor Max Müller's is the best known, and Dr Karl Neumann's the best)
+are inadequate and sometimes quite erroneous. The connexion in which they
+were spoken is often apparent in the more ancient books from which these
+verses have been taken, and has been preserved in the commentary on the
+work itself.
+
+In the next little work the framework, the whole paraphernalia of the
+ancient akhyana, is included in the work itself, which is called _Udana_,
+or "ecstatic utterances." The Buddha is represented, on various occasions
+during his long career, to have been so much moved by some event, or
+speech, or action, that he gave vent, as it were, to his pent-up feelings
+in a short, ecstatic utterance, couched, for the most part, in one or two
+lines of poetry. These outbursts, very terse and enigmatic, are charged
+with religious emotion, and turn often on some subtle point of Arahatship,
+that is, of the Buddhist ideal of life. The original text has been
+published by the Pali Text Society. The little book, a garland of fifty of
+these gems, has been translated by General Strong. The next work is called
+the _Iti Vuttaka_. This contains 120 short passages, each of them leading
+up to a terse deep saying of the Buddha's, and introduced, in each case,
+with the words _Iti vuttam Bhagavala_--"thus was it spoken by the Exalted
+One." These anecdotes may or may not be historically accurate. It is quite
+possible that the memory of the early disciples, highly trained as it was,
+enabled them to preserve a substantially true record of some of these
+speeches, and of the circumstances in which they were uttered. Some or all
+of them may also have been invented. In either case they are excellent
+evidence of the sort of questions on which discussions among the earliest
+Buddhists must have turned. These ecstatic utterances and deep sayings are
+attributed to the Buddha himself, and accompanied by the prose framework.
+There has also been preserved a collection of stanzas ascribed to his
+leading followers. Of these 107 are brethren, and 73 sisters, in the order.
+The prose framework is in this case preserved only in the commentary, which
+also gives biographies of the authors. This work is called the
+_Thera-theri-gatha_.
+
+Another interesting collection is the _Jataka_ book, a set of verses
+supposed to have been uttered by the Buddha in some of his previous births.
+These are really 550 of the folk-tales current in India when the canon was
+being formed, the only thing Buddhist about them being that the Buddha, in
+a previous birth, is identified in each case with the hero in the little
+story. Here again the prose is preserved only in the commentary. And it is
+a most fortunate chance that this--the oldest, the most complete, and the
+most authentic collection of folklore extant--has thus been preserved
+intact to the present day. Many of these stories and fables have wandered
+to Europe, and are found in medieval homilies, poems and story-books. A
+full account of this curious migration will be found in the introduction to
+the present writer's _Buddhist Birth Stories_. A translation of the whole
+book is now published, under the editorship of Professor Cowell, at the
+Cambridge University Press. The last of these poetical works which it is
+necessary to mention is the _Sutta Nipata_, containing fifty-five poems,
+all except the last merely short lyrics, many of great beauty. A very
+ancient commentary on the bulk of these poems has been included in the
+canon as a separate work. The poems themselves have been translated by
+Professor Fausböll in the _Sacred Books of the East_. The above works are
+our authority for the philosophy and ethics of the earliest Buddhists. We
+have also a complete statement of the rules of the order in the _Vinaya_,
+edited, in five volumes, by Professor Oldenberg. Three volumes of
+translations of these rules, by him and by the present writer, have also
+appeared in the _Sacred Books of the East_.
+
+There have also been added to the canonical books seven works on
+_Abhidhamma_, a more elaborate and more classified exposition of the Dhamma
+or doctrine as set out in the _Nikayas_. All these works are later. Only
+one of them has been translated, the so-called Dhamma Sangani. The
+introduction to this translation, published under the title of _Buddhist
+Psychology_, contains the fullest account that has yet appeared of the
+psychological conceptions on which Buddhist ethics are throughout based.
+The translator, Mrs Caroline Rhys Davids, estimates the date of this
+ancient manual for Buddhist students as the 4th century B.C.
+
+_Later Works._--So far the canon, almost all of which is now accessible to
+readers of Pali. But a good deal of work is still required before the
+harvest of historical data contained in these texts shall have been made
+acceptable to students of philosophy and sociology. These works of the
+oldest period, the two centuries and a half, between the Buddha's time and
+that of Asoka, were followed by a voluminous literature in the following
+Periods--from Asoka to Kanishka, and from Kanishka to Buddhaghosa,--each of
+about three centuries. Many of these works are extant in MS.; but only five
+or six of the more important Have so far been published. Of these the most
+interesting is the Milinda, one of the earliest historical novels preserved
+to us. It is mainly religious and philosophical and purports to give the
+discussion, extending over several days, in which a Buddhist elder named
+Nagasena succeeds in converting Milinda, that is Menander, the famous Greek
+king of Bactria, to Buddhism. The Pali text has been edited and the work
+translated into English. More important historically, though greatly
+inferior in style and ability, is the Mahavastu or Sublime Story, in
+Sanskrit. The story is the one of chief importance to the Buddhists--the
+story, namely, of how the Buddha won, under the Bo Tree, the victory over
+ignorance, and attained to the Sambodhi, "the higher Wisdom," of Nirvana.
+The story begins with his previous births, in which also he was
+accumulating the Buddha qualities. And as the Mahavastu was a standard work
+of a particular sect, or rather school, called the Maha-sanghikas, it has
+thus preserved for us the theory of the Buddha as held outside the
+followers of the cannon, by those whose views developed, in after
+centuries, into the Mahayana or modern form of Buddhism in India. But this
+book, like all the ancient books, was composed, not in the north, in Nepal,
+but in the valley of the Ganges, and it is partly [v.04 p.0693] in prose,
+partly in verse. Two other works, the _Lalita Vistara_ and the _Buddha
+Carita_, give us--but this, of course, is later--Sanskrit poems, epics, on
+the same subject. Of these, the former may be as old as the Christian era;
+the latter belongs to the 2nd century after Christ. Both of them have been
+edited and translated. The older one contains still a good deal of prose,
+the gist of it being often repeated in the verses. The later one is
+entirely in verse, and shows off the author's mastery of the artificial
+rules of prosody and poetics, according to which a poem, a maha-kavya,
+ought, according to the later writers on the _Ars poetica_, to be composed.
+
+These three works deal only quite briefly and incidentally with any point
+of Buddhism outside of the Buddha legend. Of greater importance for the
+history of Buddhism are two later works, the _Netti Pakarana_ and the
+_Saddharma Pundarika_. The former, in Pali, discusses a number of questions
+then of importance in the Buddhist community; and it relies throughout, as
+does the Milinda, on the canonical works, which it quotes largely. The
+latter, in Sanskrit, is the earliest exposition we have of the later
+Mahayana doctrine. Both these books may be dated in the 2nd or 3rd century
+of our era. The latter has been translated into English. We have now also
+the text of the _Prajna Paramita_, a later treatise on the Mahayana system,
+which in time entirely replaced in India the original doctrines. To about
+the same age belongs also the _Divyavadana_, a collection of legends about
+the leading disciples of the Buddha, and important members of the order,
+through the subsequent three centuries. These legends are, however, of
+different dates, and in spite of the comparatively late period at which it
+was put into its present form, it contains some very ancient fragments.
+
+The whole of the above works were composed in the north of India; that is
+to say, either north or a few miles south of the Ganges. The record is at
+present full of gaps. But we can even now obtain a full and accurate idea
+of the earliest Buddhism, and are able to trace the main lines of its
+development through the first eight or nine centuries of its career. The
+Pali Text Society is still publishing two volumes a year; and the Russian
+Academy has inaugurated a series to contain the most important of the
+Sanskrit works still buried in MS. We have also now accessible in Pali
+fourteen volumes of the commentaries of the great 5th-century scholars in
+south India and Ceylon, most of them the works either of Buddhaghosa of
+Budh Gaya, or of Dhammapala of Kancipura (the ancient name of Conjeeveram).
+These are full of important historical data on the social, as well as the
+religious, life of India during the periods of which they treat.
+
+_Modern Research._--The striking archaeological discoveries of recent years
+have both confirmed and added to our knowledge of the earliest period.
+Pre-eminent among these is the discovery, by Mr William Peppé, on the
+Birdpur estate, adjoining the boundary between English and Nepalese
+territory, of the stupa, or cairn, erected by the Sakiya clan over their
+share of the ashes from the cremation pyre of the Buddha. About 12 m. to
+the north-east of this spot has been found an inscribed pillar, put up by
+Asoka as a record of his visit to the Lumbini Garden, as the place where
+the future Buddha had been born. Although more than two centuries later
+than the event to which it refers, this inscription is good evidence of the
+site of the garden. There had been no interruption of the tradition; and it
+is probable that the place was then still occupied by the descendants of
+the possessors in the Buddha's time. North-west of this another Asoka
+pillar has been discovered, recording his visit to the cairn erected by the
+Sakyas over the remains of Konagamana, one of the previous Puddhas or
+teachers, whose follower Gotama the Buddha had claimed to be. These
+discoveries definitely determine the district occupied by the Sakiya
+republic in the 6th and 7th centuries B.C. The boundaries, of course, are
+not known; but the clan must have spread 30 m. or more along the lower
+slopes of the Himalayas and 30 m. or more southwards over the plains. It
+has been abandoned jungle since the 3rd century A.D., or perhaps earlier,
+so that the ruined sites, numerous through the whole district, have
+remained undisturbed, and further discoveries may be confidently expected.
+
+The principal points on which this large number of older and better
+authorities has modified our knowledge are as follows:--
+
+1. We have learnt that the division of Buddhism, originating with Burnouf,
+into northern and southern, is misleading. He found that the Buddhism in
+his Pali MSS., which came from Ceylon, differed from that in his Sanskrit
+MSS., which came from Nepal. Now that the works he used have been made
+accessible in printed editions, we find that, wherever the existing MSS.
+came from, the original works themselves were all composed in the same
+stretch of country, that is, in the valley of the Ganges. The difference of
+the opinions expressed in the MSS. is due, not to the place where they are
+now found, but _to the difference of time_ at which they were originally
+composed. Not one of the books mentioned above is either northern or
+southern. They all claim, and rightly claim, to belong, so far as their
+place of origin is concerned, to the Majjhima Desa, the middle country. It
+is undesirable to base the main division of our subject on an adventitious
+circumstance, and especially so when the nomenclature thus introduced (it
+is not found in the books themselves) cuts right across the true line of
+division. The use of the terms northern and southern as applied, not to the
+existing MSS., but to the original books, or to the Buddhism they teach,
+not only does not help us, it is the source of serious misunderstanding. It
+inevitably leads careless writers to take for granted that we have,
+historically, two Buddhisms--one manufactured in Ceylon, the other in
+Nepal. Now this is admittedly wrong. What we have to consider is Buddhism
+varying through slight degrees, as the centuries pass by, in almost every
+book. We may call it one, or we may call it many. What is quite certain is
+that it is not two. And the most useful distinction to emphasize is, not
+the ambiguous and misleading geographical one--derived from the places
+where the modern copies of the MSS. are found; nor even, though that would
+be better, the linguistic one--but the chronological one. The use,
+therefore, of the inaccurate and misleading terms northern and southern
+ought no longer to be followed in scholarly works on Buddhism.
+
+2. Our ideas as to the social conditions that prevailed, during the
+Buddha's lifetime, in the eastern valley of the Ganges have been modified.
+The people were divided into clans, many of them governed as republics,
+more or less aristocratic. In a few cases several of such republics had
+formed confederations, and in four cases such confederations had already
+become hereditary monarchies. The right historical analogy is not the state
+of Germany in the middle ages, but the state of Greece in the time of
+Socrates. The Sakiyas were still a republic. They had republics for their
+neighbours on the east and south, but on the western boundary was the
+kingdom of Kosala, the modern Oudh, which they acknowledged as a suzerain
+power. The Buddha's father was not a king. There were rajas in the clan,
+but the word meant at most something like consul or archon. All the four
+real kings were called Maha-raja. And Suddhodana, the teacher's father, was
+not even raja. One of his cousins, named Bhaddiya, is styled a raja; but
+Suddhodana is spoken of, like other citizens, as Suddhodana the Sakiyan. As
+the ancient books are very particular on this question of titles, this is
+decisive.
+
+3. There was no caste--no caste, that is, in the modern sense of the term.
+We have long known that the connubium was the cause of a long and
+determined struggle between the patricians and the plebeians in Rome.
+Evidence has been yearly accumulating on the existence of restrictions as
+to intermarriage, and as to the right of eating together (commensality)
+among other Aryan tribes, Greeks, Germans, Russians and so on. Even without
+the fact of the existence now of such restrictions among the modern
+successors of the ancient Aryans in India, it would have been probable that
+they also were addicted to similar customs. It is certain that the notion
+of such usages was familiar enough to some at least of the tribes that
+preceded the Aryans in India. Rules of endogamy and exogamy; privileges,
+restricted to certain classes, of eating together, are not only Indian or
+Aryan, but world-wide phenomena. Both the spirit, and to a large degree the
+actual details, of modern Indian caste-usages are identical [v.04 p.0694]
+with these ancient, and no doubt universal, customs. It is in them that we
+have the key to the origin of caste.
+
+At any moment in the history of a nation such customs seem, to a
+superficial observer, to be fixed and immutable. As a matter of fact they
+are never quite the same in successive centuries, or even generations. The
+numerous and complicated details which we sum up under the convenient, but
+often misleading, single name of caste, are solely dependent for their
+sanction on public opinion. That opinion seems stable. But it is always
+tending to vary as to the degree of importance attached to some particular
+one of the details, as to the size and complexity of the particular groups
+in which each detail ought to be observed.
+
+Owing to the fact that the particular group that in India worked its way to
+the top, based its claims on religious grounds, not on political power, nor
+on wealth, the system has, no doubt, lasted longer in India than in Europe.
+But public opinion still insists, in considerable circles even in Europe,
+on restrictions of a more or less defined kind, both as to marriage and as
+to eating together. And in India the problem still remains to trace, in the
+literature, the gradual growth of the system--the gradual formation of new
+sections among the people, the gradual extension of the institution to the
+families of people engaged in certain trades, belonging to the same group,
+or sect, or tribe, tracing their ancestry, whether rightly or wrongly, to
+the same source. All these factors, and others besides, are real factors.
+But they are phases of the extension and growth, not explanations of the
+origin of the system.
+
+There is no evidence to show that at the time of the rise of Buddhism there
+was any substantial difference, as regards the barriers in question,
+between the peoples dwelling in the valley of the Ganges and their
+contemporaries, Greek or Roman, dwelling on the shores of the Mediterranean
+Sea. The point of greatest weight in the establishment of the subsequent
+development, the supremacy in India of the priests, was still being hotly
+debated. All the new evidence tends to show that the struggle was being
+decided rather against than for the Brahmins. What we find in the Buddha's
+time is caste in the making. The great mass of the people were
+distinguished quite roughly into four classes, social strata, of which the
+boundary lines were vague and uncertain. At one end of the scale were
+certain outlying tribes and certain hereditary crafts of a dirty or
+despised kind. At the other end the nobles claimed the superiority. But
+Brahmins by birth (not necessarily sacrificial priests, for they followed
+all sorts of occupations) were trying to oust the nobles from the highest
+grade. They only succeeded, long afterwards, when the power of Buddhism had
+declined.
+
+4. It had been supposed on the authority of late priestly texts, where
+boasts of persecution are put forth, that the cause of the decline of
+Buddhism in India had been Brahmin persecution. The now accessible older
+authorities, with one doubtful exception,[27] make no mention of
+persecution. On the other hand, the comparison we are now able to make
+between the canonical books of the older Buddhism and the later texts of
+the following centuries, shows a continual decline from the old standpoint,
+a continual approximation of the Buddhist views to those of the other
+philosophies and religions of India. We can see now that the very event
+which seemed, in the eyes of the world, to be the most striking proof of
+the success of the new movement, the conversion and strenuous support, in
+the 3rd century B.C., of Asoka, the most powerful ruler India had had, only
+hastened the decline. The adhesion of large numbers of nominal converts,
+more especially from the newly incorporated and less advanced provinces,
+produced weakness rather than strength in the movement for reform. The day
+of compromise had come. Every relaxation of the old thoroughgoing position
+was welcomed and supported by converts only half converted. And so the
+margin of difference between the Buddhists and their opponents gradually
+faded almost entirely away. The soul theory, step by step, gained again the
+upper hand. The popular gods and the popular superstitions are once more
+favoured by Buddhists themselves. The philosophical basis of the old ethics
+is overshadowed by new speculations. And even the old ideal of life, the
+salvation of the Arahat to be won in this world and in this world only, by
+self-culture and self-mastery, is forgotten, or mentioned only to be
+condemned. The end was inevitable. The need of a separate organization
+became less and less apparent. The whole pantheon of the Vedic gods, with
+the ceremonies and the sacrifices associated with them, passed indeed away.
+But the ancient Buddhism, the party of reform, was overwhelmed also in its
+fall; and modern Hinduism arose on the ruins of both.
+
+AUTHORITIES.--The attention of the few scholars at work on the subject
+being directed to the necessary first step of publishing the ancient
+authorities, the work of exploring them, of analysing and classifying the
+data they contain, has as yet been very imperfectly done. The annexed list
+contains only the most important works.
+
+TEXTS.--_Pali Text Society_, 57 vols.; _Jataka_, 7 vols., ed. Fausböll,
+1877-1897; _Vinaya_, 5 vols., ed. Oldenberg, 1879-1883; _Dhammapada_, ed.
+Fausböll, 2nd ed., 1900; _Divyavadana_, ed. Cowell and Neil, 1882;
+_Mahavastu_, ed. Senart, 3 vols., 1882-1897; _Buddha Carita_, ed. Cowell,
+1892; _Milinda-pañho_, ed. Trenckner, 1880.
+
+TRANSLATIONS.--_Vinaya Texts_, by Rhys Davids and Oldenberg, 3 vols.,
+1881-1885; _Dhammapada_, by Max Müller, and _Sutta Nipata_, by Fausböll,
+1881; _Questions of King Milinda_, by Rhys Davids, 2 vols., 1890-1894;
+_Buddhist Suttas,_ by Rhys Davids, 1881; _Saddharma Pundarika_, by Kern,
+1884; _Buddhist Mahayana Texts_, by Cowell and Max Müller, 1894--all the
+above in the "Sacred Books of the East"; _Jataka_, vol. i., by Rhys Davids,
+under the title _Buddhist Birth Stories_, 1880; vols. i.-vi., by Chalmers,
+Neil, Francis, and Rouse, 1895-1897; _Buddhism in Translations_, by Warren,
+1896; _Buddhistische Anthologie_, by Neumann, 1892. _Lieder der Mönche und
+Nonnen_, 1899, by the same; _Dialogues of the Buddha_, by Rhys Davids,
+1899; _Die Reden Gotamo Buddhas_, by Neumann, 3 vols., 1899-1903; _Buddhist
+Psychology_, by Mrs Rhys Davids, 1900.
+
+MANUALS, MONOGRAPHS, &C.--_Buddhism_, by Rhys Davids, 12mo, 20th thousand,
+1903; _Buddha, sein Leben, seine Lehre und seine Gemeinde_, by Oldenberg,
+5th edition, 1906; _Der Buddhismus und seine Geschichte in Indien_, by
+Kern, 1882; _Der Buddhismus_, by Edmund Hardy, 1890; _American Lectures,
+Buddhism_, by Rhys Davids, 1896; _Inscriptions de Piyadasi_, by Senart, 2
+vols., 1881-1886; _Mara und Buddha_, by Windisch, 1895; _Buddhist India_,
+by Rhys Davids, 1903.
+
+(T. W. R. D.)
+
+[1] That is by the Arahat, the title the Buddha always uses of himself. He
+does not call himself the Buddha, and his followers never address him as
+such.
+
+[2] One very ancient commentary on the Path has been preserved in three
+places in the canon: _Digha_, ii. 305-307 and 311-313, _Majjhima_, iii.
+251, and _Samyutta_, v. 8.
+
+[3] _Mahali Suttanta_; translated in Rhys Davids' _Dialogues of the
+Buddha_, vol. i. p. 201 (cf. p. 204).
+
+[4] See _Iti-vuttaka_, p. 44; _Samyutta_, iii. 57.
+
+[5] See _Digha_, ii. 28; _Jat_. v. 48, ii. 80.
+
+[6] Burnett, _Early Greek Philosophy_, p. 149.
+
+[7] _Katha Up_. 2, 10; _Bhag. Gita_, 2, 14; 9, 33.
+
+[8] The _Anatta-lakkhana Sutta_ (_Vinaya_, i. 13 = _Samyutta_, iii. 66 and
+iv. 34), translated in _Vinaya Texts_, i. 100-102.
+
+[9] See article on "Buddhist Schools of Thought," by Rhys Davids, in the
+_J.R.A.S._ for 1892.
+
+[10] _Questions of King Milinda_, translated by Rhys Davids (Oxford,
+1890-1894), vol. i. pp. 40, 41, 85-87; vol. ii. pp. 21-25, 86-89.
+
+[11] _Majjhima_, iii. 251, cf. _Samyutta_, v. 8.
+
+[12] _Digha_, ii. 290-315. _Majjhima_, i. 55 et seq. Cf. Rhys Davids'
+_Dialogues of the Buddha_, i. 81.
+
+[13] No. 8 in the _Sutta Nipata_ (p. 26 of Fausböll's edition). It is
+translated by Fausböll in vol. x. of the _S.B.E._, and by Rhys Davids,
+_Buddhism_, p. 109.
+
+[14] _Digha_, ii. 186-187.
+
+[15] _Majjhima_, i. 129.
+
+[16] _Iti-vuttaka_, pp. 19-21.
+
+[17] On the details of these see _Digha_, i. 71-73, translated by Rhys
+Davids in _Dialogues of the Buddha_, i. 82-84.
+
+[18] _Digha_, i. 74.
+
+[19] _Samyutta_, iv. 251, 261.
+
+[20] _Phaedo_, 69 et seq. The idea is there also put forward in connexion
+with a belief in transmigration.
+
+[21] _Samyutta_, iv. 302.
+
+[22] _Majjhima_, iii. 99 et seq.
+
+[23] The history of the Indian doctrine of Karma has yet to be written. On
+the Buddhist side see Rhys Davids' _Hibbert Lectures_, pp. 73-120, and
+Dahlke, _Aufsatze zum Verstandnis des Buddhismus_ (Berlin, 1903), i.
+92-106, and ii. l-11.
+
+[24] For instance, _Majjhima_, i. 163-166
+
+[25] _Anguttara_, iii. 119.
+
+[26] _Digha_, i. 38.
+
+[27] See _Journal of the Pali Text Society_, 1896, pp. 87-92.
+
+BUDÉ [BUDAEUS], GUILLAUME (1467-1540), French scholar, was born at Paris.
+He went to the university of Orleans to study law, but for several years,
+being possessed of ample means, he led an idle and dissipated life. When
+about twenty-four years of age he was seized with a sudden passion for
+study, and made rapid progress, particularly in the Latin and Greek
+languages. The work which gained him greatest reputation was his _De Asse
+et Partibus_ (1514), a treatise on ancient coins and measures. He was held
+in high esteem by Francis I., who was persuaded by him, and by Jean du
+Bellay, bishop of Narbonne, to found the Collegium Trilingue, afterwards
+the Collège de France, and the library at Fontainebleau, which was removed
+to Paris and was the origin of the Bibliothèque Nationale. He also induced
+Francis to refrain from prohibiting printing in France, which had been
+advised by the Sorbonne in 1533. He was sent by Louis XII. to Rome as
+ambassador to Leo X., and in 1522 was appointed _maître des requêtes_ and
+was several times _prévôt des marchands_. He died in Paris on the 23rd of
+August 1540.
+
+Budé was also the author of _Annotationes in XXIV. libros Pandectarum_
+(1508), which, by the application of philology and history, had a great
+influence on the study of Roman law, and of _Commentarii linguae Graecae_
+(1529), an extensive collection of lexicographical notes, which contributed
+greatly to the study of Greek literature in France. Budé corresponded with
+the most learned men of his time, amongst them Erasmus, who called him the
+marvel of France, and Thomas More. He wrote with equal facility in Greek
+and Latin, although his Latin is inferior to his Greek, being somewhat
+harsh and full of Greek constructions. His request that he should be buried
+at night, and his widow's open profession of Protestantism at Geneva (where
+she retired after his death), caused him to be suspected of leanings
+towards Calvinism. At the time of the massacre of St Bartholomew, the
+members of his family were obliged to flee from France. Some took refuge in
+Switzerland, where they worthily upheld the traditions of their house,
+while others settled in Pomerania under the name Budde or Buddeus.
+
+[v.04 p.0695] See Le Roy, _Vita G. Budaei_ (1540); Rebitté, _G. Budé,
+restaurateur des études grecques en France_ (1846); E. de Budé, _Vie de G.
+Budé_ (1884), who refutes the idea of his ancestor's Protestant views;
+D'Hozier, _La Maison de Budé_; L. Delaruelle, _Études sur l'humanisme
+français_ (1907).
+
+BUDE, a small seaport and watering-place in the Launceston parliamentary
+division of Cornwall, England, on the north coast at the mouth of the river
+Bude. With the market town of Stratton, 1½ m. inland to the east, it forms
+the urban district of Stratton and Bude, with a population (1901) of 2308.
+Bude is served by a branch of the London & South-Western railway. Its only
+notable building is the Early English parish church of St Michael and All
+Angels. The climate is healthy and the coast scenery in the neighbourhood
+fine, especially towards the south. There the gigantic cliffs, with their
+banded strata, have been broken into fantastic forms by the waves. Many
+ships have been wrecked on the jagged reefs which fringe their base. The
+figure-head of one of these, the "Bencellon," lost in 1862, is preserved in
+the churchyard. The harbour, sheltered by a breakwater, will admit vessels
+of 300 tons at high water; and the river has been dammed to form a basin
+for the canal which runs to Launceston. Some fishing is carried on: but the
+staple trade is the export of sand, which, being highly charged with
+carbonate of lime, is much used for manure. There are golf links near the
+town. The currents in the bay make bathing dangerous.
+
+BUDGELL, EUSTACE (1686-1737), English man of letters, the son of Dr Gilbert
+Budgell, was born on the 19th of August 1686 at St Thomas, near Exeter. He
+matriculated in 1705 at Trinity College, Oxford, and afterwards joined the
+Inner Temple, London; but instead of studying law he devoted his whole
+attention to literature. Addison, who was first cousin to his mother,
+befriended him, and, on being appointed secretary to Lord Wharton,
+lord-lieutenant of Ireland in 1710, took Budgell with him as one of the
+clerks of his office. Budgell took part with Steele and Addison in writing
+the _Tatler_. He was also a contributor to the _Spectator_ and the
+_Guardian_,--his papers being marked with an X in the former, and with an
+asterisk in the latter. He was subsequently made under-secretary to
+Addison, chief secretary to the lords justices of Ireland, and deputy-clerk
+of the council, and became a member of the Irish parliament. In 1717, when
+Addison became principal secretary of state in England, he procured for
+Budgell the place of accountant and comptroller-general of the revenue in
+Ireland. But the next year, the duke of Bolton being appointed
+lord-lieutenant, Budgell wrote a lampoon against E. Webster, his secretary.
+This led to his being removed from his post of accountant-general, upon
+which he returned to England, and, contrary to the advice of Addison,
+published his case in a pamphlet. In the year 1720 he lost £20,000 by the
+South Sea scheme, and afterwards spent £5000 more in unsuccessful attempts
+to get into parliament. He began to write pamphlets against the ministry,
+and published many papers in the _Craftsman_. In 1733 he started a weekly
+periodical called the _Bee_, which he continued for more than a hundred
+numbers. By the will of Matthew Tindal, the deist, who died in 1733, a
+legacy of 2000 guineas was left to Budgell; but the bequest (which had, it
+was alleged, been inserted in the will by Budgell himself) was successfully
+disputed by Tindal's nephew and nearest heir, Nicholas Tindal, who
+translated and wrote a _Continuation_ of the _History of England_ of Paul
+de Rapin-Thoyras. Hence Pope's lines--
+
+  "Let Budgell charge low Grub Street on his quill,
+  And write whate'er he pleased--except his will."[1]
+
+Budgell is said to have sold the second volume of Tindal's _Christianity as
+Old as the Creation_ to Bishop Gibson, by whom it was destroyed. The
+scandal caused by these transactions ruined him. On the 4th of May 1737,
+after filling his pockets with stones, he took a boat at Somerset-stairs,
+and while the boat was passing under the bridge threw himself into the
+river. On his desk was found a slip of paper with the words--"What Cato
+did, and Addison approved, cannot be wrong." Besides the works mentioned
+above, he wrote a translation (1714) of the _Characters_ of Theophrastus.
+He never married, but left a natural daughter, Anne Eustace, who became an
+actress at Drury Lane.
+
+See Cibber's _Lives of the Poets_, vol. v.
+
+[1] _Epistle to Dr Arbuthnot_, lines 378-379.
+
+BUDGET (originally from a Gallic word meaning sack, latinized as _bulga_,
+leather wallet or bag, thence in O. Fr. _bougette_, from which the Eng.
+form is derived), the name applied to an account of the ways and means by
+which the income and expenditure for a definite period are to be balanced,
+generally by a finance minister for his state, or by analogy for smaller
+bodies.[1] The term first came into use in England about 1760. In the
+United Kingdom the chancellor of the exchequer, usually in April, lays
+before the House of Commons a statement of the actual results of revenue
+and expenditure in the past finance year (now ending March 31), showing how
+far his estimates have been realized, and what surplus or deficit there has
+been in the income as compared with the expenditure. This is accompanied by
+another statement in which the chancellor gives an estimate of what the
+produce of the revenue may be in the year just entered upon, supposing the
+taxes and duties to remain as they were in the past year, and also an
+estimate of what the expenditure will be in the current year. If the
+estimated revenue, after allowing for normal increase of the principal
+sources of income, be less than the estimated expenditure, this is deemed a
+case for the imposition of some new, or the increase of some existing, tax
+or taxes. On the other hand, if the estimated revenue shows a large surplus
+over the estimated expenditure, there is room for remitting or reducing
+some tax or taxes, and the extent of this relief is generally limited to
+the amount of surplus realized in the previous year. The chancellor of the
+exchequer has to take parliament into confidence on his estimates, both as
+regards revenue and expenditure; and these estimates are prepared by the
+various departments of the administration. They are divided into two parts,
+the consolidated fund services and the supply services, the first
+comprising the civil list, debt charge, pensions and courts of justice,
+while the "supply" includes the remaining expenditure of the country, as
+the army, the navy, the civil service and revenue departments, the
+post-office and telegraph services. The consolidated fund services are an
+annual charge, fixed by statute, and alterable only by statute, but the
+supply services may be gone through in detail, item by item, by the House
+of Commons, which forms itself into a committee of supply for the purpose.
+These items can be criticized, and reduced (but not increased) by
+amendments proposed by private members. The committee of ways and means
+(also a committee of the whole House) votes the supplies when granted and
+originates all taxes. The resolutions of these committees are reported to
+the House, and when the taxation and expenditure obtain the assent of
+parliament, the results as thus adjusted become the final budget estimate
+for the year, and are passed as the Finance Act. This system of annual
+review and adjustment of the public finances obtains not only in the
+British colonies, but in British India. The Indian budget, giving the
+results of income and expenditure in the year ending 31st of December, and
+the prospective estimates, is laid before the imperial parliament in the
+course of the ensuing session.
+
+The budget, though modified by different forms, has also long been
+practised in France, the United States, and other constitutional countries,
+and has in some cases been adopted by autocratic Powers. Russia began the
+publication of annual budgets in 1866; Egypt has followed the example; so
+also has Turkey, by an imperial decree of 1875. All countries agree in
+taking a yearly period, but the actual date of commencement varies
+considerably. The German and Danish financial year, like that of the United
+Kingdom, begins on the 1st of April; in France, Belgium and Austria, it
+begins on the 1st of January; in Italy, Spain, the United States and
+Canada, on the 1st of July. [v.04 p.0696] Previously to 1832, however, the
+English financial year ran from the 1st of January to the 31st of December.
+
+It may be mentioned that Disraeli introduced a budget (on which he was
+defeated) in the autumn of 1852; and in 1860, owing to the ratification of
+the commercial treaty with France, the budget was introduced on the 10th of
+February. In 1859, through a change of administration, the budget was not
+introduced until the 18th of July, while in 1880 there were two budgets,
+one introduced in March under Disraeli's administration, and the other in
+June, under Gladstone's administration.
+
+National budgets are to be discriminated (1) as budgets passing under
+parliamentary scrutiny and debate from year to year, and (2) budgets
+emitted on executive authority. In most constitutional countries the
+procedure is somewhat of a mean between the extremes of the United Kingdom
+and the United States. In the United Kingdom the budget is placed by the
+executive before the whole House, without any previous examination except
+by the cabinet, and it is scrutinized by the House sitting as a committee;
+in the majority of countries, however, the budget undergoes a preliminary
+examination by a specially selected committee, which has the power to make
+drastic changes in the proposals of the executive. In the United States, on
+the other hand, the budget practically emanates from Congress, for there is
+no connexion between the executive and the legislative departments. The
+estimates prepared by the various executive departments are submitted to
+the House of Representatives by the secretary of the treasury. With these
+estimates two separate committees deal. The committee on ways and means
+deals with taxation, and the committee on appropriations with expenditure.
+The latter committee is divided into various sub-committees, each of which
+brings in an appropriation bill for the department or subject with which it
+is charged.
+
+There are also, in all the greater countries, local and municipal taxations
+and expenditures of only less account than the national. In federal
+governments such as the United States, the German empire, or the Argentine
+republic, the budgets of the several states of the federation have to be
+consulted, as well as the federal budgets, for a knowledge of the finances.
+
+AUTHORITIES.--Stourm, _Le Budget, son histoire et son mécanisme_ (1889),
+which gives a comparative study of the budgets of different countries, is
+the best book upon the subject. See also Siedler, _Budget und
+Budgetrecht_(1885); Sendel, _Über Budgetrecht_(1890); Besson, _Le Contrôle
+des budgets en France et à l'étranger_ (1899); Bastable, _Public Finance_
+(3rd ed., 1903); Eugene E. Agger, _The Budget in American Commonwealths_
+(New York, 1907).
+
+BUDINI, an ancient nation in the N.E. of the Scythia (_q.v._) of Herodotus
+(iv, 21, 108, 109), probably on the middle course of the Volga about
+Samara. They are described as light-eyed and red-haired, and lived by
+hunting in their thick forests. They were probably Finns of the branch now
+represented by the Votiaks and Permiaks, forced northwards by later
+immigrants. In their country was a wooden city inhabited by a distinct
+race, the Geloni, who seem to have spoken an Indo-European tongue. Later
+writers add nothing to our knowledge, and are chiefly interested in the
+tarandus, an animal which dwelt in the woods of the Budini and seems to
+have been the reindeer (Aristotle ap. Aelian, _Hist. Anim._ xv. 33).
+
+(E. H. M.)
+
+BUDWEIS (Czech _Budejovice_), a town of Bohemia, Austria, 80 m. S.S.W. of
+Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 39,630. It is situated at the junction of the
+Maltsch with the Moldau, which here becomes navigable, and possesses a
+beautiful square, lined with fine arcaded buildings, the principal one
+being the town-hall, built in 1730 in Renaissance style. Other interesting
+buildings are the cathedral with its detached tower, dating from 1500, and
+the Marien-Kirche with fine cloisters. Budweis has a large, varied and
+growing industry, which comprises the manufacture of chemicals, matches,
+paper, machinery, bricks and tiles, corn and saw mills, boat-building,
+bell-founding and black-lead pencils. It is the principal commercial centre
+of South Bohemia, being an important railway junction, as well as a river
+port, and carries on a large trade in corn, timber, lignite, salt,
+industrial products and beer, the latter mostly exported to America. It is
+the see of a bishop since 1783, and is the centre of a German enclave in
+Czech Bohemia. But the Czech element is steadily increasing, and the
+population of the town was in 1908 60% Czech. The railway from Budweis to
+Linz, laid in 1827 for horse-cars, was the first line constructed in
+Austria. A little to the north, in the Moldau valley, stands the beautiful
+castle of Frauenberg, belonging to Prince Schwarzenberg. It stands on the
+site formerly occupied by a 13th-century castle, and was built in the
+middle of the 19th century, after the model of Windsor Castle.
+
+The old town of Budweis was founded in the 13th century by Budivoj
+Vitkovec, father of Závis of Falkenstein. In 1265 Ottokar II. founded the
+new town, which was soon afterwards created a royal city. Charles IV. and
+his son Wenceslaus granted the town many privileges. Although mainly
+Catholic, Budweis declared for King George Podebrad, and in 1468 was taken
+by the crusaders under Zdenko of Stenberg. From this time the town remained
+faithful to the royal cause, and in 1547 was granted by the emperor
+Ferdinand the privilege of ranking at the diet next to Prague and Pilsen.
+After the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War Budweis was confirmed in all
+its privileges.
+
+BUELL, DON CARLOS (1818-1898), American soldier, was born near Marietta,
+Ohio, on the 23rd of March 1818. He graduated at West Point in 1841, and as
+a company officer of infantry took part in the Seminole War of 1841-42 and
+the Mexican War, during which he was present at almost all the battles
+fought by Generals Taylor and Scott, winning the brevet of captain at
+Monterey, and that of major at Contreras-Churubusco, where he was wounded.
+From 1848 to 1861 he performed various staff duties, chiefly as
+assistant-adjutant-general. On the outbreak of the Civil War he was
+appointed lieutenant-colonel on the 11th of May 1861, brigadier-general of
+volunteers a few days later, and major-general of volunteers in March 1862.
+He aided efficiently in organizing the Army of the Potomac, and, at the
+instance of General McClellan, was sent, in November 1861, to Kentucky to
+succeed General William T. Sherman in command. Here he employed himself in
+the organization and training of the Army of the Ohio (subsequently of the
+Cumberland), which to the end of its career retained a standard of
+discipline and efficiency only surpassed by that of the Army of the
+Potomac. In the spring of 1862 Buell followed the retiring Confederates
+under Sidney Johnston, and appeared on the field of Shiloh (_q.v._) at the
+end of the first day's fighting. On the following day, aided by Buell's
+fresh and well-trained army, Grant carried all before him. Buell
+subsequently served under Halleck in the advance on Corinth, and in the
+autumn commanded in the campaign in Kentucky against Bragg. After a period
+of manoeuvring in which Buell scarcely held his own, this virtually ended
+in the indecisive battle of Perryville. The alleged tardiness of his
+pursuit, and his objection to a plan of campaign ordered by the Washington
+authorities, brought about Buell's removal from command. With all his gifts
+as an organizer and disciplinarian, he was haughty in his dealings with the
+civil authorities, and, in high command, he showed, on the whole,
+unnecessary tardiness of movement and an utter disregard for the
+requirements of the political situation. Moreover, as McClellan's friend,
+holding similar views, adverse politically to the administration, he
+suffered by McClellan's displacement. The complaints made against him were
+investigated in 1862-1863, but the result of the investigation was not
+published. Subsequently he was offered military employment, which he
+declined. He resigned his volunteer commission in May, and his regular
+commission in June 1864. He was president of Green River ironworks
+(1865-1870), and subsequently engaged in various mining enterprises; he
+served (1885-1889) as pension agent at Louisville. He died near Rockport,
+Kentucky, on the 19th of November 1898.
+
+BUENAVENTURA, a Pacific port of Colombia, in the department of Cauca, about
+210 m. W.S.W. of Bogotá. Pop. about 1200. The town is situated on a small
+island, called Cascajal, at the head of a broad estuary or bay projecting
+inland from the Bay of Chocó and 10 m. from its mouth. Its geographical
+position is lat. 3° 48' N., long. 77° 12' W. The estuary is deep enough for
+vessels of 24 ft. draught and affords an excellent harbour. Buenaventura is
+a port of call for two lines of steamers (English [v.04 p.0697] and
+German), and is the Colombian landing-place of the West Coast cable. The
+town is mean in appearance, and has a very unhealthy climate, oppressively
+hot and humid. It is the port for the upper basin of the Cauca, an elevated
+and fertile region, with two large commercial centres, Popayan and Cali. In
+1907 a railway was under construction to the latter, and an extension to
+Bogotá was also projected.
+
+BUENOS AIRES, a maritime province of Argentina, South America, bounded N.
+by the province of Santa Fé and Entre Rios, E. by the latter, the La Plata
+estuary, and the Atlantic, S. by the Atlantic, and W. by the territories
+(_gobernaciones_) of Rio Negro and Las Pampas, and the provinces of Córdoba
+and Santa Fé. Its area is 117,812 sq. m., making it the largest province of
+the republic. It is also the most populous, even excluding the federal
+district, an official estimate of 1903 giving it a population of 1,251,000.
+Although it has a frontage of over 900 m. on the La Plata and the Atlantic,
+the province has but few good natural ports, the best being Bahia Blanca,
+where the Argentine government has constructed a naval port, and Ensenada
+(La Plata), where extensive artificial basins have been constructed for the
+reception of ocean-going steamers. San Nicolas in the extreme north has a
+fairly good river port, while at Buenos Aires a costly artificial port has
+been constructed.
+
+In its general aspect the province forms a part of the great treeless plain
+extending from the Atlantic and La Plata estuary westward to the Andes. A
+fringe of small tangled wood covers the low river banks and delta region of
+the Paraná between San Nicolas and Buenos Aires; thence southward to Bahia
+Blanca the sea-shore is low and sandy, with a zone of lagoons and partially
+submerged lands immediately behind. The south-eastern and central parts of
+the province are low and marshy, and their effective drainage has long been
+an urgent problem. Two ranges of low mountains extend partly across the
+southern part of the province--the first from Mar del Plata, on the coast,
+in a north-east direction, known at different points as the Sierra del
+Volcan (885 ft.), Sierra de Tandil (1476 ft.), and Sierra Baya, and the
+second and shorter range nearer Bahia Blanca, having the same general
+direction, known at different points as the Sierra Pillahuinco and Sierra
+de la Ventana (3543 ft.). The country is well watered with numerous lakes
+and small rivers, the largest river being the Rio Salado del Sud, which
+rises near the north-western boundary and flows entirely across the
+province in a south-easterly direction with a course of about 360 m. The
+Rio Colorado crosses the extreme southern extension of the province, a
+distance of about 80 m., but its mouth is obstructed, and its lower course
+is subject to occasional disastrous inundations.
+
+Cattle-raising naturally became the principal industry of this region soon
+after its settlement by the Spaniards, and sheep-raising on a profitable
+basis was developed about the middle of the 19th century. Toward the end of
+that century the exports of wool, live-stock and dressed meats reached
+enormous proportions. There is a large export of jerked beef (_tasajo_) to
+Brazil and Cuba, and of live-stock to Europe, South Africa and neighbouring
+South American republics. Much attention also has been given to raising
+horses, asses, mules, swine and goats, all of which thrive on these grassy
+plains. Butter and cheese-making have gained considerable prominence in the
+province since 1890, and butter has become an article of export. Little
+attention had been given to cereals up to 1875, but subsequently energetic
+efforts were made to increase the production of wheat, Indian corn,
+linseed, barley, oats and alfalfa, so that by the end of the century the
+exports of wheat and flour had reached a considerable value. In 1895 there
+were 3,400,000 acres under cultivation in the province, and in 1900 the
+area devoted to wheat alone aggregated 1,960,000 acres. Fruit-growing also
+has made good progress, especially on the islands of the Paraná delta, and
+Argentine peaches, pears, strawberries, grapes and figs are highly
+appreciated.
+
+The navigation of the Paraná is at all times difficult, and is impossible
+for the larger ocean-going steamers. The greater part of the trade of the
+northern and western provinces, therefore, must pass through the ports of
+Buenos Aires and Ensenada, at which an immense volume of business is
+concentrated. All the great trunk railways of the republic pass through the
+province and converge at these ports, and from them a number of
+transatlantic steamship lines carry away the products of its fertile soil.
+The province is also liberally supplied with branch railways. In the far
+south the new port of Bahia Blanca has become prominent in the export of
+wool and wheat.
+
+The principal cities and towns of the province (apart from Buenos Aires and
+its suburbs of Belgrano and Flores) are its capital La Plata; Bahia Blanca,
+San Nicolas, a river port on the Paraná 150 m. by rail north-west of Buenos
+Aires, with a population (1901) of 13,000; Campana (pop. 5419 in 1895), the
+former river port of Buenos Aires on one of the channels of the Paraná, 51
+m. by rail north-west of that city, and the site of the first factory in
+Argentina (1883) for freezing mutton for export; Chivilcoy, an important
+interior town, with a population (1901) of 15,000; Pergamino (9540 in
+1895), a northern inland railway centre; Mar del Plata, a popular seaside
+resort 250 m. by rail south of Buenos Aires; Azul (9494), Tandil (7088),
+Chascomús (5667), Mercedes (9269), and Barracas al Sud (10,185), once the
+centre of the jerked beef industries.
+
+The early history of the province of Buenos Aires was a struggle for
+supremacy over the other provinces for a period of two generations. Its
+large extent of territory was secured through successive additions by
+conquest of adjoining Indian territories south and west, the last additions
+being as late as 1879. Buenos Aires became a province of the Confederation
+in 1820, and adopted a constitution in 1854, which provides for its
+administration by a governor and legislature of two chambers, both chosen
+by popular vote. An unsuccessful revolt in 1880 against the national
+government led to the federalization of the city of Buenos Aires, and the
+selection of La Plata as the provincial capital, the republic assuming the
+public indebtedness of the provinces at that time as an indemnification.
+Before the new capital was finished, however, the province had incurred
+further liabilities of ten millions sterling, and has since then been
+greatly handicapped in its development in consequence.
+
+(A. J. L.)
+
+BUENOS AIRES, a city and port of Argentina, and capital of the republic, in
+34° 36' 21" S. lat. and 58° 21' 33" W. long., on the west shore of the La
+Plata estuary, about 155 m. above its mouth, and 127 m. W. by N. from
+Montevideo. The estuary at this point is 34 m. wide, and so shallow that
+vessels can enter the docks only through artificial channels kept open by
+constant dredging. Previously to the construction of the new port,
+ocean-going vessels of over 15 ft. draught were compelled to anchor in the
+outer roads some 12 m. from the city, and communication with the shore was
+effected by means of steam tenders and small boats, connecting with long
+landing piers, or with carts driven out from the beach. The city is built
+upon an open grassy plain extending inland from the banks of the estuary,
+and north from the Riachuelo or Matanzas river where the "Boca" port is
+located. Its average elevation is about 65 ft. above sea-level. The federal
+district, which includes the city and its suburbs and covers an area of 72
+sq. m., was detached from the province of Buenos Aires by an act of
+congress in 1880. With the construction of the new port and reclamation of
+considerable areas of the shallow water frontage, the area of the city has
+been greatly extended below the line of the original estuary banks. The
+streets of the old city, which are narrow and laid out to enclose
+rectangular blocks of uniform size, run nearly parallel with the cardinal
+points of the compass, but this plan is not closely followed in the new
+additions and suburbs. This uniformity in plan, combined with the level
+ground and the style of buildings first erected, gave to the city an
+extremely monotonous and uninteresting appearance, but with its growth in
+wealth and population, greater diversity and better taste in architecture
+have resulted.
+
+The prevailing style of domestic architecture is that introduced from Spain
+and used throughout all the Spanish colonies--the grouping of one-storey
+buildings round one or two _patios_, which open on the street through a
+wide doorway. These residences have heavily barred windows on the street,
+and flat roofs with [v.04 p.0698] parapets admirably adapted for defence.
+The domiciliation of wealthy foreigners, and the introduction of foreign
+customs and foreign culture, have gradually modified the style of
+architecture, both public and domestic, and modern Buenos Aires is adorned
+with many costly and attractive public edifices and residences. French
+renaissance, lavishly decorated, has become the prevailing style. The
+Avenida Alvear is particularly noted for the elegance of its private
+residences, and the new Avenida de Mayo for its display of elaborately
+ornamented public and business edifices, while the suburban districts of
+Belgrano and Flores are distinguished for the attractiveness of their
+country-houses and gardens. A part of the population is greatly
+overcrowded, one-fifth living in _conventillos_, or tenement-houses.
+
+Among the city's many _plazas_, or squares, twelve are especially worthy of
+mention, viz.: 25 de Mayo (formerly Victoria) on which face the
+Government-House and Cathedral, San Martin (or Retiro), Lavalle, Libertad,
+Lorea, Belgrano, 6 de Junio, Once de Setiembre, Independencia (formerly
+Conceptión), Constitución, Caridad and 29 de Deciembre. These vary in size
+from one to three squares, or 4 to 12 acres each, and are handsomely laid
+out with flowers, shrubbery, walks and shade trees. There are also two
+elaborately laid out _alamedas_, the Recoleta and the Paseo de Julio, the
+latter on the river front and partially absorbed by the new port works, and
+the great park at Palermo, officially called 3 de Febrero, which contains
+840 acres, beautifully laid out in drives, footpaths, lawns, gardens and
+artificial lakes. In all, the _plazas_ and parks of Buenos Aires cover an
+area of 960 acres.
+
+The cathedral, which is one of the largest in South America, dating from
+1752, resembles the Madeleine of Paris in design, and its classical portico
+facing the Plaza 25 de Mayo has twelve stately Corinthian columns
+supporting an elaborately sculptured pediment. The archbishop's palace
+(Buenos Aires became an archiepiscopal see in 1866) adjoins the cathedral.
+There are about twenty-five Roman Catholic churches in the city, one of the
+richest and most popular of which is the Merced on Calle Reconquista, and
+four Protestant churches--English, Scottish Presbyterian, American
+Methodist and German Lutheran. Twenty asylums for orphans and indigent
+persons and one for lunatics are maintained at public expense and by
+private religious associations, while the demand for organized medical and
+surgical treatment is met by fifteen well-appointed hospitals, having an
+aggregate of 2600 beds, and treating 17,000 patients annually. Of these,
+five belong to foreign nationalities. The city has six cemeteries covering
+230 acres.
+
+Among the more noteworthy public buildings are the Casa Rosada
+(government-house), facing the Plaza 25 de Mayo and occupying in part the
+site of the fort built by Garay in 1580; the new congress hall on Calle
+Callao and Avenida de Mayo, finished in 1906 at a cost of about £1,300,000;
+the new municipal hall on Avenida de Mayo; the _bolsa_ or exchange,
+distributing reservoir, mint, and some of the more modern educational
+buildings. Higher education is represented by the university of Buenos
+Aires, with its several faculties, including law and medicine, and 3562
+students (1901), four national colleges, three normal schools and various
+technical schools. There are, also, a national library, a national museum,
+a zoological garden and an aquarium. The people are fond of music, the
+drama and amusements, and devote much time and expense to diversions of a
+widely varied character, from Italian opera to horse-racing and _pelota_.
+They have two or three large public baths, and a large number of social,
+sporting and athletic clubs. The Porteños, as the residents of Buenos Aires
+are called, are accustomed to call their city the "Paris of America," and
+not without reason. Buenos Aires has become the principal manufacturing
+centre of the republic, and its industrial establishments are numbered by
+thousands and their capital by hundreds of millions of dollars.
+
+The growth of Buenos Aires since settled conditions have prevailed, and
+especially since its federalization, has been very rapid, and the city has
+finally outstripped all rivals and become the largest city of South
+America. At the time of its first authentic census in 1869, it had a
+population of 177,767. In 1887, when the suburbs of Belgrano and Flores
+with an aggregate population of 28,000 were annexed, its population without
+this increment was estimated at 404,000. In 1895 the national census gave
+the population as 663,854, and in 1904 a municipal census increased it to
+950,891. At the close of 1905 the national statistical office estimated it
+at 1,025,653. The excess of births over deaths is unusually large (about 14
+per thousand in 1905). The city has about one-fifth of the population of
+the whole republic. The government is vested in an _intendente municipal_
+(mayor) appointed by the national executive with the approval of the
+senate, and a _concejo deliberante_ (legislative council) elected by the
+people and composed of two councillors from each parish. The police force
+is a military organization under the control of the national executive, and
+the higher municipal courts are subject to the same authority. Every
+ratepayer, whether foreigner or native, has the right to vote in municipal
+elections and to serve in the municipal council.
+
+The water-supply is drawn from the estuary at Belgrano and conducted 3½ m.
+to the Recoleta, where three great settling basins, with an aggregate
+capacity of 12,000,000 gallons, and six acres of covered filters, are
+located. It is then pumped to the great distributing reservoir at Calles
+Córdoba and Viamonte, which covers four acres and has a capacity of
+13,500,000 gallons. These works were begun in 1873. Up to 1873, when the
+water and drainage works were initiated by English engineers and
+contractors, there were no public sewers, and the sanitary state of the
+city was indescribably bad. The cholera epidemic of 1867-1868, with 15,000
+victims, and the yellow fever epidemic of 1871, with 26,000 victims, were
+greatly intensified by these insanitary conditions. The construction of the
+sewers lasted about 19 years, when in 1892 the water and drainage works
+were taken over by the government, and are now administered at public
+expense and at a profit. The main sewer is 16 m. long and extends southward
+beyond Quilmes. The total cost of the two systems exceeded six millions
+sterling. Buenos Aires is now provided with a good water-supply, and its
+sanitary condition compares favourably with that of other great cities, the
+annual death-rate being about 18 per thousand, against 27 per thousand in
+1887. Its mean annual temperature is 64° Fahr., and its annual rainfall 34
+in.
+
+The lighting includes both gas and electricity, the former dating from
+1856. Previously to that time street lighting had been effected at first
+with lamps burning mares' grease, and then with tallow candles. The streets
+were at first paved with cobble-stones, then with dressed granite
+paving-stones (parallelepipedons), and finally with wood and asphalt. The
+tram service is in the hands of nine private companies, operating 313 m. of
+track (31st of December 1905), on almost five-sevenths of which electric
+traction is employed. The city is the principal terminus and port for
+nearly all the trunk railway lines of the republic, which have large
+passenger stations at the Retiro, Once de Setiembre, and Constitución
+plazas, and are connected with the central produce market and the new
+Madero port. The great central produce market at Barracas al Sud (_Mercado
+Central de Frutos_), whose lands, buildings, railway sidings, machinery and
+mole cost £750,000, is designed to handle the pastoral and agricultural
+products of the country on a large scale, while 20 markets in the city meet
+the needs of local consumers.
+
+The most important feature of the port of Buenos Aires is the "Madero
+docks," constructed to enlarge and improve its shipping facilities.
+Improvements had been, begun in 1872 at the "Boca," as the port on the
+Riachuelo is called, and nearly £1,500,000 was spent there in landing
+facilities and dredging a channel 12 m. in length, to deep water. These
+improvements were found insufficient, and in 1887 work was begun on plans
+executed by Sir John Hawkshaw for a series of four docks and two basins in
+front of the city, occupying 3 m. of reclaimed shore-line, and connected
+with deep water by two dredged channels. The north basin is provided with
+two dry docks, and the new quays are equipped with 24 warehouses, hydraulic
+cranes, and 28 m. of railway sidings and connexions. The total cost of the
+new port works [v.04 p.0699] up to 1908 was about £8,000,000 sterling
+($40,000,000 gold). In September of that year it was decided by congress to
+borrow £5,000,000 for still further extensions which were found to be
+required. The channels to deep water require constant dredging because of
+the great quantity of silt deposited by the river, and on this and allied
+purposes an expenditure of £560,000 was voted in 1908. In 1907 there were
+29,178 shipping entries in the port, with an aggregate of 13,335,737 tons,
+the merchandise movement being 4,360,000 tons imports and 2,900,000 tons of
+produce exports. The revenues for 1907 were $5,452,000 gold, and working
+expenses, $2,213,000 gold, the profit ($3,229,000) being equal to about 8%
+on the cost of construction.
+
+_History._--Three attempts were made to establish a colony where the city
+of Buenos Aires stands. The first was in 1535 by Don Pedro de Mendoza with
+a large and well-equipped expedition from Spain, which, through
+mismanagement and the hostility of the Indians, resulted in complete
+failure. An expedition sent up the river by Mendoza founded Asunción, and
+thither went the colonists from his "Santa Maria de Buenos Ayres" when that
+settlement was abandoned. The second was in 1542 by a part of the
+expedition from Spain under Cabeza de Vaca, but with as little success. The
+third was in 1580 by Don Juan de Garay, governor of Paraguay, who had
+already established a half-way post at Santa Fé in 1573, and from this
+attempt dates the foundation of the city. The need of a port near the sea,
+where supplies from Spain could be received and ships provisioned, was
+keenly felt by the Spanish colonists at Asunción, and Garay's expedition
+down the Paraná in 1580 had that special object in view. Garay built a fort
+and laid out a town in the prescribed Spanish style above Mendoza's
+abandoned settlement, giving it the name of "Ciudad de la Santissima
+Trinidad," but retaining Mendoza's descriptive name for the port in
+appreciation of the agreeable and invigorating atmosphere of that locality.
+Buenos Aires remained a dependency of Asunción until 1620, when the Spanish
+settlements of the La Plata region were divided into three provinces,
+Paraguay, Tucuman and Buenos Aires, and Garay's "city" became the capital
+of the latter and also the seat of a new bishopric. The increasing
+population and trade of the La Plata settlements naturally contributed to
+the importance and prosperity of Buenos Aires, but Spain seems to have
+taken very little interest in the town at that time. Peru still dazzled the
+imagination with her stores of gold and silver, and the king and his
+councillors and merchants had no thought for the little trading station on
+the La Plata, for which one small shipment of supplies each year was at
+first thought sufficient. The proximity of the Portuguese settlements of
+Brazil and the unprotected state of the coast, however, made smuggling
+easy, and the colonists soon learned to supply their own needs in that way.
+The heavy seigniorage tax on gold and silver, and the costs of
+transportation by way of Panama, also sent a stream of contraband metal
+from Charcas to Buenos Aires, where it found eager buyers among the
+Portuguese traders from Brazil, who even founded the town of Colonia on the
+opposite bank of the estuary to facilitate their hazardous traffic. In time
+the magnitude of these operations attracted attention at Madrid and efforts
+were made to suppress them, but without complete success until more liberal
+provisions were made to promote trade between Spain and her colonies. In
+1776 the Rio de la Plata provinces were erected into a vice-royalty, and
+Buenos Aires became its capital. Two years later the old commercial
+restrictions were abolished and a new code was promulgated, so liberal in
+character compared with the old that it was called the "free trade
+regulations." Under the old system all intercourse with foreign countries
+had been prohibited, with the exception of Great Britain and Portugal--the
+former having a contract (1715 to 1739) to introduce African slaves, and
+permission to send one shipload of merchandise each year to certain
+colonial ports, and the latter's Brazilian colonies having permission to
+import from Buenos Aires each year 2000 fanegas of wheat, 500 quintals of
+jerked beef and 500 of tallow. The African slaves introduced into Buenos
+Aires in this way were limited to 800 a year, and were the only slaves of
+that character ever received except some from Brazil after 1778, when
+greater commercial activity in the port created a sudden demand for
+labourers. Under the new regulations 9 ports in Spain and 24 in the
+colonies were declared _puertos habilitados_, or ports of entry, and trade
+between them was permitted, though under many restrictions. The effect of
+this change may be seen in the exportation of hides to the mother country,
+which had been only 150,000 a year before 1778, but rose to 700,000 and
+800,000 a year after that date. (For the later history of the city see
+ARGENTINA.)
+
+(A. J. L.)
+
+BUFF (from Fr. _buffle_, a buffalo), a leather originally made from the
+skin of the buffalo, now also from the skins of other animals, of a dull
+pale yellow colour, used for making the buffcoat or jerkin, a leathern
+military coat. The old 3rd Foot regiment of the line in the British army
+(now the East Kent Regiment), and the old 78th Foot (now 2nd battalion
+Seaforth Highlanders), are called the "Buffs" and the "Ross-shire Buffs"
+respectively, from the yellow or buff-colour of their facings. The term is
+commonly used now of the colour alone.
+
+BUFFALO, a city and port of entry, and the county-seat of Erie county, New
+York, U.S.A., the second city in population in the state, and the eighth in
+the United States, at the E. extremity of Lake Erie, and at the upper end
+of the Niagara river; distant by rail from New York City 423 m., from
+Boston 499 m., and from Chicago 540 m.
+
+The site of the city, which has an area of 42 sq. m., is a broad,
+undulating tract, rising gradually from the lake to an elevation of from 50
+to 80 ft., its altitude averaging somewhat less than 600 ft. above
+sea-level. The high land and temperate climate, and the excellent drainage
+and water-supply systems, make Buffalo one of the most healthy cities in
+the United States, its death-rate in 1900 being 14.8 per thousand, and in
+1907 15.58. As originally platted by Joseph Ellicott, the plan of Buffalo
+somewhat resembled that of Washington, but the plan was much altered and
+even then not adhered to. Buffalo to-day has broad and spacious streets,
+most of which are lined by trees, and many small parks and squares. The
+municipal park system is one of unusual beauty, consisting of a chain of
+parks with a total area of about 1030 acres, encircling the city and
+connected by boulevards and driveways. The largest is Delaware Park, about
+365 acres, including a lake of 46½ acres, in the north part of the city;
+the north part of the park was enclosed in the grounds of the Pan-American
+Exposition of 1901. Adjoining it is the Forest Lawn cemetery, in which are
+monuments to President Millard Fillmore, and to the famous Seneca chief Red
+Jacket (1751-1830), a friend of the whites, who was faithful when
+approached by Tecumseh and the Prophet, and warned the Americans of their
+danger; by many he has been considered the greatest orator of his race.
+Among the other parks are Cazenovia Park, Humboldt Park, South Park on the
+Lake Shore, and "The Front" on a bluff overlooking the source of the
+Niagara river; in the last is Fort Porter (named in honour of Peter B.
+Porter), where the United States government maintains a garrison.
+
+_Principal Buildings._--Buffalo is widely known for the beauty of its
+residential sections, the houses being for the most part detached, set well
+back from the street, and surrounded by attractive lawns. Among the
+principal buildings are the Federal building, erected at a cost of
+$2,000,000; the city and county hall, costing $1,500,000, with a clock
+tower 245 ft. high; the city convention hall, the chamber of commerce, the
+builders' exchange, the Masonic temple, two state armouries, the
+Prudential, Fidelity Trust, White and Mutual Life buildings, the Teck, Star
+and Shea's Park theatres, and the Ellicott Square building, one of the
+largest office structures in the world; and, in Delaware Park, the Albright
+art gallery, and the Buffalo Historical Society building, which was
+originally the New York state building erected for the Pan-American
+Exposition held in 1901. Among the social clubs the Buffalo, the
+University, the Park, the Saturn and the Country clubs, and among the
+hotels the Iroquois, Lafayette, Niagara and Genesee, may be especially
+mentioned. There are many handsome churches, including St Joseph's (Roman
+Catholic) and St Paul's (Protestant Episcopal) cathedrals, [v.04 p.0700]
+and Trinity (Protestant Episcopal), the Westminster Presbyterian, the
+Delaware Avenue Baptist, and the First Presbyterian churches.
+
+_Education._--In addition to the usual high and grammar schools, the city
+itself supports a city training school for teachers, and a system of night
+schools and kindergartens. Here, too, is a state normal school. The
+university of Buffalo (organized in 1845) comprises schools of medicine
+(1845), law (1887), dentistry (1892), and pharmacy (1886). Canisius College
+is a Roman Catholic (Jesuit) institution for men (established in 1870 and
+chartered in 1883), having in 1907 a college department and an academic (or
+high school) department, and a library of about 26,000 volumes. Martin
+Luther Seminary, established in 1854, is a theological seminary of the
+Evangelical Lutheran Church. Among the best-known schools are the Academy
+of the Sacred Heart, Buffalo Seminary, the Franklin and the Heathcote
+schools, Holy Angels and St Mary's academies, St Joseph's Collegiate
+Institute, and St Margaret's school for girls. The Buffalo public library,
+founded in 1837, is housed in a fine building erected in 1887 (valued at
+$1,000,000), and contains about 300,000 books and pamphlets. Other
+important libraries, with the approximate number of their books, are the
+Grosvenor (founded in 1859), for reference (75,000 volumes and 7000
+pamphlets); the John C. Lord, housed in the building of the Historical
+Society (10,620); the Law (8th judicial district) (17,000); the Catholic
+Institute (12,000); and the library of the Buffalo Historical Society
+(founded 1862) (26,600), now in the handsome building in Delaware Park used
+as the New York state building during the Pan-American Exposition of 1901.
+The Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences has a museum in the public library
+building.
+
+_Public Institutions._--The hospitals and the charitable and correctional
+institutions are numerous and are well administered. Many private
+institutions are richly endowed. Among the hospitals are a state hospital
+for the insane, the Erie county, the Buffalo general, the Children's, the
+United States marine (maintained by the Federal government), the German,
+the Homeopathic, the Women's, the German Deaconess and the Riverside
+hospitals, and the Buffalo hospital of the Sisters of Charity. Nurses'
+training schools are connected with most of these. Among the charitable
+institutions are the Home for the Friendless, the Buffalo, St Vincent's and
+St Joseph's orphan asylums, St John's orphan home, St Mary's asylum for
+widows and foundlings, and the Ingleside home for erring women. One of the
+most noteworthy institutions in the city is the Charity Organisation
+Society, with headquarters in Fitch Institute. Founded in 1877, it was the
+first in the United States, and its manifold activities have not only
+contributed much to the amelioration of social conditions in Buffalo, but
+have caused it to be looked to as a model upon which similar institutions
+have been founded elsewhere.
+
+The first newspaper, the _Gazette_ (a weekly), was established in 1811 and
+became the _Commercial_, a daily, in 1835. The first daily was the
+_Courier_, established in 1831. There were in 1908 eleven daily papers
+published, three of which were in German and two in Polish. The weekly
+papers include several in German, three in Polish, and one in Italian.
+
+_Government and Population._--Buffalo is governed under an amended city
+charter of 1896 by which the government is vested in a bicameral city
+council, and a mayor elected for a term of four years. The mayor appoints
+the heads of the principal executive departments (health, civil service,
+parks, police and fire). The city clerk is elected by the city council. The
+municipality maintains several well-equipped public baths, and owns its
+water-supply system, the water being obtained from Lake Erie. The city is
+lighted by electricity generated by the water power of Niagara Falls, and
+by manufactured gas. Gas, obtained by pipe lines from the Ohio-Pennsylvania
+and the Canadian (Welland) natural gas fields, is also used extensively for
+lighting and heating purposes.
+
+From the first census enumeration in 1820 the population has steadily and
+rapidly increased from about 2000 till it reached 352,387 inhabitants in
+1900, and 423,715 (20% increase) in 1910. In 1900 there were 248,135
+native-born and 104,252 foreign-born; 350,586 were white and only 1801
+coloured, of whom 1698 were negroes. Of the native-born whites, 155,716 had
+either one or both parents foreign-born; and of the total population 93,256
+were of unmixed German parentage. Of the foreign-born population 36,720
+were German, the other large elements in their order of importance being
+Polish, Canadian, Irish, the British (other than Irish). Various sections
+of the poorer part of the city are occupied almost exclusively by the
+immigrants from Poland, Hungary and Italy.
+
+_Communications and Commerce._--Situated almost equidistant from Chicago,
+Boston and New York, Buffalo, by reason of its favourable location in
+respect to lake transportation and its position on the principal northern
+trade route between the East and West, has become one of the most important
+commercial and industrial centres in the Union. Some fourteen trunk lines
+have terminals at, or pass through, Buffalo. Tracks of a belt line transfer
+company encircle the city, and altogether there are more than 500 m. of
+track within the limits of Buffalo. Of great importance also is the lake
+commerce. Almost all the great steamship transportation lines of the Great
+Lakes have an eastern terminus at Buffalo, which thus has direct passenger
+and freight connexion with Cleveland, Detroit, Chicago, Milwaukee and the
+"Head of the Lakes" (Duluth-Superior). With the latter port it is connected
+by the Great Northern Steamship Company, a subsidiary line of the Great
+Northern railway, the passenger service of which is carried on by what are
+probably the largest and finest inland passenger steamships in existence.
+The tonnage of the port of Buffalo is considerably more than 5,000,000 tons
+annually. With a water front of approximately 20 m. and with 8 to 10 m. of
+wharfs, the shipping facilities have been greatly increased by the
+extensive harbour improvements undertaken by the Federal government. These
+improvements comprise a series of inner breakwaters and piers and an outer
+breakwater of stone and cement, 4 m. in length, constructed at a cost of
+more than $2,000,000. Another artery of trade of great importance is the
+Erie Canal, which here has its western terminus, and whose completion
+(1825) gave the first impetus to Buffalo's commercial growth. With the
+Canadian shore Buffalo is connected by ferry, and by the International
+bridge (from Squaw Island), which cost $1,500,000 and was completed in
+1873.
+
+It is as a distributing centre for the manufactured products of the East to
+the West, and for the raw products of the West to the East, and for the
+trans-shipment from lake to rail and vice versa, that Buffalo occupies a
+position of greatest importance. It is one of the principal grain and flour
+markets in the world. Here in 1843 Joseph Dart erected the first grain
+elevator ever constructed. In 1906 the grain elevators had a capacity of
+between twenty and thirty millions of bushels, and annual receipts of more
+than 200,000,000 bushels. The receipts of flour approximate 10,000,000
+barrels yearly. More than 10,000,000 head of live stock are handled in a
+year in extensive stock-yards (75 acres) at East Buffalo; and the horse
+market is the largest in America. Other important articles of commerce are
+lumber, the receipts of which average 200,000,000 ft. per annum; fish
+(15,000,000 lb annually); and iron ore and coal, part of which, however, is
+handled at Tonawanda, really a part of the port of Buffalo. Buffalo is the
+port of entry of Buffalo Creek customs district; in 1908 its imports were
+valued at $6,708,919, and its exports at $26,192,563.
+
+_Manufactures._--As a manufacturing centre Buffalo ranks next to New York
+among the cities of the state. The manufactures were valued in 1900 at
+$122,230,061 (of which $105,627,182 was the value of the factory product),
+an increase of 22.2% over 1890; value of factory product in 1905,
+$147,377,873. The value of the principal products in 1900 was as follows:
+slaughtering and meat packing, $9,631,187 (in 1905 slaughtering and
+meat-packing $12,216,433, and slaughtering, not including meat-packing,
+$3,919,940); foundry and machine shop products, $6,816,057 (1905,
+$11,402,855); linseed oil, $6,271,170; cars and shop construction,
+$4,513,333 (1905, $3,609,471); malt liquors, $4,269,973 (1905, $5,187,216);
+soap and candles, $3,818,571 (in 1905, soap [v.04 p.0701] $4,792,915);
+flour and grist mill products, $3,263,697 (1905, $9,807,906); lumber and
+planing mill products, $3,095,760 (1905, $4,186,668); clothing, $3,246,723
+(1905, $4,231,126); iron and steel products, $2,624,547. Other industrial
+establishments of importance include petroleum refineries, ship-yards,
+brick, stone and lime works, saddlery and harness factories, lithographing
+establishments, patent medicine works, chemical works, and copper smelters
+and refineries. Some of the plants are among the largest in existence,
+notably the Union and the Wagner Palace car works, the Union dry docks, the
+steel plants of the Lackawanna Iron and Steel Company, and the Larkin soap
+factory.
+
+_History._--The first white men to visit the site of Buffalo were
+undoubtedly the adventurous French trappers and various Jesuit
+missionaries. Near here, on the east bank of the Niagara river at the mouth
+of Cayuga Creek, La Salle in 1679 built his ship the "Griffin," and at the
+mouth of the river built Fort Conti, which, however, was burned in the same
+year. In 1687 marquis de Denonville built at the mouth of the river a fort
+which was named in his honour and was the predecessor of the fortifications
+on or near the same site successively called Fort Niagara; and the
+neighbourhood was the scene of military operations up to the close of the
+War of Independence. As early as 1784 the present site of the city of
+Buffalo came to be known as "the Buffalo Creek region" either from the
+herds of buffalo or bison which, according to Indian tradition, had
+frequented the salt licks of the creek, or more probably from an Indian
+chief. A little later, possibly in 1788-1789, Cornelius Winney, an Indian
+trader, built a cabin near the mouth of the creek and thus became the first
+permanent white resident. Slowly other settlers gathered. The land was a
+part of the original Phelps-Gorham Purchase, and subsequently (about 1793)
+came into the possession of the Holland Land Company, being part of the
+tract known as the Holland Purchase. Joseph Ellicott, the agent of the
+company, who has been called the "Father of Buffalo," laid out a town in
+1801-1802, calling it New Amsterdam, and by this name it was known on the
+company's books until about 1810. The name of Buffalo Creek or Buffalo,
+however, proved more popular; the village became the county-seat of Niagara
+county in 1808, and two years later the town of Buffalo was erected. Upon
+the outbreak of the second war with Great Britain, Buffalo and the region
+about Niagara Falls became a centre of active military operations; directly
+across the Niagara river was the British Fort Erie. It was from Buffalo
+that Lieutenant Jesse D. Elliott (1782-1845) made his brilliant capture of
+the "Detroit" and "Caledonia" in October 1812; and on the 30th and 31st of
+December 1813 the settlement was attacked, captured, sacked, and almost
+completely destroyed by a force of British, Canadians and Indians under
+General Sir Phineas Riall (c. 1769-1851). After the cessation of
+hostilities, however, Buffalo, which had been incorporated as a village in
+1813, was rapidly rebuilt. Its advantages as a commercial centre were early
+recognized, and its importance was enhanced on the opening up of the middle
+West to settlement, when Buffalo became the principal gateway for the lake
+routes. Here in 1818 was rebuilt the "Walk-in-the-Water," the first
+steamboat upon the Great Lakes, named in honour of a famous Wyandot Indian
+chief. In 1825 the completion of the Erie Canal with its western terminus
+at Buffalo greatly increased the importance of the place, which now rapidly
+outstripped and soon absorbed Black Rock, a village adjoining it on the N.,
+which had at one time threatened to be a dangerous rival. In 1832 Buffalo
+obtained a city charter, and Dr Ebenezer Johnson (1786-1849) was chosen the
+first mayor. In that year, and again in 1834, a cholera epidemic caused
+considerable loss of life. At Buffalo in 1848 met the Free-Soil convention
+that nominated Martin van Buren for the presidency and Charles Francis
+Adams for the vice-presidency. Grover Cleveland lived in Buffalo from 1855
+until 1884, when he was elected president, and was mayor of Buffalo in
+1882, when he was elected governor of New York state. The Pan-American
+Exposition, in celebration of the progress of the Western hemisphere in the
+nineteenth century, was held there (May 1-November 2, 1901). It was during
+a reception in the Temple of Music on the Exposition grounds that President
+McKinley was assassinated (September 6th); he died at the home of John G.
+Milburn, the president of the Exposition. In the house of Ansley Wilcox
+here Vice-President Theodore Roosevelt took the oath of office as
+president. A marble shaft 80 ft. high, in memory of McKinley, has been
+erected in Niagara Square.
+
+See William Ketchum, _History of Buffalo_ (2 vols., Buffalo, 1864-1865);
+H.P. Smith, _History of Buffalo and Erie County_ (Syracuse, 1884);
+_Publications of the Buffalo Historical Society_ (Buffalo, 1879 et seq.);
+O. Turner, _History of the Holland Purchase_ (Buffalo, 1850); T.H.
+Hotchkin, _History of Western New York_ (New York, 1845); and the sketch in
+Lyman P. Powell's _Historic Towns of the Middle States_ (New York, 1901).
+
+BUFFALO, a name properly pertaining to an aberrant species of cattle which
+has been kept in a state of domestication in India and Egypt from time
+immemorial, and had been introduced from the latter country into southern
+Europe. It is now taken, however, to include not only this species, whose
+native home is India, but all more or less nearly related animals.[2]
+Buffaloes are heavily built oxen, with sparsely haired skin, large ears,
+long, tufted tails, broad muzzles and massive angulated horns. In having
+only 13 pairs of ribs they resemble the typical oxen. African buffaloes all
+have the hair of the back directed backwards.
+
+In the Cape buffalo, _Bos (Bubalus) caffer_, the horns do not attain an
+excessive length, but in old bulls are so expanded and thickened at the
+base as to form a helmet-like mass protecting the whole forehead. Several
+more or less nearly allied local races have been named; and in Eastern
+Africa the buffaloes (_B. coffer aequinoctialis_) have smaller horns, which
+do not meet in the middle line. From this animal, which is brown instead of
+black, there seems to be a transition towards the red dwarf buffalo (_B.
+nanus_) of West Africa, an animal scarcely more than two-thirds the size of
+its gigantic southern cousin, with relatively small, much flattened,
+upwardly curved horns. In South Africa buffaloes frequent reedy swamps,
+where they associate in herds of from fifty to a hundred or more
+individuals. Old bulls may be met with either alone or in small parties of
+from two or three to eight or ten. This buffalo formerly roamed in herds
+over the plains of Central and Southern Africa, always in the near vicinity
+of water, but the numbers are greatly diminished. In Cape Colony some herds
+are protected by the government in the eastern forest-districts. This
+species has never been domesticated, nor does there appear to have been any
+attempt to reduce it to service. Like its Indian ally it is fond of water,
+which it visits at regular intervals during the twenty-four hours; it also
+plasters itself with mud, which, when hardened by the sun, protects it from
+the bite of the gadflies which in spite of its thick hide seem to cause it
+considerable annoyance. It is relieved of a portion of the parasitic ticks,
+so common on the hides of thick-skinned animals, by means of the red-beaked
+rhinoceros birds, _Buphaga erythrorhynca_, a dozen or more of which may be
+seen partly perched on its horns and partly moving about on its back, and
+picking up the ticks on which they feed. The hunter is often guided by
+these birds in his search for the buffalo, but oftener still they give
+timely warning to their host of the dangerous proximity of the hunter, and
+have thus earned the title of "the buffalo's guardian birds."
+
+In a wild state the typical Indian buffalo, _Bos (Bubalus) bubalis_, seems
+to be restricted to India and Ceylon, although some of the buffaloes found
+in the Malay Peninsula and Islands probably represent local races. The
+species has been introduced into Asia Minor, Egypt, Italy and elsewhere.
+The large size and wide separation of the horns, as well as the less
+thickly fringed ears, and the more elongated and narrow head, form marked
+points of distinction between the Asiatic and South African species.
+Moreover, all Asiatic buffaloes are distinguished from the African forms by
+having the hair on the fore-part of the back directed forwards; and these
+go far to support the views of those who would make them the types of a
+distinct subgenus, [v.04 p.0702] or genus, _Buffelus_. In Assam there
+formerly existed a local race, _B. bubalis macrocercus_, characterized by
+the horns, which are of immense size, being directed mainly outwards,
+instead of curving upwards in a circular form. Another Assam race (_B.
+bubalis fulvus_) is characterized by the tawny, in place of black, colour
+of its hair and hide. The haunts of the Indian buffalo are the
+grass-jungles near swamps, in which the grass exceeds 20 ft. in height.
+Here the buffaloes--like the Indian rhinoceros--form covered pathways, in
+which they are completely concealed. The herds frequently include fifty or
+more individuals. These animals are fond of passing the day in marshes,
+where they love to wallow in the mud; they are by no means shy, and do much
+harm to the crops. The rutting-season occurs in autumn, when several
+females follow a single male, forming for the time a small herd. The period
+of gestation lasts for ten months, and the female produces one or two
+calves at a birth. The bull is capable, it is said, of overthrowing an
+elephant, and generally more than a match even for the tiger, which usually
+declines the combat when not impelled by hunger. The Indian driver of a
+herd of tame buffaloes does not shrink from entering a tiger-frequented
+jungle, his cattle, with their massive horns, making short work of any
+tiger that may come in their way. Buffalo fights and fights between
+buffaloes and tigers were recognized Indian sports in the old days.
+Domesticated buffaloes differ from their wild brethren merely by their
+inferior size and smaller horns; some of the latter being of the circular
+and others of the straight type. The milk is good and nourishing, but of a
+ropy consistency and a peculiar flavour.
+
+The tamarao, or Philippine buffalo, _Bos (Bubalus) mindorensis_, is a
+smaller animal, in many respects intermediate between the Indian buffalo
+and the dwarf anoa, or Celebes buffalo (_B. depressicornis_).
+
+(R. L.*)
+
+[1] It was a name applied also to a leather-covered case or small coffer.
+Cotgrave translates _bougette_ "a little coffer or trunk ... covered with
+leather." It became a common word for a despatch box in which official
+papers were kept. The chancellor of the exchequer thus was said to "open
+his budget" when he made his annual statement.
+
+[2] In America, it is worth noting, the term "buffalo" is almost
+universally taken, at all events in popular parlance, to designate the
+American bison, for which see BISON.
+
+BUFFET, LOUIS JOSEPH (1818-1898), French statesman, was born at Mirecourt.
+After the revolution of February 1848 he was elected deputy for the
+department of the Vosges, and in the Assembly sat on the right, pronouncing
+for the repression of the insurrection of June 1848 and for Louis Napoleon
+Bonaparte. He was minister of agriculture from August to December 1849 and
+from August to October 1851. Re-elected deputy in 1863, he was one of the
+supporters of the "Liberal Empire" of Emile Ollivier, being finance
+minister in Ollivier's cabinet from January to the 10th of April 1870. He
+was president of the National Assembly from the 4th of April 1872 to the
+10th of March 1875, and minister of the interior in 1875. Then, elected
+senator for life (1876), he pronounced himself in favour of the _coup
+d'état_ of the 16th of May 1877. Buffet had some oratorical talent, but
+shone most in opposition.
+
+BUFFET, a piece of furniture which may be open or closed, or partly open
+and partly closed, for the reception of dishes, china, glass and plate. The
+word may also signify a long counter at which one stands to eat and drink,
+as at a restaurant, or--which would appear to be the original meaning--the
+room in which the counter stands. The word, like the thing it represents,
+is French. The buffet is the descendant of the credence, and the ancestor
+of the sideboard, and consequently has a close affinity to the dresser. Few
+articles of furniture, while preserving their original purpose, have varied
+more widely in form. In the beginning the buffet was a tiny apartment, or
+recess, little larger than a cupboard, separated from the room which it
+served either by a breast-high balustrade or by pillars. It developed into
+a definite piece of furniture, varying from simplicity to splendour, but
+always provided with one or more flat spaces, or broad shelves, for the
+reception of such necessaries of the dining-room as were not placed upon
+the table. The early buffets were sometimes carved with the utmost
+elaboration; the Renaissance did much to vary their form and refine their
+ornament. Often the lower part contained receptacles as in the
+characteristic English court-cupboard. The rage for collecting china in the
+middle of the 18th century was responsible for a new form--the high glazed
+back, fitted with shelves, for the display of fine pieces of crockery-ware.
+This, however, was hardly a true buffet, and was the very antithesis of the
+primary arrangement, in which the huge goblets and beakers and fantastic
+pieces of plate, of which so extremely few examples are left, were
+displayed upon the open "gradines." The tiers of shelves, with or without a
+glass front, which are still often found in Georgian houses, were sometimes
+called buffets--in short, any dining-room receptacle for articles that were
+not immediately wanted came at last to bear the name. In France the
+variations of type were even more numerous than in England, and it is
+sometimes difficult to distinguish a commode from a buffet. In the latter
+part of the 18th century the buffet occasionally took the form of a console
+table.
+
+BUFFIER, CLAUDE (1661-1737), French philosopher, historian and
+educationalist, was born in Poland, on the 25th of May 1661, of French
+parents, who returned to France, and settled at Rouen, soon after his
+birth. He was educated at the Jesuit college there, and was received into
+the order at the age of nineteen. A dispute with the archbishop compelled
+him to leave Rouen, and after a short stay in Rome he returned to Paris to
+the college of the Jesuits, where he spent the rest of his life. He seems
+to have been an admirable teacher, with a great power of lucid exposition.
+His object in the _Traité des vérités premières_ (1717), his best-known
+work, is to discover the ultimate principle of knowledge. This he finds in
+the sense we have of our own existence and of what we feel within
+ourselves. He thus takes substantially the same ground as Descartes, but he
+rejected the _a priori_ method. In order to know what exists distinct from
+the self, "common sense" is necessary. Common sense he defined as "that
+disposition which nature has placed in all or most men, in order to enable
+them, when they have arrived at the age and use of reason, to form a common
+and uniform judgment with respect to objects different from the internal
+sentiment of their own perception, which judgment is not the consequence of
+any anterior judgment." The truths which this "disposition of nature"
+obliges us to accept can be neither proved nor disproved; they are
+practically followed even by those who reject them speculatively. But
+Buffier does not claim for these truths of "common sense" the absolute
+certainty which characterizes the knowledge we have of our own existence or
+the logical deductions we make from our thoughts; they possess merely the
+highest probability, and the man who rejects them is to be considered a
+fool, though he is not guilty of a contradiction. Buffier's aversion to
+scholastic refinements has given to his writings an appearance of
+shallowness and want of metaphysical insight, and unquestionably he failed
+entirely even to indicate the nature of that universality and necessity
+which he ascribed to his "eternal verities"; he was, however, one of the
+earliest to recognize the psychological as distinguished from the
+metaphysical side of Descartes's principle, and to use it, with no
+inconsiderable skill, as the basis of an analysis of the human mind,
+similar to that enjoined by Locke. In this he has anticipated the spirit
+and method as well as many of the results of Reid and the Scottish school.
+Voltaire described him as "the only Jesuit who has given a reasonable
+system of philosophy."
+
+He wrote also _Éléments de métaphysique_ (1724), a "French Grammar on a new
+plan," and a number of historical essays. Most of his works appeared in a
+collected form in 1732, and an English translation of the _Traité_ was
+published in 1780.
+
+BUFFON, GEORGE LOUIS LECLERC, COMTE DE (1707-1788), French naturalist, was
+born on the 7th of September 1707, at Montbard (Côte d'Or), his father,
+Benjamin François Leclerc de Buffon (1683-1775), being councillor of the
+Burgundian parlement. He studied law at the college of Jesuits at Dijon;
+but he soon exhibited a marked predilection for the study of the physical
+sciences, and more particularly for mathematics. Whilst at Dijon he made
+the acquaintance of a young Englishman, Lord Kingston, and with him
+travelled through Italy and then went to England. He published a French
+translation of Stephen Hales's _Vegetable Statics_ in 1735, and of Sir I.
+Newton's _Fluxions_ in 1740. At twenty-five years of age he succeeded to a
+considerable property, inherited from his mother, and from this time onward
+his life was devoted to regular scientific labour. At first he directed his
+attention more especially to mathematics, physics, [v.04 p.0703] and
+agriculture, and his chief original papers are connected with these
+subjects. In the spring of 1739 he was elected an associate of the Academy
+of Sciences; and at a later period of the same year he was appointed keeper
+of the Jardin du Roi and of the Royal Museum. This appears to have finally
+determined him to devote himself to the biological sciences in particular,
+and he began to collect materials for his _Natural History_. In the
+preparation of this voluminous work he associated with himself L.J.M.
+Daubenton, to whom the descriptive and anatomical portions of the treaties
+were entrusted, and the first three volumes made their appearance in the
+year 1749. In 1752 (not in 1743 or 1760, as sometimes stated) he married
+Marie Françoise de Saint-Belin. He seems to have been fondly attached to
+her, and felt deeply her death at Montbard in 1769. The remainder of
+Buffon's life as a private individual presents nothing of special interest.
+He belonged to a very long-lived race, his father having attained the age
+of ninety-three, and his grandfather eighty-seven. He himself died at Paris
+on the 15th of April 1788, at the age of eighty-one, of vesical calculus,
+having refused to allow any operation for his relief. He left one son,
+George Louis Marie Leclerc Buffon, who was an officer in the French army,
+and who died by the guillotine, at the age of thirty, on the 10th of July
+1793 (22 Messidor, An II.), having espoused the party of the duke of
+Orleans.
+
+Buffon was a member of the French Academy (his inaugural address being the
+celebrated _Discours sur le style_, 1753), perpetual treasurer of the
+Academy of Sciences, fellow of the Royal Society of London, and member of
+the Academies of Berlin, St Petersburg, Dijon, and of most of the learned
+societies then existing in Europe. Of handsome person and noble presence,
+endowed with many of the external gifts of nature, and rejoicing in the
+social advantages of high rank and large possessions, he is mainly known by
+his published scientific writings. Without being a profound original
+investigator, he possessed the art of expressing his ideas in a clear and
+generally attractive form. His chief defects as a scientific writer are
+that he was given to excessive and hasty generalization, so that his
+hypotheses, however seemingly brilliant, are often destitute of any
+sufficient basis in observed facts, whilst his literary style is not
+unfrequently theatrical and turgid, and a great want of method and order is
+commonly observable in his writings.
+
+His great work is the _Histoire naturelle, générale et particulière_; and
+it can undoubtedly claim the merit of having been the first work to present
+the previously isolated and apparently disconnected facts of natural
+history in a popular and generally intelligible form. The sensation which
+was made by its appearance in successive parts was very great, and it
+certainly effected much good in its time by generally diffusing a taste for
+the study of nature. For a work so vast, however--aiming, as it did, at
+being little less than a general encyclopaedia of the sciences--Buffon's
+capacities may, without disparagement, be said to have been insufficient,
+as is shown by the great weakness of parts of the work (such as those
+relating to mineralogy). The _Histoire naturelle_ passed through several
+editions, and was translated into various languages. The edition most
+highly prized by collectors, on account of the beauty of its plates, is the
+first, which was published in Paris (1749-1804) in forty-four quarto
+volumes, the publication extending over more than fifty years. In the
+preparation of the first fifteen volumes of this edition (1749-1767) Buffon
+was assisted by Daubenton, and subsequently by P. Guéneau de Montbéliard,
+the abbé G.L.C.A. Bexon, and C.N.S. Sonnini de Manoncourt. The following
+seven volumes form a supplement to the preceding, and appeared in
+1774-1789, the famous _Époques de la nature_ (1779) being the fifth of
+them. They were succeeded by nine volumes on the birds (1770-1783), and
+these again by five volumes on minerals (1783-1788). The remaining eight
+volumes, which complete this edition, appeared after Buffon's death, and
+comprise reptiles, fishes and cetaceans. They were executed by B.G.E. de
+Lacépède, and were published in successive volumes between 1788 and 1804. A
+second edition begun in 1774 and completed in 1804, in thirty-six volumes
+quarto, is in most respects similar to the first, except that the
+anatomical descriptions are suppressed and the supplement recast.
+
+See Humbert-Bazile, _Buffon, sa famille, &c._ (1863); M.J.P. Flourens,
+_Hist. des travaux et des idées de Buffon_ (1844, 3rd ed., 1870); H.
+Nadault de Buffon, _Correspondance de Buffon_ (1860); A.S. Packard,
+_Lamarck_ (1901).
+
+BUG, the name of two rivers of Europe. (1) A stream of European Russia,
+distinguished sometimes as the Southern Bug, which rises in the S. of the
+government of Volhynia, and flows generally S.E. through the governments of
+Podolia and Kherson, and after picking up the Ingul from the left at
+Nikolayev, enters the _liman_ or lagoon into which the Dnieper also
+discharges. Its length is 470 m. Its upper part is beset with rapids, and
+its lower is of little value for navigation on account of the numerous
+sandbanks and blocks of rock which choke its bed. (2) A river distinguished
+as the Western Don, which rises in the E. of Austrian Galicia between
+Tarnopol and Brody, and flows N.N.W. as far as Brest-Litovsk, separating
+the Polish provinces of Lublin and Siedlce from the Russian governments of
+Volhynia and Grodno; it then swings away almost due W., between the
+provinces of Warsaw and Lomza, and joins the Vistula, 23 m. below the city
+of Warsaw. Length, 470 m. It is navigable from Brest-Litovsk downwards.
+
+BUG, the common name for hemipterous insects of the family _Cimicidae_, of
+which the best-known example is the house bug or bed bug (_Cimex
+lectularius_). This disgusting insect is of an oval shape, of a rusty red
+colour, and, in common with the whole tribe to which it belongs, gives off
+an offensive odour when touched; unlike the others, however, it is
+wingless. The bug is provided with a proboscis, which when at rest lies
+along the inferior side of the thorax, and through which it sucks the blood
+of man, the sole food of this species. It is nocturnal in its habits,
+remaining concealed by day in crevices of bed furniture, among the
+hangings, or behind the wall paper, and shows considerable activity in its
+nightly raids in search of food. The female deposits her eggs at the
+beginning of summer in crevices of wood and other retired situations, and
+in three weeks the young emerge as small, white, and almost transparent
+larvae. These change their skin very frequently during growth, and attain
+full development in about eleven weeks. Two centuries ago the bed bug was a
+rare insect in Britain, and probably owes its name, which is derived from a
+Celtic word signifying "ghost" or "goblin," to the terror which its attacks
+at first inspired. An allied species, the dove-cote bug (_Cimex
+columbaria_), attacks domestic fowls and pigeons.
+
+BUGEAUD DE LA PICONNERIE, THOMAS ROBERT, DUKE OF ISLY (1784-1849), marshal
+of France, was born at Limoges on the 15th of October 1784. He came of a
+noble family of Périgord, and was the youngest of his parents' thirteen
+children. Harsh treatment led to his flight from home, and for some years
+about 1800 he lived in the country, engaged in agriculture, to which he was
+ever afterwards devoted. At the age of twenty he became a private soldier
+in the _Vélites_ of the Imperial Guard (1804), with which he took part in
+the Austerlitz campaign of the following year. Early in 1806 he was given a
+commission, and as a sub-lieutenant he served in the Jena and Eylau
+campaigns, winning his promotion to the rank of lieutenant at Pultusk
+(December 1806). In 1808 he was in the first French corps which entered
+Spain, and was stationed in Madrid during the revolt of the _Dos Mayo_. At
+the second siege of Saragossa he won further promotion to the rank of
+captain, and in 1809-1810 found opportunities for winning distinction under
+General (Marshal) Suchet in the eastern theatre of the Peninsular War, in
+which he rose to the rank of major and the command of a full regiment. At
+the first restoration he was made a colonel, but he rejoined Napoleon
+during the Hundred Days, and under his old chief Suchet distinguished
+himself greatly in the war in the Alps. For fifteen years after the fall of
+Napoleon he was not re-employed, and during this time he displayed great
+activity in agriculture and in the general development of his district of
+Périgord. The July revolution of 1830 reopened his military career, and
+after a short tenure of a regimental command he was in 1831 made a
+_maréchal de camp_. In the chamber [v.04 p.0704] of deputies, to which he
+was elected in the same year, he showed himself to be an inflexible
+opponent of democracy, and in his military capacity he was noted for his
+severity in police work and the suppression of _émeutes_. His conduct as
+gaoler of the duchesse de Berry led to a duel between Bugeaud and the
+deputy Dulong, in which the latter was killed (1834); this affair and the
+incidents of another _émeute_ exposed Bugeaud to ceaseless attacks in the
+Chamber and in the press, but his opinion was sought by all parties in
+matters connected with agriculture and industrial development. He was
+re-elected in 1834, 1837 and 1839.
+
+About this time Bugeaud became much interested in the question of Algeria.
+At first he appears to have disapproved of the conquest, but his
+undeviating adherence to Louis Philippe brought him into agreement with the
+government, and with his customary decision he proposed to employ at once
+whatever forces were necessary for the swift, complete and lasting
+subjugation of Algeria. Later events proved the soundness of his views; in
+the meantime Bugeaud was sent to Africa in a subordinate capacity, and
+proceeded without delay to initiate his war of flying columns. He won his
+first victory on the 7th of July 1836, made a brilliant campaign of six
+weeks' duration, and returned home with the rank of lieutenant-general. In
+the following year he signed the treaty of Tafna (June 1st, 1837), with
+Abd-el-Kader, an act which, though justified by the military and political
+situation, led to a renewal of the attacks upon him in the chamber, to the
+refutation of which Bugeaud devoted himself in 1839. Finally, in 1840, he
+was nominated governor-general of Algeria, and early in 1841 he put into
+force his system of flying columns. His swiftness and energy drove back the
+forces of Abd-el-Kader from place to place, while the devotion of the rank
+and file to "Père Bugeaud" enabled him to carry all before him in action.
+In 1842 he secured the French positions by undertaking the construction of
+roads. In 1843 Bugeaud was made marshal of France, and in this and the
+following year he continued his operations with unvarying success. His
+great victory of Isly on the 14th of August 1844 won for him the title of
+duke. In 1845, however, he had to take the field again in consequence of
+the disaster of Sidi Brahim (22nd of September 1845), and up to his final
+retirement from Algeria (July 1846) he was almost constantly employed in
+the field. His resignation was due to differences with the home government
+on the question of the future government of the province. Amidst his other
+activities he had found time to study the agricultural characteristics of
+the conquered country, and under his régime the number of French colonists
+had grown from 17,000 to 100,000. In 1848 the marshal was in Paris during
+the revolution, but his orders prevented him from acting effectually to
+suppress it. He was asked, but eventually refused, to be a candidate for
+the presidency in opposition to Louis Napoleon. His last public service was
+the command of the army of the Alps, formed in 1848-1849 to observe events
+in Italy. He died in Paris on the 10th of June 1849.
+
+Bugeaud's writings were numerous, including his _Oeuvres militaires_,
+collected by Weil (Paris, 1883), many official reports on Algeria and the
+war there, and some works on economics and political science. See Comte
+d'Ideville, _Le Maréchal Bugeaud_ (Paris, 1881-1882).
+
+BUGENHAGEN, JOHANN (1485-1558), surnamed POMERANUS, German Protestant
+reformer, was born at Wollin near Stettin on the 24th of June 1485. At the
+university of Greifswald he gained much distinction as a humanist, and in
+1504 was appointed by the abbot of the Praemonstratensian monastery at
+Belbuck rector of the town school at Treptow. In 1509 he was ordained
+priest and became a vicar in the collegiate _Marienkirche_ at Treptow; in
+1517 he was appointed lecturer on the Bible and Church Fathers at the abbey
+school at Belbuck. In 1520 Luther's _De Captivitate Babylonica_ converted
+him into a zealous supporter of the Reformer's views, to which he won over
+the abbot among others. In 1521 he went to Wittenberg, where he formed a
+close friendship with Luther and Melanchthon, and in 1522 he married. He
+preached and lectured in the university, but his zeal and organizing skill
+soon spread his reforming influence far beyond its limits. In 1528 he
+arranged the church affairs of Brunswick and Hamburg; in 1530 those of
+Lübeck and Pomerania. In 1537 he was invited to Denmark by Christian III.,
+and remained five years in that country, organizing the church (though only
+a presbyter, he consecrated the new Danish bishops) and schools. He passed
+the remainder of his life at Wittenberg, braving the perils of war and
+persecution rather than desert the place dear to him as the home of the
+Reformation. He died on the 20th of April 1558. Among his numerous works is
+a history of Pomerania, which remained unpublished till 1728. Perhaps his
+best book is the _Interpretatio in Librum Psalmorum_ (1523), and he is also
+remembered as having helped Luther in his translation of the Bible.
+
+See Life by H. Hering (Halle, 1888); Emil Görigk, _Bugenhagen und die
+Protestantisierung Pommerns_ (1895). O. Vogt published a collection of
+Bugenhagen's correspondence in 1888, and a supplement in 1890.
+
+BUGGE, SOPHUS (1833-1907), Norwegian philologist, was born at Laurvik,
+Norway, on the 5th of January 1833. He was educated at Christiania,
+Copenhagen and Berlin, and in 1866 he became professor of comparative
+philology and Old Norse at Christiania University. In addition to
+collecting Norwegian folk-songs and traditions, and writing on Runic
+inscriptions, he made considerable contributions to the study of the
+Celtic, Romance, Oscan, Umbrian and Etruscan languages. He was the author
+of a very large number of books on philology and folklore. His principal
+work, a critical edition of the elder Edda (_Norroen Fornkvoedi_), was
+published at Christiania in 1867. He maintained that the songs of the
+_Edda_ and the earlier sagas were largely founded on Christian and Latin
+tradition imported into Scandinavian literature by way of England. His
+writings also include _Gamle Norske Folkeviser_ (1858), a collection of Old
+Norse folk-songs; _Bidrag til den aeldste skaldedigtnings historie_
+(Christiania, 1894); _Helge-digtene i den Aeldre Edda_ (Copenhagen, 1896,
+Eng. trans., _The Home of the Eddic Poems_, 1899); _Norsk Sagafortaelling
+op Sagaskrivning i Island_ (Christiania, 1901), and various books on Runic
+inscriptions. He died on the 8th of July 1907.
+
+For a further list of his works see J.B. Halvorsen, _Norsk
+Forfatter-Lexikon_, vol. i. (Christiania, 1885).
+
+BUGGY, a vehicle with either two (in England and India) or four wheels (in
+America). English buggies are generally hooded and for one horse. American
+buggies are for one horse or two, and either covered with a hood or open;
+among the varieties are the "Goddard" (the name of the inventor), the
+"box," so called from the shape of the body, the "cut under," i.e. cut out
+for the front wheels to cramp beneath and so turn in a narrow space, the
+"end-spring" and "side-bar," names referring to the style of hanging. A
+skeleton buggy, lightly constructed, is used on the American "speedways,"
+built and maintained for fast driving. The word is of unknown origin; it
+may be connected with "bogie" (_q.v._) a truck. The supposed Hindustani
+_baggi_, a gig, often given as the source, appears to be an invention or an
+adaptation into the vernacular of the English word.
+
+BUGIS, or BUGHIS, a people of Malayan stock, originally occupying only the
+kingdom of Boni in the south-western peninsula of the island of Celebes.
+From this district they spread over the whole island, and founded
+settlements throughout the whole Malay Archipelago. They are of middle size
+and robust, of very active, enterprising nature and of a complexion
+slightly lighter than the average Malay. In disposition they are brave,
+haughty and fierce, and are said to be more predisposed towards "running
+amuck" than any other Malayans. They speak a language allied to that of the
+Macassars, and write it with similar characters. It has been studied, and
+its letters reproduced in type by Dr B.F. Mathes of the Netherlands Bible
+Society. The Bugis are industrious and ingenious; they practise agriculture
+more than the neighbouring tribes, and manufacture cotton-cloth not only
+for their own use but for export. They also carry on a considerable trade
+in the mineral and vegetable products of Boni, such as gold-dust,
+tortoise-shell, pearls, nut-megs and camphor. Thair love of the sea has
+given them almost a monopoly of trade around Celebes. Their towns [v.04
+p.0705] are well built and they have schools of their own. The king is
+elected generally for life, and always from their own number, by the chiefs
+of the eight petty states that compose the confederation of Boni, and he
+cannot decide on any public measure without their consent. In some of the
+states the office of chief is hereditary; in others any member of the
+privileged classes may aspire to the dignity, and it not infrequently
+happens that the state is governed by a woman. The Bugis have been
+Mahommedans since the 17th century. Their original form of nature-worship
+had been much affected by Hindu influences, and even now they retain rites
+connected with the worship of Siva. See further BONI; CELEBES.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Modern Service Bugle, British Army (Charles
+Mahillon).]
+
+BUGLE, BUGLE-HORN, KEYED BUGLE, KENT BUGLE OR REGENT'S BUGLE (Fr. _Bugle_,
+_Clairon_, _Cor à clefs_, _Bugle à clefs_; Ger. _Flügelhorn_, _Signalhorn_,
+_Bugelhorn_, _Klappenhorn_, _Kenthorn_; Ital. _Corna cromatica_), a treble
+brass wind instrument with cup-shaped mouthpiece and conical bore, used as
+a military duty and signal instrument. The bugle was originally, as its
+name denotes, a bull's horn,[1] of which it has preserved the
+characteristic conical bore of rapidly increasing diameter.
+
+Those members of the brass wind such as the horns, bugle, trumpet and
+tubas, which, in their simplest form, consist of tubes without lateral
+openings, depend for their scale on the harmonic series obtained by
+overblowing, i.e. by greater pressure of breath and by the increased
+tension of the lips, acting as reeds, across the mouthpiece. The harmonic
+series thus produced, which depends on the acoustic principles of the tube
+itself, and is absolutely uninfluenced by the manner in which the tube is
+bent, forms a natural subdivision in classifying these instruments:--(1)
+Those in which the lower harmonics from the second to the sixth or eighth
+are employed, such as the bugle, post-horn, the cornet à pistons, the
+trombone. (2) Those in which the higher harmonics from the third or fourth
+to the twelfth or sixteenth are mostly used, such as the French horn and
+trumpet. (3) Those which give out the fundamental tone and harmonics up to
+the eighth, such as the tubas and ophicleide.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+We thus find a fundamental difference between the trumpet and the bugle as
+regards the harmonic series. But although, to the casual beholder, these
+instruments may present a general similarity, there are other important
+structural distinctions. The tube of the trumpet is cylindrical, widening
+only at the bell, whereas that of the bugle, as stated above, is conical.
+Both instruments have cup-shaped mouthpieces outwardly similar. The
+peculiar shape of the basins, however, at the place where they open into
+the tube, angular in the trumpet and bevelled in the bugle, taken in
+conjunction with the bore of the main tube, gives to the trumpet its
+brilliant blaring tone, and to the bugle its more veiled but penetrating
+quality, characteristic of the whole family.[2] Only five notes are
+required for the various bugle-calls, although the actual compass of the
+instrument consists of eight, of which the first or fundamental, however,
+being of poor quality, is never used. There are bugles in C and in E flat,
+but the bugle in B flat is most generally used; the key of C is used in
+notation.
+
+In order to increase the compass and musical possibilities of the bugle,
+two methods have been adopted, the use of (1) keys and (2) valves. The
+application of keys to the bugle produced the Kent bugle, and later the
+ophicleide. The application of valves produced the family of saxhorns. The
+use of keys for wood wind instruments was known early in the 15th
+century,[3] perhaps before. In 1438, the duke of Burgundy paid Hennequin
+Haulx, instrument-maker of Brussels, 4 _ridres_ a piece for three tenor
+bombards with keys. In the 16th century we find a key applied to the bass
+flûte-à-bec[4] and later to the large tenor cornetto.[5] In 1770 a
+horn-player named Kölbel, belonging to the imperial Russian band,
+experimented with keys on the trumpet, and in 1795 Weidinger of Vienna
+produced a trumpet with five keys. In 1810 Joseph Halliday, the bandmaster
+of the Cavan militia, patented the keyed bugle, with five keys and a
+compass of twenty-five notes, calling it the "Royal Kent Bugle" out of
+compliment to the duke of Kent, who was at the time commander-in-chief, and
+encouraged the introduction of the instrument into the regimental bands. A
+Royal Kent bugle in C, stamped with Halliday's name as inventor, and made
+by P. Turton, 5 Wormwood Gate, Dublin, was exhibited by Col. Shaw-Hellier
+at the Royal Military Exhibition in 1890.[6] The instrument measures 17
+in., and the total length of the tubing, including the mouthpiece, 50½ in.
+The diameter at the mouthpiece is ½ in. and at the bell 5¾ in. The
+instrument has a chromatic compass of two octaves, [Illustration] the open
+notes being [Illustration].
+
+Mahillon (op. cit. p. 117) points out that the tonality of the key-bugle
+and kindred instruments is determined by the second harmonic given out by
+the open tube, the first key remaining open. To the original instrument
+specified in the patent, Halliday added a sixth key, which became the first
+and was in the normal position open; this key when closed gave B flat, with
+the same series of harmonics as the open tube. The series, however, becomes
+shorter with each successive key. Thus, on being opened, the second key
+gives [Illustration], the third key [Illustration], the fourth key
+[Illustration], the fifth key [Illustration], the sixth key [Illustration].
+The bore of the instrument is just wide enough in proportion to its length
+to make possible the playing of the fundamental tones in the first two
+series, but these notes are never used, and the harmonics above the sixth
+are also avoided, being of doubtful intonation. In the ophicleide, the bass
+of the key-bugle, the bore is sufficiently wide to produce the fundamentals
+of a satisfactory quality.
+
+The keyed bugle was chiefly used in B flat, a crook for B flat being
+frequently added to the bugle in C; the soprano bugle in E flat was also
+much used in military bands.
+
+The origin of the bugle, in common with that of the hunting horn, is of the
+highest antiquity. During the middle ages, the word "bugle" was applied to
+the ox and also to its horns, whether used as musical instruments or for
+drinking. The _New English Dictionary_ quotes a definition of bugle dating
+from c. 1398: "The Bugle ... is lyke to an oxe and is a fyers [v.04 p.0706]
+beest."[7] In 1300 a romance[8] contains the word used in both
+acceptations, "A thousand bugles of Ynde," and "tweye bugle-hornes and a
+bowe." F. Godefroy[9] gives quotations from early French which show that,
+as in England, the word bugle was frequently used as an adjective, and as a
+verb:--"IIII cors buglieres fist soner de randon" (_Quatre fils Aymon_, ed.
+P. Tarbé, p. 32), and "I grant cor buglerenc fit en sa tor soner" (_Aiol_,
+7457, _Société des anciens textes français_). Tubas, horns, cornets and
+bugles have as common archetype the horn of ram, bull or other animal,
+whose form was copied and modified in bronze, wood, brass, ivory, silver,
+&c. Of all these instruments, the bugle has in the highest degree retained
+the acoustic properties and the characteristic scale of the prototype, and
+is still put to the original use for giving military signals. The shofar of
+the ancient Hebrews, used at the siege of Jericho, was a cow's horn (Josh.
+vi. 4, 5, 8, 13, &c.), translated in the Vulgate _buccina_, in the
+paraphrase of the Chaldee _buccina ex cornu_. The directions given for
+sounding the trumpets of beaten silver described in Numbers x. form the
+earliest code of signals yet known; the narrative shows that the Israelites
+had metal wind instruments; if, therefore, they retained the more primitive
+cow's horn and ram's horn (shofar), it was from choice, because they
+attached special significance to them in connexion with their ritual. The
+trumpet of silver mentioned above was the _Khatsotsrah_, probably the long
+straight trumpet or tuba which also occurs among the instruments in the
+musical scenes of the ancient Egyptians and Assyrians. Gideon's use of a
+massed band of three hundred shofars to terrify and defeat the Midianites
+(Judges vii. 16), and Saul's call to arms (1 Sam. xiii. 3) show that the
+value of the shofar as a military instrument was well understood by the
+Jews. The cornu was used by the Roman infantry to sound the military calls,
+and Vegetius[10] states that the tuba and buccina were also used for the
+same purpose. Mahillon possesses a facsimile of an ancient Etruscan cornu,
+the length of which is 1.40 m.; he gives its scale,[11] pitched one tone
+below that of the bugle in E flat, as that of D flat, of which the
+harmonics [Illustration] from the second to the sixth are available. The
+same department of the British Museum was enriched in 1904 with a
+terra-cotta model (fig. 2) of a late Roman bugle (c. 4th century A.D.),
+bent completely round upon itself to form a coil between the mouthpiece and
+the bell-end (the latter has been broken off). This precious relic was
+found at Ventoux in France and has been acquired from the collection of M.
+Morel. This is precisely the form of bugle now used as a badge by the first
+battalion of the King's Own Light Infantry.[12] During the middle ages the
+use of the bugle-horn by knights and huntsmen, and perhaps also in naval
+warfare, was general in Europe, as the following additional quotations will
+show: "XXX cors bugleres, fait l'amirax soner" (_Conq. de Jérusalem_, 6811,
+Hippeau); "Two squyers blewe ... with ij grete bugles hornes" (Caxton,
+_Chron. Engl. ccix. 192_). The oliphant was a glorified bugle-horn made of
+rich material, such as ivory, carved and inlaid with designs in gold and
+silver.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Terra Cotta Model of Roman Bugle, 4th cent.
+(British Museum).]
+
+The history of the bugle as a military instrument is in England closely
+connected with the creation of the light infantry, in which it gradually
+superseded the drum[13] as a duty and signal instrument. It was during the
+17th century that the change was inaugurated; improvements in firearms
+brought about the gradual abandonment of armour by the infantry, and the
+formation of the light infantry and the adoption of the bugle followed by
+degrees. One of the oldest light infantry regiments, Prince Albert's 1st
+Somerset Light Infantry, formed in 1685 by the earl of Huntingdon, employed
+a drummer at that date at a shilling per day.[14] At the end of the 18th
+century we find the bugle the recognized signal instrument in the light
+infantry, while the trumpet remained that of the cavalry. The general order
+introducing the bugle as a minor badge for the light infantry is under date
+28th of December 1814. In 1856 the popularity of the keyed or Royal Kent
+bugle in the army had reached its height. A bugle-band was formed in the
+Royal Artillery as a substitute for the drum and fife band.[15] The
+organization and training of this bugle-band were entrusted to
+Trumpet-major James Lawson, who raised it to a very high standard of
+excellence. Major Lawson was a fine cornet player, and finding the scale of
+the service bugle too restricted he obtained permission to add to it a
+valve attachment, which made the bugle a chromatic instrument like the
+cornet, in fact practically a saxhorn. Before long, horns in E flat, tenor
+horns in B flat, euphoniums and bass tubas were added, all made of copper,
+and in 1869 the name of "bugle band" was changed to R.A. Brass Band, and in
+1877 it was merged in the Mounted Band. The bugle with its double
+development by means of keys into Royal Kent bugle and ophicleide, and by
+means of valves into saxhorns and tubas, formed the nucleus of brass bands
+of all countries during the greater part of the 19th century. The
+Flügelhorn, as its name denotes, became the signal instrument of the
+infantry in Germany as in England, and still holds it own with the keyed
+bugle in the fine military bands of Austro-Hungary.
+
+There is in the department of prehistoric antiquities at the British Museum
+a fine bugle-horn belonging to the Bronze Age in Denmark; the tube, which
+has an accentuated conical bore, is bent in a semi-circle, and has on the
+inner bend a series of little rings from which were probably suspended
+ornaments or cords. An engraved design runs spirally round the whole length
+of the tube, which is in an excellent state of preservation.
+
+Meyerbeer introduced the bugle in B flat in his opera _Robert-le-Diable_ in
+the scene of the resurrection of the nuns, and a bugle in A in the fifth
+act.
+
+See, for further information on the technique of the instrument, Logier's
+_Introduction to the Art of Playing on the Royal Kent Bugle_ (London,
+Clementi, 1820); and for the use of the bugle in the French army, G.
+Kastner, _Le Manuel général de musique militaire_ (with illustrations,
+Paris, 1848).
+
+(K. S.)
+
+[1] The word is derived from Lat. _buculus_, a young bull. "Bugle," meaning
+a long jet or black glass bead, used in trimming ladies' dresses, is
+possibly connected with the Ger. _Bugel_, a bent piece of metal. The
+English name "bugle" is also given to a common labiate plant, the _Ajuga
+reptans_, not to be confused with the "Bugloss" or _Anchusa officinalis_.
+
+[2] For diagrams of these mouthpieces see V.C. Mahillon, _Éléments
+d'acoustique_ (Brussels, 1874), p. 96.
+
+[3] See E. van der Straeten, _La Musique aux Pays-bas_, vol. vii. p. 38,
+where the instrument is not mentioned as a novelty; also Léon, comte de
+Laborde, _Les Ducs de Bourgogne_, pt. ii. (_Preuves_), (Paris, 1849), tom.
+i. p. 365, No. 1266.
+
+[4] Martin Agricola, _Musica Instrumentalis deudsch_ (Wittenberg, 1528), f.
+viii^b.
+
+[5] Michael Praetorius, _Syntagma Musicum_ (Wolfenbüttel, 1618), pl. viii.
+No. 5.
+
+[6] See Captain C.R. Day, _Descript. Catalogue_ (London, 1891), pp.
+168-169, and pl. xi. fig. D.
+
+[7] Barthol. Trevisa, _De Propr. Rebus_, xviii., xv., 1495, 774.
+
+[8] _King Alisaunder_, 5112 and 5282.
+
+[9] _Dictionnaire de l'ancienne langue française du IXe an XVe siècle._
+
+[10] _De re militari_, bk. iii. ch. v.
+
+[11] See _Catal. descriptif du musée instrumental du conservatoire de
+Bruxelles_, vol. i. (Ghent, 1880), p. 331. There are, in the department of
+Greek and Roman antiquities at the British Museum, two bronze Etruscan
+cornua, No. 2734, resembling the hunting horns of the middle ages and bent
+in a semicircular shape. They measure from end to end respectively 2 ft. 1
+in. and 2 ft. 2 in.
+
+[12] Maj. J.H.L. Archer, _The British Army Records_ (London, 1888), p. 402.
+
+[13] For the use of the drum in the 16th century, see Sir John Smyth,
+_Instructions and Observations for all Chieftaines, Captaines, &c._
+(London, 1595), pp. 158-159.
+
+[14] See Richard Cannon, _Historical Records_ of the regiment (London,
+1848), p. 3.
+
+[15] See H.G. Farmer, _Memoirs of the Royal Artillery Band_ (London, 1904),
+p. 183.
+
+BUGTI, a Baluch tribe of Rind (Arab) origin, numbering about 15,500, who
+occupy the hills to the east of the Sind-Peshin railway, between Jacobabad
+and Sibi, with the Marris (a cognate tribe) to the north of them. Like the
+Marris, the Bugtis are physically a magnificent race of people, fine
+horsemen, good swordsmen and hereditary robbers. An expedition against them
+was organized by Sir C. Napier in 1845, but they were never brought under
+control till Sir Robert Sandeman ruled Baluchistan. Since the construction
+of the railway, which completely outflanks their country, they have been
+fairly orderly.
+
+BUHLE, JOHANN GOTTLIEB (1763-1821), German scholar and philosopher, was
+born at Brunswick, and educated at Göttingen. He became professor of
+philosophy at Göttingen, Moscow (1840) and Brunswick. Of his numerous
+publications, [v.04 p.0707] the most important are the _Handbuch der
+Geschichte der Philosophie_ (8 vols., 1796-1804), and _Geschichte der
+neueren Philosophie_ (6 vols., 1800-1805). The latter, elaborate and well
+written, is lacking in critical appreciation and proportion; there are
+French and Italian translations. He edited Aratus (2 vols., 1793, 1801) and
+part of Aristotle (Bipontine edition, vols. i.-v., 1791-1904).
+
+BUHTURI [al-Walid ibn 'Ubaid Allah] (820-897), Arabian poet, was born at
+Manbij (Hierapolis) in Syria, between Aleppo and the Euphrates. Like Abu
+Tammam, he was of the tribe of Tai. While still young, he went to visit Abu
+Tammam at Horns, and by him was commended to the authorities at Ma'arrat
+un-Nu'man, who gave him a pension of 4000 dirhems (about £90) yearly. Later
+he went to Bagdad, where he wrote verses in praise of the caliph Motawakkil
+and of the members of his court. Although long resident in Bagdad he
+devoted much of his poetry to the praise of Aleppo, and much of his
+love-poetry is dedicated to Alwa, a maiden of that city. He died at Manbij
+Hierapolis in 897. His poetry was collected and edited twice in the 10th
+century, arranged in one edition alphabetically (i.e. according to the last
+consonant in each line); in the other according to subjects. It was
+published in Constantinople (A.D. 1883). Like Abu Tammam he made a
+collection of early poems, known as the Hamasa (index of the poems
+contained in it, in the _Journal of the German Oriental Society_, vol. 47,
+pp. 418 ff., cf. vol. 45, pp. 470 ff.).
+
+Biography in M^cG. de Slane's translation of Ibn Khallikan's _Biographical
+Dictionary_ (Paris and London, 1842), vol. iii. pp. 657 ff.; and in the
+_Book of Songs_ (see ABULFARAJ), vol. xviii. pp. 167-175.
+
+(G. W. T.)
+
+BUILDERS' RITES. Many people familiar with the ceremonies attendant on the
+laying of foundation stones, whether ecclesiastical, masonic or otherwise,
+may be at a loss to account for the actual origin of the custom in placing
+within a cavity beneath the stone, a few coins of the realm, newspapers,
+&c. The ordinary view that by such means particulars may be found of the
+event on the removal of the stone hereafter, may suffice as respects
+latter-day motives, but such memorials are deposited in the hope that they
+will never be disturbed, and so another reason must be found for such an
+ancient survival. Whilst old customs continue, the reasons for them are
+ever changing, and certainly this fact applies to laying foundation stones.
+Originally, it appears that living victims were selected as "a sacrifice to
+the gods," and especially to ensure the stability of the building. Grimm[1]
+remarks "It was often thought necessary to immure live animals and even men
+in the foundation, on which the structure was to be raised, to secure
+immovable stability." There is no lack of evidence as to this gruesome
+practice, both in savage and civilized communities. "The old pagan laid the
+foundation of his house and fortress in blood." [Footnote: Baring-Gould on
+"Foundations," _Murray's Mag._ (1887).] Under the walls of two round towers
+in Ireland (the only ones examined) human skeletons have been discovered.
+In the 15th century, the wall of Holsworthy church was built over a living
+human being, and when this became unlawful, images of living beings were
+substituted (_Folk-Lore Journal_, i. 23-24).
+
+The best succinct account of these rites is to be obtained in G. W. Speth's
+_Builders' Rites and Ceremonies_ (1893).
+
+(W. J. H.*)
+
+[1] _Teutonic Mythology_ (1883-1884), (trans. Stalleybrass).
+
+BUILDING.[1] The art of building comprises the practice of civil
+architecture, or the mechanical operations necessary to [Sidenote: Relation
+of building to architecture.] carry the designs of the architect into
+effect. It is not infrequently called "practical architecture," but the
+adoption of this form would lead only to confusion, by rendering it
+difficult to make the distinction generally understood between architecture
+(_q.v._) as a fine or liberal art, and architecture as a mechanical art.
+The execution of works of architecture necessarily includes building, but
+building is frequently employed when the result is not architectural; a man
+may be a competent builder without being an architect, but no one can be an
+accomplished architect unless he be competent to specify and direct all the
+operations of building. An architect should have a scientific knowledge of
+the various soils he may meet with, such as clay, earth, silt, rock,
+gravel, chalk, &c., so that when the trial holes are dug out on the site,
+he can see the nature of the soil, and at once know what kind of a
+foundation to put to the building, and the depth to which he must go to get
+a good bottom. He should also have a good knowledge of chemistry, so that
+he may understand the effects of the various acids, gases, &c., that are
+contained in the materials he uses, and the objections to their presence.
+He must be acquainted with the principles of timbering in trenches, and
+excavations, shoring, brickwork, fireproof construction, stonework,
+carpentry and joinery, smiths' work, plumbing, heating, ventilation, bells,
+electric and gas lighting, water-supply, drainage, plastering, tiling to
+internal walls or pavings and roofs, slating of roofs, glazing, painting
+and decoration. He should be able to calculate the various strengths and
+strains to be placed on any portion of the structure, and have a general
+knowledge of the building trade, enabling him to deal with any difficulty
+or defects that may arise.
+
+An important feature in the qualification of the architect is that he
+should be thoroughly conversant with the by-laws of the different towns or
+districts, as to the requirements for the various classes of buildings, and
+the special features of portions of the different buildings. The following
+are examples of the various buildings which he may have to design, and the
+erection of which he may have to superintend:--dwelling-houses, domestic
+buildings, shops, dwellings for the working class, public buildings such as
+churches, schools, hospitals, libraries and hotels, factories of all kinds
+for all general trades, studios, electric power stations, cold storage
+buildings, stables and slaughterhouses. With regard to factories, places
+for the storage or making of different patent foods, and for slaughter of
+beasts intended for human consumption, stringent by-laws are in most
+countries laid down and enforced by the public health authorities. In
+England, the Public Health Acts and By-laws are carried out by the various
+borough or district authorities, who appoint inspectors especially to study
+the health of the public with regard to sanitary arrangements. The
+inspectors have special powers to deal with all improper or defective food,
+or with any defects in buildings that may affect its cleanly preparation.
+
+In addition to meeting the requirements of the clients, the various
+buildings have to be constructed and planned on clearly [Sidenote: Reasons
+for special type of plans.] defined lines, according to the rules of the
+various authorities that control their erection; thus the construction and
+planning of public schools are governed in England by the board of
+education, and churches are governed by the various societies that assist
+in financing the erection of these edifices; of these the Incorporated
+Church Building Society exercises the strongest control. Factories both in
+England and France must be planned and erected to meet the separate acts
+that deal with these buildings. The fire insurance companies lay down
+certain requirements according to the size of the building, and the special
+trade for which it is erected, and fix their rate of premium accordingly.
+Dwelling-houses in London must be erected in accordance with the many
+building acts which govern the materials to be used, and the methods by
+which they shall be employed, the thickness of walls, rates of inclination
+of roofs, means of escape from fire, drainage, space at rear, &c. &c.;
+these laws especially forbid the use of timber framed buildings. In sundry
+districts in England where the model by-laws are not in force, notably at
+Letchworth, Herts, it is possible to erect buildings with sound materials
+untrammelled by by-laws. With regard to premises used in a combined way, as
+shop and dwelling-house, if in London, and the building exceeds 10 squares,
+or 1000 sq. ft. super in area, the stairs and a large portion of the
+building must be built of fire-resisting materials. In the erection of
+London flats under certain conditions the stairs and corridors [v.04
+p.0708] must be of fire-resisting materials, while in parts of New York
+timber buildings are allowed; for illustrations of these see the article
+CARPENTRY. In public buildings and theatres in London, Paris and New York
+not only the construction, but also the exits and seating accommodation and
+stage, including the scenery dock and flies, must conform to certain
+regulations.
+
+The conditions necessary for planning a successful building may be
+summarized as follows:--(1) Ease of access; (2) Good [Sidenote: Conditions
+necessary for a successful building.] light (3) Good service; (4) Pleasing
+environment and approaches; (5) Minimum cost with true economy; in the case
+of office buildings, also ease of rearrangement to suit tenants. An
+architect should also be practically acquainted with all the modes of
+operation in all the trades or arts employed in building, and be able
+minutely to estimate beforehand the absolute cost involved in the execution
+of a proposed structure. The power to do this necessarily involves that of
+measuring work (usually done by the quantity surveyor at an advanced stage
+of the work), and of ascertaining the quantities to be done. In ordinary
+practice the architect usually cubes a building at a price per foot cube,
+as will be described hereafter, but an architect should know how to measure
+and prepare quantities, or he cannot be said to be master of his
+profession.
+
+Building includes what is called construction, which is the branch of the
+science of architecture relating to the practical [Sidenote: Construction.]
+execution of the works required to produce any structure; it will therefore
+be necessary to explain the subject in a general manner before entering
+upon building in detail.
+
+Although the styles of architecture have varied at different periods,
+buildings, wherever similar materials are employed, must be constructed on
+much the same principles. Scientific knowledge of the natures and
+properties of materials has, however, given to the modern workman immense
+advantages over his medieval brother-craftsman, and caused many changes in
+the details of the trade, or art of building, although stones, bricks,
+mortar, &c., then as now, formed the element of the more solid parts of all
+edifices.
+
+The object of constructions is to adapt, combine and fit materials in such
+a manner that they shall retain in use the [Sidenote: General principles.]
+forms and dispositions assigned to them. If an upright wall be properly
+constructed upon a sufficient foundation, the combined mass will retain its
+position and bear pressure acting in the direction of gravity to any extent
+that the ground on which it stands, and the compound materials of the wall,
+can sustain. But pressure acting laterally has a necessary tendency to
+overthrow a wall, and therefore it will be the aim of the constructor to
+compel, as far as possible, all forces that can act upon an upright wall,
+to act in the direction of gravity, or else to give it permanent means of
+resistance in the direction opposite to that in which a disturbing force
+may act. Thus when an arch is built to bear against an upright wall, a
+buttress or other counterfort is applied in a direction opposed to the
+pressure of the arch. In like manner the inclined roof of a building
+spanning from wall to wall tends to thrust out the walls, and hence a tie
+is applied to hold the opposite sides of the roof together at its base,
+where alone a tie can be fully efficient, and thus the roof is made to act
+upon the walls wholly in the direction of gravity; or where an efficient
+tie is inapplicable, as in the case of a hammer beam roof, buttresses or
+counterforts are added to the walls, to enable them to resist the pressure
+outwards. A beam laid horizontally from wall to wall, as a girder to carry
+a floor and its load, may sag or bend downwards, and tend thereby to force
+out the walls, or the beam itself may break. Both these contingencies are
+obviated by trussing, which renders the beam stiff enough to place its load
+on the walls in the direction of gravity, and strong enough to carry it
+safely. Or if the beam be rigid in its nature, or uncertain in its
+structure, or both (as cast-iron is), and will break without bending, the
+constructor by the smiths' art will supply a check and ensure it against
+the possible contingency.
+
+Perfect stability, however, is not to be obtained with materials which are
+subject to influences beyond the control of man, and all matter is subject
+to certain influences of that nature. The [Sidenote: Materials.] influences
+mostly to be contended against are heat and humidity, the former of which
+produces movement of some kind or to some extent in all bodies, the latter,
+in many kinds of matter; whilst the two acting together contribute to the
+disintegration or decay of materials available for the purposes of
+construction. These pervading influences the constructor seeks to
+counteract, by proper selection and disposition of his materials.
+
+Stone and brick, the principal materials in general construction, keep
+their places in combination by means of gravity. They may [Sidenote:
+Stone.] be merely packed together, but in general they are compacted by
+means of mortar or cement, so that although the main constituent materials
+are wholly incompressible, masses of either, or of both, combined in
+structures are compressible, until the setting medium has indurated to a
+like condition of hardness. That kind of stone is best fitted for the
+purposes of general construction which is least absorbent of moisture, and
+at the same time free to work. Absorbent stone exposed to the weather
+rapidly disintegrates, and for the most part non-absorbent stone is so hard
+that it cannot always be used with a due regard to economy. When,
+therefore, suitable stone of both qualities can be obtained, the harder
+stone can be exposed to the weather, or to the action which the softer
+stone cannot resist, and made to form the main body of the structure of the
+latter so protected. The hard and the soft should be made to bear alike,
+and should therefore be coursed and bonded together by the mason's art,
+whether the work be of stone wrought into blocks and gauged to thickness,
+or of rough dressed or otherwise unshaped rubble compacted with mortar.
+
+Good bricks are less absorbent of moisture than any stone of the same
+degree of hardness, and are better non-conductors [Sidenote: Bricks.] of
+heat than stone. As the basis of a stable structure, brickwork is more to
+be relied upon than stone in the form of rubble, when the constituents bear
+the relation to one another last above referred to, the setting material
+being the same in both; because the brick by its shaped form seats itself
+truly, and produces by bonding a more perfectly combined mass, whilst the
+imperfectly shaped and variously sized stone as dressed rubble can neither
+bed nor bond truly, the inequalities of the form having to be compensated
+for with mortar, and the irregularity of size of the main constituent
+accounted for by the introduction of larger and smaller stones. The most
+perfect stability is to be obtained, nevertheless, from truly wrought and
+accurately seated and bonded blocks of stone, mortar being used to no
+greater extent than may be necessary to exclude wind and water and prevent
+the disintegrating action of these agents upon even the most durable stone.
+When water alone is to be dealt with, and especially when it is liable to
+act with force, mortar is necessary for securing to every block in the
+structure its own full weight, and the aid of every other collateral and
+superimposed stone, in order to resist the loosening effect which water in
+powerful action is bound to produce.
+
+In the application of construction to any particular object, the nature of
+the object will naturally affect the character of [Sidenote: Particular
+objects of construction.] the constructions and the materials of which they
+are to be formed. Every piece of construction should be complete in itself,
+and independent as such of everything beyond it. A door or a gate serves
+its purpose by an application wholly foreign to itself, but it is a good
+and effective, or a bad and ineffective, piece of construction,
+independently of the posts to which it may be hung, whilst the wheel of a
+wheelbarrow, comprising felloes, spokes and axletree, is a piece of
+construction complete in itself, and independent as such of everything
+beyond it. An arch of masonry, however large it may be, is not necessarily
+a piece of construction complete in itself, for it would fall to pieces
+without abutments. Thus a bridge consisting of a series of arches, however
+extensive, may be but one piece of construction, no arch being complete in
+itself without the collateral arches in the series to serve as its
+abutments, and the whole series being dependent thereby upon [v.04 p.0709]
+the ultimate abutments of the bridge, without which the structure would not
+stand. This illustration is not intended to apply to the older bridges with
+widely distended masses, which render each pier sufficient to abut the
+arches springing from it, but tend, in providing for a way over the river,
+to choke up the way by the river itself, or to compel the river either to
+throw down the structure or else to destroy its own banks.
+
+Some soils are liable to change in form, expanding and contracting under
+meteorological influences; such are clays which [Sidenote: Foundations.]
+swell when wetted and shrink when dried. Concrete foundations are commonly
+interposed upon such soils to protect the building from derangement from
+this cause; or walls of the cheaper material, concrete, instead of the more
+expensive brick or stone structure, are brought up from a level
+sufficiently below the ordinary surface of the ground. When concrete is
+used to obviate the tendency of the soil to yield to pressure, expanse or
+extent of base is required, and the concrete being widely spread should
+therefore be deep or thick as a layer, only with reference to its own power
+of transmitting to the ground the weight of the wall to be built upon it,
+without breaking across or being crushed. But when concrete is used as a
+substitute for a wall, in carrying a wall down to a low level, it is in
+fact a wall in itself, wide only in proportion to its comparative weakness
+in the absence of manipulated bond in its construction, and encased by the
+soil within which it is placed. When a concrete wall is used in place of
+brick the London Building Act requires an extra thickness of one-third; on
+the question of reinforced concrete no regulations as to thickness have at
+present been made.
+
+The foundation of a building of ordinary weight is for the most part
+sufficiently provided for by applying what are technically [Sidenote:
+Footings to walls.] termed "footings" to the walls. The reason for a
+footing is, that the wall obtains thereby a bearing upon a breadth of
+ground so much greater than its own width or thickness above the footing as
+to compensate for the difference between the power of resisting pressure of
+the wall, and of the ground or ultimate foundation upon which the wall is
+to rest. It will be clear from this that if a building is to be erected
+upon rock as hard as the main constituent of the walls theoretically no
+expanded footings will be necessary; if upon chalk, upon strong or upon
+weak gravel, upon sand or upon clay, the footing must be expanded with
+reference to the power of resistance of the structure to be used as a
+foundation; whilst in or upon made ground or other loose and badly combined
+or imperfectly resisting soil, a solid platform bearing evenly over the
+ground, and wide enough not to sink into it, becomes necessary under the
+constructed footing. For this purpose the easiest, the most familiar, and
+for most purposes the most effectual and durable is a layer of concrete.
+
+The English government, when it has legislated upon building matters, has
+generally confined itself to making provision that the enclosing walls of
+buildings should be formed of incombustible materials. In provisions
+regarding the least thicknesses of such walls, these were generally
+determined with reference to the height and length of the building.
+
+In the general and usual practice of developing land at the present day,
+the owner or freeholder of the land first consults an [Sidenote: Procedure
+for an intended building.] architect and states his intentions of building,
+the size of what he requires, what it is to be used for, if for trade how
+many hands he intends to employ, and the sub-buildings and departments,
+&c., that will be wanted. The architect gathers as much information as he
+can as to his client's requirements, and from this information prepares his
+sketches. This first step is usually done with rough sketches or outlines
+only, and when approved by the client as regards the planning and situation
+of rooms, &c., the architect prepares the plans, elevations, and sections
+on the lines of the approved rough sketches; at the same time he strictly
+observes the building acts, and makes every portion of the building comply
+with these acts as regards the thickness of walls, open spaces, light and
+air, distances from surrounding property, frontage lines, and a host of
+other points too numerous to mention, as far as he can interpret the
+meaning of the enactments. (The London and New York Building Acts are very
+extensive, with numerous amendments made as occasion requires.) An
+architect, whilst preparing the working drawings from the rough approved
+sketches, and endeavouring to conform with the Building Act requirements,
+often finds after consultation with the district surveyor, or the London
+County Council, or other local authorities, that the plans have to be
+altered; and when so altered the client may disapprove of them, and thus
+delay often occurs in settling them.
+
+Another important point is that after the architect has obtained the
+consent of the building authorities, and also the approval of the client,
+then he may have to fight the adjoining owners with regard to ancient
+lights, or air space, or party walls. In the city of London these last
+difficulties often mean the suspension of the work for a long time, and a
+great loss to the client.
+
+If the site is a large one, or the nature of the soil uncertain, trial
+holes should be sunk directly the sketch plans are approved. (See
+FOUNDATIONS.)
+
+Where the property is leasehold there are always at this stage negotiations
+as to obtaining the approval of the senior lessors and the freeholders;
+these having been obtained, the architect is then free to serve the various
+notices that may be required _re_ party walls, &c.
+
+The contract plans should be very carefully prepared, and sections, plans
+and elevations of all parts of the buildings and the levels from a datum
+line be given. In addition to the general set of drawings, larger scale
+details of the principal portions of the building should be given.
+
+If there are any existing buildings on the site these should be carefully
+surveyed and accurate detail plans be made for reference; this is
+especially necessary with regard to easements and rights of adjoining
+owners. Also in the preparation of the site plan the various levels of the
+ground should be shown.
+
+The plans having been approved by all parties concerned, the next operation
+is the preparation of the _specification_. This is a document which
+describes the materials to be used in the building, states how they are to
+be mixed, and how the various works are to be executed, and specifies every
+trade, and every portion of work in the building. The specification is
+necessary to enable the builder to erect the structure according to the
+architect's requirements, and is written by the architect; usually two
+copies of this document are made, one for the builder, the other for the
+architect, and the latter is signed as the contract copy in the same manner
+as the drawings.
+
+From the specification and drawings usually an approximate estimate of the
+cost of the proposed building is prepared by the architect, and the most
+general method adopted is to cube the building by a multiplication of the
+length, breadth and height of the building, and to multiply the product or
+cubic contents by a price ranging from fivepence to three shillings per
+cubic foot. In the case of churches, chapels and schools, the cost may be
+roughly computed by taking the number of seats at a price per seat. In the
+case of churches and chapels, taking a minimum area of 8 ft. each, the cost
+varies from £10 upwards, the difference being due to the amount of
+architectural embellishment or the addition of a tower. Schools may be
+estimated as averaging £9 per scholar; we find that, taking schools of
+various sizes erected by the late London School Board, their cost varied
+from £7:12:4 to £10:1:10 per scholar. Hospitals vary from £100 per bed
+upwards, the lowest cost being taken from a cottage hospital type; while in
+the case of St Thomas's hospital, London, the cost per bed, including the
+proportion of the administrative block, was £650, and without this portion
+the wards alone cost £250. The Herbert hospital at Woolwich cost only £320
+per bed.
+
+The bills of quantities are prepared by the quantity surveyor, and are
+generally made to form part of the contract, and so mentioned in "the
+contract." The work of the quantity surveyor is to measure from the
+drawings the whole of the materials required for the structure, and state
+the amounts or quantities of the respective materials in the form of a bill
+usually made out on foolscap paper specially ruled, so that [v.04 p.0710]
+the builders can price each item, together with the labour required to work
+and fix it, thus forming the building. The idea is to be able to arrive at
+a lump sum for which the builders will undertake to erect the building. It
+is of frequent occurrence, in fact it occurs in four-fifths of building
+contracts, that when a building is commenced, the client, or other
+interested person, will alter some portion, thereby causing deviations from
+the bills of quantities. By having the prices of the different materials
+before him, it is easy for the quantity surveyor to remeasure the portion
+altered, adding or deducting as the case may be, and thus to ascertain what
+difference the alteration makes. This method of bills of quantities and
+prices is absolutely necessary to any one about to build, and means a
+considerable saving to the client in the end. For example:--Suppose that
+bills of quantities are not prepared for a certain job by a quantity
+surveyor, and, as is often done, the drawings and specification are sent to
+several builders asking them for a quotation to build the house or factory
+or whatever it may be, according to the drawings and specification. The
+prices are duly sent in to the architect, and probably the lowest price is
+accepted and the successful builder starts the job. During the progress of
+the works certain alterations take place by the owner's instructions, and
+when the day of settlement comes, the builder puts in his claim for
+"extras," then owing to the alterations and to the architect having no
+prices to work upon, litigation often ensues.
+
+Before the work of erecting a structure is entrusted to a builder he has to
+sign a contract in the same manner as the drawings and specification. This
+contract is an important document wherein the builder agrees to carry out
+the work for a stated sum of money, in accordance with the drawings and
+specification, and bills of quantities, and instructions of the architect,
+and to his entire satisfaction; and it also states the description of the
+materials and workmanship, and the manner of carrying out the work,
+responsibilities of the builder, particularly clauses indemnifying the
+employer against accidents to employees, and against numerous other risks,
+the time of completion of works under a penalty for non-completion (the
+usual allowance being made for bad weather, fire or strikes), and also how
+payments will be made to the builder as he proceeds with the building. This
+form of contract is generally prepared by the architect, and varies in part
+as may be necessary to meet the requirements of the case.
+
+When the drawings have been approved by the owner or client, also by the
+district surveyor or local authorities, and by adjoining owners, one copy
+of them, made on linen, is usually deposited (in London) either with the
+district surveyor, or with the London County Council, another is prepared
+for the freeholder if a lease of the land is granted, and a third is given
+to the builder. In addition, in complicated cases such as occur in the city
+of London, when a building is erected on land which has four or five
+distinct owners, an architect may have to prepare a large number of
+complete copies to be deposited with the various parties interested.
+
+The duties of the builder are very similar to those of the architect,
+except that he is not expected to be able to plan [Sidenote: The builder's
+sphere.] and design, but to carry out the plans and designs of the
+architect in the actual work of building. The builder should also know the
+various acts, and in particular the acts specially relating to the erection
+of scaffoldings, hoardings, gantries, shoring and pulling down of old
+buildings. He should have a thorough knowledge of all materials, their
+qualifying marks or brands, and the special features of good and bad in
+each class, their uses and method of use. He should be able to control and
+manage both the men and materials; and briefly, in a builder, as opposed to
+an architect, the constructive knowledge should predominate.
+
+On large or important works it is usual to have a clerk of works or
+delegate from the architect; his duties are to be on the works while they
+are in progress and endeavour by constant attention to secure the use of
+the best materials and construction, and to report to the architect for his
+instruction any difficulties that may arise. He should be a thoroughly
+practical man as opposed to the architectural draughtsman. His salary is
+paid by the client, and is not included in the architect's remuneration.
+
+American building acts agree in a general manner with those enforced in
+London. But whereas New York allows the erection [Sidenote: American
+practice.] of frame or wood structures, while defining a certain portion of
+the city inside which no new frame or wood structures shall be erected, in
+London and the large cities of Great Britain the erection of wood frame
+buildings as dwellings is prohibited. In New York City provision is made
+for a space at the rear of domestic buildings at least 10 ft. deep, but
+such depth is increased when the building is over 60 ft. high, and is
+varied under special circumstances. In London this depth is the same, but
+the height of the building in relation to the space required in the rear
+thereof shall be constructed to keep within an angle of 63½ degrees,
+inclining from the rear boundary towards the building from the level of
+pavement in front of building; the position from which the angle is taken
+is varied under special circumstances. In the smaller English towns the
+building regulations are framed on the model by-laws, and these increase
+the depth of the yard or garden according to the height of the building.
+
+With regard to the strength and proportion of materials, these are not
+dealt with in the London Building Act to the same extent as in the New
+York; for example, in the New York acts (parts 4 and 5)[2] it is prescribed
+that the bricks used shall be good, hard, well-burned bricks. The sand used
+for mortar shall be clean, sharp, grit sand, free from loam or dirt, and
+shall not be finer than the standard samples kept in the office of the
+department of buildings; also the quality of lime and mortar is fully
+described, and the strengths of steel and cast-iron, and tests of new
+materials. Also it is required that all excavations for buildings shall be
+properly guarded and protected so as to prevent them from becoming
+dangerous to life or limb, and shall be sheath-piled where necessary by the
+person or persons causing the excavations to be made, to prevent the
+adjoining earth from caving in. Plans filed in the department of buildings
+shall be accompanied by a statement of the character of the soil at the
+level of the footings. There are also requirements as to protecting
+adjoining property. The bearing capacity of soils, pressure under footings
+of foundations, and in part 6 the materials of walls and the methods to be
+observed in building them are defined. Part 23 deals with floor loads, and
+the strength of floors constructed of various materials, and requires that
+the temporary support shall be strong enough to carry the load placed upon
+them during the progress of any works to buildings. Part 24 deals with the
+calculations and strength of materials, and wind pressure. Parts 4 and 5 of
+the New York Building Code are not dealt with by the London Building Act,
+but the local by-laws of the various districts deal with these. Part 6 of
+the New York code is dealt with partly by the London Building Act, and
+partly by the local by-laws. Parts 23 and 24 of the New York code are not
+dealt with in the English acts at all. In America the standard quality for
+all materials is set out, but in no English acts do we find the definition
+of the quality of timber, new materials, steel, &c. Iron and steel
+construction is in its infancy in England as compared with America, and
+probably this accounts for no special regulations being in force; but part
+22 of the New York Building Code, section 110 to 129 inclusive, deals very
+fully with iron and steel construction, and this is further supplemented by
+sections 137 to 140 inclusive.
+
+Sanitary work is dealt with in London by section 39 of the Public Health
+(London) Act, and the drainage by-laws of the London County Council, in
+which every detail is very fully gone into with regard to the laying of
+drains, and fitting up of soil pipes, w.c.'s, &c., all of which is to be
+carried out and tested to the satisfaction of the local borough's sanitary
+inspector. The general requirements of New York with regard to sanitary
+work are very similar with a few more restrictions, and are carried out
+under "the rules and regulations for plumbing, drainage, [v.04 p.0711]
+water-supply, and ventilation of buildings." The noticeable feature of the
+New York regulations is that all master plumbers have to be registered,
+which is not so in England. The New York regulations have 183 sections
+relating to sanitary work, and the English regulations have 96 sections.
+Also by part 16 of the Amendments to Plumbing Rules 1903, the New York laws
+require that, before any construction of, or alterations to, any gas piping
+or fittings are commenced, permits must be obtained from the superintendent
+of buildings; these are only issued to a registered plumber. The
+application must be accompanied by plans of the different floors showing
+each outlet, and the number of burners to each outlet; a statement must
+also be made of the quality of the pipes and fittings, all of which are to
+be tested by the inspector. In London there are no such laws; the gas
+companies control a small portion of the work as regards the connexion to
+meters, while the insurance companies require gas jets to be covered with a
+wire guard where liable to come in contact with inflammable goods. As to
+water, the various water companies in England have each their own set of
+regulations as to the kind of fittings and thickness and quality of pipe to
+be used, whether for service, wastes or main.
+
+The importance of fire-resisting construction is being more fully
+recognized now by all countries. In France the regulations [Sidenote:
+Fire-resisting construction.] for factories, shops and workshops relating
+to "exits" require that all doors should open outwardly when they open on
+to courts, vestibules, staircases or interior passages. When they give
+access to the open air, outward opening is not obligatory unless it has
+been judged necessary in the interests of safety. If the doors open on to a
+passage or staircase they must be fixed in such a manner as not to project
+into the passage or staircase when open. The exits must be numerous, and
+signs indicating the quickest way out are to be placed in conspicuous
+positions. The windows are to open outwardly. Staircases in offices or
+other buildings serving as places for work shall be constructed in
+incombustible materials, or shall be walled in fully in plaster. The number
+of staircases shall be in proportion to the number of employees, &c. It is
+prohibited to use any liquid emitting vapours inflammable under 35° C. for
+the purpose of lighting or heating, unless the apparatus containing the
+liquid is solidly closed during work, that part of the apparatus containing
+the liquid being so closed as to avoid any oozing out of the liquid, &c.
+&c. Instructions are added as to precautions to be taken in case of fire.
+
+In London fire-resisting construction is dealt with in the London Building
+Act, and its second schedule, and in London County Council Theatre and
+Factory Acts, &c. In New York the building code (parts 19, 20 and 21) deals
+with fire appliances, escapes, and fire-proof shutters and doors,
+fire-proof buildings and fire-proof floors, and requires that all tenement
+houses shall have an iron ladder for escape. A section somewhat similar to
+the last came into force in London in 1907 under the London Building Act,
+being framed with a view to require all existing projecting one-storey
+shops to have a fire-resisting roof, and all existing buildings over 50 ft.
+in height to have means of escape to and from the roof in case of fire.
+
+There are several patents now in use with which it would be possible to
+erect a fire-proof dwelling at small cost with walls 3 to 5 in. in
+thickness. One of these has been used where the building act does not
+apply, as in the case of the Newgate prison cells, London, where the
+outside walls were from 3 to 4 in. thick only, and were absolutely fire and
+burglar proof. This method consists in using steel dovetailed sheets fixed
+between small steel stanchions and plastered in cement on both sides. This
+form of construction was also used at the British pavilion, Paris
+Exhibition 1900, and has been employed in numerous other buildings in
+England, and also in South Africa, Venezuela, and India (Delhi durbar). The
+use of many of these convenient and sound forms of building construction
+for ordinary buildings in London, and in districts of England where the
+model by-laws are in force, is prohibited because they do not comply with
+some one or other of the various clauses relating to materials, or to the
+thickness of a wall.
+
+The various details of construction are described and illustrated under
+separate headings. See BRICKWORK, CARPENTRY, FOUNDATIONS, GLAZING, JOINERY,
+MASONRY, PAINTER-WORK, PLASTERING, ROOFS, SCAFFOLD, SHORING, STAIRCASE,
+STEEL CONSTRUCTION, STONE, TIMBER, WALL-COVERINGS, &c.
+
+The principal publications for reference in connexion with this subject
+are: _The Building and Health Laws of the City of New York_, Brooklyn Eagle
+Library, No. 85; _Rules and Regulations affecting Building Operations in
+the administrative County of London_, compiled by Ellis Marsland;
+_Annotated By-Laws as to House Drainage, &c._, by Jensen; _Metropolitan
+Sanitation_, by Herbert Daw.
+
+(J. BT.)
+
+[1] The verb "to build" (O.E. _byldan_) is apparently connected with O.E.
+_bold_, a dwelling, of Scandinavian origin; cf. Danish _bol_, a farm,
+Icelandic _ból_, farm, abode. Skeat traces it eventually to Sanskrit _bhu_,
+to be, build meaning "to construct a place in which to be or dwell."
+
+[2] _Building and Health Laws and Regulations affecting the City of New
+York, including the Building Code of New York City as amended to 1st May
+1903._
+
+BUILDING SOCIETIES, the name given to societies "for the purpose of
+raising, by the subscriptions of the members, a stock or fund for making
+advances to members out of the funds of the society upon freehold,
+copyhold, or leasehold estate by way of mortgage," may be "either
+_terminating_ or _permanent_" (Building Societies Act 1874, § 13). A
+"terminating" society is one "which by its rules is to terminate at a fixed
+date, or when a result specified in its rules is attained"; a "permanent"
+society is one "which has not by its rules any such fixed date or specified
+result, at which it shall terminate" (§ 5). A more popular description of
+these societies would be--societies by means of which every man may become
+"his own landlord," their main purpose being to collect together the small
+periodical subscriptions of a number of members, until each in his turn has
+been able to receive a sum sufficient to aid him materially in buying his
+dwelling-house. The origin and early history of these societies is not very
+clearly traceable. A mention of "building clubs" in Birmingham occurs in
+1795; one is known to have been established by deed in the year 1809 at
+Greenwich; another is said to have been founded in 1825, under the auspices
+of the earl of Selkirk at Kirkcudbright in Scotland, and we learn
+(Scratchley, _On Building Societies_, p. 5) that similar societies in that
+kingdom adopted the title of "menages."
+
+_United Kingdom._--When the Friendly Societies Act of 1834 gave effect to
+the wise and liberal policy of extending its benefits to societies for
+frugal investment, and generally to all associations having a similar legal
+object, several building societies were certified under it,--so many,
+indeed, that in 1836 a short act was passed confirming to them the
+privileges granted by the Friendly Societies Act, and according to them the
+additional privileges (very valuable at that time) of exemption from the
+usury laws, simplicity in forms of conveyance, power to reconvey by a mere
+endorsement under the hands of the trustees for the time being, and
+exemption from stamp duty. This act remained unaltered until 1874, when an
+act was passed at the instance of the building societies conferring upon
+them several other privileges, and relieving them of some disabilities and
+doubts, which had grown up from the judicial expositions of the act of
+1836. It made future building societies incorporated bodies, and extended
+the privilege of incorporation to existing societies upon application, so
+that members and all who derive title through them were relieved from
+having to trace that title through the successive trustees of a society. It
+also gave a distinct declaration to the members of entire freedom from
+liability to pay anything beyond the arrears due from them at the time of
+winding up, or the amount actually secured by their mortgage deeds. Power
+to borrow money was also expressly given to the societies by the act, but
+upon two conditions: that the limitation of liability must be made known to
+the lender, by being printed on the acknowledgment for the loan, and that
+the borrowed money must not exceed two-thirds of the amount secured by
+mortgage from the members, or, in a terminating society, one year's income
+from subscriptions. Previous to the passing of the act (or rather to the
+judicial decision in _Laing_ v. _Read_, which the clause of the act made
+statutory) there had been, on the one hand, grave doubts on high legal
+authority whether a society could borrow money at all; while, on the other
+hand, many societies in order to raise funds carried on the business of
+deposit banks to an extent far exceeding the amounts used by them for their
+legitimate purpose of investment on mortgage. It enacted, that if a society
+borrowed more than the statute authorizes, the directors accepting the loan
+should be personally [v.04 p.0712] responsible for the excess. By an act
+passed in 1894 all the Benefit Building Societies established under the act
+of 1836 after the year 1856 were required to become incorporated under the
+act of 1874.
+
+There are, therefore, three categories of building societies:--(1) Those
+established before 1856, which have not been incorporated under the act of
+1874 and remain under the act of 1836. (2) Those established before 1874
+under the act of 1836, which have been incorporated under the act of 1874.
+(3) Those which have been established since the act of 1874 was passed. The
+first class still act by means of trustees. Of these societies there are
+only 62 remaining in existence, and their number cannot be increased. The
+second and third classes exceed 2000 in number.
+
+The early societies were all "terminating,"--consisting of a limited number
+of members, and coming to an end as soon as every member had received the
+amount agreed upon as the value of his shares. Take, as a simple typical
+example of the working of such a society, one the shares of which are £120
+each, realizable by subscriptions of 10s. a month during 14 years. Fourteen
+years happens to be nearly the time in which, at 5% compound interest, a
+sum of money becomes doubled. Hence the present value, at the commencement
+of the society, of the £120 to be realized at its conclusion, or (what is
+the same thing) of the subscriptions of 10s. a month by which that £120 is
+to be raised, is £60. If such a society had issued 120 shares, the
+aggregate subscriptions for the first month of its existence would amount
+to exactly the sum required to pay one member the present value of one
+share. One member would accordingly receive a sum down of £60, and in order
+to protect the other members from loss, would execute a mortgage of his
+dwelling-house for ensuring the payment of the future subscription of 10s.
+per month until every member had in like manner obtained an advance upon
+his shares, or accumulated the £120 per share. As £60 is not of itself
+enough to buy a house, even of the most modest kind, every member desirous
+of using the society for its original purpose of obtaining a dwelling-house
+by its means would require to take more than one share. The act of 1836
+limited the amount of each share to £150, and the amount of the monthly
+contributions on each share to £1, but did not limit the number of shares a
+member might hold.
+
+The earlier formed societies (in London at least) did not usually adopt the
+title "Building Society"; or they added to it some further descriptive
+title, as "Accumulating Fund," "Savings Fund," or "Investment Association."
+Several are described as "Societies for obtaining freehold property," or
+simply as "Mutual Associations," or "Societies of Equality." The building
+societies in Scotland are mostly called "Property Investment," or
+"Economic." Although the term "Benefit Building Society" occurs in the
+title to the act of 1836, it was not till 1849 that it became in England
+the sole distinctive name of these societies; and it cannot be said to be a
+happy description of them, for as ordinarily constituted they undertake no
+building operations whatever, and merely advance money to their members to
+enable them to build or to buy dwelling-houses or land.
+
+The name "Building Society," too, leaves wholly out of sight the important
+functions these societies fulfil as means of investment of small savings.
+The act of 1836 defined them as societies to enable every member to receive
+the amount or value of a share or shares to erect or purchase a
+dwelling-house, &c., but a member who did not desire to erect or purchase a
+dwelling-house might still receive out of the funds of the society the
+amount or value of his shares, improved by the payments of interest made by
+those to whom shares had been advanced.
+
+About 1846 an important modification of the system of these societies was
+introduced, by the invention of the "permanent" plan, which was adopted by
+a great number of the societies established after that date. It was seen
+that these societies really consist of two classes of members; that those
+who do not care to have, or have not yet received, an advance upon mortgage
+security are mere investors, and that it matters little when they commence
+investing, or to what amount; while those to whom advances have been made
+are really debtors to the society, and arrangements for enabling them to
+pay off their debt in various terms of years, according to their
+convenience, would be of advantage both to themselves and the society. By
+permitting members to enter at any time without back-payment, and by
+granting advances for any term of years agreed upon, a continuous inflow of
+funds, and a continuous means of profitable investment of them, would be
+secured. The interest of each member in the society would terminate when
+his share was realized, or his advance paid off, but the society would
+continue with the accruing subscriptions of other members employed in
+making other advances.
+
+Under this system building societies largely increased and developed. The
+royal commissioners who inquired into the subject in 1872 estimated the
+total assets of the societies in 1870 at 17 millions, and their annual
+income at 11 millions. The more complete returns, afterwards obtained,
+indicate that this was an under-estimate.
+
+A variety of the terminating class of societies met at one time with
+considerable favour under the name of "Starr Bowkett" or "mutual"
+societies, of which more than a thousand were established. They differed
+from the typical society above described, in the contribution of a member
+who had not received an advance being much smaller, while the amount of the
+advance was much larger, and it was made without any calculation of
+interest. Thus a society issued, say, 500 shares, on which the
+contributions were to be 1s. 3d. per week, and, as soon as a sum of £300
+accumulated allotted it by ballot to one of the shareholders, on condition
+that he was to repay it without interest by instalments in 10 or 12½ years,
+and at the same time to keep up his share-contributions. The fortunate
+recipient of the appropriation was at liberty to sell it, and frequently
+did so at a profit; but (except from fines) no profit whatever was earned
+by those who did not succeed in getting an appropriation, and as the number
+of members successful in the ballot must necessarily be small in the
+earlier years of the society, the others frequently became discontented and
+retired. These societies could not borrow money, for as they received no
+interest they could not pay any. The plan was afterwards modified by
+granting the appropriations alternately by ballot and sale, so that by the
+premiums paid on the sales (which are the same in effect as payments of
+interest on the amount actually advanced) profits might be earned for the
+investing members. The formation of societies of this class ceased on the
+passing of the act of 1894, by which balloting for advances was prohibited
+in societies thereafter established. A further modification of the "mutual"
+plan was to make all the appropriations by sale. The effect of this was to
+bring the mutual society back to the ordinary form; for it amounts to
+precisely the same thing for a man to pay 10s. a month on a loan of £60 for
+14 years, as for him to borrow a nominal sum of £84 for the same period,
+repayable in the same manner, but to allow £24 off the loan as a "bidding"
+at the sale. The only difference between the two classes of societies is
+that the interest which the member pays who bids for his advance depends on
+the amount of competition at the bidding, and is not fixed by a rule of the
+society.
+
+For several years the progress of building societies in general was steady,
+but there were not wanting signs that their prosperity was unsubstantial. A
+practice of receiving deposits repayable at call had sprung up, which must
+lead to embarrassment where the funds are invested in loans repayable
+during a long term of years. It was surmised, if not actually known, that
+many societies had large amounts of property on their hands, which had been
+reduced into possession in consequence of the default of borrowers in
+paying their instalments. A practice had also grown up of establishing
+mushroom societies, which did little more than pay fees to the promoters.
+The vicious system of trafficking in advances that had been awarded by
+ballot, near akin to gambling, prevailed in many societies. These signs of
+weakness had been observed by the well-informed, and the disastrous failure
+of a large society incorporated under [v.04 p.0713] the act of 1874, the
+Liberator, which had in fact long ceased to do any genuine building society
+business, hastened the crisis.
+
+This society had drawn funds to the amount of more than a million sterling
+from provident people in all classes of the population and all parts of the
+country by specious representations, and had applied those funds not to the
+legitimate purpose of a building society, but to the support of other
+undertakings in which the same persons were concerned who were the active
+managers of the society. The consequence was that the whole group of
+concerns became insolvent (Oct. 1892), and the Liberator depositors and
+shareholders were defrauded of every penny of their investments. Many of
+them suffered great distress from the loss of their savings, and some were
+absolutely ruined. The result was to weaken confidence in building
+societies generally, and this was very marked in the rapid decline of the
+amount of the capital of the incorporated building societies. From its
+highest point (nearly 54 millions) reached in 1887, it fell to below 43
+millions in 1895. On some societies, which had adopted the deposit system,
+a run was made, and several were unable to stand it. The Birkbeck Society
+was for two days besieged by an anxious crowd of depositors clamouring to
+withdraw their money; but luckily for that society, and for the building
+societies generally, a very large portion of its funds was invested in
+easily convertible securities, and it was enabled by that means to get
+sufficient assistance from the Bank of England to pay without a moment's
+hesitation every depositor who asked for his money. Its credit was so
+firmly established by this means that many persons sought to pay money in.
+Had this very large society succumbed, the results would have been
+disastrous to the whole body of building societies. As the case stood, the
+energetic means it adopted to save its own credit reacted in favour of the
+societies generally.
+
+The Liberator disaster convinced everybody that something must be done
+towards avoiding such calamities in the future. The government of the day
+brought in a bill for that purpose, and several private members also
+prepared measures--most of them more stringent than the government bill.
+All the bills were referred to a select committee, of which Mr Herbert
+Gladstone was the chairman. As the result of the deliberations of the
+committee, the Building Societies Act of 1894 was passed. Meanwhile the Rt.
+Hon. W.L. Jackson (afterwards Lord Allerton), a member of the committee,
+moved for an address to the crown for a return of the property held in
+possession by building societies. This was the first time such a return had
+been called for, and the managers of the societies much resented it; there
+were no means of enforcing the return, and the consequence was that many
+large societies failed to make it, notwithstanding frequent applications by
+the registrar. The act provided that henceforth all incorporated societies
+should furnish returns in a prescribed form, including schedules showing
+respectively the mortgages for amounts exceeding £5000; the properties of
+which the societies had taken possession for more than twelve months
+through default of the mortgagors; and the mortgages which were more than
+twelve months in arrear of repayment subscription. The act did not come
+into operation till the 1st of January 1895, and the first complete return
+under it was not due till 1896, when it appeared that the properties in
+possession at the time of Mr Jackson's return must have been counted for at
+least seven and a half millions in the assets of the societies. In a few
+years after the passing of the act the societies reduced their properties
+in possession from 14% of the whole of the mortgages to 5%, or, in other
+words, reduced them to one-third of the original amount, from 7½ millions
+to 2½ millions. Though this operation must have been attended with some
+sacrifice in many societies, upon the whole the balance of profit has
+increased rather than diminished. Thus this provision of the act, though it
+greatly alarmed the managers of societies, was really a blessing in
+disguise. The act also gave power to the registrar, upon the application of
+ten members, to order an inspection of the books of a society, but it did
+not confer upon individual members the right to inspect the books, which
+would have been more effective. It empowered the registrar, upon the
+application of one-fifth of the members, to order an inspection upon oath
+into the affairs of a society, or to investigate its affairs with a view to
+dissolution, and even in certain cases to proceed without an application
+from members. It gave him ample powers to deal with a society which upon
+such investigation proved to be insolvent, and these were exercised so as
+to procure the cheap and speedy dissolution of such societies. It also
+prohibited the future establishment of societies making advances by ballot,
+or dependent on any chance or lot, and provided an easy method by which
+existing societies could discontinue the practice of balloting. This method
+has been adopted in a few instances only. The act, or the circumstances
+which led to it, has greatly diminished the number of new societies
+applying for registry.
+
+The statistics of building societies belonging to all the three classes
+mentioned show that there were on the 31st of December 1904, 2118 societies
+in existence in the United Kingdom. Of these, 2075, having 609,785 members,
+made returns. Their gross receipts for the financial year were £38,729,009,
+and the amount advanced on mortgage during the year was £9,589,864. The
+capital belonging to their members was £39,408,430, and the undivided
+balance of profit £4,004,547. Their liabilities to depositors and other
+creditors were £24,838,290. To meet this they had mortgages on which
+£53,196,112 was due, but of this £2,443,255 was on properties which had
+been in possession more than a year, and £222,444 on mortgages which had
+fallen into arrear more than a year. Their other assets were £14,952,485,
+and certain societies showed a deficit balance which in the aggregate was
+£102,670. As compared with 1895, when first returns were obtained from
+unincorporated societies, these figures show an increase in income of 30%,
+in assets of 23%, and in profit balances of 46%, and a diminution of the
+properties in possession and mortgages in arrear of 14% in the nine years.
+The total assets and income are more than three times the amount of the
+conjectural estimate made for 1870 by the royal commission. It is not too
+much to say that a quarter of a million persons have been enabled by means
+of building societies to become the proprietors of their own homes.
+
+In recent years, several rivals to building societies have sprung up.
+Friendly societies have largely taken to investing their surplus funds in
+loans to members on the building society principle. Industrial and
+provident land and building societies have been formed. The legislature has
+authorized local authorities to lend money to the working classes to enable
+them to buy their dwelling-houses. Bond and investment companies have been
+formed under the Companies Acts, and are under no restriction as to
+balloting for appropriation. All these have not yet had any perceptible
+effect in checking the growth of the building society movement, and it is
+not thought that they will permanently do so.
+
+_British Colonies._--In several of the British colonies, legislation
+similar to that of the mother country has been adopted. In Victoria,
+Australia, a crisis occurred, in which many building societies suffered
+severely. In the other Australian colonies the building society movement
+has made progress, but not to a very large extent. In the Dominion of
+Canada these societies are sometimes called "loan companies" and are not
+restricted in their investments to loans on real estates, but about 90% of
+their advances are on that security. At the close of the year 1904 their
+liabilities to stockholders exceeded £13,000,000, and to the public
+£21,000,000. The uncalled capital was £5,000,000. The balance of current
+loans was £28,000,000, and the property owned by the societies exceeded
+£7,000,000.
+
+_Belgium, &c._--In Belgium, the Government Savings Bank has power to make
+advances of money to societies of credit or of construction to enable their
+members to become owners of dwelling-houses. The advance is made to the
+society at 3 or sometimes at 2½% interest, and the borrower pays 4%. In the
+great majority of cases the borrower effects an insurance with the savings
+bank so that his repayments terminate at his death. On the 31st of December
+1903 nearly 25,000 advances were in course of repayment. In Germany,
+building societies are recognized as a form of societies for self-help, but
+are not many in number, being overshadowed by the great organization of
+credit societies founded by Schulze-Delitzsch. In other countries there has
+been no special legislation for building societies similar to that of the
+United Kingdom, and though societies with the same special object probably
+exist, separate information with regard to them is not available.
+
+(E. W. B.)
+
+_United States._--"Building and loan association" is a general term applied
+in the United States to such institutions as mutual loan associations,
+homestead aid associations, savings fund and loan associations,
+co-operative banks, co-operative savings and loan associations, &c. They
+are private corporations, for the accumulation of savings, and for the
+loaning of money to build homes. The first association of this kind in the
+United States of which there is any record was organized at Frankford, a
+suburb [v.04 p.0714] of Philadelphia, on the 3rd of January 1831, under the
+title of the Oxford Provident Building Association. Their permanent
+inception took place between 1840 and 1850. The receipts or capital of the
+building and loan association consists of periodical payments by the
+members, interest and premiums paid by borrowing members or others, fixed
+periodical instalments by borrowing members, fines for failures to pay such
+fixed instalments, forfeitures, fees for transferring stock, entrance fees,
+and any other revenues or payments,--all of which go into the common
+treasury. When the instalment payments and profits of all kinds equal the
+face value of all the shares issued, the assets, over and above expenses
+and losses, are apportioned among members, and this apportionment cancels
+the borrower's debt, while the non-borrower is given the amount of his
+stock. A man who wishes to borrow, let us say, $1000 for the erection of a
+house ordinarily takes five shares in an association, each of which, when
+he has paid all the successive instalments on it, will be worth $200, and
+he must offer suitable security for his loan, usually the lot on which he
+is to build. The money is not lent to him at regular rates of interest, as
+in the case of a savings bank or other financial institution, but is put up
+at auction usually in open meeting at the time of the payment of dues, and
+is awarded to the member bidding the highest premium. To secure the $1000
+borrowed, the member gives the association a mortgage on his property and
+pledges his five shares of stock. Some associations, when the demand for
+money from the shareholders does not exhaust the surplus, lend their funds
+to persons not shareholders, upon such terms and conditions as may be
+approved by their directors. Herein lies a danger, for such loans are
+sometimes made in a speculative way, or on insufficient land value. Some
+associations make stock loans, or loans on the shares held by a stockholder
+without real estate security; these vary in different associations, some
+applying the same rules as to real estate loans. To cancel his debt the
+stockholder is constantly paying his monthly or semi-monthly dues, until
+such time as these payments, plus the accumulation of profits through
+compound interest, mature the shares at $200 each, when he surrenders his
+shares, and the debt upon his property is cancelled.
+
+Every member of a building and loan association must be a stockholder, and
+the amount of interest which a member has in a [Sidenote: Shares.] building
+and loan association is indicated by the number of shares he holds, the age
+of the shares, and their maturing value. The difference between a
+stockholder in such an association and one in an ordinary corporation for
+usual business purposes lies in the fact that in the latter the member or
+stockholder buys his stock and pays for it at once, and as a rule is not
+called upon for further payment; all profits on such stocks are received
+through dividends, the value of shares depending upon the successful
+operation of the business. In the former the stockholder or member pays a
+stipulated minimum sum, say $1, when he takes his membership and buys a
+share of stock. He continues to pay a like sum each month until the
+aggregate of sums paid, increased by the profits and all other sources of
+income, amounts to the maturing value of the stock, usually $200, when the
+stockholder is entitled to the full maturing value of the share and
+surrenders the same. Shares are usually issued in series. When a second
+series is issued the issue of the stock of the first series ceases. Profits
+are distributed and losses apportioned before a new series can be issued.
+The term during which a series is open for subscription differs, but it
+usually extends over three or six months, and sometimes a year. Some
+associations, usually known as perpetual associations, issue a new series
+of stock without regard to the time of maturity of previous issues. It is
+the practice in such associations to issue a new series of stock every
+year. Instead of shares that are paid in instalments, some associations
+issue prepaid shares and paid-up shares. _Prepaid shares_, known also as
+partly paid-up shares, are issued at a fixed price per share in advance.
+They usually participate as fully in the profits as the regular instalment
+shares, and when the amount originally paid for such shares, together with
+the dividends accrued thereon, reaches the maturing or par value, they are
+disposed of in the same manner as regular instalment shares. Some
+associations, instead of crediting all the profits made on this class of
+shares, allow a fixed rate of interest on the amount paid therefor at each
+dividend period, which is paid in cash to the holder thereof. This interest
+is then deducted from the profits to which the shares are entitled, and the
+remainder is credited to the shares until such unpaid portion of the
+profits, added to the amount originally paid, equals the maturing or par
+value. _Paid-up shares_ are issued upon the payment of the full maturity or
+par value, when a certificate of paid-up stock is issued, the owners being
+entitled to receive in cash the amount of all dividends declared thereon,
+subject to such conditions or limitations as may be agreed upon. These
+shares sometimes participate as fully in the profits as the regular
+instalment shares, but in most cases a fixed rate of interest only is
+allowed, the holders of the shares usually assigning to the association all
+right to profits above that amount. Certificates of matured shares are also
+issued to holders of regular instalment shares, who prefer to leave their
+money with the association as an investment.
+
+Prior to the maturing of a share it has two values, the holding or book
+value and the withdrawal value. The book value is ascertained by adding all
+the dues that have been paid to the profits that have accrued; that is to
+say, it is the actual value of a share at any particular time. The
+withdrawal value is that amount of the book value which the association is
+willing to pay to a shareholder who desires to sever his connexion with the
+association before his share is matured. Some associations do not permit
+their members to withdraw prior to the maturing of their shares. Then the
+only way a shareholder can realize upon his shares is by selling them to
+some other person at whatever price he can obtain. There are twelve or more
+plans for the withdrawal of funds. Every association has full regulations
+on all such matters.
+
+The purchase of a share binds the shareholder to the necessity of keeping
+up his dues, and thus secures to him not only the benefits [Sidenote:
+Variations in methods.] of a savings bank, but the benefit of constantly
+accruing compound interest. This accomplishes the first feature of the
+motive of a building and loan association. The second is accomplished by
+enabling a man to borrow money for building purposes. It is a moot question
+whether this method of obtaining money for the building of homes is more or
+less economical than that of obtaining it from the ordinary savings banks
+or from other sources. Sometimes the premium which must be paid to secure a
+loan increases the regular interest to such an amount as to make the
+building and loan method more expensive than the ordinary method of
+borrowing money, but a building and loan association has a moral influence
+upon its members, in that it encourages a regular payment of instalments.
+Some associations have a fixed or established premium rate, and under such
+circumstances loans are awarded to the members in the order of their
+applications or by lot. The premium may consist of the amount which the
+borrower pays in excess of the legal interest, or it may consist of a
+certain number of payments of dues or of interest to be made in advance.
+There are very many plans for the payment of premiums, nearly seventy
+relating to real estate loans being in vogue in different associations in
+different parts of the United States; but in nearly all cases the borrower
+makes his regular payments of dues and interest until the shares pledged
+have reached maturing value. There is also a great variety of plans for the
+distribution of profits, something like twenty-five such plans being in
+existence. The methods of calculating interest and profits are somewhat
+complicated, but they are all found in the books to which reference will be
+made. The various plans for the payment of premiums, distribution of
+profits, and withdrawals, and the calculations under each, are given in
+full in the ninth annual report of the U.S. commissioner of labour.
+
+Most building and loan associations confine their operations to a small
+community, usually to the county in which they are situated; but some of
+them operate on a large scale, extending their business enterprises even
+beyond the borders of their own state. These national associations are
+ready to make loans on property anywhere, and sell their shares to any
+person without reference to his residence. In local associations the total
+amount of dues paid in by the shareholders forms the basis for the
+distribution of profits, while in most national associations only a portion
+of the dues paid in by the shareholders is considered in the distribution.
+For instance, in a national association the dues are generally 60 cents a
+share per month, out of which either 8 or 10 cents are carried to an
+expense fund, the remainder being credited on the loan fund. The expense
+fund thus created is lost to the shareholders, except in the case of a few
+associations which carry the unexpended balances to the profit and loss
+account, and whatever profits are made are apportioned on the amount of
+dues credited to the loan fund only. The creation of an expense fund in the
+nationals has sometimes been the source of disaster. Safety or security in
+both local and national associations depends principally upon the integrity
+with which their affairs are conducted, and not so much upon the form of
+organization or the method of distribution. Some of the states--New York,
+Massachusetts, New Jersey, Ohio, Illinois, California and others--bring
+building and loan associations under the same general supervision of law
+thrown around savings banks. In some states nothing is officially known of
+them beyond the formalities of their incorporation. Though the business of
+the associations is conducted by men not trained as bankers, it yet meets
+with rare success. Associations disband when not successful, but when they
+disband great loss does not occur because the whole business of the
+association consists of its loans, and these loans are to its own
+shareholders, as a rule, who hold the securities in their associated forms.
+The amount of money on hand is always small, because it is sold or lent as
+fast as paid in. A disbanded association, therefore, simply returns to its
+own members their own property, and but few real losses occur. Investment
+in a building and loan association is as nearly absolutely [v.04 p.0715]
+safe as it can be, for the monthly dues and the accumulated profits, which
+give the actual capital of the association, are lent or sold, as it is
+termed, by the association as fast as they accumulate, and upon real estate
+or upon the stock of the association itself. The opportunities for
+embezzlement, therefore, or for shrinkage of securities, are reduced to the
+minimum, and an almost absolute safety of the investment is secured.
+
+The growth of these associations has been very rapid since 1840, and at the
+opening of the 20th century they numbered nearly 6000. The Federal
+government, through the department of labour, made an investigation of
+building and loan associations, and published its report in 1893. The total
+dues paid in on instalment shares amounted then to $450,667,594. The
+business represented by this great sum, conducted quietly, with little or
+no advertising, and without the experienced banker in charge, shows that
+the common people, in their own ways, are quite competent to take care of
+their savings, especially when it was shown that but thirty-five of the
+associations then in existence met with a net loss at the end of their
+latest fiscal year, and that this loss amounted to only a little over
+$23,000. Bulletin No. 10 (May 1897) of the U.S. department of labour
+contained a calculation of the business at that date, based upon such
+states' reports as were available. That calculation showed a growth in
+almost every item. During the years of depression ending with 1899 the
+growth of building and loan associations was naturally slower than in
+prosperous periods.
+
+See _Ninth Annual Report of U.S.A. Commissioner of Labour_ (1893);
+_Bulletin_, No. 10 (May 1897), of the Department of Labour; Edmund Rigley,
+_How to manage Building Associations_ (1873); Seymour Dexter, _A Treatise
+on Co-operation Savings and Loan Associations_ (New York, 1891); Charles N.
+Thompson, _A Treatise on Building Associations_ (Chicago, 1892).
+
+(C. D. W.)
+
+BUILTH, or BUILTH WELLS, a market town of Brecknockshire, Wales. Pop. of
+urban district (1901), 1805. It has a station on the Cambrian line between
+Moat Lane and Brecon, and two others (high and low levels) at Builth Road
+about 1¾ m. distant where the London & North-Western and the Cambrian cross
+one another. It is pleasantly situated in the upper valley of the Wye, in a
+bend of the river on its right bank below the confluence of its tributary
+the Irfon. During the summer it is a place of considerable resort for the
+sake of its waters--saline, chalybeate and sulphur--and it possesses the
+usual accessories of pump-rooms, baths and a recreation ground. The scenery
+of the Wye valley, including a succession of rapids just above the town,
+also attracts many tourists. The town is an important agricultural centre,
+its fairs for sheep and ponies in particular being well attended.
+
+The town, called in Welsh Llanfair (yn) Muallt, i.e. St Mary's in Builth,
+took its name from the ancient territorial division of Buallt in which it
+is situated, which was, according to Nennius, an independent principality
+in the beginning of the 9th century, and later a cantrev, corresponding to
+the modern hundred of Builth. Towards the end of the 11th century, when the
+tide of Norman invasion swept upwards along the Wye valley, the district
+became a lordship marcher annexed to that of Brecknock, but was again
+severed from it on the death of William de Breos, when his daughter Matilda
+brought it to her husband, Roger Mortimer of Wigmore. Its castle, built
+probably in Newmarch's time, or shortly after, was the most advanced
+outpost of the invaders in a wild part of Wales where the tendency to
+revolt was always strong. It was destroyed in 1260 by Llewellyn ab
+Gruffydd, prince of Wales, with the supposed connivance of Mortimer, but
+its site was reoccupied by the earl of Lincoln in 1277, and a new castle at
+once erected. It was with the expectation that he might, with local aid,
+seize the castle, that Llewellyn invaded this district in December 1282,
+when he was surprised and killed by Stephen de Frankton in a ravine called
+Cwm Llewellyn on the left bank of the Irfon, 2½ m. from the town. According
+to local tradition he was buried at Cefn-y-bedd ("the ridge of the grave")
+close by, but it is more likely that his headless trunk was taken to Abbey
+Cwmhir. No other important event was associated with the castle, of which
+not a stone is now standing. The lordship remained in the marches till the
+Act of Union 1536, when it was grouped with a number of others so as to
+form the shire of Brecknock. The town was governed by a local board from
+1866 until the establishment of an urban district council in 1894; the
+urban district was then made conterminous with the civil parish, and in
+1898 it was re-named Builth Wells.
+
+BUISSON, FERDINAND (1841- ), French educationalist, was born at Paris on
+the 20th of December 1841. In 1868, when attached to the teaching staff of
+the Academy of Geneva, he obtained a philosophical fellowship. In 1870 he
+settled in Paris, and in the following year was nominated an inspector of
+primary education. His appointment was, however, strongly opposed by the
+bishop of Orleans (who saw danger to clerical influence over the schools),
+and the nomination was cancelled. But the bishop's action only served to
+draw attention to Buisson's abilities. He was appointed secretary of the
+statistical commission on primary education, and sent as a delegate to the
+Vienna exhibition of 1873, and the Philadelphia exhibition of 1876. In 1878
+he was instructed to report on the educational section of the Paris
+exhibition, and in the same year was appointed inspector-general of primary
+education. In 1879 he was promoted to the directorship of primary
+education, a post which he occupied until 1896, when he became professor of
+education at the Sorbonne. At the general election of 1902 he was returned
+to the chamber of deputies as a radical socialist by the XIII^{me}
+arrondissement of Paris. He supported the policy of M. Combes, and presided
+over the commission for the separation of church and state.
+
+BUITENZORG, a hill station in the residency of Batavia, island of Java,
+Dutch East Indies. It is beautifully situated among the hills at the foot
+of the Salak volcano, about 860 ft. above sea-level, and has a cool and
+healthy climate. Buitenzorg is the usual residence of the governor-general
+of the Dutch East Indies, and is further remarkable on account of its
+splendid botanical garden and for its popularity as a health resort. The
+botanic gardens are among the finest in the world; they originally formed a
+part of the park attached to the palace of the governor-general, and were
+established in 1817. Under J.S. Teysmann, who became _hortulanus_ in 1830,
+the collection was extended, and in 1868 was recognized as a government
+institution with a director. Between this and 1880 a museum, a school of
+agriculture, and a culture garden were added, and since then library,
+botanical, chemical, and pharmacological laboratories, and a herbarium have
+been established. The palace of the governor-general was founded by
+Governor-General van Imhoff in 1744, and rebuilt after being destroyed by
+an earthquake in 1834. Buitenzorg is also the seat of the general secretary
+of the state railway and of the department of mines. Buitenzorg, which is
+called Bogor by the natives, was once the capital of the princess of
+Pajajaram. Close by, at _Bata Tulis_ ("inscribed stone"), are some Hindu
+remains. The district of Buitenzorg (till 1866 an assistant residency)
+forms the southern part of the residency of Batavia, with an area of 1447
+sq. m. It occupies the northern slopes of a range of hills separating it
+from Preanger, and has a fertile soil. Tea, coffee, cinchona, sugar-cane,
+rice, nutmegs, cloves and pepper are cultivated.
+
+BUJNURD, a town of Persia, in the province of Khorasan, in a fertile plain
+encompassed by hills, in 37° 29' N., 57° 21' E., at an elevation of 3600
+ft. Pop. about 8000. Its old name was Buzinjird, and thus it still appears
+in official registers. It is the chief place of the district of same name,
+which extends in the west to the borders of Shahrud and Astarabad; in the
+north it is bounded by Russian Transcaspia, in the east by Kuchan, and in
+the south by Jovain. The greater part of the population consists of
+Shadillu Kurds, the remainder being Zafranlu Kurds, Garaili Turks, Goklan
+Turkomans and Persians.
+
+BUKHARI [Mahommed ibn Isma'il al-Bukhari] (810-872), Arabic author of the
+most generally accepted collection of traditions (_hadith_) from Mahomet,
+was born at Bokhara (_Bukhara_), of an Iranian family, in A.H. 194 (A.D.
+810). He early distinguished himself in the learning of traditions by
+heart, and when, in his sixteenth year, his family made the pilgrimage to
+Mecca, he gathered additions to his store from the authorities along the
+route. Already, in his eighteenth year, he had devoted himself to the
+collecting, sifting, testing and arranging of traditions. For that purpose
+he travelled over the Moslem world, from Egypt to Samarkand, and learned
+(as the story goes) from over a thousand men three hundred thousand
+traditions, true and false. He certainly became the acknowledged authority
+on the subject, and developed a power and speed of memory [v.04 p.0716]
+which seemed miraculous, even to his contemporaries. His theological
+position was conservative and anti-rationalistic; he enjoyed the friendship
+and respect of Ahmad Ibn Hanbal. In law, he appears to have been a
+Shafi'ite. After sixteen years' absence he returned to Bokhara, and there
+drew up his _Sahih_, a collection of 7275 tested traditions, arranged in
+chapters so as to afford bases for a complete system of jurisprudence
+without the use of speculative law, the first book of its kind (see
+MAHOMMEDAN LAW). He died in A.H. 256, in banishment at Kartank, a suburb of
+Samarkand. His book has attained a quasi-canonicity in Islam, being treated
+almost like the Koran, and to his grave solemn pilgrimages are made, and
+prayers are believed to be heard there.
+
+See F. Wüstenfeld, _Schafi'iten_, 78 ff.; M^cG. de Slane's transl. of Ibn
+Khallikan, i. 594 ff.; I. Goldziher, _Mohammedanische Studien_, ii. 157
+ff.; Nawawi, _Biogr. Dict._ 86 ff.
+
+(D. B. MA.)
+
+BUKOVINA, a duchy and crownland of Austria, bounded E. by Russia and
+Rumania, S. by Rumania, W. by Transylvania and Hungary, and N. by Galicia.
+Area, 4035 sq. m. The country, especially in its southern parts, is
+occupied by the offshoots of the Carpathians, which attain in the Giumaleu
+an altitude of 6100 ft. The principal passes are the Radna Pass and the
+Borgo Pass. With the exception of the Dniester, which skirts its northern
+border, Bukovina belongs to the watershed of the Danube. The principal
+rivers are the Pruth, and the Sereth with its affluents the Suczawa, the
+Moldava and the Bistritza. The climate of Bukovina is healthy but severe,
+especially in winter; but it is generally milder than that of Galicia, the
+mean annual temperature at Czernowitz being 46.9° F. No less than 43.17% of
+the total area is occupied by woodland, and the very name of the country is
+derived from the abundance of beech trees. Of the remainder 27.59% is
+occupied by arable land, 12.68% by meadows, 10.09% by pastures and O.78% by
+gardens. The soil of Bukovina is fertile, and agriculture has made great
+progress, the principal products being wheat, maize, rye, oats, barley,
+potatoes, flax and hemp. Cattle-rearing constitutes another important
+source of revenue. The principal mineral is salt, which is extracted at the
+mine of Kaczyka, belonging to the government. Brewing, distilling and
+milling are the chief industries. Commerce is mostly in the hands of the
+Jews and Armenians, and chiefly confined to raw products, such as
+agricultural produce, cattle, wool and wood. Bukovina had in 1900 a
+population of 729,921, which is equivalent to 181 inhabitants per sq. m.
+According to nationality, over 40% were Ruthenians, 35% Rumanians, 13%
+Jews, and the remainder was composed of Germans, Poles, Hungarians,
+Russians and Armenians. The official language of the administration, of the
+law-courts, and of instruction in the university is German. Nearly 70% of
+the population belong to the Greek Orthodox Church, and stand under the
+ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the archbishop or metropolitan of
+Czernowitz. To the Roman Catholic Church belong 11%, to the Greek United
+Church 3.25%, while 2.5% are Protestants. Elementary education is
+improving, but, after Dalmatia, Bukovina still shows the largest number of
+illiterates in Austria. The local diet, of which the archbishop of
+Czernowitz and the rector of the university are members _ex officio_, is
+composed of 31 members, and Bukovina sends 14 deputies to the Reichsrat at
+Vienna. For administrative purposes, the country is divided into 9
+districts and an autonomous municipality, Czernowitz (pop. 69,619), the
+capital. Other towns are Radautz (14,343), Suczawa (10,946), Kuczurmare
+(9417), Kimpolung(8024) and Sereth (7610).
+
+Bukovina was originally a part of the principality of Moldavia, whose
+ancient capital Suczawa was situated in this province. It was occupied by
+the Russians in 1769, and by the Austrians in 1774. In 1777 the Porte,
+under whose suzerainty Moldavia was, ceded this province to Austria. It was
+incorporated with Galicia in a single province in 1786, but was separated
+from it in 1849, and made a separate crownland.
+
+See Bidermann, _Die Bukowina unter der osterreichischen Verwaltung,
+1775-1875_ (Lemberg, 1876).
+
+BULACÁN, a town of the province of Bulacán, Luzon, Philippine Islands, on
+an arm of the Pampanga delta, 22 m. N.N.W. of Manila. Pop. (1903) 11,589;
+after the census enumeration, the town of Guiguintó (pop. 3948) was
+annexed. Bulacán is served by the Manila-Dagupan railway. Sugar, rice,
+indigo and tropical fruits are the chief products of the fertile district
+in which the town lies; it is widely known for its fish-ponds and its
+excellent fish, and its principal manufactures are jusi, piña, ilang ilang
+perfume and sugar. With the exception of the churches and a few stone
+buildings, Bulacán was completely destroyed by fire in 1898.
+
+BULANDSHAHR, a town and district of British India in the Meerut division of
+the United Provinces. The town is situated on a height on the right bank of
+the Kali-Nadi, whence the substitution of the names Unchanagar and
+Bulandshahr (high town) for its earlier name of Baran, by which it is still
+sometimes called. The population in 1901 was 18,959. Its present handsome
+appearance is due to several successive collectors, notably F.S. Growse,
+who was active in erecting public buildings, and in encouraging the local
+gentry to beautify their own houses. In particular, it boasts a fine
+bathing-ghat, a town-hall, a market-place, a tank to supply water, and a
+public garden.
+
+The DISTRICT OF BULANDSHAHR has an area of 1899 sq. m. The district
+stretches out in a level plain, with a gentle slope from N.W. to S.E., and
+a gradual but very slight elevation about midway between the Ganges and
+Jumna. Principal rivers are the Ganges and Jumna--the former navigable all
+the year round, the latter only during the rains. The Ganges canal
+intersects the district, and serves both for irrigation and navigation. The
+Lower Ganges canal has its headworks at Narora. The climate of the district
+is liable to extremes, being very cold in the winter and excessively hot in
+the summer. In 1901 the population was 1,138,101, showing an increase of
+20% in the decade. The district is very highly cultivated and thickly
+populated. There are several indigo factories, and mills for pressing and
+cleaning cotton, but the former have greatly suffered by the decline in
+indigo of recent years. The main line of the East Indian railway and the
+Oudh and Rohilkhand railway cross the district. The chief centre of trade
+is Khurja.
+
+Nothing certain is known of the history of the district before A.D. 1018,
+when Mahmud of Ghazni appeared before Baran and received the submission of
+the Hindu raja and his followers to Islam. In 1193 the city was captured by
+Kutb-ud-din. In the 14th century the district was subject to invasions of
+Rajput and Mongol clans who left permanent settlements in the country. With
+the firm establishment of the Mogul empire peace was restored, the most
+permanent effect of this period being the large proportion of Mussulmans
+among the population, due to the zeal of Aurangzeb. The decline of the
+Mogul empire gave free play to the turbulent spirit of the Jats and Gujars,
+many of whose chieftains succeeded in carving out petty principalities for
+themselves at the expense of their neighbours. During this period, however,
+Baran had properly no separate history, being a dependency of Koil, whence
+it continued to be administered under the Mahratta domination. After Koil
+and the fort of Aligarh had been captured by the British in 1803,
+Bulandshahr and the surrounding country were at first incorporated in the
+newly created district of Aligarh (1805). Bulandshahr enjoyed an evil
+reputation in the Mutiny of 1857, when the Gujar peasantry plundered the
+towns. The Jats took the side of the government, while the Gujars and
+Mussulman Rajputs were most actively hostile.
+
+See _Imperial Gazetteer of India_ (Oxford, ed. 1908); F.S. Growse,
+_Bulandshahr_ (Benares, 1884).
+
+BULAWAYO, the capital of Matabeleland, the western province of southern
+Rhodesia, South Africa. White population (1904) 3840. It occupies a central
+position on the tableland between the Limpopo and Zambezi rivers, is 4469
+ft. above the sea and 1362 m. north-east of Cape Town by rail. Beira, the
+nearest port, is 398 m. east in a direct line, but distant 675 m. by
+railway. Another railway, part of the Cape to Cairo connexion, runs
+north-west from Bulawayo, crossing the Zambezi just below the Victoria
+Falls. In the centre of the town is a large market square to which roads
+lead in regular lines north, south, east and [v.04 p.0717] west. Those
+going east and west are called avenues and are numbered, those running
+north and south are called streets and are named. Through the centre of
+Market Square runs Rhodes Street. There are many handsome public and
+private buildings. In front of the stock exchange is a monument in memory
+of the 257 settlers killed in the Matabele rebellion of 1896, and at the
+junction of two of the principal streets is a colossal bronze statue of
+Cecil Rhodes. East of the town is a large park and botanical gardens,
+beyond which is a residential suburb. The railway station and water and
+electric supply works are in the south-west quarter. An avenue 130 ft.
+broad and nearly 1½ m. long, planted throughout its length with trees,
+leads from the town to Government House, which is built on the site of
+Lobengula's royal kraal. The tree under which that chieftain sat when
+giving judgment has been preserved. A number of gold reefs intersect the
+surrounding district and in some of the reefs gold is mined.
+South-south-east of the town are the Matoppo Hills. In a grave in one of
+these hills, 33 m. from Bulawayo, Rhodes is buried.
+
+The "Place of Slaughter," as the Zulu word Bulawayo is interpreted, was
+founded about 1838 by Lobengula's father, Mosilikatze, some distance south
+of the present town, and continued to be the royal residence till its
+occupation by the British South Africa Company's forces in November 1893,
+when a new town was founded. Four years later the railway connecting it
+with Cape Town was completed (see RHODESIA).
+
+BULDANA, a town and district of India, in Berar. The town had a population
+in 1901 of 4137. The district has an area of 3662 sq. m. The southern part
+forms a portion of Berar Balaghat or Berar--above the Ghats. Here the
+general contour of the country may be described as a succession of small
+plateaus decreasing in elevation to the extreme south. Towards the eastern
+side of the district the country assumes more the character of undulating
+high lands, favoured with soil of a good quality. A succession of plateaus
+descends from the highest ridges on the north to the south, where a series
+of small ghats march with the nizam's territory. The small fertile valleys
+between the plateaus are watered by streams during the greater portion of
+the year, while wells of particularly good and pure water are numerous.
+These valleys are favourite village sites. The north portion of the
+district occupies the rich valley of the Purna. The district is rich in
+agricultural produce; in a seasonable year a many-coloured sheet of
+cultivation, almost without a break, covers the valley of the Purna. In the
+Balaghat also the crops are very fine. Situated as the district is in the
+neighbourhood of the great cotton market of Khamgaon, and nearer to Bombay
+than the other Berar districts, markets for its agricultural produce on
+favourable terms are easily found. In 1901 the population was 423,616,
+showing a decrease of 12% in the decade due to the effects of famine. The
+district was reconstituted, and given an additional area of 853 sq. m. in
+1905; the population on the enlarged area in 1901 was 613,756. The only
+manufacture is cotton cloth. Cotton, wheat and oil-seeds are largely
+exported. The Nagpur line of the Great Indian Peninsula railway runs
+through the north of the district. The most important place of trade is
+Malkapur--pop. (1901) 13,112--with several factories for ginning and
+pressing cotton.
+
+BULDUR, or BURDUR, chief town of a sanjak of the Konia vilayet in Asia
+Minor. It is called by the Christians _Polydorion_. Its altitude is 3150
+ft. and it is situated in the midst of gardens, about 2 m. from the
+brackish lake, Buldur Geul (anc. _Ascania Limne_). Linen-weaving and
+leather-tanning are the principal industries. There is a good carriage road
+to Dineir, by which much grain is sent from the Buldur plain, and a railway
+connects it with Dineir and Egirdir. Pop. 12,000.
+
+BULFINCH, CHARLES (1763-1844), American architect, was born in Boston,
+Massachusetts, on the 8th of August 1763, the son of Thomas Bulfinch, a
+prominent and wealthy physician. He was educated at the Boston Latin school
+and at Harvard, where he graduated in 1781, and after several years of
+travel and study in Europe, settled in 1787 in Boston, where he was the
+first to practise as a professional architect. Among his early works were
+the old Federal Street theatre (1793), the first play-house in New England,
+and the "new" State House (1798). For more than twenty-five years he was
+the most active architect in Boston, and at the same time took a leading
+part in the public life of the city. As chairman of the board of selectmen
+for twenty-one years (1797-1818), an important position which made him
+practically chief magistrate, he exerted a strong influence in modernizing
+Boston, in providing for new systems of drainage and street-lighting, in
+reorganizing the police and fire departments, and in straightening and
+widening the streets. He was one of the promoters in 1787 of the voyage of
+the ship "Columbia," which under command of Captain Robert Gray (1755-1806)
+was the first to carry the American flag round the world. In 1818 Bulfinch
+succeeded B.H. Latrobe (1764-1820) as architect of the National Capitol at
+Washington. He completed the unfinished wings and central portion,
+constructing the rotunda from plans of his own after suggestions of his
+predecessor, and designed the new western approach and portico. In 1830 he
+returned to Boston, where he died on the 15th of April 1844. Bulfinch's
+work was marked by sincerity, simplicity, refinement of taste and an entire
+freedom from affectation, and it greatly influenced American architecture
+in the early formative period. His son, Stephen Greenleaf Bulfinch
+(1809-1870), was a well-known Unitarian clergyman and author.
+
+See _The Life and Letters of Charles Bulfinch_ (Boston, 1896), edited by
+his grand-daughter, and "The Architects of the American Capitol," by James
+Q. Howard, in _The International Review_, vol. i. (New York, 1874).
+
+BULGARIA, a kingdom of south-eastern Europe, situated in the north-east of
+the Balkan Peninsula, and on the Black Sea. From 1878 until the 5th of
+October 1908, Bulgaria was an autonomous and tributary principality, under
+the suzerainty of the sultan of Turkey. The area of the kingdom amounts to
+37,240 sq. m., and comprises the territories between the Balkan chain and
+the river Danube; the province of Eastern Rumelia, lying south of the
+Balkans; and the western highlands of Kiustendil, Samakov, Sofia and Trn.
+Bulgaria is bounded on the N. by the Danube, from its confluence with the
+Timok to the eastern suburbs of Silistria whence a line, forming the
+Rumanian frontier, is drawn to a point on the Black Sea coast 10 m. S. of
+Mangalia. On the E. it is washed by the Black Sea; on the S. the Turkish
+frontier, starting from a point on the coast about 12 m. S. of Sozopolis,
+runs in a south-westerly direction, crossing the river Maritza at Mustafa
+Pasha, and reaching the Arda at Adakali. The line laid down by the Berlin
+Treaty (1878) ascended the Arda to Ishiklar, thence following the crest of
+Rhodope to the westwards, but the cantons of Krjali and Rupchus included in
+this boundary were restored to Turkey in 1886. The present frontier,
+passing to the north of these districts, reaches the watershed of Rhodope a
+little north of the Dospat valley, and then follows the crest of the Rilska
+Planina to the summit of Tchrni Vrkh, where the Servian, Turkish and
+Bulgarian territories meet. From this point the western or Servian frontier
+passes northwards, leaving Trn to the east and Pirot to the west, reaching
+the Timok near Kula, and following the course of that river to its junction
+with the Danube. The Berlin Treaty boundary was far from corresponding with
+the ethnological limits of the Bulgarian race, which were more accurately
+defined by the abrogated treaty of San Stefano (see below, under
+_History_). A considerable portion of Macedonia, the districts of Pirot and
+Vranya belonging to Servia, the northern half of the vilayet of Adrianople,
+and large tracts of the Dobrudja, are, according to the best and most
+impartial authorities, mainly inhabited by a Bulgarian population.
+
+_Physical Features._--The most striking physical features are two
+mountain-chains; the Balkans, which run east and west through the heart of
+the country; and Rhodope, which, for a considerable distance, forms its
+southern boundary. The Balkans constitute the southern half of the great
+semicircular range known as the anti-Dacian system, of which the
+Carpathians form the northern portion. This great chain is sundered at the
+Iron Gates by the passage of the Danube; its two component parts present
+many points of resemblance in their aspect and outline, geological
+formation and flora. The Balkans (ancient _Haemus_) run almost parallel to
+the Danube,
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+Corrections made to printed original.
+
+p. 499, History: "It was, however, recovered": 'recoverd' in original
+
+p. 506, 1st para: "the yarrow (Achillea millefolium).": 'Achilloea' in
+original
+
+p. 506, 2nd para: "owing partly to licensing legislation": 'lincensing' in
+original
+
+p. 507, 2nd para: "The worts of each brewing must be collected": 'much be
+collected' in original
+
+p. 541, Lansdowne Bridge: "main members at end of cantilevers":
+'centilevers' in original
+
+p. 602, Climate, Flora and Fauna: "constant breeze from the Indian Ocean":
+'beeeze' in original
+
+P. 625, Brockville: "situated 119 m. S.W. of Montreal": 'situtated' in
+original
+
+p. 635, 5th para: "the embarrassment of breathing": 'embarassment' in
+original
+
+p. 671, 1st para: "he conceived an enthusiastic admiration": 'enthusiatic'
+in original
+
+P. 703, Marchantiales: "Marchantia polymorpha and Lunularia": 'Marchantia,
+polymorpha' in original
+
+p. 707, Fig. 14: "Andreaea petrophila": 'pelrophila' in original
+
+P. 742, Buddhaghosa: "a nearly contemporaneous Chinese translation":
+'comtemporaneous' in original
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 4, Part 3, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 4, Part 3, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 4, Part 3
+       "Brescia" to "Bulgaria"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: November 2, 2006 [EBook #19699]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, Keith Edkins and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note: A few typographical errors have been corrected: they
+are listed at the end of the text. Volume and page numbers have been
+incorporated into the text of each page as: v.04 p.0001.
+
+[v.04 p.0498] volumes x.-xiv., the preface to vol. xi. containing important
+researches into the French communes. To the _Table chronologique des
+diplomes, chartes, lettres, et actes imprimes concernant l'histoire de
+France_ he contributed three volumes in collaboration with Mouchet
+(1769-1783). Charged with the supervision of a large collection of
+documents bearing on French history, analogous to Rymer's _Foedera_, he
+published the first volume (_Diplomatat. Chartae_, &c., 1791). The
+Revolution interrupted him in his collection of _Memoires concernant
+l'histoire, les sciences, les lettres, et les arts des Chinois_, begun in
+1776 at the instance of the minister Bertin, when fifteen volumes had
+appeared.
+
+See the note on Brequigny at the end of vol. i. of the _Memoires de
+l'Academie des Inscriptions_ (1808); the Introduction to vol. iv. of the
+_Table chronologique des diplomes_ (1836); Champollion-Figeac's preface to
+the _Lettres des rois et reines_; the _Comite des travaux historiques_, by
+X. Charmes, vol. i. _passim_; N. Oursel, _Nouvelle biographie normande_
+(1886); and the _Catalogue des manuscrits des collections Duchesne et
+Brequigny_ (in the Bibliotheque Nationale), by Rene Poupardin (1905).
+
+(C. B.*)
+
+BRESCIA (anc. _Brixia_), a city and episcopal see of Lombardy, Italy, the
+capital of the province of Brescia, finely situated at the foot of the
+Alps, 52 m. E. of Milan and 40 m. W. of Verona by rail. Pop. (1901) town,
+42,495; commune, 72,731. The plan of the city is rectangular, and the
+streets intersect at right angles, a peculiarity handed down from Roman
+times, though the area enclosed by the medieval walls is larger than that
+of the Roman town, which occupied the eastern portion of the present one.
+The Piazza del Museo marks the site of the forum, and the museum on its
+north side is ensconced in a Corinthian temple with three _cellae_, by some
+attributed to Hercules, but more probably the Capitolium of the city,
+erected by Vespasian in A.D. 73 (if the inscription really belongs to the
+building; cf. Th. Mommsen in _Corp. Inscrip. Lat._ v. No. 4312, Berlin,
+1872), and excavated in 1823. It contains a famous bronze statue of
+Victory, found in 1826. Scanty remains of a building on the south side of
+the forum, called the _curia_, but which may be a basilica, and of the
+theatre, on the east of the temple, still exist.
+
+Brescia contains many interesting medieval buildings. The castle, at the
+north-east angle of the town, commands a fine view. It is now a military
+prison. The old cathedral is a round domed structure of the 10th (?)
+century erected over an early Christian basilica, which has forty-two
+ancient columns; and the Broletto, adjoining the new cathedral (a building
+of 1604) on the north, is a massive building of the 12th and 13th centuries
+(the original town hall, now the prefecture and law courts), with a lofty
+tower. There are also remains of the convent of S. Salvatore, founded by
+Desiderius, king of Lombardy, including three churches, two of which now
+contain the fine medieval museum, which possesses good ivories. The church
+of S. Francesco has a Gothic facade and cloisters. There are also some good
+Renaissance palaces and other buildings, including the Municipio, begun in
+1492 and completed by Jacopo Sansovino in 1554-1574. This is a magnificent
+structure, with fine ornamentation. The church of S. Maria dei Miracoli
+(1488-1523) is also noteworthy for its general effect and for the richness
+of its details, especially of the reliefs on the facade. Many other
+churches, and the picture gallery (Galleria Martinengo), contain fine works
+of the painters of the Brescian school, Alessandro Bonvicino (generally
+known as Moretto), Girolamo Romanino and Moretto's pupil, Giovanni Battista
+Moroni. The Biblioteca Queriniana contains early MSS., a 14th-century MS.
+of Dante, &c., and some rare incunabula. The city is well supplied with
+water, and has no less than seventy-two public fountains. Brescia has
+considerable factories of iron ware, particularly fire-arms and weapons
+(one of the government small arms factories being situated here), also of
+woollens, linens and silks, matches, candles, &c. The stone quarries of
+Mazzano, 8 m. east of Brescia, supplied material for the monument to Victor
+Emmanuel II. and other buildings in Rome. Brescia is situated on the main
+railway line between Milan and Verona, and has branch railways to Iseo,
+Parma, Cremona and (via Rovato) to Bergamo, and steam tramways to Mantua,
+Soncino, Ponte Toscolano and Cardone Valtrompia.
+
+The ancient Celtic Brixia, a town of the Cenomani, became Roman in 225
+B.C., when the Cenomani submitted to Rome. Augustus founded a civil (not a
+military) colony here in 27 B.C., and he and Tiberius constructed an
+aqueduct to supply it. In 452 it was plundered by Attila, but was the seat
+of a duchy in the Lombard period. From 1167 it was one of the most active
+members of the Lombard League. In 1258 it fell into the hands of Eccelino
+of Verona, and belonged to the Scaligers (della Scala) until 1421, when it
+came under the Visconti of Milan, and in 1426 under Venice. Early in the
+16th century it was one of the wealthiest cities of Lombardy, but has never
+recovered from its sack by the French under Gaston de Foix in 1512. It
+belonged to Venice until 1797, when it came under Austrian dominion; it
+revolted in 1848, and again in 1849, being the only Lombard town to rally
+to Charles Albert in the latter year, but was taken after ten days'
+obstinate street fighting by the Austrians under Haynau.
+
+See _Museo Bresciano Illustrato_ (Brescia, 1838).
+
+(T. AS.)
+
+BRESLAU (Polish _Wraclaw_), a city of Germany, capital of the Prussian
+province of Silesia, and an episcopal see, situated in a wide and fertile
+plain on both banks of the navigable Oder, 350 m. from its mouth, at the
+influx of the Ohle, and 202 m. from Berlin on the railway to Vienna. Pop.
+(1867) 171,926; (1880) 272,912; (1885) 299,640; (1890) 335,186; (1905)
+470,751, about 60% being Protestants, 35% Roman Catholics and nearly 5%
+Jews. The Oder, which here breaks into several arms, divides the city into
+two unequal halves, crossed by numerous bridges. The larger portion, on the
+left bank, includes the old or inner town, surrounded by beautiful
+promenades, on the site of the ramparts, dismantled after 1813, from an
+eminence within which, the Liebichs Hoehe, a fine view is obtained of the
+surrounding country. Outside, as well as across the Oder, lies the new town
+with extensive suburbs, containing, especially in the Schweidnitz quarter
+in the south, and the Oder quarter in the north, many handsome streets and
+spacious squares. The inner town, in contrast to the suburbs, still retains
+with its narrow streets much of its ancient characters, and contains
+several medieval buildings, both religious and secular, of great beauty and
+interest. The cathedral, dedicated to St John the Baptist, was begun in
+1148 and completed at the close of the 15th century, enlarged in the 17th
+and 18th centuries, and restored between 1873 and 1875; it is rich in
+notable treasures, especially the high altar of beaten silver, and in
+beautiful paintings and sculptures. The Kreuzkirche (church of the Holy
+Cross), dating from the 13th and 14th centuries, is an interesting brick
+building, remarkable for its stained glass and its historical monuments,
+among which is the tomb of Henry IV., duke of Silesia. The Sandkirche, so
+called from its dedication to Our Lady on the Sand, dates from the 14th
+century, and was until 1810 the church of the Augustinian canons. The
+Dorotheenor Minoritenkirche, remarkable for its high-pitched roof, was
+founded by the emperor Charles IV. in 1351. These are the most notable of
+the Roman Catholic churches. Of the Evangelical churches the most important
+is that of St Elizabeth, founded about 1250, rebuilt in the 14th and 15th
+centuries, and restored in 1857. Its lofty tower contains the largest bell
+in Silesia, and the church possesses a celebrated organ, fine stained
+glass, a magnificent stone pyx (erected in 1455) over 52 ft. high, and
+portraits of Luther and Melanchthon by Lucas Cranach. The church of St Mary
+Magdalen, built in the 14th century on the model of the cathedral, has two
+lofty Gothic towers connected by a bridge, and is interesting as having
+been the church in which, in 1523, the reformation in Silesia was first
+proclaimed. Other noteworthy ecclesiastical buildings are the graceful
+Gothic church of St Michael built in 1871, the bishop's palace and the
+Jewish synagogue, the finest in Germany after that in Berlin.
+
+The business streets of the city converge upon the Ring, the market square,
+in which is the town-hall, a fine Gothic building, begun in the middle of
+the 14th and completed in the 16th century. Within is the Fuerstensaal, in
+which the diets of Silesia were formerly held, while beneath is the famous
+Schweidnitzer Keller, used continuously since 1355 as a beer and wine
+house. [v.04 p.0499] The university, a spacious Gothic building facing the
+Oder, is a striking edifice. It was built (1728-1736) as a college by the
+Jesuits, on the site of the former imperial castle presented to them by the
+emperor Leopold I., and contains a magnificent hall (Aula Leopoldina),
+richly ornamented with frescoes and capable of holding 1200 persons.
+Breslau possesses a large number of other important public buildings: the
+Stadthaus (civic hall), the royal palace, the government offices (a
+handsome pile erected in 1887), the provincial House of Assembly, the
+municipal archives, the courts of law, the Silesian museum of arts and
+crafts and antiquities, stored in the former assembly hall of the estates
+(Staendehaus), which was rebuilt for the purpose, the museum of fine arts,
+the exchange, the Stadt and Lobe theatres, the post office and central
+railway station. There are also numerous hospitals and schools. Breslau is
+exceedingly rich in fine monuments; the most noteworthy being the
+equestrian statues of Frederick the Great and Frederick William III., both
+by Kiss; the statue of Bluecher by Rauch; a marble statue of General
+Tauentzien by Langhans and Schadow; a bronze statue of Karl Gottlieb Svarez
+(1746-1798), the Prussian jurist, a monument to Schleiermacher, born here
+in 1768, and statues of the emperor William I., Bismarck and Moltke. There
+are also several handsome fountains. Foremost among the educational
+establishments stands the university, founded in 1702 by the emperor
+Leopold I. as a Jesuit college, and greatly extended by the incorporation
+of the university of Frankfort-on-Oder in 1811. Its library contains
+306,000 volumes and 4000 MSS., and has in the so-called _Bibliotheca
+Habichtiana_ a valuable collection of oriental literature. Among its
+auxiliary establishments are botanical gardens, an observatory, and
+anatomical, physiological and kindred institutions. There are eight
+classical and four modern schools, two higher girls' schools, a Roman
+Catholic normal school, a Jewish theological seminary, a school of arts and
+crafts, and numerous literary and charitable foundations. It is, however,
+as a commercial and industrial city that Breslau is most widely known. Its
+situation, close to the extensive coal and iron fields of Upper Silesia, in
+proximity to the Austrian and Russian frontiers, at the centre of a network
+of railways directly communicating both with these countries and with the
+chief towns of northern and central Germany, and on a deep waterway
+connecting with the Elbe and the Vistula, facilitates its very considerable
+transit and export trade in the products of the province and of the
+neighbouring countries. These embrace coal, sugar, cereals, spirits,
+petroleum and timber. The local industries comprise machinery and tools,
+railway and tramway carriages, furniture, cast-iron goods, gold and silver
+work, carpets, furs, cloth and cottons, paper, musical instruments, glass
+and china. Breslau is the headquarters of the VI. German army corps and
+contains a large garrison of troops of all arms.
+
+_History._--Breslau (Lat. _Vratislavia_) is first mentioned by the
+chronicler Thietmar, bishop of Merseburg, in A.D. 1000, and was probably
+founded some years before this date. Early in the 11th century it was made
+the seat of a bishop, and after having formed part of Poland, became the
+capital of an independent duchy in 1163. Destroyed by the Mongols in 1241,
+it soon recovered its former prosperity and received a large influx of
+German colonists. The bishop obtained the title of a prince of the Empire
+in 1290.[1] When Henry VI., the last duke of Breslau, died in 1335, the
+city came by purchase to John, king of Bohemia, whose successors retained
+it until about 1460. The Bohemian kings bestowed various privileges on
+Breslau, which soon began to extend its commerce in all directions, while
+owing to increasing wealth the citizens took up a more independent
+attitude. Disliking the Hussites, Breslau placed itself under the
+protection of Pope Pius II. in 1463, and a few years afterwards came under
+the rule of the Hungarian king, Matthias Corvinus. After his death in 1490
+it again became subject to Bohemia, passing with the rest of Silesia to the
+Habsburgs when in 1526 Ferdinand, afterwards emperor, was chosen king of
+Bohemia. Having passed almost undisturbed through the periods of the
+Reformation and the Thirty Years' War, Breslau was compelled to own the
+authority of Frederick the Great in 1741. It was, however, recovered by the
+Austrians in 1757, but was regained by Frederick after his victory at
+Leuthen in the same year, and has since belonged to Prussia, although it
+was held for a few days by the French in 1807 after the battle of Jena, and
+again in 1813 after the battle of Bautzen. The sites of the fortifications,
+dismantled by the French in 1807, were given to the civic authorities by
+King Frederick William III., and converted into promenades. In March 1813
+this monarch issued from Breslau his stirring appeals to the Prussians, _An
+mein Volk_ and _An mein Kriegesheer_, and the city was the centre of the
+Prussian preparations for the campaign which ended at Leipzig. After the
+Prussian victory at Sadowa in 1866, William I. made a triumphant and
+complimentary entry into the city, which since the days of Frederick the
+Great has been only less loyal to the royal house than Berlin itself.
+
+See Buerkner and Stein, _Geschichte der Stadt Breslau_ (Bresl. 1851-1853);
+J-Stein, _Geschichte der Stadt Breslau im 19ten Jahrhundert_ (1884); O
+Frenzel, _Breslauer Stadtbuch_ ("Codex dipl. Silisiae," vol. ii. 1882);
+Luchs, _Breslau, ein Fuehrer durch die Stadt_ (12th ed., Bresl. 1904).
+
+[1] In 1195 Jaroslaw, son of Boleslaus I. of Lower Silesia, who became
+bishop of Breslau in 1198, inherited the duchy of Neisse, which at his
+death (1201) he bequeathed to his successors in the see. The Austrian part
+of Neisse still belongs to the bishop of Breslau, who also still bears the
+title of prince bishop.
+
+BRESSANT, JEAN BAPTISTE PROSPER (1815-1886), French actor, was born at
+Chalon-sur-Saone on the 23rd of October 1815, and began his stage career at
+the Varietes in Paris in 1833. In 1838 he went to the French theatre at St
+Petersburg, where for eight years he played important parts with
+ever-increasing reputation. His success was confirmed at the Gymnase when
+he returned to Paris in 1846, and he made his _debut_ at the Comedie
+Francaise as a full-fledged _societaire_ in 1854. From playing the ardent
+young lover, he turned to leading roles both in modern plays and in the
+classical repertoire. His Richelieu in _Mlle de Belle-Isle_, his Octave in
+Alfred de Musset's _Les Caprices de Marianne_, and his appearance in de
+Musset's _Il faut qu'une porte soit ouverte ou fermee_ and _Un caprice_
+were followed by _Tartuffe_, _Le Misanthrope_ and _Don Juan_. Bressant
+retired in 1875, and died on the 23rd of January 1886. During his
+professorship at the Conservatoire, Mounet-Sully was one of his pupils.
+
+BRESSE, a district of eastern France embracing portions of the departments
+of Ain, Saone-et-Loire and Jura. The Bresse extends from the Dombes on the
+south to the river Doubs on the north, and from the Saone eastwards to the
+Jura, measuring some 60 m. in the former, and 20 m. in the latter
+direction. It is a plain varying from 600 to 800 ft. above the sea, with
+few eminences and a slight inclination westwards. Heaths and coppice
+alternate with pastures and arable land; pools and marshes are numerous,
+especially in the north. Its chief rivers are the Veyle, the Reyssouze and
+the Seille, all tributaries of the Saone. The soil is a gravelly clay but
+moderately fertile, and cattle-raising is largely carried on. The region
+is, however, more especially celebrated for its table poultry. The
+inhabitants preserve a distinctive but almost obsolete costume, with a
+curious head-dress. The Bresse proper, called the _Bresse Bressane_,
+comprises the northern portion of the department of Ain. The greater part
+of the district belonged in the middle ages to the lords of Bage, from whom
+it passed in 1272 to the house of Savoy. It was not till the first half of
+the 15th century that the province, with Bourg as its capital, was founded
+as such. In 1601 it was ceded to France by the treaty of Lyons, after which
+it formed (together with the province of Bugey) first a separate government
+and afterwards part of the government of Burgundy.
+
+BRESSUIRE, a town of western France, capital of an arrondissement in the
+department of Deux-Sevres, 48 m. N. of Niort by rail. Pop. (1906) 4561. The
+town is situated on an eminence overlooking the Dolo, a tributary of the
+Argenton. It is the centre of a cattle-rearing and agricultural region, and
+has important markets; the manufacture of wooden type and woollen goods is
+carried on. Bressuire has two buildings of interest: the church of
+Notre-Dame, which, dating chiefly from the 12th and 15th centuries, has an
+imposing tower of the Renaissance period; and the castle, built by the
+lords of [v.04 p.0500] Beaumont, vassals of the viscount of Thouars. The
+latter is now in ruins, and a portion of the site is occupied by a modern
+chateau, but an inner and outer line of fortifications are still to be
+seen. The whole forms the finest assemblage of feudal ruins in Poitou.
+Bressuire is the seat of a sub-prefect and has a tribunal of first
+instance. Among the disasters suffered at various times by the town, its
+capture from the English and subsequent pillage by French troops under du
+Guesclin in 1370 is the most memorable.
+
+BREST, a fortified seaport of western France, capital of an arrondissement
+in the department of Finistere, 155 m. W.N.W. of Rennes by rail. Population
+(1906) town, 71,163; commune, 85,294. It is situated to the north of a
+magnificent landlocked bay, and occupies the slopes of two hills divided by
+the river Penfeld,--the part of the town on the left bank being regarded as
+Brest proper, while the part on the right is known as Recouvrance. There
+are also extensive suburbs to the east of the town. The hill-sides are in
+some places so steep that the ascent from the lower to the upper town has
+to be effected by flights of steps and the second or third storey of one
+house is often on a level with the ground storey of the next. The chief
+street of Brest bears the name of rue de Siam, in honour of the Siamese
+embassy sent to Louis XIV., and terminates at the remarkable swing-bridge,
+constructed in 1861, which crosses the mouth of the Penfeld. Running along
+the shore to the south of the town is the Cours d'Ajot, one of the finest
+promenades of its kind in France, named after the engineer who constructed
+it. It is planted with trees and adorned with marble statues of Neptune and
+Abundance by Antoine Coysevox. The castle with its donjon and seven towers
+(12th to the 16th centuries), commanding the entrance to the river, is the
+only interesting building in the town. Brest is the capital of one of the
+five naval arrondissements of France. The naval port, which is in great
+part excavated in the rock, extends along both banks of the Penfeld; it
+comprises gun-foundries and workshops, magazines, shipbuilding yards and
+repairing docks, and employs about 7000 workmen. There are also large naval
+barracks, training ships and naval schools of various kinds, and an
+important naval hospital. Brest is the seat of a sub-prefect and has
+tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a chamber of commerce, a board
+of trade-arbitrators, two naval tribunals, and a tribunal of maritime
+commerce. There are also lycees for boys and girls and a school of commerce
+and industry. The commercial port, which is separated from the town itself
+by the Cours d'Ajot, comprises a tidal port with docks and an outer
+harbour; it is protected by jetties to the east and west and by a
+breakwater on the south. In 1905 the number of vessels entered was 202 with
+a tonnage of 67,755, and cleared 160 with a tonnage of 61,012. The total
+value of the imports in 1905 was L244,000. The chief were wine, coal,
+timber, mineral tar, fertilizers and lobsters and crayfish. Exports, of
+which the chief were wheat-flour, fruit and superphosphates, were valued at
+L40,000. Besides its sardine and mackerel fishing industry, the town has
+flour-mills, breweries, foundries, forges, engineering works, and
+manufactures of blocks, candles, chemicals (from sea-weed), boots, shoes
+and linen. Brest communicates by submarine cable with America and French
+West Africa. The roadstead consists of a deep indentation with a maximum
+length of 14 m. and an average width of 4 m., the mouth being barred by the
+peninsula of Quelern, leaving a passage from 1 to 2 m. broad, known as the
+Goulet. The outline of the bay is broken by numerous smaller bays or arms,
+formed by the embouchures of streams, the most important being the Anse de
+Quelern, the Anse de Poulmie, and the mouths of the Chateaulin and the
+Landerneau. Brest is a fortress of the first class. The fortifications of
+the town and the harbour fall into four groups: (1) the very numerous forts
+and batteries guarding the approaches to and the channel of the Goulet; (2)
+the batteries and forts directed upon the roads; (3) a group of works
+preventing access to the peninsula of Quelern and commanding the ground to
+the south of the peninsula from which many of the works of group (2) could
+be taken in reverse; (4) the defences of Brest itself, consisting of an
+old-fashioned _enceinte_ possessing little military value and a chain of
+detached forts to the west of the town.
+
+Nothing definite is known of Brest till about 1240, when it was ceded by a
+count of Leon to John I., duke of Brittany. In 1342 John of Montfort gave
+it up to the English, and it did not finally leave their hands till 1397.
+Its medieval importance was great enough to give rise to the saying, "He is
+not duke of Brittany who is not lord of Brest." By the marriage of Francis
+I. with Claude, daughter of Anne of Brittany, Brest with the rest of the
+duchy definitely passed to the French crown. The advantages of the
+situation for a seaport town were first recognized by Richelieu, who in
+1631 constructed a harbour with wooden wharves, which soon became a station
+of the French navy. Colbert changed the wooden wharves for masonry and
+otherwise improved the post, and Vauban's fortifications followed in
+1680-1688. During the 18th century the fortifications and the naval
+importance of the town continued to develop. In 1694 an English squadron
+under John, 3rd Lord Berkeley, was miserably defeated in attempting a
+landing; but in 1794, during the revolutionary war, the French fleet, under
+Villaret de Joyeuse, was as thoroughly beaten in the same place by the
+English admiral Howe.
+
+BREST-LITOVSK (Polish _Brzesc-Litevski_; and in the Chron. _Berestie_ and
+_Berestov_), a strongly fortified town of Russia, in the government of
+Grodno, 137 m. by rail S. from the city of Grodno, in 52 deg. 5' N. lat. and
+23 deg. 39' E. long., at the junction of the navigable river Mukhovets with the
+Bug, and at the intersection of railways from Warsaw, Kiev, Moscow and East
+Prussia. Pop. (1867) 22,493; (1901) 42,812, of whom more than one-half were
+Jews. It contains a Jewish synagogue, which was regarded in the 16th
+century as the first in Europe, and is the seat of an Armenian and of a
+Greek Catholic bishop; the former has authority over the Armenians
+throughout the whole country. The town carries on an extensive trade in
+grain, flax, hemp, wood, tar and leather. First mentioned in the beginning
+of the 11th century, Brest-Litovsk was in 1241 laid waste by the Mongols
+and was not rebuilt till 1275; its suburbs were burned by the Teutonic
+Knights in 1379; and in the end of the 15th century the whole town met a
+similar fate at the hands of the khan of the Crimea. In the reign of the
+Polish king Sigismund III. diets were held there; and in 1594 and 1596 it
+was the meeting-place of two remarkable councils of the bishops of western
+Russia. In 1657, and again in 1706, the town was captured by the Swedes; in
+1794 it was the scene of Suvarov's victory over the Polish general
+Sierakowski; in 1795 it was added to the Russian empire. The Brest-Litovsk
+or King's canal (50 m. long), utilizing the Mukhovets-Bug rivers, forms a
+link in the waterways that connect the Dnieper with the Vistula.
+
+BRETEUIL, LOUIS CHARLES AUGUSTE LE TONNELIER, BARON DE (1730-1807), French
+diplomatist, was born at the chateau of Azay-le-Feron (Indre) on the 7th of
+March 1730. He was only twenty-eight when he was appointed by Louis XV.
+ambassador to the elector of Cologne, and two years later he was sent to St
+Petersburg. He arranged to be temporarily absent from his post at the time
+of the palace revolution by which Catherine II. was placed on the throne.
+In 1769 he was sent to Stockholm, and subsequently represented his
+government at Vienna, Naples, and again at Vienna until 1783, when he was
+recalled to become minister of the king's household. In this capacity he
+introduced considerable reforms in prison administration. A close friend of
+Marie Antoinette, he presently came into collision with Calonne, who
+demanded his dismissal in 1787. His influence with the king and queen,
+especially with the latter, remained unshaken, and on Necker's dismissal on
+the 11th of July 1789, Breteuil succeeded him as chief minister. The fall
+of the Bastille three days later put an end to the new ministry, and
+Breteuil made his way to Switzerland with the first party of _emigres_. At
+Soleure, in November 1790, he received from Louis XVI. exclusive powers to
+negotiate with the European courts, and in his efforts to check the
+ill-advised diplomacy of the _emigre_ princes, he soon brought himself into
+opposition with his old rival Calonne, who held a chief place in their
+councils. [v.04 p.0501] After the failure of the flight to Varennes, in the
+arrangement of which he had a share, Breteuil received instructions from
+Louis XVI., designed to restore amicable relations with the princes. His
+distrust of the king's brothers and his defence of Louis XVI.'s prerogative
+were to some extent justified, but his intransigeant attitude towards these
+princes emphasized the dissensions of the royal family in the eyes of
+foreign sovereigns, who looked on the comte de Provence as the natural
+representative of his brother and found a pretext for non-interference on
+Louis's behalf in the contradictory statements of the negotiators. Breteuil
+himself was the object of violent attacks from the party of the princes,
+who asserted that he persisted in exercising powers which had been revoked
+by Louis XVI. After the execution of Marie Antoinette he retired into
+private life near Hamburg, only returning to France in 1802. He died in
+Paris on the 2nd of November 1807.
+
+See the memoirs of Bertrand de Molleville (2 vols., Paris, 1816) and of the
+marquis de Bouille (2 vols., Paris, 1884); and E. Daudet, _Coblentz,
+1789-1793_ (1889), forming part of his _Hist. de l'emigration._
+
+BRETIGNY, a French town (dept. Eure-et-Loir, arrondissement and canton of
+Chartres, commune of Sours), which gave its name to a celebrated treaty
+concluded there on the 8th of May 1360, between Edward III. of England and
+John II., surnamed the Good, of France. The exactions of the English, who
+wished to yield as few as possible of the advantages claimed by them in the
+treaty of London, made negotiations difficult, and the discussion of terms
+begun early in April lasted more than a month. By virtue of this treaty
+Edward III. obtained, besides Guienne and Gascony, Poitou, Saintonge and
+Aunis, Agenais, Perigord, Limousin, Quercy, Bigorre, the countship of
+Gaure, Angoumois, Rouergue, Montreuil-sur-mer, Ponthieu, Calais, Sangatte,
+Ham and the countship of Guines. John II. had, moreover, to pay three
+millions of gold crowns for his ransom. On his side the king of England
+gave up the duchies of Normandy and Touraine, the countships of Anjou and
+Maine, and the suzerainty of Brittany and of Flanders. As a guarantee for
+the payment of his ransom, John the Good gave as hostages two of his sons,
+several princes and nobles, four inhabitants of Paris, and two citizens
+from each of the nineteen principal towns of France. This treaty was
+ratified and sworn to by the two kings and by their eldest sons on the 24th
+of October 1360, at Calais. At the same time were signed the special
+conditions relating to each important article of the treaty, and the
+renunciatory clauses in which the kings abandoned their rights over the
+territory they had yielded to one another.
+
+See Rymer's _Foedera_, vol. iii; Dumont, _Corps diplomatique_, vol. ii.;
+Froissart, ed. Luce, vol. vi.; _Les Grandes Chroniques de France_, ed. P.
+Paris, vol. vi.; E. Cosneau, _Les Grands Traites de la guerre de cent ans_
+(1889).
+
+BRETON, JULES ADOLPHE AIME LOUIS (1827- ), French painter, was born on the
+1st of May 1827, at Courrieres, Pas de Calais, France. His artistic gifts
+being manifest at an early age, he was sent in 1843 to Ghent, to study
+under the historical painter de Vigne, and in 1846 to Baron Wappers at
+Antwerp. Finally he worked in Paris under Drolling. His first efforts were
+in historical subjects: "Saint Piat preaching in Gaul"; then, under the
+influence of the revolution of 1848, he represented "Misery and Despair."
+But Breton soon discovered that he was not born to be a historical painter,
+and he returned to the memories of nature and of the country which were
+impressed on him in early youth. In 1853 he exhibited the "Return of the
+Harvesters" at the Paris Salon, and the "Little Gleaner" at Brussels.
+Thenceforward he was essentially a painter of rustic life, especially in
+the province of Artois, which he quitted only three times for short
+excursions: in 1864 to Provence, and in 1865 and 1873 to Brittany, whence
+he derived some of his happiest studies of religious scenes. His numerous
+subjects may be divided generally into four classes: labour, rest, rural
+festivals and religious festivals. Among his more important works may be
+named "Women Gleaning," and "The Day after St Sebastian's Day" (1855),
+which gained him a third-class medal; "Blessing the Fields" (1857), a
+second-class medal; "Erecting a Calvary" (1859), now in the Lille gallery;
+"The Return of the Gleaners" (1859), now in the Luxembourg; "Evening" and
+"Women Weeding" (1861), a first-class medal; "Grandfather's Birthday"
+(1862); "The Close of Day" (1865); "Harvest" (1867); "Potato Gatherers"
+(1868); "A Pardon, Brittany" (1869); "The Fountain" (1872), medal of
+honour; "The Bonfires of St John" (1875); "Women mending Nets" (1876), in
+the Douai museum; "A Gleaner" (1877), Luxembourg; "Evening, Finistere"
+(1881); "The Song of the Lark" (1884); "The Last Sunbeam" (1885); "The
+Shepherd's Star" (1888); "The Call Home" (1889); "The Last Gleanings"
+(1895); "Gathering Poppies" (1897); "The Alarm Cry" (1899); "Twilight
+Glory" (1900). Breton was elected to the Institut in 1886 on the death of
+Baudry. In 1889 he was made commander of the Legion of Honour, and in 1899
+foreign member of the Royal Academy of London. He also wrote several books,
+among them _Les Champs et la mer_ (1876), _Nos peintres du siecle_ (1900),
+"Jeanne," a poem, _Delphine Bernard_ (1902), and _La Peinture_ (1904).
+
+See Jules Breton, _Vie d'un artiste, art et nature_ (autobiographical),
+(Paris, 1890); Marius Vachon, _Jules Breton_ (1899).
+
+BRETON, BRITTON OR BRITTAINE, NICHOLAS (1545?-1626), English poet, belonged
+to an old family settled at Layer-Breton, Essex. His father, William
+Breton, who had made a considerable fortune by trade, died in 1559, and the
+widow (nee Elizabeth Bacon) married the poet George Gascoigne before her
+sons had attained their majority. Nicholas Breton was probably born at the
+"capitall mansion house" in Red Cross Street, in the parish of St Giles
+without Cripplegate, mentioned in his father's will. There is no official
+record of his residence at the university, but the diary of the Rev.
+Richard Madox tells us that he was at Antwerp in 1583 and was "once of
+Oriel College." He married Ann Sutton in 1593, and had a family. He is
+supposed to have died shortly after the publication of his last work,
+_Fantastickes_ (1626). Breton found a patron in Mary, countess of Pembroke,
+and wrote much in her honour until 1601, when she seems to have withdrawn
+her favour. It is probably safe to supplement the meagre record of his life
+by accepting as autobiographical some of the letters signed N.B. in _A
+Poste with a Packet of Mad Letters_ (1603, enlarged 1637); the 19th letter
+of the second part contains a general complaint of many griefs, and
+proceeds as follows: "hath another been wounded in the warres, fared hard,
+lain in a cold bed many a bitter storme, and beene at many a hard banquet?
+all these have I; another imprisoned? so have I; another long been sicke?
+so have I; another plagued with an unquiet life? so have I; another
+indebted to his hearts griefe, and fame would pay and cannot? so am I."
+Breton was a facile writer, popular with his contemporaries, and forgotten
+by the next generation. His work consists of religious and pastoral poems,
+satires, and a number of miscellaneous prose tracts. His religious poems
+are sometimes wearisome by their excess of fluency and sweetness, but they
+are evidently the expression of a devout and earnest mind. His praise of
+the Virgin and his references to Mary Magdalene have suggested that he was
+a Catholic, but his prose writings abundantly prove that he was an ardent
+Protestant. Breton had little gift for satire, and his best work is to be
+found in his pastoral poetry. His _Passionate Shepheard_ (1604) is full of
+sunshine and fresh air, and of unaffected gaiety. The third pastoral in
+this book--"Who can live in heart so glad As the merrie country lad"--is
+well known; with some other of Breton's daintiest poems, among them the
+lullaby, "Come little babe, come silly soule,"[1]--it is incorporated in
+A.H. Bullen's _Lyrics from Elizabethan Romances_ (1890). His keen
+observation of country life appears also in his prose idyll, _Wits
+Trenchmour_, "a conference betwixt a scholler and an angler," and in his
+_Fantastickes_, a series of short prose pictures of the months, the
+Christian festivals and the hours, which throw much light on the customs of
+the times. Most of Breton's books are very rare and have great
+bibliographical value. His works, with the exception of some belonging to
+private owners, were collected by Dr A.B. Grosart in the [v.04 p.0502]
+_Chertsey Worthies Library_ in 1879, with an elaborate introduction quoting
+the documents for the poet's history.
+
+Breton's poetical works, the titles of which are here somewhat abbreviated,
+include _The Workes of a Young Wit_ (1577); _A Floorish upon Fancie_
+(1577); _The Pilgrimage to Paradise_ (1592); _The Countess of Penbrook's
+Passion_ (MS.), first printed by J.O. Halliwell Phillipps in 1853;
+_Pasquil's Fooles cappe_, entered at Stationers' Hall in 1600; _Pasquil's
+Mistresse_ (1600); _Pasquil's Passe and Passeth Not_ (1600); _Melancholike
+Humours_ (1600); _Marie Magdalen's Love: a Solemne Passion of the Soules
+Love_ (1595), the first part of which, a prose treatise, is probably by
+another hand; the second part, a poem in six-lined stanza, is certainly by
+Breton; _A Divine Poem_, including "The Ravisht Soul" and "The Blessed
+Weeper" (1601); _An Excellent Poem, upon the Longing of a Blessed Heart_
+(1601); _The Soules Heavenly Exercise_ (1601); _The Soules Harmony_ (1602);
+_Olde Madcappe newe Gaily mawfrey_ (1602); _The Mother's Blessing_ (1602);
+_A True Description of Unthankfulnesse_ (1602); _The Passionate Shepheard_
+(1604); _The Soules Immortall Crowne_ (1605); _The Honour of Valour_
+(1605); _An Invective against Treason; I would and I would not_ (1614);
+_Bryton's Bowre of Delights_ (1591), edited by Dr Grosart in 1893, an
+unauthorized publication which contained some poems disclaimed by Breton;
+_The Arbor of Amorous Devises_ (entered at Stationers' Hall, 1594), only in
+part Breton's; and contributions to _England's Helicon_ and other
+miscellanies of verse. Of his twenty-two prose tracts may be mentioned
+_Wit's Trenchmour_ (1597), _The Wil of Wit_ (1599), _A Poste with a Packet
+of Mad Letters_ (1603). _Sir Philip Sidney's Ourania by N.B._ (1606); _Mary
+Magdalen's Lamentations_ (1604), and _The Passion of a Discontented Mind_
+(1601), are sometimes, but erroneously, ascribed to Breton.
+
+[1]  This poem, however, comes from _The Arbor of Amorous Devises_, which
+is only in part Breton's work.
+
+BRETON DE LOS HERREROS, MANUEL (1796-1873), Spanish dramatist, was born at
+Quel (Logrono) on the 19th of December 1796 and was educated at Madrid.
+Enlisting on the 24th of May 1812, he served against the French in Valencia
+and Catalonia, and retired with the rank of corporal on the 8th of March
+1822. He obtained a minor post in the civil service under the liberal
+government, and on his discharge determined to earn his living by writing
+for the stage. His first piece, _A la vejez viruelas_, was produced on the
+14th of October 1824, and proved the writer to be the legitimate successor
+of the younger Moratin. His industry was astonishing: between October 1824
+and November 1828, he composed thirty-nine plays, six of them original, the
+rest being translations or recasts of classic masterpieces. In 1831 he
+published a translation of Tibullus, and acquired by it an unmerited
+reputation for scholarship which secured for him an appointment as
+sub-librarian at the national library. But the theatre claimed him for its
+own, and with the exception of _Elena_ and a few other pieces in the
+fashionable romantic vein, his plays were a long series of successes. His
+only serious check occurred in 1840; the former liberal had grown
+conservative with age, and in _La Ponchada_ he ridiculed the National
+Guard. He was dismissed from the national library, and for a short time was
+so unpopular that he seriously thought of emigrating to America; but the
+storm blew over, and within two years Breton de los Herreros had regained
+his supremacy on the stage. He became secretary to the Spanish Academy,
+quarrelled with his fellow-members, and died at Madrid on the 8th of
+November 1873. He is the author of some three hundred and sixty original
+plays, twenty-three of which are in prose. No Spanish dramatist of the
+nineteenth century approaches him in comic power, in festive invention, and
+in the humorous presentation of character, while his metrical dexterity is
+unique. _Marcela o a cual de los tres?_ (1831), _Muerete; y veras!_ (1837)
+and _La Escuela del matrimonio_ (1852) still hold the stage, and are likely
+to hold it so long as Spanish is spoken.
+
+See Marques de Molins, _Breton de los Herreros, recuerdos de su vida y de
+sus obras_ (Madrid, 1883); _Obras de Breton de Herreros_ (5 vols., Madrid,
+1883); E. Pineyro, _El Romanticismo en Espana_ (Paris, 1904).
+
+(J. F.-K.)
+
+BRETSCHNEIDER, KARL GOTTLIEB (1776-1848), German scholar and theologian,
+was born at Gersdorf in Saxony. In 1794 he entered the university of
+Leipzig, where he studied theology for four years. After some years of
+hesitation he resolved to be ordained, and in 1802 he passed with great
+distinction the examination for _candidatus theologiae_, and attracted the
+regard of F.V. Reinhard, author of the _System der christlichen Moral_
+(1788-1815), then court-preacher at Dresden, who became his warm friend and
+patron during the remainder of his life. In 1804-1806 Bretschneider was
+_Privat-docent_ at the university of Wittenberg, where he lectured on
+philosophy and theology. During this time he wrote his work on the
+development of dogma, _Systematische Entwickelung aller in der Dogmatik
+vorkommenden Begriffe nach den symbolischen Schriften der
+evangelisch-lutherischen und reformirten Kirche_ (1805, 4th ed. 1841),
+which was followed by others, including an edition of Ecclesiasticus with a
+Latin commentary. On the advance of the French army under Napoleon into
+Prussia, he determined to leave Wittenberg and abandon his university
+career. Through the good offices of Reinhard, he became pastor of
+Schneeberg in Saxony (1807). In 1808 he was promoted to the office of
+superintendent of the church of Annaberg, in which capacity he had to
+decide, in accordance with the canon law of Saxony, many matters belonging
+to the department of ecclesiastical law. But the climate did not agree with
+him, and his official duties interfered with his theological studies. With
+a view to a change he took the degree of doctor of theology in Wittenberg
+in August 1812. In 1816 he was appointed general superintendent at Gotha,
+where he remained until his death in 1848. This was the great period of his
+literary activity.
+
+In 1820 was published his treatise on the gospel of St John, entitled
+_Probabilia de Evangelii el Epistolarum Joannis Apostoli indole et
+origine_, which attracted much attention. In it he collected with great
+fulness and discussed with marked moderation the arguments against
+Johannine authorship. This called forth a number of replies. To the
+astonishment of every one, Bretschneider announced in the preface to the
+second edition of his _Dogmatik_ in 1822, that he had never doubted the
+authenticity of the gospel, and had published his _Probabilia_ only to draw
+attention to the subject, and to call forth a more complete defence of its
+genuineness. Bretschneider remarks in his autobiography that the
+publication of this work had the effect of preventing his appointment as
+successor to Karl C. Tittmann in Dresden, the minister Detlev von Einsiedel
+(1773-1861) denouncing him as the "slanderer of John" (_Johannisschaender_).
+His greatest contribution to the science of exegesis was his _Lexicon
+Manuale Graeco-Latinum in libros Novi Testamenti_ (1824, 3rd ed. 1840).
+This work was valuable for the use which its author made of the Greek of
+the Septuagint, of the Old and New Testament Apocrypha, of Josephus, and of
+the apostolic fathers, in illustration of the language of the New
+Testament. In 1826 he published _Apologie der neuern Theologie des
+evangelischen Deutschlands_. Hugh James Rose had published in England
+(1825) a volume of sermons on the rationalist movement (_The State of the
+Protestant Religion in Germany_), in which he classed Bretschneider with
+the rationalists; and Bretschneider contended that he himself was not a
+rationalist in the ordinary sense of the term, but a "rational
+supernaturalist." Some of his numerous dogmatic writings passed through
+several editions. An English translation of his _Manual of the Religion and
+History of the Christian Church_ appeared in 1857. His dogmatic position
+seems to be intermediate between the extreme school of naturalists, such as
+Heinrich Paulus, J.F. Roehr and Julius Wegscheider on the one hand, and D.F.
+Strauss and F.C. Baur on the other. Recognizing a supernatural element in
+the Bible, he nevertheless allowed to the full the critical exercise of
+reason in the interpretation of its dogmas (cp. Otto Pfleiderer,
+_Development of Theology_, pp. 89 ff.).
+
+See his autobiography, _Aus meinem Leben: Selbstbiographie von K.G.
+Bretschneider_ (Gotha, 1851), of which a translation, with notes, by
+Professor George E. Day, appeared in the _Bibliotheca Sacra and American
+Biblical Repository_, Nos. 36 and 38 (1852, 1853); Neudecker in _Die
+allgemeine Kirchenzeitung_ (1848), No. 38; Wuestemann, _Bretschneideri
+Memoria_ (1848); A.G. Farrar, _Critical History of Free Thought_ (Bampton
+Lectures, 1862); Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopaedie_ (ed. 1897).
+
+BRETTEN, a town of Germany, in the grand duchy of Baden, on the Saalbach, 9
+m. S.E. of Bruchsal by rail. Pop. (1900) 4781. It has some manufactories of
+machinery and japanned goods, and a considerable trade in timber and
+livestock. Bretten was the birthplace of Melanchthon (1497), and in
+addition to a [v.04 p.0503] statue of him by Drake, a memorial hall,
+containing a collection of his writings and busts and pictures of his
+famous contemporaries, has been erected.
+
+BRETWALDA, a word used in the _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_ under the date 827,
+and also in a charter of AEthelstan, king of the English. It appears in
+several variant forms (_brytenwalda_, _bretenanwealda_, &c.), and means
+most probably "lord of the Britons" or "lord of Britain"; for although the
+derivation of the word is uncertain, its earlier syllable seems to be
+cognate with the words Briton and Britannia. In the _Chronicle_ the title
+is given to Ecgbert, king of the English, "the eighth king that was
+Bretwalda," and retrospectively to seven kings who ruled over one or other
+of the English kingdoms. The seven names are copied from Bede's _Historia
+Ecclesiastica_, and it is interesting to note that the last king named,
+Oswiu of Northumbria, lived 150 years before Ecgbert. It has been assumed
+that these seven kings exercised a certain superiority over a large part of
+England, but if such superiority existed it is certain that it was
+extremely vague and was unaccompanied by any unity of organization. Another
+theory is that Bretwalda refers to a war-leadership, or _imperium_, over
+the English south of the Humber, and has nothing to do with Britons or
+Britannia. In support of this explanation it is urged that the title is
+given in the _Chronicle_ to Ecgbert in the year in which he "conquered the
+kingdom of the Mercians and all that was south of the Humber." Less likely
+is the theory of Palgrave that the Bretwaldas were the successors of the
+pseudo-emperors, Maximus and Carausius, and claimed to share the imperial
+dignity of Rome; or that of Kemble, who derives Bretwalda from the British
+word _breotan_, to distribute, and translates it "widely ruling." With
+regard to Ecgbert the word is doubtless given as a title in imitation of
+its earlier use, and the same remark applies to its use in AEthelstan's
+charter.
+
+See E.A. Freeman, _History of the Norman Conquest_, vol. i. (Oxford, 1877);
+W. Stubbs, _Constitutional History_, vol. i. (Oxford, 1897); J.R. Green,
+_The Making of England_, vol. ii. (London, 1897); F. Palgrave, _The Rise
+and Progress of the English Commonwealth_ (London, 1832); J. M. Kemble,
+_The Saxons in England_ (London, 1876); J. Rhys, _Celtic Britain_ (London,
+1884).
+
+BREUGHEL (or BRUEGHEL), PIETER, Flemish painter, was the son of a peasant
+residing in the village of Breughel near Breda. After receiving instruction
+in painting from Koek, whose daughter he married, he spent some time in
+France and Italy, and then went to Antwerp, where he was elected into the
+Academy in 1551. He finally settled at Brussels and died there. The
+subjects of his pictures are chiefly humorous figures, like those of D.
+Teniers; and if he wants the delicate touch and silvery clearness of that
+master, he has abundant spirit and comic power. He is said to have died
+about the year 1570 at the age of sixty; other accounts give 1590 as the
+date of his death.
+
+His son PIETER, the younger (1564-1637), known as "Hell" Breughel, was born
+in Brussels and died at Antwerp, where his "Christ bearing the Cross" is in
+the museum.
+
+Another son JAN (c. 1569-1642), known as "Velvet" Breughel, was born at
+Brussels. He first applied himself to painting flowers and fruits, and
+afterwards acquired considerable reputation by his landscapes and
+sea-pieces. After residing long at Cologne he travelled into Italy, where
+his landscapes, adorned with small figures, were greatly admired. He left a
+large number of pictures, chiefly landscapes, which are executed with great
+skill. Rubens made use of Breughel's hand in the landscape part of several
+of his small pictures--such as his "Vertumnus and Pomona," the "Satyr
+viewing the Sleeping Nymph," and the "Terrestrial Paradise."
+
+BREVET (a diminutive of the Fr. _bref_), a short writing, originally an
+official writing or letter, with the particular meaning of a papal
+indulgence. The use of the word is mainly confined to a commission, or
+official document, giving to an officer in the army a permanent, as opposed
+to a local and temporary, rank in the service higher than that he holds
+substantively in his corps. In the British army "brevet rank" exists only
+above the rank of captain, but in the United States army it is possible to
+obtain a brevet as first lieutenant. In France the term _brevete_ is
+particularly used with respect to the General Staff, to express the
+equivalent of the English "passed Staff College" (p.s.c.).
+
+BREVIARY (Lat. _breviarium_, abridgment, epitome), the book which contains
+the offices for the canonical hours, _i.e._ the daily service of the Roman
+Catholic Church. As compared with the Anglican Book of Common Prayer it is
+both more and less comprehensive; more, in that it includes lessons and
+hymns for every day in the year; less, because it excludes the Eucharistic
+office (contained in the Missal), and the special offices connected with
+baptism, marriage, burial, ordination, &c., which are found in the Ritual
+or the Pontifical. In the early days of Christian worship, when Jewish
+custom was followed, the Bible furnished all that was thought necessary,
+containing as it did the books from which the lessons were read and the
+psalms that were recited. The first step in the evolution of the Breviary
+was the separation of the Psalter into a choir-book. At first the president
+of the local church (bishop) or the leader of the choir chose a particular
+psalm as he thought appropriate. From about the 4th century certain psalms
+began to be grouped together, a process that was furthered by the monastic
+practice of daily reciting the 150 psalms. This took so much time that the
+monks began to spread it over a week, dividing each day into hours, and
+allotting to each hour its portion of the Psalter. St Benedict in the 6th
+century drew up such an arrangement, probably, though not certainly, on the
+basis of an older Roman division which, though not so skilful, is the one
+in general use. Gradually there were added to these psalter choir-books
+additions in the form of antiphons, responses, collects or short prayers,
+for the use of those not skilful at improvisation and metrical
+compositions. Jean Beleth, a 12th-century liturgical author, gives the
+following list of books necessary for the right conduct of the canonical
+office:--the _Antiphonarium_, the Old and New Testaments, the
+_Passionarius_ (_liber_) and the _Legendarius_ (dealing respectively with
+martyrs and saints), the _Homiliarius_ (homilies on the Gospels), the
+_Sermologus_ (collection of sermons) and the works of the Fathers, besides,
+of course, the _Psalterium_ and the _Collectarium_. To overcome the
+inconvenience of using such a library the Breviary came into existence and
+use. Already in the 8th century Prudentius, bishop of Troyes, had in a
+_Breviarium Psalterii_ made an abridgment of the Psalter for the laity,
+giving a few psalms for each day, and Alcuin had rendered a similar service
+by including a prayer for each day and some other prayers, but no lessons
+or homilies. The Breviary rightly so called, however, only dates from the
+11th century; the earliest MS. containing the whole canonical office is of
+the year 1099 and is in the Mazarin library. Gregory VII. (pope 1073-1085),
+too, simplified the liturgy as performed at the Roman court, and gave his
+abridgment the name of Breviary, which thus came to denote a work which
+from another point of view might be called a Plenary, involving as it did
+the collection of several works into one. There are several extant
+specimens of 12th-century Breviaries, all Benedictine, but under Innocent
+III. (pope 1198-1216) their use was extended, especially by the newly
+founded and active Franciscan order. These preaching friars, with the
+authorization of Gregory IX., adopted (with some modifications, _e.g._ the
+substitution of the "Gallican" for the "Roman" version of the Psalter) the
+Breviary hitherto used exclusively by the Roman court, and with it
+gradually swept out of Europe all the earlier partial books (Legendaries,
+Responsories), &c., and to some extent the local Breviaries, like that of
+Sarum. Finally, Nicholas III. (pope 1277-1280) adopted this version both
+for the curia and for the basilicas of Rome, and thus made its position
+secure. The Benedictines and Dominicans have Breviaries of their own. The
+only other types that merit notice are:--(1) the Mozarabic Breviary, once
+in use throughout all Spain, but now confined to a single foundation at
+Toledo; it is remarkable for the number and length of its hymns, and for
+the fact that the majority of its collects are addressed to God the Son;
+(2) the Ambrosian, now confined to Milan, where it owes its retention to
+the attachment of the clergy and people to their traditionary rites, which
+they derive from St Ambrose (see LITURGY).
+
+[v.04 p.0504] Till the council of Trent every bishop had full power to
+regulate the Breviary of his own diocese; and this was acted upon almost
+everywhere. Each monastic community, also, had one of its own. Pius V.
+(pope 1566-1572), however, while sanctioning those which could show at
+least 200 years of existence, made the Roman obligatory in all other
+places. But the influence of the court of Rome has gradually gone much
+beyond this, and has superseded almost all the local "uses." The Roman has
+thus become nearly universal, with the allowance only of additional offices
+for saints specially venerated in each particular diocese. The Roman
+Breviary has undergone several revisions: The most remarkable of these is
+that by Francis Quignonez, cardinal of Santa Croce in Gerusalemme (1536),
+which, though not accepted by Rome,[1] formed the model for the still more
+thorough reform made in 1549 by the Church of England, whose daily morning
+and evening services are but a condensation and simplification of the
+Breviary offices. Some parts of the prefaces at the beginning of the
+English Prayer-Book are free translations of those of Quignonez. The Pian
+Breviary was again altered by Sixtus V. in 1588, who introduced the revised
+Vulgate text; by Clement VIII. in 1602 (through Baronius and Bellarmine),
+especially as concerns the rubrics; and by Urban VIII. (1623-1644), a
+purist who unfortunately tampered with the text of the hymns, injuring both
+their literary charm and their historic worth.
+
+In the 17th and 18th centuries a movement of revision took place in France,
+and succeeded in modifying about half the Breviaries of that country.
+Historically, this proceeded from the labours of Jean de Launoy
+(1603-1678), "le denicheur des saints," and Louis Sebastien le Nain de
+Tillemont, who had shown the falsity of numerous lives of the saints; while
+theologically it was produced by the Port Royal school, which led men to
+dwell more on communion with God as contrasted with the invocation of the
+saints. This was mainly carried out by the adoption of a rule that all
+antiphons and responses should be in the exact words of Scripture, which,
+of course, cut out the whole class of appeals to created beings. The
+services were at the same time simplified and shortened, and the use of the
+whole Psalter every week (which had become a mere theory in the Roman
+Breviary, owing to its frequent supersession by saints' day services) was
+made a reality. These reformed French Breviaries--_e.g._ the Paris Breviary
+of 1680 by Archbishop Francois de Harlay (1625-1695) and that of 1736 by
+Archbishop Charles Gaspard Guillaume de Vintimille (1655-1746)--show a deep
+knowledge of Holy Scripture, and much careful adaptation of different
+texts; but during the pontificate of Pius IX. a strong Ultramontane
+movement arose against them. This was inaugurated by Montalembert, but its
+literary advocates were chiefly Dom Gueranger, a learned Benedictine monk,
+abbot of Solesmes, and Louis Francois Veuillot (1813-1883) of the
+_Univers_; and it succeeded in suppressing them everywhere, the last
+diocese to surrender being Orleans in 1875. The Jansenist and Gallican
+influence was also strongly felt in Italy and in Germany, where Breviaries
+based on the French models were published at Cologne, Muenster, Mainz and
+other towns. Meanwhile, under the direction of Benedict XIV. (pope
+1740-1758), a special congregation collected many materials for an official
+revision, but nothing was published. Subsequent changes have been very few
+and minute. In 1902, under Leo XIII., a commission under the presidency of
+Monsignor Louis Duchesne was appointed to consider the Breviary, the
+Missal, the Pontifical and the Ritual.
+
+The beauty and value of many of the Latin Breviaries were brought to the
+notice of English churchmen by one of the numbers of the Oxford _Tracts for
+the Times_, since which time they have been much more studied, both for
+their own sake and for the light they throw upon the English Prayer-Book.
+
+From a bibliographical point of view some of the early printed Breviaries
+are among the rarest of literary curiosities, being merely local. The
+copies were not spread far, and were soon worn out by the daily use made of
+them. Doubtless many editions have perished without leaving a trace of
+their existence, while others are known by unique copies. In Scotland the
+only one which has survived the convulsions of the 16th century is that of
+Aberdeen, a Scottish form of the Sarum Office,[2] revised by William
+Elphinstone (bishop 1483-1514), and printed at Edinburgh by Walter Chapman
+and Andrew Myllar in 1509-1510. Four copies have been preserved of it, of
+which only one is complete; but it was reprinted in facsimile in 1854 for
+the Bannatyne Club by the munificence of the duke of Buccleuch. It is
+particularly valuable for the trustworthy notices of the early history of
+Scotland which are embedded in the lives of the national saints. Though
+enjoined by royal mandate in 1501 for general use within the realm of
+Scotland, it was probably never widely adopted. The new Scottish _Proprium_
+sanctioned for the Roman Catholic province of St Andrews in 1903 contains
+many of the old Aberdeen collects and antiphons.
+
+The Sarum or Salisbury Breviary itself was very widely used. The first
+edition was printed at Venice in 1483 by Raynald de Novimagio in folio; the
+latest at Paris, 1556, 1557. While modern Breviaries are nearly always
+printed in four volumes, one for each season of the year, the editions of
+the Sarum never exceeded two parts.
+
+_Contents of the Roman Breviary_.--At the beginning stands the usual
+introductory matter, such as the tables for determining the date of Easter,
+the calendar, and the general rubrics. The Breviary itself is divided into
+four seasonal parts--winter, spring, summer, autumn--and comprises under
+each part (1) the Psalter; (2) _Proprium de Tempore_ (the special office of
+the season); (3) _Proprium Sanctorum_ (special offices of saints); (4)
+_Commune Sanctorum_ (general offices for saints); (5) Extra Services. These
+parts are often published separately.
+
+1. _The Psalter_.--This is the very backbone of the Breviary, the
+groundwork of the Catholic prayer-book; out of it have grown the antiphons,
+responsories and versicles. In the Breviary the psalms are arranged
+according to a disposition dating from the 8th century, as follows. Psalms
+i.-cviii., with some omissions, are recited at Matins, twelve each day from
+Monday to Saturday, and eighteen on Sunday. The omissions are said at
+Lauds, Prime and Compline. Psalms cix.-cxlvii. (except cxvii., cxviii. and
+cxlii.) are said at Vespers, five each day. Psalms cxlviii.-cl. are always
+used at Lauds, and give that hour its name. The text of this Psalter is
+that commonly known as the Gallican. The name is misleading, for it is
+simply the second revision (A.D. 392) made by Jerome of the old _Itala_
+version originally used in Rome. Jerome's first revision of the _Itala_
+(A.D. 383), known as the Roman, is still used at St Peter's in Rome, but
+the "Gallican," thanks especially to St Gregory of Tours, who introduced it
+into Gaul in the 6th century, has ousted it everywhere else. The
+Antiphonary of Bangor proves that Ireland accepted the Gallican version in
+the 7th century, and the English Church did so in the 10th.
+
+2. The _Proprium de Tempore_ contains the office of the seasons of the
+Christian year (Advent to Trinity), a conception that only gradually grew
+up. There is here given the whole service for every Sunday and week-day,
+the proper antiphons, responsories, hymns, and especially the course of
+daily Scripture-reading, averaging about twenty verses a day, and (roughly)
+arranged thus: for Advent, Isaiah; Epiphany to Septuagesima, Pauline
+Epistles; Lent, patristic homilies (Genesis on Sundays); Passion-tide,
+Jeremiah; Easter to Whitsun, Acts, Catholic epistles and Apocalypse;
+Whitsun to August, Samuel and Kings; August to Advent, Wisdom books,
+Maccabees, Prophets. The extracts are often scrappy and torn out of their
+context.
+
+3. The _Proprium Sanctorum_ contains the lessons, psalms and liturgical
+formularies for saints' festivals, and depends on the days of the secular
+month. Most of the material here is hagiological biography, occasionally
+revised as by Leo XIII. in view of archaeological and other discoveries,
+but still largely uncritical. Covering a great stretch of time and space,
+they do for the worshipper in the field of church history what the
+Scripture readings do in that of biblical history. As something like 90% of
+the days in the year have, during the course of centuries, been allotted to
+some saint or other, it is easy to see how this section of the Breviary has
+encroached upon the _Proprium de Tempore_, and this is the chief problem
+that confronts any who are concerned for a revision of the Breviary.
+
+4. The _Commune Sanctorum_ comprises psalms, antiphons, lessons, &c., for
+feasts of various groups or classes (twelve in all); _e.g._ apostles,
+martyrs, confessors, virgins, and the Blessed Virgin Mary. These offices
+are of very ancient date, and many of them were probably [v.04 p.0505] in
+origin proper to individual saints. They contain passages of great literary
+beauty. The lessons read at the third nocturn are patristic homilies on the
+Gospels, and together form a rough summary of theological instruction.
+
+5. _Extra Services_.--Here are found the Little Office of the Blessed
+Virgin Mary, the Office of the Dead (obligatory on All Souls' Day), and
+offices peculiar to each diocese.
+
+It has already been indicated, by reference to Matins, Lauds, &c., that not
+only each day, but each part of the day, has its own office, the day being
+divided into liturgical "hours." A detailed account of these will be found
+in the article HOURS, CANONICAL. Each of the hours of the office is
+composed of the same elements, and something must be said now of the nature
+of these constituent parts, of which mention has here and there been
+already made. They are: psalms (including canticles), antiphons,
+responsories, hymns, lessons, little chapters, versicles and collects.
+
+The _psalms_ have already been dealt with, but it may be noted again how
+the multiplication of saints' festivals, with practically the same special
+psalms, tends in practice to constant repetition of about one-third of the
+Psalter, and correspondingly rare recital of the remaining two-thirds,
+whereas the _Proprium de Tempore_, could it be adhered to, would provide
+equal opportunities for every psalm. As in the Greek usage and in the
+Benedictine, certain canticles like the Song of Moses (Exodus xv.), the
+Song of Hannah (1 Sam. ii.), the prayer of Habakkuk (iii.), the prayer of
+Hezekiah (Isaiah xxxviii.) and other similar Old Testament passages, and,
+from the New Testament, the Magnificat, the Benedictus and the Nunc
+dimittis, are admitted as psalms.
+
+The _antiphons_ are short liturgical forms, sometimes of biblical,
+sometimes of patristic origin, used to introduce a psalm. The term
+originally signified a chant by alternate choirs, but has quite lost this
+meaning in the Breviary.
+
+The _responsories_ are similar in form to the antiphons, but come at the
+end of the psalm, being originally the reply of the choir or congregation
+to the precentor who recited the psalm.
+
+The _hymns_ are short poems going back in part to the days of Prudentius,
+Synesius, Gregory of Nazianzus and Ambrose (4th and 5th centuries), but
+mainly the work of medieval authors. Together they make a fine collection,
+and it is a pity that Urban VIII. in his mistaken humanistic zeal tried to
+improve them.
+
+The _lessons_, as has been seen, are drawn variously from the Bible, the
+Acts of the Saints and the Fathers of the Church. In the primitive church,
+books afterwards excluded from the canon were often read, _e.g._ the
+letters of Clement of Rome and the _Shepherd of Hermas_. In later days the
+churches of Africa, having rich memorials of martyrdom, used them to
+supplement the reading of Scripture. Monastic influence accounts for the
+practice of adding to the reading of a biblical passage some patristic
+commentary or exposition. Books of homilies were compiled from the writings
+of SS. Augustine, Hilary, Athanasius, Isidore, Gregory the Great and
+others, and formed part of the library of which the Breviary was the
+ultimate compendium. In the lessons, as in the psalms, the order for
+special days breaks in upon the normal order of ferial offices and
+dislocates the scheme for consecutive reading. The lessons are read at
+Matins (which is subdivided into three nocturns).
+
+The _little chapters_ are very short lessons read at the other "hours."
+
+The _versicles_ are short responsories used after the little chapters.
+
+The _collects_ come at the close of the office and are short prayers
+summing up the supplications of the congregation. They arise out of a
+primitive practice on the part of the bishop (local president), examples of
+which are found in the _Didache_ (Teaching of the Apostles) and in the
+letters of Clement of Rome and Cyprian. With the crystallization of church
+order improvisation in prayer largely gave place to set forms, and
+collections of prayers were made which later developed into Sacramentaries
+and Orationals. The collects of the Breviary are largely drawn from the
+Gelasian and other Sacramentaries, and they are used to sum up the dominant
+idea of the festival in connexion with which they happen to be used.
+
+The difficulty of harmonizing the _Proprium de Tempore_ and the _Proprium
+Sanctorum_, to which reference has been made, is only partly met in the
+thirty-seven chapters of general rubrics. Additional help is given by a
+kind of Catholic Churchman's Almanack, called the _Ordo Recitandi Divini
+Officii_, published in different countries and dioceses, and giving, under
+every day, minute directions for proper reading.
+
+Every clerk in orders and every member of a religious order must publicly
+join in or privately read aloud (_i.e._ using the lips as well as the
+eyes--it takes about two hours in this way) the whole of the Breviary
+services allotted for each day. In large churches the services are usually
+grouped; _e.g._ Matins and Lauds (about 7.30 A.M.); Prime, Terce (High
+Mass), Sext, and None (about 10 A.M.); Vespers and Compline (4 P.M.); and
+from four to eight hours (depending on the amount of music and the number
+of high masses) are thus spent in choir. Laymen do not use the Breviary as
+a manual of devotion to any great extent.
+
+The Roman Breviary has been translated into English (by the marquess of
+Bute in 1879; new ed. with a trans, of the Martyrology, 1908), French and
+German. The English version is noteworthy for its inclusion of the skilful
+renderings of the ancient hymns by J.H. Newman, J.M. Neale and others.
+
+AUTHORITIES.--F. Cabrol, _Introduction aux etudes liturgiques_; Probst,
+_Kirchenlex_. ii., _s.v._ "Brevier"; Baeumer, _Geschichte des Breviers_
+(Freiburg, 1895); P. Batiffol, _L'Histoire du breviaire romain_ (Paris,
+1893; Eng. tr.); Baudot, _Le Breviaire romain_ (1907). A complete
+bibliography is appended to the article by F. Cabrol in the _Catholic
+Encyclopaedia_, vol. ii. (1908).
+
+[1] It was approved by Clement VII. and Paul III., and permitted as a
+substitute for the unrevised Breviary, until Pius V. in 1568 excluded it as
+too short and too modern, and issued a reformed edition (_Breviarium
+Pianum_, Pian Breviary) of the old Breviary.
+
+[2] The Sarum Rite was much favoured in Scotland as a kind of protest
+against the jurisdiction claimed by the church of York.
+
+BREVIARY OF ALARIC (_Breviarium Alaricanum_), a collection of Roman law,
+compiled by order of Alaric II., king of the Visigoths, with the advice of
+his bishops and nobles, in the twenty-second year of his reign (A.D. 506).
+It comprises sixteen books of the Theodosian code; the Novels of Theodosius
+II., Valentinian III., Marcian, Majorianus and Severus; the Institutes of
+Gaius; five books of the _Sententiae Receptae_ of Julius Paulus; thirteen
+titles of the Gregorian code; two titles of the Hermogenian code; and a
+fragment of the first book of the _Responsa Papiniani_. It is termed a code
+(codex), in the certificate of Anianus, the king's referendary, but unlike
+the code of Justinian, from which the writings of jurists were excluded, it
+comprises both imperial constitutions (_leges_) and juridical treatises
+(_jura_). From the circumstance that the Breviarium has prefixed to it a
+royal rescript (_commonitorium_) directing that copies of it, certified
+under the hand of Anianus, should be received exclusively as law throughout
+the kingdom of the Visigoths, the compilation of the code has been
+attributed to Anianus by many writers, and it is frequently designated the
+Breviary of Anianus (Breviarium Aniani). The code, however, appears to have
+been known amongst the Visigoths by the title of "Lex Romana," or "Lex
+Theodosii," and it was not until the 16th century that the title of
+"Breviarium" was introduced to distinguish it from a recast of the code,
+which was introduced into northern Italy in the 9th century for the use of
+the Romans in Lombardy. This recast of the Visigothic code has been
+preserved in a MS. known as the Codex Utinensis, which was formerly kept in
+the archives of the cathedral of Udine, but is now lost; and it was
+published in the 18th century for the first time by P. Canciani in his
+collection of ancient laws entitled _Barbarorum Leges Antiquae_. Another
+MS. of this Lombard recast of the Visigothic code was discovered by Haenel
+in the library of St Gall. The chief value of the Visigothic code consists
+in the fact that it is the only collection of Roman Law in which the five
+first books of the Theodosian code and five books of the _Sententiae
+Receptae_ of Julius Paulus have been preserved, and until the discovery of
+a MS. in the chapter library in Verona, which contained the greater part of
+the Institutes of Gaius, it was the only work in which any portion of the
+institutional writings of that great jurist had come down to us.
+
+The most complete edition of the Breviarium will be found in the collection
+of Roman law published under the title of _Jus Civile Ante-Justinianum_
+(Berlin, 1815). See also G. Haenel's _Lex Romana Visigothorum_ (Berlin,
+1847-1849).
+
+BREWER, JOHN SHERREN (1810-1879), English historian, was born in Norwich in
+1810, the son of a Baptist schoolmaster. He was educated at Queen's
+College, Oxford, was ordained in the Church of England in 1837, and became
+chaplain to a central London workhouse. In 1839 he was appointed lecturer
+in classical literature at King's College, London, and in 1855 he became
+professor of English language and literature and lecturer in modern
+history, succeeding F.D. Maurice. Meanwhile from 1854 onwards he was also
+engaged in journalistic work on the _Morning Herald_, _Morning Post_ and
+_Standard_. In 1856 he was commissioned by the master of the rolls to
+prepare a calendar of the state papers of Henry VIII., a work demanding a
+vast amount of research. He was also made reader at the Rolls, and
+subsequently preacher. In 1877 Disraeli secured for him the crown living of
+Toppesfield, Essex. There he had time to continue his task of preparing his
+_Letters and Papers of the Reign of King Henry VIII_., the Introductions to
+which (published separately, under the title _The Reign of Henry VIII_., in
+1884) form a scholarly and authoritative history of Henry VIII.'s reign.
+New editions of several standard historical works were also produced under
+Brewer's direction. He died at Toppesfield in February 1879.
+
+[v.04 p.0506] BREWING, in the modern acceptation of the term, a series of
+operations the object of which is to prepare an alcoholic beverage of a
+certain kind--to wit, beer--mainly from cereals (chiefly malted barley),
+hops and water. Although the art of preparing beer (_q.v._) or ale is a
+very ancient one, there is very little information in the literature of the
+subject as to the apparatus and methods employed in early times. It seems
+fairly certain, however, that up to the 18th century these were of the most
+primitive kind. With regard to _materials_, we know that prior to the
+general introduction of the hop (see ALE) as a preservative and astringent,
+a number of other bitter and aromatic plants had been employed with this
+end in view. Thus J.L. Baker (_The Brewing Industry_) points out that the
+Cimbri used the _Tamarix germanica_, the Scandinavians the fruit of the
+sweet gale (_Myrica gale_), the Cauchi the fruit and the twigs of the
+chaste tree (_Vitex agrius castus_), and the Icelanders the yarrow
+(_Achillea millefolium_).
+
+The preparation of beer on anything approaching to a manufacturing scale
+appears, until about the 12th or 13th century, to have been carried on in
+England chiefly in the monasteries; but as the brewers of London combined
+to form an association in the reign of Henry IV., and were granted a
+charter in 1445, it is evident that brewing as a special trade or industry
+must have developed with some rapidity. After the Reformation the ranks of
+the trade brewers were swelled by numbers of monks from the expropriated
+monasteries. Until the 18th century the professional brewers, or brewers
+for sale, as they are now called, brewed chiefly for the masses, the
+wealthier classes preparing their own beer, but it then became gradually
+apparent to the latter (owing no doubt to improved methods of brewing, and
+for others reasons) that it was more economical and less troublesome to
+have their beer brewed for them at a regular brewery. The usual charge was
+30s. per barrel for bitter ale, and 8s. or so for small beer. This tendency
+to centralize brewing operations became more and more marked with each
+succeeding decade. Thus during 1895-1905 the number of private brewers
+declined from 17,041 to 9930. Of the private brewers still existing, about
+four-fifths were in the class exempted from beer duty, _i.e._ farmers
+occupying houses not exceeding L10 annual value who brew for their
+labourers, and other persons occupying houses not exceeding L15 annual
+value. The private houses subject to both beer and licence duty produced
+less than 20,000 barrels annually. There are no official figures as to the
+number of "cottage brewers," that is, occupiers of dwellings not exceeding
+L8 annual value; but taking everything into consideration it is probable
+that more than 99% of the beer produced in the United Kingdom is brewed by
+public brewers (brewers for sale). The disappearance of the smaller public
+brewers or their absorption by the larger concerns has gone hand-in-hand
+with the gradual extinction of the private brewer. In the year 1894-1895
+8863 licences were issued to brewers for sale, and by 1904-1905 this number
+had been reduced to 5164. There are numerous reasons for these changes in
+the constitution of the brewing industry, chief among them being (a) the
+increasing difficulty, owing partly to licensing legislation and its
+administration, and partly to the competition of the great breweries, of
+obtaining an adequate outlet for retail sale in the shape of licensed
+houses; and (b) the fact that brewing has continuously become a more
+scientific and specialized industry, requiring costly and complicated plant
+and expert manipulation. It is only by employing the most up-to-date
+machinery and expert knowledge that the modern brewer can hope to produce
+good beer in the short time which competition and high taxation, &c., have
+forced upon him. Under these conditions the small brewer tends to
+extinction, and the public are ultimately the gainers. The relatively
+non-alcoholic, lightly hopped and bright modern beers, which the small
+brewer has not the means of producing, are a great advance on the muddy,
+highly hopped and alcoholized beverages to which our ancestors were
+accustomed.
+
+The brewing trade has reached vast proportions in the United Kingdom. The
+maximum production was 37,090,986 barrels in 1900, and while there has been
+a steady decline since that year, the figures for 1905-1906--34,109,263
+barrels--were in excess of those for any year preceding 1897. It is
+interesting in this connexion to note that the writer of the article on
+Brewing in the 9th edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ was of the
+opinion that the brewing industry--which was then (1875) producing,
+roughly, 25,000,000 barrels--had attained its maximum development. In the
+year ending 30th September 1905 the beer duty received by the exchequer
+amounted to L13,156,053. The number of brewers for sale was 5180. Of these
+one firm, namely, Messrs Guinness, owning the largest brewery in the world,
+brewed upwards of two million barrels, paying a sum of, roughly, one
+million sterling to the revenue. Three other firms brewed close on a
+million barrels or upwards. The quantity of malt used was 51,818,697
+bushels; of unmalted corn, 125,671 bushels; of rice, flaked maize and
+similar materials, 1,348,558 cwt.; of sugar, 2,746,615 cwt.; of hops,
+62,360,817 lb; and of hop substitutes, 49,202 lb. The average specific
+gravity of the beer produced in 1905-1906 was 1053.24. The quantity of beer
+exported was 520,826; of beer imported, 57,194 barrels. It is curious to
+note that the figures for exports and imports had remained almost
+stationary for the last thirty years. By far the greater part of the beer
+brewed is consumed in England. Thus of the total quantity retained for
+consumption in 1905-1906, 28,590,563 barrels were consumed in England,
+1,648,463 in Scotland, and 3,265,084 in Ireland. In 1871 it was calculated
+by Professor Leone Levi that the capital invested in the liquor trade in
+the United Kingdom was L117,000,000. In 1908 this figure might be safely
+doubled. A writer in the _Brewers' Almanack_ for 1906 placed the capital
+invested in limited liability breweries alone at L185,000,000. If we allow
+for over-capitalization, it seems fairly safe to say that, prior to the
+introduction of the Licensing Bill of 1908, the market value of the
+breweries in the United Kingdom, together with their licensed property, was
+in the neighbourhood of L120,000,000, to which might be added another
+L20,000,000 for the value of licences not included in the above
+calculation; the total capital actually sunk in the whole liquor trade
+(including the wine and spirit industries and trades) being probably not
+far short of L250,000,000, and the number of persons directly engaged in or
+dependent on the liquor trade being under-estimated at 2,000,000. (For
+comparative production and consumption see BEER.)
+
+_Taxation and Regulations_.--The development of the brewing industry in
+England is intimately interwoven with the history of its taxation, and the
+regulations which have from time to time been formed for the safeguarding
+of the revenue. The first duty on beer in the United Kingdom was imposed in
+the reign of Charles II. (1660), namely 2s. 6d. per barrel on strong and
+6d. per barrel on weak beer. This was gradually increased, amounting to 4s.
+9d. on strong and 1s. 3d. on weak beer in the last decade of the 17th
+century, and to 8s. to 10s. in the year 1800, at which rate it continued
+until the repeal of the beer duty in 1830. A duty on malt was first imposed
+in the reign of William III. (1697), and from that date until 1830 both
+beer duty and malt tax were charged. The rate at first was under 7d. per
+bushel, but this was increased up to 2s. 7d. prior to the first repeal of
+the beer duty (1830), and to 4s. 6d. after the repeal. In 1829 the joint
+beer and malt taxes amounted to no less than 13s. 8d. per barrel, or 41/2d.
+per gallon, as against 21/2d. at the present day. From 1856 until the
+abolition of the malt tax, the latter remained constant at a fraction under
+2s. 81/2d. A _hop duty_ varying from 1d. to 21/2d. per pound was in existence
+between 1711 and 1862. One of the main reasons for the abolition of the hop
+duty was the fact that, owing to the uncertainty of the crop, the amount
+paid to the revenue was subject to wide fluctuations. Thus in 1855 the
+revenue from this source amounted to L728,183, in 1861 to only L149,700.
+
+It was not until 1847 that the use of sugar in brewing was permitted, and
+in 1850 the first sugar tax, amounting to 1s. 4d. per cwt., was imposed. It
+varied from this figure up to 6s. 6d. in 1854, and in 1874, when the
+general duty on sugar was repealed, it was raised to 11s. 6d., at which
+rate it remained until 1880, when it was repealed simultaneously with the
+malt duty. In 1901 a general sugar tax of 4s. 2d. and under (according to
+the percentage of actual sugar contained) was imposed, but no drawback was
+allowed to brewers using sugar, and therefore--and this obtains at the
+present day--sugar used in brewing pays the general tax and also the beer
+duty.
+
+By the Free Mash-Tun Act of 1880, the duty was taken off the malt and
+placed on the beer, or, more properly speaking, on the wort; maltsters' and
+brewers' licences were repealed, and in lieu thereof an annual licence duty
+of L1 payable by every brewer for sale was [v.04 p.0507] imposed. The chief
+feature of this act was that, on and after the 1st of October 1880, a beer
+duty was imposed in lieu of the old malt tax, at the rate of 6s. 3d. per
+barrel of 36 gallons, at a specific gravity of 1.057, and the regulations
+for charging the duty were so framed as to leave the brewer practically
+unrestricted as to the description of malt or corn and sugar, or other
+description of saccharine substitutes (other than deleterious articles or
+drugs), which he might use in the manufacture or colouring of beer. This
+freedom in the choice of materials has continued down to the present time,
+except that the use of "saccharin" (a product derived from coal-tar) was
+prohibited in 1888, the reason being that this substance gives an apparent
+palate-fulness to beer equal to roughly 4 deg. in excess of its real gravity,
+the revenue suffering thereby. In 1889 the duty on beer was increased by a
+reduction in the standard of gravity from 1.057 to 1.055, and in 1894 a
+further 6d. per barrel was added. The duty thus became 6s. 9d. per barrel,
+at a gravity of 1.055, which was further increased to 7s. 9d. per barrel by
+the war budget of 1900, at which figure it stood in 1909. (See also LIQUOR
+LAWS.)
+
+Prior to 1896, rice, flaked maize (see below), and other similar
+preparations had been classed as malt or corn in reference to their
+wort-producing powers, but after that date they were deemed sugar[1] in
+that regard. By the new act (1880) 42 lb weight of corn, or 28 lb weight of
+sugar, were to be deemed the equivalent of a bushel of malt, and a brewer
+was expected by one of the modes of charge to have brewed at least a barrel
+(36 gallons) of worts (less 4% allowed for wastage) at the standard gravity
+for every two bushels of malt (or its equivalents) used by him in brewing;
+but where, owing to lack of skill or inferior machinery, a brewer cannot
+obtain the standard quantity of wort from the standard equivalent of
+material, the charge is made not on the wort, but directly on the material.
+By the new act, licences at the annual duty of L1 on brewers for sale, and
+of 6s. (subsequently modified by 44 Vict. c. 12, and 48 and 49 Vict. c. 5,
+&c., to 4s.) or 9s., as the case might be, on any other brewers, were
+required. The regulations dealing with the mashing operations are very
+stringent. Twenty-four hours at least before mashing the brewer must enter
+in his brewing book (provided by the Inland Revenue) the day and hour for
+commencing to mash malt, corn, &c., or to dissolve sugar; and the date of
+making such entry; and also, two hours at least before the notice hour for
+mashing, the quantity of malt, corn, &c., and sugar to be used, and the day
+and hour when all the worts will be drawn off the grains in the mash-tun.
+The worts of each brewing must be collected within twelve hours of the
+commencement of the collection, and the brewer must within a given time
+enter in his book the quantity and gravity of the worts before
+fermentation, the number and name of the vessel, and the date of the entry.
+The worts must remain in the same vessel undisturbed for twelve hours after
+being collected, unless previously taken account of by the officer. There
+are other regulations, _e.g._ those prohibiting the mixing of worts of
+different brewings unless account has been taken of each separately, the
+alteration of the size or shape of any gauged vessel without notice, and so
+on.
+
+_Taxation of Beer in Foreign Countries_.--The following table shows the
+nature of the tax and the amount of the same calculated to English barrels.
+
+      Country.        Nature of Tax.    Amount per English
+                                          Barrel (round
+                                             numbers)
+United States            Beer tax            5s. 9d.
+Germany --
+N. German Customs        Malt tax             1s. 6d
+Union
+Bavaria                  Malt tax      3s. 5d. to 4s. 8d.,
+                                           according to
+                                        quantity produced
+Belgium                  Malt tax            2s. 9d.
+France                    On Wort            4s. 1d.
+Holland                  On cubic      About 1s. 9d. to 3s.
+                        contents of     3d., according to
+                      Mash-Tun or on         quality
+                           Malt
+Austro-Hungarian          On Wort            6s. 8d.
+Empire
+Russia                   Malt tax         5s. to 6s. 8d.
+
+MATERIALS USED IN BREWING.--These are water, malt (_q.v._), hops (_q.v._),
+various substitutes for the two latter, and preservatives.
+
+_Water_.--A satisfactory supply of water--which, it may here be mentioned,
+is always called _liquor_ in the brewery--is a matter of great importance
+to the brewer. Certain waters, for instance, those contaminated to any
+extent with organic matter, cannot be used at all in brewing, as they give
+rise to unsatisfactory fermentation, cloudiness and abnormal flavour.
+Others again, although suited to the production of one type of beer, are
+quite unfit for the brewing of another. For black beers a soft water is a
+desideratum, for ales of the Burton type a hard water is a necessity. For
+the brewing of mild ales, again, a water containing a certain proportion of
+chlorides is required. The presence or absence of certain mineral
+substances as such in the finished beer is not, apparently, a matter of any
+moment as regards flavour or appearance, but the importance of the role
+played by these substances in the brewing process is due to the influence
+which they exert on the solvent action of the water on the various
+constituents of the malt, and possibly of the hops. The excellent quality
+of the Burton ales was long ago surmised to be due mainly to the well water
+obtainable in that town. On analysing Burton water it was found to contain
+a considerable quantity of calcium sulphate--gypsum--and of other calcium
+and magnesium salts, and it is now a well-known fact that good bitter ales
+cannot be brewed except with waters containing these substances in
+sufficient quantities. Similarly, good mild ale waters should contain a
+certain quantity of sodium chloride, and waters for stout very little
+mineral matter, excepting perhaps the carbonates of the alkaline earths,
+which are precipitated on boiling.
+
+The following analyses (from W.J. Sykes, _The Principles and Practice of
+Brewing_) are fairly illustrative of typical brewing waters.
+
+      _Burton Water_ (Pale Ale)
+                    Grains per Gallon
+Sodium Chloride                  3.90
+Potassium Sulphate               1.59
+Sodium Nitrate                   1.97
+Calcium Sulphate                77.87
+Calcium Carbonate                7.62
+Magnesium Carbonate             21.31
+Silica and Alumina               0.98
+       _Dublin Water_ (Stout).
+Sodium Chloride                  1.83
+Calcium Sulphate                 4.45
+Calcium Carbonate               14.21
+Magnesium Carbonate              0.90
+Iron Oxide and                   0.24
+Alumina
+Silica                           0.26
+          _Mild Ale Water_.
+Sodium Chloride                 35.14
+Calcium Chloride                 3.88
+Calcium Sulphate                 6.23
+Calcium Carbonate                4.01
+Iron Oxide and                   0.24
+Alumina
+Silica                           0.22
+
+Our knowledge of the essential chemical constituents of brewing waters
+enables brewers in many cases to treat an unsatisfactory supply
+artificially in such a manner as to modify its character in a favourable
+sense. Thus, if a soft water only is to hand, and it is desired to brew a
+bitter ale, all that is necessary is to add a sufficiency of gypsum,
+magnesium sulphate and calcium chloride. If it is desired to convert a soft
+water lacking in chlorides into a satisfactory mild ale liquor, the
+addition of 30-40 grains of sodium chloride will be necessary. On the other
+hand, to convert a hard water into a soft supply is scarcely feasible for
+brewing purposes. To the substances used for treating brewing liquors
+already mentioned we may add kainite, a naturally deposited composite salt
+containing potassium and magnesium sulphates and magnesium chloride.
+
+_Malt Substitutes._--Prior to the repeal of the Malt Acts, the only
+substitute for malt allowed in the United Kingdom was sugar. The quantity
+of the latter employed was 295,865 cwt. in 1870, 1,136,434 cwt. in 1880,
+and 2,746,615 cwt. in 1905; that is to say, that the quantity used had been
+practically trebled during the last twenty-five years, although the
+quantity of malt employed had not materially increased. At the same time
+other substitutes, such as unmalted corn and preparations of rice and
+maize, had come into favour, the quantity of these substances used being in
+1905 125,671 bushels of unmalted corn and 1,348,558 cwt. of rice, maize,
+&c.
+
+The following statistics with regard to the use of malt substitutes in the
+United Kingdom are not without interest.
+
+[v.04 p.0508]
+
+Year.    Quantities of    Quantities of   Percentage
+         Malt and Corn    Sugar, Rice,        of
+            used in      Maize, &c. used  Substitutes
+           Brewing.        in Brewing.     to Total
+                                          Material.
+           Bushels.         Bushels.
+ 1878        59,388,905        3,825,148        6.05
+ 1883     51,331,451[2]     4,503,680[3]        8.06
+ 1890     55,359,964[2]     7,904,708[3]       12.48
+ 1895        53,731,177       10,754,510       16.66
+ 1905        51,942,368       15,706,413       23.22
+
+The causes which have led to the largely increased use of substitutes in
+the United Kingdom are of a somewhat complex nature. In the first place, it
+was not until the malt tax was repealed that the brewer was able to avail
+himself of the surplus diastatic energy present in malt, for the purpose of
+transforming starch (other than that in malted grain) into sugar. The
+diastatic enzyme or ferment (see below, under _Mashing_) of malted barley
+is present in that material in great excess, and a part of this surplus
+energy may be usefully employed in converting the starch of unmalted grain
+into sugar. The brewer has found also that brewing operations are
+simplified and accelerated by the use of a certain proportion of
+substitutes, and that he is thereby enabled appreciably to increase his
+turn-over, _i.e._ he can make more beer in a given time from the same
+plant. Certain classes of substitutes, too, are somewhat cheaper than malt,
+and in view of the keenness of modern competition it is not to be wondered
+at that the brewer should resort to every legitimate means at his disposal
+to keep down costs. It has been contended, and apparently with much reason,
+that if the use of substitutes were prohibited this would not lead to an
+increased use of domestic barley, inasmuch as the supply of home barley
+suitable for malting purposes is of a limited nature. A return to the
+policy of "malt and hops only" would therefore lead to an increased use of
+foreign barley, and to a diminution in the demand for home barley, inasmuch
+as sugar and prepared cereals, containing as they do less nitrogen, &c.
+than even the well-cured, sun-dried foreign barleys, are better diluents
+than the latter. At the same time, it is an undoubted fact that an
+excessive use of substitutes leads to the production of beer of poor
+quality. The better class of brewer rarely uses more than 15-20%, knowing
+that beyond that point the loss of flavour and quality will in the long run
+become a more serious item than any increased profits which he might
+temporarily gain.
+
+With regard to the nature of the substitutes or adjuncts for barley malt
+more generally employed, raw grain (unmalted barley, wheat, rice, maize,
+&c.) is not used extensively in Great Britain, but in America brewers
+employ as much as 50%, and even more, of maize, rice or similar materials.
+The maize and rice preparations mostly used in England are practically
+starch pure and simple, substantially the whole of the oil, water, and
+other subsidiary constituents of the grain being removed. The germ of maize
+contains a considerable proportion of an oil of somewhat unpleasant
+flavour, which has to be eliminated before the material is fit for use in
+the mash-tun. After degerming, the maize is unhusked, wetted, submitted to
+a temperature sufficient to rupture the starch cells, dried, and finally
+rolled out in a flaky condition. Rice is similarly treated.
+
+The _sugars_ used are chiefly cane sugar, glucose and invert sugar--the
+latter commonly known as "saccharum." Cane sugar is mostly used for the
+preparation of heavy mild ales and stouts, as it gives a peculiarly sweet
+and full flavour to the beer, to which, no doubt, the popularity of this
+class of beverage is largely due. _Invert sugar_ is prepared by the action
+either of acid or of yeast on cane sugar. The chemical equation
+representing the conversion (or inversion) of cane sugar is:--
+
+  C12H22O11  +  H2O  =  C6H12O6   +  C6H12O6.
+  cane sugar   water    glucose      fructose
+                        ----invert sugar----
+
+Invert sugar is so called because the mixture of glucose and fructose which
+forms the "invert" is laevo-rotatory, whereas cane sugar is dextro-rotatory
+to the plane of polarized light. The preparation of invert sugar by the
+acid process consists in treating the cane sugar in solution with a little
+mineral acid, removing the excess of the latter by means of chalk, and
+concentrating to a thick syrup. The yeast process (Tompson's), which makes
+use of the inverting power of one of the enzymes (invertase) contained in
+ordinary yeast, is interesting. The cane sugar solution is pitched with
+yeast at about 55 deg. C., and at this comparatively high temperature the
+inversion proceeds rapidly, and fermentation is practically impossible.
+When this operation is completed, the whole liquid (including the yeast) is
+run into the boiling contents of the copper. This method is more suited to
+the preparation of invert in the brewery itself than the acid process,
+which is almost exclusively used in special sugar works. Glucose, which is
+one of the constituents of invert sugar, is largely used by itself in
+brewing. It is, however, never prepared from invert sugar for this purpose,
+but directly from starch by means of acid. By the action of dilute boiling
+acid on starch the latter is rapidly converted first into a mixture of
+dextrine and maltose and then into glucose. The proportions of glucose,
+dextrine and maltose present in a commercial glucose depend very much on
+the duration of the boiling, the strength of the acid, and the extent of
+the pressure at which the starch is converted. In England the materials
+from which glucose is manufactured are generally sago, rice and purified
+maize. In Germany potatoes form the most common raw material, and in
+America purified Indian corn is ordinarily employed.
+
+_Hop substitutes_, as a rule, are very little used. They mostly consist of
+quassia, gentian and camomile, and these substitutes are quite harmless
+_per se_, but impart an unpleasantly rough and bitter taste to the beer.
+
+_Preservatives_.--These are generally, in fact almost universally, employed
+nowadays for draught ales; to a smaller extent for stock ales. The light
+beers in vogue to-day are less alcoholic, more lightly hopped, and more
+quickly brewed than the beers of the last generation, and in this respect
+are somewhat less stable and more likely to deteriorate than the latter
+were. The preservative in part replaces the alcohol and the hop extract,
+and shortens the brewing time. The preservatives mostly used are the
+bisulphites of lime and potash, and these, when employed in small
+quantities, are generally held to be harmless.
+
+BREWING OPERATIONS.--The general scheme of operations in an English brewery
+will be readily understood if reference be made to fig. 1, which represents
+an 8-quarter brewery on the _gravitation system_, the principle of which is
+that all materials to be employed are pumped or hoisted to the highest
+point required, to start with, and that subsequently no further pumping or
+hoisting is required, the materials (in the shape of water, malt, wort or
+hops, &c.) being conveyed from one point to another by the force of
+gravity.
+
+The malt, which is hoisted to the top floor, after cleaning and grading is
+conveyed to the _Malt Mill_, where it is crushed. Thence the ground malt,
+or "grist" as it is now called, passes to the _Grist Hopper_, and from the
+latter to the _Mashing Machine_, in which it is intimately mixed with hot
+water from the _Hot Liquor Vessel_. From the mashing machine the mixed
+grist and "liquor" pass to the _Mash-Tun_, where the starch of the malt is
+rendered soluble. From the mash-tun the clear wort passes to the _Copper_,
+where it is boiled with hops. From the copper the boiled wort passes to the
+_Hop Back_, where the insoluble hop constituents are separated from the
+wort. From the hop back the wort passes to the _Cooler_, from the latter to
+the _Refrigerator_, thence (for the purpose of enabling the revenue
+officers to assess the duty) to the _Collecting Vessel_,[4] and finally to
+the _Fermenting Vessels_, in which the wort is transformed into "green"
+beer. The latter is then cleansed, and finally racked and stored.
+
+It will be seen from the above that brewing consists of seven distinct main
+processes, which may be classed as follows: (1) Grinding; (2) Mashing; (3)
+Boiling; (4) Cooling; (5) Fermenting; (6) Cleansing; (7) Racking and
+Storing.
+
+_Grinding_.--In most modern breweries the malt passes, on its way [v.04
+p.0509] from the bins to the mill, through a cleaning and grading
+apparatus, and then through an automatic measuring machine. The mills,
+which exist in a variety of designs, are of the smooth roller type, and are
+so arranged that the malt is _crushed_ rather than ground. If the malt is
+ground too fine, difficulties arise in regard to efficient drainage in the
+mash-tun and subsequent clarification. On the other hand, if the crushing
+is too coarse the subsequent extraction of soluble matter in the mash-tun
+is incomplete, and an inadequate yield results.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--An 8-quarter Brewery (Messrs. L. Lumley & Co.,
+Ltd.).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Mash-tun with mashing machine.]
+
+_Mashing_ is a process which consists mainly in extracting, by means of
+water at an adequate temperature, the soluble matters pre-existent in the
+malt, and in converting the insoluble starch and a great part of the
+insoluble nitrogenous compounds into soluble and partly fermentable
+products. Mashing is, without a doubt, the most important of the brewing
+processes, for it is largely in the mash-tun that the character of the beer
+to be brewed is determined. In modern practice the malt and the mashing
+"liquor" (_i.e._ water) are introduced into the mash-tun simultaneously, by
+means of the mashing machine (fig. 2, A). This is generally a cylindrical
+metal vessel, commanding the mash-tun and provided with a central shaft and
+screw. The grist (as the crushed malt is called) enters the mashing machine
+from the grist case above, and the liquor is introduced at the back. The
+screw is rotated rapidly, and so a thorough mixture of the grist and liquor
+takes place as they travel along the mashing machine. The mash-tun (fig. 2)
+is a large metal or wooden vessel, fitted with a false bottom composed of
+plates perforated with numerous small holes or slits (C). This arrangement
+is necessary in order to obtain a proper separation of the "wort" (as the
+liquid portion of the finished mash is called) from the spent grains. The
+mash-tun is also provided with a stirring apparatus (the _rakes_) so that
+the grist and liquor may be intimately mixed (D), and an automatic
+sprinkler, the _sparger_ (fig. 2, B, and fig. 3), which is employed in
+order to wash out the wort remaining in the grains. The sparger consists of
+a number of hollow arms radiating from a common centre and pierced by a
+number of small perforations. The common central vessel from which the
+sparge-arms radiate is mounted in such a manner that it rotates
+automatically when a stream of water is admitted, so that a constant fine
+spray covers the whole tun when the sparger is in operation. There are also
+pipes for admitting "liquor" to the bottom of the tun, and for carrying the
+wort from the latter to the "underback" or "copper."
+
+The grist and liquor having been introduced into the tun (either by means
+of the mashing machine or separately), the rakes are set going, so that the
+mash may become thoroughly homogeneous, and after a short time the rakes
+are stopped and the mash allowed to rest, usually for a period of about two
+hours. After this, "taps are set"--_i.e._ communication is established
+between the mash-tun and the vessel into which the wort runs--and the
+sparger is started. In this manner the whole of the wort or extract is
+separated from the grains. The quantity of water employed is, in all, from
+two to three barrels to the quarter (336 lb) of malt.
+
+In considering the process of mashing, one might almost say the process of
+brewing, it is essential to remember that the type and quality of the beer
+to be produced (see MALT) depends almost entirely (a) on the kind of malt
+employed, and (b) on the mashing temperature. In other words, quality may
+be controlled on the kiln or in the mash-tun, or both. Viewed in this
+light, the following theoretical methods for preparing different types of
+beer are possible:--(1) high kiln heats and high mashing temperatures; (2)
+high kiln heats and low mashing temperatures; (3) low kiln heats and high
+mashing temperatures; and (4) low kiln heats and low mashing temperatures.
+In practice all these combinations, together with many intermediate ones,
+are met with, and it is not too much to say that the whole science of
+modern brewing is based upon them. It is plain, then, that the mashing
+temperature will depend on the kind of beer that is to be produced, and on
+the kind of malt employed. For stouts and black beers generally, a mashing
+temperature of 148 deg. to 150 deg. F. is most usual; for pale or stock ales, 150 deg.
+to 154 deg. F.; and for mild running beers, 154 deg. to 149 deg. F. The range of
+temperatures employed in brewing English beers is a very limited one as
+compared with foreign mashing methods, and does not range further,
+practically speaking, than from 140 deg. to 160 deg. F. The effect of higher
+temperatures is chiefly to cripple the enzyme or "ferment" diastase, which,
+as already said, is the agent which converts the insoluble starch into
+soluble dextrin, sugar and intermediate products. The higher the mashing
+temperature, the more the diastase will be crippled in its action, and the
+more dextrinous (non-fermentable) matter as compared with maltose
+(fermentable sugar) will be formed. A pale or stock ale, which is a type of
+beer that must be "dry" and that will keep, requires to contain a
+relatively high proportion of dextrin and little maltose, and, in its
+preparation, therefore, a high mashing temperature will be employed. On the
+other hand, a mild running ale, which is a full, sweet beer, intended for
+rapid consumption, will be obtained by means of low mashing temperatures,
+which produce relatively little dextrin, but a good deal of maltose, _i.e._
+sweet and readily fermentable matter.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Sparger.]
+
+Diastase is not the only enzyme present in malt. There is also a ferment
+which renders a part of the nitrogenous matter soluble. This again is
+affected by temperature in much the same way as diastase. Low heats tend to
+produce much non-coagulable [v.04 p.0510] nitrogenous matter, which is
+undesirable in a stock beer, as it tends to produce fret and side
+fermentations. With regard to the kind of malt and other materials employed
+in producing various types of beer, pale ales are made either from pale
+malt (generally a mixture of English and fine foreign, such as Smyrna,
+California) only, or from pale malt and a little flaked maize, rice, invert
+sugar or glucose. Running beers (mild ale) are made from a mixture of pale
+and amber malts, sugar and flaked goods; stout, from a mixture of pale,
+amber and roasted (black) malts only, or with the addition of a little
+sugar or flaked maize.
+
+When raw grain is employed, the process of mashing is slightly modified.
+The maize, rice or other grain is usually gelatinized in a vessel (called a
+_converter_ or _cooker_) entirely separated from the mash-tun, by means of
+steam at a relatively high temperature, mostly with, but occasionally
+without, the addition of some malt meal. After about half an hour the
+gelatinized mass is mixed with the main mash, and this takes place shortly
+before taps are set. This is possible inasmuch as the starch, being already
+in a highly disintegrated condition, is very rapidly converted. By working
+on the limited-decoction system (see below), it is possible to make use of
+a fair percentage of raw grain in the mash-tun proper, thus doing away with
+the "converter" entirely.
+
+_The Filter Press Process._--The ordinary mash-tun process, as described
+above, possesses the disadvantage that only coarse grists can be employed.
+This entails loss of extract in several ways. To begin with, the sparging
+process is at best a somewhat inefficient method for washing out the last
+portions of the wort, and again, when the malt is at all hard or "steely,"
+starch conversion is by no means complete. These disadvantages are overcome
+by the filter press process, which was first introduced into Great Britain
+by the Belgian engineer P. Meura. The malt, in this method of brewing, is
+ground quite fine, and although an ordinary mash-tun may be used for
+mashing, the separation of the clear wort from the solid matter takes place
+in the filter press, which retains the very finest particles with ease. It
+is also a simple matter to wash out the wort from the filter cake in the
+presses, and experience has shown that markedly increased yields are thus
+obtained. In the writer's opinion, there is little doubt that in the future
+this, or a similar process, will find a very wide application.
+
+_Boiling_.--From the mash-tun the wort passes to the _copper_. If it is not
+possible to arrange the plant so that the coppers are situated beneath the
+mash-tuns (as is the case in breweries arranged on the _gravitation
+system_), an intermediate collecting vessel (the underback) is interposed,
+and from this the wort is pumped into the copper. The latter is a large
+copper vessel heated by direct fire or steam. Modern coppers are generally
+closed in with a dome-shaped head, but many old-fashioned open coppers are
+still to be met with, in fact pale-ale brewers prefer open coppers. In the
+closed type the wort is frequently boiled under slight pressure. When the
+wort has been raised to the boil, the hops or a part thereof are added, and
+the boiling is continued generally from an hour to three hours, according
+to the type of beer. The objects of boiling, briefly put, are: (1)
+sterilization of the wort; (2) extraction from the hops of substances that
+give flavour and aroma to the beer; (3) the coagulation and precipitation
+of a part of the nitrogenous matter (the coagulable albuminoids), which, if
+left in, would cause cloudiness and fret, &c., in the finished beer; (4)
+the concentration of the wort. At least three distinct substances are
+extracted from the hops in boiling. First, the _hop tannin_, which,
+combining with a part of the proteids derived from the malt, precipitates
+them; second, the _hop resin_, which acts as a preservative and bitter;
+third, the _hop oil_, to which much of the fine aroma of beer is due. The
+latter is volatile, and it is customary, therefore, not to add the whole of
+the hops to the wort when it commences to boil, but to reserve about a
+third until near the end of the copper stage. The quantity of hops employed
+varies according to the type of beer, from about 3 lb to 15 lb per quarter
+(336 lb) of malt. For mild ales and porters about 3 to 4 lb, for light pale
+ales and light stouts 6 to 10 lb, and for strong ales and stouts 9 to 15 lb
+of hops are employed.
+
+_Cooling_.--When the wort has boiled the necessary time, it is turned into
+the _hop back_ to settle. A hop back is a wooden or metal vessel, fitted
+with a false bottom of perforated plates; the latter retain the spent hops,
+the wort being drawn off into the coolers. After resting for a brief period
+in the hop back, the bright wort is run into the _coolers_. The cooler is a
+very shallow vessel of great area, and the result of the exposure of the
+hot wort to a comparatively large volume of air is that a part of the hop
+constituents and other substances contained in the wort are rendered
+insoluble and are precipitated. It was formerly considered absolutely
+essential that this hot aeration should take place, but in many breweries
+nowadays coolers are not used, the wort being run direct from the hop back
+to the refrigerator. There is much to be said for this procedure, as the
+exposure of hot wort in the cooler is attended with much danger of
+bacterial and wild yeast infection, but it is still a moot point whether
+the cooler or its equivalent can be entirely dispensed with for all classes
+of beers. A rational alteration would appear to be to place the cooler in
+an air-tight chamber supplied with purified and sterilized air. This
+principle has already been applied to the refrigerator, and apparently with
+success. In America the cooler is frequently replaced by a cooling tank, an
+enclosed vessel of some depth, capable of artificial aeration. It is not
+practicable, in any case, to cool the wort sufficiently on the cooler to
+bring it to the proper temperature for the fermentation stage, and for this
+purpose, therefore, the _refrigerator_ is employed. There are several kinds
+of refrigerators, the main distinction being that some are vertical, others
+horizontal; but the principle in each case is much the same, and consists
+in allowing a thin film or stream of wort to trickle over a series of pipes
+through which cold water circulates. Fig. 5, Plate I., shows refrigerators,
+employed in Messrs Allsopp's lager beer brewery, at work.
+
+_Fermenting_.--By the process of fermentation the wort is converted into
+beer. By the action of living yeast cells (see FERMENTATION) the sugar
+contained in the wort is split up into alcohol and carbonic acid, and a
+number of subsidiary reactions occur. There are two main systems of
+fermentation, the _top fermentation_ system, which is that employed in the
+United Kingdom, and the _bottom fermentation_ system, which is that used
+for the production of beers of the continental ("lager") type. The wort,
+generally at a temperature of about 60 deg. F. (this applies to all the systems
+excepting B [see below], in which the temperature is higher), is "pitched"
+with liquid yeast (or "barm," as it is often called) at the rate of,
+according to the type and strength of the beer to be made, 1 to 4 lb to the
+barrel. After a few hours a slight froth or scum makes its appearance on
+the surface of the liquid. At the end of a further short period this
+develops into a light curly mass (_cauliflower_ or _curly head_), which
+gradually becomes lighter and more solid in appearance, and is then known
+as _rocky head_. This in its turn shrinks to a compact mass--the _yeasty
+head_--which emits great bubbles of gas with a hissing sound. At this point
+the _cleansing_ of the beer--_i.e._ the separation of the yeast from the
+liquid--has fairly commenced, and it is let down (except in the skimming
+and Yorkshire systems [see below]) into the pontos or unions, as the case
+may be. During fermentation the temperature rises considerably, and in
+order to prevent an excessive temperature being obtained (70-75 deg. F. should
+be the maximum) the fermenting vessels are fitted with "attemperators,"
+_i.e._ a system of pipes through which cold water may be run.
+
+_Cleansing_.--In England the methods of applying the top fermentation
+system may be classified as follows: (A) _The Cleansing System_: (a)
+Skimming System, (b) Dropping System (pontos or ordinary dropping system),
+(c) Burton Union System. (B) _The Yorkshire Stone Square System_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Fermenting Round.
+A, Skimmer; B, Parachute; C, Attemperator.]
+
+(A) In (a) the _Skimming System_ the fermentation from start to finish
+takes place in wooden vessels (termed "squares" or "rounds"), fitted with
+an attemperator and a parachute or other similar skimming device for
+removing or "skimming" the yeast at the end of the fermentation (fig. 4).
+The principle of (b) the _Dropping System_ is that the beer undergoes only
+the main fermentation in the "round" or "square," and is then dropped down
+into a second vessel or vessels, in which fermentation and cleansing are
+completed. The _ponto_ system of dropping, which is now somewhat
+old-fashioned, consists in discharging the beer into a series of vat-like
+vessels, fitted with a peculiarly-shaped overflow lip. The yeast works its
+way out of the vessel over the lip, and then flows into a gutter and is
+collected. The pontos are kept filled with beer by means of a vessel placed
+at a higher level. In the _ordinary_ dropping system the partly fermented
+beer is let down from the "squares" and "rounds" into large vessels, termed
+dropping or skimming "backs." These are fitted with attemperators, and
+parachutes for the removal of yeast, in much the same way as in the
+skimming system. As a rule the parachute covers the whole width of the
+back. (c) The _Burton Union System_ is really an improved ponto system. A
+series of casks, supplied with beer at the cleansing stage from a feed
+vessel, are mounted so that they may rotate axially. Each cask is fitted
+with an attemperator, a pipe and cock at the base for the removal of the
+finished beer and "bottoms," and lastly with a swan neck fitting through a
+bung-hole and commanding a common gutter. This system yields excellent
+results for certain classes of beers, and many Burton brewers think it is
+essential for obtaining [v.04 p.0511] the Burton character. Fig. 6 (Plate
+II.) shows the process in operation in Messrs Allsopp's brewery.
+
+(B) _The Stone Square System_, which is only used to a certain extent
+(exclusively in the north of England), practically consists in pumping the
+fermenting wort from one to the other of two superimposed square vessels,
+connected with one another by means of a man-hole and a valve. These
+squares are built of stone and kept very cool. At the end of the
+fermentation the yeast (after closing the man-hole) is removed from the top
+square.
+
+_Racking, &c._--After the fermentation and cleansing operations are
+completed, the beer is racked off (sometimes after passing a few hours in a
+settling tank) into storage vessels or trade casks. The finest "stock" and
+"pale" ales are stored from six weeks to three months prior to going out,
+but "running" beers (mild ales, &c.) are frequently sent out of the brewery
+within a week or ten days of mashing. It is usual to add some hops in cask
+(this is called _dry hopping_) in the case of many of the better beers.
+Running beers, which must be put into condition rapidly, or beers that have
+become flat, are generally _primed_. Priming consists in adding a small
+quantity of sugar solution to the beer in cask. This rapidly ferments and
+so produces "condition."
+
+_Fining_.--As a very light article is desired nowadays, and this has to be
+provided in a short time, artificial means must be resorted to, in order to
+replace the natural fining or brightening which storage brings about.
+_Finings_ generally consist of a solution or semi-solution of isinglass in
+sour beer, or in a solution of tartaric acid or of sulphurous acid. After
+the finings are added to the beer and the barrels have been well rolled,
+the finings slowly precipitate (or work out through the bung-hole) and
+carry with them the matter which would otherwise render the beer turbid.
+
+_Bottling_.--Formerly it was the general custom to brew a special beer for
+bottling, and this practice is still continued by some brewers. It is
+generally admitted that the special brew, matured by storage and an
+adequate secondary fermentation, produces the best beer for bottling, but
+the modern taste for a very light and bright bottled beer at a low cost has
+necessitated the introduction of new methods. The most interesting among
+these is the "chilling" and "carbonating" system. In this the beer, when it
+is ripe for racking, is first "chilled," that is, cooled to a very low
+temperature. As a result, there is an immediate deposition of much matter
+which otherwise would require prolonged time to settle. The beer is then
+filtered and so rendered quite bright, and finally, in order to produce
+immediate "condition," is "carbonated," _i.e._ impregnated under pressure
+with carbon dioxide (carbonic acid gas).
+
+FOREIGN BREWING AND BEERS.--The system of brewing which differs most widely
+from the English _infusion_ and _top fermentation_ method is the
+_decoction_ and _bottom fermentation_ system, so widely employed, chiefly
+on the continent of Europe, for the production of beers of the "lager"
+type.
+
+The method pursued in the decoction system is broadly as follows:--After
+the grist has been mashed with cold water until a homogeneous mixture
+ensues, sufficient hot water is introduced into the mash-tun to raise the
+temperature to 85-100 deg. F., according to circumstances. Thereupon, about
+one-third of the mash (including the "goods") is transferred to the _Maisch
+Kessel_ (mash copper), in which it is gradually brought to a temperature of
+(about) 165 deg. F., and this heat is maintained until the mash becomes
+transparent. The _Dickmaische_, as this portion is called, is then raised
+to the boil, and the ebullition sustained between a quarter and
+three-quarters of an hour. Just sufficient of the _Dickmaische_ is returned
+to the mash-tun proper to raise the temperature of the whole to 111-125 deg.
+F., and after a few minutes a third is again withdrawn and treated as
+before, to form the second "thick mash." When the latter has been returned
+to the mash-tun the whole is thoroughly worked up, allowed to stand in
+order that the solids may deposit, and then another third (called the
+_Laeutermaische_ or "clear mash") is withdrawn, boiled until the coagulable
+albuminoids are precipitated, and finally reconveyed to the mash-tun, where
+the mashing is continued for some time, the final heat being rather over
+160 deg. F. The wort, after boiling with hops and cooling, much as in the
+English system, is subjected to the peculiar system of fermentation called
+_bottom fermentation_. In this system the "pitching" and fermentation take
+place at a very low temperature and, compared with the English system, in
+very small vessels. The fermenting cellars are maintained at a temperature
+of about 37-38 deg. F., and the temperature of the fermenting wort does not
+rise above 50 deg. F. The yeast, which is of a different type from that
+employed in the English system, remains at the bottom of the fermenting
+tun, and hence is derived the name of "bottom fermentation" (see
+FERMENTATION). The primary fermentation lasts about eleven to twelve days
+(as compared with three days on the English system), and the beer is then
+run into store (lager) casks where it remains at a temperature approaching
+the freezing-point of water for six weeks to six months, according to the
+time of the year and the class of the beer. As to the relative character
+and stability of decoction and infusion beers, the latter are, as a rule,
+more alcoholic; but the former contain more unfermented malt extract, and
+are therefore, broadly speaking, more nutritive. Beers of the German type
+are less heavily hopped and more peptonized than English beers, and more
+highly charged with carbonic acid, which, owing to the low fermentation and
+storing temperatures, is retained for a comparatively long time and keeps
+the beer in condition. On the other hand, infusion beers are of a more
+stable and stimulating character. It is impossible to keep "lager" beer on
+draught in the ordinary sense of the term in England. It will not keep
+unless placed on ice, and, as a matter of fact, the "condition" of lager is
+dependent to a far greater extent on the methods of distribution and
+storage than is the case with infusion beers. If a cask is opened it must
+be rapidly consumed; indeed it becomes undrinkable within a very few hours.
+The gas escapes rapidly when the pressure is released, the temperature
+rises, and the beer becomes flat and mawkish. In Germany every publican is
+bound to have an efficient supply of ice, the latter frequently being
+delivered by the brewery together with the beer.
+
+In America the common system of brewing is one of infusion mashing combined
+with bottom fermentation. The method of mashing, however, though on
+infusion lines, differs appreciably from the English process. A very low
+initial heat--about 100 deg. F.--at which the mash remains for about an hour,
+is employed. After this the temperature is rapidly raised to 153-156 deg. F. by
+running in the boiling "cooker mash," _i.e._ raw grain wort from the
+converter. After a period the temperature is gradually increased to about
+165 deg. F. The very low initial heat, and the employment of relatively large
+quantities of readily transformable malt adjuncts, enable the American
+brewer to make use of a class of malt which would be considered quite unfit
+for brewing in an English brewery. The system of fermentation is very
+similar to the continental "lager" system, and the beer obtained bears some
+resemblance to the German product. To the English palate it is somewhat
+flavourless, but it is always retailed in exceedingly brilliant condition
+and at a proper temperature. There can be little doubt that every nation
+evolves a type of beer most suited to its climate and the temperament of
+the people, and in this respect the modern American beer is no exception.
+In regard to plant and mechanical arrangements generally, the modern
+American breweries may serve as an object-lesson to the European brewer,
+although there are certainly a number of breweries in the United Kingdom
+which need not fear comparison with the best American plants.
+
+It is a sign of the times and further evidence as to the growing taste for
+a lighter type of beer, that lager brewing in its most modern form has now
+fairly taken root in Great Britain, and in this connexion the process
+introduced by Messrs Allsopp exhibits many features of interest. The
+following is a brief description of the plant and the methods
+employed:--The wort is prepared on infusion lines, and is then cooled by
+means of refrigerated brine before passing to a temporary store tank, which
+serves as a gauging vessel. From the latter the wort passes directly to the
+fermenting tuns, huge closed cylindrical vessels made of sheet-steel and
+coated with glass enamel. There the wort ferments under reduced pressure,
+the carbonic acid generated being removed by means of a vacuum pump, and
+the gas thus withdrawn is replaced by the introduction of cool sterilized
+air. The fermenting cellars are kept at 40 deg. F. The yeast employed is a pure
+culture (see FERMENTATION) bottom yeast, but the withdrawal of the products
+of yeast metabolism and the constant supply of pure fresh air cause the
+fermentation to proceed far more rapidly than is the case with lager beer
+brewed on ordinary lines. It is, in fact, finished in about six days.
+Thereupon the air-supply is cut off, the green beer again cooled to 40 deg. F.
+and [v.04 p.0512] then conveyed by means of filtered air pressure to the
+store tanks, where secondary fermentation, lasting three weeks, takes
+place. The gases evolved are allowed to collect under pressure, so that the
+beer is thoroughly charged with the carbonic acid necessary to give it
+condition. Finally the beer is again cooled, filtered, racked and bottled,
+the whole of these operations taking place under counter pressure, so that
+no gas can escape; indeed, from the time the wort leaves the copper to the
+moment when it is bottled in the shape of beer, it does not come into
+contact with the outer air.
+
+The preparation of the Japanese beer _sake_ (_q.v._) is of interest. The
+first stage consists in the preparation of _Koji_, which is obtained by
+treating steamed rice with a culture of _Aspergillus oryzae_. This
+micro-organism converts the starch into sugar. The _Koji_ is converted into
+_moto_ by adding it to a thin paste of fresh-boiled starch in a vat.
+Fermentation is set up and lasts for 30 to 40 days. The third stage
+consists in adding more rice and _Koji_ to the _moto_, together with some
+water. A secondary fermentation, lasting from 8 to 10 days, ensues.
+Subsequently the whole is filtered, heated and run into casks, and is then
+known as _sake_. The interest of this process consists in the fact that a
+single micro-organism--a mould--is able to exercise the combined functions
+of saccharification and fermentation. It replaces the diastase of malted
+grain and also the yeast of a European brewery. Another liquid of interest
+is _Weissbier_. This, which is largely produced in Berlin (and in some
+respects resembles the _wheat-beer_ produced in parts of England), is
+generally prepared from a mash of three parts of wheat malt and one part of
+barley malt. The fermentation is of a symbiotic nature, two organisms,
+namely a yeast and a fission fungus (the _lactic acid bacillus_) taking
+part in it. The preparation of this peculiar double ferment is assisted by
+the addition of a certain quantity of white wine to the yeast prior to
+fermentation.
+
+BREWING CHEMISTRY.--The principles of brewing technology belong for the
+most part to physiological chemistry, whilst those of the cognate industry,
+malting, are governed exclusively by that branch of knowledge. Alike in
+following the growth of barley in field, its harvesting, maturing and
+conversion into malt, as well as the operations of mashing malt, fermenting
+wort, and conditioning beer, physiological chemistry is needed. On the
+other hand, the consideration of the saline matter in waters, the
+composition of the extract of worts and beers, and the analysis of brewing
+materials and products generally, belong to the domain of pure chemistry.
+Since the extractive matters contained in wort and beer consist for the
+most part of the transformation products of starch, it is only natural that
+these should have received special attention at the hands of scientific men
+associated with the brewing industry. It was formerly believed that by the
+action of diastase on starch the latter is first converted into a gummy
+substance termed dextrin, which is then subsequently transformed into a
+sugar--glucose. F.A. Musculus, however, in 1860, showed that sugar and
+dextrin are simultaneously produced, and between the years 1872 and 1876
+Cornelius O'Sullivan definitely proved that the sugar produced was maltose.
+When starch-paste, the jelly formed by treating starch with boiling water,
+is mixed with iodine solution, a deep blue coloration results. The first
+product of starch degradation by either acids or diastase, namely soluble
+starch, also exhibits the same coloration when treated with iodine. As
+degradation proceeds, and the products become more and more soluble and
+diffusible, the blue reaction with iodine gives place first to a purple,
+then to a reddish colour, and finally the coloration ceases altogether. In
+the same way, the optical rotating power decreases, and the cupric reducing
+power (towards Fehling's solution) increases, as the process of hydrolysis
+proceeds. C. O'Sullivan was the first to point out definitely the influence
+of the temperature of the mash on the character of the products. The work
+of Horace T. Brown (with J. Heron) extended that of O'Sullivan, and (with
+G.H. Morris) established the presence of an intermediate product between
+the higher dextrins and maltose. This product was termed maltodextrin, and
+Brown and Morris were led to believe that a large number of these
+substances existed in malt wort. They proposed for these substances the
+generic name "amyloins." Although according to their view they were
+compounds of maltose and dextrin, they had the properties of mixtures of
+these two substances. On the assumption of the existence of these
+compounds, Brown and his colleagues formulated what is known as the
+maltodextrin or amyloin hypothesis of starch degradation. C.J. Lintner, in
+1891, claimed to have separated a sugar, isomeric with maltose, which is
+termed isomaltose, from the products of starch hydrolysis. A.R. Ling and
+J.L. Baker, as well as Brown and Morris, in 1895, proved that this
+isomaltose was not a homogeneous substance, and evidence tending to the
+same conclusion was subsequently brought forward by continental workers.
+Ling and Baker, in 1897, isolated the following compounds from the products
+of starch hydrolysis--maltodextrin-[alpha], C_{36}H_{62}O_{31}, and
+maltodextrin-[beta], C_{24}H_{42}O_{21} (previously named by Prior,
+achroodextrin III.). They also separated a substance, C_{12}H_{22}O_{11},
+isomeric with maltose, which had, however, the characteristics of a
+dextrin. This is probably identical with the so-called dextrinose isolated
+by V. Syniewski in 1902, which yields a phenylosazone melting at 82-83 deg. C.
+It has been proved by H. Ost that the so-called isomaltose of Lintner is a
+mixture of maltose and another substance, maltodextrin, isomeric with Ling
+and Baker's maltodextrin-[beta].
+
+The theory of Brown and Morris of the degradation of starch, although based
+on experimental evidence of some weight, is by no means universally
+accepted. Nevertheless it is of considerable interest, as it offers a
+rational and consistent explanation of the phenomena known to accompany the
+transformation of starch by diastase, and even if not strictly correct it
+has, at any rate, proved itself to be a practical working hypothesis, by
+which the mashing and fermenting operations may be regulated and
+controlled. According to Brown and Morris, the starch molecule consists of
+five amylin groups, each of which corresponds to the molecular formula
+(C_{12}H_{20}O_{10})_{20}. Four of these amylin radicles are grouped
+centrally round the fifth, thus:--
+
+  (C_{12}H_{20}O_{10})_{20}                       (C_{12}H_{20}O_{10})_{20}
+                          \                       /
+                          (C_{12}H_{20}O_{10})_{20}
+                          /                       \
+  (C_{12}H_{20}O_{10})_{20}                       (C_{12}H_{20}O_{10})_{20}
+
+By the action of diastase, this complex molecule is split up, undergoing
+hydrolysis into four groups of amyloins, the fifth or central group
+remaining unchanged (and under brewing conditions unchangeable), forming
+the substance known as stable dextrin. When diastase acts on starch-paste,
+hydrolysis proceeds as far as the reaction represented by the following
+equation:--
+
+  5(C_{12}H_{20}O_{10})_{20} + 80 H_2O
+        starch.                 water.
+        = 80 C_{12}H_{22}O_{11} + (C_{12}H_{20}O_{10})_{20}
+               maltose.                  stable dextrin.
+
+The amyloins are substances containing varying numbers of amylin (original
+starch or dextrin) groups in conjunction with a proportional number of
+maltose groups. They are not separable into maltose and dextrin by any of
+the ordinary means, but exhibit the properties of mixtures of these
+substances. As the process of hydrolysis proceeds, the amyloins become
+gradually poorer in amylin and relatively richer in maltose-groups. The
+final products of transformation, according to Brown and J.H. Millar, are
+maltose and glucose, which latter is derived from the hydrolysis of the
+stable dextrin. This theory may be applied in practical brewing in the
+following manner. If it is desired to obtain a beer of a stable
+character--that is to say, one containing a considerable proportion of
+high-type amyloins--it is necessary to restrict the action of the diastase
+in the mash-tun accordingly. On the other hand, for mild running ales,
+which are to "condition" rapidly, it is necessary to provide for the
+presence of sufficient maltodextrin of a low type. Investigation has shown
+that the type of maltodextrin can be regulated, not only in the mash-tun
+but also on the malt-kiln. A higher type is obtained by low kiln and high
+mashing temperatures than by high kiln and low mashing heats, and it is
+possible therefore to regulate, on scientific lines, not only the quality
+but also the type of amyloins which are suitable for a particular beer.
+
+The chemistry of the nitrogenous constituents of malt is equally important
+with that of starch and its transformations. Without nitrogenous compounds
+of the proper type, vigorous fermentations are not possible. It may be
+remembered that yeast assimilates nitrogenous compounds in some of their
+simpler forms--amides and the like. One of the aims of the maltster is,
+therefore, to break down the protein substances present in barley to such a
+degree that the wort has a maximum nutritive value for the yeast. Further,
+it is necessary for the production of stable beer to eliminate a large
+proportion of nitrogenous matter, and this is only done by the yeast when
+the proteins are degraded. There is also some evidence that the presence of
+albumoses assists in producing the foaming properties of beer. It has now
+been established definitely, by the work of A. Fernbach, W. Windisch,
+F.Weiss and P. Schidrowitz, that finished malt contains at least two
+proteolytic enzymes (a peptic and a pancreatic enzyme).
+
+[Illustration: BREWING
+
+PLATE I.
+
+FIG. 5.--REFRIGERATORS IN "LAGER" BREWERY OF MESSRS. ALLSOPP.
+
+The hot wort trickles over the outside of the series of pipes, and is
+cooled by the cold water which circulates in them. From the shallow
+collecting trays the cooled wort is conducted to the fermenting backs.]
+
+[Illustration: BREWING
+
+PLATE II.
+
+FIG. 6.--BURTON-UNION SYSTEM OF CLEANSING. (MESSRS. ALLSOPP'S BREWERY.)
+
+The green beer is filled into the casks, and the excess of yeast, &c., then
+works out through the swan necks into the long common gutter shown.]
+
+[v.04 p.0513]
+
+The presence of different types of phosphates in malt, and the important
+influence which, according to their nature, they exercise in the brewing
+process by way of the enzymes affected by them, have been made the subject
+of research mainly by Fernbach and A. Hubert, and by P.E. Petit and G.
+Labourasse. The number of enzymes which are now known to take part in the
+brewing process is very large. They may with utility be grouped as
+follows:--
+
+                         Name.                Role or Nature.
+                  +- Cytase                  Dissolves cell walls of
+                  |                             of starch granules.
+  In the malt ----+- Diastase A              Liquefies starch
+    or mash-tun.  +- Diastase B              Saccharifies starch.
+                  +- Proteolytic Enzymes -+- (1) Peptic.
+                  |                       +- (2) Pancreatic.
+                  +- Catalase                Splits peroxides.
+
+  In fermenting   +- Invertase               Inverts cane sugar.
+    wort and -----+- Glucase                 Splits maltose into glucose.
+    yeast.        +- Zymase                  Splits sugar into alcohol
+                                                and carbonic acid.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY.--W.J. Sykes, _Principles and Practice of Brewing_ (London,
+1897); Moritz and Morris, _A Text-book of the Science of Brewing_ (London,
+1891); H.E. Wright, _A Handy Book for Brewers_ (London, 1897); Frank
+Thatcher, _Brewing and Malting_ (London, 1898); Julian L. Baker, _The
+Brewing Industry_ (London, 1905); E.J. Lintner, _Grundriss der
+Bierbrauerei_ (Berlin, 1904); J.E. Thausing, _Die Theorie und Praxis der
+Malzbereitung und Bierfabrikation_ (Leipzig, 1898); E. Michel, _Lehrbuch
+der Bierbrauerei_ (Augsburg, 1900); E. Prior, _Chemie u. Physiologie des
+Malzes und des Bieres_ (Leipzig, 1896). Technical journals: _The Journal of
+the Institute of Brewing_ (London); _The Brewing Trade Review_ (London);
+_The Brewers' Journal_ (London); _The Brewers' Journal_ (New York);
+_Wochenschrift fuer Brauerei_ (Berlin); _Zeitschrift fuer das gesammte
+Brauwesen_ (Munich).
+
+(P. S.)
+
+[1] They were classified at 28 lb in 1896, but since 1897 the standard has
+been at the rate of 32 lb to the bushel.
+
+[2] Inclusive of rice and maize.
+
+[3] Exclusive of rice and maize.
+
+[4] As a rule there is no separate "collecting vessel," duty being assessed
+in the fermenting vessels.
+
+BREWSTER, SIR DAVID (1781-1868), Scottish natural philosopher, was born on
+the 11th of December 1781 at Jedburgh, where his father, a teacher of high
+reputation, was rector of the grammar school. At the early age of twelve he
+was sent to the university of Edinburgh, being intended for the clerical
+profession. Even before this, however, he had shown a strong inclination
+for natural science, and this had been fostered by his intimacy with a
+"self-taught philosopher, astronomer and mathematician," as Sir Walter
+Scott called him, of great local fame--James Veitch of Inchbonny, who was
+particularly skilful in making telescopes. Though he duly finished his
+theological course and was licensed to preach, Brewster's preference for
+other pursuits prevented him from engaging in the active duties of his
+profession. In 1799 he was induced by his fellow-student, Henry Brougham,
+to study the diffraction of light. The results of his investigations were
+communicated from time to time in papers to the _Philosophical
+Transactions_ of London and other scientific journals, and were admirably
+and impartially summarized by James D. Forbes in his preliminary
+dissertation to the eighth edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_. The
+fact that other philosophers, notably Etienne Louis Malus and Augustin
+Fresnel, were pursuing the same investigations contemporaneously in France
+does not invalidate Brewster's claim to independent discovery, even though
+in one or two cases the priority must be assigned to others.
+
+The most important subjects of his inquiries are enumerated by Forbes under
+the following five heads:--(1) The laws of polarization by reflection and
+refraction, and other quantitative laws of phenomena; (2) The discovery of
+the polarizing structure induced by heat and pressure; (3) The discovery of
+crystals with two axes of double refraction, and many of the laws of their
+phenomena, including the connexion of optical structure and crystalline
+forms; (4) The laws of metallic reflection; (5) Experiments on the
+absorption of light. In this line of investigation the prime importance
+belongs to the discovery (1) of the connexion between the refractive index
+and the polarizing angle, (2) of biaxial crystals, and (3) of the
+production of double refraction by irregular heating. These discoveries
+were promptly recognized. So early as the year 1807 the degree of LL.D. was
+conferred upon Brewster by Marischal College, Aberdeen; in 1815 he was made
+a member of the Royal Society of London, and received the Copley medal; in
+1818 he received the Rumford medal of the society; and in 1816 the French
+Institute awarded him one-half of the prize of three thousand francs for
+the two most important discoveries in physical science made in Europe
+during the two preceding years. Among the non-scientific public his fame
+was spread more effectually by his rediscovery about 1815 of the
+kaleidoscope, for which there was a great demand in both England and
+America. An instrument of higher interest, the stereoscope, which, though
+of much later date (1849-1850), may be mentioned here, since along with the
+kaleidoscope it did more than anything else to popularize his name, was
+not, as has often been asserted, the invention of Brewster. Sir Charles
+Wheatstone discovered its principle and applied it as early as 1838 to the
+construction of a cumbrous but effective instrument, in which the binocular
+pictures were made to combine by means of mirrors. To Brewster is due the
+merit of suggesting the use of lenses for the purpose of uniting the
+dissimilar pictures; and accordingly the lenticular stereoscope may fairly
+be said to be his invention. A much more valuable practical result of
+Brewster's optical researches was the improvement of the British lighthouse
+system. It is true that the dioptric apparatus was perfected independently
+by Fresnel, who had also the satisfaction of being the first to put it into
+operation. But it is indisputable that Brewster was earlier in the field
+than Fresnel; that he described the dioptric apparatus in 1812; that he
+pressed its adoption on those in authority at least as early as 1820, two
+years before Fresnel suggested it; and that it was finally introduced into
+British lighthouses mainly by his persistent efforts.
+
+Brewster's own discoveries, important though they were, were not his only,
+perhaps not even his chief, service to science. He began literary work in
+1799 as a regular contributor to the _Edinburgh Magazine_, of which he
+acted as editor at the age of twenty. In 1807 he undertook the editorship
+of the newly projected _Edinburgh Encyclopaedia_, of which the first part
+appeared in 1808, and the last not until 1830. The work was strongest in
+the scientific department, and many of its most valuable articles were from
+the pen of the editor. At a later period he was one of the leading
+contributors to the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ (seventh and eighth
+editions), the articles on Electricity, Hydrodynamics, Magnetism,
+Microscope, Optics, Stereoscope, Voltaic Electricity, &c., being from his
+pen. In 1819 Brewster undertook further editorial work by establishing, in
+conjunction with Robert Jameson (1774-1854), the _Edinburgh Philosophical
+Journal_, which took the place of the _Edinburgh Magazine_. The first ten
+volumes (1819-1824) were published under the joint editorship of Brewster
+and Jameson, the remaining four volumes (1825-1826) being edited by Jameson
+alone. After parting company with Jameson, Brewster started the _Edinburgh
+Journal of Science_ in 1824, sixteen volumes of which appeared under his
+editorship during the years 1824-1832, with very many articles from his own
+pen. To the transactions of various learned societies he contributed from
+first to last between three and four hundred papers, and few of his
+contemporaries wrote so much for the various reviews. In the _North British
+Review_ alone seventy-five articles of his appeared. A list of his larger
+separate works will be found below. Special mention, however, must be made
+of the most important of them all--his biography of Sir Isaac Newton. In
+1831 he published a short popular account of the philosopher's life in
+Murray's _Family Library_; but it was not until 1855 that he was able to
+issue the much fuller _Memoirs of the Life, Writings and Discoveries of Sir
+Isaac Newton_, a work which embodied the results of more than twenty years'
+patient investigation of original manuscripts and all other available
+sources.
+
+Brewster's relations as editor brought him into frequent communication with
+the most eminent scientific men, and he was naturally among the first to
+recognize the benefit that would accrue from regular intercourse among
+workers in the field of science. In an article in the _Quarterly Review_ he
+threw out a suggestion for "an association of our nobility, clergy, gentry
+and philosophers," which was taken up by others and found speedy
+realization in the British Association for the Advancement of [v.04 p.0514]
+Science. Its first meeting was held at York in 1831; and Brewster, along
+with Charles Babbage and Sir John F. W. Herschel, had the chief part in
+shaping its constitution. In the same year in which the British Association
+held its first meeting, Brewster received the honour of knighthood and the
+decoration of the Guelphic order of Hanover. In 1838 he was appointed
+principal of the united colleges of St Salvator and St Leonard, St Andrews.
+In 1849 he acted as president of the British Association and was elected
+one of the eight foreign associates of the Institute of France in
+succession to J.J. Berzelius; and ten years later he accepted the office of
+principal of the university of Edinburgh, the duties of which he discharged
+until within a few months of his death, which took place at Allerly,
+Melrose, on the 10th of February 1868.
+
+In estimating Brewster's place among scientific discoverers the chief thing
+to be borne in mind is that the bent of his genius was not
+characteristically mathematical. His method was empirical, and the laws
+which he established were generally the result of repeated experiment. To
+the ultimate explanation of the phenomena with which he dealt he
+contributed nothing, and it is noteworthy in this connexion that if he did
+not maintain to the end of his life the corpuscular theory he never
+explicitly adopted the undulatory theory of light. Few will be inclined to
+dispute the verdict of Forbes:--"His scientific glory is different in kind
+from that of Young and Fresnel; but the discoverer of the law of
+polarization of biaxial crystals, of optical mineralogy, and of double
+refraction by compression, will always occupy a foremost rank in the
+intellectual history of the age." In addition to the various works of
+Brewster already noticed, the following may be mentioned:--Notes and
+Introduction to Carlyle's translation of Legendre's _Elements of Geometry_
+(1824); _Treatise on Optics_ (1831); _Letters on Natural Magic,_ addressed
+to Sir Walter Scott (1831); _The Martyrs of Science, or the Lives of
+Galileo, Tycho Brahe, and Kepler_ (1841); _More Worlds than One_ (1854).
+
+See _The Home Life of Sir David Brewster,_ by his daughter Mrs Gordon.
+
+BREWSTER, WILLIAM (c. 1566-1644), American colonist, one of the leaders of
+the "Pilgrims," was born at Scrooby, in Nottinghamshire, England, about
+1566. After studying for a short time at Cambridge, he was from 1584 to
+1587 in the service of William Davison (? 1541-1608), who in 1585 went to
+the Low Countries to negotiate an alliance with the states-general and in
+1586 became assistant to Walsingham, Queen Elizabeth's secretary of state.
+Upon the disgrace of Davison, Brewster removed to Scrooby, where from 1590
+until September 1607 he held the position of "Post," or postmaster
+responsible for the relays of horses on the post road, having previously,
+for a short time, assisted his father in that office. About 1602 his
+neighbours began to assemble for worship at his home, the Scrooby manor
+house, and in 1606 he joined them in organizing the Separatist church of
+Scrooby. After an unsuccessful attempt in 1607 (for which he was imprisoned
+for a short time), he, with other Separatists, removed to Holland in 1608
+to obtain greater freedom of worship. At Leiden in 1609 he was chosen
+ruling elder of the Congregation. In Holland he supported himself first by
+teaching English and afterwards in 1616-1619, as the partner of one Thomas
+Brewer, by secretly printing, for sale in England, books proscribed by the
+English government, thus, says Bradford, having "imploymente inough." In
+1619 their types were seized and Brewer was arrested by the authorities of
+the university of Leiden, acting on the instance of the British ambassador,
+Sir Dudley Carleton. Brewster, however, escaped, and in the same year, with
+Robert Cushman (c. 1580-1625), obtained in London, on behalf of his
+associates, a land patent from the Virginia Company. In 1620 he emigrated
+to America on the "Mayflower," and was one of the founders of the Plymouth
+Colony. Here besides continuing until his death to act as ruling elder, he
+was also--regularly until the arrival of the first pastor, Ralph Smith (d.
+1661), in 1629 and irregularly afterward--a "teacher," preaching "both
+powerfully and profitably to ye great contentment of ye hearers and their
+comfortable edification." By many he is regarded as pre-eminently the
+leader of the "Pilgrims." He died, probably on the 10th of April 1644.
+
+See Ashbel Steele's _Chief of the Pilgrims; or the Life and Time of William
+Brewster_ (Philadelphia, 1857); and a sketch in William Bradford's _History
+of the Plimouth Plantation_ (new ed., Boston, 1898).
+
+BREZE the name of a noble Angevin family, the most famous member of which
+was PIERRE DE BREZE (c. 1410-1465), one of the trusted soldiers and
+statesmen of Charles VII. He had made his name as a soldier in the English
+wars when in 1433 he joined with Yolande, queen of Sicily, the constable
+Richmond and others, in chasing from power Charles VII.'s minister La
+Tremoille. He was knighted by Charles of Anjou in 1434, and presently
+entered the royal council. In 1437 he became seneschal of Anjou, and in
+1440 of Poitou. During the Praguerie he rendered great service to the royal
+cause against the dauphin Louis and the revolted nobles, a service which
+was remembered against him after Louis's accession to the throne. He fought
+against the English in Normandy in 1440-1441, and in Guienne in 1442. In
+the next year he became chamberlain to Charles VII., and gained the chief
+power in the state through the influence of Agnes Sorel, superseding his
+early allies Richmond and Charles of Anjou. The six years (1444-1450) of
+his ascendancy were the most prosperous period of the reign of Charles VII.
+His most dangerous opponent was the dauphin Louis, who in 1448 brought
+against him accusations which led to a formal trial resulting in a complete
+exoneration of Breze and his restoration to favour. He fought in Normandy
+in 1450-1451, and became seneschal of the province after the death of Agnes
+Sorel and the consequent decline of his influence at court. He made an
+ineffective descent on the English coast at Sandwich in 1457, and was
+preparing an expedition in favour of Margaret of Anjou when the accession
+of Louis XI. brought him disgrace and a short imprisonment. In 1462,
+however, his son Jacques married Louis's half-sister, Charlotte de Valois,
+daughter of Agnes Sorel. In 1462 he accompanied Margaret to Scotland with a
+force of 2000 men, and after the battle of Hexham he brought her back to
+Flanders. On his return he was reappointed seneschal of Normandy, and fell
+in the battle of Montlhery on the 16th of July 1465. He was succeeded as
+seneschal of Normandy by his eldest son Jacques de Breze (c. 1440-1490),
+count of Maulevrier; and by his grandson, husband of the famous Diane de
+Poitiers, Louis de Breze (d. 1531), whose tomb in Rouen cathedral,
+attributed to Jean Goujon and Jean Cousin, is a splendid example of French
+Renaissance work.
+
+The lordship of Breze passed eventually to Claire Clemence de Maille,
+princess of Conde, by whom it was sold to Thomas Dreux, who took the name
+of Dreux Breze, when it was erected into a marquisate. HENRI EVRARD,
+marquis de Dreux-Breze (1762-1829), succeeded his father as master of the
+ceremonies to Louis XVI. in 1781. On the meeting of the states-general in
+1789 it fell to him to regulate the questions of etiquette and precedence
+between the three estates. That as the immediate representative of the
+crown he should wound the susceptibilities of the deputies was perhaps
+inevitable, but little attempt was made to adapt traditional etiquette to
+changed circumstances. Breze did not formally intimate to President Bailly
+the proclamation of the royal seance until the 20th of June, when the
+carpenters were about to enter the hall to prepare for the event, thus
+provoking the session in the tennis court. After the royal seance Breze was
+sent to reiterate Louis's orders that the estates should meet separately,
+when Mirabeau replied that the hall could not be cleared except by force.
+After the fall of the Tuileries Breze emigrated for a short time, but
+though he returned to France he was spared during the Terror. At the
+Restoration he was made a peer of France, and resumed his functions as
+guardian of an antiquated ceremonial. He died on the 27th of January 1829,
+when he was succeeded in the peerage and at court by his son Scipion
+(1793-1845).
+
+The best contemporary account of Pierre de Breze is given in the
+_Chroniques_ of the Burgundian chronicler, Georges Chastellain, who had
+been his secretary. Chastellain addressed a _Deprecation_ to Louis XI. on
+his behalf at the time of his disgrace.
+
+[v.04 p.0515] BRIALMONT, HENRI ALEXIS (1821-1903), Belgian general and
+military engineer, son of General Laurent Mathieu Brialmont (d. 1885), was
+born at Venlo in Limburg on the 25th of May 1821. Educated at the Brussels
+military school, he entered the army as sub-lieutenant of engineers in
+1843, and became lieutenant in 1847. From 1847 to 1850 he was private
+secretary to the war minister, General Baron Chazal. In 1855 he entered the
+staff corps, became major in 1861, lieutenant-colonel 1864, colonel in 1868
+and major-general 1874. In this rank he held at first the position of
+director of fortifications in the Antwerp district (December 1874), and
+nine months later he became inspector-general of fortifications and of the
+corps of engineers. In 1877 he became lieutenant-general. His far-reaching
+schemes for the fortification of the Belgian places met with no little
+opposition, and Brialmont seems to have felt much disappointment in this;
+at any rate he went in 1883 to Rumania to advise as to the fortification
+works required for the defence of the country, and presided over the
+elaboration of the scheme by which Bucharest was to be made a first-class
+fortress. He was thereupon placed _en disponibilite_ in his own service, as
+having undertaken the Bucharest works without the authorization of his
+sovereign. This was due in part to the suggestion of Austria, which power
+regarded the Bucharest works as a menace to herself. His services were,
+however, too valuable to be lost, and on his return to Belgium in 1884 he
+resumed his command of the Antwerp military district. He had, further,
+while in eastern Europe, prepared at the request of the Hellenic
+government, a scheme for the defence of Greece. He retired in 1886, but
+continued to supervise the Rumanian defences. He died on the 21st of
+September 1903.
+
+In the first stage of his career as an engineer Brialmont's plans followed
+with but slight modification the ideas of Vauban; and his original scheme
+for fortifying Antwerp provided for both enceinte and forts being on a
+bastioned trace. But in 1859, when the great entrenched camp at Antwerp was
+finally taken in hand, he had already gone over to the school of polygonal
+fortification and the ideas of Montalembert. About twenty years later
+Brialmont's own types and plans began to stand out amidst the general
+confusion of ideas on fortification which naturally resulted from the
+introduction of long-range guns, and from the events of 1870-71. The
+extreme detached forts of the Antwerp region and the fortifications on the
+Meuse at Liege and Namur were constructed in accordance with Brialmont's
+final principles, viz. the lavish use of armour to protect the artillery
+inside the forts, the suppression of all artillery positions open to
+overhead fire, and the multiplication of intermediate batteries (see
+FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT). In his capacity of inspector-general
+Brialmont drafted and carried out the whole scheme for the defences of
+Belgium. He was an indefatigable writer, and produced, besides essays,
+reviews and other papers in the journals, twenty-three important works and
+forty-nine pamphlets. In 1850 he originated the _Journal de l'armee Belge_.
+His most important publications were _La Fortification du temps present_
+(Brussels, 1885); _Influence du tir plongeant et des obus-torpilles sur la
+fortification_ (Brussels, 1888); _Les Regions fortifiees_ (Brussels, 1890);
+_La Defense des etats et la fortification a la fin du XIX^e siecle_
+(Brussels, 1895); _Progres de la defense des etats et de la fortification
+permanente depuis Vauban_ (Brussels, 1898).
+
+BRIAN (926-1014), king of Ireland, known as BRIAN BORU, BOROMA, or BOROIMHE
+(from _boroma_, an Irish word for tribute), was a son of a certain Kennedy
+or Cenneide (d. 951). He passed his youth in fighting against the Danes,
+who were constantly ravaging Munster, the northern part of which district
+was the home of Brian's tribe, and won much fame in these encounters. In
+976 his brother, Mathgamhain or Mahon, who had become king of Thomond about
+951 and afterwards king of Munster, was murdered; Brian avenged this deed,
+became himself king of Munster in 978, and set out upon his career of
+conquest. He forced the tribes of Munster and then those of Leinster to own
+his sovereignty, defeated the Danes, who were established around Dublin, in
+Wicklow, and marched into Dublin, and after several reverses compelled
+Malachy (Maelsechlainn), the chief king of Ireland, who ruled in Meath, to
+bow before him in 1002. Connaught was his next objective. Here and also in
+Ulster he was successful, everywhere he received hostages and tribute, and
+he was generally recognized as the _ardri_, or chief king of Ireland. After
+a period of comparative quiet Brian was again at war with the Danes of
+Dublin, and on the 23rd of April 1014 his forces gained a great victory
+over them at Clontarf. After this battle, however, the old king was slain
+in his tent, and was buried at Armagh. Brian has enjoyed a great and not
+undeserved reputation. One of his charters is still preserved in Trinity
+College, Dublin.
+
+See E.A. D'Alton, _History of Ireland_, vol. i. (1903).
+
+BRIANCON, a strongly fortified town in the department of Hautes-Alpes in
+S.E. France. It is built at a height of 4334 ft. on a plateau which
+dominates the junction of the Durance with the Guisane. The town itself is
+formed of very steep and narrow, though picturesque streets. As it lies at
+the foot of the descent from the Mont Genevre Pass, giving access to Turin,
+a great number of fortifications have been constructed on the heights
+around Briancon, especially towards the east. The Fort Janus is no less
+than 4000 ft. above the town. The parish church, with its two towers, was
+built 1703-1726, and occupies a very conspicuous position. The Pont
+d'Asfeld, E. of the town, was built in 1734, and forms an arch of 131 ft.
+span, thrown at a height of 184 ft. across the Durance. The modern town
+extends in the plain at the S.W. foot of the plateau on which the old town
+is built and forms the suburb of Ste Catherine, with the railway station,
+and an important silk-weaving factory. Briancon is 511/2 m. by rail from Gap.
+The commune had a civil population in 1906 of 4883 (urban population 3130),
+while the permanent garrison was 2641--in all 7524 inhabitants.
+
+Briancon was the _Brigantium_ of the Romans and formed part of the kingdom
+of King Cottius. About 1040 it came into the hands of the counts of Albon
+(later dauphins of the Viennois) and thenceforth shared the fate of the
+Dauphine. The Brianconnais included not merely the upper valley of the
+Durance (with those of its affluents, the Gyronde and the Guil), but also
+the valley of the Dora Riparia (Cesanne, Oulx, Bardonneche and Exilles),
+and that of the Chisone (Fenestrelles, Perouse, Pragelas)--these glens all
+lying on the eastern slope of the chain of the Alps. But by the treaty of
+Utrecht (1713) all these valleys were handed over to Savoy in exchange for
+that of Barcelonnette, on the west slope of the Alps. In 1815 Briancon
+successfully withstood a siege of three months at the hands of the Allies,
+a feat which is commemorated by an inscription on one of its gates, _Le
+passe repond de l'avenir_.
+
+(W. A. B. C.)
+
+BRIAND, ARISTIDE (1862- ), French statesman, was born at Nantes, of a
+bourgeois family. He studied law, and while still young took to politics,
+associating himself with the most advanced movements, writing articles for
+the anarchist journal _Le Peuple_, and directing the _Lanterne_ for some
+time. From this he passed to the _Petite Republique_, leaving it to found,
+with Jean Jaures, _L'Humanite_. At the same time he was prominent in the
+movement for the formation of labour unions, and at the congress of working
+men at Nantes in 1894 he secured the adoption of the labour union idea
+against the adherents of Jules Guesde. From that time, Briand became one of
+the leaders of the French Socialist party. In 1902, after several
+unsuccessful attempts, he was elected deputy. He declared himself a strong
+partisan of the union of the Left in what is known as the _Bloc_, in order
+to check the reactionary deputies of the Right. From the beginning of his
+career in the chamber of deputies, Briand was occupied with the question of
+the separation of church and state. He was appointed reporter of the
+commission charged with the preparation of the law, and his masterly report
+at once marked him out as one of the coming leaders. He succeeded in
+carrying his project through with but slight modifications, and without
+dividing the parties upon whose support he relied. He was the principal
+author of the law of separation, but, not content with preparing it, he
+wished to apply it as well, especially as the existing Rouvier [v.04
+p.0516] ministry allowed disturbances to occur during the taking of
+inventories of church property, a clause of the law for which Briand was
+not responsible. Consequently he accepted the portfolio of public
+instruction and worship in the Sarrien ministry (1906). So far as the
+chamber was concerned his success was complete. But the acceptance of a
+portfolio in a bourgeois ministry led to his exclusion from the Unified
+Socialist party (March 1906). As opposed to Jaures, he contended that the
+Socialists should co-operate actively with the Radicals in all matters of
+reform, and not stand aloof to await the complete fulfilment of their
+ideals.
+
+BRIANZA, a district of Lombardy, Italy, forming the south part of the
+province of Como, between the two southern arms of the lake of that name.
+It is thickly populated and remarkable for its fertility; and being hilly
+is a favourite summer resort of the Milanese.
+
+BRIARE, a town of north-central France in the department of Loiret on the
+right bank of the Loire, 451/2 m. S.E. of Orleans on the railway to Nevers.
+Pop. (1906) 4613. Briare, the _Brivodorum_ of the Romans, is situated at
+the extremity of the Canal of Briare, which unites the Loire and its
+lateral canal with the Loing and so with the Seine. The canal of Briare was
+constructed from 1605 to 1642 and is about 36 m. long. The industries
+include the manufacture of fine pottery, and of so-called porcelain buttons
+made of felspar and milk by a special process; its inventor, Bapterosses,
+has a bust in the town. The canal traffic is in wood, iron, coal, building
+materials, &c. A modern hospital and church, and the hotel de ville
+installed in an old moated chateau, are the chief buildings. The lateral
+canal of the Loire crosses the Loire near Briare by a fine canal-bridge 720
+yds. in length.
+
+BRIAREUS, or AEGAEON, in Greek mythology, one of the three hundred-armed,
+fifty-headed Hecatoncheires, brother of Cottus and Gyges (or Gyes).
+According to Homer (_Iliad_ i. 403) he was called Aegaeon by men, and
+Briareus by the gods. He was the son of Poseidon (or Uranus) and Gaea. The
+legends regarding him and his brothers are various and somewhat
+contradictory. According to the most widely spread myth, Briareus and his
+brothers were called by Zeus to his assistance when the Titans were making
+war upon Olympus. The gigantic enemies were defeated and consigned to
+Tartarus, at the gates of which the three brothers were placed (Hesiod,
+_Theog._ 624, 639, 714). Other accounts make Briareus one of the assailants
+of Olympus, who, after his defeat, was buried under Mount Aetna
+(Callimachus, _Hymn to Delos_, 141). Homer mentions him as assisting Zeus
+when the other Olympian deities were plotting against the king of gods and
+men (_Iliad_ i. 398). Another tradition makes him a giant of the sea, ruler
+of the fabulous Aegaea in Euboea, an enemy of Poseidon and the inventor of
+warships (Schol. on Apoll. Rhod. i. 1165). It would be difficult to
+determine exactly what natural phenomena are symbolized by the
+Hecatoncheires. They may represent the gigantic forces of nature which
+appear in earthquakes and other convulsions, or the multitudinous motion of
+the sea waves (Mayer, _Die Giganten und Titanen_, 1887).
+
+BRIBERY (from the O. Fr. _briberie_, begging or vagrancy, _bribe_, Mid.
+Lat. _briba_, signifying a piece of bread given to beggars; the Eng.
+"bribe" has passed through the meanings of alms, blackmail and extortion,
+to gifts received or given in order to influence corruptly). The public
+offence of bribery may be defined as the offering or giving of payment in
+some shape or form that it may be a motive in the performance of functions
+for which the proper motive ought to be a conscientious sense of duty. When
+this is superseded by the sordid impulses created by the bribe, a person is
+said to be corrupted, and thus corruption is a term sometimes held
+equivalent to bribery. The offence may be divided into two great
+classes--the one where a person invested with power is induced by payment
+to use it unjustly; the other, where power is obtained by purchasing the
+suffrages of those who can impart it. It is a natural propensity, removable
+only by civilization or some powerful counteracting influence, to feel that
+every element of power is to be employed as much as possible for the
+owner's own behoof, and that its benefits should be conferred not on those
+who best deserve them, but on those who will pay most for them. Hence
+judicial corruption is an inveterate vice of imperfect civilization. There
+is, perhaps no other crime on which the force of law, if unaided by public
+opinion and morals, can have so little influence; for in other crimes, such
+as violence or fraud, there is generally some person immediately injured by
+the act, who can give his aid in the detection of the offender, but in the
+perpetration of the offence of bribery all the immediate parties obtain
+what they desire, and are satisfied.
+
+The purification of the bench from judicial bribery has been gradual in
+most of the European countries. In France it received an impulse in the
+16th century from the high-minded chancellor, Michel de L'Hopital. In
+England judicial corruption has been a crime of remarkable rarity. Indeed,
+with the exception of a statute of 1384 (repealed by the Statute Law
+Revision Act 1881) there has been no legislation relating to judicial
+bribery. The earliest recorded case was that of Sir William Thorpe, who in
+1351 was fined and removed from office for accepting bribes. Other
+celebrated cases were those of Michael de la Pole, chancellor of England,
+in 1387; Lord Chancellor Bacon in 1621; Lionel Cranfield, earl of
+Middlesex, in 1624; and Sir Thomas Parker, 1st earl of Macclesfield, in
+1725. In Scotland for some years after the Revolution the bench was not
+without a suspicion of interested partiality; but since the beginning of
+the 19th century, at least, there has been in all parts of the empire a
+perfect reliance on its purity. The same may be said of the higher class of
+ministerial officers. There is no doubt that in the period from the
+Revolution to the end of Queen Anne's reign, when a speaker of the House of
+Commons was expelled for bribery, and the great Marlborough could not clear
+his character from pecuniary dishonesty, there was much corruption in the
+highest official quarters. The level of the offence of official bribery has
+gradually descended, until it has become an extremely rare thing for the
+humbler officers connected with the revenue to be charged with it. It has
+had a more lingering existence with those who, because their power is more
+of a constitutional than an official character, have been deemed less
+responsible to the public. During Walpole's administration there is no
+doubt that members of parliament were paid in cash for votes; and the
+memorable saying, that every man has his price, has been preserved as a
+characteristic indication of his method of government. One of the forms in
+which administrative corruption is most difficult of eradication is the
+appointment to office. It is sometimes maintained that the purity which
+characterizes the administration of justice is here unattainable, because
+in giving a judgment there is but one form in which it can be justly given,
+but when an office has to be filled many people may be equally fitted for
+it, and personal motives must influence a choice. It very rarely happens,
+however, that direct bribery is supposed to influence such appointments. It
+does not appear that bribery was conspicuous in England until, in the early
+part of the 18th century, constituencies had thrown off the feudal
+dependence which lingered among them; and, indeed, it is often said, that
+bribery is essentially the defect of a free people, since it is the sale of
+that which is taken from others without payment.
+
+In English law bribery of a privy councillor or a juryman (see EMBRACERY)
+is punishable as a misdemeanour, as is the taking of a bribe by any
+judicial or ministerial officer. The buying and selling of public offices
+is also regarded at common law as a form of bribery. By the Customs
+Consolidation Act 1876, any officer in the customs service is liable to
+instant dismissal and a penalty of L500 for taking a bribe, and any person
+offering or promising a bribe or reward to an officer to neglect his duty
+or conceal or connive at any act by which the customs may be evaded shall
+forfeit the sum of L200. Under the Inland Revenue Regulations Act 1890, the
+bribery of commissioners, collectors, officers or other persons employed in
+relation to the Inland Revenue involves a fine of L500. The Merchant
+Shipping Act 1894, ss. 112 and 398, makes provision for certain offences in
+the nature of bribery. Bribery is, by the Extradition Act 1906, [v.04
+p.0517] an extraditable offence. Administrative corruption was dealt with
+in the Public Bodies' Corrupt Practices Act 1889. The public bodies
+concerned are county councils, town or borough councils, boards,
+commissioners, select vestries and other bodies having local government,
+public health or poor law powers, and having for those purposes to
+administer rates raised under public general acts. The giving or receiving,
+promising, offering, soliciting or agreeing to receive any gift, fee, loan
+or advantage by any person as an inducement for any act or forbearance by a
+member, officer or servant of a public body in regard to the affairs of
+that body is made a misdemeanour in England and Ireland and a crime and
+offence in Scotland. Prosecution under the act requires the consent of the
+attorney or solicitor-general in England or Ireland and of the lord
+advocate in Scotland. Conviction renders liable to imprisonment with or
+without hard labour for a term not exceeding two years, and to a fine not
+exceeding L500, in addition to or in lieu of imprisonment. The offender may
+also be ordered to pay to the public body concerned any bribe received by
+him; he may be adjudged incapable for seven years of holding public office,
+_i.e._ the position of member, officer or servant of a public body; and if
+already an officer or servant, besides forfeiting his place, he is liable
+at the discretion of the court to forfeit his right to compensation or
+pension. On a second conviction he may be adjudged forever incapable of
+holding public office, and for seven years incapable of being registered or
+of voting as a parliamentary elector, or as an elector of members of a
+public body. An offence under the act may be prosecuted and punished under
+any other act applicable thereto, or at common law; but no person is to be
+punished twice for the same offence. Bribery at political elections was at
+common law punishable by indictment or information, but numerous statutes
+have been passed dealing with it as a "corrupt practice." In this sense,
+the word is elastic in meaning and may embrace any method of corruptly
+influencing another for the purpose of securing his vote (see CORRUPT
+PRACTICES). Bribery at elections of fellows, scholars, officers and other
+persons in colleges, cathedral and collegiate churches, hospitals and other
+societies was prohibited in 1588-1589 by statute (31 Eliz. c. 6). If a
+member receives any money, fee, reward or other profit for giving his vote
+in favour of any candidate, he forfeits his own place; if for any such
+consideration he resigns to make room for a candidate, he forfeits double
+the amount of the bribe, and the candidate by or on whose behalf a bribe is
+given or promised is incapable of being elected on that occasion. The act
+is to be read at every election of fellows, &c., under a penalty of L40 in
+case of default. By the same act any person for corrupt consideration
+presenting, instituting or inducting to an ecclesiastical benefice or
+dignity forfeits two years' value of the benefice or dignity; the corrupt
+presentation is void, and the right to present lapses for that turn to the
+crown, and the corrupt presentee is disabled from thereafter holding the
+same benefice or dignity; a corrupt institution or induction is void, and
+the patron may present. For a corrupt resignation or exchange of a benefice
+the giver and taker of a bribe forfeit each double the amount of the bribe.
+Any person corruptly procuring the ordaining of ministers or granting of
+licenses to preach forfeits L40, and the person so ordained forfeits L10
+and for seven years is incapacitated from holding any ecclesiastical
+benefice or promotion.
+
+In the United States the offence of bribery is very severely dealt with. In
+many states, bribery or the attempt to bribe is made a felony, and is
+punishable with varying terms of imprisonment, in some jurisdictions it may
+be with a period not exceeding ten years. The offence of bribery at
+elections is dealt with on much the same lines as in England, voiding the
+election and disqualifying the offender from holding any office.
+
+Bribery may also take the form of a secret commission (_q.v._), a profit
+made by an agent, in the course of his employment, without the knowledge of
+his principal.
+
+BRIC A BRAC (a French word, formed by a kind of onomatopoeia, meaning a
+heterogeneous collection of odds and ends; cf. _de bric et de broc_,
+corresponding to our "by hook or by crook"; or by reduplication from
+_brack_, refuse), objects of "virtu," a collection of old furniture, china,
+plate and curiosities.
+
+BRICK (derived according to some etymologists from the Teutonic _bricke_, a
+disk or plate; but more authoritatively, through the French _brique_,
+originally a "broken piece," applied especially to bread, and so to clay,
+from the Teutonic _brikan_, to break), a kind of artificial stone generally
+made of burnt clay, and largely used as a building material.
+
+_History_.--The art of making bricks dates from very early times, and was
+practised by all the civilized nations of antiquity. The earliest burnt
+bricks known are those found on the sites of the ancient cities of
+Babylonia, and it seems probable that the method of making strong and
+durable bricks, by burning blocks of dried clay, was discovered in this
+corner of Asia. We know at least that well-burnt bricks were made by the
+Babylonians more than 6000 years ago, and that they were extensively used
+in the time of Sargon of Akkad (c. 3800 B.C.). The site of the ancient city
+of Babylon is still marked by huge mounds of bricks, the ruins of its great
+walls, towers and palaces, although it has been the custom for centuries to
+carry away from these heaps the bricks required for the building of the
+modern towns in the surrounding country. The Babylonians and Assyrians
+attained to a high degree of proficiency in brickmaking, notably in the
+manufacture of bricks having a coating of coloured glaze or enamel, which
+they largely used for wall decoration. The Chinese claim great antiquity
+for their clay industries, but it is not improbable that the knowledge of
+brickmaking travelled eastwards from Babylonia across the whole of Asia. It
+is believed that the art of making glazed bricks, so highly developed
+afterwards by the Chinese, found its way across Asia from the west, through
+Persia and northern India, to China. The great wall of China was
+constructed partly of brick, both burnt and unburnt; but this was built at
+a comparatively late period (c. 210 B.C.), and there is nothing to show
+that the Chinese had any knowledge of burnt bricks when the art flourished
+in Babylonia.
+
+Brickmaking formed the chief occupation of the Israelites during their
+bondage in Egypt, but in this case the bricks were probably sun-dried only,
+and not burnt. These bricks were made of a mixture of clay and chopped
+straw or reeds, worked into a stiff paste with water. The clay was the
+river mud from the banks of the Nile, and as this had not sufficient
+cohesion in itself, the chopped straw (or reeds) was added as a binding
+material. The addition of such substances increases the plasticity of wet
+clay, especially if the mixture is allowed to stand for some days before
+use; so that the action of the chopped straw was twofold; a fact possibly
+known to the Egyptians. These sun-dried bricks, or "adobes," are still
+made, as of old, on the banks of the Nile by the following method:--A
+shallow pit or bed is prepared, into which are thrown the mud, chopped
+straw and water in suitable proportions, and the whole mass is tramped on
+until it is thoroughly mixed and of the proper consistence. This mixture is
+removed in lumps and shaped into bricks, in moulds or by hand, the bricks
+being simply sun-dried.
+
+Pliny mentions that three kinds of bricks were made by the Greeks, but
+there is no indication that they were used to any great extent, and
+probably the walls of Athens on the side towards Mount Hymettus were the
+most important brick-structures in ancient Greece. The Romans became
+masters of the brickmaker's art, though they probably acquired much of
+their knowledge in the East, during their occupation of Egypt and Greece.
+In any case they revived and extended the manufacture of bricks about the
+beginning of the Christian era; exercising great care in the selection and
+preparation of their clay, and introducing the method of burning bricks in
+kilns. They carried their knowledge and their methods throughout western
+Europe, and there is abundant evidence that they made bricks extensively in
+Germany and in Britain.
+
+Although brickmaking was thus introduced into Britain nearly 2000 years
+ago, the art seems to have been lost when the Romans withdrew from the
+country, and it is doubtful whether any burnt bricks were made in England
+from that time until the 13th century. Such bricks as were used during this
+long [v.04 p.0518] period were generally taken from the remains of Roman
+buildings, as at Colchester and St Albans Abbey. One of the earliest
+existing brick buildings, erected after the revival of brickmaking in
+England, is Little Wenham Hall, in Suffolk, built about A.D. 1210; but it
+was not until the 15th century that bricks came into general use again, and
+then only for important edifices. During the reign of Henry VIII.
+brickmaking was brought to great perfection, probably by workmen brought
+from Flanders, and the older portions of St James's Palace and Hampton
+Court Palace remain to testify to the skill then attained. In the 16th
+century bricks were increasingly used, but down to the Great Fire of
+London, in 1666, the smaller buildings, shops and dwelling-houses, were
+constructed of timber framework filled in with lath and plaster. In the
+rebuilding of London after the fire, bricks were largely used, and from the
+end of the 17th century to the present day they have been almost
+exclusively used in all ordinary buildings throughout the country, except
+in those districts where building stone is plentiful and good brick-clay is
+not readily procurable. The bricks made in England before 1625 were of many
+sizes, there being no recognized standard; but in that year the sizes were
+regulated by statute, and the present standard size was adopted, viz. 9 x
+41/2 x 3 in. In 1784 a tax was levied on bricks, which was not repealed until
+1850. The tax averaged about 4s. 7d. per thousand on ordinary bricks, and
+special bricks were still more heavily taxed.
+
+The first brick buildings in America were erected on Manhattan Island in
+the year 1633 by a governor of the Dutch West India Company. These bricks
+were made in Holland, where the industry had long reached great excellence;
+and for many years bricks were imported into America from Holland and from
+England. In America burnt bricks were first made at New Haven about 1650,
+and the manufacture slowly spread through the New England states; but for
+many years the home-made article was inferior to that imported from Europe.
+
+The Dutch and the Germans were the great brickmakers of Europe during the
+middle ages, although the Italians, from the 14th to the 15th century,
+revived and developed the art of decorative brick-work or terra-cotta, and
+discovered the method of applying coloured enamels to these materials.
+Under the Della Robbias, in the 15th century, some of the finest work of
+this class that the world has seen was executed, but it can scarcely be
+included under brickwork.
+
+_Brick Clays_.--All clays are the result of the denudation and
+decomposition of felspathic and siliceous rocks, and consist of the fine
+insoluble particles which have been carried in suspension in water and
+deposited in geologic basins according to their specific gravity and degree
+of fineness (see CLAY). These deposits have been formed in all geologic
+epochs from the "Recent" to the "Cambrian," and they vary in hardness from
+the soft and plastic "alluvial" clays to the hard and rock-like shales and
+slates of the older formations. The alluvial and drift clays (which were
+alone used for brickmaking until modern times) are found near the surface,
+are readily worked and require little preparation, whereas the older
+sedimentary deposits are often difficult to work and necessitate the use of
+heavy machinery. These older shales, or rocky clays, may be brought into
+plastic condition by long weathering (_i.e._ by exposure to rain, frost and
+sun) or by crushing and grinding in water, and they then resemble ordinary
+alluvial clays in every respect.
+
+The clays or earths from which burnt bricks are made may be divided into
+two principal types, according to chemical composition: (1) Clays or shales
+containing only a small percentage of carbonate of lime and consisting
+chiefly of hydrated aluminium silicates (the "true clay substance") with
+more or less sand, undecomposed grains of felspar, and oxide or carbonate
+of iron; these clays usually burn to a buff, salmon or red colour; (2)
+Clays containing a considerable percentage of carbonate of lime in addition
+to the substances above mentioned. These latter clay deposits are known as
+"marls,"[1] and may contain as much as 40% of chalk. They burn to a
+sulphur-yellow colour which is quite distinctive.
+
+Brick clays of class (1) are very widely distributed, and have a more
+extensive geological range than the marls, which are found in connexion
+with chalk or limestone formations only. These ordinary brick clays vary
+considerably in composition, and many clays, as they are found in nature,
+are unsuitable for brickmaking without the addition of some other kind of
+clay or sand. The strongest brick clays, _i.e._ those possessing the
+greatest plasticity and tensile strength, are usually those which contain
+the highest percentage of the hydrated aluminium silicates, although the
+exact relation of plasticity to chemical composition has not yet been
+determined. This statement cannot be applied indiscriminately to all clays,
+but may be taken as fairly applicable to clays of one general type (see
+CLAY). All clays contain more or less free silica in the form of sand, and
+usually a small percentage of undecomposed felspar. The most important
+ingredient, after the clay-substance and the sand, is oxide of iron; for
+the colour, and, to a less extent, the hardness and durability of the burnt
+bricks depend on its presence. The amount of oxide of iron in these clays
+varies from about 2 to 10%, and the colour of the bricks varies accordingly
+from light buff to chocolate; although the colour developed by a given
+percentage of oxide of iron is influenced by the other substances present
+and also by the method of firing. A clay containing from 5 to 8% of oxide
+of iron will, under ordinary conditions of firing, produce a red brick; but
+if the clay contains 3 to 4% of alkalis, or the brick is fired too hard,
+the colour will be darker and more purple. The actions of the alkalis and
+of increased temperature are probably closely related, for in either case
+the clay is brought nearer to its fusion point, and ferruginous clays
+generally become darker in colour as they approach to fusion. Alumina acts
+in the opposite direction, an excess of this compound tending to make the
+colour lighter and brighter. It is impossible to give a typical composition
+for such clays, as the percentages of the different constituents vary
+through such wide ranges. The clay substance may vary from 15 to 80%, the
+free silica or sand from 5 to 80%, the oxide of iron from 1 to 10%, the
+carbonates of lime and magnesia together, from 1 to 5%, and the alkalis
+from 1 to 4%. Organic matter is always present, and other impurities which
+frequently occur are the sulphates of lime and magnesia, the chlorides and
+nitrates of soda and potash, and iron-pyrites. The presence of organic
+matter gives the wet clay a greater plasticity, probably because it forms a
+kind of mucilage which adds a certain viscosity and adhesiveness to the
+natural plasticity of the clay. In some of the coal-measure shales the
+amount of organic matter is very considerable, and may render the clay
+useless for brickmaking. The other impurities, all of which, except the
+pyrites, are soluble in water, are undesirable, as they give rise to
+"scum," which produces patchy colour and pitted faces on the bricks. The
+commonest soluble impurity is calcium sulphate, which produces a whitish
+scum on the face of the brick in drying, and as the scum becomes
+permanently fixed in burning, such bricks are of little use except for
+common work. This question of "scumming" is very important to the maker of
+high-class facing and moulded bricks, and where a clay containing calcium
+sulphate must be used, a certain percentage of barium carbonate is nowadays
+added to the wet clay. By this means the calcium sulphate is converted into
+calcium carbonate which is insoluble in water, so that it remains
+distributed throughout the mass of the brick instead of being deposited on
+the surface. The presence of magnesium salts is also very objectionable, as
+these generally remain in the burnt brick as magnesium sulphate, which
+gives rise to an efflorescence of fine white crystals after the bricks are
+built into position. Clays which are strong or plastic are known as "fat"
+clays, and they always contain a high percentage of true "clay substance,"
+and, consequently, a low percentage of sand. Such clays take up a
+considerable amount of water in "tempering"; they dry slowly, shrink
+greatly, and so become liable to lose their shape and develop cracks in
+drying and firing. "Fat" clays are greatly improved by the addition of
+coarse sharp sand, [v.04 p.0519] which reduces the time of drying and the
+shrinkage, and makes the brick more rigid during the firing. Coarse sand,
+unlike clay-substance, is practically unaffected during the drying and
+firing, and is a desirable if not a necessary ingredient of all brick
+clays. The best brick-clays feel gritty between the fingers; they should,
+of course, be free from pebbles, sufficiently plastic to be moulded into
+shape and strong enough when dry to be safely handled. All clays are
+greatly improved by being turned over and exposed to the weather, or by
+standing for some months in a wet condition. This "weathering" and "ageing"
+of clay is particularly important where bricks are made from tempered clay,
+_i.e._ clay in the wet or plastic state; where bricks are made from shale,
+in the semi-plastic condition, weathering is still of importance.
+
+The lime clays or "marls" of class (2), which contain essentially a high
+percentage of chalk or limestone, are not so widely distributed as the
+ordinary brick-clays, and in England the natural deposits of these clays
+have been largely exhausted. A very fine chalk-clay, or "malm" as it was
+locally called, was formerly obtained from the alluvium in the vicinity of
+London; but the available supply of this has been used up, and at the
+present time an artificial "malm" is prepared by mixing an ordinary
+brick-clay with ground chalk. For the best London facing-bricks the clay
+and chalk are mixed in water. The chalk is ground on grinding-pans, and the
+clay is mixed with water and worked about until the mixture has the
+consistence of cream. The mixture of these "pulps" is run through a grating
+or coarse sieve on to a drying-kiln or "bed," where it is allowed to stand
+until stiff enough to walk on. A layer of fine ashes is then spread over
+the clay, and the mass is turned over and mixed by spade, and tempered by
+the addition of water. In other districts, where clays containing limestone
+are used, the marl is mixed with water on a wash-pan and the resulting
+creamy fluid passed through coarse sieves on to a drying-bed. If necessary,
+coarse sand is added to the clay in the wash-pan, and such addition is
+often advisable because the washed clays are generally very fine in grain.
+Another method of treating these marls, when they are in the plastic
+condition, is to squeeze them by machinery through iron gratings, which
+arrest and remove the pebbles. In other cases the marl is passed through a
+grinding-mill having a solid bottom and heavy iron rollers, by which means
+the limestone pebbles are crushed sufficiently and mixed through the whole
+mass. The removal of limestone pebbles from the clay is of great
+importance, as during the firing they would be converted into quicklime,
+which has a tendency to shatter the brick on exposure to the weather. As
+before stated, these marls (which usually contain from 15 to 30% of calcium
+carbonate) burn to a yellow colour which is quite distinctive, although in
+some cases, where the percentage of limestone is very high, over 40%, the
+colour is grey or a very pale buff. The action of lime in bleaching the
+ferric oxide and producing a yellow instead of a red brick, has not been
+thoroughly investigated, but it seems probable that some compound is
+produced, between the lime and the oxide of iron, or between these two
+oxides and the free silica, entirely different from that produced by oxide
+of iron in the absence of lime. Such marls require a harder fire than the
+ordinary brick-clays in order to bring about the reaction between the lime
+and the other ingredients. Magnesia may replace lime to some extent in such
+marls, but the firing temperature must be higher when magnesia is present.
+Marls usually contract very little, if at all, in the burning, and
+generally produce a strong, square brick of fine texture and good colour.
+When under-fired, marl bricks are very liable to disintegrate under the
+action of the weather, and great care must be exercised in burning them at
+a sufficiently high temperature.
+
+_Brickmaking_.--Bricks made of tempered clay may be made by hand or by
+machine, and the machines may be worked by hand or by mechanical power.
+Bricks made of semi-plastic clay (_i.e._ ground clay or shale sufficiently
+damp to adhere under pressure) are generally machine-made throughout. The
+method of making bricks by hand is the same, with slight variation, the
+world over. The tempered clay is pressed by hand into a wooden or metal
+mould or four-sided case (without top or bottom) which is of the desired
+shape and size, allowance being made for the shrinkage of the brick in
+drying and firing. The moulder stands at the bench or table, dips the mould
+in water, or water and then sand, to prevent the clay from sticking, takes
+a rudely shaped piece of clay from an assistant, and dashes this into the
+mould which rests on the moulding bench. He then presses the clay into the
+corners of the mould with his fingers, scrapes off any surplus clay and
+levels the top by means of a strip of wood called a "strike," and then
+turns the brick out of the mould on to a board, to be carried away by
+another assistant to the drying-ground. The mould may be placed on a
+special piece of wood, called the stock-board, provided with an elevated
+tongue of wood in the centre, which produces the hollow or "frog" in the
+bottom of the brick.
+
+Machine-made bricks may be divided into two kinds, plastic and
+semi-plastic, although the same type of machine is often used for both
+kinds.
+
+The machine-made plastic bricks are made of tempered clay, but generally
+the tempering and working of the clay are effected by the use of machinery,
+especially when the harder clays and shales are used. The machines used in
+the preparation of such clays are grinding-mills and pug-mills. The
+grinding-mills are either a series of rollers with graduated spaces
+between, through which the clay or shale is passed, or are of the ordinary
+"mortar pan" type, having a solid or perforated iron bottom on which the
+clay or shale is crushed by heavy rollers. Shales are sometimes passed
+through a grinding-mill before they are exposed to the action of the
+weather, as the disintegration of the hard lumps of shale greatly
+accelerates the "weathering." In the case of ordinary brick-clay, in the
+plastic condition, grinding-mills are only used when pebbles more than a
+quarter of an inch in diameter are present, as otherwise the clay may be
+passed directly through the pug-mill, a process which may be repeated if
+necessary. The pug-mill consists of a box or trough having a feed hole at
+one end and a delivery hole or nose at the other end, and provided with a
+central shaft which carries knives and cutters so arranged that when the
+shaft revolves they cut and knead the clay, and at the same time force it
+towards and through the delivery nose. The cross section of this nose of
+the pug-mill is approximately the same as that of the required brick (9 in.
+x 41/2 in. plus contraction, for ordinary bricks), so that the pug delivers a
+solid or continuous mass of clay from which bricks may be made by merely
+making a series of square cuts at the proper distances apart. In practice,
+the clay is pushed from the pug along a smooth iron plate, which is
+provided with a wire cutting frame having a number of tightly stretched
+wires placed at certain distances apart, arranged so that they can be
+brought down upon, and through, the clay, and so many bricks cut off at
+intervals. The frame is sometimes in the form of a skeleton cylinder, the
+wires being arranged radially (or the wires may be replaced by metal
+disks); but in all cases bricks thus made are known as "wire-cuts." In
+order to obtain a better-shaped and more compact brick, these wire-cuts may
+be placed under a brick press and there squeezed into iron moulds under
+great pressure. These two processes are now generally performed by one
+machine, consisting of pug-mill and brick press combined. The pug delivers
+the clay, downwards, into the mould; the proper amount of clay is cut off;
+and the mould is made to travel into position under the ram of the press,
+which squeezes the clay into a solid mass.
+
+There are many forms of brick press, a few for hand power, but the most
+adapted for belt-driving; although in recent years hydraulic presses have
+come more and more into use, especially in Germany and America. The
+essential parts of a brick press are: (1) a box or frame in which the clay
+is moulded; (2) a plunger or die carried on the end of a ram, which gives
+the necessary pressure; (3) an arrangement for pushing the pressed brick
+out of the moulding box. Such presses are generally made of iron
+throughout, although other metals are used, occasionally, for the moulds
+and dies. The greatest variations found in brick presses are in the means
+adopted for actuating the ram; and many ingenious mechanical devices have
+been applied to this end, each claiming some particular advantage over its
+predecessors. In many recent presses, especially where semi-plastic clay is
+used, the brick is pressed simultaneously from top and bottom, a second
+ram, working upwards from beneath, giving the additional pressure.
+
+Although the best bricks are still pressed from tempered or plastic clay,
+there has recently been a great development in the manufacture of
+semi-plastic or dust-made bricks, especially in those districts where
+shales are used for brickmaking. These semi-plastic bricks are stamped out
+of ground shale that has been sufficiently moistened with water to enable
+it to bind together. The hard-clay, or shale, is crushed under heavy
+rollers in an iron grinding-pan having a perforated bottom through which
+the crushed clay passes, when sufficiently fine, into a small compartment
+underneath. This clay powder is then delivered, by an elevator, into a
+sieve or screen, which retains the coarser particles for regrinding. Sets
+of rollers may also be used for crushing shales that are only moderately
+hard, the ground material being sifted as before. The material, as fed
+[v.04 p.0520] into the mould of the press, is a coarse, damp powder which
+becomes adhesive under pressure, producing a so-called "semi-plastic"
+brick. The presses used are similar to those employed for plastic clay, but
+they are generally more strongly and heavily built, and are capable of
+applying a greater pressure.
+
+The semi-plastic method has many advantages where shales are used, although
+the bricks are not as strong nor as perfect as the best "plastic" bricks.
+The method, however, enables the brickmaker to make use of certain kinds of
+clay-rock, or shale, that would be impracticable for plastic bricks; and
+the weathering, tempering and "ageing" may be largely or entirely dispensed
+with. The plant required is heavier and more costly, but the brickyard
+becomes more compact, and the processes are simpler than with the "plastic"
+method.
+
+The drying of bricks, which was formerly done in the open, is now, in most
+cases, conducted in a special shed heated by flues along which the heated
+gases from the kilns pass on their way to the chimney. It is important that
+the atmosphere of the drying-shed should be fairly dry, to which end
+suitable means of ventilation must be arranged (by fans or otherwise). If
+the atmosphere is too moist the surface of the brick remains damp for a
+considerable time, and the moisture from the interior passes to the surface
+as water, carrying with it the soluble salts, which are deposited on the
+surface as the water slowly evaporates. This deposit produces the "scum"
+already referred to. When the drying is done in a dry atmosphere the
+surface quickly dries and hardens, and the moisture from the interior
+passes to the surface as vapour, the soluble salts being left distributed
+through the whole mass, and consequently no "scum" is produced. Plastic
+bricks take much longer to dry than semi-plastic; they shrink more and have
+a greater tendency to warp or twist.
+
+The burning or firing of bricks is the most important factor in their
+production; for their strength and durability depend very largely on the
+character and degree of the firing to which they have been subjected. The
+action of the heat brings about certain chemical decompositions and
+re-combinations which entirely alter the physical character of the dry
+clay. It is important, therefore, that the firing should be carefully
+conducted and that it should be under proper control. For ordinary bricks
+the firing atmosphere should be oxidizing, and the finishing temperature
+should be adjusted to the nature of the clay, the object being to produce a
+hard strong brick, of good shape, that will not be too porous and will
+withstand the action of frost. The finishing temperature ranges from 900 deg.
+C. to 1250 deg. C., the usual temperature being about 1050 deg. C. for ordinary
+bricks. As before mentioned, lime-clays require a higher firing temperature
+(usually about 1150 deg. C. to 1200 deg. C.) in order to bring the lime into
+chemical combination with the other substances present.
+
+It is evident that the best method of firing bricks is to place them in
+permanent kilns, but although such kilns were used by the Romans some 2000
+years ago, the older method of firing in "clamps" is still employed in the
+smaller brickfields, in every country where bricks are made. These clamps
+are formed by arranging the unfired bricks in a series of rows or walls,
+placed fairly closely together, so as to form a rectangular stack. A
+certain number of channels, or firemouths, are formed in the bottom of the
+clamp; and fine coal is spread in horizontal layers between the bricks
+during the building up of the stack. Fires are kindled in the fire-mouths,
+and the clamp is allowed to go on burning until the fuel is consumed
+throughout. The clamp is then allowed to cool, after which it is taken
+down, and the bricks sorted; those that are under-fired being built up
+again in the next clamp for refiring. Sometimes the clamp takes the form of
+a temporary kiln, the outside being built of burnt bricks which are
+plastered over with clay, and the fire-mouths being larger and more
+carefully formed. There are many other local modifications in the manner of
+building up the clamps, all with the object of producing a large percentage
+of well-fired bricks. Clamp-firing is slow, and also uneconomical, because
+irregular and not sufficiently under control; and it is now only employed
+where bricks are made on a small scale.
+
+Brick-kilns are of many forms, but they can all be grouped under two main
+types--Intermittent kilns and Continuous kilns. The intermittent kiln is
+usually circular in plan, being in the form of a vertical cylinder with a
+domed top. It consists of a single firing-chamber in which the unfired
+bricks are placed, and in the walls of which are contrived a number of
+fire-mouths where wood or coal is burned. In the older forms known as
+_up-draught_ kilns, the products of combustion pass from the fire-mouth,
+through flues, into the bottom of the firing-chamber, and thence directly
+upwards and out at the top. The modern plan is to introduce the products of
+combustion near the top, or crown, of the kiln, and to draw them downwards
+through holes in the bottom which lead to flues connected with an
+independent chimney. These _down-draught_ kilns have short chimneys or
+"bags" built round the inside wall in connexion with the fire-mouths, which
+conduct the flames to the upper part of the firing-chamber, where they are
+reverberated and passed down through the bricks in obedience to the pull of
+the chimney. The "bags" may be joined together, forming an inner circular
+wall entirely round the firing-chamber, except at the doorway; and a number
+of kilns may be built in a row or group having their bottom flues connected
+with the same tall chimney. Down-draught kilns usually give a more regular
+fire and a higher percentage of well-fired bricks; and they are more
+economical in fuel consumption than up-draught kilns, while the hot gases,
+as they pass from the kiln, may be utilized for drying purposes, being
+conducted through flues under the floor of the drying-shed, on their way to
+the chimney. The method of using one tall chimney to work a group of
+down-draught kilns naturally led to the invention of the "continuous" kiln,
+which is really made up of a number of separate kilns or firing-chambers,
+built in series and connected up to the main flue of the chimney in such a
+manner that the products of combustion from one kiln may be made to pass
+through a number of other kilns before entering the flue. The earliest form
+of continuous kiln was invented by Friedrich Hoffman, and all kilns of this
+type are built on the Hoffman principle, although there are a great number
+of modifications of the original Hoffman construction. The great principle
+of "continuous" firing is the utilization of the waste heat from one kiln
+or section of a kiln in heating up another kiln or section, direct firing
+being applied only to finish the burning. In practice a number of kilns or
+firing-chambers, usually rectangular in plan, are built side by side in two
+parallel lines, which are connected at the ends by other kilns so as to
+make a complete circuit. The original form of the complete series was
+elliptical in plan, but the tendency in recent years has been to flatten
+the sides of the ellipse and bring them together, thus giving two parallel
+rows joined at the ends by a chamber or passage at right angles. Coal or
+gas is burnt in the chamber or section that is being fired-up, the air
+necessary for the combustion being heated on its passage through the kilns
+that are cooling down, and the products of combustion, before entering the
+chimney flue, are drawn through a number of other kilns or chambers
+containing unfired bricks, which are thus gradually heated up by the
+otherwise waste-heat from the sections being fired. Continuous kilns
+produce a more evenly fired product than the intermittent kilns usually do,
+and, of course, at much less cost for fuel. Gas firing is now being
+extensively applied to continuous kilns, natural gas in some instances
+being used in the United States of America; and the methods of construction
+and of firing are carried out with greater care and intelligence, the prime
+objects being economy of fuel and perfect control of firing. Pyrometers are
+coming into use for the control of the firing temperature, with the result
+that a constant and trustworthy product is turned put. The introduction of
+machinery greatly helped the brickmaking industry in opening up new sources
+of supply of raw material in the shales and hardened clays of the
+sedimentary deposits of the older geologic formations, and, with the
+extended use of continuous firing plants, it has led to the establishment
+of large concerns where everything is co-ordinated for the production of
+enormous quantities of bricks at a minimum cost. In the United Kingdom, and
+still more in Germany and the United States of America, great improvements
+have been made in machinery, firing-plant and organization, so that the
+whole manufacture is now being conducted on more scientific lines, to the
+great advantage of the industry.
+
+_Blue Brick_ is a very strong vitreous brick of dark, slaty-blue colour,
+used in engineering works where great strength or impermeability is
+desirable. These bricks are made of clay containing front 7 to 10% of oxide
+of iron, and their manufacture is carried out in the ordinary way until the
+later stages of the firing process, when they are subjected to the strongly
+reducing action of a smoky atmosphere, which is produced by throwing small
+bituminous coal upon the fire-mouths and damping down the admission of air.
+The smoke thus produced reduces the red ferric oxide to blue-green ferrous
+oxide, or to metallic iron, which combines with the silica present to form
+a fusible ferrous silicate. This fusible "slag" partly combines with the
+other silicates present, and partly fills up the pores, and so produces a
+vitreous impermeable layer varying in thickness according to the duration
+and character of the smoking, the finishing temperature of the kiln and the
+texture of the brick. Particles of carbon penetrate the surface during the
+early stages of the smoking, and a small quantity of carbon probably enters
+into combination, tending to produce a harder surface and darker colour.
+
+_Floating Bricks_ were first mentioned by Strabo, the Greek geographer, and
+afterwards by Pliny as being made at Pitane in the Troad. The secret of
+their manufacture was lost for many centuries, but was rediscovered in 1791
+by Fabroni, an Italian, who made them from the fossil meal (diatomaceous
+earth) found in Tuscany. These bricks are very light, fairly strong, and
+being poor conductors of heat, have been employed for the construction of
+powder-magazines on board ship, &c.
+
+_Mortar Bricks_ belong to the class of unburnt bricks, and are, strictly
+speaking, blocks of artificial stone made in brick moulds. These bricks
+have been made for many years by moulding a mixture of sand and slaked lime
+and allowing the blocks thus made to harden in the air. This hardening is
+brought about partly by evaporation of the water, but chiefly by the
+conversion of the calcium hydrate, or slaked lime, into calcium carbonate
+by the action of the carbonic acid in the atmosphere. A small proportion of
+the lime enters into combination with the silica and water present to form
+hydrated calcium silicate, and probably a little hydrated basic carbonate
+of lime is also formed, both of which substances are in the nature of
+cement. This process of natural hardening by exposure to the air was a very
+long one, occupying from six to eighteen months, and many improvements were
+introduced during the latter half of the 19th century to improve the
+strength of the bricks and to hasten the hardening. [v.04 p.0521] Mixtures
+of sand, lime and cement (and of certain ground blast-furnace slags and
+lime) were introduced; the moulding was done under hydraulic presses and
+the bricks afterwards treated with carbon dioxide under pressure, with or
+without the application of mild heat. Some of these mixtures and methods
+are still in use, but a new type of mortar brick has come into use during
+recent years which has practically superseded the old mortar brick.
+
+_Sand-lime Bricks_.--In the early 'eighties of the 19th century, Dr
+Michaelis of Berlin patented a new process for hardening blocks made of a
+mixture of sand and lime by treating them with high-pressure steam for a
+few hours, and the so-called _sand-lime_ bricks are now made on a very
+extensive scale in many countries. There are many differences of detail in
+the manufacture, but the general method is in all cases the same. Dry sand
+is intimately mixed with about one-tenth of its weight of powdered slaked
+lime, the mixture is then slightly moistened with water and afterwards
+moulded into bricks under powerful presses, capable of exerting a pressure
+of about 60 tons per sq. in. After removal from the press the bricks are
+immediately placed in huge steel cylinders usually 60 to 80 ft. long and
+about 7 ft. in diameter, and are there subjected to the action of
+high-pressure steam (120 lb to 150 lb per sq. in.) for from ten to fifteen
+hours. The proportion of slaked lime to sand varies according to the nature
+of the lime and the purity and character of the sand, one of lime to ten of
+sand being a fair average. The following is an analysis of a typical German
+sand-lime brick: silica (SiO_2), 84%; lime (CaO), 7%; alumina and oxide of
+iron, 2%; water, magnesia and alkalis, 7%. Under the action of the
+high-pressure steam the lime attacks the particles of sand, and a chemical
+compound of water, lime and silica is produced which forms a strong bond
+between the larger particles of sand. This bond of hydrated calcium
+silicate is evidently different from, and of better type than, the filling
+of calcium carbonate produced in the mortar-brick, and the sand-lime brick
+is consequently much stronger than the ordinary mortar-brick, however the
+latter may be made. The sand-lime brick is simple in manufacture, and with
+reasonable care is of constant quality. It is usually of a light-grey
+colour, but may be stained by the addition of suitable colouring oxides or
+pigments unaffected by lime and the conditions of manufacture.
+
+_Strength of Brick._--The following figures indicate the crushing load for
+bricks of various types in tons per sq. in.:--
+
+  Common hand-made                from 0.4 to 0.9
+  "      machine-made               "  0.9 "  1.2
+  London stock                      "  0.7 "  1.3
+  Staffordshire blue                "  2.8 "  3.3
+  Sand-lime                         "  2.9 "  3.4
+
+See also BRICKWORK.
+
+(J. B.*; W. B.*)
+
+[1] The term "marl" has been wrongly applied to many fire-clays. It should
+be restricted to natural mixtures of clay and chalk such as those of the
+Paris and London basins.
+
+BRICKFIELDER, a term used in Australia for a hot scorching wind blowing
+from the interior, where the sandy wastes, bare of vegetation in summer,
+are intensely heated by the sun. This hot wind blows strongly, often for
+several days at a time, defying all attempts to keep the dust down, and
+parching all vegetation. It is in one sense a healthy wind, as, being
+exceedingly dry and hot, it destroys many injurious germs of disease. The
+northern brickfielder is almost invariably followed by a strong "southerly
+buster," cloudy and cool from the ocean. The two winds are due to the same
+cause, viz. a cyclonic system over the Australian Bight. These systems
+frequently extend inland as a narrow V-shaped depression (the apex
+northward), bringing the winds from the north on their eastern sides and
+from the south on their western. Hence as the narrow system passes eastward
+the wind suddenly changes from north to south, and the thermometer has been
+known to fall fifteen degrees in twenty minutes.
+
+BRICKWORK, in building, the term applied to constructions made of bricks.
+The tools and implements employed by the bricklayer are:--the trowel for
+spreading the mortar; the plumb-rule to keep the work perpendicular, or in
+the case of an inclined or battering wall, to a regular batter, for the
+plumb-rule may be made to suit any required inclination; the spirit-level
+to keep the work horizontal, often used in conjunction with a straight-edge
+in order to test a greater length; and the gauge-rod with the brick-courses
+marked on it. The quoins or angles are first built up with the aid of the
+gauge-rod, and the intermediate work is kept regular by means of the line
+and line pins fixed in the joints. The raker, jointer, pointing rule and
+Frenchman are used in pointing joints, the pointing staff being held on a
+small board called the hawk. For roughly cutting bricks the large trowel is
+used; for neater work such as facings, the bolster and club-hammer; the
+cold chisel is for general cutting away, and for chases and holes. When
+bricks require to be cut, the work is set out with the square, bevel and
+compasses. If the brick to be shaped is a hard one it is placed on a
+V-shaped cutting block, an incision made where desired with the tin saw,
+and after the bolster and club-hammer have removed the portion of the
+brick, the scutch, really a small axe, is used to hack off the rough parts.
+For cutting soft bricks, such as rubbers and malms, a frame saw with a
+blade of soft iron wire is used, and the face is brought to a true surface
+on the rubbing stone, a slab of Yorkshire stone.
+
+In ordinary practice a scaffold is carried up with the walls and made to
+rest on them. Having built up as high as he can reach from the ground, the
+scaffolder erects a scaffold with standards, ledgers and putlogs to carry
+the scaffold boards (see SCAFFOLD, SCAFFOLDING). Bricks are carried to the
+scaffold on a hod which holds twenty bricks, or they may be hoisted in
+baskets or boxes by means of a pulley and fall, or may be raised in larger
+numbers by a crane. The mortar is taken up in a hod or hoisted in pails and
+deposited on ledged boards about 3 ft. square, placed on the scaffold at
+convenient distances apart along the line of work. The bricks are piled on
+the scaffold between the mortar boards, leaving a clear way against the
+wall for the bricklayers to move along. The workman, beginning at the
+extreme left of his section, or at a quoin, advances to the right,
+carefully keeping to his line and frequently testing his work with the
+plumb-rule, spirit-level and straight-edge, until he reaches another angle,
+or the end of his section. The pointing is sometimes finished off as the
+work proceeds, but in other cases the joints are left open until the
+completion, when the work is pointed down, perhaps in a different mortar.
+When the wall has reached a height from the scaffold beyond which the
+workman cannot conveniently reach, the scaffolding is raised and the work
+continued in this manner from the new level.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+It is most important that the brickwork be kept perfectly plumb, and that
+every course be perfectly horizontal or level, both longitudinally and
+transversely. Strictest attention should be paid to the levelling of the
+lowest course of footings of a wall, for any irregularity will necessitate
+the inequality being made up with mortar in the courses above, thus
+inducing a liability for the wall to settle unequally, and so perpetuate
+the infirmity. To save the trouble of keeping the plumb-rule and level
+constantly in his hands and yet ensure correct work, the bricklayer, on
+clearing the footings of a wall, builds up six or eight courses of bricks
+at the external angles (see fig. 1), which he carefully plumbs and levels
+across. These form a gauge for the intervening work, a line being tightly
+strained between and fixed with steel pins to each angle at a level with
+the top of the next course to be laid, and with this he makes his work
+range. If, however, the length between the quoins be great, the line will
+of course sag, and it must, therefore, be carefully supported at intervals
+to the proper level. Care must be taken to keep the "perpends," or vertical
+joints, one immediately over the other. Having been carried up three or
+four courses to a level with the guidance of the line which is raised
+course by course, the work should be proved with the level and plumb-rule,
+particularly with the latter at the quoins and reveals, as well as over the
+face. A smart tap with the end of the handle of the trowel will suffice to
+make a brick yield what little it may be out of truth, while the work is
+green, and not injure it. The work of an efficient craftsman, however, will
+need but little adjustment.
+
+For every wall of more than one brick (9 in) thick, two men should be
+employed at the same time, one on the outside and the [v.04 p.0522] other
+inside; one man cannot do justice from one side to even a 14-in. wall. When
+the wall can be approached from one side only, the work is said to be
+executed "overhand." In work circular on plan, besides the level and
+plumb-rule, a gauge mould or template, or a ranging trammel--a rod working
+on a pivot at the centre of the curve, and in length equalling the
+radius--must be used for every course, as it is evident that the line and
+pins cannot be applied to this in the manner just described.
+
+Bricks should not be merely _laid_, but each should be placed frog upwards,
+and rubbed and pressed firmly down in such a manner as to secure absolute
+adhesion, and force the mortar into joints. Every brick should be well
+wetted before it is laid, especially in hot dry weather, in order to wash
+off the dust from its surface, and to obtain more complete adhesion, and
+prevent it from absorbing water from the mortar in which it is bedded. The
+bricks are wetted either by the bricklayer dipping them in water as he uses
+them, or by water being thrown or sprinkled on them as they lie piled on
+the scaffold. In bricklaying with quick-setting cements an ample use of
+water is of even more importance.
+
+All the walls of a building that are to sustain the same floors and the
+same roof, should be carried up simultaneously; in no circumstances should
+more be done in one part than can be reached from the same scaffold, until
+all the walls are brought up to the same height. Where it is necessary for
+any reason to leave a portion of the wall at a certain level while carrying
+up the adjoining work the latter should be racked back, i.e. left in steps
+as shown in fig. 7, and not carried up vertically with merely the toothing
+necessary for the bond.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Section of a Hollow Wall.]
+
+Buildings in exposed situations are frequently built with cavity-walls,
+consisting of the inside or main walls with an outer skin [Sidenote: Hollow
+walls.] usually half a brick thick, separated from the former by a cavity
+of 2 or 3 in. (fig. 2). The two walls are tied together at frequent
+intervals by iron or stoneware ties, each having a bend or twist in the
+centre, which prevents the transmission of water to the inner wall. All
+water, therefore, which penetrates the outer wall drops to the base of the
+cavity, and trickles out through gratings provided for the purpose a few
+inches above the ground level. The base of the cavity should be taken down
+a course or two below the level of the damp-proof course. The ties are
+placed about 3 ft. apart horizontally, with 12 or 18 in. vertical
+intervals; they are about 8 in. long and 3/4 in. wide. It is considered
+preferable by some architects and builders to place the thicker wall on the
+outside. This course, however, allows the main wall to be attacked by the
+weather, whereas the former method provides for its protection by a screen
+of brickwork. Where door and window frames occur in hollow walls, it is of
+the utmost importance that a proper lead or other flashing be built in,
+shaped so as to throw off on each side, clear of the frames and main wall,
+the water which may penetrate the outer shell. While building the wall it
+is very essential to ensure that the cavity and ties be kept clean and free
+from rubbish or mortar, and for this purpose a wisp of straw or a narrow
+board, is laid on the ties where the bricklayer is working, to catch any
+material that may be inadvertently dropped, this protection being raised as
+the work proceeds. A hollow wall tends to keep the building dry internally
+and the temperature equable, but it has the disadvantage of harbouring
+vermin, unless care be taken to ensure their exclusion. The top of the wall
+is usually sealed with brickwork to prevent vermin or rubbish finding its
+way into the cavity. Air gratings should be introduced here to allow of air
+circulating through the cavity; they also facilitate drying out after rain.
+
+Hollow walls are not much used in London for two reasons, the first being
+that, owing to the protection from the weather afforded by surrounding
+buildings, one of the main reasons for their use is gone, and the other
+that the expense is greatly increased, owing to the authorities ignoring
+the outer shell and requiring the main wall to be of the full thickness
+stipulated in schedule I. of London Building Act 1894. Many English
+provincial authorities in determining the thickness of a cavity-wall, take
+the outer portion into consideration.
+
+In London and the surrounding counties, brickwork is measured by the _rod_
+of 161/2 ft. square, 11/2 bricks in thickness. A rod of brickwork [Sidenote:
+Materials and labour.] gauged four courses to a foot with bricks 83/4 in.
+long, 41/4 in. wide, and 23/4 in thick, and joints 1/4 in. in thickness, will
+require 4356 bricks, and the number will vary as the bricks are above or
+below the average size, and as the joints are made thinner or thicker. The
+quantity of mortar, also, will evidently be affected by the latter
+consideration, but in London it is generally reckoned at 50 cub. ft. for a
+1/4-in. joint, to 72 cub. ft. for a joint 3/8 in. thick. To these figures
+must be added an allowance of about 11 cub. ft. if the bricks are formed
+with frogs or hollows. Bricks weigh about 7 lb each; they are bought and
+sold by the thousand, which quantity weighs about 62 cwt. The weight of a
+rod of brickwork is 131/2-15 tons, work in cement mortar being heavier than
+that executed in lime. Seven bricks are required to face a sq. ft.; 1 ft.
+of reduced brickwork--11/2 bricks thick--will require 16 bricks. The number
+of bricks laid by a workman in a day of eight hours varies considerably
+with the description of work, but on straight walling a man will lay an
+average of 500 in a day.
+
+The absorbent properties of bricks vary considerably with the kind of
+brick. The ordinary London stock of good quality should [Sidenote:
+Varieties of bricks.] not have absorbed, after twenty-four hours' soaking,
+more than one-fifth of its bulk. Inferior bricks will absorb as much as a
+third. The Romans were great users of bricks, both burnt and sun-dried. At
+the decline of the Roman empire, the art of brickmaking fell into disuse,
+but after the lapse of some centuries it was revived, and the ancient
+architecture of Italy shows many fine examples of brick and terra-cotta
+work. The scarcity of stone in the Netherlands led to the development of a
+brick architecture, and fine examples of brickwork abound in the Low
+Countries. The Romans seem to have introduced brickmaking into England, and
+specimens of the large thin bricks, which they used chiefly as a bond for
+rubble masonry, may be seen in the many remains of Roman buildings
+scattered about that country. During the reigns of the early Tudor kings
+the art of brickmaking arrived at great perfection, and some of the finest
+known specimens of ornamental brickwork are to be found among the work of
+this period. The rebuilding of London after the Great Fire of 1666 gave
+considerable impetus to brickmaking, most of the new buildings being of
+brick, and a statute was passed regulating the number of bricks in the
+thickness of the walls of the several rates of dwelling-houses.
+
+The many names given to the different qualities of bricks in various parts
+of Great Britain are most confusing, but the following are those generally
+in use:--
+
+_Stocks_, hard, sound, well-burnt bricks, used for all ordinary purposes.
+
+_Hard Stocks,_ sound but over-burnt, used in footings to walls and other
+positions where good appearance is not required.
+
+_Shippers_, sound, hard-burnt bricks of imperfect shape. Obtain their name
+from being much used as ballast for ships.
+
+_Rubbers_ or _Cutters_, sandy in composition and suitable for cutting with
+a wire saw and rubbing to shape on the stone slab.
+
+_Grizzles_, sound and of fair shape, but under-burnt; used for inferior
+work, and in cases where they are not liable to be heavily loaded.
+
+_Place-bricks_, under-burnt and defective; used for temporary work.
+
+_Chuffs_, cracked and defective in shape and badly burnt. [v.04 p.0523]
+_Burrs_, lumps which have vitrified or run together in the burning; used
+for rough walling, garden work, &c.
+
+_Pressed bricks_, moulded under hydraulic pressure, and much used for
+facing work. They usually have a deep frog or hollow on one or both
+horizontal faces, which reduces the weight of the brick and forms an
+excellent key for the mortar.
+
+_Blue bricks_, chiefly made in South Staffordshire and North Wales. They
+are used in engineering work, and where great compressional resistance is
+needed, as they are vitrified throughout, hard, heavy, impervious and very
+durable. Blue bricks of special shape may be had for paving, channelling
+and coping.
+
+_Fire-bricks_, withstanding great heat, used in connexion with furnaces.
+They should always be laid with fire-clay in place of lime or cement
+mortar.
+
+_Glazed bricks_, either salt-glazed or enamelled. The former, brown in
+colour, are glazed by throwing salt on the bricks in the kiln. The latter
+are dipped into a slip of the required colour before being burnt, and are
+used for decorative and sanitary purposes, and where reflected light is
+required.
+
+_Moulded bricks_, for cornices, string courses, plinths, labels and
+copings. They are made in the different classes to many patterns; and on
+account of their greater durability, and the saving of the labour of
+cutting, are preferable in many cases to rubbers. For sewer work and
+arches, bricks shaped as voussoirs are supplied.
+
+The strength of brickwork varies very considerably according to the kind of
+brick used, the position in which it is used, the kind and [Sidenote:
+Strength of brickwork.] quality of the lime or cement mortar, and above all
+the quality of the workmanship. The results of experiments with short walls
+carried out in 1896-1897 by the Royal Institute of British Architects to
+determine the average loads per sq. ft. at which crushing took place, may
+be briefly summarized as follows: Stock brickwork in lime mortar crushed
+under a pressure of 18.63 tons per sq. ft., and in cement mortar under
+39.29 tons per sq. ft. Gault brickwork in lime mortar crushed at 31.14
+tons, and in cement mortar at 51.34 tons. Fletton brickwork in lime crushed
+under a load of 30.68 tons, in cement under 56.25 tons. Leicester red
+brickwork in lime mortar crushed at 45.36 tons per sq. ft., in cement
+mortar at 83.36 tons. Staffordshire blue brick work in lime mortar crushed
+at 114.34 tons, and in cement mortar at 135.43 tons.
+
+The height of a brick pier should not exceed twelve times its least width.
+The London Building Act in the first schedule prescribes that in buildings
+not public, or of the warehouse class, in no storey shall any external or
+party walls exceed in height sixteen times the thickness. In buildings of
+the warehouse class, the height of these walls shall not exceed fourteen
+times the thickness.
+
+In exposed situations it is necessary to strengthen the buildings by
+increasing the thickness of walls and parapets, and to provide heavier
+copings and flashings. Special precautions, too, must be observed in the
+fixing of copings, chimney pots, ridges and hips. The greatest wind
+pressure experienced in England may be taken at 56 lb on a sq. ft., but
+this is only in the most exposed positions in the country or on a sea
+front. Forty pounds is a sufficient allowance in most cases, and where
+there is protection by surrounding trees or buildings 28 lb per sq. ft. is
+all that needs to be provided against.
+
+In mixing mortar, particular attention must be paid to the sand with which
+the lime or cement is mixed. The best sand is that [Sidenote: Mortar.]
+obtained from the pit, being sharp and angular. It is, however, liable to
+be mixed with clay or earth, which must be washed away before the sand is
+used. Gravel found mixed with it must be removed by screening or sifting.
+River sand is frequently used, but is not so good as pit sand on account of
+the particles being rubbed smooth by attrition. Sea sand is objectionable
+for two reasons; it cannot be altogether freed from a saline taint, and if
+it is used the salt attracts moisture and is liable to keep the brickwork
+permanently damp. The particles, moreover, are generally rounded by
+attrition, caused by the movement of the sea, which makes it less efficient
+for mortar than if they retained their original angular forms. Blue or
+black mortar, often used for pointing the joints of external brickwork on
+account of its greater durability, is made by using foundry sand or smith's
+ashes instead of ordinary sand. There are many other substitutes for the
+ordinary sand. As an example, fine stone grit may be used with advantage.
+Thoroughly burnt clay or ballast, old bricks, clinkers and cinders, ground
+to a uniform size and screened from dust, also make excellent substitutes.
+
+Fat limes (that is, limes which are pure, as opposed to "hydraulic" limes
+which are burnt from limestone containing some clay) should not be used for
+mortar; they are slow-setting, and there is a liability for some of the
+mortar, where there is not a free access of air to assist the setting,
+remaining soft for some considerable period, often months, thus causing
+unequal settlement and possibly failure. Grey stone lime is feebly
+hydraulic, and makes a good mortar for ordinary work. It, however, decays
+under the influence of the weather, and it is, therefore, advisable to
+point the external face of the work in blue ash or cement mortar, in order
+to obtain greater durability. It should never be used in foundation work,
+or where exposed to wet. Lias lime is hydraulic, that is, it will set firm
+under water. It should be used in all good class work, where Portland
+cement is not desired.
+
+Of the various cements used in building, it is necessary only to mention
+three as being applicable to use for mortar. The first of these is Portland
+cement, which has sprung into very general use, not only for work where
+extra strength and durability are required, and for underground work, but
+also in general building where a small extra cost is not objected to.
+Ordinary lime mortar may have its strength considerably enhanced by the
+addition of a small proportion of Portland cement. Roman cement is rarely
+used for mortar, but is useful in some cases on account of the rapidity
+with which it sets, usually becoming hard about fifteen minutes after
+mixing. It is useful in tidal work and embankments, and constructions under
+water. It has about one-third of the strength of Portland cement, by which
+it is now almost entirely supplanted. Selenitic cement or lime, invented by
+Major-General H. Y. D. Scott (1822-1883), is lias lime, to which a small
+proportion of plaster of Paris has been added with the object of
+suppressing the action of slaking and inducing quicker setting. If
+carefully mixed in accordance with the instructions issued by the
+manufacturers, it will take a much larger proportion of sand than ordinary
+lime.
+
+Lime should be slaked before being made into mortar. The lime is measured
+out, deposited in a heap on a wooden "bank" or platform, and after being
+well watered is covered with the correct proportion of sand. This retains
+the heat and moisture necessary to thorough slaking; the time required for
+this operation depends on the variety of the lime, but usually it is from a
+few hours to one and a half days. If the mixing is to be done by hand the
+materials must be screened to remove any unslaked lumps of lime. The
+occurrence of these may be prevented by grinding the lime shortly before
+use. The mass should then be well "larried," _i.e._ mixed together with the
+aid of a long-handled rake called the "larry." Lime mortar should be
+tempered for at least two days, roughly covered up with sacks or other
+material. Before being used it must be again turned over and well mixed
+together. Portland and Roman cement mortars must be mixed as required on
+account of their quick-setting properties. In the case of Portland cement
+mortar, a quantity sufficient only for the day's use should be "knocked
+up," but with Roman cement fresh mixtures must be made several times a day,
+as near as possible to the place of using. Cement mortars should never be
+worked up after setting has taken place. Care should be taken to obtain the
+proper consistency, which is a stiff paste. If the mortar be too thick,
+extra labour is involved in its use, and much time wasted. If it be so thin
+as to run easily from the trowel, a longer time is taken in setting, and
+the wall is liable to settle; also there is danger that the lime or cement
+will be killed by the excess of water, or at least have its binding power
+affected. It is not advisable to carry out work when the temperature is
+below freezing point, but in urgent cases bricklaying may be successfully
+done by using unslaked lime mortar. The mortar must be prepared in small
+quantities immediately before being used, so that binding action takes
+place before it cools. When the wall is left at night time the top course
+should be covered up to prevent the penetration of rain into the work,
+which would then be destroyed by the action of frost. Bricks used during
+frosty weather should be quite dry, and those that have been exposed to
+rain or frost should never be employed. The question whether there is any
+limit to bricklayers' work in frost is still an open one. Among the members
+of the Norwegian Society of Engineers and Architects, at whose meetings the
+subject has been frequently discussed, that limit is variously estimated at
+between -6 deg. to -8 deg. Reaumur (181/2 deg. to 14 deg. Fahr.) and -12 deg. to -15 deg. Reaumur (5 deg.
+above to 13/4 deg. below zero Fahr.). It has been proved by hydraulic tests that
+good bricklayers' work can be executed at the latter minimum. The
+conviction is held that the variations in the opinions held on this subject
+are attributable to the degree of care bestowed on the preparation of the
+mortar. It is generally agreed, however, that from a practical point of
+view, bricklaying should not be carried on at temperatures lower than -8 deg.
+to -10 deg. Reaumur (14 deg. to 91/2 deg. Fahr.), for as the thermometer falls the
+expense of building is greatly increased, owing to a larger proportion of
+lime being required.
+
+For grey lime mortar the usual proportion is one part of lime to two or
+three parts of sand; lias lime mortar is mixed in similar proportions,
+except for work below ground, when equal quantities of lime and sand should
+be used. Portland cement mortar is usually in the proportions of one to
+three, or five, of sand; good results are obtained with lime mortar
+fortified with cement as follows:--one part slaked lime, one part Portland
+cement, and seven parts sand. Roman cement mortar should consist of one or
+one and a half parts of cement to one part of sand. Selenitic lime mortar
+is usually in the proportions of one to four or five, and must be mixed in
+a particular manner, the lime being first ground in water in the mortar
+mill, and the sand gradually added. Blue or black mortar contains equal
+parts of foundry ashes and lime; but is improved by the addition of a
+proportion of cement. For setting fire-bricks fire-clay is always used.
+Pargetting for rendering inside chimney flues is made of one part of lime
+with three parts of cow dung free from straw or litter. No efficient
+substitute has been found for this mixture, which should be used fresh. A
+mortar that has found approval for tall chimney shafts is composed by
+grinding in a mortar-mill one part of blue lias lime with one part each of
+sand and foundry ashes. In the external walls of the Albert Hall the mortar
+used was one part Portland cement, one part grey Burham lime and six parts
+pit sand. The lime was slaked twenty-four hours, and after being mixed
+[v.04 p.0524] with the sand for ten minutes the cement was added and the
+whole ground for one minute; the stuff was prepared in quantities only
+sufficient for immediate use. The by-laws dated 1891, made by the London
+County Council under section 16 of the Metropolis Management and Building
+Acts Amendment Act 1878, require the proportions of lime mortar to be one
+to three of sand or grit, and for cement mortar one to four. Clean soft
+water only should be used for the purpose of making mortar.
+
+_Grout_ is thin liquid mortar, and is legitimately used in gauged arches
+and other work when fine joints are desired. In ordinary work it is
+sometimes used every four or five courses to fill up any spaces that may
+have been inadvertently left between the bricks. This at the best is but
+doing with grout what should be done with mortar in the operation of laying
+the bricks; and filling or flushing up every course with mortar requires
+but little additional exertion and is far preferable. The use of grout is,
+therefore, a sign of inefficient workmanship, and should not be
+countenanced in good work. It is liable, moreover, to ooze out and stain
+the face of the brickwork.
+
+_Lime putty_ is pure slaked lime. It is prepared or "run," as it is termed,
+in a wooden tub or bin, and should be made as long a time as possible
+before being used; at least three weeks should elapse between preparation
+and use.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Forms of Joints.]
+
+The pointing of a wall, as previously mentioned, is done either with the
+bricklaying or at the completion of the work. If the [Sidenote: Pointing.]
+pointing is to be of the same mortar as the rest of the work, it would
+probably greatly facilitate matters to finish off the work at one operation
+with the bricklaying, but where, as in many cases, the pointing is required
+to be executed in a more durable mortar, this would be done as the scaffold
+is taken down at the completion of the building, the joints being raked out
+by the bricklayer to a depth of 1/2 or 3/4 in. By the latter method the whole
+face of the work is kept uniform in appearance. The different forms of
+joints in general use are clearly shown in fig. 3. Flat or flush joints (A)
+are formed by pressing the protruding mortar back flush with the face of
+the brickwork. This joint is commonly used for walls intended to be coated
+with distemper or limewhite. The flat joint jointed (two forms, B and C) is
+a development of the flush joint. In order to increase the density and
+thereby enhance the durability of the mortar, a semicircular groove is
+formed along the centre, or one on each side of the joint, with an iron
+jointer and straight-edge. Another form, rarely used, is the keyed joint
+shown at D, the whole width of the joint in this case being treated with
+the curved key. Struck or bevelled, or weathered, joints have the upper
+portion pressed back with the trowel to form a sloping surface, which
+throws off the wet. The lower edge is cut off with the trowel to a straight
+edge. This joint is in very common use for new work. Ignorant workmen
+frequently make the slope in the opposite direction (F), thus forming a
+ledge on the brick; this catches the water, which on being frozen rapidly
+causes the disintegration of the upper portion of the brick and of the
+joint itself. With recessed jointing, not much used, a deep shadow may be
+obtained. This form of joint, illustrated in G, is open to very serious
+objections, for it encourages the soaking of the brick with rain instead of
+throwing off the wet, as it seems the natural function of good pointing,
+and this, besides causing undue dampness in the wall, renders it liable to
+damage by frost. It also leaves the arrises of the bricks unprotected and
+liable to be damaged, and from its deep recessed form does not make for
+stability in the work. Gauged work has very thin joints, as shown at H,
+formed by dipping the side of the brick in white lime putty. The sketch I
+shows a joint raked out and filled in with pointing mortar to form a flush
+joint, or it may be finished in any of the preceding forms. Where the wall
+is to be plastered the joints are either left open or raked out, or the
+superfluous mortar may be left protruding as shown at J. By either method
+an excellent key is obtained, to which the rendering firmly adheres. In
+tuck pointing (K) the joints are raked out and stopped, i.e. filled in
+flush with mortar coloured to match the brickwork. The face of the wall is
+then rubbed over with a soft brick of the same colour, or the work may be
+coloured with pigment. A narrow groove is then cut in the joints, and the
+mortar allowed to set. White lime putty is next filled into the groove,
+being pressed on with a jointing tool, leaving a white joint 1/8 to 1/4 in.
+wide, and with a projection of about 1/16 in. beyond the face of the work.
+This method is not a good or a durable one, and should only be adopted in
+old work when the edges of the bricks are broken or irregular. In bastard
+tuck pointing (L), the ridge, instead of being in white lime putty, is
+formed of the stopping mortar itself.
+
+Footings, as will be seen on reference to fig. 1, are the wide courses of
+brickwork at the base or foot of a wall. They serve to spread [Sidenote:
+Footings.] the pressure over a larger area of ground, offsets 21/4 in. wide
+being made on each side of the wall until a width equal to double the
+thickness of the wall is reached. Thus in a wall 131/2 in. (11/2 bricks) thick,
+this bottom course would be 2 ft. 3 in. (3 bricks) wide. It is preferable
+for greater strength to double the lowest course. The foundation bed of
+concrete then spreading out an additional 6 in. on each side brings the
+width of the surface bearing on the ground to 3 ft. 3 in. The London
+Building Act requires the projection of concrete on each side of the
+brickwork to be only 4 in., but a projection of 6 in. is generally made to
+allow for easy working. Footings should be built with hard bricks laid
+principally as headers; stretchers, if necessary, should be placed in the
+middle of the wall.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Diagram of Bonding.]
+
+Bond in brickwork is the arrangement by which the bricks of every course
+cover the joints of those in the course below it, and so [Sidenote:
+Bonding.] tend to make the whole mass or combination of bricks act as much
+together, or as dependently one upon another, as possible. The workmen
+should be strictly supervised as they proceed with the work, for many
+failures are due to their ignorance or carelessness in this particular. The
+object of bonding will be understood by reference to fig. 4. Here it is
+evident from the arrangement of the bricks that any weight placed on the
+topmost brick (a) is carried down and borne alike in every course; in this
+way the weight on each brick is distributed over an area increasing with
+every course. But this forms a longitudinal bond only, which cannot extend
+its influence beyond the width of the brick; and a wall of one brick and a
+half, or two bricks, thick, built in this manner, would in effect consist
+of three or four half brick thick walls acting independently of each other.
+If the bricks were turned so as to show their short sides or ends in front
+instead of their long ones, certainly a compact wall of a whole brick
+thick, instead of half a brick, would be produced, and while the thickness
+of the wall would be double, the longitudinal bond would be shortened by
+one-half: a wall of any great thickness built in this manner would
+necessarily be composed of so many independent one-brick walls. To produce
+a transverse and yet preserve a true longitudinal bond, the bricks are laid
+in a definite arrangement of stretchers and headers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--English Bond.
+
+In this and following illustration of bond in brickwork the position of
+bricks in the second course is indicated by dotted lines.]
+
+In "English bond" (fig. 5), rightly considered the most perfect in use, the
+bricks are laid in alternate courses of headers and stretchers, thus
+combining the advantages of the two previous modes of arrangement. A
+reference to fig. 5 will show how the process of bonding is pursued in a
+wall one and a half bricks in thickness, and how the quoins are formed. In
+walls which are a multiple of a whole brick, the appearance of the same
+course is similar on the elevations of the front and back faces, but in
+walls where an odd half brick must be used to make up the thickness, as is
+the case in the illustration, the appearance of the opposite sides of a
+course is inverted. The example illustrates the principle of English bond;
+thicker walls are constructed in the same manner by an extension of the
+same methods. It will be observed that portions of a brick have to be
+inserted near a vertical end or a quoin, in order to start the regular
+bond. These portions equal a half header in width, and are called queen
+closers; they are placed next to the first header. A three-quarter brick is
+obviously as available for this purpose as a header and closer combined,
+but the latter method is preferred because by the use of it uniformity of
+appearance is preserved, and whole bricks are retained on the returns. King
+closers are used at rebated openings formed in walls in Flemish bond, and
+by reason of the greater width of the back or "tail," add strength to the
+work. They are cut on the splay so that the front end is half the width of
+a header and one side half the length of the brick. An example of their use
+will be seen in fig. 15. In walls of almost all thicknesses above 9 in.,
+except in the [v.04 p.0525] English bond, to preserve the transverse and
+yet not destroy the longitudinal bond, it is frequently necessary to use
+half bricks. It may be taken as a general rule that a brick should never be
+cut if it can be worked in whole, for a new joint is thereby created in a
+construction, the difficulty of which consists in obviating the debility
+arising from the constant recurrence of joints. Great insistence must be
+laid on this point, especially at the junctions of walls, where the
+admission of closers already constitutes a weakness which would only be
+increased by the use of other bats or fragments of bricks.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Flemish Bond.]
+
+Another method of bonding brickwork, instead of placing the bricks in
+alternate courses of headers and stretchers, places them alternately as
+headers and stretchers in the same course, the appearance of the course
+being the same on each face. This is called "Flemish bond." Closers are
+necessary to this variety of bond. From fig. 6 it will be seen that, owing
+to the comparative weakness of the transverse tie, and the numbers of half
+bricks required to be used and the thereby increased number of joints, this
+bond is not so perfect nor so strong as English. The arrangements of the
+face joints, however, presenting in Flemish bond a neater appearance than
+in English bond, it is generally selected for the external walls of
+domestic and other buildings where good effect is desirable. In buildings
+erected for manufacturing and similar purposes, and in engineering works
+where the greatest degree of strength and compactness is considered of the
+highest importance, English bond should have the preference.
+
+A compromise is sometimes made between the two above-mentioned bonds. For
+the sake of appearance the bricks are laid to form Flemish bond on the
+face, while the backing is of English bond, the object being to combine the
+best features of the two bonds. Undoubtedly the result is an improvement on
+Flemish bond, obviating as it does the use of bats in the interior of the
+wall. This method of bonding is termed "single Flemish bond," and is shown
+in fig. 7.
+
+In stretching bond, which should only be used for walls half a brick in
+thickness, all the bricks are laid as stretchers, a half brick being used
+in alternate courses to start the bond. In work curved too sharply on plan
+to admit of the use of stretchers, and for footings, projecting mouldings
+and corbels, the bricks are all laid as headers, i.e. with their ends to
+the front, and their length across the thickness of the wall. This is
+termed "heading bond."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Single Flemish Bond.]
+
+In thick walls, three bricks thick and upwards, a saving of labour is
+effected without loss of strength, by the adoption of "herring bone" or
+"diagonal bond" in the interior of the wall, the outer faces of the wall
+being built in English and Flemish bond. This mode should not be had
+recourse to for walls of a less thickness than 27 in., even that being
+almost too thin to admit of any great advantage from it.
+
+Hoop-iron, about 11/2 in. wide and 1/16 in. thick, either galvanized or well
+tarred and sanded to retard rusting, is used in order to obtain additional
+longitudinal tie. The customary practice is to use one strip of iron for
+each half-brick in thickness of the wall. Joints at the angles, and where
+necessary in the length, are formed by bending the ends of the strips so as
+to hook together. A patent stabbed iron now on the market is perforated to
+provide a key for the mortar.
+
+A difficulty often arises in bonding when facing work with bricks of a
+slightly different size from those used in "backing," as it is technically
+termed. As it is, of course, necessary to keep all brickwork in properly
+levelled courses, a difference has to be made in the thickness of the
+mortar joints. Apart from the extra labour involved, this obviously is
+detrimental to the stability of the wall, and is apt to produce unequal
+settlement and cracking. Too much care cannot be taken to obtain both
+facing and backing bricks of equal size.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+
+Dishonest bricklayers do not hesitate, when using for the face of a wall
+bricks of a quality superior to those used for the interior, to use
+"snapped headers," that is cutting the heading bricks in halves, one brick
+thus serving the purposes of two as regards outward appearance. This is a
+most pernicious practice, unworthy of adoption by any craftsman of repute,
+for a skin of brickwork 41/2 in. thick is thus carried up with a straight
+mortar joint behind it, the proper bonding with the back of the wall by
+means of headers being destroyed.
+
+American building acts describe the kind of bond to be used for ordinary
+walls, and the kind for faced walls. Tie courses also require an extra
+thickness where walls are perforated with over 30% of flues.
+
+The importance for sanitary and other reasons of keeping walls dry is
+admitted by all who have observed the deleterious action of damp upon a
+building.
+
+Walls are liable to become damp, (1) by wet rising up the wall from the
+earth; (2) by water soaking down from the top of the [Sidenote: Prevention
+of damp.] wall; (3) by rain being driven on to the face by wind. Dampness
+from the first cause may be prevented by the introduction of damp-proof
+courses or the construction of dry areas; from the second by means of a
+coping of stone, cement or other non-porous material; and from the third by
+covering the exterior with impervious materials or by the adoption of
+hollow walls.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.]
+
+After the footings have been laid and the wall has been brought up to not
+less than 6 in. above the finished surface of the ground, and previous to
+fixing the plate carrying the ground floor, there should always be
+introduced a course of some damp-proof material to prevent the rise of
+moisture from the soil. There are several forms of damp-proof course. A
+very usual one is a double layer of roofing slates laid in neat Portland
+cement (fig. 8), the joints being well lapped. A course or two of
+Staffordshire blue bricks in cement is excellent where heavy weights have
+to be considered. Glazed stoneware perforated slabs about 2 in. thick are
+specially made for use as damp-proof courses. Asphalt (fig. 9) recently has
+come into great favour with architects; a layer 1/2 or 3/4 in. thick is a good
+protection against damp, and not likely to crack should a settlement occur,
+but in hot weather it is liable to squeeze out at the joints under heavy
+weights. Felt covered with bitumen is an excellent substitute for asphalt,
+and is not liable to crack or squeeze out. Sheet lead is efficient, but
+very costly and also somewhat liable to squeezing. A damp-proof course has
+been introduced consisting of a thin sheet of lead sandwiched between
+layers of asphalt. Basement storeys to be kept dry require, besides the
+damp-proof course horizontally in the wall, a horizontal course, usually of
+asphalt, in the thickness of the floor, and also a vertical damp-proof
+course from a level below that of the floor to about 6 in. above the level
+of the ground, either built in the thickness of the wall or rendered on the
+outside between the wall and the surrounding earth (fig. 10).
+
+By means of dry areas or air drains (figs. 11 and 12), a hollow [v.04
+p.0526] space 9 in. or more in width is formed around those portions of the
+walls situated below the ground, the object being to prevent them from
+coming into contact with the brickwork of the main walls and so imparting
+its moisture to the building. Arrangements should be made for keeping the
+area clear of vermin and for ventilating and draining it. Dry areas, being
+far from sanitary, are seldom adopted now, and are being superseded by
+asphalt or cement applied to the face of the wall.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.]
+
+Moisture is prevented from soaking down from the top of the wall by using a
+covering of some impervious material in the form of a coping. This may
+consist of ordinary bricks set on edge in cement with a double course of
+tiles immediately below, called a "creasing," or of specially made
+non-porous coping bricks, or of stone, cast-iron, or cement sloped or
+"weathered" in order to throw the rain off.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.]
+
+The exterior of walls above the ground line may be protected by coating the
+surface with cement or rough cast; or covering with slates or tiles fixed
+on battens in a similar manner to those on a roof (fig.13).
+
+The use of hollow walls in exposed positions has already been referred to.
+
+The by-laws dated 1891, made by the London County Council under section 16
+of the Metropolis Management and Buildings Acts Amendment Act 1878, require
+that "every wall of a house or building shall have a damp course composed
+of materials impervious to moisture approved by the district surveyor,
+extending throughout its whole thickness at the level of not less than 6
+in. below the level of the lowest floor. Every external wall or enclosing
+wall of habitable rooms or their appurtenances or cellars which abuts
+against the earth shall be protected by materials impervious to moisture to
+the satisfaction of the district surveyor..." "The top of every party-wall
+and parapet-wall shall be finished with one course of hard, well-burnt
+bricks set on edge, in cement, or by a coping of any other waterproof and
+fire-resisting material, properly secured."
+
+Arches are constructions built of wedge-shaped blocks, which by reason of
+their shape give support one to another, and to the [Sidenote: Arches.]
+super-imposed weight, the resulting load being transmitted through the
+blocks to the abutments upon which the ends of the arch rest. An arch
+should be composed of such materials and designed of such dimensions as to
+enable it to retain its proper shape and resist the crushing strain imposed
+upon it. The abutments also must be strong enough to take safely the thrust
+of the weighted arch, as the slightest movement in these supports will
+cause deflection and failure. The outward thrust of an arch decreases as it
+approaches the semicircular form, but the somewhat prevalent idea that in
+the latter form no thrusting takes place is at variance with fact.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.]
+
+Arches in brickwork may be classed under three heads: plain arches,
+rough-cut and gauged. Plain arches are built of uncut bricks, and since the
+difference between the outer and inner periphery of the arch requires the
+parts of which an arch is made up to be wedge-formed, which an ordinary
+brick is not, the difference must be made in mortar, with the result that
+the joints become wedge-shaped. This obviously gives an objectionable
+inconsistency of material in the arch, and for this reason to obtain
+greatest strength it is advisable to build these arches in independent
+rings of half-brick thickness. The undermost rings should have thin joints,
+those of each succeeding ring being slightly thickened. This prevents the
+lowest ring from settling while those above remain in position, which would
+cause an ugly fissure. In work of large span bonding blocks or "lacing
+courses" should be built into the arch, set in cement and running through
+its thickness at intervals, care being taken to introduce the lacing course
+at a place where the joints of the various rings coincide. Stone blocks in
+the shape of a voussoir (fig. 14) may be used instead. Except for these
+lacing courses hydraulic lime mortar should be used for large arches, on
+account of its slightly accommodating nature.
+
+Rough-cut arches are those in which the bricks are roughly cut with an axe
+to a wedge form; they are used over openings, such as doors and windows,
+where a strong arch of neat appearance is desired. The joints are usually
+made equal in width to those of the ordinary brickwork. Gauged arches are
+composed of specially made soft bricks, which are cut and rubbed to gauges
+or templates so as to form perfectly fitting voussoirs. Gauging is, of
+course, equally applicable to arches and walling, as it means no more than
+bringing every brick exactly to a certain form by cutting and rubbing.
+Gauged brickwork is set in lime putty instead of common mortar; the
+finished joints should not be more than 1/32 in. wide. To give stability
+the sides of the voussoirs are gauged out hollow and grouted in Portland
+cement, thus connecting each brick with the next by a joggle joint. Gauged
+arches, being for the most part but a half-brick in thickness on the soffit
+and not being tied by a bond to anything behind them--for behind them is
+the lintel with rough discharging arch over, supporting the remaining width
+of the wall--require to be executed with great care and nicety. It is a
+common fault with workmen to rub the bricks thinner behind than before to
+lessen the labour required to obtain a very fine face joint. This practice
+tends to make the work bulge outwards; it should rather be inverted if it
+be done at all, though the best work is that in which the bricks are gauged
+to exactly the same thickness at the back as at the front. The same fault
+occurs when a gauged arch is inserted in an old wall, on account of the
+difficulty of filling up with cement the space behind the bricks.
+
+The bond of an arch obtains its name from the arrangement of headers and
+stretchers on its soffit. The under side of an arch built in English bond,
+therefore, will show the same arrangement as the face of a wall built in
+English bond. If the arch is in Flemish the soffit presents the same
+appearance as the elevation of a wall built in that bond.
+
+It is generally held that the building of wood into brickwork [Sidenote:
+Plates.] should as far as is possible be avoided. Wall plates of wood are,
+however, necessary where wood joists are used, and where these plates may
+not be supported on corbels of projecting brickwork or iron they must be
+let flush into the wall, taking the place of a course of bricks. They form
+a uniform bed for the joists, to which easy fixing is obtained. The various
+modes adopted for resting and fixing the ends of joists on walls are
+treated in the article CARPENTRY.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.]
+
+Lintels, which may be of iron, steel, plain or reinforced concrete, or
+stone, are used over square-headed openings instead of or in conjunction
+with arches. They are useful to preserve the square form and receive the
+joiners' fittings, but except when made of steel or of concrete reinforced
+with steel bars, they should have relieving arches turned immediately over
+them (Fig.15).
+
+"Fixing bricks" were formerly of wood of the same size as the ordinary
+brick, and built into the wall as required for fixing joinery. Owing to
+their liability to shrinkage and decay, their use is now practically
+abandoned, their place being taken by bricks of coke-breeze concrete, which
+do not shrink or rot and hold fast nails or screws driven into them.
+Another method often adopted for [v.04 p.0527] providing a fixing for
+joinery is to build in wood slips the thickness of a joint and 41/2 in. wide.
+When suitable provision for fixing has not been made, wood plugs are driven
+into the joints of the bricks. Great care must be taken in driving these in
+the joints of reveals or at the corners of walls, or damage may be done.
+
+The name "brick-ashlar" is given to walls faced with ashlar stonework
+backed in with brickwork. Such constructions are liable in an aggravated
+degree to the unequal settling and its attendant evils pointed out as
+existing in walls built with different qualities of bricks. The outer face
+is composed of unyielding stone with few and very thin joints, which
+perhaps do not occupy more than a hundredth part of its height, while the
+back is built up of bricks with about one-eighth its height composed of
+mortar joints, that is, of a material that by its nature and manner of
+application must both shrink in drying and yield to pressure. To obviate
+this tendency to settle and thus cause the bulging of the face or failure
+of the wall, the mortar used should be composed of Portland cement and sand
+with a large proportion of the former, and worked as stiff as it
+conveniently can be. In building such work the stones should be in height
+equal to an exact number of brick courses. It is a common practice in
+erecting buildings with a facing of Kentish rag rubble to back up the
+stonework with bricks. Owing to the great irregularity of the stones, great
+difficulty is experienced in obtaining proper bond between the two
+materials. Through bonding stones or headers should be frequently built in,
+and the whole of the work executed in cement mortar to ensure stability.
+
+Not the least important part of the bricklayer's art is the formation of
+chimney and other flues. Considerable skill is required in [Sidenote:
+Chimneys and flues.] gathering-over properly above the fireplace so as to
+conduct the smoke into the smaller flue, which itself requires to be built
+with precision, so that its capacity may not vary in different parts. Bends
+must be made in gradual curves so as to offer the least possible resistance
+to the up-draught, and at least one bend of not less than 60 deg. should be
+formed in each flue to intercept down-draughts. Every fireplace must have a
+separate flue. The collection of a number of flues into a "stack" is
+economical, and tends to increase the efficiency of the flues, the heat
+from one flue assisting the up-draught in those adjoining it. It is also
+desirable from an aesthetic point of view, for a number of single flue
+chimneys sticking up from various parts of the roof would appear most
+unsightly. The architects of the Elizabethan and later periods were masters
+of this difficult art of treating a stack or stacks as an architectural
+feature. The shaft should be carried well above the roof, higher, if
+possible, than adjacent buildings, which are apt to cause down-draught and
+make the chimney smoke. When this is found impossible, one of the many
+forms of patent chimney-pots or revolving cowls must be adopted. Each flue
+must be separated by smoke-proof "withes" or divisions, usually half a
+brick in thickness; connexion between them causes smoky chimneys. The size
+of the flue for an ordinary grate is 14x9 in.; for a kitchen stove 14x14
+in. The outer wall of a chimney stack may with advantage be made 9 in.
+thick. Fireclay tubes, rectangular or circular in transverse section, are
+largely used in place of the pargetting; although more expensive than the
+latter they have the advantage in point of cleanliness and durability.
+Fireplaces generally require more depth than can be provided in the
+thickness of the wall, and therefore necessitate a projection to contain
+the fireplace and flues, called the "chimney breast." Sometimes, especially
+when the wall is an external one, the projection may be made on the back,
+thus allowing a flush wall in the room and giving more space and a more
+conveniently-shaped room. The projection on the outside face of the wall
+may be treated as an ornamental feature. The fireplace opening is covered
+by a brick relieving arch, which is fortified by wrought-iron bar from 1/2 to
+3/4 in. thick and 2 to 3 in. wide. It is usually bent to a "camber," and the
+brick arch built upon it naturally takes the same curve. Each end is
+"caulked," that is, split longitudinally and turned up and down. The
+interior of a chimney breast behind the stove should always be filled in
+solid with concrete or brickwork. The flooring in the chimney opening is
+called the "hearth"; the back hearth covers the space between the jambs of
+the chimney breast, and the front hearth rests upon the brick "trimmer
+arch" designed to support it. The hearth is now often formed in solid
+concrete, supported on the brick wall and fillets fixed to the floor
+joists, without any trimmer arch and finished in neat cement or glazed
+tiles instead of stone slabs.
+
+Tall furnace chimneys should stand as separate constructions, unconnected
+with other buildings. If it is necessary to bring other work close up, a
+straight joint should be used. The shaft of the chimney will be built
+"overhand," the men working from the inside. Lime mortar is used, cement
+being too rigid to allow the chimney to rock in the wind. Not more than 3
+ft. in height should be erected in one day, the work of necessity being
+done in small portions to allow the mortar to set before it is required to
+sustain much weight. The bond usually adopted is one course of headers to
+four of stretchers. Scaffolding is sometimes erected outside for a height
+of 25 or 30 ft., to facilitate better pointing, especially where the
+chimney is in a prominent position. The brickwork at the top must,
+according to the London Building Act, be 9 in. thick (it is better 14 in.
+in shafts over 100 ft. high), increasing half a brick in thickness for
+every additional 20 ft. measured downwards. "The shaft shall taper
+gradually from the base to the top at the rate of at least 21/2 in. in 10 ft.
+of height. The width of the base of the shaft if square shall be at least
+one-tenth of the proposed height of the shaft, or if round or any other
+shape, then one-twelfth of the height. Firebricks built inside the lower
+portion of the shaft shall be provided, as additional to and independent of
+the prescribed thickness of brickwork, and shall not be bonded therewith."
+The firebrick lining should be carried up from about 25 ft. for ordinary
+temperatures to double that height for very great ones, a space of 11/2 to 3
+in. being kept between the lining and the main wall. The lining itself is
+usually 41/2 in. thick. The cap is usually of cast iron or terra-cotta
+strengthened with iron bolts and straps, and sometimes of stone, but the
+difficulty of properly fixing this latter material causes it to be
+neglected in favour of one of the former. (See a paper by F.J. Bancroft on
+"Chimney Construction," which contains a tabulated description of nearly
+sixty shafts, _Proc. Civ. and Mech. Eng. Soc._, December 1883.)
+
+The work of laying bricks or tiles as paving falls to the lot of the
+bricklayer. Paving formed of ordinary bricks laid flat or on their
+[Sidenote: Brick paving.] edges was once in general use, but is now almost
+abandoned in favour of floors of special tiles or cement paving, the latter
+being practically non-porous and therefore more sanitary and cleaner.
+Special bricks of extremely hard texture are made for stable and similar
+paving, having grooves worked on the face to assist drainage and afford
+good foothold. A bed of concrete 6 in. thick is usually provided under
+paving, or when the bricks are placed on edge the concrete for external
+paving may be omitted and the bricks bedded in sand, the ground being
+previously well rammed. The side joints of the bricks are grouted in with
+lime or cement. Dutch clinkers are small, hard paving bricks burned at a
+high temperature and of a light yellow colour; they are 6 in. long, 3 in.
+wide, 11/2 in. thick. A variety of paving tile called "oven tiles" is of
+similar material to the ordinary red brick, and in size is 10 or 12 in.
+square and 1 to 2 in. thick. An immense variety of ornamental paving and
+walling tiles is now manufactured of different colours, sizes and shapes,
+and the use of these for lining sculleries, lavatories, bathrooms,
+provision shops, &c., makes for cleanliness and improved sanitary
+conditions. Besides, however, being put to these uses, tiles are often used
+in the ornamentation of buildings, externally as well as internally.
+
+Mosaic work is composed of small pieces of marble, stone, glass or pottery,
+laid as paving or wall lining, usually in some ornamental pattern or
+design. A firm bed of concrete is required, the pieces of [v.04 p.0528]
+material being fixed in a float of cement about half or three-quarters of
+an inch thick. Roman mosaic is formed with cubes of marble of various
+colours pressed into the float. A less costly paving may be obtained by
+strewing irregularly-shaped marble chips over the floated surface: these
+are pressed into the cement with a plasterer's hand float, and the whole is
+then rolled with an iron roller. This is called "terazzo mosaic." In either
+the Roman or terazzo method any patterns or designs that are introduced are
+first worked in position, the ground-work being filled in afterwards. For
+the use of cement for paving see PLASTER.
+
+The principal publications on brickwork are as follows:--Rivington, _Notes
+on Building Construction_, vols. i. ii. iii.; Col. H.E. Seddon, _Aide
+Memoir_, vol. ii.; _Specification_; J.P. Allen, _Building Construction_;
+F.E. Kidder, _Building Construction and Superintendence_, part i. (1903);
+Longmans & Green, _Building Construction_; E. Dobson, _Bricks and Tiles_;
+Henry Adams, _Building Construction_; C.F. Mitchell, _Building
+Construction_, vols. i. ii.; E. Street, _Brick and Marble Architecture in
+Italy_.
+
+(J. BT.)
+
+BRICOLE (a French word of unknown origin), a military engine for casting
+heavy stones; also a term in tennis for a sidestroke rebounding off the
+wall of the court, corrupted into "brickwall" from a supposed reference to
+the wall, and in billiards for a stroke off the cushion to make a cannon or
+hazard.
+
+BRIDAINE (or BRYDAYNE), JACQUES (1701-1767), French Roman Catholic
+preacher, was born at Chuslan in the department of Gard on the 21st of
+March 1701. He was educated at Avignon, first in the Jesuit college and
+afterwards at the Sulpician seminary of St Charles. Soon after his
+ordination to the priesthood in 1725, he joined the _Missions Royales_,
+organized to bring back to the Catholic faith the Protestants of France. He
+gained their good-will and made many converts; and for over forty years he
+visited as a missionary preacher almost every town of central and southern
+France. In Paris, in 1744, his sermons created a deep impression by their
+eloquence and sincerity. He died at Roquemaure, near Avignon, on the 22nd
+of December 1767. He was the author of _Cantiques spirituels_ (Montpelier,
+1748, frequently reprinted, in use in most French churches); his sermons
+were published in 5 vols. at Avignon in 1823 (ed. Paris, 1861).
+
+See Abbe G. Carron, _Le Modele des pretres_ (1803).
+
+BRIDE (a common Teutonic word, e.g. Goth. _bruths_, O.Eng. _bryd_, O.H.Ger.
+_prut_, Mod. Ger. _Braut_, Dut. _bruid_, possibly derived from the root
+_bru-_, cook, brew; from the med. latinized form _bruta_, in the sense of
+daughter-in-law, is derived the Fr. _bru_), the term used of a woman on her
+wedding-day, and applicable during the first year of wifehood. It appears
+in combination with many words, some of them obsolete. Thus "bridegroom" is
+the newly married man, and "bride-bell," "bride-banquet" are old
+equivalents of wedding-bells, wedding-breakfast. "Bridal" (from
+_Bride-ale_), originally the wedding-feast itself, has grown into a general
+descriptive adjective, e.g. the _bridal_ party, the _bridal_ ceremony. The
+_bride-cake_ had its origin in the Roman _confarreatio_, a form of
+marriage, the essential features of which were the eating by the couple of
+a cake made of salt, water and flour, and the holding by the bride of three
+wheat-ears, symbolical of plenty. Under Tiberius the cake-eating fell into
+disuse, but the wheat ears survived. In the middle ages they were either
+worn or carried by the bride. Eventually it became the custom for the young
+girls to assemble outside the church porch and throw grains of wheat over
+the bride, and afterwards a scramble for the grains took place. In time the
+wheat-grains came to be cooked into thin dry biscuits, which were broken
+over the bride's head, as is the custom in Scotland to-day, an oatmeal cake
+being used. In Elizabeth's reign these biscuits began to take the form of
+small rectangular cakes made of eggs, milk, sugar, currants and spices.
+Every wedding guest had one at least, and the whole collection were thrown
+at the bride the instant she crossed the threshold. Those which lighted on
+her head or shoulders were most prized by the scramblers. At last these
+cakes became amalgamated into a large one which took on its full glories of
+almond paste and ornaments during Charles II.'s time. But even to-day in
+rural parishes, e.g. north Notts, wheat is thrown over the bridal couple
+with the cry "Bread for life and pudding for ever," expressive of a wish
+that the newly wed may be always affluent. The throwing of rice, a very
+ancient custom but one later than the wheat, is symbolical of the wish that
+the bridal may be fruitful. The _bride-cup_ was the bowl or loving-cup in
+which the bridegroom pledged the bride, and she him. The custom of breaking
+this wine-cup, after the bridal couple had drained its contents, is common
+to both the Jews and the members of the Greek Church. The former dash it
+against the wall or on the ground, the latter tread it under foot. The
+phrase "bride-cup" was also sometimes used of the bowl of spiced wine
+prepared at night for the bridal couple. _Bride-favours_, anciently called
+bride-lace, were at first pieces of gold, silk or other lace, used to bind
+up the sprigs of rosemary formerly worn at weddings. These took later the
+form of bunches of ribbons, which were at last metamorphosed into rosettes.
+_Bridegroom-men_ and _bridesmaids_ had formerly important duties. The men
+were called bride-knights, and represented a survival of the primitive days
+of marriage by capture, when a man called his friends in to assist to
+"lift" the bride. Bridesmaids were usual in Saxon England. The senior of
+them had personally to attend the bride for some days before the wedding.
+The making of the bridal wreath, the decoration of the tables for the
+wedding feast, the dressing of the bride, were among her special tasks. In
+the same way the senior groomsman (the _best man_) was the personal
+attendant of the husband. The _bride-wain_, the wagon in which the bride
+was driven to her new home, gave its name to the weddings of any poor
+deserving couple, who drove a "wain" round the village, collecting small
+sums of money or articles of furniture towards their housekeeping. These
+were called bidding-weddings, or bid-ales, which were in the nature of
+"benefit" feasts. So general is still the custom of "bidding-weddings" in
+Wales, that printers usually keep the form of invitation in type. Sometimes
+as many as six hundred couples will walk in the bridal procession. The
+_bride's wreath_ is a Christian substitute for the gilt coronet all Jewish
+brides wore. The crowning of the bride is still observed by the Russians,
+and the Calvinists of Holland and Switzerland. The wearing of orange
+blossoms is said to have started with the Saracens, who regarded them as
+emblems of fecundity. It was introduced into Europe by the Crusaders. The
+_bride's veil_ is the modern form of the _flammeum_ or large yellow veil
+which completely enveloped the Greek and Roman brides during the ceremony.
+Such a covering is still in use among the Jews and the Persians.
+
+See Brand, _Antiquities of Great Britain_ (Hazlitt's ed., 1905); Rev J.
+Edward Vaux, _Church Folklore_ (1894).
+
+BRIDEWELL, a district of London between Fleet Street and the Thames, so
+called from the well of St Bride or St Bridget close by. From William the
+Conqueror's time, a castle or Norman tower, long the occasional residence
+of the kings of England, stood there by the Fleet ditch. Henry VIII., Stow
+says, built there "a stately and beautiful house," specially for the
+housing of the emperor Charles V. and his suite in 1525. During the hearing
+of the divorce suit by the Cardinals at Blackfriars, Henry and Catharine of
+Aragon lived there. In 1553 Edward VI. made it over to the city as a
+penitentiary, a house of correction for vagabonds and loose women; and it
+was formally taken possession of by the lord mayor and corporation in 1555.
+The greater part of the building was destroyed in the Great Fire of 1666.
+New Bridewell, built in 1829, was pulled down in 1864. The term has become
+a synonym for any reformatory.
+
+BRIDGE, a game of cards, developed out of the game of whist. The country of
+its origin is unknown. A similar game is said to have been played in
+Denmark in the middle of the 19th century. A game in all respects the same
+as bridge, except that in "no trumps" each trick counted ten instead of
+twelve, was played in England about 1884 under the name of Dutch whist.
+Some connect it with Turkey and Egypt under the name of "Khedive," or with
+a Russian game called "Yeralash." It was in Turkey that it first won a
+share of popular favour. Under the synonyms of "Biritch," "Bridge," or
+"Russian whist," it found its way to the London clubs about 1894, from
+which date its popularity rapidly increased.
+
+_Ordinary Bridge._--Bridge, in its ordinary form, differs from [v.04
+p.0529] whist in the following respects:--Although there are four players,
+yet in each hand the partner of the dealer takes no part in the play of
+that particular hand. After the first lead his cards are placed on the
+table exposed, and are played by the dealer as at dummy whist; nevertheless
+the dealer's partner is interested in the result of the hand equally with
+the dealer. The trump suit is not determined by the last card dealt, but is
+selected by the dealer or his partner without consultation, the former
+having the first option. It is further open to them to play without a trump
+suit. The value of tricks and honours varies with the suit declared as
+trumps. Honours are reckoned differently from whist, and on a scale which
+is somewhat involved. The score for honours does not count towards winning
+or losing the rubber, but is added afterwards to the trick score in order
+to determine the value of the rubber. There are also scores for holding no
+trumps ("chicane"), and for winning all the tricks or all but one ("slam").
+
+The score has to be kept on paper. It is usual for the scoring block to
+have two vertical columns divided halfway by a horizontal line. The left
+column is for the scorers' side, and the right for the opponents'. Honours
+are scored above the horizontal line, and tricks below. The drawback to
+this arrangement is that, since the scores for each hand are not kept
+separately, it is generally impossible to trace an error in the score
+without going through the whole series of hands. A better plan, it seems,
+is to have four columns ruled, the inner two being assigned to tricks, the
+outer ones to honours. By this method a line can be reserved for each hand,
+and any discrepancy in the scores at once rectified.
+
+The Portland Club, London, drew up a code of laws in 1895, and this code,
+with a few amendments, was in July 1895 adopted by a joint committee of the
+Turf and Portland Clubs. A revised code came into force in January 1905,
+the provisions of which are here summarized.
+
+Each trick above 6 counts 2 points in a spade declaration, 4 in a club, 6
+in a diamond, 8 in a heart, 12 in a no-trump declaration. The game consists
+of 30 points made by tricks alone. When one side has won two games the
+rubber is ended. The winners are entitled to add 100 points to their score.
+Honours consist of ace, king, queen, knave, ten, in a suit declaration. If
+a player and his partner conjointly hold 3 (or "simple") honours they score
+twice the value of a trick; if 4 honours, 4 times; if 5 honours, 5 times.
+If a player in his own hand hold 4 honours he is entitled to score 4
+honours in addition to the score for conjoint honours; thus, if one player
+hold 4 honours and his partner the other their total score is 9 by honours.
+Similarly if a player hold 5 honours in his own hand he is entitled to
+score 10 by honours. If in a no-trump hand the partners conjointly hold 3
+aces, they score 30 for honours; if 4 aces, 40 for honours. 4 aces in 1
+hand count 100. On the same footing as the score for honours are the
+following: _chicane_, if a player hold no trump, in amount equal to simple
+honours; _grand slam_, if one side win all the tricks, 40 points; _little
+slam_, if they win 12 tricks, 20 points. At the end of the rubber the total
+scores, whether made by tricks, honours, chicane, slam, or rubber points,
+are added together, and the difference between the two totals is the number
+of points won.
+
+At the opening of play, partners are arranged and the cards are shuffled,
+cut and dealt (the last card not being turned) as at whist; but the dealer
+cannot lose the deal by misdealing. After the deal is completed, the dealer
+makes the trump or no-trump (_sans atout_) declaration, or passes the
+choice to his partner without remark. If the dealer's partner make the
+declaration out of his turn, the adversary on the dealer's left may,
+without consultation, claim a fresh deal. If an adversary make a
+declaration, the dealer may claim a fresh deal or disregard the
+declaration. Then after the declaration, either adversary may double, the
+leader having first option. The effect of doubling is that each trick is
+worth twice as many points as before; but the scores for honours, chicane
+and slam are unaltered. If a declaration is doubled, the dealer and his
+partner have the right of redoubling, thus making each trick worth four
+times as much as at first. The declarer has the first option. The other
+side can again redouble, and so on; but the value of a trick is limited to
+100 points. In the play of the hand the laws are nearly the same as the
+laws of whist, except that the dealer may expose his cards and lead out of
+turn without penalty; after the second hand has played, however, he can
+only correct this lead out of turn with the permission of the adversaries.
+Dummy cannot revoke. The dealer's partner may take no part in the play of
+the hand beyond guarding the dealer against revoking.
+
+_Advice to Players._--In the choice of a suit two objects are to be aimed
+at: first, to select the suit in which the combined forces have the best
+chance of making tricks; secondly, to select the trump so that the value of
+the suit agrees with the character of the hand, _i.e._ a suit of high value
+when the hands are strong and of low value when very weak. As the deal is a
+great advantage it generally happens that a high value is to be aimed at,
+but occasionally a low value is desirable. The task of selection should
+fall to the hand which has the most distinctive features, that is, either
+the longest suit or unusual strength or weakness. No consultation being
+allowed, the dealer must assume only an average amount of variation from
+the normal in his partner's hand. If his own hand has distinctive features
+beyond the average, he should name the trump suit himself, otherwise pass
+it to his partner. It may here be stated what is the average in these
+respects.
+
+As regards the length of a suit, a player's long suit is rather more likely
+to be fewer than five than over five. If the dealer has in his hand a suit
+of five cards including two honours, it is probable that he has a better
+suit to make trumps than dummy; if the suit is in hearts, and the dealer
+has a fair hand, he ought to name the trump. As regards strength, the
+average hand would contain ace, king, queen, knave and ten, or equivalent
+strength. Hands stronger or weaker than this by the value of a king or less
+may be described as featureless. If the dealer's hand is a king over the
+average, it is more likely than not that his partner will either hold a
+stronger hand, or will hold such a weak hand as will counteract the
+player's strength. The dealer would not generally with such a hand declare
+no trump, especially as by making a no-trump declaration the dealer
+forfeits the advantage of holding the long trumps.
+
+_Declarations by Dealer._--In calculating the strength of a hand a knave is
+worth two tens, a queen is worth two knaves, a king is worth a queen and
+knave together, and an ace is worth a king and queen together. A king
+unguarded is worth less than a queen guarded; a queen is not fully guarded
+unless accompanied by three more cards; if guarded by one small card it is
+worth a knave guarded. An ace also loses in value by being sole.
+
+A hand to be strong enough for a no-trump declaration should be a king and
+ten above the average with all the honours guarded and all the suits
+protected. It must be a king and knave or two queens above the average if
+there is protection in three suits. It must be an ace or a king and queen
+above the average if only two suits are protected. An established black
+suit of six or more cards with a guarded king as card of entry is good
+enough for no trumps. With three aces no trumps can be declared. Without an
+ace, four kings, two queens and a knave are required in order to justify
+the declaration. When the dealer has a choice of declarations, a sound
+heart make is to be preferred to a doubtful no-trump. Four honours in
+hearts are to be preferred to any but a very strong no-trump declaration;
+but four aces counting 100 points constitute a no-trump declaration without
+exception.
+
+Six hearts should be made trumps and five with two honours unless the hand
+is very weak; five hearts with one honour or four hearts with three honours
+should be declared if the hand is nearly strong enough for no trumps, also
+if the hand is very irregular with one suit missing or five of a black
+suit. Six diamonds with one honour, five with three honours or four all
+honours should be declared; weaker diamonds should be declared if the suits
+are irregular, especially if blank in hearts. Six clubs with three honours
+or five with four honours should be declared. Spades are practically only
+declared with a weak hand; with only a king in the hand a suit of five
+spades should be declared as a defensive measure. With nothing above a ten
+a suit of two or three spades can be declared, though even with the weakest
+hands a suit of five clubs or of six red cards will probably prove less
+expensive.
+
+_Declarations by Dummy._--From the fact that the call has been passed, the
+dealer's partner must credit the dealer with less than average strength as
+regards the rank of his cards, and probably a slightly increased number of
+black cards; he must therefore be more backward in making a high
+declaration whenever he can make a sound declaration of less value. On the
+other hand, he has not the option of passing the declaration, and may be
+driven to declare on less strength because the only alternative is a short
+suit of spades. For example, with the hand: Hearts, ace, kv. 2; diamonds,
+qn. 9, 7, 6, 3; clubs, kg. 10, 4; spades, 9, 2, the chances are in the
+dealer's favour with five trumps, but decidedly against with only two, and
+the diamond declaration is to be preferred to the spade. Still, a hand may
+be so weak that spades should be declared with two or less, but five clubs
+or six diamonds would be preferable with the weakest of hands.
+
+[v.04 p.0530] _Declarations to the Score._--When one's score is over
+twenty, club declarations should be made more frequently by the dealer.
+Spades should be declared with six at the score of twenty-six and with five
+at twenty-eight. When much behind in the score a risky no-trumper such as
+one with an established suit of seven or eight cards without a card of
+entry, may be declared.
+
+Declaring to the score is often overdone; an ordinary weak no-trump
+declaration carries with it small chances of three by tricks unless dummy
+holds a no-trump hand.
+
+_Doubling._--Practically the leader only doubles a no-trump declaration
+when he holds what is probably an established suit of seven cards or a suit
+which can be established with the loss of one trick and he has good cards
+of re-entry. Seven cards of a suit including the ace, king and queen make
+sound double without any other card of value in the hand, or six cards
+including king, queen and knave with two aces in other suits.
+
+Doubling by the third hand is universally understood to mean that the
+player has a very strong suit which he can establish. In response to the
+double his partner, according to different conventions, leads either a
+heart or his own shortest suit as the one most likely to be the third
+player's strongest. Under the short suit convention, if the doubler holds
+six of a suit headed by the ace, king and queen, it is about an even chance
+that his suit will be selected; he should not double with less strength.
+Under the heart convention it is not necessary to have such great strength;
+with a strong suit of six hearts and good cards of re-entry, enough tricks
+will be saved to compensate for the doubled value. A player should
+ascertain the convention followed before beginning to play.
+
+Before doubling a suit declaration a player should feel almost certain that
+he is as strong as the declarer. The minimum strength to justify the
+declaration is generally five trumps, but it may have been made on six. If,
+then, a player holds six trumps with an average hand as regards the rank of
+his cards, or five trumps with a hand of no-trump strength, it is highly
+probable that he is as strong as the declarer. It must be further taken
+into account that the act of doubling gives much valuable information to
+the dealer, who would otherwise play with the expectation of finding the
+trumps evenly distributed; this is counterbalanced when the doubler is on
+the left of the declaring hand by the intimation given to his partner to
+lead trumps through the strong hand. In this position, then, the player
+should double with the strength stated above. When on the declarer's right,
+the player should hold much greater strength unless his hand is free from
+tenaces. When a spade declaration has been made by dummy, one trump less is
+necessary and the doubler need not be on the declarer's left. A spade
+declaration by the dealer can be doubled with even less strength. A
+declaration can be rather more freely doubled when a single trick undoubled
+will take the dealer out, but even in this position the player must be
+cautious of informing the dealer that there is a strong hand against him.
+
+_Redoubling._--When a declaration has been doubled, the declarer knows the
+minimum that he will find against him; he must be prepared to find
+occasionally strength against him considerably exceeding this minimum.
+Except in the case of a spade declaration, cases in which redoubling is
+justifiable are very rare.
+
+_The Play of the Hand._--In a no-trump declaration the main object is to
+bring in a long suit. In selecting the suit to establish, the following are
+favourable conditions:--One hand should hold at least five cards of the
+suit. The two hands, unless with a sequence of high cards, should hold
+between them eight cards of the suit, so as to render it probable that the
+suit will be established in three rounds. The hand which contains the
+strong suit should be sufficiently strong in cards of re-entry. The suit
+should not be so full of possible tenaces as to make it disadvantageous to
+open it. As regards the play of the cards in a suit, it is not the object
+to make tricks early, but to make all possible tricks. Deep finesses should
+be made when there is no other way of stealing a trick. Tricks may be given
+away, if by so doing a favourable opening can be made for a finesse. When,
+however, it is doubtful with which hand the finesse should be made, it is
+better to leave it as late as possible, since the card to be finessed
+against may fall, or an adversary may fail, thus disclosing the suit. It is
+in general unsound to finesse against a card that must be unguarded. From a
+hand short in cards of re-entry, winning cards should not be led out so as
+to exhaust the suit from the partner's hand. Even a trick should sometimes
+be given away. For instance, if one hand holds seven cards headed by ace,
+king, and the other hand hold's only two of the suit, although there is a
+fair chance of making seven tricks in the suit, it would often be right to
+give the first trick to the adversaries. When one of the adversaries has
+shown a long suit, it is frequently possible to prevent its being brought
+in by a device, such as holding up a winning card, until the suit is
+exhausted from his partner's hand, or playing in other suits so as to give
+the player the lead whilst his partner his a card of his suit to return,
+and to give the latter the lead when he has no card to return. The dealer
+should give as little information as possible as to what he holds in his
+own hand, playing frequent false cards. Usually he should play the higher
+or highest of a sequence; still, there are positions in which playing the
+higher gives more information than the lower; a strict adherence to a rule
+in itself assists the adversaries.
+
+With a suit declaration, if there is no chance of letting the weak hand
+make a trump by ruffing, it will generally be the dealer's aim to discard
+the losing cards in the declaring hand either to high cards or to the cards
+of an established suit in the other hand, sometimes after the adverse
+trumps have been taken out, but often before, there being no time for
+drawing trumps. With no card of any value in a suit in one hand, the lead
+should come from that hand, but it is better, if possible, to let the
+adversaries open the suit. It is generally useless to lead a moderately
+high card from the weaker hand in order to finesse it, when holding no
+cards in sequence with it in either hand. Sometimes (especially in
+no-trumps) it is the better play to make the weak hand third player. For
+instance, with king, 8, 7, 5, 2 in one hand, knave, 4 in the other, the
+best way of opening is from the hand that holds five cards.
+
+In a no-trump declaration the opponents of the dealer should endeavour to
+find the longest suit in the two hands, or the one most easily established.
+With this object the leader should open his best suit. If his partner next
+obtains the lead he ought to return the suit, unless he himself has a suit
+which he considers better, having due regard to the fact that the first
+suit is already partially established. The opponents should employ the same
+tactics as the dealer to prevent the latter from bringing in a long suit;
+they can use them with special effect when the long suit is in the exposed
+hand.
+
+Against no-trumps the leader should not play his winning cards unless he
+has a good chance of clearing the suit without help from his partner; in
+most cases it is advisable to give away the first trick, especially if he
+has no card of re-entry, in order that his partner on gaining the lead may
+have a card of the suit to return; but holding ace, king and queen, or ace,
+king with seven in the suit, or ace, king, knave, ten with six, the player
+may lead out his best. With three honours any two of which are in sequence
+(not to the ace) the player should lead the higher of the sequence. He
+should lead his highest card from queen, knave, ten; from queen, knave,
+nine; from knave, ten, nine; knave, ten, eight, and ten, nine, eight. In
+other cases the player should lead a small card; according to the usual
+convention, the fourth best. His partner, and also the dealer, can credit
+him with three cards higher than the card led, and can often place the
+cards of the suit: for instance, the seven is led, dummy holds queen and
+eight, playing the queen, the third player holds the nine and smaller
+cards; the unseen cards higher than the seven are ace, king, knave and ten
+of which the leader must hold three; he cannot hold both knave and ten or
+he would have led the knave; he must therefore hold the ace, king and
+either knave or ten. The "eleven" rule is as follows: the number of pips in
+the card led subtracted from eleven (11-7=4 in the case stated) gives the
+number of cards higher than the one led not in the leader's hand; the three
+cards seen (queen, nine and eight) leave one for the dealer to hold. The
+mental process is no shorter than assigning three out of the unseen cards
+to the leader, and by not noting the unseen cards much valuable information
+may be missed, as in the illustrative case given.
+
+With a suit declared the best opening lead is a singleton, failing which a
+lead from a strong sequence. A lead from a tenace or a guarded king or
+queen is to be avoided. Two small cards may be led from, though the lead is
+objected to by some. A suit of three small cards of no great strength
+should not be opened. In cases of doubt preference should be given to
+hearts and to a less extent to diamonds.
+
+To lead up to dummy's weak suits is a valuable rule. The converse, to lead
+through strength, must be used with caution, and does not apply to no-trump
+declarations. It is not advisable to adopt any of the recent whist methods
+of giving information. It is clear that, if the adversaries signal, the
+dealer's hand alone is a secret, and he, in addition to his natural
+advantage, has the further advantage of better information than either of
+the adversaries. The following signals are however, used, and are of great
+trick-making value: playing an unnecessarily high card, whether to one's
+partner's suit or in discarding in a no-trump declaration, indicates
+strength in the suit; in a suit declaration a similar method of play
+indicates two only of the suit and a desire to ruff,--it is best used in
+the case of a king led by one's partner.
+
+The highest of a sequence led through dummy will frequently tell the third
+player that he has a good finesse. The lowest of a sequence led through the
+dealer will sometimes explain the position to the third player, at the same
+time keeping the dealer in the dark.
+
+When on dummy's left it is futile to finesse against a card not in dummy's
+hand. But with ace and knave, if dummy has either king or queen, the knave
+should usually be played, partly because the other high card may be in the
+leader's hand, partly because, if the finesse fails, the player may still
+hold a tenace over dummy. When a player is with any chance of success
+trying to establish his long suit, he should keep every card of it if
+possible, whether it is a suit already opened or a suit which he wishes his
+partner to lead; when, however, the main object of the hand is to establish
+one's partner's suit, it is not necessary for a player to keep his own long
+suit, and he should pay attention to guarding the other suits. In some
+circles a discard from a suit is always understood to indicate strength in
+the suit; this convention, while it makes the game easier for inferior
+players, frequently causes the player to throw away one of his most
+valuable cards.
+
+_Playing to the Score._--At the beginning of the hand the chances are so
+great against any particular result, that at the score of love-all the
+advantage of getting to any particular score has no appreciable [v.04
+p.0531] effect in determining the choice of suit. In the play of the hand,
+the advantage of getting to certain points should be borne in mind. The
+principal points to be aimed at are 6, 18, and, in a less degree, 22. The
+reason is that the scores 24, 12 and 8, which will just take the dealer out
+from the respective points, can each be made in a variety of ways, and are
+the most common for the dealer to make. The 2 points that take the score
+from 4 to 6 are worth 4, or perhaps 5, average points; and the 2 points
+that take the score from 6 to 8 are worth 1 point. When approaching game it
+is an advantage to make a declaration that may just take the player out,
+and, in a smaller degree, one that will not exactly take the adversaries
+out. When the score is 24 to 22 against the dealer, hearts and clubs are
+half a trick better relatively to diamonds than at the score of love-all.
+In the first and second games of the rubber the value of each point scored
+for honours is probably about a half of a point scored for tricks--in a
+close game rather less, in a one-sided game rather more. In the deciding
+game of the rubber, on account of the importance of winning the game, the
+value of each point scored for honours sinks to one-third of a point scored
+for tricks.
+
+_Other Forms of Bridge._--The following varieties of the game are also
+played:--
+
+_Three-handed Bridge._--The three players cut; the one that cuts the lowest
+card deals, and takes dummy for one deal: each takes dummy in turn. Dummy's
+cards are dealt face downwards, and the dealer declares without seeing
+them. If the dealer declares trumps, both adversaries may look at their
+hands; doubling and redoubling proceeds as at ordinary bridge, but dummy's
+hand is not exposed till the first card has been led. If the dealer passes
+the declaration to dummy, his right-hand adversary, who must not have
+looked at his own hand, examines dummy's, and declares trumps, not,
+however, exposing the hand. The declaration is forced: with three or four
+aces _sans atout_ (no trumps) must be declared: in other cases the longest
+suit: if suits are equal in length, the strongest, _i.e._ the suit
+containing most pips, ace counting eleven, king, queen and knave counting
+ten each. If suits are equal in both length and strength, the one in which
+the trick has the higher value must be trumps. On the dummy's declaration
+the third player can only double before seeing his own cards. When the
+first card has been led, dummy's hand is exposed, never before the lead.
+The game is 30: the player wins the rubber who is the first to win two
+games. Fifty points are scored for each game won, and fifty more for the
+rubber. Sometimes three games are played without reference to a rubber,
+fifty points being scored for a game won. No tricks score towards game
+except those which a player wins in his own deal; the value of tricks won
+in other deals is scored above the line with honours, slam and chicane. At
+the end of the rubber the totals are added up, and the points won or lost
+are adjusted thus. Suppose A is credited with 212, B with 290, and C with
+312, then A owes 78 to B and 100 to C; B owes 22 to C.
+
+_Dummy Bridge._--The player who cuts the lowest card takes dummy. Dummy
+deals the first hand of all. The player who takes dummy always looks at his
+own hand first, when he deals for himself or for dummy; he can either
+declare trumps or "leave it" to dummy. Dummy's declaration is compulsory,
+as in three-handed bridge. When the dealer deals for dummy, the player on
+the dealer's _left_ must not look at his cards till either the dealer has
+declared trumps or, the declaration having been left to dummy, his own
+partner has led a card. The latter can double, but his partner can only
+double without seeing his hand. The dealer can only redouble on his own
+hand. When the player of dummy deals for himself, the player on his _right_
+hand looks at dummy's hand if the declaration is passed, the positions and
+restrictions of his partner and himself being reversed. If the player of
+dummy declares from his own hand, the game proceeds as in ordinary bridge,
+except that dummy's hand is not looked at till permission to play has been
+given. When the player on dummy's right deals, dummy's partner may look at
+dummy's hand to decide if he will double, but he may not look at his own
+till a card has been led by dummy. In another form of dummy bridge two
+hands are exposed whenever dummy's adversaries deal, but the game is
+unsuited for many players, as in every other hand the game is one of
+double-dummy.
+
+_Misery Bridge._--This is a form of bridge adapted for two players. The
+non-dealer has the dummy, whilst the dealer is allowed to strengthen his
+hand by discarding four or fewer cards and taking an equal number from the
+fourth packet dealt; the rest of the cards in that packet are unused and
+remain unseen. A novel and interesting addition to the game is that the
+three of clubs (called "Cato") does not rank as a club but can be played to
+any trick and win it. The dealer, in addition to his other calls, may
+declare "misery" when he has to make less than two tricks.
+
+_Draw- or Two-handed Bridge._--This is the best form of bridge for two
+players. Each player has a dummy, which is placed opposite to him; but the
+cards are so arranged that they cannot be seen by his opponent, a special
+stand being required for the purpose. The dealer makes the declaration or
+passes it to his dummy to make by the same rules as in three-handed or
+dummy bridge. The objection to this is that, since the opponent does not
+see the dealer's dummy, he has no chance of checking an erroneous
+declaration. This could be avoided by not allowing the dealer the option of
+passing.
+
+_Auction Bridge._--This variety of the game for four players, which adds an
+element characteristic of poker, appears to have been suggested about 1904,
+but was really introduced at the Bath Club, London, in 1907, and then was
+gradually taken up by a wider circle. The laws were settled in August 1908
+by a joint committee of the Bath and Portland clubs. The scoring (except as
+below), value of suits, and play are as at ordinary bridge, but the variety
+consists in the method of declaration, the declaration not being confined
+in auction bridge to the dealer or his partner, and the deal being a
+disadvantage rather than otherwise. The dealer, having examined his hand,
+_must_ declare to win at least one "odd" trick, and then each player in
+turn, beginning with the one on the dealer's left, has the right to pass
+the previous declaration, or double, or redouble, or overcall by making a
+declaration of higher value any number of times till all are satisfied, the
+actual play of the combined hands (or what in ordinary bridge would be
+dealer and dummy) resting eventually with the partners making the final
+declaration; the partner who made the first call (however small) in the
+suit finally constituting the trump (or no-trump) plays the hands, the
+other being dummy. A declaration of a greater number of tricks in a suit of
+lower value, which equals a previous call in value of points (_e.g._ two in
+spades as against one in clubs) is "of higher value"; but doubling and
+redoubling only affect the score and not the declaration, so that a call of
+two diamonds overcalls one no-trump even though this has been doubled. The
+scoring in auction bridge has the additional element that when the eventual
+player of the two hands wins what was ultimately declared or more, his side
+score the full value below the line (as tricks), but if he fails the
+opponents score 50 points above the line (as honours) for each under-trick
+(_i.e._ trick short of the declaration), or 100 or 200 if doubled or
+redoubled, nothing being scored by either side below the line; the loss on
+a declaration of one spade is limited, however, to a maximum of 100 points.
+A player whose declaration has been doubled and who fulfils his contract,
+scores a bonus of 50 points above the line and a further 50 points for each
+additional trick beyond his declaration; if there was a redouble and he
+wins, he scores double the bonus. The penalty for a revoke (unaffected by a
+double) is (1) in the case of the declarer, that his adversaries add 150
+above the line; (2) in the case of one of his adversaries, that the
+declarer may either add 150 points above the line or may take three tricks
+from his opponents and add them to his own; in the latter case such tricks
+may assist him to fulfil his contract, but shall not entitle him to any
+bonus for a double or redouble. A revoking side may score nothing either
+above or below the line except for honours or chicane. As regards the
+essential feature of auction bridge, the competitive declaration, it is
+impossible here to discuss the intricacies involved. It entails, clearly,
+much reliance on a good partner, since the various rounds of bidding enable
+good players to draw inferences as to where the cards lie. The game opens
+the door to much larger scores than ordinary bridge, and since the end only
+comes from scores made below the line, there are obvious ways of prolonging
+it at the cost of scores above the line which involve much more of the
+gambling element. It by no means follows that the winner of the rubber is
+the winner by points, and many players prefer to go for points (_i.e._
+above the line) extorted from their opponents rather than for fulfilling a
+declaration made by themselves.
+
+AUTHORITIES.--"Hellespont," _Laws and Principles of Bridge_; W. Dalton,
+_Saturday Bridge_, containing full bibliography (London, 1906); J. B.
+Elwell, _Advanced Bridge_; R. F. Foster, _Bridge Tactics_; "Badsworth,"
+_Laws and Principles of Bridge_; E. Bergholt, _Double-Dummy Bridge:
+Biritch, or Russian Whist_, pamphlet in Brit. Mus.; W. Dalton, _Auction
+Bridge_ (1908).
+
+(W. H. W.*)
+
+BRIDGEBUILDING BROTHERHOOD, a confraternity (_Fratres Pontifices_) that
+arose in the south of France during the latter part of the 12th century,
+and maintained hospices at the chief fords of the principal rivers, besides
+building bridges and looking after ferries. The brotherhood was recognized
+by Pope Clement III. in 1189.
+
+BRIDGE-HEAD (Fr. _tete-du-pont_), in fortification, a work designed to
+cover the passage of a river by means of fortifications [v.04 p.0532] on
+one or both banks. As the process of moving an army over bridges is slow
+and complicated, it is usually necessary to secure it from hostile
+interruption, and the works constituting the bridge-head must therefore be
+sufficiently far advanced to keep the enemy's artillery out of range of the
+bridges. In addition, room is required for the troops to form up on the
+farther bank. In former days, with short-range weapons, a bridge-head was
+often little more than a screen for the bridge itself, but modern
+conditions have rendered necessary far greater extension of bridge
+defences.
+
+BRIDGEND, a market town in the southern parliamentary division of
+Glamorganshire, Wales, on both sides of the river Ogwr (whence its Welsh
+name Penybont-ar-Ogwr). Pop. of urban district (1901) 6062. It has a
+station 165 m. from London on the South Wales trunk line of the Great
+Western railway, and is the junction of the Barry Company's railway to
+Barry via Llantwit Major. Bridgend has a good market for agricultural
+produce, and is an important centre owing to its being the natural outlet
+for the mining valleys of the Llynvi, Garw and the two Ogwr rivers, which
+converge about 3 m. north of the town and are connected with it by branch
+lines of the Great Western railway. Though without large manufacturing
+industries, the town has joinery works, a brass and iron foundry, a tannery
+and brewery. There are brick-works and stone quarries, and much lime is
+burnt in the neighbourhood. Just outside the town at Angelton and Parc
+Gwyllt are the Glamorgan county lunatic asylums.
+
+There was no civil parish of Bridgend previous to 1905, when one was formed
+out of portions of the parishes of Newcastle and Coity. Of the castle of
+Newcastle, built on the edge of a cliff above the church of that parish,
+there remain a courtyard with flanking towers and a fine Norman gateway. At
+Coity, about 2 m. distant, there are more extensive ruins of its castle,
+originally the seat of the Turbervilles, lords of Coity, but now belonging
+to the earls of Dunraven. Coity church, dating from the 14th century, is a
+fine cruciform building with central embattled tower in Early Decorated
+style.
+
+BRIDGE OF ALLAN, a police burgh of Stirlingshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901)
+3240. It lies on the Allan, a left-hand tributary of the Forth, 3 m. N. of
+Stirling by the Caledonian railway and by tramway. Built largely on the
+well-wooded slopes of Westerton and Airthrey Hill, sheltered by the Ochils
+from the north and east winds, and environed by charming scenery, it has a
+great reputation as a health resort and watering-place, especially in
+winter and spring. There is a pump-room. The chief buildings are the
+hydropathic and the Macfarlane museum of fine art and natural history. The
+industries include bleaching, dyeing and paper-making. The Strathallan
+Gathering, usually held in the neighbourhood, is the most popular athletic
+meeting in mid-Scotland. Airthrey Castle, standing in a fine park with a
+lake, adjoins the town on the south-east, and just beyond it are the old
+church and burying-ground of Logie, beautifully situated at the foot of a
+granite spur of the Ochil range.
+
+BRIDGEPORT, a city, a port of entry, and one of the county-seats of
+Fairfield county, Connecticut, U.S.A., co-extensive with the town of
+Bridgeport, in the S.W. part of the state, on Long Island Sound, at the
+mouth of the Pequonnock river; about 18 m. S.W. of New Haven. Pop. (1880)
+27,643; (1890) 48,866; (1900) 70,996, of whom 22,281 were foreign-born,
+including 5974 from Ireland, 3172 from Hungary, 2854 from Germany, 2755
+from England, and 1436 from Italy; (1910) 102,054. Bridgeport is served by
+the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway, by lines of coast steamers, and
+by steamers to New York City and to Port Jefferson, directly across Long
+Island Sound. The harbour, formed by the estuary of the river and Yellow
+Mill Pond, an inlet, is excellent. Between the estuary and the pond is a
+peninsula, East Bridgeport, in which are some of the largest manufacturing
+establishments, and west of the harbour and the river is the main portion
+of the city, the wholesale section extending along the bank, the retail
+section farther back, and numerous factories along the line of the railway
+far to the westward. There are two large parks, Beardsley, in the extreme
+north part of the city, and Seaside, west of the harbour entrance and along
+the Sound; in the latter are statues of Elias Howe, who built a large
+sewing-machine factory here in 1863, and of P.T. Barnum, the showman, who
+lived in Bridgeport after 1846 and did much for the city, especially for
+East Bridgeport. In Seaside Park there is also a soldiers' and sailors'
+monument, and in the vicinity are many fine residences. The principal
+buildings are the St Vincent's and Bridgeport hospitals, the Protestant
+orphan asylum, the Barnum Institute, occupied by the Bridgeport Scientific
+and Historical Society and the Bridgeport Medical Society; and the United
+States government building, which contains the post-office and the customs
+house.
+
+In 1905 Bridgeport was the principal manufacturing centre in Connecticut,
+the capital invested in manufacturing being $49,381,348, and the products
+being valued at $44,586,519. The largest industries were the manufacture of
+corsets--the product of Bridgeport was 19.9% of the total for the United
+States in 1905, Bridgeport being the leading city in this industry--sewing
+machines (one of the factories of the Singer Manufacturing Co. is here),
+steam-fitting and heating apparatus, cartridges (the factory of the Union
+Metallic Cartridge Co. is here), automobiles, brass goods, phonographs and
+gramophones, and typewriters. There are also large foundry and machine
+shops. Here, too, are the winter headquarters of "Barnum and Bailey's
+circus" and of "Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show." Bridgeport is a port of
+entry; its imports in 1908 were valued at $656,271. Bridgeport was
+originally a part of the township of Stratford. The first settlement here
+was made in 1659. It was called Pequonnock until 1695, when its name was
+changed to Stratfield. During the War of Independence it was a centre of
+privateering. In 1800 the borough of Bridgeport was chartered, and in 1821
+the township was incorporated. The city was not chartered until 1836.
+
+See S. Orcutt's _History of the Township of Stratford and the City of
+Bridgeport_ (New Haven, 1886).
+
+BRIDGES, ROBERT (1844- ), English poet, born on the 23rd of October 1844,
+was educated at Eton and at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, and studied
+medicine in London at St Bartholomew's hospital. He was afterwards
+assistant physician at the Children's hospital, Great Ormond Street, and
+physician at the Great Northern hospital, retiring in 1882. Two years later
+he married Mary, daughter of Alfred Waterhouse, R.A. As a poet Robert
+Bridges stands rather apart from the current of modern English verse, but
+his work has had great influence in a select circle, by its restraint,
+purity, precision, and delicacy yet strength of expression; and it embodies
+a distinct theory of prosody. His chief critical works are _Milton's
+Prosody_ (1893), a volume made up of two earlier essays (1887 and 1889),
+and _John Keats, a Critical Essay_ (1895). He maintained that English
+prosody depended on the number of "stresses" in a line, not on the number
+of syllables, and that poetry should follow the rules of natural speech.
+His poetry was privately printed in the first instance, and was slow in
+making its way beyond a comparatively small circle of his admirers. His
+best work is to be found in his _Shorter Poems_ (1890), and a complete
+edition of his _Poetical Works_ (6 vols.) was published in 1898-1905. His
+chief volumes are _Prometheus_ (Oxford, 1883, privately printed), a "mask
+in the Greek Manner"; _Eros and Psyche_ (1885), a version of Apuleius; _The
+Growth of Love_, a series of sixty-nine sonnets printed for private
+circulation in 1876 and 1889; _Shorter Poems_ (1890); _Nero_ (1885), a
+historical tragedy, the second part of which appeared in 1894; _Achilles in
+Scyros_ (1890), a drama; _Palicio_ (1890), a romantic drama in the
+Elizabethan manner; _The Return of Ulysses_ (1890), a drama in five acts;
+_The Christian Captives_ (1890), a tragedy on the same subject as
+Calderon's _El Principe Constante_; _The Humours of the Court_ (1893), a
+comedy founded on the same dramatist's _El secreto a voces_ and on Lope de
+Vega's _El Perro del hortelano_; _The Feast of Bacchus_ (1889), partly
+translated from the _Heauton-Timoroumenos_ of Terence; _Hymns from the
+Yattendon Hymnal_ (Oxford, 1899); and _Demeter, a Mask_ (Oxford, 1905).
+
+[v.04 p.0533] BRIDGES. 1. _Definitions and General
+Considerations._--Bridges (old forms, _brig_, _brygge_, _brudge_; Dutch,
+_brug_; German, _Bruecke_; a common Teutonic word) are structures carrying
+roadways, waterways or railways across streams, valleys or other roads or
+railways, leaving a passage way below. Long bridges of several spans are
+often termed "viaducts," and bridges carrying canals are termed
+"aqueducts," though this term is sometimes used for waterways which have no
+bridge structure. A "culvert" is a bridge of small span giving passage to
+drainage. In railway work an "overbridge" is a bridge over the railway, and
+an "underbridge" is a bridge carrying the railway. In all countries there
+are legal regulations fixing the minimum span and height of such bridges
+and the width of roadway to be provided. Ordinarily bridges are fixed
+bridges, but there are also movable bridges with machinery for opening a
+clear and unobstructed passage way for navigation. Most commonly these are
+"swing" or "turning" bridges. "Floating" bridges are roadways carried on
+pontoons moored in a stream.
+
+In classical and medieval times bridges were constructed of timber or
+masonry, and later of brick or concrete. Then late in the 18th century
+wrought iron began to be used, at first in combination with timber or cast
+iron. Cast iron was about the same time used for arches, and some of the
+early railway bridges were built with cast iron girders. Cast iron is now
+only used for arched bridges of moderate span. Wrought iron was used on a
+large scale in the suspension road bridges of the early part of the 19th
+century. The great girder bridges over the Menai Strait and at Saltash near
+Plymouth, erected in the middle of the 19th century, were entirely of
+wrought iron, and subsequently wrought iron girder bridges were extensively
+used on railways. Since the introduction of mild steel of greater tenacity
+and toughness than wrought iron (_i.e._ from 1880 onwards) it has wholly
+superseded the latter except for girders of less than 100 ft. span. The
+latest change in the material of bridges has been the introduction of
+ferro-concrete, armoured concrete, or concrete strengthened with steel bars
+for arched bridges. The present article relates chiefly to metallic
+bridges. It is only since metal has been used that the great spans of 500
+to 1800 ft. now accomplished have been made possible.
+
+2. In a bridge there may be distinguished the _superstructure_ and the
+_substructure_. In the former the main supporting member or members may be
+an arch ring or arched ribs, suspension chains or ropes, or a pair of
+girders, beams or trusses. The bridge flooring rests on the supporting
+members, and is of very various types according to the purpose of the
+bridge. There is also in large bridges wind-bracing to stiffen the
+structure against horizontal forces. The _substructure_ consists of (a) the
+piers and end piers or abutments, the former sustaining a vertical load,
+and the latter having to resist, in addition, the oblique thrust of an
+arch, the pull of a suspension chain, or the thrust of an embankment; and
+(b) the foundations below the ground level, which are often difficult and
+costly parts of the structure, because the position of a bridge may be
+fixed by considerations which preclude the selection of a site naturally
+adapted for carrying a heavy structure.
+
+3. _Types of Bridges_.--Bridges may be classed as _arched bridges_, in
+which the principal members are in compression; _suspension bridges_, in
+which the principal members are in tension; and _girder bridges_, in which
+half the components of the principal members are in compression and half in
+tension. But there are cases of bridges of mixed type. The choice of the
+type to be adopted depends on many and complex considerations:--(1) The
+cost, having regard to the materials available. For moderate spans brick,
+masonry or concrete can be used without excessive cost, but for longer
+spans steel is more economical, and for very long spans its use is
+imperative. (2) The importance of securing permanence and small cost of
+maintenance and repairs has to be considered. Masonry and concrete are more
+durable than metal, and metal than timber. (3) Aesthetic considerations
+sometimes have great weight, especially in towns. Masonry bridges are
+preferable in appearance to any others, and metal arch bridges are less
+objectionable than most forms of girder.
+
+Most commonly the engineer has to attach great importance to the question
+of cost, and to design his structure to secure the greatest economy
+consistent with the provision of adequate strength. So long as bridge
+building was an empirical art, great waste of material was unavoidable. The
+development of the theory of structures has been largely directed to
+determining the arrangements of material which are most economical,
+especially in the superstructure. In the case of bridges of large span the
+cost and difficulty of erection are serious, and in such cases facility of
+erection becomes a governing consideration in the choice of the type to be
+adopted. In many cases the span is fixed by local conditions, such as the
+convenient sites for piers, or the requirements of waterway or navigation.
+But here also the question of economy must be taken into the reckoning. The
+cost of the superstructure increases very much as the span increases, but
+the greater the cost of the substructure, the larger the span which is
+economical. Broadly, the least costly arrangement is that in which the cost
+of the superstructure of a span is equal to that of a pier and foundation.
+
+For masonry, brick or concrete the arch subjected throughout to compression
+is the most natural form. The arch ring can be treated as a blockwork
+structure composed of rigid voussoirs. The stability of such structures
+depends on the position of the line of pressure in relation to the extrados
+and intrados of the arch ring. Generally the line of pressure lies within
+the middle half of the depth of the arch ring. In finding the line of
+pressure some principle such as the principle of least action must be used
+in determining the reactions at the crown and springings, and some
+assumptions must be made of not certain validity. Hence to give a margin of
+safety to cover contingencies not calculable, an excess of material must be
+provided. By the introduction of hinges the position of the line of
+resistance can be fixed and the stress in the arch ring determined with
+less uncertainty. In some recent masonry arched bridges of spans up to 150
+ft. built with hinges considerable economy has been obtained.
+
+For an elastic arch of metal there is a more complete theory, but it is
+difficult of application, and there remains some uncertainty unless (as is
+now commonly done) hinges are introduced at the crown and springings.
+
+In suspension bridges the principal members are in tension, and the
+introduction of iron link chains about the end of the 18th century, and
+later of wire ropes of still greater tenacity, permitted the construction
+of road bridges of this type with spans at that time impossible with any
+other system of construction. The suspension bridge dispenses with the
+compression member required in girders and with a good deal of the
+stiffening required in metal arches. On the other hand, suspension bridges
+require lofty towers and massive anchorages. The defect of the suspension
+bridge is its flexibility. It can be stiffened by girders and bracing and
+is then of mixed type, when it loses much of its advantage in economy.
+Nevertheless, the stiffened suspension bridge will probably be the type
+adopted in future for very great spans. A bridge on this system has been
+projected at New York of 3200 ft. span.
+
+The immense extension of railways since 1830 has involved the construction
+of an enormous number of bridges, and most of these are girder bridges, in
+which about half the superstructure is in tension and half in compression.
+The use of wrought iron and later of mild steel has made the construction
+of such bridges very convenient and economical. So far as superstructure is
+concerned, more material must be used than for an arch or chain, for the
+girder is in a sense a combination of arch and chain. On the other hand, a
+girder imposes only a vertical load on its piers and abutments, and not a
+horizontal thrust, as in the case of an arch or suspension chain. It is
+also easier to erect.
+
+A fundamental difference in girder bridges arises from the mode of support.
+In the simplest case the main girders are supported at the ends only, and
+if there are several spans they are _discontinuous_ or _independent_. But a
+main girder may be supported at two or more points so as to be _continuous_
+over two [v.04 p.0534] or more spans. The continuity permits economy of
+weight. In a three-span bridge the theoretical advantage of continuity is
+about 49% for a dead load and 16% for a live load. The objection to
+continuity is that very small alterations of level of the supports due to
+settlement of the piers may very greatly alter the distribution of stress,
+and render the bridge unsafe. Hence many multiple-span bridges such as the
+Hawkesbury, Benares and Chittravatti bridges have been built with
+independent spans.
+
+Lastly, some bridges are composed of cantilevers and suspended girders. The
+main girder is then virtually a continuous girder hinged at the points of
+contrary flexure, so that no ambiguity can arise as to the stresses.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Trajan's Bridge.]
+
+Whatever type of bridge is adopted, the engineer has to ascertain the loads
+to be carried, and to proportion the parts so that the stresses due to the
+loads do not exceed limits found by experience to be safe. In many
+countries the limits of working stress in public and railway bridges are
+prescribed by law. The development of theory has advanced _pari passu_ with
+the demand for bridges of greater strength and span and of more complex
+design, and there is now little uncertainty in calculating the stresses in
+any of the types of structure now adopted. In the modern metal bridge every
+member has a definite function and is subjected to a calculated straining
+action. Theory has been the guide in the development of bridge design, and
+its trustworthiness is completely recognized. The margin of uncertainty
+which must be met by empirical allowances on the side of safety has been
+steadily diminished.
+
+The larger the bridge, the more important is economy of material, not only
+because the total expenditure is more serious, but because as the span
+increases the dead weight of the structure becomes a greater fraction of
+the whole load to be supported. In fact, as the span increases a point is
+reached at which the dead weight of the superstructure becomes so large
+that a limit is imposed to any further increase of span.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Bridge of Alcantara.]
+
+HISTORY OF BRIDGE BUILDING
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Ponte Salario.]
+
+4. _Roman Bridges_.--The first bridge known to have been constructed at
+Rome over the Tiber was the timber Pons Sublicius, the bridge defended by
+Horatius. The Pons Milvius, now Ponte Molle, was reconstructed in stone by
+M. Aemilius Scaurus in 109 B.C., and some portions of the old bridge are
+believed to exist in the present structure. The arches vary from 51 to 79
+ft. span. The Pons Fabricius (mod. Ponte dei Quattro Capi), of about 62
+B.C., is practically intact; and the Pons Cestius, built probably in 46
+B.C., retains much of the original masonry. The Pons Aelius, built by
+Hadrian A.D. 134 and repaired by Pope Nicholas II. and Clement IX., is now
+the bridge of St Angelo. It had eight arches, the greatest span being 62
+ft.[1] Dio Cassius mentions a bridge, possibly 3000 to 4000 ft. in length,
+built by Trajan over the Danube in A.D. 104. Some piers are said still to
+exist. A bas-relief on the Trajan column shows this bridge with masonry
+piers and timber arches, but the representation is probably conventional
+(fig. 1). Trajan also constructed the bridge of Alcantara in Spain (fig.
+2), of a total length of 670 ft., at 210 ft. above the stream. This had six
+arches and was built of stone blocks without cement. The bridge of Narses,
+built in the 6th century (fig. 3), carried the Via Salaria over the Anio.
+It was destroyed in 1867, during the approach of Garibaldi to Rome. It had
+a fortification such as became usual in later bridges for defence or for
+the enforcement of tolls. The great lines of aqueducts built by Roman
+engineers, and dating from 300 B.C. onwards, where they are carried above
+ground, are arched bridge structures of remarkable magnitude (see
+AQUEDUCTS, Sec. _Roman_). They are generally of brick and concrete.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--First Span of Schaffhausen Bridge.]
+
+5. _Medieval and other Early Bridges_.--Bridges with stone piers and timber
+superstructures were no doubt constructed from Roman times onward, but they
+have perished. Fig. 4 shows a timber bridge erected by the brothers
+Grubenmann at Schaffhausen about the middle of the 18th century. It had
+spans of 172 and 193 ft., and may be taken as a representative type of
+bridges of this kind. The Wittingen bridge by the same engineers had a span
+of 390 ft., probably the longest timber [v.04 p.0535] span ever
+constructed. Of stone bridges in Great Britain, the earliest were the
+cyclopean bridges still existing on Dartmoor, consisting of stone piers
+bridged by stone slabs. The bridge over the East Dart near Tavistock had
+three piers, with slabs 15 ft. by 6 ft. (Smiles, _Lives of the Engineers,_
+ii. 43). It is reputed to have lasted for 2000 years.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Crowland Bridge.]
+
+The curious bridge at Crowland near Peterborough (fig. 5) which now spans
+roadways, the streams which formerly flowed under it having been diverted,
+is one of the earliest known stone bridges in England. It is referred to in
+a charter of the year 943. It was probably built by the abbots. The first
+bridges over the Thames at London were no doubt of timber. William of
+Malmesbury mentions the existence of a bridge in 994. J. Stow (_Survey of
+the Cities of London and Westminster_) describes the building of the first
+stone bridge commonly called Old London Bridge: "About the year 1176, the
+stone bridge was begun to be founded by Peter of Colechurch, near unto the
+bridge of timber, but more towards the west." It carried timber houses
+(fig. 6) which were frequently burned down, yet the main structure existed
+till the beginning of the 19th century. The span of the arches ranged from
+10 to 33 ft., and the total waterway was only 337 ft. The waterway of the
+present London Bridge is 690 ft., and the removal of the obstruction caused
+by the old bridge caused a lowering of the low-water level by 5 ft., and a
+considerable deepening of the river-bed. (See Smiles, _Lives of the
+Engineers_, "Rennie.")
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Old London Bridge, A.D. 1600. From a Drawing in the
+Pepysian Library Magdalene College, Cambridge.
+
+From J. R Green's _A Short History of the English People_, by permission of
+Macmillan & Co., Ltd.]
+
+The architects of the Renaissance showed great boldness in their designs. A
+granite arch built in 1377 over the Adda at Trezzo had a span at low water
+of 251 ft. This noble bridge was destroyed for military reasons by
+Carmagnola in 1416. The Rialto bridge at Venice, with a span of 91 ft., was
+built in 1588 by Antonio da Ponte. Fig. 7 shows the beautiful Ponte della
+Trinita erected at Florence in 1566 from the design of B. Ammanati.
+
+6. _Modern Bridges._--(a) _Timber._--In England timber bridges of
+considerable span, either braced trusses or laminated arches (_i.e._ arches
+of planks bolted together), were built for some of the earlier railways,
+particularly the Great Western and the Manchester, Sheffield &
+Lincolnshire. They have mostly been replaced, decay having taken place at
+the joints. Timber bridges of large span were constructed in America
+between the end of the 18th and the middle of the 19th century. The
+Amoskeag bridge over the Merrimac at Manchester, N.H., U.S.A., built in
+1792, had 6 spans of 92 ft. The Bellows Falls bridge over the Connecticut
+(built 1785-1792) had 2 spans of 184 ft. The singular Colossus bridge,
+built in 1812 over the Schuylkill, a kind of flat arched truss, had a span
+of 340 ft. Some of these timber bridges are said to have lasted ninety
+years with ordinary repairs, but they were road bridges not heavily loaded.
+From 1840, trusses, chiefly of timber but with wrought-iron tension-rods
+and cast-iron shoes, were adopted in America. The Howe truss of 1830 and
+the Pratt truss of 1844 are examples. The Howe truss had timber chords and
+a lattice of timber struts, with vertical iron ties. In the Pratt truss the
+struts were vertical and the ties inclined. Down to 1850 such bridges were
+generally limited to 150 ft. span. The timber was white pine. As railway
+loads increased and greater spans were demanded, the Howe truss was
+stiffened by timber arches on each side of each girder. Such a composite
+structure is, however, fundamentally defective, the distribution of loading
+to the two independent systems being indeterminate. Remarkably high timber
+piers were built. The Genesee viaduct, 800 ft. in length, built in
+1851-1852 in 10 spans, had timber trestle piers 190 ft. in height. (See
+Mosse, "American Timber Bridges," _Proc. Inst. C.E._ xxii. p. 305, and for
+more modern examples, cxlii. p. 409; and clv. p. 382; Cooper, "American
+Railroad Bridges," _Trans. Am. Soc. C.E._ vol. xxi pp. 1-28.) These timber
+framed structures served as models for the earlier metal trusses which
+began to be used soon after 1850, and which, except in a few localities
+where iron is costly, have quite superseded them.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Ponte della Trinita, Florence.]
+
+7. (b) _Masonry._--The present London Bridge, begun in 1824 and completed
+in 1831, is as fine an example of a masonry arch structure as can be found
+(figs. 8 and 9). The design was made by John Rennie the elder, and the
+acting engineer was his son, Sir John Rennie. The semi-elliptical shape of
+the arches the variation of span, the slight curvature of the roadway, and
+the simple yet bold architectural details, combine to make it a singularly
+beautiful bridge. The centre arch has a span of 152 ft., and rises 29 ft. 6
+in above Trinity high-water mark; the arches on each side of the centre
+have a span of 140 ft. and the abutment arches 130 ft. The total length of
+the bridge is 1005 ft., its width from outside to outside 56 ft., and
+height above low [v.04 p.0536] water 60 ft. The two centre piers are 24 ft.
+thick, the exterior stones are granite, the interior, half Bramley Fall and
+half from Painshaw, Derbyshire. The voussoirs of the centre arch (all of
+granite) are 4 ft. 9 in. deep at the crown, and increase to not less than 9
+ft. at the springing. The general depth at which the foundations are laid
+is about 29 ft. 6 in. below low water. The total cost was L1,458,311, but
+the contractor's tender for the bridge alone was L425,081.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--London New Bridge.]
+
+Since 1867 it had been recognized that London Bridge was inadequate to
+carry the traffic passing over it, and a scheme for widening it was adopted
+in 1900. This was carried out in 1902-1904, the footways being carried on
+granite corbels, on which are mounted cornices and open parapets. The width
+between parapets is now 65 ft., giving a roadway of 35 ft. and two footways
+of 15 ft. each. The architect was Andrew Murray and the engineer, G. E. W.
+Cruttwell. (Cole, _Proc. Inst. C.E._ clxi. p. 290.)
+
+The largest masonry arch is the Adolphe bridge in Luxemburg, erected in
+1900-1903. This has a span of 278 ft., 138 ft. rise above the river, and
+102 ft. from foundation to crown. The thickness of the arch is 4 ft. 8 in.
+at the crown and 7 ft. 2 in. where it joins the spandrel masonry. The
+roadway is 52 ft. 6 in. wide. The bridge is not continuous in width, there
+are arch rings on each face, each 16.4 ft. wide with a space between of
+19.7 ft. This space is filled with a flooring of reinforced concrete,
+resting on the two arches, and carrying the central roadway. By the method
+adopted the total masonry has been reduced one-third. One centering was
+used for the two arch rings, supported on dwarf walls which formed a
+slipway, along which it was moved after the first was built.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Half Elevation and Half Section of Arch of London
+Bridge.]
+
+Till near the end of the 19th century bridges of masonry or brickwork were
+so constructed that they had to be treated as rigid blockwork structures.
+The stability of such structures depends on the position of the line of
+pressure relatively to the intrados and extrados of the arch ring.
+Generally, so far as could be ascertained, the line of pressure lies within
+the middle half of the depth of the voussoirs. In finding the abutment
+reactions some principle such as the principle of least action must be
+used, and some assumptions of doubtful validity made. But if hinges are
+introduced at crown and springings, the calculation of the stresses in the
+arch ring becomes simple, as the line of pressures must pass through the
+hinges. Such hinges have been used not only for metal arches, but in a
+modified form for masonry and concrete arches. Three cases therefore arise:
+(a) The arch is rigid at crown and springings; (b) the arch is two-hinged
+(hinges at springings); (c) the arch is three-hinged (hinges at crown and
+springings). For an elementary account of the theory of arches, hinged or
+not, reference may be made to a paper by H. M. Martin (_Proc. Inst. C. E._
+vol. xciii. p. 462); and for that of the elastic arch, to a paper by
+A.E.Young (_Proc. Inst. C.E._ vol. cxxxi. p. 323).
+
+In Germany and America two- and three-hinged arches of masonry and concrete
+have been built, up to 150 ft. span, with much economy, and the
+calculations being simple, an engineer can venture to work closely to the
+dimensions required by theory. For hinges, Leibbrand, of Stuttgart, uses
+sheets of lead about 1 in. thick extending over the middle third of the
+depth of the voussoir joints, the rest of the joints being left open. As
+the lead is plastic this construction is virtually an articulation. If the
+pressure on the lead is uniformly varying, the centre of pressure must be
+within the middle third of the width of the lead; that is, it cannot
+deviate from the centre of the voussoir joint by more than one-eighteenth
+of its depth. In any case the position of the line of pressures is confined
+at the lead articulations within very narrow limits, and ambiguity as to
+the stresses is greatly diminished. The restricted area on which the
+pressure acts at the lead joints involves greater intensity of stress than
+has been usual in arched bridges. In the Wuerttemberg hinged arches a limit
+of stress of 110 tons per sq. ft. was allowed, while in the unhinged arches
+at Cologne and Coblentz the limit was 50 to 60 tons per sq. ft. (_Annales
+des Fonts et Chaussees_, 1891). At Rechtenstein a bridge of two concrete
+arches has been constructed, span 751/2 ft., with lead articulations: width
+of arch 11 ft.; depth of arch at crown and springing 2.1 and 2.96 ft.
+respectively. The stresses were calculated to be 15, 17 and 12 tons per sq.
+ft. at crown, joint of rupture, and springing respectively. At Cincinnati a
+concrete arch of 70 ft. span has been built, with a rise of 10 ft. The
+concrete is reinforced by eleven 9-in. steel-rolled joists, spaced 3 ft.
+apart and supported by a cross-channel joist at each springing. The arch is
+15 in. thick at the crown and 4 ft. at the abutments. The concrete
+consisted of 1 cement, 2 sand and 3 to 4 broken stone. An important series
+of experiments on the strength of masonry, brick and concrete structures
+will be found in the _Zeitschr. des oesterreichen Ing. und Arch. Vereines_
+(1895).
+
+The thermal coefficient of expansion of steel and concrete is nearly the
+same, otherwise changes of temperature would cause shearing stress at the
+junction of the two materials. If the two materials are disposed
+symmetrically, the amount of load carried by each would be in direct
+proportion to the coefficient of elasticity and inversely as the moment of
+inertia of the cross section. But it is usual in many cases to provide a
+sufficient section of steel to carry all the tension. For concrete the
+coefficient of elasticity E varies with the amount of stress and diminishes
+as the ratio of sand and stone to cement increases. Its value is generally
+taken at 1,500,000 to 3,000,000 lb per sq. in. For steel E = 28,000,000 to
+30,000,000, or on the average about twelve times its value for concrete.
+The maximum compressive working stress on the concrete may be 500 lb per
+sq. in., the tensile working stress 50 lb per sq. in., and the working
+shearing stress 75 lb per sq. in. The tensile stress on the steel may be
+16,000 lb per sq. in. The amount of steel in the structure may vary from
+0.75 to 1.5%. The concrete not only affords much of the strength to resist
+compression, but effectively protects the steel from corrosion.
+
+8. (c) _Suspension Bridges._--A suspension bridge consists of two or more
+chains, constructed of links connected by pins, or of twisted wire strands,
+or of wires laid parallel. The chains pass over lofty piers on which they
+usually rest on saddles carried by rollers, and are led down on either side
+to anchorages in rock chambers. A level platform is hung from the chains by
+suspension rods. In the suspension bridge iron or steel can be used in its
+strongest form, namely hard-drawn wire. Iron suspension bridges began to be
+used at the end of the 18th century for road bridges with spans
+unattainable at that time in any other system. In 1819 T. Telford began the
+construction of the Menai bridge (fig. 10), the span being 570 ft. and the
+dip 43 ft. This bridge suffered some injury in a storm, but it is still in
+good condition and one of the most graceful of bridges. Other bridges built
+soon after were the Fribourg bridge of 870 ft. span, the Hammersmith bridge
+of 422 ft. span, and the Pest bridge of 666 ft. span. The merit of the
+simple suspension bridge is its cheapness, and its defect is its
+flexibility. This last becomes less [v.04 p.0537] serious as the dead
+weight of the structure becomes large in proportion to the live or
+temporary load. It is, therefore, a type specially suited for great spans.
+Some suspension bridges have broken down in consequence of the oscillations
+produced by bodies of men marching in step. In 1850 a suspension bridge at
+Angers gave way when 487 soldiers were marching over it, and 226 were
+killed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Menai Suspension Bridge.]
+
+To obtain greater stiffness various plans have been adopted. In the Ordish
+system a certain number of intermediate points in the span are supported by
+oblique chains, on which girders rest. The Ordish bridge built at Prague in
+1868 had oblique chains supporting the stiffening girders at intermediate
+points of the span. A curved chain supported the oblique chains and kept
+them straight. In 1860 a bridge was erected over the Danube canal at
+Vienna, of 264 ft. span which had two parallel chains one above the other
+and 4 ft. apart on each side of the bridge. The chains of each pair were
+connected by bracing so that they formed a stiff inverted arch resisting
+deformation under unequal loading. The bridge carried a railway, but it
+proved weak owing to errors of calculation, and it was taken down in 1884.
+The principle was sound and has been proposed at various times. About 1850
+it was perceived that a bridge stiff enough to carry railway trains could
+be constructed by combining supporting chains with stiffening girders
+suspended from them. W. J. M. Rankine proved (_Applied Mechanics_, p. 370)
+that the necessary strength of a stiffening girder would be only
+one-seventh part of that of an independent girder of the same span as the
+bridge, suited to carry the same moving load (not including the dead weight
+of the girder which is supported by the chain). (See "Suspension Bridge
+with Stiffened Roadway," by Sir G. Airy, and the discussion, _Proc. Inst,
+C.E._, 1867, xxvi. p. 258; also "Suspension Bridges with Stiffening
+Girders," by Max am Ende, _Proc. Inst. C.E._ cxxxvii. p. 306.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Niagara Suspension Bridge.]
+
+The most remarkable bridge constructed on this system was the Niagara
+bridge built by J. A. Roebling in 1852-1855 (fig. 11). The span was 821
+ft., much the largest of any railway bridge at that time, and the height
+above the river 245 ft. There were four suspension cables, each 10 in. in
+diameter; each was composed of seven strands, containing 520 parallel
+wires, or 3640 wires in each cable. Each cable was carried on a separate
+saddle on rollers on each pier. The stiffening girder, constructed chiefly
+of timber, was a box-shaped braced girder 18 ft. deep and 25 ft. wide,
+carrying the railway on top and a roadway within. After various repairs and
+strengthenings, including the replacement of the timber girder by an iron
+one in 1880, this bridge in 1896-1897 was taken down and a steel arch built
+in its place. It was not strong enough to deal with the increasing weight
+of railway traffic. In 1836 I. K. Brunei constructed the towers and
+abutments for a suspension bridge of 702 ft. span at Clifton over the Avon,
+but the project was not then carried further; in 1860, however, the link
+chains of the Hungerford suspension bridge which was being taken down were
+available at small cost, and these were used to complete the bridge. There
+are three chains on each side, of one and two links alternately, and these
+support wrought iron stiffening girders. There are wrought iron saddles and
+steel rollers on the piers. At 196 ft. on either side from the towers the
+chains are carried over similar saddles without rollers, and thence at 45 deg.
+with the horizontal down to the anchorages. Each chain has an anchor plate
+5 ft. by 6 ft. The links are 24 ft. long at the centre of the bridge, and
+longer as they are more inclined, so that their horizontal projection is 24
+ft. The chains are so arranged that there is a suspending rod at each 8
+ft., attached at the joint of one of the three chains. For erection a
+suspended platform was constructed on eight wire ropes, on which the chains
+were laid out and connected. Another wire rope with a travelling carriage
+took out the links. The sectional area of the chains is 481 sq. in. at the
+piers and 440 sq. in. at the centre. The two stiffening girders are plate
+girders 3 ft. deep with flanges of 11 sq. in. area. In addition, the hand
+railing on each side forms a girder 4 ft. 9 in. deep, with flanges 41/2 sq.
+in. area.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Williamsburg Suspension Bridge.]
+
+Of later bridges of great span, perhaps the bridges over the East river at
+New York are the most remarkable. The Brooklyn bridge, begun in 1872, has a
+centre span of 15951/2 and side spans of 930 ft. The Brooklyn approach being
+971 ft., and the New York approach 15621/2 ft., the total length of the
+bridge is 5989 ft. There are four cables which carry a promenade, a roadway
+and an electric railway. The stiffening girders of the main span are 40 ft.
+deep and 67 ft. apart. The saddles for the chains are 329 ft. above high
+water. The cables are 153/4 in. in diameter. Each cable has 19 strands of 278
+parallel steel wires, 7 B.W.G. Each wire is taken separately across the
+river and its length adjusted. Roebling preferred parallel wires as 10 %
+stronger than twisted wires. Each strand when made up and clamped was
+lowered to its position. The Williamsburg bridge (fig. 12), begun in 1897
+and opened for traffic in 1903, has a span of 1600 ft., a versed sine of
+176 ft., and a width of 118 ft. It has two decks, and carries two elevated
+railway tracks, four electric tramcar lines, two carriageways, two footways
+and two [v.04 p.0538] bicycle paths. There are four cables, one on each
+side of the two main trusses or stiffening girders. These girders are
+supported by the cables over the centre span but not in the side spans.
+Intermediate piers support the trusses in the side spans. The cables are
+183/4 in. in diameter; each weighs about 1116 tons, and has a nominal
+breaking strength of 22,320 tons, the actual breaking strength being
+probably greater. The saddles are 332 ft. above the water. The four cables
+support a dead load of 7140 tons and a live load of 4017 tons. Each cable
+is composed of 37 strands of 208 wires, or 7696 parallel steel wires, No. 8
+B.W.G., or about 3/16 in. in diameter. The wire was required to have a
+tensile strength of 89 tons per sq. in., and 21/2% elongation in 5 ft. and 5%
+in 8 in. Cast steel clamps hold the cable together, and to these the
+suspending rods are attached. The cables are wrapped in cotton duck soaked
+in oxidized oil and varnish, and are sheathed in sheet iron. A later
+bridge, the Manhattan, is designed to carry four railway tracks and four
+tramway lines, with a wide roadway and footpaths, supported by cables 211/4
+in. in diameter, each composed of 9472 galvanized steel wires 3/16 in. in
+diameter.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Tower Bridge, London.]
+
+The Tower Bridge, London (fig. 13), is a suspension bridge with a secondary
+bascule bridge in the centre span to permit the passage of ships. Two main
+towers in the river and two towers on the shore abutments carry the
+suspension chains. The opening bridge between the river towers consists of
+two leaves or bascules, pivoted near the faces of the piers and rotating in
+a vertical plane. When raised, the width of 200 ft. between the main river
+piers is unobstructed up to the high-level foot-bridge, which is 141 ft.
+above Trinity H.W. The clear width of the two shore spans is 270 ft. The
+total length of the bridge is 940 ft., and that of the approaches 1260 ft.
+on the north and 780 ft. on the south. The width of the bridge between
+parapets is 60 ft., except across the centre span, where it is 49 ft. The
+main towers consist of a skeleton of steel, enclosed in a facing of granite
+and Portland stone, backed with brickwork. There are two high-level
+footways for use when the bascules are raised, the main girders of which
+are of the cantilever and suspended girder type. The cantilevers are fixed
+to the shore side of the towers. The middle girders are 120 ft. in length
+and attached to the cantilevers by links. The main suspension chains are
+carried across the centre span in the form of horizontal ties resting on
+the high-level footway girders. These ties are jointed to the hanging
+chains by pins 20 in. in diameter with a ring in halves surrounding it 5
+in. thick. One half ring is rigidly attached to the tie and one to the
+hanging chain, so that the wear due to any movement is distributed over the
+length of the pin. A rocker bearing under these pins transmits the load at
+the joint to the steel columns of the towers. The abutment towers are
+similar to the river towers. On the abutment towers the chains are
+connected by horizontal links, carried on rockers, to anchor ties. The
+suspension chains are constructed in the form of braced girders, so that
+they are stiff against unsymmetrical loading. Each chain over a shore span
+consists of two segments, the longer attached to the tie at the top of the
+river tower, the shorter to the link at the top of the abutment tower, and
+the two jointed together at the lowest point. Transverse girders are hung
+from the chains at distances of 18 ft. There are fifteen main transverse
+girders to each shore span, with nine longitudinal girders between each
+pair. The trough flooring, 3/8 in. thick and 6 in. deep, is riveted to the
+longitudinals. The anchor ties are connected to girders embedded in large
+concrete blocks in the foundations of the approach viaducts.
+
+The two bascules are each constructed with four main girders. Over the
+river these are lattice girders, with transverse girders 12 ft. apart, and
+longitudinal and subsidiary transverse girders dividing the floor into
+rectangles 3 ft. by 31/2 ft. covered with buckled plates. The roadway is of
+pine blocks dowelled. The bascules rotate through an angle of 82 deg., and
+their rear ends in the bascule chambers of the piers carry 365 tons of
+counterweight, the total weight of each being 1070 tons. They rotate on
+steel shafts 21 in. in diameter and 48 ft. long, and the bascules can be
+lifted or lowered in one minute, but usually the time taken is one and a
+half minutes. They are worked by hydraulic machinery.
+
+9. (d) _Iron and Steel Girder Bridges._--The main supporting members are
+two or more horizontal beams, girders or trusses. The girders carry a floor
+or platform either on top (_deck_ bridges) or near the bottom (_through_
+bridges). The platform is variously constructed. For railway bridges it
+commonly consists of cross girders, attached to or resting on the main
+girders, and longitudinal rail girders or stringers carried by the cross
+girders and directly supporting the sleepers and rails. For spans over 75
+ft., expansion due to change of temperature is provided for by carrying one
+end of each chain girder on rollers placed between the bearing-plate on the
+girder and the bed-plate on the pier or abutment.
+
+Fig. 14 shows the roller bed of a girder of the Kuilenburg bridge of 490
+ft. span. It will be seen that the girder directly rests on a cylindrical
+pin or rocker so placed as to distribute the load uniformly to all the
+rollers. The pressure on the rollers is limited to about p = 600 d in lb
+per in. length of roller, where d is the diameter of the roller in inches.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.--Roller Bed of a Girder.]
+
+In the girders of bridges the horizontal girder is almost exclusively
+subjected to vertical loading forces. Investigation of the internal
+stresses, which balance the external forces, shows that most of the
+material should be arranged in a top flange, boom or chord, subjected to
+compression, and a bottom flange or chord, subjected to tension. (See
+STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.) Connecting the flanges is a vertical web which may
+be a solid plate or a system of bracing bars. In any case, though the exact
+form of cross section of girders varies very much, it is virtually an I
+section (fig. 15). The function of the flanges is to resist a horizontal
+tension and compression distributed practically uniformly on their cross
+sections. The web resists forces equivalent [v.04 p.0539] to a shear on
+vertical and horizontal planes. The inclined tensions and compressions in
+the bars of a braced web are equivalent to this shear. The horizontal
+stresses in the flanges are greatest at the centre of a span. The stresses
+in the web are greatest at the ends of the span. In the most numerous cases
+the flanges or chords are parallel. But girders may have curved chords and
+then the stresses in the web are diminished.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Flanged Girder.]
+
+At first girders had solid or plate webs, but for spans over 100 ft. the
+web always now consists of bracing bars. In some girder bridges the members
+are connected entirely by riveting, in others the principal members are
+connected by pin joints. The pin system of connexion used in the Chepstow,
+Saltash, Newark Dyke and other early English bridges is now rarely used in
+Europe. But it is so commonly used in America as to be regarded as a
+distinctive American feature. With pin connexions some weight is saved in
+the girders, and erection is a little easier. In early pin bridges
+insufficient bearing area was allowed between the pins and parts connected,
+and they worked loose. In some cases riveted covers had to be substituted
+for the pins. The proportions are now better understood. Nevertheless the
+tendency is to use riveted connexions in preference to pins, and in any
+case to use pins for tension members only.
+
+On the first English railways cast iron girder bridges for spans of 20 to
+66 ft. were used, and in some cases these were trussed with wrought iron.
+When in 1845 the plans for carrying the Chester and Holyhead railway over
+the Menai Straits were considered, the conditions imposed by the admiralty
+in the interests of navigation involved the adoption of a new type of
+bridge. There was an idea of using suspension chains combined with a
+girder, and in fact the tower piers were built so as to accommodate chains.
+But the theory of such a combined structure could not be formulated at that
+time, and it was proved, partly by experiment, that a simple tubular girder
+of wrought iron was strong enough to carry the railway. The Britannia
+bridge (fig. 16) has two spans of 460 and two of 230 ft. at 104 ft. above
+high water. It consists of a pair of tubular girders with solid or plate
+sides stiffened by angle irons, one line of rails passing through each
+tube. Each girder is 1511 ft. long and weighs 4680 tons. In cross section
+(fig. 17), it is 15 ft. wide and varies in depth from 23 ft. at the ends to
+30 ft. at the centre. Partly to counteract any tendency to buckling under
+compression and partly for convenience in assembling a great mass of
+plates, the top and bottom were made cellular, the cells being just large
+enough to permit passage for painting. The total area of the cellular top
+flange of the large-span girders is 648 sq. in., and of the bottom 585 sq.
+in. As no scaffolding could be used for the centre spans, the girders were
+built on shore, floated out and raised by hydraulic presses. The credit for
+the success of the Conway and Britannia bridges must be divided between the
+engineers. Robert Stephenson and William Fairbairn, and Eaton Hodgkinson,
+who assisted in the experimental tests and in formulating the imperfect
+theory then available. The Conway bridge was first completed, and the first
+train passed through the Britannia bridge in 1850. Though each girder has
+been made continuous over the four spans it has not quite the proportions
+over the piers which a continuous girder should have, and must be regarded
+as an imperfectly continuous girder. The spans were in fact designed as
+independent girders, the advantage of continuity being at that time
+imperfectly known. The vertical sides of the girders are stiffened so that
+they amount to 40% of the whole weight. This was partly necessary to meet
+the uncertain conditions in floating when the distribution of supporting
+forces was unknown and there were chances of distortion.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.--Britannia Bridge.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.--Britannia Bridge (Cross Section of Tubular
+Girder).]
+
+Wrought iron and, later, steel plate web girders were largely used for
+railway bridges in England after the construction of the Conway and Menai
+bridges, and it was in the discussions arising during their design that the
+proper function of the vertical web between the top and bottom flanges of a
+girder first came to be understood. The proportion of depth to span in the
+Britannia bridge was 1/16. But so far as the flanges are concerned the
+stress [v.04 p.0540] to be resisted varies inversely as the depth of the
+girder. It would be economical, therefore, to make the girder very deep.
+This, however, involves a much heavier web, and therefore for any type of
+girder there must be a ratio of depth to span which is most economical. In
+the case of the plate web there must be a considerable excess of material,
+partly to stiffen it against buckling and partly because an excess of
+thickness must be provided to reduce the effect of corrosion. It was soon
+found that with plate webs the ratio of depth to span could not be
+economically increased beyond 1/15 to 1/12. On the other hand a framed or
+braced web afforded opportunity for much better arrangement of material,
+and it very soon became apparent that open web or lattice or braced girders
+were more economical of material than solid web girders, except for small
+spans. In America such girders were used from the first and naturally
+followed the general design of the earlier timber bridges. Now plate web
+girders are only used for spans of less than 100 ft.
+
+Three types of bracing for the web very early developed--the Warren type in
+which the bracing bars form equilateral triangles, the Whipple Murphy in
+which the struts are vertical and the ties inclined, and the lattice in
+which both struts and ties are inclined at equal angles, usually 45 deg. with
+the horizontal. The earliest published theoretical investigations of the
+stresses in bracing bars were perhaps those in the paper by W.T. Doyne and
+W.B. Blood (_Proc. Inst. C.E._, 1851, xi. p. 1), and the paper by J.
+Barton, "On the economic distribution of material in the sides of wrought
+iron beams" (_Proc. Inst. C.E._, 1855, xiv. p. 443).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18.--Span of Saltash Bridge.]
+
+The Boyne bridge, constructed by Barton in Ireland, in 1854-1855, was a
+remarkable example of the confidence with which engineers began to apply
+theory in design. It was a bridge for two lines of railway with lattice
+girders continuous over three spans. The centre span was 264 ft., and the
+side spans 138 ft. 8 in.; depth 22 ft. 6 in. Not only were the bracing bars
+designed to calculated stresses, and the continuity of the girders taken
+into account, but the validity of the calculations was tested by a
+verification on the actual bridge of the position of the points of contrary
+flexure of the centre span. At the calculated position of one of the points
+of contrary flexure all the rivets of the top boom were cut out, and by
+lowering the end of the girder over the side span one inch, the joint was
+opened 1/32 in. Then the rivets were cut out similarly at the other point
+of contrary flexure and the joint opened. The girder held its position with
+both joints severed, proving that, as should be the case, there was no
+stress in the boom where the bending moment changes sign.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.--Newark Dyke Bridge and Section of Newark Dyke
+Bridge]
+
+By curving the top boom of a girder to form an arch and the bottom boom to
+form a suspension chain, the need of web except for non-uniform loading is
+obviated. I.K. Brunel adopted this principle for the Saltash bridge near
+Plymouth, built soon after the Britannia bridge. It has two spans of 455
+ft. and seventeen smaller spans, the roadway being 100 ft. above high
+water. The top boom of each girder is an elliptical wrought iron tube 17
+ft. wide by 12 ft. deep. The lower boom is a pair of chains, of
+wrought-iron links, 14 in each chain, of 7 in. by 1 in. section, the links
+being connected by pins. The suspending rods and cross bracing are very
+light. The depth of the girder at the centre is about one-eighth of the
+span.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.--Fink Truss.]
+
+In both England and America in early braced bridges cast iron, generally in
+the form of tubes circular or octagonal in section, was used for
+compression members, and wrought iron for the tension members. Fig. 19
+shows the Newark Dyke bridge on the Great Northern railway over the Trent.
+It was a pin-jointed Warren girder bridge erected from designs by C.M. Wild
+in 1851-1853. The span between supports was 259 ft., the clear span 2401/2
+ft.; depth between joint pins 16 ft. There were four girders, two to each
+line of way. The top flange consisted of cast iron hollow castings butted
+end to end, and the struts were of cast iron. The lower flange and ties
+were flat wrought iron links. This bridge has now been replaced by a
+stronger bridge to carry the greater loads imposed by modern traffic. Fig.
+20 shows a Fink truss, a characteristic early American type, with cast iron
+compression and wrought iron tension members. The bridge is a deck bridge,
+the railway being carried on top. The transfer of the loads to the ends of
+the bridge by [v.04 p.0541] long ties is uneconomical, and this type has
+disappeared. The Warren type, either with two sets of bracing bars or with
+intermediate verticals, affords convenient means of supporting the floor
+girders. In 1869 a bridge of 390 ft. span was built on this system at
+Louisville.
+
+Amongst remarkable American girder bridges may be mentioned the Ohio bridge
+on the Cincinnati & Covington railway, which is probably the largest girder
+span constructed. The centre span is 550 ft. and the side spans 490
+ft.--centre to centre of piers. The girders are independent polygonal
+girders. The centre girder has a length of 545 ft. and a depth of 84 ft.
+between pin centres. It is 67 ft. between parapets, and carries two lines
+of railway, two carriageways, and two footways. The cross girders,
+stringers and wind-bracing are wrought iron, the rest of mild steel. The
+bridge was constructed in 1888 by the Phoenix Bridge Company, and was
+erected on staging. The total weight of iron and steel in three spans was
+about 5000 tons.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Typical Cantilever Bridge.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22.]
+
+10. (e) _Cantilever Bridges._--It has been stated that if in a girder
+bridge of three or more spans, the girders were made continuous there would
+be an important economy of material, but that the danger of settlement of
+the supports, which would seriously alter the points of contrary flexure or
+points where the bending moment changes sign, and therefore the magnitude
+and distribution of the stresses, generally prevents the adoption of
+continuity. If, however, hinges or joints are introduced at the points of
+contrary flexure, they become necessarily points where the bending moment
+is zero and ambiguity as to the stresses vanishes. The exceptional local
+conditions at the site of the Forth bridge led to the adoption there of the
+cantilever system, till then little considered. Now it is well understood
+that in many positions this system is the simplest and most economical
+method of bridging. It is available for spans greater than those
+practicable with independent girders; in fact, on this system the spans are
+virtually reduced to smaller spans so far as the stresses are concerned.
+There is another advantage which in many cases is of the highest
+importance. The cantilevers can be built out from the piers, member by
+member, without any temporary scaffolding below, so that navigation is not
+interrupted, the cost of scaffolding is saved, and the difficulty of
+building in deep water is obviated. The centre girder may be built on the
+cantilevers and rolled into place or lifted from the water-level. Fig. 21
+shows a typical cantilever bridge of American design. In this case the
+shore ends of the cantilevers are anchored to the abutments. J.A.L. Waddell
+has shown that, in some cases, it is convenient to erect simple independent
+spans, by building them out as cantilevers and converting them into
+independent girders after erection. Fig. 22 shows girders erected in this
+way, the dotted lines being temporary members during erection, which are
+removed afterwards. The side spans are erected first on staging and
+anchored to the piers. From these, by the aid of the temporary members, the
+centre span is built out from both sides. The most important cantilever
+bridges so far erected or projected are as follows:--
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23.--Forth Bridge.]
+
+(1) The Forth bridge (fig. 23). The original design was for a stiffened
+suspension bridge, but after the fall of the Tay bridge in 1879 this was
+abandoned. The bridge, which was begun in 1882 and completed in 1889, is at
+the only narrowing of the Forth in a distance of 50 m., at a point where
+the channel, about a mile in width, is divided by the island of Inchgarvie.
+The length of the cantilever bridge is 5330 ft., made up thus: central
+tower on Inchgarvie 260 ft.; Fife and Queensferry piers each 145 ft.; two
+central girders between cantilevers each 350 ft.; and six cantilevers each
+680 ft. The two main spans are each 1710 ft. The clear headway is 157 ft.,
+and the extreme height of the towers above high water 361 ft. The outer
+ends of the shore cantilevers are loaded to balance half the weight of the
+central girder, the rolling load, and 200 tons in addition. An internal
+viaduct of lattice girders carries a double line of rails. Provision is
+made for longitudinal expansion due to change of temperature, for
+distortion due to the sun acting on one side of the structure, and for the
+wind acting on one side of the bridge. The amount of steel used was 38,000
+tons exclusive of approach viaducts. (See _The Forth Bridge_, by W.
+Westhofen; _Reports of the British Association_ (1884 and 1885); _Die Forth
+Bruecke_, von G. Barkhausen (Berlin, 1889); _The Forth Bridge_, by Philip
+Phillips (1890); Vernon Harcourt, _Proc. Inst. C.E._ cxxi. p. 309.)
+
+(2) The Niagara bridge of a total length of 910 ft., for two lines of
+railway. Clear span between towers 495 ft. Completed in 1883, and more
+recently strengthened (_Proc. Inst. C.E._ cvii. p. 18, and cxliv. p. 331).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.--Lansdowne Bridge.]
+
+(3) The Lansdowne bridge (completed 1889) at Sukkur, over the Indus. The
+clear span is 790 ft., and the suspended girder 200 ft. in length. The span
+to the centres of the end uprights is 820 ft.; width between centres of
+main uprights at bed-plate 100 ft., and between centres of main members at
+end of cantilevers 20 ft. The bridge is for a single line of railway of 5
+ft. 6 in. gauge. The back guys are the most heavily strained part of the
+structure, the stress provided for being 1200 tons. This is due to the half
+weight of centre girder, the weight of the cantilever itself, the rolling
+load on half the bridge, and the wind pressure. The anchors are built up of
+steel plates and angle, bars, and are buried in a large mass of concrete.
+The area of each anchor plate, normal to the line of stress, is 32 ft. by
+12 ft. The bridge was designed by Sir A. Rendel, the consulting engineer to
+the Indian government (_Proc. Inst. C.E._ ciii. p. 123).
+
+(4) The Red Rock cantilever bridge over the Colorado river, with a centre
+span of 660 ft.
+
+(5) The Poughkeepsie bridge over the Hudson, built 1886-1887. There are
+five river and two shore spans. The girders over the second and fourth
+spans are extended as cantilevers over the adjoining spans. The shore piers
+carry cantilevers projecting one way over the river openings and the other
+way over a shore span where it is secured to an anchorage. The girder spans
+are 525 ft., the cantilever spans 547 ft., and the shore spans 201 ft.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.--Quebec Bridge (original design)]
+
+(6) The Quebec bridge (fig. 25) over the St Lawrence, which collapsed while
+in course of construction in 1907. This bridge, connecting very important
+railway systems, was designed to carry two lines of rails, a highway and
+electric railway on each side, all between the main trusses. Length between
+abutments 3240 ft.; [v.04 p.0542] channel span 1800 ft.; suspended span 675
+ft.; shore spans 5621/2 ft. Total weight of metal about 32,000 tons.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26.--Jubilee Bridge over the Hugli.]
+
+(7) The Jubilee bridge over the Hugli, designed by Sir Bradford Leslie, is
+a cantilever bridge of another type (fig. 26). The girders are of the
+Whipple Murphy type, but with curved top booms. The bridge carries a double
+line of railway, between the main girders. The central double cantilever is
+360 ft. long. The two side span girders are 420 ft long. The cantilever
+rests on two river piers 120 ft. apart, centre to centre. The side girders
+rest on the cantilevers on 15 in. pins, in pendulum links suspended from
+similar pins in saddles 9 ft. high.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27.--Coalbrookdale Bridge.]
+
+11. (f) _Metal Arch Bridges._--The first iron bridge erected was
+constructed by John Wilkinson (1728-1808) and Abraham Darby (1750-1791) in
+1773-1779 at Coalbrookdale over the Severn (fig. 27). It had five cast iron
+arched ribs with a centre span of 100 ft. This curious bridge is still in
+use. Sir B. Baker stated that it had required patching for ninety years,
+because the arch and the high side arches would not work together.
+Expansion and contraction broke the high arch and the connexions between
+the arches. When it broke they fished it. Then the bolts sheared or the
+ironwork broke in a new place. He advised that there was nothing unsafe; it
+was perfectly strong and the stress in vital parts moderate. All that
+needed to be done was to fish the fractured ribs of the high arches, put
+oval holes in the fishes, and not screw up the bolts too tight.
+
+Cast iron arches of considerable span were constructed late in the 18th and
+early in the 19th century. The difficulty of casting heavy arch ribs led to
+the construction of cast iron arches of cast voussoirs, somewhat like the
+voussoirs of masonry bridges. Such a bridge was the Wearmouth bridge,
+designed by Rowland Burdon and erected in 1793-1796, with a span of 235 ft.
+Southwark bridge over the Thames, designed by John Rennie with cast iron
+ribs and erected in 1814-1819, has a centre span of 240 ft. and a rise of
+24 ft. In Paris the Austerlitz (1800-1806) and Carrousel (1834-1836)
+bridges had cast iron arches. In 1858 an aqueduct bridge was erected at
+Washington by M.C. Meigs (1816-1892). This had two arched ribs formed by
+the cast iron pipes through which the water passed. The pipes were 4 ft. in
+diameter inside, 11/2 in. thick, and were lined with staves of pine 3 in.
+thick to prevent freezing. The span was 200 ft.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28.--Arch of Bridge at Coblenz]
+
+Fig. 28 shows one of the wrought iron arches of a bridge over the Rhine at
+Coblenz. The bridge consists of three spans of about 315 ft. each.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29.--St Louis Bridge.]
+
+Of large-span bridges with steel arches, one of the most important is the
+St Louis bridge over the Mississippi, completed in 1874 (fig. 29). The
+river at St Louis is confined to a single channel, 1600 ft. wide, and in a
+freshet in 1870 the scour reached a depth of 51 ft. Captain J.B. Eads, the
+engineer, determined to establish the piers and abutments on rock at a
+depth for the east pier and east abutment of 136 ft. below high water. This
+was effected by caissons with air chambers and air locks, a feat
+unprecedented in the annals of engineering. The bridge has three spans,
+each formed of arches of cast steel. The centre span is 520 ft. and the
+side spans 502 ft. in the clear. The rise of the centre arch is 471/2 ft.,
+and that of the side arches 46 ft. Each span has four steel double ribs of
+steel tubes butted and clasped by wrought iron couplings. The vertical
+bracing between the upper and lower members of each rib, which are 12 ft.
+apart, centre to centre, consolidates them into a single arch. The arches
+carry a double railway track and above this a roadway 54 ft. wide.
+
+The St Louis bridge is not hinged, but later bridges have been constructed
+with hinges at the springings and sometimes with hinges at the crown also.
+
+The Alexander III. bridge over the Seine has fifteen steel ribs hinged at
+crown and springings with a span of 353 ft. between centres of hinges and
+358 ft. between abutments. The rise from side to centre hinges is 20 ft. 7
+in. The roadway is 651/2 ft. wide and footways 33 ft. (_Proc. Inst. C.E._
+cxxx. p. 335).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30.--Viaur Viaduct.]
+
+The largest three-hinged-arch bridge constructed is the Viaur viaduct in
+the south of France (fig. 30). The central span is 721 ft. 9 in. and the
+height of the rails above the valley 380 ft. It has a very fine appearance,
+especially when seen in perspective and not merely in elevation.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31.--Douro Viaduct.]
+
+Fig. 31 shows the Douro viaduct of a total length of 1158 ft. carrying a
+railway 200 ft. above the water. The span of the central opening is 525 ft.
+The principal rib is crescent-shaped 32.8 ft. deep [v.04 p.0543] at the
+crown. Rolling load taken at 1.2 ton per ft. Weight of centre span 727
+tons. The Luiz I. bridge is another arched bridge over the Douro, also
+designed by T. Seyrig. This has a span of 566 ft. There are an upper and
+lower roadway, 164 ft. apart vertically. The arch rests on rollers and is
+narrowest at the crown. The reason given for this change of form was that
+it more conveniently allowed the lower road to pass between the springings
+and ensured the transmission of the wind stresses to the abutments without
+interrupting the cross-bracing. Wire cables were used in the erection, by
+which the members were lifted from barges and assembled, the operations
+being conducted from the side piers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32.--Niagara Falls and Clifton Bridge.]
+
+The Niagara Falls and Clifton steel arch (fig. 32) replaces the older
+Roebling suspension bridge. The centre span is a two-hinged parabolic
+braced rib arch, and there are side spans of 190 and 210 ft. The bridge
+carries two electric-car tracks, two roadways and two footways. The main
+span weighed 1629 tons, the side spans 154 and 166 tons (Buck, _Proc. Inst.
+C.E._ cxliv. p. 70). Prof. Claxton Fidler, speaking of the arrangement
+adopted for putting initial stress on the top chord, stated that this
+bridge marked the furthest advance yet made in this type of construction.
+When such a rib is erected on centering without initial stress, the
+subsequent compression of the arch under its weight inflicts a bending
+stress and excess of compression in the upper member at the crown. But the
+bold expedients adopted by the engineer annulled the bending action.
+
+The Garabit viaduct carries the railway near St Flour, in the Cantal
+department, France, at 420 ft. above low water. The deepest part of the
+valley is crossed by an arch of 541 ft. span, and 213 ft. rise. The bridge
+is similar to that at Oporto, also designed by Seyrig. It is formed by a
+crescent-shaped arch, continued on one side by four, on the other side by
+two lattice girder spans, on iron piers. The arch is formed by two lattice
+ribs hinged at the abutments. Its depth at the crown is 33 ft., and its
+centre line follows nearly the parabolic line of pressures. The two arch
+ribs are 651/2 ft. apart at the springings and 201/2 ft. at the crown. The
+roadway girders are lattice, 17 ft. deep, supported from the arch ribs at
+four points. The total length of the viaduct is 1715 ft. The lattice
+girders of the side spans were first rolled into place, so as to project
+some distance beyond the piers, and then the arch ribs were built out,
+being partly supported by wire-rope cables from the lattice girders above.
+The total weight of ironwork was 3200 tons and the cost L124,000 (_Annales
+des travaux publiques_, 1884).
+
+The Victoria Falls bridge over the Zambezi, designed by Sir Douglas Fox,
+and completed in 1905, is a combination of girder and arch having a total
+length of 650 ft. The centre arch is 500 ft. span, the rise of the crown 90
+ft., and depth at crown 15 ft. The width between centres of ribs of main
+arch is 271/2 ft. at crown and 53 ft. 9 in at springings. The curve of the
+main arch is a parabola. The bridge has a roadway of 30 ft. for two lines
+of rails. Each half arch was supported by cables till joined at the centre.
+An electric cableway of 900 ft. span capable of carrying 10 tons was used
+in erection.
+
+12. (g) _Movable Bridges_ can be closed to carry a road or railway or in
+some cases an aqueduct, but can be opened to give free passage to
+navigation. They are of several types:--
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33.]
+
+(1) _Lifting Bridges._--The bridge with its platform is suspended from
+girders above by chains and counterweights at the four corners (fig. 33 a).
+It is lifted vertically to the required height when opened. Bridges of this
+type are not very numerous or important.
+
+(2) _Rolling Bridges._--The girders are longer than the span and the part
+overhanging the abutment is counter-weighted so that the centre of gravity
+is over the abutment when the bridge is rolled forward (fig. 33 b). To fill
+the gap in the approaches when the bridge is rolled forward a frame
+carrying that part of the road is moved into place sideways. At Sunderland,
+the bridge is first lifted by a hydraulic press so as to clear the roadway
+behind, and is then rolled back.
+
+(3) _Draw or Bascule Bridges._--The fortress draw-bridge is the original
+type, in which a single leaf, or bascule, turns round a horizontal hinge at
+one abutment. The bridge when closed is supported on abutments at each end.
+It is raised by chains and counterweights. A more common type is a bridge
+with two leaves or bascules, one hinged at each abutment. When closed [v.04
+p.0544] the bascules are locked at the centre (see fig. 13). In these
+bridges each bascule is prolonged backwards beyond the hinge so as to
+balance at the hinge, the prolongation sinking into the piers when the
+bridge is opened.
+
+(4) _Swing or Turning Bridges._--The largest movable bridges revolve about
+a vertical axis. The bridge is carried on a circular base plate with a
+central pivot and a circular track for a live ring and conical rollers. A
+circular revolving platform rests on the pivot and rollers. A toothed arc
+fixed to the revolving platform or to the live ring serves to give motion
+to the bridge. The main girders rest on the revolving platform, and the
+ends of the bridge are circular arcs fitting the fixed roadway. Three
+arrangements are found: (a) the axis of rotation is on a pier at the centre
+of the river and the bridge is equal armed (fig. 33 c), so that two
+navigation passages are opened simultaneously. (b) The axis of rotation is
+on one abutment, and the bridge is then usually unequal armed (fig. 33 d),
+the shorter arm being over the land. (c) In some small bridges the shorter
+arm is vertical and the bridge turns on a kind of vertical crane post at
+the abutment (fig. 33 e).
+
+(5) _Floating Bridges_, the roadway being carried on pontoons moored in the
+stream.
+
+The movable bridge in its closed position must be proportioned like a fixed
+bridge, but it has also other conditions to fulfil. If it revolves about a
+vertical axis its centre of gravity must always lie in that axis; if it
+rolls the centre of gravity must always lie over the abutment. It must have
+strength to support safely its own overhanging weight when moving.
+
+At Konigsberg there is a road bridge of two fixed spans of 39 ft., and a
+central span of 60 ft. between bearings, or 41 ft. clear, with balanced
+bascules over the centre span. Each bascule consists of two main girders
+with cross girders and stringers. The main girders are hung at each side on
+a horizontal shaft 8-5/8 in. in diameter, and are 6 ft. deep at the hinge,
+diminishing to 1 ft. 7 in. at the centre of the span. The counterweight is
+a depressed cantilever arm 12 ft. long, overlapped by the fixed platform
+which sinks into a recess in the masonry when the bridge opens. In closed
+position the main girders rest on a bed plate on the face of the pier 4 ft.
+3 in. beyond the shaft bearings. The bridge is worked by hydraulic power,
+an accumulator with a load of 34 tons supplying pressure water at 630 lb
+per sq. in. The bridge opens in 15 seconds and closes in 25 seconds.
+
+At the opening span of the Tower bridge (fig. 13) there are four main
+girders in each bascule. They project 100 ft. beyond and 62 ft. 6 in.
+within the face of the piers. Transverse girders and bracings are inserted
+between the main girders at 12 ft. intervals. The floor is of buckled
+plates paved with wood blocks. The arc of rotation is 82 deg., and the axis of
+rotation is 13 ft. 3 in. inside the face of the piers, and 5 ft. 7 in.
+below the roadway. The weight of ballast in the short arms of the bascules
+is 365 tons. The weight of each leaf including ballast is about 1070 tons.
+The axis is of forged steel 21 in. in diameter and 48 ft. long. The axis
+has eight bearings, consisting of rings of live rollers 4-7/16 in. in
+diameter and 22 in. long. The bascules are rotated by pinions driven by
+hydraulic engines working in steel sectors 42 ft. radius (_Proc. Inst.
+C.E._ cxxvii. p. 35).
+
+As an example of a swing bridge, that between Duluth and Superior at the
+head of Lake Superior over the St Louis river may be described. The centre
+opening is 500 ft., spanned by a turning bridge, 58 ft. wide. The girders
+weighing 2000 tons carry a double track for trains between the girders and
+on each side on cantilevers a trolley track, roadway and footway. The
+bridge can be opened in 2 minutes, and is operated by two large electric
+motors. These have a speed reduction from armature shaft to bridge column
+of 1500 to 1, through four intermediate spur gears and a worm gear. The end
+lifts which transfer the weight of the bridge to the piers when the span is
+closed consist of massive eccentrics having a throw of 4 in. The clearance
+is 2 in., so that the ends are lifted 2 in. This gives a load of 50 tons
+per eccentric. One motor is placed at each end of the span to operate the
+eccentrics and also to release the latches and raise the rails of the steam
+track.
+
+At Riga there is a floating pontoon bridge over the Duna. It consists of
+fourteen rafts, 105 ft. in length, each supported by two pontoons placed 64
+ft. apart. The pairs of rafts are joined by three baulks 15 ft. long laid
+in parallel grooves in the framing. Two spans are arranged for opening
+easily. The total length is 1720 ft. and the width 46 ft. The pontoons are
+of iron, 851/2 ft. in length, and their section is elliptical, 101/2 ft.
+horizontal and 12 ft. vertical. The displacement of each pontoon is 180
+tons and its weight 22 tons. The mooring chains, weighing 22 lb per ft.,
+are taken from the upstream end of each pontoon to a downstream screw pile
+mooring and from the downstream end to an upstream screw pile.
+
+13. _Transporter Bridges._--This new type of bridge consists of a high
+level bridge from which is suspended a car at a low level. The car receives
+the traffic and conveys it across the river, being caused to travel by
+electric machinery on the high level bridge. Bridges of this type have been
+erected at Portugalete, Bizerta, Rouen, Rochefort and more recently across
+the Mersey between the towns of Widnes and Runcorn.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34.--Widnes and Runcorn Transporter Bridge.]
+
+The Runcorn bridge crosses the Manchester Ship Canal and the Mersey in one
+span of 1000 ft., and four approach spans of 551/2 ft. on one side and one
+span on the other. The low-level approach roadways are 35 ft. wide with
+footpaths 6 ft. wide on each side. The supporting structure is a cable
+suspension bridge with stiffening girders. A car is suspended from the
+bridge, carried by a trolley running on the underside of the stiffening
+girders, the car being [v.04 p.0545] propelled electrically from one side
+to the other. The underside of the stiffening girder is 82 ft. above the
+river. The car is 55 ft. long by 241/2 ft. wide. The electric motors are
+under the control of the driver in a cabin on the car. The trolley is an
+articulated frame 77 ft. long in five sections coupled together with pins.
+To this are fixed the bearings of the running wheels, fourteen on each
+side. There are two steel-clad series-wound motors of 36 B.H.P. For a test
+load of 120 tons the tractive force is 70 lb per ton, which is sufficient
+for acceleration, and maintaining speed against wind pressure. The brakes
+are magnetic, with auxiliary handbrakes. Electricity is obtained by two gas
+engines (one spare) each of 75 B.H.P.
+
+On the opening day passengers were taken across at the rate of more than
+2000 per hour in addition to a number of vehicles. The time of crossing is
+3 or 4 minutes. The total cost of the structure was L133,000.
+
+14. In the United States few railway companies design or build their own
+bridges. General specifications as to span, loading, &c., are furnished to
+bridge-building companies, which make the design under the direction of
+engineers who are experts in this kind of work. The design, with strain
+sheets and detail drawings, is submitted to the railway engineer with
+estimates. The result is that American bridges are generally of
+well-settled types and their members of uniform design, carefully
+considered with reference to convenient and accurate manufacture. Standard
+patterns of details are largely adopted, and more system is introduced in
+the workshop than is possible where the designs are more varied. Riveted
+plate girders are used up to 50 ft. span, riveted braced girders for spans
+of 50 ft. to 75 ft., and pin-connected girders for longer spans. Since the
+erection of the Forth bridge, cantilever bridges have been extensively
+used, and some remarkable steel arch and suspension bridges have also been
+constructed. Overhead railways are virtually continuous bridge
+constructions, and much attention has been given to a study of the special
+conditions appertaining to that case.
+
+_Substructure._
+
+15. The substructure of a bridge comprises the piers, abutments and
+foundations. These portions usually consist of masonry in some form,
+including under that general head stone masonry, brickwork and concrete.
+Occasionally metal work or woodwork is used for intermediate piers.
+
+When girders form the superstructure, the resultant pressure on the piers
+or abutments is vertical, and the dimensions of these are simply regulated
+by the sufficiency to bear this vertical load.
+
+When arches form the superstructure, the abutment must be so designed as to
+transmit the resultant thrust to the foundation in a safe direction, and so
+distributed that no part may be unduly compressed. The intermediate piers
+should also have considerable stability, so as to counterbalance the thrust
+arising when one arch is loaded while the other is free from load.
+
+For suspension bridges the abutment forming the anchorage must be so
+designed as to be thoroughly stable under the greatest pull which the
+chains can exert. The piers require to be carried above the platform, and
+their design must be modified according to the type of suspension bridge
+adopted. When the resultant pressure is not vertical on the piers these
+must be constructed to meet the inclined pressure. In any stiffened
+suspension bridge the action of the pier will be analogous to that of a
+pier between two arches.
+
+_Concrete in a shell_ is a name which might be applied to all the methods
+of founding a pier which depend on the very valuable property which strong
+hydraulic concrete possesses of setting into a solid mass under water. The
+required space is enclosed by a wooden or iron shell; the soil inside the
+shell is removed by dredging, or some form of mechanical excavator, until
+the formation is reached which is to support the pier; the concrete is then
+shot into the enclosed space from a height of about 10 ft., and rammed down
+in layers about 1 ft. thick; it soon consolidates into a permanent
+artificial stone.
+
+_Piles_ are used as foundations in compressible or loose soil. The heads of
+the piles are sawn off, and a platform of timber or concrete rests on them.
+Cast iron and concrete reinforced piles are now used. _Screw piles_ are
+cast iron piles which are screwed into the soil instead of being driven in.
+At their end is fixed a blade of cast iron from two to eight times the
+diameter of the shaft of the pile; the pitch of the screw varies from
+one-half to one-fourth of the external diameter of the blade.
+
+_Disk piles_ have been used in sand. These piles have a flat flange at the
+bottom, and water is pumped in at the top of the pile, which is weighted to
+prevent it from rising. Sand is thus blown or pumped from below the piles,
+which are thus easily lowered in ground which baffles all attempts to drive
+in piles by blows. In ground which is of the nature of quicksand, piles
+will often slowly rise to their original position after each blow.
+
+_Wells._--In some soils foundations may be obtained by the device of
+building a masonry casing like that of a well and excavating the soil
+inside; the casing gradually sinks and the masonry is continued at the
+surface. This method is applicable in running sands. The interior of the
+well is generally filled up with concrete or brick when the required depth
+has been reached.
+
+_Piers and Abutments._--Piers and abutments are of masonry, brickwork, or
+cast or wrought iron. In the last case they consist of any number of hollow
+cylindrical pillars, vertical or raking, turned and planed at the ends and
+united by a projection or socket and by flanges and bolts. The pillars are
+strengthened against lateral yielding by horizontal and diagonal bracing.
+In some cases the piers are cast iron cylinders 10 ft. or more in diameter
+filled with concrete.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35.--Cylinder, Charing Cross Bridge.]
+
+_Cylinder Foundations._--Formerly when bridge piers had to be placed where
+a firm bearing stratum could only be reached at a considerable depth, a
+timber cofferdam was used in which piles were driven down to the firm
+stratum. On the piles the masonry piers were built. Many bridges so
+constructed have stood for centuries. A great change of method arose when
+iron cylinders and in some cases brick cylinders or wells were adopted for
+foundations. These can be sunk to almost any depth or brought up to any
+height, and are filled with Portland cement concrete. They are sometimes
+excavated by grabs. Sometimes they are closed in and kept free of water by
+compressed air so that excavation work can be carried on inside them (fig.
+35). Sometimes in silty river beds they are sunk 100 ft. or more, for [v.04
+p.0546] security against deep scouring of the river-bed in floods. In the
+case of the Empress bridge over the Sutlej each pier consisted of three
+brick wells, 19 ft. in diameter, sunk 110 ft. The piers of the Benares
+bridge were single iron caissons, 65 ft. by 28 ft., sunk about 100 ft.,
+lined with brick and filled with concrete. At the Forth bridge iron
+caissons 70 ft. in diameter were sunk about 40 ft. into the bed of the
+Forth. In this case the compressed air process was used.
+
+16. _Erection._--Consideration of the local conditions affecting the
+erection of bridges is always important, and sometimes becomes a
+controlling factor in the determination of the design. The methods of
+erection may be classed as--(1) erection on staging or falsework; (2)
+floating to the site and raising; (3) rolling out from one abutment; (4)
+building out member by member, the completed part forming the stage from
+which additions are handled.
+
+(1) In erection on staging, the materials available determine the character
+of the staging; stacks of timber, earth banks, or built-up staging of piles
+and trestles have all been employed, also iron staging, which can be
+rapidly erected and moved from site to site. The most ordinary type of
+staging consists of timber piles at nearly equal distances of 20 ft. to 30
+ft., carrying a timber platform, on which the bridge is erected. Sometimes
+a wide space is left for navigation, and the platform at this part is
+carried by a timber and iron truss. When the headway is great or the river
+deep, timber-braced piers or clusters of piles at distances of 50 ft. to
+100 ft. may be used. These carry temporary trusses of timber or steel. The
+Kuilenburg bridge in Holland, which has a span of 492 ft., was erected on a
+timber staging of this kind, containing 81,000 cub. ft. of timber and 5
+tons of bolts. The bridge superstructure weighed 2150 tons, so that 38 cub.
+ft. of timber were used per ton of superstructure.
+
+(2) The Britannia and Conway bridges were built on staging on shore, lifted
+by pontoons, floated out to their position between the piers, and lastly
+lifted into place by hydraulic presses. The Moerdyk bridge in Holland, with
+14 spans of 328 ft., was erected in a similar way. The convenience of
+erecting girders on shore is very great, but there is some risk in the
+floating operations and a good deal of hauling plant is required.
+
+(3) If a bridge consists of girders continuous over two or more spans, it
+may be put together on the embankment at one end and rolled over the piers.
+In some cases hauling tackle is used, in others power is applied by levers
+and ratchets to the rollers on which the girders travel. In such rolling
+operations the girder is subjected to straining actions different from
+those which it is intended to resist, and parts intended for tension may be
+in compression; hence it may need to be stiffened by timber during rolling.
+The bending action on the bottom boom in passing over the rollers is also
+severe. Modifications of the system have been adopted for bridges with
+discontinuous spans. In narrow ravines a bridge of one span may be rolled
+out, if the projecting end is supported on a temporary suspension cable
+anchored on each side. The free end is slung to a block running on the
+cable. If the bridge is erected when the river is nearly dry a travelling
+stage may be constructed to carry the projecting end of the girder while it
+is hauled across, the other end resting on one abutment. Sometimes a girder
+is rolled out about one-third of its length, and then supported on a
+floating pontoon.
+
+(4) Some types of bridge can be built out from the abutments, the completed
+part forming an erecting stage on which lifting appliances are fixed.
+Generally, in addition, wire cables are stretched across the span, from
+which lifting tackle is suspended. In bridges so erected the straining
+action during erection must be studied, and material must be added to
+resist erecting stresses. In the case of the St Louis bridge, half arches
+were built out on either side of each pier, so that the load balanced.
+Skeleton towers on the piers supported chains attached to the arched ribs
+at suitable points. In spite of careful provision, much difficulty was
+experienced in making the connexion at the crown, from the expansion due to
+temperature changes. The Douro bridge was similarly erected. The girders of
+the side spans were rolled out so as to overhang the great span by 105 ft.,
+and formed a platform from which parts of the arch could be suspended.
+Dwarf towers, built on the arch ring at the fifth panel from either side,
+helped to support the girder above, in erecting the centre part of the arch
+(Seyrig, _Proc. Inst. C.E._ lxiii. p. 177). The great cantilever bridges
+have been erected in the same way, and they are specially adapted for
+erection by building out.
+
+_Straining Actions and Working Stresses._
+
+17. In metal bridges wrought iron has been replaced by mild steel--a
+stronger, tougher and better material. Ingot metal or mild steel was
+sometimes treacherous when first introduced, and accidents occurred, the
+causes of which were obscure. In fact, small differences of composition or
+variations in thermal treatment during manufacture involve relatively large
+differences of quality. Now it is understood that care must be taken in
+specifying the exact quality and in testing the material supplied.
+Structural wrought iron has a tenacity of 20 to 221/2 tons per sq. in. in the
+direction of rolling, and an ultimate elongation of 8 or 10% in 8 in.
+Across the direction of rolling the tenacity is about 18 tons per sq. in.,
+and the elongation 3% in 8 in. Steel has only a small difference of quality
+in different directions. There is still controversy as to what degree of
+hardness, or (which is nearly the same thing) what percentage of carbon,
+can be permitted with safety in steel for structures.
+
+The qualities of steel used may be classified as follows:--(a) Soft steel,
+having a tenacity of 221/2 to 26 tons per sq. in., and an elongation of 32 to
+24% in 8 in. (b) Medium steel, having a tenacity of 26 to 34 tons per sq.
+in., and 28 to 25% elongation. (c) Moderately hard steel, having a tenacity
+of 34 to 37 tons per sq. in., and 17% elongation, (d) Hard steel, having a
+tenacity of 37 to 40 tons per sq. in., and 10% elongation. Soft steel is
+used for rivets always, and sometimes for the whole superstructure of a
+bridge, but medium steel more generally for the plates, angle bars, &c.,
+the weight of the bridge being then reduced by about 7% for a given factor
+of safety. Moderately hard steel has been used for the larger members of
+long-span bridges. Hard steel, if used at all, is used only for compression
+members, in which there is less risk of flaws extending than in tension
+members. With medium or moderately hard steel all rivet holes should be
+drilled, or punched 1/8 in. less in diameter than the rivet and reamed out,
+so as to remove the ring of material strained by the punch.
+
+In the specification for bridge material, drawn up by the British
+Engineering Standards Committee, it is provided that the steel shall be
+acid or basic open-hearth steel, containing not more than 0.06% of sulphur
+or phosphorus. Plates, angles and bars, other than rivet bars, must have a
+tensile strength of 28 to 32 tons per sq. in., with an elevation of 20% in
+8 in. Rivet bars tested on a gauge length eight times the diameter must
+have a tensile strength of 26 to 30 tons per sq. in. and an elongation of
+25%.
+
+18. _Straining Actions._--The external forces acting on a bridge may be
+classified as follows:--
+
+(1) The _live_ or _temporary load_, for road bridges the weight of a dense
+crowd uniformly distributed, or the weight of a heavy wagon or traction
+engine; for railway bridges the weight of the heaviest train likely to come
+on the bridge. (2) An allowance is sometimes made for _impact_, that is the
+dynamical action of the live load due to want of vertical balance in the
+moving parts of locomotives, to irregularities of the permanent way, or to
+yielding of the structure. (3) The _dead load_ comprises the weight of the
+main girders, flooring and wind bracing, or the total weight of the
+superstructure exclusive of any part directly carried by the piers. This is
+usually treated as uniformly distributed over the span. (4) The _horizontal
+pressure_ due to a wind blowing transversely to the span, which becomes of
+importance in long and high bridges. (5) The _longitudinal drag_ due to the
+friction of a train when braked, about one-seventh of the weight of the
+train. (6) On a curved bridge the _centrifugal load_ due to the radical
+acceleration of the train. If w is the weight of a locomotive in tons, r
+the radius of curvature of the track, v the velocity in feet per sec.; then
+the horizontal force exerted on the bridge is wv^2/gr tons. (7) In some
+cases, especially in arch and suspension bridges, changes of temperature
+set up stresses equivalent to those produced by an external load. In Europe
+a variation of temperature of 70 deg. C. or 126 deg. F. is commonly assumed. For
+this the expansion is about 1 in. in 100 ft. Generally a structure should
+be anchored at one point and free to move if possible in other directions.
+Roughly, if expansion is prevented, a stress of one ton per sq. in. is set
+up in steel structures for each 12 deg. change of temperature.
+
+i. _Live Load on Road Bridges._--A dense crowd of people may be taken as a
+uniform load of 80 to 120 lb per sq. ft. But in recent times the weight of
+traction engines and wagons which pass over bridges has increased, and this
+kind of load generally produces greater straining action than a crowd of
+people. In manufacturing districts and near large towns loads of 30 tons
+may come on road bridges, and county and borough authorities insist on
+provision being made for such loads. In Switzerland roads are divided into
+three classes according to their importance, and the following loads are
+prescribed, the designer having to provide sufficient strength either for a
+uniformly distributed crowd, or for a heavy wagon anywhere on the
+roadway:-- [v.04 p.0547]
+
+                     |      Crowd,     |          Wagon,
+                     |  lb per sq. ft. |      tons per axle.
+                     |                 |
+  Main Roads ....... |       92        | 10 with 13 ft. wheel base
+  Secondary Roads .. |       72        |  6  "   10  "      "
+  Other Roads ...... |       51        |  3  "    8  "      "
+
+In England still larger loads are now provided for. J.C. Inglis (_Proc.
+Inst. C.E._ cxli. p. 35) has considered two cases--(a) a traction engine
+and boiler trolley, and (b) a traction engine and trucks loaded with
+granite. He has calculated the equivalent load per foot of span which would
+produce the same maximum bending moments. The following are some of the
+results:--
+
+  Span Ft.                             |10. |20. |30. |40. |50. |
+                                       |    |    |    |    |    |
+  Equivalent load in tons per ft. run, |    |    |    |    |    |
+  Case a ............................. |1.75|0.95|0.70|0.73|0.72|
+  Do. Case b ......................... |3.25|1.7 |1.3 |1.2 |1.15|
+
+Large as these loads are on short spans, they are not more than must often
+be provided for.
+
+_Live Load on Railway Bridges._--The live load is the weight of the
+heaviest train which can come on the bridge. In the earlier girder bridges
+the live load was taken to be equivalent to a uniform load of 1 ton per
+foot run for each line of way. At that time locomotives on railways of 4
+ft. 81/2 in. gauge weighed at most 35 to 45 tons, and their length between
+buffers was such that the average load did not exceed 1 ton per foot run.
+Trains of wagons did not weigh more than three-quarters of a ton per foot
+run when most heavily loaded. The weights of engines and wagons are now
+greater, and in addition it is recognized that the concentration of the
+loading at the axles gives rise to greater straining action, especially in
+short bridges, than the same load uniformly distributed along the span.
+Hence many of the earlier bridges have had to be strengthened to carry
+modern traffic. The following examples of some of the heaviest locomotives
+on English railways is given by W.B. Farr (_Proc. Inst. C.E._ cxli. p.
+12):--
+
+  _Passenger Engines._
+
+  Total weights, tons ......... 84.35 | 98.90 | 91.90 | 85.48
+  Tons per ft. over all .......  1.58 |  1.71 |  1.62 |  1.61
+  Tons per ft. of wheel base ..  1.92 |  2.04 |  1.97 |  1.95
+  Maximum axle load, tons ..... 19.00 | 16.00 | 18.70 | 18.50
+
+  _Goods Engines._
+
+  Total weight, tons .......... 77.90 | 78.80 | 76.46 | 75.65
+  Tons per ft. over all .......  1.54 |  1.50 |  1.54 |  1.51
+  Tons per ft. of wheel base ..  2.02 |  2.02 |  2.03 |  2.00
+  Maximum axle load, tons ..... 15.90 | 16.00 | 13.65 | 15.50
+
+  _Tank Engines._
+
+  Total weight, tons .......... 53.80 | 58.61 | 60.80 | 47.00
+  Tons per ft. over all .......  1.60 |  1.68 |  1.70 |  1.55
+  Tons per ft. of wheel base ..  2.45 |  2.52 |  2.23 |  3.03
+  Maximum axle load, tons ..... 17.54 | 15.29 | 17.10 | 15.77
+
+Farr has drawn diagrams of bending moment for forty different very heavy
+locomotives on different spans, and has determined for each case a uniform
+load which at every point would produce as great a bending moment as the
+actual wheel loads. The following short abstract gives the equivalent
+uniform load which produces bending moments as great as those of any of the
+engines calculated:--
+
+  Span in Ft. |   Load per ft. run equivalent
+              |  to actual Wheel Loads in Tons,
+              |         for each Track.
+              |
+      5.0     |              7.6
+     10.0     |              4.85
+     20.0     |              3.20
+     30.0     |              2.63
+     50.0     |              2.24
+    100.0     |              1.97
+
+Fig. 36 gives the loads per axle and the distribution of loads in some
+exceptionally heavy modern British locomotives.
+
+[Illustration: Express Passenger Engine, G.N. Ry.]
+
+[Illustration: Goods Engine, L. & Y. Ry.]
+
+[Illustration: Passenger Engine, Cal. Ry.
+FIG. 36.]
+
+[v.04 p.0548] In Austria the official regulations require that railway
+bridges shall be designed for at least the following live loads per foot
+run and per track:--
+
+  |      Span.     |       Live Load in Tons.      |
+  | - - - - - - - -|- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -|
+  |Metres. |  Ft.  | Per metre run. | Per ft. run. |
+  |        |       |                |              |
+  |   1    |  3.3  |      20        |      6.1     |
+  |   2    |  6.6  |      15        |      4.6     |
+  |   5    | 16.4  |      10        |      3.1     |
+  |  20    | 65.6  |       5        |      1.5     |
+  |  30    | 98.4  |       4        |      1.2     |
+
+It would be simpler and more convenient in designing short bridges if,
+instead of assuming an equivalent uniform rolling load, agreement could be
+come to as to a typical heavy locomotive which would produce stresses as
+great as any existing locomotive on each class of railway. Bridges would
+then be designed for these selected loads, and the process would be safer
+in dealing with flooring girders and shearing forces than the assumption of
+a uniform load.
+
+Some American locomotives are very heavy. Thus a consolidation engine may
+weigh 126 tons with a length over buffers of 57 ft., corresponding to an
+average load of 2.55 tons per ft. run. Also long ore wagons are used which
+weigh loaded two tons per ft. run. J.A.L. Waddell (_De Pontibus_, New York,
+1898) proposes to arrange railways in seven classes, according to the live
+loads which may be expected from the character of their traffic, and to
+construct bridges in accordance with this classification. For the lightest
+class, he takes a locomotive and tender of 93.5 tons, 52 ft. between
+buffers (average load 1.8 tons per ft. run), and for the heaviest a
+locomotive and tender weighing 144.5 tons, 52 ft. between buffers (average
+load 2.77 tons per ft. run). Wagons he assumes to weigh for the lightest
+class 1.3 tons per ft. run and for the heaviest 1.9 tons. He takes as the
+live load for a bridge two such engines, followed by a train of wagons
+covering the span. Waddell's tons are short tons of 2000 lb.
+
+ii. _Impact._--If a vertical load is imposed suddenly, but without
+velocity, work is done during deflection, and the deformation and stress
+are momentarily double those due to the same load at rest on the structure.
+No load of exactly this kind is ever applied to a bridge. But if a load is
+so applied that the deflection increases with speed, the stress is greater
+than that due to a very gradually applied load, and vibrations about a mean
+position are set up. The rails not being absolutely straight and smooth,
+centrifugal and lurching actions occur which alter the distribution of the
+loading. Again, rapidly changing forces, due to the moving parts of the
+engine which are unbalanced vertically, act on the bridge; and, lastly,
+inequalities of level at the rail ends give rise to shocks. For all these
+reasons the stresses due to the live load are greater than those due to the
+same load resting quietly on the bridge. This increment is larger on the
+flooring girders than on the main ones, and on short main girders than on
+long ones. The impact stresses depend so much on local conditions that it
+is difficult to fix what allowance should be made. E.H. Stone (_Trans. Am.
+Soc. of C.E._ xli. p. 467) collated some measurements of deflection taken
+during official trials of Indian bridges, and found the increment of
+deflection due to impact to depend on the ratio of dead to live load. By
+plotting and averaging he obtained the following results:--
+
+_Excess of Deflection and straining Action of a moving Load over that due
+to a resting Load._
+
+  Dead load in per cent |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+     of total load .... | 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 70 | 90 |
+  Live load in per cent |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+     of total load .... | 90 | 80 | 70 | 60 | 50 | 30 | 10 |
+  Ratio of live to dead |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+     load ............. |  9 |  4 |2.3 |1.5 |1.0 |0.43|0.10|
+  Excess of deflection  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+     and stress due to  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+     moving load        |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+     per cent ......... | 23 | 13 |  8 |5.5 |4.0 |1.6 |0.3 |
+
+These results are for the centre deflections of main girders, but Stone
+infers that the augmentation of stress for any member, due to causes
+included in impact allowance, will be the same percentage for the same
+ratios of live to dead load stresses. Valuable measurements of the
+deformations of girders and tension members due to moving trains have been
+made by S.W. Robinson (_Trans. Am. Soc. C.E._ xvi.) and by F.E. Turneaure
+(_Trans. Am. Soc. C.E._ xli.). The latter used a recording deflectometer
+and two recording extensometers. The observations are difficult, and the
+inertia of the instrument is liable to cause error, but much care was
+taken. The most striking conclusions from the results are that the
+locomotive balance weights have a large effect in causing vibration, and
+next, that in certain cases the vibrations are cumulative, reaching a value
+greater than that due to any single impact action. Generally: (1) At speeds
+less than 25 m. an hour there is not much vibration. (2) The increase of
+deflection due to impact at 40 or 50 m. an hour is likely to reach 40 to
+50% for girder spans of less than 50 ft. (3) This percentage decreases
+rapidly for longer spans, becoming about 25% for 75-ft. spans. (4) The
+increase per cent of boom stresses due to impact is about the same as that
+of deflection; that in web bracing bars is rather greater. (5) Speed of
+train produces no effect on the mean deflection, but only on the magnitude
+of the vibrations.
+
+A purely empirical allowance for impact stresses has been proposed,
+amounting to 20% of the live load stresses for floor stringers; 15% for
+floor cross girders; and for main girders, 10% for 40-ft. spans, and 5% for
+100-ft. spans. These percentages are added to the live load stresses.
+
+iii. _Dead Load._--The dead load consists of the weight of main girders,
+flooring and wind-bracing. It is generally reckoned to be uniformly
+distributed, but in large spans the distribution of weight in the main
+girders should be calculated and taken into account. The weight of the
+bridge flooring depends on the type adopted. Road bridges vary so much in
+the character of the flooring that no general rule can be given. In railway
+bridges the weight of sleepers, rails, &c., is 0.2 to 0.25 tons per ft. run
+for each line of way, while the rail girders, cross girders, &c., weigh
+0.15 to 0.2 tons. If a footway is added about 0.4 ton per ft. run may be
+allowed for this. The weight of main girders increases with the span, and
+there is for any type of bridge a limiting span beyond which the dead load
+stresses exceed the assigned limit of working stress.
+
+Let W_l be the total live load, W_f the total flooring load on a bridge of
+span l, both being considered for the present purpose to be uniform per ft.
+run. Let k(W_l+W_f) be the weight of main girders designed to carry
+W_l+W_f, but not their own weight in addition. Then
+
+  W_g = (W_l+W_f)(k+k^2+k^3 ...)
+
+will be the weight of main girders to carry W_l+W_f and their own weight
+(Buck, _Proc. Inst. C.E._ lxvii. p. 331). Hence,
+
+  W_g = (W_l+W_f)k/(1-k).
+
+Since in designing a bridge W_l+W_f is known, k(W_l+W_f) can be found from
+a provisional design in which the weight W_g is neglected. The actual
+bridge must have the section of all members greater than those in the
+provisional design in the ratio k/(1-k).
+
+Waddell (_De Pontibus_) gives the following convenient empirical relations.
+Let w_1, w_2 be the weights of main girders per ft. run for a live load p
+per ft. run and spans l_1, l_2. Then
+
+  w_2/w_1 = 1/2 [l_2/l_1+(l_2/l_1)^2].
+
+Now let w_1', w_2' be the girder weights per ft. run for spans l_1, l_2,
+and live loads p' per ft. run. Then
+
+  w_2'/w_2 = 1/5(1+4p'/p)
+
+  w_2'/w_1 = 1/10[l_2/l_1+(l_2/l_1)^2](1+4p'/p)
+
+A partially rational approximate formula for the weight of main girders is
+the following (Unwin, _Wrought Iron Bridges and Roofs_, 1869, p. 40):--
+
+Let w = total live load per ft. run of girder; w_2 the weight of platform
+per ft. run; w_3 the weight of main girders per ft. run, all in tons; l =
+span in ft.; s = average stress in tons per sq. in. on gross section of
+metal; d = depth of girder at centre in ft.; r = ratio of span to depth of
+girder so that r = l/d. Then
+
+  w_3 = (w_1+w_2)l^2/(Cds-l_2) = (w_1+w_2)lr/(Cs-lr),
+
+where C is a constant for any type of girder. It is not easy to fix the
+average stress s per sq. in. of gross section. Hence the formula is more
+useful in the form
+
+  w = (w_1+w_2)l^2/(Kd-l^2) = (w_1+w_2)lr/(K-lr)
+
+where K = (w_1+w_2+w_3)lr/w_3 is to be deduced from the data of some bridge
+previously designed with the same working stresses. From some known
+examples, C varies from 1500 to 1800 for iron braced parallel or bowstring
+girders, and from 1200 to 1500 for similar girders of steel. K = 6000 to
+7200 for iron and = 7200 to 9000 for steel bridges.
+
+iv. _Wind Pressure._--Much attention has been given to wind action since
+the disaster to the Tay bridge in 1879. As to the maximum wind pressure on
+small plates normal to the wind, there is not much doubt. Anemometer
+observations show that pressures of 30 lb per sq. ft. occur in storms
+annually in many localities, and that occasionally higher pressures are
+recorded in exposed positions. Thus at Bidstone, Liverpool, where the gauge
+has an exceptional exposure, a pressure of 80 lb per sq. ft. has been
+observed. In tornadoes, such as that at St Louis in 1896, it has been
+calculated, from the stability of structures overturned, that pressures of
+45 to 90 lb per sq. ft. must have been reached. As to anemometer pressures,
+it should be observed that the recorded pressure is made up of a positive
+front and negative (vacuum) back pressure, but in structures the latter
+must be absent or only partially developed. Great difference of opinion
+exists as to whether on large surfaces the average pressure per sq. ft. is
+as great as on small surfaces, such as anemometer plates. The experiments
+of Sir B. Baker at the Forth bridge showed that on a surface 30 ft. x 15
+ft. the intensity of pressure was less than on a similarly exposed
+anemometer plate. In the case of bridges there is the further difficulty
+that some surfaces partially [v.04 p.0549] shield other surfaces; one
+girder, for instance, shields the girder behind it (see _Brit. Assoc.
+Report_, 1884). In 1881 a committee of the Board of Trade decided that the
+maximum wind pressure on a vertical surface in Great Britain should be
+assumed in designing structures to be 56 lb per sq. ft. For a plate girder
+bridge of less height than the train, the wind is to be taken to act on a
+surface equal to the projected area of one girder and the exposed part of a
+train covering the bridge. In the case of braced girder bridges, the wind
+pressure is taken as acting on a continuous surface extending from the
+rails to the top of the carriages, plus the vertical projected area of so
+much of one girder as is exposed above the train or below the rails. In
+addition, an allowance is made for pressure on the leeward girder according
+to a scale. The committee recommended that a factor of safety of 4 should
+be taken for wind stresses. For safety against overturning they considered
+a factor of 2 sufficient. In the case of bridges not subject to Board of
+Trade inspection, the allowance for wind pressure varies in different
+cases. C. Shaler Smith allows 300 lb per ft. run for the pressure on the
+side of a train, and in addition 30 lb per sq. ft. on twice the vertical
+projected area of one girder, treating the pressure on the train as a
+travelling load. In the case of bridges of less than 50 ft. span he also
+provides strength to resist a pressure of 50 lb per sq. ft. on twice the
+vertical projection of one truss, no train being supposed to be on the
+bridge.
+
+19. _Stresses Permitted._--For a long time engineers held the convenient
+opinion that, if the total dead and live load stress on any section of a
+structure (of iron) did not exceed 5 tons per sq. in., ample safety was
+secured. It is no longer possible to design by so simple a rule. In an
+interesting address to the British Association in 1885, Sir B. Baker
+described the condition of opinion as to the safe limits of stress as
+chaotic. "The old foundations," he said, "are shaken, and engineers have
+not come to an agreement respecting the rebuilding of the structure. The
+variance in the strength of existing bridges is such as to be apparent to
+the educated eye without any calculation. In the present day engineers are
+in accord as to the principles of estimating the magnitude of the stresses
+on the members of a structure, but not so in proportioning the members to
+resist those stresses. The practical result is that a bridge which would be
+passed by the English Board of Trade would require to be strengthened 5% in
+some parts and 60% in others, before it would be accepted by the German
+government, or by any of the leading railway companies in America." Sir B.
+Baker then described the results of experiments on repetition of stress,
+and added that "hundreds of existing bridges which carry twenty trains a
+day with perfect safety would break down quickly under twenty trains an
+hour. This fact was forced on my attention nearly twenty-five years ago by
+the fracture of a number of girders of ordinary strength under a
+five-minutes' train service."
+
+Practical experience taught engineers that though 5 tons per sq. in. for
+iron, or 61/2 tons per sq. in. for steel, was safe or more than safe for long
+bridges with large ratio of dead to live load, it was not safe for short
+ones in which the stresses are mainly due to live load, the weight of the
+bridge being small. The experiments of A. Woehler, repeated by Johann
+Bauschinger, Sir B. Baker and others, show that the breaking stress of a
+bar is not a fixed quantity, but depends on the range of variation of
+stress to which it is subjected, if that variation is repeated a very large
+number of times. Let K be the breaking strength of a bar per unit of
+section, when it is loaded once gradually to breaking. This may be termed
+the statical breaking strength. Let k_{max.} be the breaking strength of
+the same bar when subjected to stresses varying from k_{max.} to k_{min.}
+alternately and repeated an indefinitely great number of times; k_{min.} is
+to be reckoned + if of the same kind as k_{max.} and - if of the opposite
+kind (tension or thrust). The range of stress is therefore
+k_{max.}-k_{min.}, if the stresses are both of the same kind, and
+k_{max.}+k_{min.}, if they are of opposite kinds. Let [Delta] = k_{max.} +-
+k_{min.} = the range of stress, where [Delta] is always positive. Then
+Woehler's results agree closely with the rule,
+
+  k_{max.} = 1/2[Delta]+[root](K squared-n[Delta]K),
+
+where n is a constant which varies from 1.3 to 2 in various qualities of
+iron and steel. For ductile iron or mild steel it may be taken as 1.5. For
+a statical load, range of stress nil, [Delta] = 0, k_{max.} = K, the
+statical breaking stress. For a bar so placed that it is alternately loaded
+and the load removed, [Delta] = k_{max.} and k_{max.} = 0.6 K. For a bar
+subjected to alternate tension and compression of equal amount, [Delta] = 2
+f_{max.} and k_{max.} = 0.33 K. The safe working stress in these different
+cases is k_{max.} divided by the factor of safety. It is sometimes said
+that a bar is "fatigued" by repeated straining. The real nature of the
+action is not well understood, but the word fatigue may be used, if it is
+not considered to imply more than that the breaking stress under repetition
+of loading diminishes as the range of variation increases.
+
+It was pointed out as early as 1869 (Unwin, _Wrought Iron Bridges and
+Roofs_) that a rational method of fixing the working stress, so far as
+knowledge went at that time, would be to make it depend on the ratio of
+live to dead load, and in such a way that the factor of safety for the live
+load stresses was double that for the dead load stresses. Let A be the dead
+load and B the live load, producing stress in a bar; [rho] = B/A the ratio
+of live to dead load; f_1 the safe working limit of stress for a bar
+subjected to a dead load only and f the safe working stress in any other
+case. Then
+
+  f_1 (A+B)/(A+2B) = f_1(1+[rho])/(1+2[rho]).
+
+The following table gives values of f so computed on the assumption that
+f_1 = 71/2 tons per sq. in. for iron and 9 tons per sq. in. for steel.
+
+_Working Stress for combined Dead and Live Load. Factor of Safety twice as
+great for Live Load as for Dead Load._
+
+  ----------------------+-------+----------+-----------------------------+
+                        | Ratio | 1+[rho]  |Values of f, tons per sq. in.|
+                        | [rho] | -------  +-----------------------------+
+                        |       | 1+2[rho] |      Iron.     | Mild Steel.|
+  ----------------------+-------+----------+----------------+------------+
+  All dead load         |     0 |   1.00   |       7.5      |     9.0    |
+                        |   .25 |   0.83   |       6.2      |     7.5    |
+                        |   .33 |   0.78   |       5.8      |     7.0    |
+                        |   .50 |   0.75   |       5.6      |     6.8    |
+                        |   .66 |   0.71   |       5.3      |     6.4    |
+  Live load = Dead load |  1.00 |   0.66   |       4.9      |     5.9    |
+                        |  2.00 |   0.60   |       4.5      |     5.4    |
+                        |  4.00 |   0.56   |       4.2      |     5.0    |
+  All live load         | [inf] |   0.50   |       3.7      |     4.5    |
+  ----------------------+-------+----------+----------------+------------+
+
+Bridge sections designed by this rule differ little from those designed by
+formulae based directly on Woehler's experiments. This rule has been revived
+in America, and appears to be increasingly relied on in bridge-designing.
+(See _Trans. Am. Soc. C.E._ xli. p. 156.)
+
+The method of J.J. Weyrauch and W. Launhardt, based on an empirical
+expression for Woehler's law, has been much used in bridge designing (see
+_Proc. Inst. C.E._ lxiii. p. 275). Let t be the _statical breaking
+strength_ of a bar, loaded once gradually up to fracture (t = breaking load
+divided by original area of section); u the breaking strength of a bar
+loaded and unloaded an indefinitely great number of times, the stress
+varying from u to 0 alternately (this is termed the _primitive strength_);
+and, lastly, let s be the breaking strength of a bar subjected to an
+indefinitely great number of repetitions of stresses equal and opposite in
+sign (tension and thrust), so that the stress ranges alternately from s to
+-s. This is termed the _vibration strength_. Woehler's and Bauschinger's
+experiments give values of t, u, and s, for some materials. If a bar is
+subjected to alternations of stress having the range [Delta] =
+f_{max.}-f_{min.}, then, by Woehler's law, the bar will ultimately break, if
+
+  f_{max.} = F[Delta], . . . (1)
+
+where F is some unknown function. Launhardt found that, for stresses always
+of the same kind, F = (t-u)/(t-f_{max.}) approximately agreed with
+experiment. For stresses of different kinds Weyrauch found F =
+(u-s)/(2u-s-f_{max.}) to be similarly approximate. Now let
+f_{max.}/f_{min.} = [phi], where [phi] is + or - according as the stresses
+are of the same or opposite signs. Putting the values of F in (1) and
+solving for f_{max.}, we get for the breaking stress of a bar subjected to
+repetition of varying stress,
+
+  f_{max.} = u(1+(t-u)[phi]/u)   [Stresses of same sign.]
+  f_{max.} = u(1+(u-s)[phi]/u)   [Stresses of opposite sign.]
+
+The working stress in any case is f_{max.} divided by a factor of safety.
+Let that factor be 3. Then Woehler's results for iron and Bauschinger's for
+steel give the following equations for tension or thrust:--
+
+  Iron, working stress, f = 4.4 (1+1/2[phi])
+  Steel, working stress, f = 5.87 (1+1/2[phi]).
+
+In these equations [phi] is to have its + or - value according to the case
+considered. For shearing stresses the working stress may have 0.8 of its
+value for tension. The following table gives values of the working stress
+calculated by these equations:--
+
+_Working Stress for Tension or Thrust by Launhardt and Weyrauch Formula._
+
+  ------------------------+-------+-----------+--------------------+
+                          | [phi] |     [phi] | Working Stress f,  |
+                          |       | 1 + ----- |  tons per sq. in.  |
+                          |       |       2   +--------------------+
+                          |       |           |  Iron.   | Steel.  |
+  ------------------------+-------+-----------+--------------------+
+  All dead load           |  1.0  |   1.5     |   6.60   |  8.80   |
+                          |  0.75 |   1.375   |   6.05   |  8.07   |
+                          |  0.50 |   1.25    |   5.50   |  7.34   |
+                          |  0.25 |   1.125   |   4.95   |  6.60   |
+  All live load           |  0.00 |   1.00    |   4.40   |  5.87   |
+                          | -0.25 |   0.875   |   3.85   |  5.14   |
+                          | -0.50 |   0.75    |   3.30   |  4.40   |
+                          | -0.75 |   0.625   |   2.75   |  3.67   |
+  Equal stresses + and -  | -1.00 |   0.500   |   2.20   |  2.93   |
+  ------------------------+-------+-----------+--------------------+
+
+[v.04 p.0550] To compare this with the previous table, [phi] = (A+B)/A =
+1+[rho]. Except when the limiting stresses are of opposite sign, the two
+tables agree very well. In bridge work this occurs only in some of the
+bracing bars.
+
+It is a matter of discussion whether, if fatigue is allowed for by the
+Weyrauch method, an additional allowance should be made for impact. There
+was no impact in Woehler's experiments, and therefore it would seem rational
+to add the impact allowance to that for fatigue; but in that case the
+bridge sections become larger than experience shows to be necessary. Some
+engineers escape this difficulty by asserting that Woehler's results are not
+applicable to bridge work. They reject the allowance for fatigue (that is,
+the effect of repetition) and design bridge members for the total dead and
+live load, plus a large allowance for impact varied according to some
+purely empirical rule. (See Waddell, _De Pontibus_, p.7.) Now in applying
+Woehler's law, f_{max.} for any bridge member is found for the maximum
+possible live load, a live load which though it may sometimes come on the
+bridge and must therefore be provided for, is not the usual live load to
+which the bridge is subjected. Hence the range of stress,
+f_{max.}-f_{min.}, from which the working stress is deduced, is not the
+ordinary range of stress which is repeated a practically infinite number of
+times, but is a range of stress to which the bridge is subjected only at
+comparatively long intervals. Hence practically it appears probable that
+the allowance for fatigue made in either of the tables above is sufficient
+to cover the ordinary effects of impact also.
+
+English bridge-builders are somewhat hampered in adopting rational limits
+of working stress by the rules of the Board of Trade. Nor do they all
+accept the guidance of Woehler's law. The following are some examples of
+limits adopted. For the Dufferin bridge (steel) the working stress was
+taken at 6.5 tons per sq. in. in bottom booms and diagonals, 6.0 tons in
+top booms, 5.0 tons in verticals and long compression members. For the
+Stanley bridge at Brisbane the limits were 6.5 tons per sq. in. in
+compression boom, 7.0 tons in tension boom, 5.0 tons in vertical struts,
+6.5 tons in diagonal ties, 8.0 tons in wind bracing, and 6.5 tons in cross
+and rail girders. In the new Tay bridge the limit of stress is generally 5
+tons per sq. in., but in members in which the stress changes sign 4 tons
+per sq. in. In the Forth bridge for members in which the stress varied from
+0 to a maximum frequently, the limit was 5.0 tons per sq. in., or if the
+stress varied rarely 5.6 tons per sq. in.; for members subjected to
+alternations of tension and thrust frequently 3.3 tons per sq. in. or 5
+tons per sq. in. if the alternations were infrequent. The shearing area of
+rivets in tension members was made 11/2 times the useful section of plate in
+tension. For compression members the shearing area of rivets in butt-joints
+was made half the useful section of plate in compression.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37.]
+
+20. _Determination of Stresses in the Members of Bridges._--It is
+convenient to consider beam girder or truss bridges, and it is the stresses
+in the main girders which primarily require to be determined. A main girder
+consists of an upper and lower flange, boom or chord and a vertical web.
+The loading forces to be considered are vertical, the horizontal forces due
+to wind pressure are treated separately and provided for by a horizontal
+system of bracing. For practical purposes it is accurate enough to consider
+the booms or chords as carrying exclusively the horizontal tension and
+compression and the web as resisting the whole of the vertical and, in a
+plate web, the equal horizontal shearing forces. Let fig. 37 represent a
+beam with any system of loads W_1, W_2, ... W_n.
+
+The reaction at the right abutment is
+
+  R_2 = W_1x_1/l+W_2x_2/l+...
+
+That at the left abutment is
+
+  R_1 = W_1+W_2+...-R_2.
+
+Consider any section a b. The total shear at a b is
+
+  S = R-[Sigma](W_1+W_2 ...)
+
+where the summation extends to all the loads to the left of the section.
+Let p_1, p_2 ... be the distances of the loads from a b, and p the distance
+of R_1 from a b; then the bending moment at a b is
+
+  M = R_1p-[Sigma](W_1p_1+W_2p_2 ...)
+
+where the summation extends to all the loads to the left of a b. If the
+loads on the right of the section are considered the expressions are
+similar and give the same results.
+
+If A_t A_c are the cross sections of the tension and compression flanges or
+chords, and h the distance between their mass centres, then on the
+assumption that they resist all the direct horizontal forces the total
+stress on each flange is
+
+  H_t = H_c = M/h
+
+and the intensity of stress of tension or compression is
+
+  f_t = M/A_th,
+  f_c = M/A_ch.
+
+If A is the area of the plate web in a vertical section, the intensity of
+shearing stress is
+
+  f_x = S/A
+
+and the intensity on horizontal sections is the same. If the web is a
+braced web, then the vertical component of the stress in the web bars cut
+by the section must be equal to S.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38.]
+
+21. _Method of Sections. A. Ritter's Method._--In the case of braced
+structures the following method is convenient: When a section of a girder
+can be taken cutting only three bars, the stresses in the bars can be found
+by taking moments. In fig. 38 m n cuts three bars, and the forces in the
+three bars cut by the section are C, S and T. There are to the left of the
+section the external forces, R, W_1, W_2. Let s be the perpendicular from
+O, the join of C and T on the direction of S; t the perpendicular from A,
+the join of C and S on the direction of T; and c the perpendicular from B,
+the join of S and T on the direction of C. Taking moments about O,
+
+  R_x-W_1(x+a)-W_2(x+2a) = Ss;
+
+taking moments about A,
+
+  R3a-W_12a-W_2a = Tt;
+
+and taking moments about B,
+
+  R2a-W_1a = Cc
+
+Or generally, if M_1 M_2 M_3 are the moments of the external forces to the
+left of O, A, and B respectively, and s, t and c the perpendiculars from O,
+A and B on the directions of the forces cut by the section, then
+
+  Ss = M_1; Tt = M_2 and Cc = M_3.
+
+Still more generally if H is the stress on any bar, h the perpendicular
+distance from the join of the other two bars cut by the section, and M is
+the moment of the forces on one side of that join,
+
+  Hh = M.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 39.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 40.]
+
+22. _Distribution of Bending Moment and Shearing Force._--Let a girder of
+span l, fig. 39, supported at the ends, carry a fixed load W at m from the
+right abutment. The reactions at the abutments are R_1 = Wm/l and R_2 =
+W(l-m)/l. The shears on vertical sections to the left and right of the load
+are R_1 and -R_2, and the distribution of shearing force is given by two
+rectangles. Bending moment increases uniformly from either abutment to the
+load, at which the bending moment is M = R_2m = R_1(l-m). The distribution
+of bending moment is given by the ordinates of a triangle. Next let the
+girder carry a uniform load w per ft. run (fig. 40). The total load [v.04
+p.0551] is wl; the reactions at abutments, R_1 = R_2 = 1/2wl. The
+distribution of shear on vertical sections is given by the ordinates of a
+sloping line. The greatest bending moment is at the centre and = M_c =
+1/8wl^2. At any point x from the abutment, the bending moment is M =
+1/2wx(l-x), an equation to a parabola.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 41.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 42.]
+
+23. _Shear due to Travelling Loads._--Let a uniform train weighing w per
+ft. run advance over a girder of span 2c, from the left abutment. When it
+covers the girder to a distance x from the centre (fig. 41) the total load
+is w(c+x); the reaction at B is
+
+  R_2 = w(c+x)x(c+x)/4c = w/4c(c+x) squared,
+
+which is also the shearing force at C for that position of the load. As the
+load travels, the shear at the head of the train will be given by the
+ordinates of a parabola having its vertex at A, and a maximum F_{max.} =
+-1/2wl at B. If the load travels the reverse way, the shearing force at the
+head of the train is given by the ordinates of the dotted parabola. The
+greatest shear at C for any position of the load occurs when the head of
+the train is at C. For any load p between C and B will increase the
+reaction at B and therefore the shear at C by part of p, but at the same
+time will diminish the shear at C by the whole of p. The web of a girder
+must resist the maximum shear, and, with a travelling load like a railway
+train, this is greater for partial than for complete loading. Generally a
+girder supports both a dead and a live load. The distribution of total
+shear, due to a dead load w_l per ft. run and a travelling load w_l per ft.
+run, is shown in fig. 42, arranged so that the dead load shear is added to
+the maximum travelling load shear of the same sign.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43.]
+
+24. _Counterbracing._--In the case of girders with braced webs, the tension
+bars of which are not adapted to resist a thrust, another circumstance due
+to the position of the live load must be considered. For a train advancing
+from the left, the travelling load shear in the left half of the span is of
+a different sign from that due to the dead load. Fig. 43 shows the maximum
+shear at vertical sections due to a dead and travelling load, the latter
+advancing (fig. 43, a) from the left and (fig. 43, b) from the right
+abutment. Comparing the figures it will be seen that over a distance x near
+the middle of the girder the shear changes sign, according as the load
+advances from the left or the right. The bracing bars, therefore, for this
+part of the girder must be adapted to resist either tension or thrust.
+Further, the range of stress to which they are subjected is the sum of the
+stresses due to the load advancing from the left or the right.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 45.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 46.]
+
+25. _Greatest Shear when concentrated Loads travel over the Bridge._--To
+find the greatest shear with a set of concentrated loads at fixed
+distances, let the loads advance from the left abutment, and let C be the
+section at which the shear is required (fig. 44). The greatest shear at C
+may occur with W_1 at C. If W_1 passes beyond C, the shear at C will
+probably be greatest when W_2 is at C. Let R be the resultant of the loads
+on the bridge when W_1 is at C. Then the reaction at B and shear at C is
+Rn/l. Next let the loads advance a distance a so that W_2 comes to C. Then
+the shear at C is R(n+a)/l-W_1, plus any reaction d at B, due to any
+additional load which has come on the girder during the movement. The shear
+will therefore be increased by bringing W_2 to C, if Ra/l+d > W_1 and d is
+generally small and negligible. This result is modified if the action of
+the load near the section is distributed to the bracing intersections by
+rail and cross girders. In fig. 45 the action of W is distributed to A and
+B by the flooring. Then the loads at A and B are W(p-x)/p and Wx/p. Now let
+C (fig. 46) be the section at which the greatest shear is required, and let
+the loads advance from the left till W_1 is at C. If R is the resultant of
+the loads then on the girder, the reaction at B and shear at C is Rn/l. But
+the shear may be greater when W_2 is at C. In that case the shear at C
+becomes R(n+a)/l+d-W_1, if a > p, and R(n+a)/l+d-W_1a/p, if a < p. If we
+neglect d, then the shear increases by moving W_2 to C, if Ra/l > W_1 in
+the first case, and if Ra/l > W_1a/p in the second case.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 47.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 48.]
+
+26. _Greatest Bending Moment due to travelling concentrated Loads._--For
+the greatest bending moment due to a travelling live load, let a load of w
+per ft. run advance from the left abutment (fig. 47), and let its centre be
+at x from the left abutment. The reaction at B is 2wx squared/l and the bending
+moment at any section C, at m from the left abutment, is 2wx squared/(l-m)/l,
+which increases as x increases till the span is covered. Hence, for uniform
+travelling loads, the bending moments are greatest when the loading is
+complete. In that case the loads on either side of C are proportional to m
+and l-m. In the case of a series of travelling loads at fixed distances
+apart passing over the girder from the left, let W_1, W_2 (fig. 48), at
+distances x and x+a from the left abutment, be their resultants on either
+side of C. Then the reaction at B is W_1x/l+W_2(x+a)/l. The bending moment
+at C is
+
+  M = W_1x(l-m)/l+W_2m{1-(x+a)/l}.
+
+If the loads are moved a distance [Delta]x to the right, the bending moment
+becomes
+
+  M+[Delta]M = W_1(x+[Delta]x)(l-m)/l+W_2m{1-(x+[Delta]x+a)/l}
+          [Delta]m = W_1[Delta]x(l-m)/l-W_2[Delta]xm/l,
+
+and this is positive or the bending moment increases, if W_1(l-m) > W_2m,
+or if W_1/m > W_2/(l-m). But these are the average loads per ft. run to the
+left and right of C. Hence, if the average load to the left of a section is
+greater than that to the right, the bending moment at the section will be
+increased by moving the loads to the right, and vice versa. Hence the
+maximum bending moment at C for a series of travelling loads will occur
+when the average load is the same on either side of C. If one of the loads
+is at C, spread over a very small distance in the neighbourhood of C, then
+a very small displacement of the loads will permit the fulfilment of the
+condition. Hence the criterion for the position of the loads which makes
+the moment at C greatest is this: one load must be at C, and the other
+loads must be distributed, so that the average loads per ft. on either side
+of C (the load at C being neglected) are nearly equal. If the loads are
+very unequal in magnitude or distance this condition may be satisfied for
+more than one position of the loads, but it is not difficult to ascertain
+which position gives the maximum moment. Generally one of the largest of
+the loads must be at C with as many others to right and left as is
+consistent with that condition.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49.]
+
+This criterion may be stated in another way. The greatest bending moment
+will occur with one of the greatest loads at the section, and when this
+further condition is satisfied. Let fig. 49 represent a beam with the
+series of loads travelling from the right. Let a b be [v.04 p.0552] the
+section considered, and let W_x be the load at a b when the bending moment
+there is greatest, and W_n the last load to the right then on the bridge.
+Then the position of the loads must be that which satisfies the condition
+
+    x                W_1+W_2+... W_{x-1}
+   --- greater than ------------------------
+    l                W_1+W_2+... W_n
+
+       x             W_1+W_2+... W_x
+      --- less than ------------------------
+       l             W_1+W_2+... W_n
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 50.]
+
+Fig. 50 shows the curve of bending moment under one of a series of
+travelling loads at fixed distances. Let W_1, W_2, W_3 traverse the girder
+from the left at fixed distances a, b. For the position shown the
+distribution of bending moment due to W_1 is given by ordinates of the
+triangle A'CB'; that due to W_2 by ordinates of A'DB'; and that due to W_3
+by ordinates A'EB'. The total moment at W_1, due to three loads, is the sum
+mC+mn+mo of the intercepts which the triangle sides cut off from the
+vertical under W_1. As the loads move over the girder, the points C, D, E
+describe the parabolas M_1, M_2, M_3, the middle ordinates of which are
+1/4W_1l, 1/4W_2l, and 1/4W_3l. If these are first drawn it is easy, for any
+position of the loads, to draw the lines B'C, B'D, B'E, and to find the sum
+of the intercepts which is the total bending moment under a load. The lower
+portion of the figure is the curve of bending moments under the leading
+load. Till W_1 has advanced a distance a only one load is on the girder,
+and the curve A"F gives bending moments due to W_1 only; as W_1 advances to
+a distance a+b, two loads are on the girder, and the curve FG gives moments
+due to W_1 and W_2. GB" is the curve of moments for all three loads
+W_1+W_2+W_3.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 51.]
+
+Fig. 51 shows maximum bending moment curves for an extreme case of a short
+bridge with very unequal loads. The three lightly dotted parabolas are the
+curves of maximum moment for each of the loads taken separately. The three
+heavily dotted curves are curves of maximum moment under each of the loads,
+for the three loads passing over the bridge, at the given distances, from
+left to right. As might be expected, the moments are greatest in this case
+at the sections under the 15-ton load. The heavy continuous line gives the
+last-mentioned curve for the reverse direction of passage of the loads.
+
+With short bridges it is best to draw the curve of maximum bending moments
+for some assumed typical set of loads in the way just described, and to
+design the girder accordingly. For longer bridges the funicular polygon
+affords a method of determining maximum bending moments which is perhaps
+more convenient. But very great accuracy in drawing this curve is
+unnecessary, because the rolling stock of railways varies so much that the
+precise magnitude and distribution of the loads which will pass over a
+bridge cannot be known. All that can be done is to assume a set of loads
+likely to produce somewhat severer straining than any probable actual
+rolling loads. Now, except for very short bridges and very unequal loads, a
+parabola can be found which includes the curve of maximum moments. This
+parabola is the curve of maximum moments for a travelling load uniform per
+ft. run. Let w_e be the load per ft. run which would produce the maximum
+moments represented by this parabola. Then w_e may be termed the uniform
+load per ft. equivalent to any assumed set of concentrated loads. Waddell
+has calculated tables of such equivalent uniform loads. But it is not
+difficult to find w_e, approximately enough for practical purposes, very
+simply. Experience shows that (a) a parabola having the same ordinate at
+the centre of the span, or (b) a parabola having the same ordinate at
+one-quarter span as the curve of maximum moments, agrees with it closely
+enough for practical designing. A criterion already given shows the
+position of any set of loads which will produce the greatest bending moment
+at the centre of the bridge, or at one-quarter span. Let M_c and M_a be
+those moments. At a section distant x from the centre of a girder of span
+2c, the bending moment due to a uniform load w_e per ft run is
+
+  M = 1/2w_e(c-x)(c+x).
+
+Putting x = 0, for the centre section
+
+  M_c = 1/2w_ec^2;
+
+and putting x = 1/2c, for section at quarter span
+
+  M_a = 3/8w_ec^2.
+
+From these equations a value of w_e can be obtained. Then the bridge is
+designed, so far as the direct stresses are concerned, for bending moments
+due to a uniform dead load and the uniform equivalent load w_e.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 52.]
+
+27. _Influence Lines._--In dealing with the action of travelling loads much
+assistance may be obtained by using a line termed an _influence line_. Such
+a line has for abscissa the distance of a load from one end of a girder,
+and for ordinate the bending moment or shear at any given section, or on
+any member, due to that load. Generally the influence line is drawn for
+unit load. In fig. 52 let A'B' be a girder supported at the ends and let it
+be required to investigate the bending moment at C' due to unit load in any
+position on the girder. When the load is at F', the reaction at B' is m/l
+and the moment at C' is m(l-x)/l, which will be reckoned positive, when it
+resists a tendency of the right-hand part of the girder to turn
+counter-clockwise. Projecting A'F'C'B' on to the horizontal AB, take Ff =
+m(l-x)/l, the moment at C of unit load at F. If this process is repeated
+for all positions of the load, we get the influence line AGB for the
+bending moment at C. The area AGB is termed the influence area. The
+greatest moment CG at C is x(l-x)/l. To use this line to investigate the
+maximum moment at C due to a series of travelling loads at fixed distances,
+let P_1, P_2, P_3, ... be the loads which at the moment considered are at
+distances m_1, m_2, ... from the left abutment. Set off these distances
+along AB and let y_1, y_2, ... be the corresponding ordinates of the
+influence curve (y = Ff) on the verticals under the loads. Then the moment
+at C due to all the loads is
+
+  M = P_1y_1+P_2y_2+...
+
+[v.04 p.0553] [Illustration: FIG. 53.]
+
+The position of the loads which gives the greatest moment at C may be
+settled by the criterion given above. For a uniform travelling load w per
+ft. of span, consider a small interval Fk = [Delta]m on which the load is
+w[Delta]m. The moment due to this, at C, is wm(l-x)[Delta]m/l. But
+m(l-x)[Delta]m/l is the area of the strip Ffhk, that is y[Delta]m. Hence
+the moment of the load on [Delta]m at C is wy[Delta]m, and the moment of a
+uniform load over any portion of the girder is w x the area of the
+influence curve under that portion. If the scales are so chosen that a inch
+represents 1 in. ton of moment, and b inch represents 1 ft. of span, and w
+is in tons per ft. run, then ab is the unit of area in measuring the
+influence curve.
+
+If the load is carried by a rail girder (stringer) with cross girders at
+the intersections of bracing and boom, its effect is distributed to the
+bracing intersections D'E' (fig. 53), and the part of the influence line
+for that bay (panel) is altered. With unit load in the position shown, the
+load at D' is (p-n)/p, and that at E' is n/p. The moment of the load at C
+is m(l-x)/l-n(p-n)/p. This is the equation to the dotted line RS (fig. 52).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 54.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 55]
+
+If the unit load is at F', the reaction at B' and the shear at C' is m/l,
+positive if the shearing stress resists a tendency of the part of the
+girder on the right to move upwards; set up Ff = m/l (fig. 54) on the
+vertical under the load. Repeating the process for other positions, we get
+the influence line AGHB, for the shear at C due to unit load anywhere on
+the girder. GC = x/l and CH = -(l-x)/l. The lines AG, HB are parallel. If
+the load is in the bay D'E' and is carried by a rail girder which
+distributes it to cross girders at D'E', the part of the influence line
+under this bay is altered. Let n (Fig. 55) be the distance of the load from
+D', x_1 the distance of D' from the left abutment, and p the length of a
+bay. The loads at D', E, due to unit weight on the rail girder are (p-n)/p
+and n/p. The reaction at B' is {(p-n)x_1+n(x_1+p)}/pl. The shear at C' is
+the reaction at B' less the load at E', that is, {p(x_1+n)-nl}/pl, which is
+the equation to the line DH (fig. 54). Clearly, the distribution of the
+load by the rail girder considerably alters the distribution of shear due
+to a load in the bay in which the section considered lies. The total shear
+due to a series of loads P_1, P_2, ... at distances m_1, m_2, ... from the
+left abutment, y_1, y_2, ... being the ordinates of the influence curve
+under the loads, is S = P_1y_1+P_2y_2+.... Generally, the greatest shear S
+at C will occur when the longer of the segments into which C divides the
+girder is fully loaded and the other is unloaded, the leading load being at
+C. If the loads are very unequal or unequally spaced, a trial or two will
+determine which position gives the greatest value of S. The greatest shear
+at C' of the opposite sign to that due to the loading of the longer segment
+occurs with the shorter segment loaded. For a uniformly distributed load w
+per ft. run the shear at C is w x the area of the influence curve under the
+segment covered by the load, attention being paid to the sign of the area
+of the curve. If the load rests directly on the main girder, the greatest +
+and - shears at C will be w x AGC and -w x CHB. But if the load is
+distributed to the bracing intersections by rail and cross girders, then
+the shear at C' will be greatest when the load extends to N, and will have
+the values w x ADN and -w x NEB. An interesting paper by F.C. Lea, dealing
+with the determination of stress due to concentrated loads, by the method
+of influence lines will be found in _Proc. Inst. C.E._ clxi. p.261.
+
+Influence lines were described by Fraenkel, _Der Civilingenieur_, 1876. See
+also _Handbuch der Ingenieur-wissenschaften_, vol. ii. ch. x. (1882), and
+Levy, _La Statique graphique_ (1886). There is a useful paper by Prof. G.F.
+Swain (_Trans. Am. Soc. C.E._ xvii., 1887), and another by L.M. Hoskins
+(_Proc. Am. Soc. C.E._ xxv., 1899).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 56.]
+
+28. _Eddy's Method._--Another method of investigating the maximum shear at
+a section due to any distribution of a travelling load has been given by
+Prof. H.T. Eddy (_Trans. Am. Soc. C.E._ xxii., 1890). Let hk (fig. 56)
+represent in magnitude and position a load W, at x from the left abutment,
+on a girder AB of span l. Lay off kf, hg, horizontal and equal to l. Join f
+and g to h and k. Draw verticals at A, B, and join no. Obviously no is
+horizontal and equal to l. Also mn/mf = hk/kf or mn-W(l-x)/l, which is the
+reaction at A due to the load at C, and is the shear at any point of AC.
+Similarly, po is the reaction at B and shear at any point of CB. The shaded
+rectangles represent the distribution of shear due to the load at C, while
+no may be termed the datum line of shear. Let the load move to D, so that
+its distance from the left abutment is x+a. Draw a vertical at D,
+intersecting fh, kg, in s and q. Then qr/ro = hk/hg or ro = W(l-x-a)/l,
+which is the reaction at A and shear at any point of AD, for the new
+position of the load. Similarly, rs = W(x+a)/l is the shear on DB. The
+distribution of shear is given by the partially shaded rectangles. For the
+application of this method to a series of loads Prof. Eddy's paper must be
+referred to.
+
+29. _Economic Span._--In the case of a bridge of many spans, there is a
+length of span which makes the cost of the bridge least. The cost of
+abutments and bridge flooring is practically independent of the length of
+span adopted. Let P be the cost of one pier; C the cost of the main girders
+for one span, erected; n the number of spans; l the length of one span, and
+L the length of the bridge between abutments. Then, n = L/l nearly. Cost of
+piers (n-1)P. Cost of main girders nG. The cost of a pier will not vary
+materially with the span adopted. It depends mainly on the character of the
+foundations and height at which the bridge is carried. The cost of the main
+girders for one span will vary nearly as the square of the span for any
+given type of girder and intensity of live load. That is, G = al squared, where a
+is a constant. Hence the total cost of that part of the bridge which varies
+with the span adopted is--
+
+  C = (n-i)P+nal squared
+    = LP/l-P+Lal.
+
+Differentiating and equating to zero, the cost is least when
+
+  dC     LP
+  -- = - -- + La = 0,
+  dl     l squared
+
+      P = al squared = G;
+
+that is, when the cost of one pier is equal to the cost erected of the main
+girders of one span. Sir Guilford Molesworth puts this in a convenient but
+less exact form. Let G be the cost of superstructure of a 100-ft. span
+erected, and P the cost of one pier with its protection. Then the economic
+span is l = 100[root]P/[root]G.
+
+30. _Limiting Span._--If the weight of the main girders of a bridge, per
+ft. run in tons, is--
+
+  w_3 = (w_1+w_2)lr/(K-lr)
+
+according to a formula already given, then w_3 becomes infinite if k-lr =
+0, or if
+
+  l = K/r,
+
+[v.04 p.0554] where l is the span in feet and r is the ratio of span to
+depth of girder at centre. Taking K for steel girders as 7200 to 9000,
+
+                        Limiting Span in Ft.
+          r = 12          l = 600 to 750
+            = 10            = 720 to 900
+            =  8            = 900 to 1120
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 58.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 59.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 60.]
+
+In a three-span bridge continuous girders are lighter than discontinuous
+ones by about 45% for the dead load and 15% for the live load, if no
+allowance is made for ambiguity due to uncertainty as to the level of the
+supports. The cantilever and suspended girder types are as economical and
+free from uncertainty as to the stresses. In long-span bridges the
+cantilever system permits erection by building out, which is economical and
+sometimes necessary. It is, however, unstable unless rigidly fixed at the
+piers. In the Forth bridge stability is obtained partly by the great excess
+of dead over live load, partly by the great width of the river piers. The
+majority of bridges not of great span have girders with parallel booms.
+This involves the fewest difficulties of workmanship and perhaps permits
+the closest approximation of actual to theoretical dimensions of the parts.
+In spans over 200 ft. it is economical to have one horizontal boom and one
+polygonal (approximately parabolic) boom. The hog-backed girder is a
+compromise between the two types, avoiding some difficulties of
+construction near the ends of the girder.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 61.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 62.]
+
+Most braced girders may be considered as built up of two simple forms of
+truss, the king-post truss (fig. 61, a), or the queen-post truss (fig. 61,
+b). These may be used in either the upright or the inverted position. A
+_multiple truss_ consists of a number of simple trusses, e.g. Bollman
+truss. Some timber bridges consist of queen-post trusses in the upright
+position, as shown diagrammatically in fig. 62, where the circles indicate
+points at which the flooring girders transmit load to the main girders.
+_Compound_ trusses consist of simple trusses used as primary, secondary and
+tertiary trusses, the secondary supported on the primary, and the tertiary
+on the secondary. Thus, the Fink truss consists of king-post trusses; the
+Pratt truss (fig. 63) and the Whipple truss (fig. 64) of queen-post trusses
+alternately upright and inverted.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 63.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 64.]
+
+A combination bridge is built partly of timber, partly of steel, the
+compression members being generally of timber and the tension members of
+steel. On the Pacific coast, where excellent timber is obtainable and steel
+works are distant, combination bridges are still largely used (Ottewell,
+_Trans. Am. Soc. C.E._ xxvii. p. 467). The combination bridge at Roseburgh,
+Oregon, is a cantilever bridge, The shore arms are 147 ft. span, the river
+arms 105 ft., and the suspended girder 80 ft., the total distance between
+anchor piers being 584 ft. The floor beams, floor and railing are of
+timber. The compression members are of timber, except the struts and bottom
+chord panels next the river piers, which are of steel. The tension members
+are of iron and the pins of steel. The chord blocks and post shoes are of
+cast-iron.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 65.]
+
+33. _Graphic Method of finding the Stresses in Braced Structures._--Fig. 65
+shows a common form of bridge truss known as a _Warren girder_, with lines
+indicating external forces applied to the joints; half the load carried
+between the two lower joints next the piers on either side is directly
+carried by the abutments. The sum of the two upward vertical reactions must
+clearly be equal to the sum of the loads. The lines in the diagram
+represent the directions of a series of forces which must all be in
+equilibrium; these lines may, for an object to be explained in the next
+paragraph, be conveniently named by the letters in the spaces which they
+separate instead of by the method usually employed in geometry. Thus we
+shall call the first inclined line on the left hand the line AG, the line
+representing the first force on the top left-hand joint AB, the first
+horizontal member at the top left hand the line BH, &c; similarly each
+point requires at least three letters to denote it; the top first left-hand
+joint may be called ABHG, being the point where these four spaces meet. In
+this method of lettering, every enclosed space must be designated by a
+letter; all external forces must be represented by lines _outside_ the
+frame, and each space between any two forces must receive a distinctive
+letter; this method of lettering was first proposed by O. Henrici and R. H.
+Bow (_Economics of Construction_), and is convenient in applying the theory
+of reciprocal figures to the computation of stresses on frames.
+
+34. _Reciprocal Figures._--J. Clerk Maxwell gave (_Phil. Mag. 1864_) the
+following definition of reciprocal figures:--"Two plane figures are
+reciprocal when they consist of an equal number of lines so that
+corresponding lines in the two figures are parallel, and corresponding
+lines which converge to a point in one figure form a closed polygon in the
+other."
+
+Let a frame (without redundant members), and the external forces which keep
+it in equilibrium, be represented by a diagram constituting one of these
+two plane figures, then the lines in the other plane figure or the
+reciprocal will represent in direction and magnitude the forces between the
+joints of the frame, and, consequently, the stress on each member, as will
+now be explained.
+
+Reciprocal figures are easily drawn by following definite rules, and afford
+therefore a simple method of computing the stresses on members of a frame.
+
+The external forces on a frame or bridge in equilibrium under those forces
+may, by a well-known proposition in statics, be represented by a closed
+polygon, each side of which is parallel to one force, and represents the
+force in magnitude as well as in direction. The sides of the polygon may be
+arranged in any order, provided care is taken so to draw them that in
+passing round the polygon in one direction this direction may for each side
+correspond to the direction of the force which it represents.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 66.]
+
+This polygon of forces may, by a slight extension of the above definition,
+be called the _reciprocal figure_ of the external forces, if the sides are
+arranged in the same order as that of the joints on which they act, so that
+if the joints and forces be numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, &c., passing round the
+outside of the frame in one direction, and returning at last to joint 1,
+then in the polygon the side representing the force 2 will be next the side
+representing the force 1, and will be followed by the side representing the
+force 3, and so forth. [v.04 p.0555] This polygon falls under the
+definition of a reciprocal figure given by Clerk Maxwell, if we consider
+the frame as a point in equilibrium under the external forces.
+
+Fig. 66 shows a frame supported at the two end joints, and loaded at each
+top joint. The loads and the supporting forces are indicated by arrows.
+Fig. 67a shows the reciprocal figure or polygon for the external forces on
+the assumption that the reactions are slightly inclined. The lines in fig.
+67 a, lettered in the usual manner, correspond to the forces indicated by
+arrows in fig. 66, and lettered according to Bow's method. When all the
+forces are vertical, as will be the case in girders, the polygon of
+external forces will be reduced to two straight lines, fig. 67 b,
+superimposed and divided so that the length AX represents the load AX, the
+length AB the load AB, the length YX the reaction YX, and so forth. The
+line XZ consists of a series of lengths, as XA, AB ... DZ, representing the
+loads taken in their order. In subsequent diagrams the two reaction lines
+will, for the sake of clearness, be drawn as if slightly inclined to the
+vertical.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 67.]
+
+If there are no redundant members in the frame there will be only two
+members abutting at the point of support, for these two members will be
+sufficient to balance the reaction, whatever its direction may be; we can
+therefore draw two triangles, each having as one side the reaction YX, and
+having the two other sides parallel to these two members; each of these
+triangles will represent a polygon of forces in equilibrium at the point of
+support. Of these two triangles, shown in fig. 67 c, select that in which
+the letters X and Y are so placed that (naming the apex of the triangle E)
+the lines XE and YE are the lines parallel to the two members of the same
+name in the frame (fig. 66). Then the triangle YXE is the reciprocal figure
+of the three lines YX, XE, EY in the frame, and represents the three forces
+in equilibrium at the point YXE of the frame. The direction of YX, being a
+thrust upwards, shows the direction in which we must go round the triangle
+YXE to find the direction of the two other forces; doing this we find that
+the force XE must act down towards the point YXE, and the force EY away
+from the same point. Putting arrows on the frame diagram to indicate the
+direction of the forces, we see that the member EY must pull and therefore
+act as a tie, and that the member XE must push and act as a strut. Passing
+to the point XEFA we find two known forces, the load XA acting downwards,
+and a push from the strut XE, which, being in compression, must push at
+both ends, as indicated by the arrow, fig. 66. The directions and
+magnitudes of these two forces are already drawn (fig. 67 a) in a fitting
+position to represent part of the polygon of forces at XEFA; beginning with
+the upward thrust EX, continuing down XA, and drawing AF parallel to AF in
+the frame we complete the polygon by drawing EF parallel to EF in the
+frame. The point F is determined by the intersection of the two lines, one
+beginning at A, and the other at E. We then have the polygon of forces
+EXAF, the reciprocal figure of the lines meeting at that point in the
+frame, and representing the forces at the point EXAF; the direction of the
+forces on EH and XA being known determines the direction of the forces due
+to the elastic reaction of the members AF and EF, showing AF to push as a
+strut, while EF is a tie. We have been guided in the selection of the
+particular quadrilateral adopted by the rule of arranging the order of the
+sides so that the same letters indicate corresponding sides in the diagram
+of the frame and its reciprocal. Continuing the construction of the diagram
+in the same way, we arrive at fig. 67 d as the complete reciprocal figure
+of the frame and forces upon it, and we see that each line in the
+reciprocal figure measures the stress on the corresponding member in the
+frame, and that the polygon of forces acting at any point, as IJKY, in the
+frame is represented by a polygon of the same name in the reciprocal
+figure. The direction of the force in each member is easily ascertained by
+proceeding in the manner above described. A single known force in a polygon
+determines the direction of all the others, as these must all correspond
+with arrows pointing the same way round the polygon. Let the arrows be
+placed on the frame round each joint, and so as to indicate the direction
+of each force on that joint; then when two arrows point to one another on
+the same piece, that piece is a tie; when they point from one another the
+piece is a strut. It is hardly necessary to say that the forces exerted by
+the two ends of any one member must be equal and opposite. This method is
+universally applicable where there are no redundant members. The reciprocal
+figure for any loaded frame is a complete formula for the stress on every
+member of a frame of that particular class with loads on given joints.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 68]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 69]
+
+Consider a Warren girder (fig. 68), loaded at the top and bottom joints.
+Fig. 69 b is the polygon of external forces, and 69 c is half the
+reciprocal figure. The complete reciprocal figure is shown in fig. 69 a.
+
+The method of sections already described is often more convenient than the
+method of reciprocal figures, and the method of influence lines is also
+often the readiest way of dealing with braced girders.
+
+35. _Chain Loaded uniformly along a Horizontal Line._--If the lengths of
+the links be assumed indefinitely short, the chain under given simple
+distributions of load will take the form of comparatively simple
+mathematical curves known as catenaries. The true catenary is that assumed
+by a chain of uniform weight per unit of length, but the form generally
+adopted for suspension bridges is that assumed by a chain under a weight
+uniformly distributed relatively to a horizontal line. This curve is a
+parabola.
+
+Remembering that in this case the centre bending moment [Sigma]wl will be
+equal to wL squared/8, we see that the horizontal tension H at the vertex for a
+span L (the points of support being at equal heights) is given by the
+expression
+
+  1 . . . H = wL squared/8y,
+
+or, calling x the distance from the vertex to the point of support,
+
+  H = wx squared/2y,
+
+The value of H is equal to the maximum tension on the bottom flange, or
+compression on the top flange, of a girder of equal span, equally and
+similarly loaded, and having a depth equal to the dip of the suspension
+bridge.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 70.]
+
+Consider any other point F of the curve, fig. 70, at a distance x [v.04
+p.0556] from the vertex, the horizontal component of the resultant (tangent
+to the curve) will be unaltered; the vertical component V will be simply
+the sum of the loads between O and F, or wx. In the triangle FDC, let FD be
+tangent to the curve, FC vertical, and DC horizontal; these three sides
+will necessarily be proportional respectively to the resultant tension
+along the chain at F, the vertical force V passing through the point D, and
+the horizontal tension at O; hence
+
+  H : V = DC : FC = wx squared/2y : wx = x/2 : y,
+
+hence DC is the half of OC, proving the curve to be a parabola.
+
+The value of R, the tension at any point at a distance x from the vertex,
+is obtained from the equation
+
+  R squared = H squared+V squared = w squaredx^4/4y squared+w squaredx squared,
+
+or,
+
+  2 . . . R = wx[root](1+x squared/4y squared).
+
+Let i be the angle between the tangent at any point having the co-ordinates
+x and y measured from the vertex, then
+
+  3 . . . tan i = 2y/x.
+
+Let the length of half the parabolic chain be called s, then
+
+  4 . . . s = x+2y squared/3x.
+
+The following is the approximate expression for the relation between a
+change [Delta]s in the length of the half chain and the corresponding
+change [Delta]y in the dip:--
+
+  s+[Delta]s = x+(2/3x) {y squared+2y[Delta]y+([Delta]y) squared} =
+      x+2y squared/3x+4y[Delta]y/3x+2[Delta]y squared/3x,
+
+or, neglecting the last term,
+
+  5 . . . [Delta]s = 4y[Delta]y/3x,
+
+and
+
+  6 . . . [Delta]y = 3x[Delta]s/4y.
+
+From these equations the deflection produced by any given stress on the
+chains or by a change of temperature can be calculated.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 71.]
+
+36. _Deflection of Girders._-- Let fig. 71 represent a beam bent by
+external loads. Let the origin O be taken at the lowest point of the bent
+beam. Then the deviation y = DE of the neutral axis of the bent beam at any
+point D from the axis OX is given by the relation
+
+  d squaredy   M
+  --- = -- ,
+  dx squared   EI
+
+where M is the bending moment and I the amount of inertia of the beam at D,
+and E is the coefficient of elasticity. It is usually accurate enough in
+deflection calculations to take for I the moment of inertia at the centre
+of the beam and to consider it constant for the length of the beam. Then
+
+  dy    1
+  -- = ---[Integral]Mdx
+  dx   EI
+
+       1
+  y = ---[Integral][Integral]Mdx squared.
+      EI
+
+The integration can be performed when M is expressed in terms of x. Thus
+for a beam supported at the ends and loaded with w per inch length M =
+w(a squared-x squared), where a is the half span. Then the deflection at the centre is
+the value of y for x = a, and is
+
+             5  wa^4
+  [delta] = --- ----.
+             24  EI
+
+The radius of curvature of the beam at D is given by the relation
+
+  R = EI/M.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 72.]
+
+37. _Graphic Method of finding Deflection._--Divide the span L into any
+convenient number n of equal parts of length l, so that nl = L; compute the
+radii of curvature R_1, R_2, R_3 for the several sections. Let measurements
+along the beam be represented according to any convenient scale, so that
+calling L_1 and l_1 the lengths to be drawn on paper, we have L = aL_1; now
+let r_1, r_2, r_3 be a series of radii such that r_1 = R_1/ab, r_2 =
+R_2/ab, &c., where b is any convenient constant chosen of such magnitude as
+will allow arcs with the radii, r_1, r_2, &c., to be drawn with the means
+at the draughtsman's disposal. Draw a curve as shown in fig. 72 with arcs
+of the length l_1, l_2, l_3, &c., and with the radii r_1, r_2, &c. (note,
+for a length 1/2l_1 at each end the radius will be infinite, and the curve
+must end with a straight line tangent to the last arc), then let v be the
+measured deflection of this curve from the straight line, and V the actual
+deflection of the bridge; we have V = av/b, approximately. This method
+distorts the curve, so that vertical ordinates of the curve are drawn to a
+scale b times greater than that of the horizontal ordinates. Thus if the
+horizontal scale be one-tenth of an inch to the foot, a = 120, and a beam
+100 ft. in length would be drawn equal to 10 in.; then if the true radius
+at the centre were 10,000 ft., this radius, if the curve were undistorted,
+would be on paper 1000 in., but making b = 50 we can draw the curve with a
+radius of 20 in. The vertical distortion of the curve must not be so great
+that there is a very sensible difference between the length of the arc and
+its chord. This can be regulated by altering the value of b. In fig. 72
+distortion is carried too far; this figure is merely used as an
+illustration.
+
+38. _Camber._--In order that a girder may become straight under its working
+load it should be constructed with a camber or upward convexity equal to
+the calculated deflection. Owing to the yielding of joints when a beam is
+first loaded a smaller modulus of elasticity should be taken than for a
+solid bar. For riveted girders E is about 17,500,000 lb per sq. in. for
+first loading. W.J.M. Rankine gives the approximate rule
+
+  Working deflection = [delta] = l squared/10,000h,
+
+where l is the span and h the depth of the beam, the stresses being those
+usual in bridgework, due to the total dead and live load.
+
+(W. C. U.)
+
+[1] For the ancient bridges in Rome see further ROME: _Archaeology_, and
+such works as R. Lanciani, _Ruins and Excavations of Ancient Rome_ (Eng.
+trans., 1897), pp. 16 foll.
+
+BRIDGET, SAINT, more properly BRIGID (c. 452-523), one of the patron saints
+of Ireland, was born at Faughart in county Louth, her father being a prince
+of Ulster. Refusing to marry, she chose a life of seclusion, making her
+cell, the first in Ireland, under a large oak tree, whence the place was
+called Kil-dara, "the church of the oak." The city of Kildare is supposed
+to derive its name from St Brigid's cell. The year of her death is
+generally placed in 523. She was buried at Kildare, but her remains were
+afterwards translated to Downpatrick, where they were laid beside the
+bodies of St Patrick and St Columba. Her feast is celebrated on the 1st of
+February. A large collection of miraculous stories clustered round her
+name, and her reputation was not confined to Ireland, for, under the name
+of St Bride, she became a favourite saint in England, and numerous churches
+were dedicated to her in Scotland.
+
+See the five lives given in the Bollandist _Acta Sanctorum_, Feb. 1, i. 99,
+119, 950. Cf. Whitley-Stokes, _Three Middle-Irish Homilies on the Lives of
+Saint Patrick, Brigit and Columba_ (Calcutta, 1874); Colgan, _Acta SS.
+Hiberniae_; D. O'Hanlon, _Lives of Irish Saints_, vol. ii.; Knowles, _Life
+of St Brigid_ (1907); further bibliography in Ulysse Chevalier, _Repertoire
+des sources hist. Bio.-Bibl._ (2nd ed., Paris, 1905), s.v.
+
+BRIDGET, BRIGITTA, BIRGITTA, OF SWEDEN, SAINT (c. 1302-1373), the most
+celebrated saint of the northern kingdoms, was the daughter of Birger
+Persson, governor and _lagman_ (provincial judge) of Uppland, and one of
+the richest landowners of the country. In 1316 she was married to Ulf
+Gudmarson, lord of Nericia, to whom she bore eight children, one of whom
+was [v.04 p.0557] afterwards honoured as St Catherine of Sweden. Bridget's
+saintly and charitable life soon made her known far and wide; she gained,
+too, great religious influence over her husband, with whom (1341-1343) she
+went on pilgrimage to St James of Compostella. In 1344, shortly after their
+return, Ulf died in the Cistercian monastery of Alvastra in East Gothland,
+and Bridget now devoted herself wholly to religion. As a child she had
+already believed herself to have visions; these now became more frequent,
+and her records of these "revelations," which were translated into Latin by
+Matthias, canon of Linkoeping, and by her confessor, Peter, prior of
+Alvastra, obtained a great vogue during the middle ages. It was about this
+time that she founded the order of St Saviour, or Bridgittines (_q.v._), of
+which the principal house, at Vadstena, was richly endowed by King Magnus
+II. and his queen. About 1350 she went to Rome, partly to obtain from the
+pope the authorization of the new order, partly in pursuance of her
+self-imposed mission to elevate the moral tone of the age. It was not till
+1370 that Pope Urban V. confirmed the rule of her order; but meanwhile
+Bridget had made herself universally beloved in Rome by her kindness and
+good works. Save for occasional pilgrimages, including one to Jerusalem in
+1373, she remained in Rome till her death on the 23rd of July 1373. She was
+canonized in 1391 by Pope Boniface IX., and her feast is celebrated on the
+9th of October.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Cf. the Bollandist _Acta Sanctorum_, Oct. 8, iv. 368-560;
+the _Vita Sanctae Brigittae_, edited by C. Annerstedt in _Scriptores rerum
+Suedicarum medii aevi_, iii. 185-244 (Upsala, 1871). The best modern work
+on the subject is by the comtesse Catherine de Flavigny, entitled _Sainte
+Brigitte de Suede, sa vie, ses revelations et son oeuvre_ (Paris, 1892),
+which contains an exhaustive bibliography. The Revelations are contained in
+the critical edition of St Bridget's works published by the Swedish
+Historical Society and edited by G.E. Klemming (Stockholm, 1857-1884, II
+vols.). For full bibliography (to 1904) see Ulysse Chevalier, _Repertoire
+des sources hist. Bio.-Bibl._, _s.v._ "Brigitte."
+
+BRIDGETON, a city, port of entry, and the county-seat of Cumberland county,
+New Jersey, U.S.A., in the south part of the state, on Cohansey creek, 38
+m. S. of Philadelphia. Pop. (1890) 11,424; (1900) 13,913, of whom 653 were
+foreign-born and 701 were negroes; (1905) 13,624; (1910) 14,209. It is
+served by the West Jersey & Sea Shore and the Central of New Jersey
+railways, by electric railways connecting with adjacent towns, and by
+Delaware river steamboats on Cohansey creek, which is navigable to this
+point. It is an attractive residential city, has a park of 650 acres and a
+fine public library, and is the seat of West Jersey academy and of Ivy
+Hall, a school for girls. It is an important market town and distributing
+centre for a rich agricultural region; among its manufactures are glass
+(the product, chiefly glass bottles, being valued in 1905 at
+$1,252,795--42.3% of the value of all the city's factory products--and
+Bridgeton ranking eighth among the cities of the United States in this
+industry), machinery, clothing, and canned fruits and vegetables; it also
+has dyeing and finishing works. Though Bridgeton is a port of entry, its
+foreign commerce is relatively unimportant. The first settlement in what is
+now Bridgeton was made toward the close of the 18th century. A pioneer
+iron-works was established here in 1814. The city of Bridgeton, formed by
+the union of the township of Bridgeton and the township of Cohansey
+(incorporated in 1845 and 1848 respectively), was chartered in 1864.
+
+BRIDGETT, THOMAS EDWARD (1829-1899), Roman Catholic priest and historical
+writer, was born at Derby on the 20th of January 1829. He was brought up a
+Baptist, but in his sixteenth year joined the Church of England. In 1847 he
+entered St John's College, Cambridge, with the intention of taking orders.
+Being unable to subscribe to the Thirty-Nine Articles he could not take his
+degree, and in 1850 became a Roman Catholic, soon afterwards joining the
+Congregation of the Redemptorists. He went through his novitiate at St
+Trond in Belgium, and after a course of five years of theological study at
+Wittem, in Holland, was ordained priest. He returned to England in 1856,
+and for over forty years led an active life as a missioner in England and
+Ireland, preaching in over 80 missions and 140 retreats to the clergy and
+to nuns. His stay in Limerick was particularly successful, and he founded a
+religious confraternity of laymen which numbered 5000 members. Despite his
+arduous life as a priest, Bridgett found time to produce literary works of
+value, chiefly dealing with the history of the Reformation in England;
+among these are _The Life of Blessed John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester_
+(1888); _The Life and Writings of Sir Thomas More_ (1890); _History of the
+Eucharist in Great Britain_ (2 vols., 1881); _Our Lady's Dowry_ (1875, 3rd
+ed. 1890). He died at Clapham on the 17th of February 1899.
+
+For a complete list of Bridgett's works see _The Life of Father Bridgett_,
+by C. Ryder (London, 1906).
+
+BRIDGEWATER, FRANCIS EGERTON, 3RD DUKE OF (1736-1803), the originator of
+British inland navigation, younger son of the 1st duke, was born on the
+21st of May 1736. Scroop, 1st duke of Bridgewater (1681-1745), was the son
+of the 3rd earl of Bridgewater, and was created a duke in 1720; he was the
+great-grandson of John Egerton, 1st earl of Bridgewater (d. 1649; cr.
+1617), whose name is associated with the production of Milton's _Comus_;
+and the latter was the son of Sir Thomas Egerton (1540-1617), Queen
+Elizabeth's lord keeper and James I.'s lord chancellor, who was created
+baron of Ellesmere in 1603, and in 1616 Viscount Brackley (_q.v._).
+
+Francis Egerton succeeded to the dukedom at the age of twelve on the death
+of his brother, the 2nd duke. As a child he was sickly and of such
+unpromising intellectual capacity that at one time the idea of cutting the
+entail was seriously entertained. Shortly after attaining his majority he
+became engaged to the beautiful duchess of Hamilton, but her refusal to
+give up the acquaintance of her sister, Lady Coventry, led to the breaking
+off of the match. Thereupon the duke broke up his London establishment, and
+retiring to his estate at Worsley, devoted himself to the making of canals.
+The navigable canal from Worsley to Manchester which he projected for the
+transport of the coal obtained on his estates was (with the exception of
+the Sankey canal) the first great undertaking of the kind executed in Great
+Britain in modern times. The construction of this remarkable work, with its
+famous aqueduct across the Irwell, was carried out by James Brindley, the
+celebrated engineer. The completion of this canal led the duke to undertake
+a still more ambitious work. In 1762 he obtained parliamentary powers to
+provide an improved waterway between Liverpool and Manchester by means of a
+canal. The difficulties encountered in the execution of the latter work
+were still more formidable than those of the Worsley canal, involving, as
+they did, the carrying of the canal over Sale Moor Moss. But the genius of
+Brindley, his engineer, proved superior to all obstacles, and though at one
+period of the undertaking the financial resources of the duke were almost
+exhausted, the work was carried to a triumphant conclusion. The untiring
+perseverance displayed by the duke in surmounting the various difficulties
+that retarded the accomplishment of his projects, together with the
+pecuniary restrictions he imposed on himself in order to supply the
+necessary capital (at one time he reduced his personal expenses to L400 a
+year), affords an instructive example of that energy and self-denial on
+which the success of great undertakings so much depends. Both these canals
+were completed when the duke was only thirty-six years of age, and the
+remainder of his life was spent in extending them and in improving his
+estates; and during the latter years of his life he derived a princely
+income from the success of his enterprise. Though a steady supporter of
+Pitt's administration, he never took any prominent part in politics.
+
+He died unmarried on the 8th of March 1803, when the ducal title became
+extinct, but the earldom of Bridgewater passed to a cousin, John William
+Egerton, who became 7th earl. By his will he devised his canals and estates
+on trust, under which his nephew, the marquess of Stafford (afterwards
+first duke of Sutherland), became the first beneficiary, and next his son
+Francis Leveson Gower (afterwards first earl of Ellesmere) and his issue.
+In order that the trust should last as long as possible, an extraordinary
+use was made of the legal rule that property may be [v.04 p.0558] settled
+for the duration of lives in being and twenty-one years after, by choosing
+a great number of persons connected with the duke and their living issue
+and adding to them the peers who had taken their seats in the House of
+Lords on or before the duke's decease. Though the last of the peers died in
+1857, one of the commoners survived till the 19th of October 1883, and
+consequently the trust did not expire till the 19th of October 1903, when
+the whole property passed under the undivided control of the earl of
+Ellesmere. The canals, however, had in 1872 been transferred to the
+Bridgewater Navigation Company, by whom they were sold in 1887 to the
+Manchester Ship Canal Company.
+
+BRIDGEWATER, FRANCIS HENRY EGERTON, 8TH EARL OF (1756-1829), was educated
+at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, and became fellow of All Souls in 1780,
+and F.R.S. in 1781. He held the rectories of Middle and Whitchurch in
+Shropshire, but the duties were performed by a proxy. He succeeded his
+brother (see above) in the earldom in 1823, and spent the latter part of
+his life in Paris. He was a fair scholar, and a zealous naturalist and
+antiquarian. When he died in February 1829 the earldom became extinct. He
+bequeathed to the British Museum the valuable Egerton MSS. dealing with the
+literature of France and Italy, and also L12,000. He also left L8000 at the
+disposal of the president of the Royal Society, to be paid to the author or
+authors who might be selected to write and publish 1000 copies of a
+treatise "On the Power, Wisdom and Goodness of God, as manifested in the
+Creation." Mr Davies Gilbert, who then filled the office, selected eight
+persons, each to undertake a branch of this subject, and each to receive
+L1000 as his reward, together with any benefit that might accrue from the
+sale of his work, according to the will of the testator.
+
+The Bridgewater treatises were published as follows:--1. _The Adaptation of
+External Nature to the Moral and Intellectual Condition of Man_, by Thomas
+Chalmers, D.D. 2. _The Adaptation of External Nature to the Physical
+Condition of Man_, by John Kidd, M.D. 3. _Astronomy and General Physics
+considered with reference to Natural Theology_, by William Whewell, D.D. 4.
+_The Hand, its Mechanism and Vital Endowments as evincing Design_, by Sir
+Charles Bell. 5. _Animal and Vegetable Physiology considered with reference
+to Natural Theology_, by Peter Mark Roget. 6. _Geology and Mineralogy
+considered with reference to Natural Theology_, by William Buckland, D.D.
+7. _The Habits and Instincts of Animals with reference to Natural
+Theology_, by William Kirby. 8. _Chemistry, Meteorology, and the Function
+of Digestion, considered with reference to Natural Theology_, by William
+Prout, M.D. The works are of unequal merit; several of them took a high
+rank in apologetic literature. They first appeared during the years 1833 to
+1840, and afterwards in Bohn's Scientific Library.
+
+BRIDGITTINES, an order of Augustinian canonesses founded by St Bridget of
+Sweden (_q.v._) c. 1350, and approved by Urban V. in 1370. It was a "double
+order," each convent having attached to it a small community of canons to
+act as chaplains, but under the government of the abbess. The order spread
+widely in Sweden and Norway, and played a remarkable part in promoting
+culture and literature in Scandinavia; to this is to be attributed the fact
+that the head house at Vastein, by Lake Vetter, was not suppressed till
+1595. There were houses also in other lands, so that the total number
+amounted to 80. In England, the famous Bridgittine convent of Syon at
+Isleworth, Middlesex, was founded and royally endowed by Henry V. in 1415,
+and became one of the richest and most fashionable and influential
+nunneries in the country. It was among the few religious houses restored in
+Mary's reign, when nearly twenty of the old community were re-established
+at Syon. On Elizabeth's accession they migrated to the Low Countries, and
+thence, after many vicissitudes, to Rouen, and finally in 1594 to Lisbon.
+Here they remained, always recruiting their numbers from England, till
+1861, when they returned to England. Syon House is now established at
+Chudleigh in Devon, the only English community that can boast an unbroken
+conventual existence since pre-Reformation times. Some six other
+Bridgittine convents exist on the Continent, but the order is now composed
+only of women.
+
+See Helyot, _Histoire des ordres religieux_ (1715), iv. c. 4; Max
+Heimbucher, _Orden u. Kongregationen_ (1907), ii. Sec. 83; Herzog-Hauck,
+_Realencyklopaedie_ (ed. 3), art. "Birgitta"; A. Hamilton in _Dublin
+Review_, 1888, "The Nuns of Syon."
+
+(E. C. B.)
+
+BRIDGMAN, FREDERICK ARTHUR (1847- ), American artist, was born at Tuskegee,
+Alabama, on the 10th of November 1847. He began as a draughtsman in New
+York for the American Bank Note Company in 1864-1865, and studied art in
+the same years at the Brooklyn Art School and at the National Academy of
+Design; but he went to Paris in 1866 and became a pupil of J.L. Gerome.
+Paris then became his headquarters. A trip to Egypt in 1873-1874 resulted
+in pictures of the East that attracted immediate attention, and his large
+and important composition, "The Funeral Procession of a Mummy on the Nile,"
+in the Paris Salon (1877), bought by James Gordon Bennett, brought him the
+cross of the Legion of Honour. Other paintings by him were "An American
+Circus in Normandy," "Procession of the Bull Apis" (now in the Corcoran Art
+Gallery, Washington), and a "Rumanian Lady" (in the Temple collection,
+Philadelphia).
+
+BRIDGMAN, LAURA DEWEY (1829-1889), American blind deaf-mute, was born on
+the 21st of December 1829 at Hanover, New Hampshire, U.S.A., being the
+third daughter of Daniel Bridgman (d. 1868), a substantial Baptist farmer,
+and his wife Harmony, daughter of Cushman Downer, and grand-daughter of
+Joseph Downer, one of the five first settlers (1761) of Thetford, Vermont.
+Laura was a delicate infant, puny and rickety, and was subject to fits up
+to twenty months old, but otherwise seemed to have normal senses; at two
+years, however, she had a very bad attack of scarlet fever, which destroyed
+sight and hearing, blunted the sense of smell, and left her system a wreck.
+Though she gradually recovered health she remained a blind deaf-mute, but
+was kindly treated and was in particular made a sort of playmate by an
+eccentric bachelor friend of the Bridgmans, Mr Asa Tenney, who as soon as
+she could walk used to take her for rambles a-field. In 1837 Mr James
+Barrett, of Dartmouth College, saw her and mentioned her case to Dr Mussey,
+the head of the medical department, who wrote an account which attracted
+the attention of Dr S.G. Howe (_q.v._), the head of the Perkins Institution
+for the Blind at Boston. He determined to try to get the child into the
+Institution and to attempt to educate her; her parents assented, and in
+October 1837 Laura entered the school. Though the loss of her eye-balls
+occasioned some deformity, she was otherwise a comely child and of a
+sensitive and affectionate nature; she had become familiar with the world
+about her, and was imitative in so far as she could follow the actions of
+others; but she was limited in her communication with others to the
+narrower uses of touch--patting her head meant approval, rubbing her hand
+disapproval, pushing one way meant to go, drawing another to come. Her
+mother, preoccupied with house-work, had already ceased to be able to
+control her, and her father's authority was due to fear of superior force,
+not to reason. Dr Howe at once set himself to teach her the alphabet by
+touch. It is impossible, for reasons of space, to describe his efforts in
+detail. He taught words before the individual letters, and his first
+experiment consisting in pasting upon several common articles such as keys,
+spoons, knives, &c., little paper labels with the names of the articles
+printed in raised letters, which he got her to feel and differentiate; then
+he gave her the same labels by themselves, which she learnt to associate
+with the articles they referred to, until, with the spoon or knife alone
+before her she could find the right label for each from a mixed heap. The
+next stage was to give her the component letters and teach her to combine
+them in the words she knew, and gradually in this way she learnt all the
+alphabet and the ten digits, &c. The whole process depended, of course, on
+her having a human intelligence, which only required stimulation, and her
+own interest in learning became keener as she progressed. On the 24th of
+July 1839 she first wrote her own name legibly. Dr Howe devoted himself
+with the utmost patience and assiduity to her education and was rewarded by
+increasing success. On the 20th of June 1840 she had her first arithmetic
+lesson, by the aid of a metallic case perforated with square holes, square
+types being used; and in nineteen days she could add a column of figures
+amounting to thirty. She was in good health and happy, and was treated by
+Dr Howe as his daughter. Her case already began to interest the public, and
+others were brought to Dr Howe [v.04 p.0559] for treatment. In 1841 Laura
+began to keep a journal, in which she recorded her own day's work and
+thoughts. In January 1842 Charles Dickens visited the Institution, and
+afterwards wrote enthusiastically in _American Notes_ of Dr Howe's success
+with Laura. In 1843 funds were obtained for devoting a special teacher to
+her, and first Miss Swift, then Miss Wight, and then Miss Paddock, were
+appointed; Laura by this time was learning geography and elementary
+astronomy. By degrees she was given religious instruction, but Dr Howe was
+intent upon not inculcating dogma before she had grasped the essential
+moral truths of Christianity and the story of the Bible. She grew up a gay,
+cheerful girl, loving, optimistic, but with a nervous system inclining to
+irritability, and requiring careful education in self-control. In 1860 her
+eldest sister Mary's death helped to bring on a religious crisis, and
+through the influence of some of her family she was received into the
+Baptist church; she became for some years after this more self-conscious
+and rather pietistic. In 1867 she began writing compositions which she
+called poems; the best-known is called "Holy Home." In 1872, Dr Howe having
+been enabled to build some separate cottages (each under a matron) for the
+blind girls, Laura was moved from the larger house of the Institution into
+one of them, and there she continued her quiet life. The death of Dr Howe
+in 1876 was a great grief to her; but before he died he had made
+arrangements by which she would be financially provided for in her home at
+the Institution for the rest of her life. In 1887 her jubilee was
+celebrated there, but in 1889 she was taken ill, and she died on the 24th
+of May. She was buried at Hanover. Her name has become familiar everywhere
+as an example of the education of a blind deaf-mute, leading to even
+greater results in Helen Keller.
+
+See _Laura Bridgman_, by Maud Howe and Florence Howe Hall (1903), which
+contains a bibliography; and _Life and Education of Laura Dewey Bridgman_
+(1878), by Mary S. Lamson.
+
+(H. CH.)
+
+BRIDGNORTH, a market town and municipal borough in the Ludlow parliamentary
+division of Shropshire, England, 150 m. N.W. by W. from London by the Great
+Western railway, on the Worcester-Shrewsbury line. Pop. (1901) 6052. The
+river Severn separates the upper town on the right bank from the lower on
+the left. A steep line of rail connects them. The upper town is built on
+the acclivities and summit of a rock which rises abruptly from the river to
+the height of 180 ft., and gives the town a very picturesque appearance.
+The railway passes under by a long tunnel. On the summit is the tower of
+the old castle, leaning about 17 deg. from the perpendicular. There are also
+two parish churches. That of St Leonard, formerly collegiate, was
+practically rebuilt in 1862. This parish was held by Richard Baxter, the
+famous divine, in 1640. St Mary's church is in classic style of the late
+18th century. The picturesque half-timbered style of domestic building is
+frequently seen in the streets. In this style are the town hall (1652), and
+a house dated 1580, in which was born in 1729 Thomas Percy, bishop of
+Dromore, the editor of the _Reliques of Ancient English Poetry_. The
+grammar school, founded in 1503, occupies an Elizabethan building; there
+are also a college of divinity, a blue-coat school, and a literary
+institute with library and school of art. There are large charities. Near
+the town is a curious ancient hermitage cave, in the sandstone. At
+Quatford, 1 m. south-east, the site of a castle dating from 1085 may be
+traced. This dominated the ancient Forest of Morf. Here Robert de Belesme
+originally founded the college which was afterwards moved to Bridgnorth.
+Bridgnorth manufactures carpets; brewing is carried on, and there is trade
+in agricultural produce. The town is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12
+councillors. Area, 3018 acres.
+
+The early history of Bridgnorth is connected with AEthelfleda, lady of the
+Mercians, who raised a mound there in 912 as part of her offensive policy
+against the Danes of the five boroughs. After the Conquest William I.
+granted the manor of Bridgnorth to Earl Roger of Shrewsbury, whose son
+Robert de Belesme transferred his castle and borough from Quatford to
+Bridgnorth, but on Robert's attainder in 1102 the town became a royal
+borough. It is probable that Henry I. granted the burgesses certain
+privileges, for Henry II. confirmed to them all the franchises and customs
+which they had in the time of Henry I. King John in 1215 granted them
+freedom from toll throughout England except the city of London, and in 1227
+Henry III. conferred several new rights and liberties, among which were a
+gild merchant with a hanse. These early charters were confirmed by several
+succeeding kings, Henry VI. granting in addition assize of bread and ale
+and other privileges. Bridgnorth was incorporated by James I. in 1546. The
+burgesses returned two members to parliament in 1295, and continued to do
+so until 1867, when they were assigned only one member. The town was
+disfranchised in 1885. A yearly fair on the feast of the Translation of St
+Leonard and three following days was granted to the burgesses in 1359, and
+in 1630 Charles I. granted them licence to hold another fair on the
+Thursday before the first week in Lent and two following days.
+
+BRIDGWATER, a market town, port and municipal borough in the Bridgwater
+parliamentary division of Somerset, England, on the river Parret, 10 m.
+from its mouth, and 1513/4 m. by the Great Western railway W. by S. of
+London. Pop. (1901) 15,209. It is pleasantly situated in a level and
+well-wooded country, having on the east the Mendip range and on the west
+the Quantock hills. The town lies along both sides of the river, here
+crossed by a handsome iron bridge. Among several places of worship the
+chief is St Mary Magdalene's church; this has a north porch and windows
+dating from the 14th century, besides a lofty and slender spire; but it has
+been much altered by restoration. It possesses a fine painted reredos. A
+house in Blake Street, largely restored, was the birthplace of Admiral
+Blake in 1598. Near the town are the three fine old churches of Weston
+Zoyland, Chedzoy and Middlezoy, containing some good brasses and carved
+woodwork. The battlefield of Sedgemoor, where the Monmouth rebellion was
+finally crushed in 1685, is within 3 m.; while not far off is Charlinch,
+the home of the Agapemonites (_q.v._). Bridgwater has a considerable
+coasting trade, importing grain, coal, wine, hemp, tallow and timber, and
+exporting Bath brick, farm produce, earthenware, cement and plaster of
+Paris. The river is navigable by vessels of 700 tons, though liable, when
+spring-tides are flowing, to a bore which rises, in rough weather, to a
+height of 9 ft. Bath brick, manufactured only here, and made of the mingled
+sand and clay deposited by every tide, is the staple article of commerce;
+iron-founding is also carried on. The town is governed by a mayor, 6
+aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 926 acres.
+
+A settlement probably grew up in Saxon times at Bridgwater (_Briges_,
+_Briggewalteri_, _Brigewauter_), owing its origin as a trade centre to its
+position at the mouth of the chief river in Somerset. It became a mesne
+borough by the charter granted by John in 1201, which provided that the
+town should be a free borough, the burgesses to be free and quit of all
+tolls, and made William de Briwere overlord. Other charters were granted by
+Henry III. in 1227 (confirmed in 1318, 1370, 1380), which gave Bridgwater a
+gild merchant. It was incorporated by charter of Edward IV. (1468),
+confirmed in 1554, 1586, 1629 and 1684. Parliamentary representation began
+in 1295 and continued until the Reform Act of 1870. A Saturday market and a
+fair on the 24th of June were granted by the charter of 1201. Another fair
+at the beginning of Lent was added in 1468, and a second market on
+Thursday, and fairs at Midsummer and on the 21st of September were added in
+1554. Charles II. granted another fair on the 29th of December. The
+medieval importance of these markets and fairs for the sale of wool and
+wine and later of cloth has gone. The shipping trade of the port revived
+after the construction of the new dock in 1841, and corn and timber have
+been imported for centuries.
+
+See S. G. Jarman, "History of Bridgwater," _Historical MSS. Commission_,
+Report 9, Appendix; _Victoria County History: Somerset_, vol. ii.
+
+BRIDLINGTON, a market town, municipal borough and seaside resort in the
+Buckrose parliamentary division of the East Riding of Yorkshire, England,
+31 m. N.N.E. from Hull by a branch of the North Eastern railway. Pop.
+(1891) 8919; (1901) 12,482. It is divided into two parts, the ancient
+market town lying about 1 m. from the coast, while the modern houses of
+Bridlington Quay, the watering-place, fringe the shore of Bridlington Bay.
+Southward the coast becomes low, but northward it is steep and very fine,
+where the great spur of Flamborough Head (_q.v._) projects eastward. In the
+old town of Bridlington the church of St Mary and St Nicholas consists of
+the fine Decorated and Perpendicular nave, with Early English portions, of
+the priory church of an Augustinian foundation of the time of Henry I.
+There remains also the Perpendicular gateway, serving as the town-hall. The
+founder of the priory was Walter de Gaunt, about 1114, and the institution
+[v.04 p.0560] flourished until 1537, when the last prior was executed for
+taking part in the Pilgrimage of Grace. A Congregational society was
+founded in 1662, and its old church, dating from 1702, stood until 1906. At
+Bridlington Quay there is excellent sea-bathing, and the parade and
+ornamental gardens provide pleasant promenades. Extensive works have been
+carried out along the sea front. There is a chalybeate spring. The harbour
+is enclosed by two stone piers, and there is good anchorage in the bay. The
+municipal borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors, and has
+an area of 2751 acres.
+
+The mention of four burgesses at Bridlington (Brellington, Burlington) in
+the Domesday survey shows it to have been a borough before the Conquest.
+With the rest of the north of England, Bridlington suffered from the
+ravages of the Normans, and decreased in value from L32 in the reign of
+Edward the Confessor, when it formed part of the possessions of Earl
+Morcar, to 8s. at the time of the Domesday survey. By that time it was in
+the hands of the king by the forfeiture of Earl Morcar. It was granted by
+William II. to Gilbert de Gaunt, whose son and heir Walter founded the
+priory and endowed it with the manor of Bridlington and other lands. From
+this date the importance of the town steadily increased. Henry I. and
+several succeeding kings confirmed Walter de Gaunt's gift, Stephen granting
+in addition the right to have a port. In 1546 Henry IV. granted the prior
+and convent exemption from fifteenths, tenths and subsidies, in return for
+prayer for himself and his queen in every mass sung at the high altar.
+After the Dissolution the manor remained with the crown until 1624, when
+Charles I. granted it to Sir John Ramsey, whose brother and heir, Sir
+George Ramsey, sold it in 1633 to thirteen inhabitants of the town on
+behalf of all the tenants of the manor. The thirteen lords were assisted by
+twelve other inhabitants chosen by the freeholders, and when the number of
+lords was reduced to six, seven others were chosen from the assistants. A
+chief lord was chosen every year. This system still holds good. It is
+evident from the fact of thirteen inhabitants being allowed to hold the
+manor that the town had some kind of incorporation in the 17th century,
+although its incorporation charter was not granted until 1899, when it was
+created a municipal borough. In 1200 King John granted the prior of
+Bridlington a weekly market on Saturday and an annual fair on the vigil,
+feast and morrow of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary. Henry VI. in 1446
+granted the prior three new fairs yearly on the vigil, day and morrow of
+the Nativity of the Virgin Mary, the Deposition of St John, late prior of
+Bridlington, and the Translation of the same St John. All fairs and markets
+were sold with the manor to the inhabitants of the town.
+
+See J. Thompson, _Historical Sketches of Bridlington_ (1821); _Victoria
+County History: Yorkshire_.
+
+BRIDPORT, ALEXANDER HOOD, VISCOUNT (1727-1814), British admiral, was the
+younger brother of Samuel, Lord Hood, and cousin of Sir Samuel and Captain
+Alexander Hood. Entering the navy in January 1741, he was appointed
+lieutenant of the "Bridgewater" six years later, and in that rank served
+for ten years in various ships. He was then posted to the "Prince," the
+flag-ship of Rear-Admiral Saunders (under whom Hood had served as a
+lieutenant) and in this command served in the Mediterranean for some time.
+Returning home, he was appointed to the "Minerva" frigate, in which he was
+present at Hawke's great victory in Quiberon Bay (20th November 1759). In
+1761 the "Minerva" recaptured, after a long struggle, the "Warwick" of
+equal force, and later in the same year Captain Alexander Hood went in the
+"Africa" to the Mediterranean, where he served until the conclusion of
+peace. From this time forward he was in continuous employment afloat and
+ashore, and in the "Robust" was present at the battle of Ushant in 1778.
+Hood was involved in the court-martial on Admiral (afterwards Viscount)
+Keppel which followed this action, and although adverse popular feeling was
+aroused by the course which he took in Keppel's defence, his conduct does
+not seem to have injured his professional career. Two years later he was
+made rear-admiral of the white, and succeeded Kempenfeldt as one of Howe's
+flag-officers, and in the "Queen" (90) he was present at the relief of
+Gibraltar in 1782. For a time he sat in the House of Commons. Promoted
+vice-admiral in 1787, he became K.B. in the following year, and on the
+occasion of the Spanish armament in 1790 flew his flag again for a short
+time. On the outbreak of the war with France in 1793 Sir Alexander Hood
+once more went to sea, this time as Howe's second in command, and he had
+his share in the operations which culminated in the "Glorius First of
+June," and for his services was made Baron Bridport of Cricket St Thomas in
+Somerset in the Irish peerage. Henceforth Bridport was practically in
+independent command. In 1795 he fought the much-criticized partial action
+of the 23rd of June off Belle-Ile, which, however unfavourably it was
+regarded in some quarters, was counted as a great victory by the public.
+Bridport's peerage was made English, and he became vice-admiral of England.
+In 1796-1797 he practically directed the war from London, rarely hoisting
+his flag afloat save at such critical times as that of the Irish expedition
+in 1797. In the following year he was about to put to sea when the Spithead
+fleet mutinied. He succeeded at first in pacifying the crew of his
+flag-ship, who had no personal grudge against their admiral, but a few days
+later the mutiny broke out afresh, and this time was uncontrollable. For a
+whole week the mutineers were supreme, and it was only by the greatest
+exertions of the old Lord Howe that order was then restored and the men
+returned to duty. After the mutiny had been suppressed, Bridport took the
+fleet to sea as commander-in-chief in name as well as in fact, and from
+1798 to 1800 personally directed the blockade of Brest, which grew stricter
+and stricter as time went on. In 1800 he was relieved by St Vincent, and
+retired from active duty after fifty-nine years' service. In reward for his
+fine record his peerage was made a viscounty. He spent the remaining years
+of his life in retirement. He died on the 2nd of May 1814. The viscounty in
+the English peerage died with him; the Irish barony passed to the younger
+branch of his brother's family, for whom the viscounty was recreated in
+1868.
+
+See Charnock, _Biographia Navalis_, vi. 153; _Naval Chronicle_, i. 265;
+Ralfe, _Nav. Biog._ i. 202.
+
+BRIDPORT, a market town and municipal borough in the Western parliamentary
+division of Dorsetshire, England, 18 m. N.W. of Dorchester, on a branch of
+the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 5710. It is pleasantly situated in a
+hilly district on the river Brit, from which it takes its name. The main
+part of the town is about a mile from the sea, with which it is connected
+by a winding street, ending at a quay surrounded by the fishing village of
+West Bay, where the railway terminates. The church of St Mary is a handsome
+cruciform Perpendicular building. The harbour is accessible only to small
+vessels. There is some import trade in flax, timber and coal. The principal
+articles of manufacture have long been sailcloth, cordage, linen and
+fishing-nets. The municipal borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18
+councillors. Area, 593 acres.
+
+Bridport was evidently of some importance before the Conquest, when it
+consisted of 120 houses rated for all the king's services and paying geld
+for five hides. By 1086 the number of houses had decreased to 100, and of
+these 20 were in such a wretched condition that they could not pay geld.
+The town is first mentioned as a borough in the Pipe Roll of 1189, which
+states that William de Bendenges owed L9: 10s. for the ancient farm of
+Bridport, and that the men of the town owed tallage to the amount of 53s.
+10d. Henry III. granted the first charter in 1252-1253, making the town a
+free borough and granting the burgesses the right to hold it at the ancient
+fee farm with an increase of 40s., and to choose two bailiffs to answer at
+the exchequer for the farm. A deed of 1381 shows that Henry III. also
+granted the burgesses freedom from toll. Bridport was incorporated by James
+I. in 1619, but Charles II. granted a new charter in 1667, and by this the
+town was governed until 1835. The first existing grant of a market and
+fairs to Bridport is dated 1593, but it appears from the _Quo Warranto_
+Rolls that Edward I. possessed a market there. The town was noted for the
+manufacture of ropes and cables as early as 1213, and an act of parliament
+(21 Henry VIII.) shows that the inhabitants had "from time out of mind"
+made the cables, ropes and hawsers for the royal navy and for most of the
+other ships. Bridport was represented in parliament by two members from
+1395 to 1867. In the latter year the number was reduced to one, and in 1885
+the town was disfranchised.
+
+BRIE (_Briegus saltus_, from Celtic _briek_, clay), an agricultural
+district of northern France, to the E. of Paris, bounded W. and S. by the
+Seine, N. by the Marne. It has an area of 2400 sq. m., comprising the
+greater part of the department of Seine-et-Marne, together with portions of
+the departments of Seine, Seine-et-Oise, Aisne, Marne and Aube. The western
+portion was known as the _Brie francaise_, the eastern portion as the _Brie
+champenoise_. The Brie forms a plateau with few eminences, varying in
+altitude between 300 and 500 ft. in the west, and between 500 and 650 ft.
+in the east. Its scenery is varied by forests of some size--the [v.04
+p.0561] chief being the Foret de Senart, the Foret de Crecy and the Foret
+d'Armainvilliers. The surface soil is clay in which are embedded fragments
+of siliceous sandstone, used for millstones and constructional purposes;
+the subsoil is limestone. The Yeres, a tributary of the Seine, and the
+Grand Morin and Petit Morin, tributaries of the Marne, are the chief
+rivers, but the region is not abundantly watered and the rainfall is only
+between 20 and 24 in. The Brie is famous for its grain and its dairy
+products, especially cheeses.
+
+BRIEF (Lat. _brevis_, short), in English legal practice, the written
+statement given to a barrister to form the basis of his case. It was
+probably so called from its at first being only a copy of the original
+writ. Upon a barrister devolves the duty of taking charge of a case when it
+comes into court, but all the preliminary work, such as the drawing up of
+the case, serving papers, marshalling evidence, &c., is performed by a
+solicitor, so that a brief contains a concise summary for the information
+of counsel of the case which he has to plead, with all material facts in
+chronological order, and frequently such observations thereon as the
+solicitor may think fit to make, the names of witnesses, with the "proofs,"
+that is, the nature of the evidence which each witness is ready to give, if
+called upon. The brief may also contain suggestions for the use of counsel
+when cross-examining witnesses called by the other side. Accompanying the
+brief may be copies of the pleadings (see PLEADING), and of all documents
+material to the case. The brief is always endorsed with the title of the
+court in which the action is to be tried, with the title of the action, and
+the names of the counsel and of the solicitor who delivers the brief.
+Counsel's fee is also marked. The delivery of a brief to counsel gives him
+authority to act for his client in all matters which the litigation
+involves. The result of the action is noted on the brief by counsel, or if
+the action is compromised, the terms of the compromise are endorsed on each
+brief and signed by the leading counsel on the opposite side. In Scotland a
+brief is called a memorial.
+
+In the United States the word has, to a certain extent, a different
+meaning, a brief in its English sense not being required, for the American
+attorney exercises all the functions distributed in England between
+barristers and solicitors. A lawyer sometimes prepares for his own use what
+is called a "trial brief" for use at the trial. This corresponds in all
+essential particulars with the "brief" prepared by the solicitor in England
+for the use of counsel. But the more distinctive use of the term in America
+is in the case of the brief "in error or appeal," before an appellate
+court. This is a written or printed document, varying according to
+circumstances, but embodying the argument on the question affected. Most of
+the appellate courts require the filing of printed briefs for the use of
+the court and opposing counsel at a time designated for each side before
+hearing. In the rules of the United States Supreme Court and circuit courts
+of appeals the brief is required to contain a concise statement of the
+case, a specification of errors relied on, including the substance of
+evidence, the admission or rejection of which is to be reviewed, or any
+extract from a charge excepted to, and an argument exhibiting clearly the
+points of law or fact to be discussed. This form of brief, it may be added,
+is also adopted for use at the trial in certain states of the Union which
+require printed briefs to be delivered to the court.
+
+In English ecclesiastical law a brief meant letters patent issued out of
+chancery to churchwardens or other officers for the collection of money for
+church purposes. Such briefs were regulated by a statute of 1704, but are
+now obsolete, though they are still to be found named in one of the rubrics
+in the Communion service of the Book of Common Prayer.
+
+The _brief-bag_, in which counsel's papers are carried to and from court,
+now forms an integral part of a barrister's outfit, but in the early part
+of the 19th century the possession of a brief-bag was strictly confined to
+those who had received one from a king's counsel. King's counsel were then
+few in number, were considered officers of the court, and had a salary of
+L40 a year, with a supply of paper, pens and purple bags. These bags they
+distributed among rising juniors of their acquaintance, whose bundles of
+briefs were getting inconveniently large to be carried in their hands.
+These perquisites were abolished in 1830. English brief-bags are now either
+blue or red. Blue bags are those with which barristers provide themselves
+when first called, and it is a breach of etiquette to let this bag be
+visible in court. The only brief-bag allowed to be placed on the desks is
+the red bag, which by English legal etiquette is given by a leading counsel
+to a junior who has been useful to him in some important case.
+
+BRIEG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia, on the left
+bank of the Oder, and on the Breslau and Beuthen railway, 27 m. S.E. of the
+former city. Pop. (1900) 24,090. It has a castle (the residence of the old
+counts of Brieg), a lunatic asylum, a gymnasium with a good library,
+several churches and hospitals, and a theatre. Its fortifications were
+destroyed by the French in 1807, and are now replaced by beautiful
+promenades. Brieg carries on a considerable trade, its chief manufactures
+being linen, embroideries, cotton and woollen goods, ribbons, leather,
+machinery, hats, pasteboard and cigars. Important cattle-markets are held
+here. Brieg, or, as it is called in early documents, _Civitas Altae Ripae_,
+obtained municipal rights in 1250 from Duke Henry III. of Breslau, and was
+fortified in 1297; its name is derived from the Polish _Brzeg_ (shore).
+Burned by the Hussites in 1428, the town was soon afterwards rebuilt, and
+in 1595 it was again fortified by Joachim Frederick, duke of Brieg. In the
+Thirty Years' War it suffered greatly; in that of the Austrian succession
+it was heavily bombarded by the Prussian forces; and in 1807 it was
+captured by the French and Bavarians. From 1311 to 1675 Brieg was the
+capital of an independent line of dukes, a cadet branch of the Polish dukes
+of Lower Silesia, by one of whom the castle was built in 1341. In 1537
+Frederick II., duke of Liegnitz, Brieg and Wohlau, concluded with Joachim
+II., elector of Brandenburg, a treaty according to which his duchy was to
+pass to the house of Brandenburg in the event of the extinction of his
+line. On the death of George William the last duke in 1675, however,
+Austria refused to acknowledge the validity of the treaty and annexed the
+duchies. It was the determination of Frederick II. of Prussia to assert his
+claim that led in 1740 to the war that ended two years later in the cession
+of Silesia to Prussia.
+
+See Stokvis, _Manuel d'histoire_, iii. pp. 54, 64.
+
+BRIEG, often now spelt BRIG (Fr. _Brigue_, Ital. _Briga_), a picturesque
+small town in the Swiss canton of the Valais, situated at the foot of the
+northern slope of the Simplon Pass, on the right bank of the Saltine
+stream, and a little above its junction with the Rhone. Its older houses
+are very Italian in appearance, while its most prominent buildings (castle,
+former Jesuits' college and Ursuline convent) all date from the 17th
+century, and are due to the generosity of a single member of the local
+Stockalper family. The prosperity of Brieg is bound up with the Simplon
+Pass (_q.v._), so that it gradually supplanted the more ancient village of
+Naters opposite, becoming a separate parish (the church is at Glis, a few
+minutes from the town) in 1517. Its medieval name was _Briga dives_. The
+opening of the carriage road across the Simplon (1807) and of the tunnel
+beneath the pass (1906), as well as the fact that above Brieg is the
+steeper and less fertile portion of the Upper Valais (now much frequented
+by tourists), have greatly increased the importance and size of the town.
+The opening of the railway tunnel beneath the Loetschen Pass, affording
+direct communication with Bern and the Bernese Oberland, is calculated
+still further to contribute to its prosperity. The new town extends below
+the old one and is closer to the right bank of the Rhone. In 1900 the
+population was 2182, almost all Romanists, while 1316 were German-speaking,
+719 Italian-speaking (the Simplon tunnel workmen), and 142 French-speaking,
+one person only speaking Romonsch.
+
+(W. A. B. C.)
+
+BRIELLE (_Briel_ or _Bril_), a seaport in the province of South Holland,
+Holland, on the north side of the island of Voorne, at the mouth of the New
+Maas, 51/2 m. N. of Hellevoetsluis. Pop. (1900) 4107. It is a fortified place
+and has a good harbour, arsenal, magazine and barracks. It also possesses a
+quaint town hall, and an orphanage dating from 1533. The tower of the
+Groote [v.04 p.0562] Kerk of St Catherine serves as a lighthouse. Most of
+the trade of Brielle was diverted to Hellevoetsluis by the cutting of the
+Voornsche Canal in 1829, but it still has some business in corn and fodder,
+as well as a few factories. A large number of the inhabitants are also
+engaged in the fisheries and as pilots.
+
+The chief event in the history of Brielle is its capture by the _Gueux sur
+Mer_, a squadron of privateers which raided the Dutch coast under
+commission of the prince of Orange. This event, which took place on the 1st
+of April 1572, was the first blow in the long war of Dutch independence,
+and was followed by a general outbreak of the patriotic party (Motley,
+_Rise of the Dutch Republic_, part iii. chapter vi.). "The Brill" was one
+of the four Dutch towns handed over to Queen Elizabeth in 1584 as security
+for English expenses incurred in aiding the Dutch. Brielle is the
+birthplace of the famous admiral Martin van Tromp, and also of Admiral van
+Almonde, a distinguished commander of the early 18th century.
+
+BRIENNE-LE-CHATEAU, a town of north-eastern France, in the department of
+Aube, 1 m. from the right bank of the Aube and 26 m. N.E. of Troyes on the
+Eastern railway. Pop. (1906) 1761. The chateau, which overlooks the town,
+is an imposing building of the latter half of the 18th century, built by
+the cardinal de Brienne (see below). It possesses an important collection
+of pictures, many of them historical portraits of the 17th and 18th
+centuries. The church dates from the 16th century and contains good stained
+glass. A statue of Napoleon commemorates his sojourn at Brienne from 1779
+to 1784, when he was studying at the military school suppressed in 1790. In
+1814 Brienne was the scene of fighting between Napoleon and the Allies (see
+NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS). Brewing is carried on in the town.
+Brienne-la-Vieille, a village 11/2 m. south of Brienne-le-Chateau, has a
+church of the 12th and 16th centuries with fine stained windows. The portal
+once belonged to the ancient abbey of Bassefontaine, the ruins of which are
+situated near the village.
+
+_Counts of Brienne._--Under the Carolingian dynasty Brienne-le-Chateau was
+the capital town of a French countship. In the 10th century it was captured
+by two adventurers named Engelbert and Gobert, and from the first of these
+sprang the noble house of Brienne. In 1210 John of Brienne (1148-1237)
+became king of Jerusalem, through his marriage with Mary of Montsserrat,
+heiress of the kingdom of Jerusalem. He led a crusade in Egypt which had no
+lasting success; and when in 1229 he was elected emperor of the East, for
+the period of Baldwin II.'s minority, he fought and conquered the Greek
+emperor John III. (Batatzes or Vatatzes). Walter V., count of Brienne and
+of Lecce (Apulia) and duke of Athens, fought against the Greeks and at
+first drove them from Thessaly, but was eventually defeated and killed near
+Lake Copais in 1311. His son, Walter VI., after having vainly attempted to
+reconquer Athens in 1331, served under Philip of Valois against the
+English. Having defended Florence against the Pisans he succeeded in
+obtaining dictatorial powers for himself in the republic; but his
+tyrannical conduct brought about his expulsion. He was appointed constable
+of France by John the Good, and was killed at the battle of Poitiers in
+1356. His sister and heiress Isabelle married Walter of Enghien, and so
+brought Brienne to the house of Enghien, and, by his marriage with Margaret
+of Enghien, John of Luxemburg-St Pol (d. about 1397) became count of
+Brienne. The house of Luxemburg retained the countship until Margaret
+Charlotte of Luxemburg sold it to a certain Marpon, who ceded it to Henri
+Auguste de Lomenie (whose wife, Louise de Beon, descended from the house of
+Luxemburg-Brienne) in 1640. The Limousin house of Lomenie (the genealogies
+which trace this family to the 15th century are untrustworthy) produced
+many well-known statesmen, among others the celebrated cardinal Etienne
+Charles de Lomenie de Brienne (1727-1794), minister of Louis XV.; and the
+last lords of Brienne were members of this family.
+
+(M. P.*)
+
+BRIENZ, LAKE OF, in the Swiss canton of Bern, the first lake into which the
+river Aar expands. It lies in a deep hollow between the village of Brienz
+on the east (2580 inhabitants, the chief centre of the Swiss wood-carving
+industry) and, on the west, Boenigen (1515 inhabitants), close to
+Interlaken. Its length is about 9 m., its width 11/2 m., and its maximum
+depth 856 ft., while its area is 111/2 sq. m., and the surface is 1857 ft.
+above the sea-level. On the south shore are the Giessbach Falls and the
+hamlet of Iseltwald. On the north shore are a few small villages. The
+character of the lake is gloomy and sad as compared with its neighbour,
+that of Thun. Its chief affluent is the Luetschine (flowing from the valleys
+of Grindelwald and Lauterbrunnen). The first steamer was placed on the lake
+in 1839.
+
+(W. A. B. C.)
+
+BRIERLEY, BENJAMIN (1825-1896), English weaver and writer in Lancashire
+dialect, was born near Manchester, the son of humble parents, and started
+life in a textile factory, educating himself in his spare time. At about
+the age of thirty he began to contribute articles to local papers, and the
+republication of some of his sketches of Lancashire character in _A Summer
+Day in Daisy Nook_ (1859) attracted attention. In 1863 he definitely took
+to journalism and literature as his work, publishing in 1863 his
+_Chronicles of Waverlow_, and in 1864 a long story called _The Layrock of
+Langley Side_ (afterwards dramatized), followed by others. He started in
+1869 _Ben Brierley's Journal_, a weekly, which continued till 1891, and he
+gave public readings from his own writings, visiting America in 1880 and
+1884. His various _Ab-o'-th'-Yate_ sketches (about America, London, &c.),
+and his pictures of Lancashire common life were very popular, and were
+collected after his death. In 1884 he lost his savings by the failure of a
+building society, and a fund was raised for his support. He died on the
+18th of January 1896, and two years later a statue was erected to him in
+Queen's Park, Manchester.
+
+BRIERLY, SIR OSWALD WALTERS (1817-1894), English marine painter, who came
+of an old Cheshire family, was born at Chester. He entered Sass's
+art-school in London, and after studying naval architecture at Plymouth he
+exhibited some drawings of ships at the Royal Academy in 1839. He had a
+passion for the sea, and in 1841 started round the world with Benjamin Boyd
+(1796-1851), afterwards well known as a great Australian squatter, in the
+latter's ship "Wanderer," and having got to New South Wales, made his home
+at Auckland for ten years. Brierly Point is called after him. He added to
+his sea experiences by voyages on H.M.S. "Rattlesnake" in 1848, and with
+Sir Henry Keppel on the "Meander" in 1850; he returned to England in 1851
+on this ship, and illustrated Keppel's book about his cruise (1853). He was
+again with Keppel during the Crimean War, and published in 1855 a series of
+lithographs illustrating "The English and French fleets in the Baltic." He
+was now taken up by Queen Victoria and other members of the royal family,
+and was attached to the suites of the duke of Edinburgh and the prince of
+Wales on their tours by sea, the results being seen in further marine
+pictures by him; and in 1874 he was made marine-painter to the queen. He
+exhibited at the Academy, but more largely at the Royal Water-colour
+Society, his more important works including the historical pictures, "The
+Retreat of the Spanish Armada" (1871) and "The Loss of the Revenge" (1877).
+In 1885 he was knighted, and he died on the 14th of December 1894. He was
+twice married and had an active and prosperous life, but was no great
+artist; his best pictures are at Melbourne and Sydney.
+
+BRIEUX, EUGENE (1858- ), French dramatist, was born in Paris of poor
+parents on the 19th of January 1858. A one-act play, _Bernard Palissy_,
+written in collaboration with M. Gaston Salandri, was produced in 1879, but
+he had to wait eleven years before he obtained another hearing, his _Menage
+d' artistes_ being produced by Antoine at the Theatre Libre in 1890. His
+plays are essentially didactic, being aimed at some weakness or iniquity of
+the social system. _Blanchette_ (1892) pointed out the evil results of
+education of girls of the working classes; _M. de Reboval_ (1892) was
+directed against pharisaism; _L'Engrenage_ (1894) against corruption in
+politics; _Les Bienssaiteurs_ (1896) against the frivolity of fashionable
+charity; and _L'Evasion_ (1896) satirized an indicriminate belief in the
+doctrine of heredity. _Les Trois Filles de M. Dupont_ (1897) is a powerful,
+somewhat brutal, study of the miseries imposed on poor middle-class girls
+by the French [v.04 p.0563] system of dowry; _Le Resultat des courses_
+(1898) shows the evil results of betting among the Parisian workmen; _La
+Robe rouge_ (1900) was directed against the injustices of the law; _Les
+Remplacantes_ (1901) against the practice of putting children out to nurse.
+_Les Avaries_ (1901), forbidden by the censor, on account of its medical
+details, was read privately by the author at the Theatre Antoine; and
+_Petite amie_ (1902) describes the life of a Parisian shop-girl. Later
+plays are _La Couvee_ (1903, acted privately at Rouen in 1893), _Maternite_
+(1904), _La Deserteuse_ (1904), in collaboration with M. Jean Sigaux, and
+_Les Hannetons_, a comedy in three acts (1906).
+
+BRIGADE (Fr. and Ger. _brigade_, Ital. _brigata_, Span. _brigada_; the
+English use of the word dates from the early 17th century), a unit in
+military organization commanded by a major-general, brigadier-general or
+colonel, and composed of two or more regiments of infantry, cavalry or
+artillery. The British infantry brigade consists as a rule of four
+battalions (or about 4000 bayonets) with supply, transport and medical
+units attached; the cavalry brigade of two or three regiments of cavalry.
+An artillery "brigade" (field, horse, and heavy) is in Great Britain a
+smaller unit, forming a lieut.-colonel's command and consisting of two or
+three batteries. (See ARMY, ARTILLERY, INFANTRY, and CAVALRY.) The staff of
+an infantry or cavalry brigade usually consists of the brigadier
+commanding, his aide-de-camp, and the brigade-major, a staff officer whose
+duties are intermediate between those of an adjutant and those of a general
+staff officer.
+
+BRIGANDAGE. The brigand is supposed to derive his name from the O. Fr.
+_brigan_, which is a form of the Ital. _brigante,_ an irregular or partisan
+soldier. There can be no doubt as to the origin of the word "bandit," which
+has the same meaning. In Italy, which is not unjustly considered the home
+of the most accomplished European brigands, a _bandito_ was a man declared
+outlaw by proclamation, or _bando_, called in Scotland "a decree of
+horning" because it was delivered by a blast of a horn at the town cross.
+The brigand, therefore, is the outlaw who conducts warfare after the manner
+of an irregular or partisan soldier by skirmishes and surprises, who makes
+the war support itself by plunder, by extorting blackmail, by capturing
+prisoners and holding them to ransom, who enforces his demands by violence,
+and kills the prisoners who cannot pay. In certain conditions the brigand
+has not been a mere malefactor. "It is you who are the thieves"--"_I
+Ladroni, siete voi,_"--was the defence of the Calabrian who was tried as a
+brigand by a French court-martial during the reign of Murat in Naples.
+Brigandage may be, and not infrequently has been, the last resource of a
+people subject to invasion. The Calabrians who fought for Ferdinand of
+Naples, and the Spanish irregular levies, which maintained the national
+resistance against the French from 1808 to 1814, were called brigands by
+their enemies. In the Balkan peninsula, under Turkish rule, the brigands
+(called _klephts_ by the Greeks and _hayduks_ or _haydutzi_ by the Slavs)
+had some claim to believe themselves the representatives of their people
+against oppressors. The only approach to an attempt to maintain order was
+the permission given to part of the population to carry arms in order to
+repress the klephts. They were hence called "armatoli." As a matter of fact
+the armatole were rather the allies than the enemies of the klephts. The
+invader who reduces a nation to anarchy, and then suffers from the disorder
+he creates, always calls his opponents brigands. It is a natural
+consequence of such a war, but a very disastrous one, for the people who
+have to have recourse to these methods of defence, that the brigand
+acquires some measure of honourable prestige from his temporary association
+with patriotism and honest men. The patriot band attracts the brigand
+proper, who is not averse to continue his old courses under an honourable
+pretext. "_Viva Fernando y vamos robando_" (Long life to Ferdinand, and let
+us go robbing) has been said by not unfair critics to have been the maxim
+of many Spanish guerrilleros. Italy and Spain suffered for a long time from
+the disorder developed out of the popular resistance to the French. Numbers
+of the guerrilleros of both countries, who in normal conditions might have
+been honest, had acquired a preference for living on the country, and for
+occasional booty, which they could not resign when the enemy had retired.
+Their countrymen had to work for a second deliverance from their late
+defenders. In the East the brigand has had a freer scope, and has even
+founded kingdoms. David's following in the cave of Adullam was such
+material as brigands are made of. "And every one that was in distress, and
+every one that was in debt, and every one that was discontented, gathered
+themselves unto him, and he became a captain over them: and there were with
+him about four hundred men." Nadir Shah of Persia began in just such a cave
+of Adullam, and lived to plunder Delhi with a host of Persians and Afghans.
+
+The conditions which favour the development of brigandage may be easily
+summed up. They are first bad administration, and then, in a less degree,
+the possession of convenient hiding-places. A country of mountain and
+forest is favourable to the brigand. The highlands of Scotland supplied a
+safe refuge to the "gentlemen reavers," who carried off the cattle of the
+Sassenach landlords. The Apennines, the mountains of Calabria, the Sierras
+of Spain, were the homes of the Italian "banditos" and the Spanish
+"bandoleros" (banished men) and "salteadores" (raiders). The forests of
+England gave cover to the outlaws whose very much flattered portrait is to
+be found in the ballads of Robin Hood. The "maquis," i.e. the bush of
+Corsica, and its hills, have helped the Corsican brigand, as the bush of
+Australia covered the bushranger. But neither forest thicket nor mountain
+is a lasting protection against a good police, used with intelligence by
+the government, and supported by the law-abiding part of the community. The
+great haunts of brigands in Europe have been central and southern Italy and
+the worst-administered parts of Spain, except those which fell into the
+hands of the Turks. "Whenever numerous troops of banditti, multiplied by
+success and impunity, publicly defy, instead of eluding, the justice of
+their country, we may safely infer that the excessive weakness of the
+government is felt and abused by the lowest ranks of the community," is the
+judgment passed by Gibbon on the disorders of Sicily in the reign of the
+emperor Gallienus. This weakness has not always been a sign of real
+feebleness in the government. England was vigorously ruled in the reign of
+William III., when "a fraternity of plunderers, thirty in number according
+to the lowest estimate, squatted near Waltham Cross under the shades of
+Epping Forest, and built themselves huts, from which they sallied forth
+with sword and pistol to bid passengers stand." It was not because the
+state was weak that the Gubbings (so called in contempt from the trimmings
+and refuse of fish) infested Devonshire for a generation from their
+headquarters near Brent Tor, on the edge of Dartmoor. It was because
+England had not provided herself with a competent rural police. In
+relatively unsettled parts of the United States there has been a
+considerable amount of a certain kind of brigandage. In early days the
+travel routes to the far West were infested by highwaymen, who, however,
+seldom united into bands, and such outlaws, when captured, were often dealt
+with in an extra-legal manner, e.g. by "vigilance committees." The Mexican
+brigand Cortina made incursions into Texas before the Civil War. In Canada
+the mounted police have kept brigandage down, and in Mexico the "Rurales"
+have made an end of the brigands. Such curable evils as the highwaymen of
+England, and their like in the States, are not to be compared with the
+"Ecorcheurs," or Skinners, of France in the 15th century, or the
+"Chauffeurs" of the revolutionary epoch. The first were large bands of
+discharged mercenary soldiers who pillaged the country. The second were
+ruffians who forced their victims to pay ransom by holding their feet in
+fires. Both flourished because the government was for the time disorganized
+by foreign invasion or by revolution. These were far more terrible evils
+than the licence of criminals, who are encouraged by a fair prospect of
+impunity because there is no permanent force always at hand to check them,
+and to bring them promptly to justice. At the same time it would be going
+much too far to say that the absence of an efficient police is the sole
+cause of brigandage in countries not subject to foreign invasion, or where
+[v.04 p.0564] the state is not very feeble. The Sicilian peasants of whom
+Gibbon wrote were not only encouraged by the hope of impunity, but were
+also maddened by an oppressive system of taxation and a cruel system of
+land tenure. So were the Gauls and Spaniards who throughout the 3rd and 4th
+centuries were a constant cause of trouble to the empire, under the name of
+Bagaudae, a word of uncertain origin. In the years preceding the French
+Revolution, the royal government commanded the services of a strong army,
+and a numerous _marechaussee_ or gendarmerie. Yet it was defied by the
+troops of smugglers and brigands known as _faux saulniers_, unauthorized
+salt-sellers, and gangs of poachers haunted the king's preserves round
+Paris. The salt monopoly and the excessive preservation of the game were so
+oppressive that the peasantry were provoked to violent resistance and to
+brigandage. They were constantly suppressed, but as the cause of the
+disorder survived, so its effects were continually renewed. The offenders
+enjoyed a large measure of public sympathy, and were warned or concealed by
+the population, even when they were not actively supported. The traditional
+outlaw who spared the poor and levied tribute on the rich was, no doubt,
+always a creature of fiction. The ballad which tells us how "Rich, wealthy
+misers were abhorred, By brave, free-hearted Bliss" (a rascal hanged for
+highway robbery at Salisbury in 1695) must have been a mere echo of the
+Robin Hood songs. But there have been times and countries in which the law
+and its administration have been so far regarded as enemies by people who
+were not themselves criminals, that all who defied them have been sure of a
+measure of sympathy. Then and there it was that brigandage has flourished,
+and has been difficult to extirpate. Schinder-Hannes, Jack the Skinner,
+whose real name was Johann Buckler, and who was born at Muklen on the
+Rhine, flourished from 1797 to 1802 because there was no proper police to
+stop him; it is also true that as he chiefly plundered the Jews he had a
+good deal of Christian sympathy. When caught and beheaded he had no
+successors.
+
+The brigandage of Greece, southern Italy, Corsica and Spain had deeper
+roots, and has never been quite suppressed. All four countries are well
+provided with hiding-places in forest and mountain. In all the
+administration has been bad, the law and its officers have been regarded as
+dangers, if not as deliberate enemies, so that they have found little
+native help, and, what is not the least important cause of the persistence
+of brigandage, there have generally been local potentates who found it to
+their interest to protect the brigand. The case of Greece under Turkish
+rule need not be dealt with. Whoever was not a klepht was the victim of
+some official extortioner. It would be grossly unfair to apply the name
+brigand to the Mainotes and similar clans, who had to choose between being
+flayed by the Turks or living by the sword under their own law. When it
+became independent Greece was extremely ill administered under a nominal
+parliamentary government by politicians who made use of the brigands for
+their own purposes. The result was the state of things described with only
+pardonable exaggeration in Edmond About's amusing _Roi de la montagne_. An
+authentic and most interesting picture of the Greek brigands will be found
+in the story of the captivity of S. Soteropoulos, an ex-minister who fell
+into their hands. It was translated into English under the title of _The
+Brigands of the Morea_, by the Rev. J.O. Bagdon (London, 1868). The
+misfortunes of Soteropoulos led to the adoption of strong measures which
+cleared the Morea, where the peasantry gave active support to the troops
+when they saw that the government was in earnest. But brigandage was not
+yet extinct in Greece. In 1870 an English party, consisting of Lord and
+Lady Muncaster, Mr Vyner, Mr Lloyd, Mr Herbert, and Count de Boyl, was
+captured at Oropos, near Marathon, and a ransom of L25,000 was demanded.
+Lord and Lady Muncaster were set at liberty to seek for the ransom, but the
+Greek government sent troops in pursuit of the brigands, and the other
+prisoners were then murdered. The scoundrels were hunted down, caught, and
+executed, and Greece has since then been tolerably free from this reproach.
+In the Balkan peninsula, under Turkish rule, brigandage continued to exist
+in connexion with Christian revolt against the Turk, and the race conflicts
+of Albanians, Walachians, Pomuks, Bulgarians and Greeks. In Corsica the
+"maquis" has never been without its brigand hero, because industry has been
+stagnant, family feuds persist, and the government has never quite
+succeeded in persuading the people to support the law. The brigand is
+always a hero to at least one faction of Corsicans.
+
+The conditions which favour brigandage have been more prevalent, and for
+longer, in Italy than elsewhere in western Europe, with the standing
+exception of Corsica, which is Italian in all but political allegiance.
+Until the middle of the 19th century Italy was divided into small states,
+so that the brigand who was closely pursued in one could flee to another.
+Thus it was that Marco Sciarra of the Abruzzi, when hard pressed by the
+Spanish viceroy of Naples--just before and after 1600--could cross the
+border of the papal states and return on a favourable opportunity. When
+pope and viceroy combined against him he took service with Venice, from
+whence he could communicate with his friends at home, and pay them
+occasional visits. On one such visit he was led into a trap and slain.
+Marco Sciarra had terrorized the country far and wide at the head of 600
+men. He was the follower and imitator of Benedetto Mangone, of whom it is
+recorded that, having stopped a party of travellers which included Torquato
+Tasso, he allowed them to pass unharmed out of his reverence for poets and
+poetry. Mangone was finally taken, and beaten to death with hammers at
+Naples. He and his like are the heroes of much popular verse, written in
+_ottava rima_, and beginning with the traditional epic invocation to the
+muse. A fine example is "The most beautiful history of the life and death
+of Pietro Mancino, chief of Banditti," which has remained popular with the
+people of southern Italy. It begins:--
+
+  "Io canto li ricatti, e il fiero ardire
+  Del gran Pietro Mancino fuoruscito"
+  (Pietro Mancino that great outlawed man
+  I sing, and all his rage.)
+
+In Naples the number of competing codes and jurisdictions, the survival of
+the feudal power of the nobles, who sheltered banditti, just as a Highland
+chief gave refuge to "caterans" in Scotland, and the helplessness of the
+peasantry, made brigandage chronic, and the same conditions obtained in
+Sicily. The Bourbon dynasty reduced brigandage very much, and secured order
+on the main high-roads. But it was not extinguished, and it revived during
+the French invasion. This was the flourishing time of the notorious Fra
+Diavolo, who began as brigand and blossomed into a patriot. Fra Diavolo was
+captured and executed by the French. When Ferdinand was restored on the
+fall of Napoleon he employed an English officer, General Sir Richard
+Church, to suppress the brigands. General Church, who kept good order among
+his soldiers, and who made them pay for everything, gained the confidence
+of the peasantry, and restored a fair measure of security. It was he who
+finally brought to justice the villainous Don Ciro Anicchiarico--priest and
+brigand--who declared at his trial with offhand indifference that he
+supposed he had murdered about seventy people first and last. When a
+brother priest was sent to give him the consolations of religion, Ciro cut
+him short, saying, "Stop that chatter, we are two of a trade: we need not
+play the fool to one another" (_Lasciate queste chiacchiere, siamo dell'
+istessa professione: non ci burliamo fra noi_). Every successive
+revolutionary disturbance in Naples saw a recrudescence of brigandage down
+to the unification of 1860-1861, and then it was years before the Italian
+government rooted it out. The source of the trouble was the support the
+brigands received from various kinds of "_manutengoli_"
+(maintainers)--great men, corrupt officials, political parties, and the
+peasants who were terrorized, or who profited by selling the brigands food
+and clothes. In Sicily brigandage has been endemic. In 1866 two English
+travellers, Mr E.J.C. Moens and the Rev. J.C. Murray Aynesley, were
+captured and held to ransom. Mr Moens found that the "manutengoli" of the
+brigands among the peasants charged famine prices for food, and
+extortionate prices for clothes and cartridges. What is true of Naples and
+Sicily is true of other parts of Italy _mutatis [v.04 p.0565] mutandis_. In
+Tuscany, Piedmont and Lombardy the open country has been orderly, but the
+borders infested with brigands. The worst district outside Calabria has
+been the papal states. The Austrian general, Frimont, did, however, partly
+clear the Romagna about 1820, though at a heavy cost of life to his
+soldiers--mostly Bohemian Jaegers--from the malaria.
+
+The history of brigandage in Spain is very similar. It may be said to have
+been endemic in and south of the Sierra Morena. In the north it has
+flourished when government was weak, and after foreign invasion and civil
+wars. But it has always been put down easily by a capable administration.
+It reached its greatest heights in Catalonia, where it began in the strife
+of the peasants against the feudal exactions of the landlords. It had its
+traditional hero, Roque Guinart, who figures in the second part of Don
+Quixote. The revolt against the house of Austria in 1640, and the War of
+the Succession (1700-1714), gave a great stimulus to Catalan brigandage.
+But it was then put down in a way for which Italy offers no precedent. A
+country gentleman named Pedro Veciana, hereditary _balio_ (military and
+civil lieutenant) of the archbishop of Tarragona in the town of Valls,
+armed his farm-servants, and resisted the attacks of the brigands. With the
+help of neighbouring country gentlemen he formed a strong band, known as
+the Mozos (Boys) of Veciana. The brigands combined to get rid of him by
+making an attack on the town of Valls, but were repulsed with great loss.
+The government of Philip V. then commissioned Veciana to raise a special
+corps of police, the "escuadra de Cataluna," which still exists. For five
+generations the colonel of the escuadra was always a Veciana. At all times
+in central and northern Spain the country population has supported the
+police when the government would act firmly. Since the organization of the
+excellent constabulary called "La Guardia Civil" by the duke of Ahumada,
+about 1844, brigandage has been well kept down. At the close of the Carlist
+War in 1874 a few bands infested Catalonia, but one of the worst was
+surprised, and all its members battered to death with boxwood cudgels by a
+gang of charcoal-burners on the ruins of the castle of San Martin de
+Centellas. In such conditions as these brigandage cannot last. More
+sympathy is felt for "bandoleros" in the south, and there also they find
+Spanish equivalents for the "manutengoli" of Italy. The tobacco smuggling
+from Gibraltar keeps alive a lawless class which sinks easily into pure
+brigandage. Perhaps the influence of the Berber blood in the population
+helps to prolong this barbarism. The Sierra Morena, and the Serrania de
+Ronda, have produced the bandits whose achievements form the subject of
+popular ballads, such as Francisco Esteban El Guapo (Francis Stephen, the
+Buck or Dandy), Don Juan de Serralonga, Pedranza, &c. The name of Jose
+Maria has been made familiar to all the world by Merimee's story, _Carmen_,
+and by Bizet's opera. Jose Maria, called El Tempranillo (the early bird),
+was a historical personage, a liberal in the rising against Ferdinand VII.,
+1820-1823, then a smuggler, then a "bandolero." He was finally bought off
+by the government, and took a commission to suppress the other brigands.
+Jose Maria was at last shot by one of them, whom he was endeavouring to
+arrest. The civil guard prevents brigandage from reaching any great height
+in normal times, but in 1905 a bandit of the old stamp, popularly known as
+"El Vivillo" (the Vital Spark), haunted the Serrania de Ronda.
+
+The brigand life has been made the subject of much romance. But when
+stripped of fiction it appears that the bands have been mostly recruited by
+men who had been guilty of homicide, out of jealousy or in a gambling
+quarrel, and who remained in them not from love of the life, but from fear
+of the gallows. A reformed brigand, known as Passo di Lupo (Wolf's Step),
+confessed to Mr McFarlane about 1820 that the weaker members of the band
+were terrorized and robbed by the bullies, and that murderous conflicts
+were constant among them.
+
+The "dacoits" or brigands of India were of the same stamp as their European
+colleagues. The Pindaris were more than brigands, and the Thugs were a
+religious sect.
+
+AUTHORITIES.--The literature of brigandage, apart from pure romances, or
+official reports of trials, is naturally extensive. Mr McFarlane's _Lives
+and Exploits of Banditti and Robbers_ (London, 1837) is a useful
+introduction to the subject. The author saw a part of what he wrote about,
+and gives many references, particularly for Italy. A good bibliography of
+Spanish brigandage will be found in the _Resena Historica de la Guardia
+Civil_ of Eugenio de la Iglesia (Madrid, 1898). For actual pictures of the
+life, nothing is better than the _English Travellers and Italian Brigands_
+of W.J.C. Moens (London, 1866), and _The Brigands of the Morea_, by S.
+Soteropoulos, translated by the Rev. J.O. Bagdon (London, 1868).
+
+(D. H.)
+
+BRIGANDINE, a French word meaning the armour for the _brigandi_ or
+_brigantes_, light-armed foot soldiers; part of the armour of a foot
+soldier in the middle ages, consisting of a padded tunic of canvas,
+leather, &c., and lined with closely sewn scales or rings of iron.
+
+BRIGANTES (Celtic for "mountaineers" or "free, privileged"), a people of
+northern Britain, who inhabited the country from the mouth of the Abus
+(Humber) on the east and the Belisama (Mersey; according to others, Ribble)
+on the west as far northwards as the Wall of Antoninus. Their territory
+thus included most of Yorkshire, the whole of Lancashire, Durham,
+Westmorland, Cumberland and part of Northumberland. Their chief town was
+Eburacum (or Eboracum; York). They first came into contact with the Romans
+during the reign of Claudius, when they were defeated by Publius Ostorius
+Scapula. Under Vespasian they submitted to Petillius Cerealis, but were not
+finally subdued till the time of Antoninus Pius (Tac. _Agricola_, 17;
+Pausan. viii. 43. 4). The name of their eponymous goddess Brigantia is
+found on inscriptions (_Corp. Inscr. Lat._ vii. 200, 875, 1062; F.
+Haverfield in _Archaeological Journal_, xlix., 1892), and also that of a
+god Bergans = Brigans (_Ephemeris Epigraphica_, vii. No. 920). A branch of
+the Brigantes also settled in the south-east corner of Ireland, near the
+river Birgus (Barrow).
+
+See A. Holder, _Altceltischer Sprachschatz_, i. (1896), for ancient
+authorities; J. Rhys, _Celtic Britain_ (3rd ed., 1904); Pauly-Wissowa,
+_Realencyclopaedie_, iii. pt. i. (1897).
+
+BRIGG (properly Glanford Briggs or Glamford Bridge), a market town in the
+North Lindsey or Brigg parliamentary division of Lincolnshire, England,
+situated on the river Ancholme, which affords water communication with the
+Humber. Pop. of urban district (1901) 3137. It is 23 m. by road north of
+Lincoln, and is served by the Grimsby line of the Great Central railway.
+Trade is principally agricultural. In 1885 a remarkable boat, assigned to
+early British workmanship, was unearthed near the river; it is hollowed out
+of the trunk of an oak, and measures 48 ft. 6 in. by about 5 ft. Other
+prehistoric relics have also been discovered.
+
+BRIGGS, CHARLES AUGUSTUS (1841- ), American Hebrew scholar and theologian,
+was born in New York City on the 15th of January 1841. He was educated at
+the university of Virginia (1857-1860), graduated at the Union Theological
+Seminary in 1863, and studied further at the university of Berlin. He was
+pastor of the Presbyterian church of Roselle, New Jersey, 1869-1874, and
+professor of Hebrew and cognate languages in Union Theological Seminary
+1874-1891, and of Biblical theology there from 1891 to 1904, when he became
+professor of theological encyclopaedia and symbolics. From 1880 to 1890 he
+was an editor of the _Presbyterian Review_. In 1892 he was tried for heresy
+by the presbytery of New York and acquitted. The charges were based upon
+his inaugural address of the preceding year. In brief they were as follows:
+that he had taught that reason and the Church are each a "fountain of
+divine authority which apart from Holy Scripture may and does savingly
+enlighten men"; that "errors may have existed in the original text of the
+Holy Scripture"; that "many of the Old Testament predictions have been
+reversed by history" and that "the great body of Messianic prediction has
+not and cannot be fulfilled"; that "Moses is not the author of the
+Pentateuch," and that "Isaiah is not the author of half of the book which
+bears his name"; that "the processes of redemption extend to the world to
+come"--he had considered it a fault of Protestant theology that it limits
+redemption to this world--and that "sanctification is not complete at
+death." The general assembly, to which the case was appealed, suspended Dr
+Briggs [v.04 p.0566] in 1893, being influenced, it would seem, in part, by
+the manner and tone of his expressions--by what his own colleagues in the
+Union Theological Seminary called the "dogmatic and irritating" nature of
+his inaugural address. He was ordained a priest of the Protestant Episcopal
+Church in 1899. His scholarship procured for him the honorary degree of
+D.D. from Edinburgh (1884) and from Glasgow (1901), and that of Litt.D.
+from Oxford (1901). With S.R. Driver and Francis Brown he prepared a
+revised _Hebrew and English Lexicon_ (1891-1905), and with Driver edited
+the "International Commentary Series." His publications include _Biblical
+Study: Its Principles, Methods and History_ (1883); _Hebrew Poems of the
+Creation_ (1884); _American Presbyterianism: Its Origin and Early History_
+(1885); _Messianic Prophecy_ (1886); _Whither? A Theological Question for
+the Times_ (1889); _The Authority of the Holy Scripture_ (1891); _The
+Bible, the Church and the Reason_ (1892); _The Higher Criticism of the
+Hexateuch_ (1893); _The Messiah of the Gospels_ (1804), _The Messiah of the
+Apostles_ (1894); _New Light on the Life of Jesus_ (1904); _The Ethical
+Teaching of Jesus_ (1904); _A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the
+Book of Psalms_ (2 vols., 1906-1907), in which he was assisted by his
+daughter; and _The Virgin Birth of Our Lord_ (1909).
+
+BRIGGS, HENRY (1556-1630), English mathematician, was born at Warley Wood,
+near Halifax, in Yorkshire. He graduated at St John's College, Cambridge,
+in 1581, and obtained a fellowship in 1588. In 1592 he was made reader of
+the physical lecture founded by Dr Thomas Linacre, and in 1596 first
+professor of geometry in Gresham House (afterwards College), London. In his
+lectures at Gresham House he proposed the alteration of the scale of
+logarithms from the hyperbolic form which John Napier had given them, to
+that in which unity is assumed as the logarithm of the ratio of ten to one;
+and soon afterwards he wrote to the inventor on the subject. In 1616 he
+paid a visit to Napier at Edinburgh in order to discuss the suggested
+change; and next year he repeated his visit for a similar purpose. During
+these conferences the alteration proposed by Briggs was agreed upon; and on
+his return from his second visit to Edinburgh in 1617 he accordingly
+published the first chiliad of his logarithms. (See NAPIER, JOHN.) In 1619
+he was appointed Savilian professor of geometry at Oxford, and resigned his
+professorship of Gresham College on the 25th of July 1620. Soon after his
+settlement at Oxford he was incorporated master of arts. In 1622 he
+published a small tract on the _North-West Passage to the South Seas,
+through the Continent of Virginia and Hudson's Bay_; and in 1624 his
+_Arithmetica Logarithmica_, in folio, a work containing the logarithms of
+thirty thousand natural numbers to fourteen places of figures besides the
+index. He also completed a table of logarithmic sines and tangents for the
+hundredth part of every degree to fourteen places of figures besides the
+index, with a table of natural sines to fifteen places, and the tangents
+and secants for the same to ten places; all of which were printed at Gouda
+in 1631 and published in 1633 under the title of _Trigonometria Britannica_
+(see TABLE, MATHEMATICAL). Briggs died on the 26th of January 1630, and was
+buried in Merton College chapel, Oxford. Dr Smith, in his _Lives of the
+Gresham Professors_, characterizes him as a man of great probity, a
+contemner of riches, and contented with his own station, preferring a
+studious retirement to all the splendid circumstances of life.
+
+His works are: _A Table to find the Height of the Pole, the Magnetical
+Declination being given_ (London, 1602, 4to); "Tables for the Improvement
+of Navigation," printed in the second edition of Edward Wright's treatise
+entitled _Certain Errors in Navigation detected and corrected_ (London,
+1610, 4to); _A Description of an Instrumental Table to find the part
+proportional, devised by Mr Edward Wright_ (London, 1616 and 1618, 12mo);
+_Logarithmorum Chilias prima_ (London, 1617, 8vo); _Lucubrationes et
+Annotationes in opera posthuma J. Neperi_ (Edinburgh, 1619, 4to); _Euclidis
+Elementorum VI. libri priores_ (London, 1620. folio); _A Treatise on the
+North-West Passage to the South Sea_ (London, 1622, 4to), reprinted in
+Purchas's _Pilgrims_, vol. iii. p. 852; _Arithmetica Logarithmica_ (London,
+1624, folio); _Trigonometria Britannica_ (Goudae, 1663, folio); two
+_Letters_ to Archbishop Usher; _Mathematica ab Antiquis minus cognita_.
+Some other works, as his _Commentaries on the Geometry of Peter Ramus_, and
+_Remarks on the Treatise of Longomontanus respecting the Quadrature of the
+Circle_, have not been published.
+
+BRIGHOUSE, a municipal borough in the Elland parliamentary division of the
+West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 51/2 m. N. of Huddersfield by the
+Lancashire & Yorkshire railway, on the river Calder. Pop. (1901) 21,735. It
+is in the heart of the manufacturing district of the West Riding, and has
+large woollen and worsted factories; carpets, machinery and soap are also
+produced. The town was incorporated in 1893, and is governed by a mayor, 8
+aldermen and 24 councillors. Area, 2231 acres.
+
+BRIGHT, SIR CHARLES TILSTON (1832-1888), English telegraph engineer, who
+came of an old Yorkshire family, was born on the 8th of June 1832, at
+Wanstead, Essex. At the age of fifteen he became a clerk under the Electric
+Telegraph Company. His talent for electrical engineering was soon shown,
+and his progress was rapid; so that in 1852 he was appointed engineer to
+the Magnetic Telegraph Company, and in that capacity superintended the
+laying of lines in various parts of the British Isles, including in 1853
+the first cable between Great Britain and Ireland, from Portpatrick to
+Donaghadee. His experiments convinced him of the practicability of an
+electric submarine cable connexion between Ireland and America; and having
+in 1855 already discussed the question with Cyrus Field, who with J. W.
+Brett controlled the Newfoundland Telegraph Company on the other side of
+the ocean, Bright organized with them the Atlantic Telegraph Company in
+1856 for the purpose of carrying out the idea, himself becoming
+engineer-in-chief. The story of the first Atlantic cable is told elsewhere
+(see TELEGRAPH), and it must suffice here to say that in 1858, after two
+disappointments, Bright successfully accomplished what to many had seemed
+an impossible feat, and within a few days of landing the Irish end of the
+line at Valentia he was knighted in Dublin. Subsequently Sir Charles Bright
+supervised the laying of submarine cables in various regions of the world,
+and took a leading part as pioneer in other developments of the electrical
+industry. In conjunction with Josiah Latimer Clark, with whom he entered
+into partnership in 1861, he invented improved methods of insulating
+submarine cables, and a paper on electrical standards read by them before
+the British Association in the same year led to the establishment of the
+British Association committee on that subject, whose work formed the
+foundations of the system still in use. From 1865 to 1868 he was Liberal
+M.P. for Greenwich. He died on the 3rd of May 1888, at Abbey Wood, near
+London.
+
+See _Life Story of Sir C. T. Bright_, by his son Charles Bright (revised
+ed. 1908).
+
+BRIGHT, JOHN (1811-1889), British statesman, was born at Rochdale on the
+16th of November 1811. His father, Jacob Bright, was a much-respected
+Quaker, who had started a cottonmill at Rochdale in 1809. The family had
+reached Lancashire by two migrations. Abraham Bright was a Wiltshire
+yeoman, who, early in the 18th century, removed to Coventry, where his
+descendants remained, and where, in 1775, Jacob Bright was born. Jacob
+Bright was educated at the Ackworth school of the Society of Friends, and
+was apprenticed to a fustian manufacturer at New Mills. He married his
+employer's daughter, and settled with his two brothers-in-law at Rochdale
+in 1802, going into business for himself seven years later. His first wife
+died without children, and in 1809 he married Martha Wood, daughter of a
+tradesman of Bolton-le-Moors. She had been educated at Ackworth school, and
+was a woman of great strength of character and refined taste. There were
+eleven children of this marriage, of whom John Bright was the second, but
+the death of his elder brother in childhood made him the eldest son. He was
+a delicate child, and was sent as a day-scholar to a boarding-school near
+his home, kept by Mr William Littlewood. A year at the Ackworth school, two
+years at a school at York, and a year and a half at Newton, near Clitheroe,
+completed his education. He learned, he himself said, but little Latin and
+Greek, but acquired a great love of English literature, which his mother
+fostered, and a love of outdoor pursuits. In his sixteenth year he entered
+his father's mill, and in due time became a partner in the business. Two
+agitations were then going on in Rochdale--the first (in which Jacob Bright
+was a leader) in opposition to a local [v.04 p.0567] church-rate, and the
+second for parliamentary reform, by which Rochdale successfully claimed to
+have a member allotted to it under the Reform Bill. In both these movements
+John Bright took part. He was an ardent Nonconformist, proud to number
+among his ancestors John Gratton, a friend of George Fox, and one of the
+persecuted and imprisoned preachers of the Society of Friends. His
+political interest was probably first kindled by the Preston election in
+1830, in which Lord Stanley, after a long struggle, was defeated by
+"Orator" Hunt. But it was as a member of the Rochdale Juvenile Temperance
+Band that he first learned public speaking. These young men went out into
+the villages, borrowed a chair of a cottager, and spoke from it at open-air
+meetings. In Mrs John Mills's life of her husband is an account of John
+Bright's first extempore speech. It was at a temperance meeting. Bright got
+his notes muddled, and broke down. The chairman gave out a temperance song,
+and during the singing told Bright to put his notes aside and say what came
+into his mind. Bright obeyed, began with much hesitancy, but found his
+tongue and made an excellent address. On some early occasions, however, he
+committed his speech to memory. In 1832 he called on the Rev. John Aldis,
+an eminent Baptist minister, to accompany him to a local Bible meeting. Mr
+Aldis described him as a slender, modest young gentleman, who surprised him
+by his intelligence and thoughtfulness, but who seemed nervous as they
+walked to the meeting together. At the meeting he made a stimulating
+speech, and on the way home asked for advice. Mr Aldis counselled him not
+to learn his speeches, but to write out and commit to memory certain
+passages and the peroration. Bright took the advice, and acted on it all
+his life.
+
+This "first lesson in public speaking," as Bright called it, was given in
+his twenty-first year, but he had not then contemplated entering on a
+public career. He was a fairly prosperous man of business, very happy in
+his home, and always ready to take part in the social, educational and
+political life of his native town. He was one of the founders of the
+Rochdale Literary and Philosophical Society, took a leading part in its
+debates, and on returning from a holiday journey in the East, gave the
+society a lecture on his travels. He first met Richard Cobden in 1836 or
+1837. Cobden was an alderman of the newly formed Manchester corporation,
+and Bright went to ask him to speak at an education meeting in Rochdale. "I
+found him," said Bright, "in his office in Mosley Street, introduced myself
+to him, and told him what I wanted." Cobden consented, and at the meeting
+was much struck by Bright's short speech, and urged him to speak against
+the Corn Laws. His first speech on the Corn Laws was made at Rochdale in
+1838, and in the same year he joined the Manchester provisional committee
+which in 1839 founded the Anti-Corn Law League He was still only the local
+public man, taking part in all public movements, especially in opposition
+to John Feilden's proposed factory legislation, and to the Rochdale
+church-rate. In 1839 he built the house which he called "One Ash," and
+married Elizabeth, daughter of Jonathan Priestman of Newcastle-on-Tyne. In
+November of the same year there was a dinner at Bolton to Abraham Paulton,
+who had just returned from a successful Anti-Corn Law tour in Scotland.
+Among the speakers were Cobden and Bright, and the dinner is memorable as
+the first occasion on which the two future leaders appeared together on a
+Free Trade platform. Bright is described by the historian of the League as
+"a young man then appearing for the first time in any meeting out of his
+own town, and giving evidence, by his energy and by his grasp of the
+subject, of his capacity soon to take a leading part in the great
+agitation." But his call had not yet come. In 1840 he led a movement
+against the Rochdale church-rate, speaking from a tombstone in the
+churchyard, where it looks down on the town in the valley below. A very
+happy married life at home contented him, and at the opening of the Free
+Trade hall in January 1840 he sat with the Rochdale deputation,
+undistinguished in the body of the meeting. A daughter, Helen, was born to
+him; but his young wife, after a long illness, died of consumption in
+September 1841. Three days after her death at Leamington, Cobden called to
+see him. "I was in the depths of grief," said Bright, when unveiling the
+statue of his friend at Bradford in 1877, "I might almost say of despair,
+for the life and sunshine of my house had been extinguished." Cobden spoke
+some words of condolence, but after a time he looked up and said, 'There
+are thousands of homes in England at this moment where wives, mothers and
+children are dying of hunger. Now, when the first paroxysm of your grief is
+past, I would advise you to come with me, and we will never rest till the
+Corn Laws are repealed.' "I accepted his invitation," added Bright, "and
+from that time we never ceased to labour hard on behalf of the resolution
+which we had made." At the general election in 1841 Cobden was returned for
+Stockport, and in 1843 Bright was the Free Trade candidate at a by-election
+at Durham. He was defeated, but his successful competitor was unseated on
+petition, and at the second contest Bright was returned. He was already
+known in the country as Cobden's chief ally, and was received in the House
+of Commons with a suspicion and hostility even greater than had met Cobden
+himself. In the Anti-Corn Law movement the two speakers were the
+complements and correlatives of each other. Cobden had the calmness and
+confidence of the political philosopher, Bright had the passion and the
+fervour of the popular orator. Cobden did the reasoning, Bright supplied
+the declamation, but like Demosthenes he mingled argument with appeal. No
+orator of modern times rose more rapidly to a foremost place. He was not
+known beyond his own borough when Cobden called him to his side in 1841,
+and he entered parliament towards the end of the session of 1843 with a
+formidable reputation as an agitator. He had been all over England and
+Scotland addressing vast meetings and, as a rule, carrying them with him;
+he had taken a leading part in a conference held by the Anti-Corn Law
+League in London, had led deputations to the duke of Sussex, to Sir James
+Graham, then home secretary, and to Lord Ripon and Mr Gladstone, the
+secretary and under secretary of the Board of Trade; and he was universally
+recognized as the chief orator of the Free Trade movement. Wherever "John
+Bright of Rochdale" was announced to speak, vast crowds assembled. He had
+been so announced, for the last time, at the first great meeting in Drury
+Lane theatre on 15th March 1843; henceforth his name was enough. He took
+his seat in the House of Commons as one of the members for Durham on 28th
+July 1843, and on 7th August delivered his maiden speech in support of a
+motion by Mr Ewart for reduction of import duties. He was there, he said,
+"not only as one of the representatives of the city of Durham, but also as
+one of the representatives of that benevolent organization, the Anti-Corn
+Law League." A member who heard the speech described Bright as "about the
+middle size, rather firmly and squarely built, with a fair, clear
+complexion, and an intelligent and pleasing expression of countenance. His
+voice is good, his enunciation distinct, and his delivery free from any
+unpleasant peculiarity or mannerism." He wore the usual Friend's coat, and
+was regarded with much interest and hostile curiosity on both sides of the
+House.
+
+Mr Ewart's motion was defeated, but the movement of which Cobden and Bright
+were the leaders continued to spread. In the autumn the League resolved to
+raise L100,000; an appeal was made to the agricultural interest by great
+meetings in the farming counties, and in November _The Times_ startled the
+world by declaring, in a leading article, "The League is a great fact. It
+would be foolish, nay, rash, to deny its importance." In London great
+meetings were held in Covent Garden theatre, at which William Johnson Fox
+was the chief orator, but Bright and Cobden were the leaders of the
+movement. Bright publicly deprecated the popular tendency to regard Cobden
+and himself as the chief movers in the agitation, and Cobden told a
+Rochdale audience that he always stipulated that he should speak first, and
+Bright should follow. His "more stately genius," as Mr John Morley calls
+it, was already making him the undisputed master of the feelings of his
+audiences. In the House of Commons his progress was slower. Cobden's
+argumentative speeches were regarded more sympathetically than Bright's
+more rhetorical appeals, and in a debate on Villiers's annual motion
+against the Corn Laws Bright was heard with so much impatience that [v.04
+p.0568] he was obliged to sit down. In the next session (1845) he moved for
+an inquiry into the operation of the Game Laws. At a meeting of county
+members earlier in the day Peel had advised them not to be led into
+discussion by a violent speech from the member for Durham, but to let the
+committee be granted without debate. Bright was not violent, and Cobden
+said that he did his work admirably, and won golden opinions from all men.
+The speech established his position in the House of Commons. In this
+session Bright and Cobden came into opposition, Cobden voting for the
+Maynooth Grant and Bright against it. On only one other occasion--a vote
+for South Kensington--did they go into opposite lobbies, during twenty-five
+years of parliamentary life. In the autumn of 1845 Bright retained Cobden
+in the public career to which Cobden had invited him four years before.
+Bright was in Scotland when a letter came from Cobden announcing his
+determination, forced on him by business difficulties, to retire from
+public work. Bright replied that if Cobden retired the mainspring of the
+League was gone. "I can in no degree take your place," he wrote. "As a
+second I can fight, but there are incapacities about me, of which I am
+fully conscious, which prevent my being more than second in such a work as
+we have laboured in." A few days later he set off for Manchester, posting
+in that wettest of autumns through "the rain that rained away the Corn
+Laws," and on his arrival got his friends together, and raised the money
+which tided Cobden over the emergency. The crisis of the struggle had come.
+Peel's budget in 1845 was a first step towards Free Trade. The bad harvest
+and the potato disease drove him to the repeal of the Corn Laws, and at a
+meeting in Manchester on 2nd July 1846 Cobden moved and Bright seconded a
+motion dissolving the league. A library of twelve hundred volumes was
+presented to Bright as a memorial of the struggle.
+
+Bright married, in June 1847, Miss Margaret Elizabeth Leatham, of
+Wakefield, by whom he had seven children, Mr John Albert Bright being the
+eldest. In the succeeding July he was elected for Manchester, with Mr
+Milner Gibson, without a contest. In the new parliament, as in the previous
+session, he opposed legislation restricting the hours of labour, and, as a
+Nonconformist, spoke against clerical control of national education. In
+1848 he voted for Hume's household suffrage motion, and introduced a bill
+for the repeal of the Game Laws. When Lord John Russell brought forward his
+Ecclesiastical Titles Bill, Bright opposed it as "a little, paltry,
+miserable measure," and foretold its failure. In this parliament he spoke
+much on Irish questions. In a speech in favour of the government bill for a
+rate in aid in 1849, he won loud cheers from both sides, and was
+complimented by Disraeli for having sustained the reputation of that
+assembly. From this time forward he had the ear of the House, and took
+effective part in the debates. He spoke against capital punishment, against
+church-rates, against flogging in the army, and against the Irish
+Established Church. He supported Cobden's motion for the reduction of
+public expenditure, and in and out of parliament pleaded for peace. In the
+election of 1852 he was again returned for Manchester on the principles of
+free trade, electoral reform and religious freedom. But war was in the air,
+and the most impassioned speeches he ever delivered were addressed to this
+parliament in fruitless opposition to the Crimean War. Neither the House
+nor the country would listen. "I went to the House on Monday," wrote
+Macaulay in March 1854, "and heard Bright say everything I thought." His
+most memorable speech, the greatest he ever made, was delivered on the 23rd
+of February 1855. "The angel of death has been abroad throughout the land.
+You may almost hear the beating of his wings," he said, and concluded with
+an appeal to the prime minister that moved the House as it had never been
+moved within living memory. There was a tremor in Bright's voice in the
+touching parts of his great speeches which stirred the feelings even of
+hostile listeners. It was noted for the first time in this February speech,
+but the most striking instance was in a speech on Mr Osborne Morgan's
+Burials Bill in April 1875, in which he described a Quaker funeral, and
+protested against the "miserable superstition of the phrase 'buried like a
+dog.'" "In that sense," he said, "I shall be buried like a dog, and all
+those with whom I am best acquainted, whom I best love and esteem, will be
+'buried like a dog.' Nay more, my own ancestors, who in past time suffered
+persecution for what is now held to be a righteous cause, have all been
+buried like dogs, if that phrase is true." The tender, half-broken tones in
+which these words were said, the inexpressible pathos of his voice and
+manner, were never forgotten by those who heard that Wednesday morning
+speech.
+
+Bright was disqualified by illness during the whole of 1856 and 1857. In
+Palmerston's penal dissolution in the latter year, Bright was rejected by
+Manchester, but in August, while ill and absent, Birmingham elected him
+without a contest. He returned to parliament in 1858, and in February
+seconded the motion which threw out Lord Palmerston's government. Lord
+Derby thereupon came into office for the second time, and Bright had the
+satisfaction of assisting in the passing of two measures which he had long
+advocated--the admission of Jews to parliament and the transfer of the
+government of India from the East India Company to the crown. He was now
+restored to full political activity, and in October addressed his new
+constituents, and started a movement for parliamentary reform. He spoke at
+great gatherings at Edinburgh, Glasgow, Bradford and Manchester, and his
+speeches filled the papers. For the next nine years he was the protagonist
+of Reform. Towards the close of the struggle he told the House of Commons
+that a thousand meetings had been held, that at every one the doors were
+open for any man to enter, yet that an almost unanimous vote for reform had
+been taken. In the debates on the Reform Bills submitted to the House of
+Commons from 1859. to 1867, Bright's was the most influential voice. He
+rebuked Lowe's "Botany Bay view," and described Horsman as retiring to his
+"cave of Adullam," and hooking in Lowe. "The party of two," he said,
+"reminds me of the Scotch terrier, which was so covered with hair that you
+could not tell which was the head and which was the tail." These and
+similar phrases, such as the excuse for withdrawing the Reform Bill in the
+year of the great budget of 1860--"you cannot get twenty wagons at once
+through Temple Bar"--were in all men's mouths. It was one of the triumphs
+of Bright's oratory that it constantly produced these popular cries. The
+phrase "a free breakfast table" was his; and on the rejection of Forster's
+Compensation for Disturbance Bill he used the phrase as to Irish
+discontent, "Force is not a remedy."
+
+During his great reform agitation Bright had vigorously supported Cobden in
+the negotiations for the treaty of commerce with France, and had taken,
+with his usual vehemence, the side of the North in the discussions in
+England on the American Civil War. In March 1865 Cobden died, and Bright
+told the House of Commons he dared not even attempt to express the feelings
+which oppressed him, and sat down overwhelmed with grief. Their friendship
+was one of the most characteristic features of the public life of their
+time. "After twenty years of intimate and almost brotherly friendship with
+him," said Bright, "I little knew how much I loved him till I had lost
+him." In June 1865 parliament was dissolved, and Bright was returned for
+Birmingham without opposition. Palmerston's death in the early autumn
+brought Lord John Russell into power, and for the first time Bright gave
+his support to the government. Russell's fourth Reform Bill was introduced,
+was defeated by the Adullamites, and the Derby-Disraeli ministry was
+installed. Bright declared Lord Derby's accession to be a declaration of
+war against the working classes, and roused the great towns in the demand
+for reform. Bright was the popular hero of the time. As a political leader
+the winter of 1866-1867 was the culminating point in his career. The Reform
+Bill was carried with a clause for minority representation, and in the
+autumn of 1868 Bright, with two Liberal colleagues, was again returned for
+Birmingham. Mr Gladstone came into power with a programme of Irish reform
+in church and land such as Bright had long urged, and he accepted the post
+of president of the Board of Trade. He thus became a member of the privy
+council, with the title of Right Honourable, and from this time forth was a
+recognized leader of the Liberal party in parliament and in the country. He
+made a great speech [v.04 p.0569] on the second reading of the Irish Church
+Bill, and wrote a letter on the House of Lords, in which he said, "In
+harmony with the nation they may go on for a long time, but throwing
+themselves athwart its course they may meet with accidents not pleasant for
+them to think of." He also spoke strongly in the same session in favour of
+the bill permitting marriage with a deceased wife's sister. The next
+session found him disqualified by a severe illness, which caused his
+retirement from office at the end of the year, and kept him out of public
+life for four years. In August 1873 Mr Gladstone reconstructed his cabinet,
+and Bright returned to it as chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. But his
+hair had become white, and though he spoke again with much of his former
+vigour, he was now an old man. In the election in January 1874 Bright and
+his colleagues were returned for Birmingham without opposition. When Mr
+Gladstone resigned the leadership of his party in 1875, Bright was chairman
+of the party meeting which chose Lord Hartington as his successor. He took
+a less prominent part in political discussion till the Eastern Question
+brought Great Britain to the verge of war with Russia, and his old energy
+flamed up afresh. In the debate on the vote of credit in February 1878, he
+made one of his impressive speeches, urging the government not to increase
+the difficulties manufacturers had in finding employment for their
+workpeople by any single word or act which could shake confidence in
+business. The debate lasted five days. On the fifth day a telegram from Mr
+Layard was published announcing that the Russians were nearing
+Constantinople. The day, said _The Times_, "was crowded with rumours,
+alarms, contradictions, fears, hopes, resolves, uncertainties." In both
+Houses Mr Layard's despatch was read, and in the excited Commons Mr
+Forster's resolution opposing the vote of credit was withdrawn. Bright,
+however, distrusted the ambassador at the Porte, and gave reasons for
+doubting the alarming telegram. While he was speaking a note was put into
+the hands of Sir Stafford Northcote, and when Bright sat down he read it to
+the House. It was a confirmation from the Russian prime minister of
+Bright's doubts: "There is not a word of truth in the rumours which have
+reached you." At the general election in 1880 he was re-elected at
+Birmingham, and joined Mr Gladstone's new government as chancellor of the
+duchy of Lancaster. For two sessions he spoke and voted with his
+colleagues, but after the bombardment of the Alexandria forts he left the
+ministry and never held office again. He felt most painfully the severance
+from his old and trusted leader, but it was forced on him by his conviction
+of the danger and impolicy of foreign entanglements. He, however, gave a
+general support to Mr Gladstone's government. In 1883 he took the chair at
+a meeting of the Liberation Society in Mr Spurgeon's chapel; and in June of
+that year was the object of an unparalleled demonstration at Birmingham to
+celebrate his twenty-five years of service as its representative. At this
+celebration he spoke strongly of "the Irish rebel party," and accused the
+Conservatives of "alliance" with them, but withdrew the imputation when Sir
+Stafford Northcote moved that such language was a breach of the privileges
+of the House of Commons. At a banquet to Lord Spencer he accused the Irish
+members of having "exhibited a boundless sympathy for criminals and
+murderers." He refused in the House of Commons to apologise for these
+words, and was supported in his refusal by both sides of the House. At the
+Birmingham election in 1885 he stood for the central division of the
+redistributed constituency; he was opposed by Lord Randolph Churchill, but
+was elected by a large majority. In the new parliament he voted against the
+Home Rule Bill, and it was generally felt that in the election of 1886
+which followed its defeat, when he was re-elected without opposition, his
+letters told with fatal effect against the Home Rule Liberals. His
+contribution to the discussion was a suggestion that the Irish members
+should form a grand committee to which every Irish bill should go after
+first reading. The break-up of the Liberal party filled him with gloom. His
+last speech at Birmingham was on 29th March 1888, at a banquet to celebrate
+Mr Chamberlain's return from his peace mission to the United States. He
+spoke of imperial federation as a "dream and an absurdity." In May his
+illness returned, he took to his bed in October, and died on the 27th of
+March 1889. He was buried in the graveyard of the meeting-house of the
+Society of Friends in Rochdale.
+
+Bright had much literary and social recognition in his later years. In 1882
+he was elected lord rector of the university of Glasgow, and Dr Dale wrote
+of his rectorial address: "It was not the old Bright." "I am weary of
+public speaking," he had told Dr Dale; "my mind is almost a blank." He was
+given an honorary degree of the university of Oxford in 1886, and in 1888 a
+statue of him was erected at Birmingham. The 3rd marquess of Salisbury said
+of him, and it sums up his character as a public man: "He was the greatest
+master of English oratory that this generation--I may say several
+generations--has seen.... At a time when much speaking has depressed, has
+almost exterminated eloquence, he maintained that robust, powerful and
+vigorous style in which he gave fitting expression to the burning and noble
+thoughts he desired to utter."
+
+See _The Life and Speeches of the Right Hon. John Bright, M.P_., by George
+Barnett Smith, 2 vols. 8vo (1881); _The Life of John Bright, M.P._, by John
+M^cGilchrist, in Cassell's Representative Biographies (1868); _John
+Bright_, by C.A. Vince (1898); _Speeches on Parliamentary Reform by John
+Bright, M.P., revised by Himself_ (1866); _Speeches on Questions of Public
+Policy_, by John Bright, M.P., edited by J.E. Thorold Rogers, 2 vols. 8vo
+(1868); _Public Addresses_, edited by J.E. Thorold Rogers, 8vo (1879);
+_Public Letters of the Right Hon. John Bright, M.P._, collected by H.J.
+Leech (1885).
+
+(P. W. C.)
+
+BRIGHTLINGSEA (pronounced BRITTLESEA), a port and fishing station in the
+Harwich parliamentary division of Essex, England, on a creek opening from
+the east shore of the Colne estuary, the terminus of a branch from
+Colchester of the Great Eastern railway, 621/2 m. E.N.E. of London. Pop. of
+urban district (1901) 4501. The Colchester oyster beds are mainly in this
+part of the Colne, and the oyster fishery is the chief industry.
+Boat-building is carried on. This is also a favourite yachting centre. The
+church of All Saints, principally Perpendicular, has interesting monuments
+and brasses, and a fine lofty tower and west front. Brightlingsea, which
+appears in Domesday, is a member of the Cinque Port of Sandwich in Kent.
+Near the opposite shore of the creek is St Osyth's priory, which originated
+as a nunnery founded by Osyth, a grand-daughter of Penda, king of Mercia,
+martyred (c. 653) by Norse invaders. A foundation for Augustinian canons
+followed on the site early in the 12th century. The remains, incorporated
+with a modern residence, include a late Perpendicular gateway, abbots'
+tower, clock tower and crypt. The gateway, an embattled structure with
+flanking turrets, is particularly fine, the entire front being panelled and
+ornamented with canopied niches. The church of St Osyth, also Perpendicular
+in the main, is of interest.
+
+BRIGHTON, a watering-place of Bourke county, Victoria, Australia, 71/2 m. by
+rail S.E. of Melbourne, of which it is practically a suburb. It stands on
+the east shore of Port Phillip, and has two piers, a great extent of sandy
+beach and numerous beautiful villas. Pop. (1901) 10,029.
+
+BRIGHTON, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough of Sussex, England,
+one of the best-known seaside resorts in the United Kingdom, 51 m. S. from
+London by the London, Brighton & South Coast railway. Pop. (1901) 123,478.
+Its ready accessibility from the metropolis is the chief factor in its
+popularity. It is situated on the seaward slope of the South Downs; the
+position is sheltered from inclement winds, and the climate is generally
+mild. The sea-front, overlooking the English Channel, stretches nearly 4 m.
+from Kemp Town on the east to Hove (a separate municipal borough) on the
+west. Inland, including the suburb of Preston, the town extends some 2 m.
+The tendency of the currents in the Channel opposite Brighton is to drive
+the shingle eastward, and encroachments of the sea were frequent and
+serious until the erection of a massive sea-wall, begun about 1830, 60 ft.
+high, 23 ft. thick at the base, and 3 ft. at the summit. There are numerous
+modern churches and chapels, many of them very handsome; and the former
+parish church of St Nicholas remains, a Decorated structure containing a
+Norman font and a memorial to the great duke of Wellington. The incumbency
+of Trinity Chapel was held by the famous [v.04 p.0570] preacher Frederick
+William Robertson (1847-1853). The town hall and the parochial offices are
+the principal administrative buildings. Numerous institutions contribute to
+the entertainment of visitors. Of these the most remarkable is the
+Pavilion, built as a residence for the prince regent (afterwards George
+IV.) and remodelled in 1819 by the architect, John Nash, in a grotesque
+Eastern style of architecture. In 1849 it was purchased by the town for
+L53,000, and is devoted to various public uses, containing a museum,
+assembly-rooms and picture-galleries. The detached building, formerly the
+stables, is converted into a fine concert hall; it is lighted by a vast
+glazed dome approaching that of St Paul's cathedral, London, in dimensions.
+There are several theatres and music-halls. The aquarium, the property of
+the corporation, contains an excellent marine collection, but is also used
+as a concert hall and winter garden, and a garden is laid out on its roof.
+The Booth collection of British birds, bequeathed to the corporation by
+E.T. Booth, was opened in 1893. There are two piers, of which the Palace
+pier, near the site of the old chain pier (1823), which was washed away in
+1896, is near the centre of the town, while the West pier is towards Hove.
+Preston and Queen's parks are the principal of several public recreation
+grounds; and the racecourse at Kemp Town is also the property of the town.
+Educational establishments are numerous, and include Brighton College,
+which ranks high among English public schools. There are municipal schools
+of science, technology and art. St Mary's Hall (1836) is devoted to the
+education of poor clergymen's daughters. Among many hospitals, the county
+hospital (1828), "open to the sick and lame poor of every country and
+nation," may be mentioned. There are an extensive mackerel and herring
+fishery, and motor engineering works. The parliamentary borough, which
+includes the parish of Hove, returns two members. The county borough was
+created in 1888. The municipal borough is under a mayor, 14 aldermen and 42
+councillors. Area, 2536 acres.
+
+Although there is evidence of Roman and Saxon occupation of the site, the
+earliest mention of Brighton (Bristelmeston, Brichelmestone,
+Brighthelmston) is the Domesday Book record that its three manors belonged
+to Earl Godwin and were held by William de Warenne. Of these, two passed to
+the priories of Lewes and Michelham respectively, and after the dissolution
+of the monasteries were subject to frequent sale and division. The third
+descended to the earls of Arundel, falling to the share of the duke of
+Norfolk in 1415, and being divided in 1502 between the families of Howard
+and Berkeley. That Brighton was a large fishing village in 1086 is evident
+from the rent of 4000 herrings; in 1285 it had a separate constable, and in
+1333 it was assessed for a tenth, and fifteenth at L5:4:63/4, half the
+assessment of Shoreham. In 1340 there were no merchants there, only tenants
+of lands, but its prosperity increased during the 15th and 16th centuries,
+and it was assessed at L6:12:8 in 1534. There is, however, no indication
+that it was a borough. In 1580 commissioners sent to decide disputes
+between the fishermen and landsmen found that from time immemorial Brighton
+had been governed by two head boroughs sitting in the borough court, and
+assisted by a council called the Twelve. This constitution disappeared
+before 1772, when commissioners were appointed. Brighton refused a charter
+offered by George, prince of Wales, but was incorporated in 1854. It had
+become a parliamentary borough in 1832. From a fishing town in 1656 it
+became a fashionable resort in 1756; its popularity increased after the
+visit of the prince of Wales (see GEORGE IV.) to the duke of Cumberland in
+1783, and was ensured by his building the Pavilion in 1784-1787, and his
+adoption of it as his principal residence; and his association with Mrs
+Fitzherbert at Brighton was the starting-point of its fashionable repute.
+
+See _Victoria County History--Sussex; Sussex Archaeological Society
+Transactions_, vol. ii.; L. Melville, _Brighton, its History, its Follies
+and its Fashions_ (London, 1909).
+
+BRIGHT'S DISEASE, a term in medicine applied to a class of diseases of the
+kidneys (acute and chronic nephritis) which have as their most prominent
+symptom the presence of albumen in the urine, and frequently also the
+coexistence of dropsy. These associated symptoms in connexion with kidney
+disease were first described in 1827 by Dr Richard Bright (1789-1858).
+Since that period it has been established that the symptoms, instead of
+being, as was formerly supposed, the result of one form of disease of the
+kidneys, may be dependent on various morbid conditions of those organs (see
+KIDNEY DISEASES). Hence the term Bright's disease, which is retained in
+medical nomenclature in honour of Dr Bright, must be understood as having a
+generic application.
+
+The symptoms are usually of a severe character. Pain in the back, vomiting
+and febrile disturbance commonly usher in the attack. Dropsy, varying in
+degree from slight puffiness of the face to an accumulation of fluid
+sufficient to distend the whole body, and to occasion serious embarrassment
+to respiration, is a very common accompaniment. The urine is reduced in
+quantity, is of dark, smoky or bloody colour, and exhibits to chemical
+reaction the presence of a large amount of albumen, while, under the
+microscope, blood corpuscles and casts, as above mentioned, are found in
+abundance.
+
+This state of acute inflammation may by its severity destroy life, or,
+short of this, may by continuance result in the establishment of one of the
+chronic forms of Bright's disease. On the other hand an arrest of the
+inflammatory action frequently occurs, and this is marked by the increased
+amount of the urine, and the gradual disappearance of its albumen and other
+abnormal constituents; as also by the subsidence of the dropsy and the
+rapid recovery of strength.
+
+In the treatment of acute Bright's disease, good results are often obtained
+from local depletion, from warm baths and from the careful employment of
+diuretics and purgatives. Chronic Bright's disease is much less amenable to
+treatment, but by efforts to maintain the strength and improve the quality
+of the blood by strong nourishment, and at the same time by guarding
+against the risks of complications, life may often be prolonged in
+comparative comfort, and even a certain measure of improvement be
+experienced.
+
+BRIGNOLES, a town in the department of Var in the S.E. of France, 36 m. by
+rail N. of Toulon. Pop. (1906) 3639. It is built at a height of 754 ft.
+above the sea-level, in a fertile valley, and on the right bank of the
+Carami river. It contains the old summer palace of the counts of Provence,
+and has an active trade, especially in prunes, known as _prunes de
+Brignoles_. Its old name was _Villa Puerorum_, as the children of the
+counts of Provence were often brought up here. It was sacked on several
+occasions during the religious wars in the 16th century. Twelve miles to
+the N.W. is St Maximin (with a fine medieval church), which is one of the
+best starting-points for the most famous pilgrimage resort in Provence, the
+Sainte Baume, wherein St Mary Magdalene is said to have taken refuge. This
+is 20 m. distant by road.
+
+(W. A. B. C.)
+
+BRIHASPATI, or BRAHMANASPATI ("god of strength"), a deity of importance in
+early Hindu mythology. In the Rigveda he is represented as the god of
+prayer, aiding Indra in his conquest of the cloud-demon, and at times
+appears to be identified with Agni, god of fire. He is the offspring of
+Heaven and Earth, the two worlds; is the inspirer of prayer and the guide
+and protector of the pious. He is pictured as having seven mouths, a
+hundred wings and horns and is armed with bow and arrows and an axe. He
+rides in a chariot drawn by red horses. In the later scriptures he is
+represented as a Rishi or seer.
+
+See A.A. Macdonell, _Vedic Mythology_ (Strassburg, 1897).
+
+BRIL, PAUL (1554-1626), Flemish painter, was born at Antwerp. The success
+of his elder brother Matthew (1550-1584) in the Vatican induced him to go
+to Rome to live. On the death of Matthew, Paul, who far surpassed him as an
+artist, succeeded to his pensions and employments. He painted landscapes
+with a depth of chiaroscuro then little practised in Italy, and introduced
+into them figures well drawn and finely coloured. One of his best
+compositions is the "Martyrdom of St Clement," in the Sala Clementina of
+the Vatican.
+
+BRILL, the name given to a flat-fish (_Psetta laevis_, or _Rhombus laevis_)
+which is a species closely related to the turbot, differing [v.04 p.0571]
+from it in having very small scales, being smaller in size, having no bony
+tubercules in the skin, and being reddish in colour. It abounds on parts of
+the British coast, and is only less favoured for the table than the turbot
+itself.
+
+BRILLAT-SAVARIN, ANTHELME (1755-1826), French gastronomist, was born at
+Belley, France, on the 1st of April 1755. In 1789 he was a deputy, in 1793
+mayor of Belley. To escape proscription he fled from France to Switzerland,
+and went thence to the United States, where he played in the orchestra of a
+New York theatre. On the fall of Robespierre he returned to France, and in
+1797 became a member of the court of cassation. He wrote various volumes on
+political economy and law, but his name is famous for his _Physiologie du
+gout_, a compendium of the art of dining. Many editions of this work have
+been published. Brillat-Savarin died in Paris on the 2nd of February 1826.
+
+BRIMSTONE, the popular name of sulphur (_q.v._), particularly of the
+commercial "roll sulphur." The word means literally "burning stone"; the
+first part being formed from the stem of the Mid. Eng. _brennen_, to burn.
+Earlier forms of the word are _brenstone_, _bernstone_, _brynstone,_ &c.
+
+BRIN, BENEDETTO (1833-1898), Italian naval administrator, was born at Turin
+on the 17th of May 1833, and until the age of forty worked with distinction
+as a naval engineer. In 1873 Admiral Saint-Bon, minister of marine,
+appointed him under-secretary of state. The two men completed each other;
+Saint-Bon conceived a type of ship, Brin made the plans and directed its
+construction. On the advent of the Left to power in 1876, Brin was
+appointed minister of marine by Depretis, a capacity in which he continued
+the programme of Saint-Bon, while enlarging and completing it in such way
+as to form the first organic scheme for the development of the Italian
+fleet. The huge warships "Italia" and "Dandolo" were his work, though he
+afterwards abandoned their type in favour of smaller and faster vessels of
+the "Varese" and the "Garibaldi" class. By his initiative Italian naval
+industry, almost non-existent in 1873, made rapid progress. During his
+eleven years' ministry (1876-1878 with Depretis, 1884-1891 with Depretis
+and Crispi, 1896-1898 with Rudini), he succeeded in creating large private
+shipyards, engine works and metallurgical works for the production of
+armour, steel plates and guns. In 1892 he entered the Giolitti cabinet as
+minister for foreign affairs, accompanying, in that capacity, the king and
+queen of Italy to Potsdam, but showed weakness towards France on the
+occasion of the massacre of Italian workmen at Aigues-Mortes. He died on
+the 24th of May 1898, while minister of marine in the Rudini cabinet. He,
+more than any other man, must be regarded as the practical creator of the
+Italian navy.
+
+BRINDABAN, a town of British India, in the Muttra district of the United
+Provinces, on the right bank of the Jumna, 6 m. N. of Muttra. Pop. (1901)
+22,717. Brindaban is one of the most popular places of pilgrimage in India,
+being associated with the cult of Krishna as a shepherd. It contains
+bathing-stairs, tanks and wells, and a great number of handsome temples, of
+which the finest is that of Govind Deva, a cruciform vaulted building of
+red sandstone, dating from 1590. The town was founded earlier in the same
+century.
+
+BRINDISI (anc. _Brundisium_, _q.v._), a seaport town and archiepiscopal see
+of Apulia, Italy, in the province of Lecce, 24 m. N.W. by rail from the
+town of Lecce, and 346 m. from Ancona. Pop.(1861) 8000; (1871) 13,755;
+(1901) 25,317. The chief importance of Brindisi is due to its position as a
+starting-point for the East. The inner harbour, admirably sheltered and 27
+to 30 ft. in depth, allows ocean steamers to lie at the quays. Brindisi
+has, however, been abandoned by the large steamers of the Peninsular &
+Oriental Steam Navigation Company, which had called there since 1870, but
+since 1898 call at Marseilles instead; small express boats, carrying the
+mails, still leave every week, connecting with the larger steamers at Port
+Said; but the number of passengers leaving the port, which for the years
+1893-1897 averaged 14,728, was only 7608 in 1905, and only 943 of these
+were carried by the P. & O. boats. The harbour railway station was not
+completed until 1905 (_Consular Report_, No. 3672, 1906, pp. 13 sqq.). The
+port was cleared in 1905 by 1492 vessels of 1,486,269 tons. The imports
+represented a value of L629,892 and the exports a value of L663,201--an
+increase of L84,077 and L57,807 respectively on the figures of the previous
+year, while in 1899 the amounts, which were below the average, were only
+L298,400 and L253,000. The main imports are coal, flour, sulphur, timber
+and metals; and the main exports, wine and spirits, oil and dried fruits.
+
+Frederick II. erected a castle, with huge round towers, to guard the inner
+harbour; it is now a convict prison. The cathedral, ruined by earthquakes,
+was restored in 1743-1749, but has some remains of its mosaic pavement
+(1178). The baptismal church of S. Giovanni al Sepolcro (11th century) is
+now a museum. The town was captured in 836 by the Saracens, and destroyed
+by them; but was rebuilt in the 11th century by Lupus the protospatharius,
+Byzantine governor. In 1071 it fell into the hands of the Normans, and
+frequently appears in the history of the Crusades. Early in the 14th
+century the inner port was blocked by Giovanni Orsini, prince of Taranto;
+the town was devastated by pestilence in 1348, and was plundered in 1352
+and 1383; but even greater damage was done by the earthquake of 1456.
+
+(T. AS.)
+
+BRINDLEY, JAMES (1716-1772), English engineer, was born at Thornsett,
+Derbyshire, in 1716. His parents were in very humble circumstances, and he
+received little or no education. At the age of seventeen he was apprenticed
+to a millwright near Macclesfield, and soon after completing his
+apprenticeship he set up in business for himself as a wheelwright at Leek,
+quickly becoming known for his ingenuity and skill in repairing all kinds
+of machinery. In 1752 he designed and set up an engine for draining some
+coal-pits at Clifton in Lancashire. Three years later he extended his
+reputation by completing the machinery for a silk-mill at Congleton. In
+1759, when the duke of Bridgewater was anxious to improve the outlets for
+the coal on his estates, Brindley advised the construction of a canal from
+Worsley to Manchester. The difficulties in the way were great, but all were
+surmounted by his genius, and his crowning triumph was the construction of
+an aqueduct to carry the canal at an elevation of 39 ft. over the river
+Irwell at Barton. The great success of this canal encouraged similar
+projects, and Brindley was soon engaged in extending his first work to the
+Mersey, at Runcorn. He then designed and nearly completed what he called
+the Grand Trunk Canal, connecting the Trent and Humber with the Mersey. The
+Staffordshire and Worcestershire, the Oxford and the Chesterfield Canals
+were also planned by him, and altogether he laid out over 360 m. of canals.
+He died at Turnhurst, Staffordshire, on the 30th of September 1772.
+Brindley retained to the last a peculiar roughness of character and
+demeanour; but his innate power of thought more than compensated for his
+lack of training. It is told of him that when in any difficulty he used to
+retire to bed, and there remain thinking out his problem until the solution
+became clear to him. His mechanical ingenuity and fertility of resource
+were very remarkable, and he undoubtedly possessed the engineering faculty
+in a very high degree. He was an enthusiastic believer in canals, and his
+reported answer, when asked the use of navigable rivers, "To feed canals,"
+is characteristic, if not altogether authentic.
+
+BRINTON, DANIEL GARRISON (1837-1899), American archaeologist and
+ethnologist, was born at Thornbury, Pennsylvania, on the 13th of May 1837.
+He graduated at Yale in 1858, studied for two years in the Jefferson
+Medical College, and then for one year travelled in Europe and continued
+his studies at Paris and Heidelberg. From 1862 to 1865, during the Civil
+War in America, he was a surgeon in the Union army, acting for one year,
+1864-1865, as surgeon in charge of the U.S. Army general hospital at
+Quincy, Illinois. After the war he practised medicine at Westchester,
+Pennsylvania, for several years; was the editor of a weekly periodical, the
+_Medical and Surgical Reporter_, in Philadelphia, from 1874 to 1887; became
+professor of ethnology and archaeology in the Academy of Natural Sciences
+in Philadelphia in 1884, and was professor of American linguistics and
+archaeology in the university of Pennsylvania from 1886 until his death at
+Philadelphia on the 31st of July 1899. [v.04 p.0572] He was a member of
+numerous learned societies in the United States and in Europe, and was
+president at different times of the Numismatic and Antiquarian Society of
+Philadelphia, of the American Folk-Lore Society and of the American
+Association for the Advancement of Science. During the period from 1859
+(when he published his first book) to 1899, he wrote a score of books,
+several of them of great value, and a large number of pamphlets, brochures,
+addresses and magazine articles. His principal works are:--_The Myths of
+the New World_ (1868), the first attempt to analyse and correlate,
+according to true scientific principles, the mythology of the American
+Indians; _The Religious Sentiment: Its Sources and Aim: A Contribution to
+the Science and Philosophy of Religion_ (1876); _American Hero Myths_
+(1882); _Essays of an Americanist_ (1890); _Races and Peoples_ (1890); _The
+American Race_ (1891); _The Pursuit of Happiness_ (1893); and _Religions of
+Primitive People_ (1897). In addition, he edited and published a _Library
+of American Aboriginal Literature_ (8 vols. 1882-1890), a valuable
+contribution to the science of anthropology in America. Of the eight
+volumes, six were edited by Brinton himself, one by Horatio Hale and one by
+A.S. Gatschet.
+
+BRINVILLIERS, MARIE MADELEINE MARGUERITE D'AUBRAY, MARQUISE DE (c.
+1630-1676), French poisoner, daughter of Dreux d'Aubray, civil lieutenant
+of Paris, was born in Paris about 1630. In 1651 she married the marquis de
+Brinvilliers, then serving in the regiment of Normandy. Contemporary
+evidence describes the marquise at this time as a pretty and much-courted
+little woman, with a fascinating air of childlike innocence. In 1659 her
+husband introduced her to his friend Godin de Sainte-Croix, a handsome
+young cavalry officer of extravagant tastes and bad reputation, whose
+mistress she became. Their relations soon created a public scandal, and as
+the marquis de Brinvilliers, who had left France to avoid his creditors,
+made no effort to terminate them, M. d'Aubray secured the arrest of
+Sainte-Croix on a _lettre de cachet_. For a year Sainte-Croix remained a
+prisoner in the Bastille, where he is popularly supposed to have acquired a
+knowledge of poisons from his fellow-prisoner, the Italian poisoner Exili.
+When he left the Bastille, he plotted with his willing mistress his revenge
+upon her father. She cheerfully undertook to experiment with the poisons
+which Sainte-Croix, possibly with the help of a chemist, Christopher
+Glaser, prepared, and found subjects ready to hand in the poor who sought
+her charity, and the sick whom she visited in the hospitals. Meanwhile
+Sainte-Croix, completely ruined financially, enlarged his original idea,
+and determined that not only M. Dreux d'Aubray but also the latter's two
+sons and other daughter should be poisoned, so that the marquise de
+Brinvilliers and himself might come into possession of the large family
+fortune. In February 1666, satisfied with the efficiency of Sainte-Croix's
+preparations and with the ease with which they could be administered
+without detection, the marquise poisoned her father, and in 1670, with the
+connivance of their valet La Chaussee, her two brothers. A post-mortem
+examination suggested the real cause of death, but no suspicion was
+directed to the murderers. Before any attempt could be made on the life of
+Mlle Therese d'Aubray, Sainte-Croix suddenly died. As he left no heirs the
+police were called in, and discovered among his belongings documents
+seriously incriminating the marquise and La Chaussee. The latter was
+arrested, tortured into a complete confession, and broken alive on the
+wheel (1673), but the marquise escaped, taking refuge first probably in
+England, then in Germany, and finally in a convent at Liege, whence she was
+decoyed by a police emissary disguised as a priest. A full account of her
+life and crimes was found among her papers. Her attempt to commit suicide
+was frustrated, and she was taken to Paris, where she was beheaded and her
+body burned on the 16th of July 1676.
+
+See G. Roullier, _La Marquise de Brinvilliers_ (Paris, 1883); Toiseleur,
+_Trois enigmes historiques_ (Paris, 1882).
+
+BRIONIAN ISLANDS, a group of small islands, in the Adriatic Sea, off the
+west coast of Istria, from which they are separated by the narrow Canale di
+Fasana. They belong to Austria and are twelve in number. Up to a recent
+period they were chiefly noted for their quarries, which have been worked
+for centuries and have supplied material not only for the palaces and
+bridges of Venice and the whole Adriatic coast, but latterly for Vienna and
+Berlin also. As they command the entrance to the naval harbour of Pola, a
+strong fortress, "Fort Tegetthoff," has been erected on the largest of them
+(Brioni), together with minor fortifications on some of the others. The
+islands are inhabited by about 100 Italian quarrymen.
+
+BRIOSCO, ANDREA (c. 1470-1532), Italian sculptor and architect, known as
+Riccio ("curly-headed"), was born at Padua. In architecture he is known by
+the church of Sta Giustina in his native city, but he is most famous as a
+worker in metal. His masterpieces are the bronze Paschal candelabrum (11
+ft. high) in the choir of the Santo (S. Antonio) at Padua (1515), and the
+two bronze reliefs (1507) of "David dancing before the Ark" and "Judith and
+Holofernes" in the same church. His bronze and marble tomb of the physician
+Girolamo della Torre in San Fermo at Verona was beautifully decorated with
+reliefs, which were taken away by the French and are now in the Louvre. A
+number of other works which emanated from his workshop are attributed to
+him; and he has been suggested, but doubtfully, as the author of a fine
+bronze relief, a "Dance of Nymphs," in the Wallace collection at Hertford
+House, London.
+
+BRIOUDE, a town of central France, capital of an arrondissement in the
+department of Haute-Loire, on the left bank of the Allier, 1467 ft. above
+the sea, 47 m. N.W. of Le Puy on the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) 4581.
+Brioude has to a great extent escaped modernization and still has many old
+houses and fountains. Its streets are narrow and irregular, but the town is
+surrounded by wide boulevards lined with trees. The only building of
+consequence is the church of St Julian (12th and 13th centuries) in the
+Romanesque style of Auvergne, of which the choir, with its apse and
+radiating chapels and the mosaic ornamentation of the exterior, is a fine
+example. Brioude is the seat of a sub-prefect, and of tribunals of first
+instance and of commerce. The plain in which it is situated is of great
+fertility; the grain trade of the town is considerable, and
+market-gardening is carried on in the outskirts. The industries include
+brewing, saw-milling, lace-making and antimony mining and founding.
+
+Brioude, the ancient _Brinas_, was formerly a place of considerable
+importance. It was in turn besieged and captured by the Goths (532), the
+Burgundians, the Saracens (732) and the Normans. In 1181 the viscount of
+Polignac, who had sacked the town two years previously, made public apology
+in front of the church, and established a body of twenty-five knights to
+defend the relics of St Julian. For some time after 1361 the town was the
+headquarters of Berenger, lord of Castelnau, who was at the head of one of
+the bands of military adventurers which then devastated France. The knights
+(or canons, as they afterwards became) of St Julian bore the title of
+counts of Brioude, and for a long time opposed themselves to the civic
+liberties of the inhabitants.
+
+BRIQUEMAULT (or BRIQUEMAUT), FRANCOIS DE BEAUVAIS, SEIGNEUR DE (c.
+1502-1572), leader of the Huguenots during the first religious wars, was
+the son of Adrien de Briquemault and Alexane de Sainte Ville, and was born
+about 1502. His first campaign was under the count of Brissac in the
+Piedmontese wars. On his return to France in 1554 he joined Admiral
+Coligny. Charged with the defence of Rouen, in 1562, he resigned in favour
+of Montgomery, to whom the prince of Conde had entrusted the task, and went
+over to England, where he concluded the treaty of Hampton Court on the 20th
+of September. He then returned to France, and took Dieppe from the
+Catholics before the conclusion of peace. If his share in the second
+religious war was less important, he played a very active part in the
+third. He fought at Jarnac, Roche-Abeille and Montcontour, assisted in the
+siege of Poitiers, was nearly captured by the Catholics at Bourg-Dieu,
+re-victualled Vezelay, and almost surprised Bourges. In 1570, being charged
+by Coligny to stop the army of the princes in its ascent of the Rhone
+valley, he crossed Burgundy and effected his junction [v.04 p.0573] with
+the admiral at St. Etienne in May. On the 21st of the following June he
+assisted in achieving the victory of Arnay-le-Duc, and was then employed to
+negotiate a marriage between the prince of Navarre and Elizabeth of
+England. Being in Paris on the night of St Bartholomew he took refuge in
+the house of the English ambassador, but was arrested there. With his
+friend Arnaud da Cavagnes he was delivered over to the parlement, and
+failed in courage when confronted with his judges, seeking to escape death
+by unworthy means. He was condemned, nevertheless, on the 27th of October
+1572, to the last penalty and to the confiscation of his property, and on
+the 29th of October he and Cavagnes were executed.
+
+See _Histoire ecclesiastique des Eglises reformees au royaume de France_
+(new edition, 1884), vol. ii.; _La France protestante_ (2nd edition), vol.
+ii., article "Beauvais."
+
+BRIQUETTE (diminutive of Fr. _brique_, brick), a form of fuel, known also
+as "patent fuel," consisting of small coal compressed into solid blocks by
+the aid of some binding material. For making briquettes the small coal, if
+previously washed, is dried to reduce the moisture to at most 4%, and if
+necessary crushed in a disintegrator. It is then incorporated in a pug mill
+with from 8 to 10% of gas pitch, and softened by heating to between 70 deg. and
+90 deg. C. to a plastic mass, which is moulded into blocks and compacted by a
+pressure of 1/2 to 2 tons per sq. in. in a machine with a rotating die-plate
+somewhat like that used in making semi-plastic clay bricks. When cold, the
+briquettes, which usually weigh from 7 to 20 lb each, although smaller
+sizes are made for domestic use, become quite hard, and can be handled with
+less breakage than the original coal. Their principal use is as fuel for
+marine and locomotive boilers, the evaporative value being about the same
+as, or somewhat greater than, that of coal. The principal seat of the
+manufacture in Great Britain is in South Wales, where the dust and smalls
+resulting from the handling of the best steam coals (which are very
+brittle) are obtainable in large quantities and find no other use. Some
+varieties of lignite, when crushed and pressed at a steam heat, soften
+sufficiently to furnish compact briquettes without requiring any cementing
+material. Briquettes of this kind are made to a large extent from the
+tertiary lignites in the vicinity of Cologne; they are used mainly for
+house fuel on the lower Rhine and in Holland, and occasionally come to
+London.
+
+BRISBANE, SIR THOMAS MAKDOUGALL (1773-1860), Scottish soldier and
+astronomer, was born on the 23rd of July 1773 at Brisbane House, near
+Largs, in Ayrshire. He entered the army in 1789, and served in Flanders,
+the West Indies and the Peninsula. In 1814 he was sent to North America; on
+the return of Napoleon from Elba he was recalled, but did not arrive in
+time to take part in the battle of Waterloo. In 1821 he was appointed
+governor of New South Wales. During the four years for which he held that
+office, although he allowed the finances of the colony to get into
+confusion, he endeavoured to improve its condition by introducing the vine,
+sugar-cane and tobacco plant, and by encouraging the breeding of horses and
+the reclamation of land. At his instigation exploring parties were sent
+out, and one of these discovered the Brisbane river which was named after
+him. He established an astronomical observatory at Paramatta in 1822, and
+the _Brisbane Catalogue_, which was printed in 1835 and contained 7385
+stars, was the result of observations made there in 1822-1826. The
+observatory was discontinued in 1855. After his return to Scotland he
+resided chiefly at Makerstoun in Roxburghshire, where, as at Brisbane
+House, he had a large and admirably equipped observatory. Important
+magnetic observations were begun at Makerstoun in 1841, and the results
+gained him in 1848 the Keith prize of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, in
+whose _Transactions_ they were published. In 1836 he was made a baronet,
+and G.C.B. in 1837; and in 1841 he became general. He was elected president
+of the Royal Society of Edinburgh after the death of Sir Walter Scott in
+1833, and in the following year acted as president of the British
+Association. He died at Brisbane House on the 27th of January 1860. He
+founded two gold medals for the encouragement of scientific research, one
+in the award of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and the other in that of
+the Scottish Society of Arts.
+
+BRISBANE, the capital of Queensland, Australia. It is situated in Stanley
+county, on the banks of the river Brisbane, 25 m. from its mouth in Moreton
+Bay. It is built on a series of hills rising from the river-banks, but some
+parts of it, such as Woollongabba and South Brisbane, occupy low-lying
+flats, which have sometimes been the scene of disastrous floods. The main
+streets and principal buildings of the city are situated on a tongue of
+land formed by a southward bend of the river. The extremity of the tongue,
+however, is open. Here, adjoining one another, are the botanical gardens,
+the grounds surrounding Government House, the official residence of the
+governor of the colony, and the Houses of Parliament, and Queen's Park,
+which is used as a recreation ground. From this park Albert Street runs for
+about three-quarters of a mile through the heart of the city, leading to
+Albert Park, in which is the observatory. Queen's Street, the main
+thoroughfare of Brisbane, crosses Albert Street midway between the two
+parks and leads across the Victoria Bridge to the separate city of South
+Brisbane on the other side of the river. The Victoria Bridge is a fine
+steel structure, which replaced the bridge swept away by floods in February
+1893. Brisbane has a large number of buildings of architectural merit,
+though in some cases their effect is marred by the narrowness of the
+streets in which they stand. Among the most prominent are the Houses of
+Parliament, the great domed custom-house on the river-bank, the lands
+office, the general post-office, the town halls of Brisbane and South
+Brisbane, and the opera house. The Roman Catholic cathedral of St Stephen
+(Elizabeth Street) is an imposing building, having a detached campanile
+containing the largest bell in Australia. The foundation-stone of the
+Anglican cathedral, on an elevated site in Ann Street, was laid by the
+prince of Wales (as duke of York) in 1901. The city is the seat of a Roman
+Catholic archbishop and of an Anglican bishop. Many of the commercial and
+private buildings are also worthy of notice, especially the Queensland
+National Bank, a classic Italian structure, the massive treasury buildings,
+one of the largest erections in Australia, the Queensland Club with its
+wide colonnades in Italian Renaissance style, and the great buildings of
+the Brisbane Newspaper Company. Brisbane is well provided with parks and
+open spaces; the Victoria Park and Bowen Park are the largest; the
+high-lying Mount Coot-tha commands fine views, and there are other parks
+and numerous recreation grounds in various parts of the city, besides the
+admirable botanical gardens and the gardens of the Acclimatization Society.
+Electric tramways and omnibuses serve all parts of the city, and numerous
+ferries ply across the river. There is railway communication to north,
+south and west. By careful dredging, the broad river is navigable as far as
+Brisbane for ocean-going vessels, and the port is the terminal port for the
+Queensland mail steamers to Europe, and is visited by steamers to China,
+Japan and America, and for various inter-colonial lines. There is wharf
+accommodation on both banks of the river, a graving dock which can be used
+by vessels up to 5000 tons, and two patent slips which can take up ships of
+1000 and 400 tons respectively. The exports are chiefly coal, sheep,
+tallow, wool, frozen meat and hides. The annual value of imports and
+exports exceeds seven and nine millions sterling respectively. There are
+boot factories, soap works, breweries, tanneries, tobacco works, &c. The
+climate is on the whole dry and healthy, but during summer the temperature
+is high, the mean shade temperature being about 70 deg. F.
+
+Brisbane was founded in 1825 as a penal settlement, taking its name from
+Sir Thomas Brisbane, then governor of Australia; in 1842 it became a free
+settlement and in 1859 capital of Queensland, the town up to that time
+having belonged to New South Wales. It was incorporated in the same year.
+South Brisbane became a separate city in 1903. The municipal government of
+the city, and also of South Brisbane, is in the hands of a mayor and ten
+alderman; the suburbs are controlled by shire councils and divisional
+boards. The chief suburbs are Kangaroo Point, Fortitude Valley, New Farm,
+Red Hill, Paddington, Milon, Toowong, Breakfast Creek, Bulimba,
+Woolongabba, [v.04 p.0574] Highgate and Indooroopilly. The population of
+the metropolitan area in 1901 was 119,907; of the city proper, 28,953; of
+South Brisbane, 25,481.
+
+BRISEUX, CHARLES ETIENNE (c. 1680-1754), French architect. He was
+especially successful as a designer of internal decorations--mantelpieces,
+mirrors, doors and overdoors, ceilings, consoles, candelabra, wall
+panellings and other fittings, chiefly in the Louis Quinze mode. He was
+also an industrious writer on architectural subjects. His principal works
+are:--_L'Architecture moderne_ (2 vols., 1728); _L'Art de batir les maisons
+de campagne_ (2 vols., 1743); _Traite du beau essentiel dans les arts,
+applique particulierement a l'architecture_ (1752); and _Traite des
+proportions harmoniques._
+
+BRISSAC, DUKES OF. The fief of Brissac in Anjou was acquired at the end of
+the 15th century by a noble French family named Cosse belonging to the same
+province. Rene de Cosse married into the Gouffier family, just then very
+powerful at court, and became _premier panelier_ (chief pantler) to Louis
+XII. Two of his sons were marshals of France. Brissac was made a countship
+in 1560 for Charles, the eldest, who was grandmaster of artillery, and
+governor of Piedmont and of Picardy. The second, Artus, who held the
+offices of _grand panetier_ of France and superintendent of finance,
+distinguished himself in the religious wars. Charles II. de Cosse fought
+for the League, and as governor of Paris opened the gates of that town to
+Henry IV., who created him marshal of France in 1594. Brissac was raised to
+a duchy in the peerage of France in 1611. Louis Hercule Timoleon de Cosse,
+due de Brissac, and commandant of the constitutional guard of Louis XVI.,
+was killed at Versailles on the 9th of September 1792 for his devotion to
+the king.
+
+(M. P.*)
+
+BRISSON, EUGENE HENRI (1835- ), French statesman, was born at Bourges on
+the 31st of July 1835. He followed his father's profession of advocate, and
+having made himself conspicuous in opposition during the last days of the
+empire, was appointed deputy-mayor of Paris after its overthrow. He was
+elected to the Assembly on the 8th of February 1871, as a member of the
+extreme Left. While not approving of the Commune, he was the first to
+propose amnesty for the condemned (on the 13th of September 1871), but the
+proposal was voted down. He strongly supported obligatory primary
+education, and was a firm anti-clerical. He was president of the chamber
+from 1881--replacing Gambetta--to March 1885, when he became prime minister
+upon the resignation of Jules Ferry; but he resigned when, after the
+general elections of that year, he only just obtained a majority for the
+vote of credit for the Tongking expedition. He remained conspicuous as a
+public man, took a prominent part in exposing the Panama scandals, was a
+powerful candidate for the presidency after the murder of President Carnot
+in 1894, and was again president of the chamber from December 1894 to 1898.
+In June of the latter year he formed a cabinet when the country was
+violently excited over the Dreyfus affair; his firmness and honesty
+increased the respect in which he was already held by good citizens, but a
+chance vote on an occasion of especial excitement overthrew his ministry in
+October. As one of the leaders of the radicals he actively supported the
+ministries of Waldeck-Rousseau and Combes, especially concerning the laws
+on the religious orders and the separation of church and state. In 1899 he
+was a candidate for the presidency. In May 1906 he was elected president of
+the chamber of deputies by 500 out of 581 votes.
+
+BRISSON, MATHURIN JACQUES (1723-1806), French zoologist and natural
+philosopher, was born at Fontenay le Comte on the 30th of April 1723. The
+earlier part of his life was spent in the pursuit of natural history, his
+published works in this department including _Le Regne animal_ (1756) and
+_Ornithologie_ (1760). After the death of R.A.F. Reaumur (1683-1757), whose
+assistant he was, he abandoned natural history, and was appointed professor
+of natural philosophy at Navarre and later at Paris. His most important
+work in this department was his _Poids specifiques des corps_ (1787), but
+he published several other books on physical subjects which were in
+considerable repute for a time. He died at Croissy near Paris, on the 23rd
+of June 1806.
+
+BRISSOT, JACQUES PIERRE (1754-1793), who assumed the name of DE WARVILLE, a
+celebrated French Girondist, was born at Chartres, where his father was an
+inn-keeper, in January 1754. Brissot received a good education and entered
+the office of a lawyer at Paris. His first works, _Theorie des lois
+criminelles_ (1781) and _Bibliotheque philosophique du legislateur_ (1782),
+were on the philosophy of law, and showed how thoroughly Brissot was imbued
+with the ethical precepts of Rousseau. The first work was dedicated to
+Voltaire, and was received by the old _philosophe_ with much favour.
+Brissot became known as a facile and able writer, and was engaged on the
+_Mercure_, on the _Courrier de l'Europe_, and on other papers. Ardently
+devoted to the service of humanity, he projected a scheme for a general
+concourse of all the savants in Europe, and started in London a paper,
+_Journal du Lycee de Londres_, which was to be the organ of their views.
+The plan was unsuccessful, and soon after his return to Paris Brissot was
+lodged in the Bastille on the charge of having published a work against the
+government. He obtained his release after four months, and again devoted
+himself to pamphleteering, but had speedily to retire for a time to London.
+On this second visit he became acquainted with some of the leading
+Abolitionists, and founded later in Paris a Societe des Amis des Noirs, of
+which he was president during 1790 and 1791. As an agent of this society he
+paid a visit to the United States in 1788, and in 1791 published his
+_Nouveau Voyage dans les Etats-Unis de l'Amerique Septentrionale_ (3
+vols.).
+
+From the first, Brissot threw himself heart and soul into the Revolution.
+He edited the _Patriote francais_ from 1789 to 1793, and being a
+well-informed and capable man took a prominent part in affairs. Upon the
+demolition of the Bastille the keys were presented to him. Famous for his
+speeches at the Jacobin club, he was elected a member of the municipality
+of Paris, then of the Legislative Assembly, and later of the National
+Convention. During the Legislative Assembly his knowledge of foreign
+affairs enabled him as member of the diplomatic committee practically to
+direct the foreign policy of France, and the declaration of war against the
+emperor on the 20th of April 1792, and that against England on the 1st of
+July 1793, were largely due to him. It was also Brissot who gave these wars
+the character of revolutionary propaganda. He was in many ways the leading
+spirit of the Girondists, who were also known as Brissotins. Vergniaud
+certainly was far superior to him in oratory, but Brissot was quick, eager,
+impetuous, and a man of wide knowledge. But he was at the same time
+vacillating, and not qualified to struggle against the fierce energies
+roused by the events of the Revolution. His party fell before the Mountain;
+sentence of arrest was passed against the leading members of it on the 2nd
+of June 1793. Brissot attempted to escape in disguise, but was arrested at
+Moulins. His demeanour at the trial was quiet and dignified; and on the
+31st of October 1793 he died bravely with several other Girondists.
+
+See _Memoires de Brissot, sur ses contemporains et la Revolution
+francaise_, published by his sons, with notes by F. de Montrol (Paris,
+1830); Helena Williams, _Souvenirs de la Revolution francaise_ (Paris,
+1827); F. A. Aulard, _Les Orateurs de la Legislative et de la Convention_
+2nd ed., (Paris, 1905); F. A. Aulard, _Les Portraits litteraires a la fin
+du XVIII^e siecle, pendant la Revolution_ (Paris, 1883).
+
+BRISTOL, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF. This English title has been held in the
+Hervey family since 1714, though previously an earldom of Bristol, in the
+Digby family, is associated with two especially famous representatives, of
+whom separate biographies are given. The Herveys are mentioned during the
+13th century as seated in Bedfordshire, and afterwards in Suffolk, where
+they have held the estate of Ickworth since the 15th century. John Hervey
+(1616-1679) was the eldest son of Sir William Hervey (d. 1660), and was
+born on the 18th of August 1616. He held a high position in the household
+of Catherine, wife of Charles II., and was for many years member of
+parliament for Hythe. He married Elizabeth, the only surviving child of his
+kinsman, William, Lord Hervey of Kidbrooke (d. 1642), but left no children
+when he died on the 18th of January 1679, and his estates passed to his
+brother, Sir Thomas Hervey. Sir Thomas, who was member of parliament for
+Bury St Edmunds, [v.04 p.0575] died on the 27th of May 1694, and was
+succeeded by his son, John, who became the 1st earl of Bristol.
+
+JOHN HERVEY, 1st earl of Bristol (1665-1751), born on the 27th of August
+1665, was educated at Clare Hall, Cambridge, and became member of
+parliament for Bury St Edmunds in March 1694. In March 1703 he was created
+Baron Hervey of Ickworth, and in October 1714 was made earl of Bristol as a
+reward for his zeal in promoting the principles of the revolution and
+supporting the Hanoverian succession. He died on the 20th of January 1751.
+By his first wife, Isabella (d. 1693), daughter of Sir Robert Carr, Bart.,
+of Sleaford, he had one son, Carr, Lord Hervey (1691-1723), who was
+educated at Clare Hall, Cambridge, and was member for Bury St Edmunds from
+1713 to 1722. (It has been suggested that Carr, who died unmarried on the
+14th of November 1723, was the father of Horace Walpole.) He married
+secondly Elizabeth (d. 1741), daughter and co-heiress of Sir Thomas Felton,
+Bart., of Playford, Suffolk, by whom he had ten sons and six daughters. His
+eldest son, John (1696-1743), took the courtesy title of Lord Hervey on the
+death of his half-brother, Carr, in 1723, and gained some renown both as a
+writer and a politician (see HERVEY OF ICKWORTH). Another son, Thomas
+(1699-1775), was one of the members for Bury from 1733 to 1747; held
+various offices at court; and eloped with Elizabeth, wife of Sir Thomas
+Hanmer. He had very poor health, and his reckless life frequently brought
+him into pecuniary and other difficulties. He wrote numerous pamphlets, and
+when he died Dr Johnson said of him, "Tom Hervey, though a vicious man, was
+one of the genteelest men who ever lived." Another of the 1st earl's sons,
+Felton (1712-1773), was also member for the family borough of Bury St
+Edmunds. Having assumed the additional name of Bathurst, Felton's grandson,
+Felton Elwell Hervey-Bathurst (1782-1819), was created a baronet in 1818,
+and on his death a year later the title descended to his brother, Frederick
+Anne (1783-1824), the direct ancestor of the present baronet. The 1st earl
+died in January 1751, the title and estates descending to his grandson.
+
+GEORGE WILLIAM HERVEY, 2nd earl of Bristol (1721-1775), the eldest son of
+John, Lord Hervey of Ickworth, by his marriage with Mary (1700-1768),
+daughter of Nicholas Lepell, was born on the 31st of August 1721. He served
+for some years in the army, and in 1755 was sent to Turin as envoy
+extraordinary. He was ambassador at Madrid from 1758 to 1761, filling a
+difficult position with credit and dignity, and ranked among the followers
+of Pitt. Appointed lord-lieutenant of Ireland in 1766, he never visited
+that country during his short tenure of this office, and, after having
+served for a short time as keeper of the privy seal, became groom of the
+stole to George III. in January 1770. He died unmarried on the 18th or 20th
+of March 1775, and was succeeded by his brother.
+
+AUGUSTUS JOHN HERVEY, 3rd earl of Bristol (1724-1779), was born on the 19th
+of May 1724, and entered the navy, where his promotion was rapid. He
+distinguished himself in several encounters with the French, and was of
+great assistance to Admiral Hawke in 1759, although he had returned to
+England before the battle of Quiberon Bay in November 1759. Having served
+with distinction in the West Indies under Rodney, his active life at sea
+ceased when the peace of Paris was concluded in February 1763. He was,
+however, nominally commander-in-chief in the Mediterranean in this year,
+and was made vice-admiral of the blue in January 1778. Hervey was member of
+parliament for Bury from 1757 to 1763, and after being for a short time
+member for Saltash, again represented Bury from 1768 until he succeeded his
+brother in the peerage in 1775. He often took part in debates in
+parliament, and was a frequent contributor to periodical literature. Having
+served as a lord of the admiralty from 1771 to 1775 he won some notoriety
+as an opponent of the Rockingham ministry and a defender of Admiral Keppel.
+In August 1744 he had been secretly married to Elizabeth Chudleigh
+(1720-1788), afterwards duchess of Kingston (_q.v._), but this union was
+dissolved in 1769. The earl died in London on the 23rd of December 1779,
+leaving no legitimate issue, and having, as far as possible, alienated his
+property from the title. He was succeeded by his brother. Many of his
+letters are in the Record Office, and his journals in the British Museum.
+Other letters are printed in the _Grenville Papers_, vols. iii. and iv.
+(London, 1852-1853), and the _Life of Admiral Keppel_, by the Hon. T.
+Keppel (London, 1852).
+
+FREDERICK AUGUSTUS HERVEY, bishop of Derry (1730-1803), who now became 4th
+earl of Bristol, was born on the 1st of August 1730, and educated at
+Westminster school and Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, graduating in
+1754. Entering the church he became a royal chaplain; and while waiting for
+other preferment spent some time in Italy, whither he was led by his great
+interest in art. In February 1767, while his brother, the 2nd earl, was
+lord-lieutenant of Ireland, he was made bishop of Cloyne, and having
+improved the property of the see he was translated to the rich bishopric of
+Derry a year later. Here again he was active and philanthropic. While not
+neglecting his luxurious personal tastes he spent large sums of money on
+making roads and assisting agriculture, and his munificence was shared by
+the city of Londonderry. He built splendid residences at Downhill and
+Ballyscullion, which he adorned with rare works of art. As a bishop, Hervey
+was industrious and vigilant; he favoured complete religious equality, and
+was opposed to the system of tithes. In December 1779 he became earl of
+Bristol, and in spite of his brother's will succeeded to a considerable
+property. Having again passed some time in Italy, he returned to Ireland
+and in 1782 threw himself ardently into the Irish volunteer movement,
+quickly attaining a prominent position among the volunteers, and in great
+state attending the convention held in Dublin in November 1783. Carried
+away by his position and his popularity he talked loudly of rebellion, and
+his violent language led the government to contemplate his arrest.
+Subsequently he took no part in politics, spending his later years mainly
+on the continent of Europe. In 1798 he was imprisoned by the French at
+Milan, remaining in custody for eighteen months. He died at Albano on the
+8th of July 1803, and was buried in Ickworth church. Varying estimates have
+been found of his character, including favourable ones by John Wesley and
+Jeremy Bentham. He was undoubtedly clever and cultured, but licentious and
+eccentric. In later life he openly professed materialistic opinions; he
+fell in love with the countess Lichtenau, mistress of Frederick William
+II., king of Prussia; and by his bearing he gave fresh point to the saying
+that "God created men, women and Herveys." In 1752 he had married Elizabeth
+(d. 1800), daughter of Sir Jermyn Davers, Bart., by whom he had two sons
+and three daughters. His elder son, Augustus John, Lord Hervey (1757-1796),
+had predeceased his father, and he was succeeded in the title by his
+younger son.
+
+FREDERICK WILLIAM HERVEY, 5th earl and 1st marquess of Bristol (1769-1859),
+was born on the 2nd of October 1769. He married Elizabeth Albana (d. 1844),
+daughter of Clotworthy, 1st Baron Templetown, by whom he had six sons and
+three daughters. In 1826 he was created marquess of Bristol and Earl
+Jermyn, and died on the 15th of February 1859. He was succeeded by his son
+Frederick William (1800-1864), M.P. for Bury St Edmunds 1830-1859, as 2nd
+marquess; and by the latter's son Frederick William John (1834-1907), M.P.
+for West Suffolk 1859-1864, as 3rd marquess. The latter's nephew, Frederick
+William Fane Hervey (b. 1863), who succeeded as 4th marquess, served with
+distinction in the royal navy, and was M.P. for Bury St Edmunds from 1906
+to 1907.
+
+See John, Lord Hervey, _Memoirs of the Reign of George II_., edited by J.W.
+Croker (London, 1884); John Hervey, 1st earl of Bristol, _Diary_ (Wells,
+1894); and _Letter Books of Bristol; with Sir T. Hervey's Letters during
+Courtship and Poems during Widowhood_ (Wells, 1894). Also the articles in
+the _Dictionary of National Biography_, vol. xxvi. (London, 1891).
+
+BRISTOL, GEORGE DIGBY, 2ND EARL OF[1] (1612-1677), eldest son of the 1st
+earl (see below), was born in October 1612. At the age of twelve he
+appeared at the bar of the House of Commons and pleaded for his father,
+then in the Tower, when his youth, graceful person and well-delivered
+speech made a great [v.04 p.0576] impression. He was admitted to Magdalen
+College, Oxford, on the 15th of August 1626, where he was a favourite pupil
+of Peter Heylin, and became M.A. in 1636. He spent the following years in
+study and in travel, from which he returned, according to Clarendon, "the
+most accomplished person of our nation or perhaps any other nation," and
+distinguished by a remarkably handsome person. In 1638 and 1639 were
+written the _Letters between Lord George Digby and Sir Kenelm Digby, Knt.
+concerning Religion_ (publ. 1651), in which Digby attacked Roman
+Catholicism. In June 1634 Digby was committed to the Fleet till July for
+striking Crofts, a gentleman of the court, in Spring Gardens; and possibly
+his severe treatment and the disfavour shown to his father were the causes
+of his hostility to the court. He was elected member for Dorsetshire in
+both the Short and Long parliaments in 1640, and in conjunction with Pym
+and Hampden he took an active part in the opposition to Charles. He moved
+on the 9th of November for a committee to consider the "deplorable state"
+of the kingdom, and on the 11th was included in the committee for the
+impeachment of Strafford, against whom he at first showed great zeal. He,
+however, opposed the attainder, made an eloquent speech on the 21st of
+April 1641, accentuating the weakness of Vane's evidence against the
+prisoner, and showing the injustice of _ex post facto_ legislation. He was
+regarded in consequence with great hostility by the parliamentary party,
+and was accused of having stolen from Pym's table Vane's notes on which the
+prosecution mainly depended. On the 15th of July his speech was burnt by
+the hangman by the order of the House of Commons. Meanwhile on the 8th of
+February he had made an important speech in the Commons advocating the
+reformation and opposing the abolition of episcopacy. On the 8th of June,
+during the angry discussion on the army plot, he narrowly escaped assault
+in the House; and the following day, in order to save him from further
+attacks, the king called him up to the Lords in his father's barony of
+Digby.
+
+He now became the evil genius of Charles, who had the incredible folly to
+follow his advice in preference to such men as Hyde and Falkland. In
+November he is recorded as performing "singular good service," and "doing
+beyond admiration," in speaking in the Lords against the instruction
+concerning evil counsellors. He suggested to Charles the impeachment of the
+five members, and urged upon him the fatal attempt to arrest them on the
+4th of January 1642; but he failed to play his part in the Lords in
+securing the arrest of Lord Mandeville, to whom on the contrary he declared
+that "the king was very mischievously advised"; and according to Clarendon
+his imprudence was responsible for the betrayal of the king's plan. Next
+day he advised the attempt to seize them in the city by force. The same
+month he was ordered to appear in the Lords to answer a charge of high
+treason for a supposed armed attempt at Kingston, but fled to Holland,
+where he joined the queen, and on the 26th of February was impeached.
+Subsequently he visited Charles at York disguised as a Frenchman, but on
+the return voyage to Holland he was captured and taken to Hull, where he
+for some time escaped detection; and at last he cajoled Sir John Hotham,
+after discovering himself, into permitting his escape. Later he ventured on
+a second visit to Hull to persuade Hotham to surrender the place to
+Charles, but this project failed. He was present at Edgehill, and greatly
+distinguished himself at Lichfield, where he was wounded while leading the
+assault. He soon, however, threw down his commission in consequence of a
+quarrel with Prince Rupert, and returned to the king at Oxford, over whom
+he obtained more influence as the prospect became more gloomy. On the 28th
+of September 1643 he was appointed secretary of state and a privy
+councillor, and on the 31st of October high steward of Oxford University.
+He now supported the queen's disastrous policy of foreign alliances and
+help from Ireland, and engaged in a series of imprudent and ill-conducted
+negotiations which greatly injured the king's affairs, while his fierce
+disputes with Rupert and his party further embarrassed them. On the 14th of
+October 1645 he was made lieutenant general of the royal forces north of
+the Trent, with the object of pushing through to join Montrose, but he was
+defeated on the 15th at Sherburn, where his correspondence was captured,
+disclosing the king's expectations from abroad and from Ireland and his
+intrigues with the Scots; and after reaching Dumfries, he found his way
+barred. He escaped on the 24th to the Isle of Man, thence crossing to
+Ireland, where he caused Glamorgan to be arrested. Here, on this new stage,
+he believed he was going to achieve wonders. "Have I not carried my body
+swimmingly," he wrote to Hyde in irrepressible good spirits, "who being
+before so irreconcilably hated by the Puritan party, have thus seasonably
+made myself as odious to the Papists?"[2] His project now was to bring over
+Prince Charles to head a royalist movement in the island; and having joined
+Charles at Jersey in April 1646, he intended to entrap him on board, but
+was dissuaded by Hyde. He then travelled to Paris to gain the queen's
+consent to his scheme, but returned to persuade Charles to go to Paris, and
+accompanied him thither, revisiting Ireland on the 29th of June once more,
+and finally escaping to France on the surrender of the island to the
+parliament. At Paris amongst the royalists he found himself in a nest of
+enemies eager to pay off old scores. Prince Rupert challenged him, and he
+fought a duel with Lord Wilmot. He continued his adventures by serving in
+Louis XIV.'s troops in the war of the Fronde, in which he greatly
+distinguished himself. He was appointed in 1651 lieutenant-general in the
+French army, and commander of the forces in Flanders. These new honours,
+however, were soon lost. During Mazarin's enforced absence from the court
+Digby aspired to become his successor; and the cardinal, who had from the
+first penetrated his character and regarded him as a mere adventurer,[3] on
+his restoration to power sent Digby away on an expedition in Italy; and on
+his return informed him that he was included in the list of those expelled
+from France, in accordance with the new treaty with Cromwell. In August
+1656 he joined Charles II. at Bruges, and desirous of avenging himself upon
+the cardinal offered his services to Don John of Austria in the
+Netherlands, being instrumental in effecting the surrender of the garrison
+of St Ghislain to Spain in 1657. On the 1st of January 1657 he was
+appointed by Charles II. secretary of state, but shortly afterwards, having
+become a Roman Catholic--probably with the view of adapting himself better
+to his new Spanish friends--he was compelled to resign office. Charles,
+however, on account of his "jollity" and Spanish experience took him with
+him to Spain in 1659, though his presence was especially deprecated by the
+Spanish; but he succeeded in ingratiating himself, and was welcomed by the
+king of Spain subsequently at Madrid.
+
+By the death of his father Digby had succeeded in January 1659 to the
+peerage as 2nd earl of Bristol, and had been made K.G. the same month. He
+returned to England at the restoration, when he found himself excluded from
+office on account of his religion, and relegated to only secondary
+importance. His desire to make a brilliant figure induced a restless and
+ambitious activity in parliament. He adopted an attitude of violent
+hostility to Clarendon. In foreign affairs he inclined strongly to the side
+of Spain, and opposed the king's marriage with Catherine of Portugal. He
+persuaded Charles to despatch him to Italy to view the Medici princesses,
+but the royal marriage and treaty with Portugal were settled in his
+absence. In June 1663 he made an attempt to upset Clarendon's management of
+the House of Commons, but his intrigue was exposed to the parliament by
+Charles, and Bristol was obliged to attend the House to exonerate himself,
+when he confessed that he had "taken the liberty of enlarging," and his
+"comedian-like speech" excited general amusement. Exasperated by these
+failures, in a violent scene with the king early in July, he broke out into
+fierce and disrespectful reproaches, ending with a threat that unless
+Charles granted his requests within twenty-four hours "he would do somewhat
+that should awaken him out of his slumbers, and make him look better to his
+own business." Accordingly on the 10th he impeached Clarendon in the Lords
+of high treason, and on the charge being dismissed renewed [v.04 p.0577]
+his accusation, and was expelled from the court, only avoiding the warrant
+issued for his apprehension by a concealment of two years. In January 1664
+he caused a new sensation by his appearance at his house at Wimbledon,
+where he publicly renounced before witnesses his Roman Catholicism, and
+declared himself a Protestant, his motive being probably to secure immunity
+from the charge of recusancy preferred against him.[4] When, however, the
+fall of Clarendon was desired, Bristol was again welcomed at court. He took
+his seat in the Lords on the 29th of July 1667. "The king," wrote Pepys in
+November, "who not long ago did say of Bristoll that he was a man able in
+three years to get himself a fortune in any kingdom in the world and lose
+all again in three months, do now hug him and commend his parts everywhere
+above all the world."[5] He pressed eagerly for Clarendon's commital, and
+on the refusal of the Lords accused them of mutiny and rebellion, and
+entered his dissent with "great fury."[6] In March 1668 he attended prayers
+in the Lords. On the 15th of March 1673 though still ostensibly a Roman
+Catholic, he spoke in favour of the Test Act, describing himself as "a
+Catholic of the church of Rome, not a Catholic of the court of Rome," and
+asserting the unfitness of Romanists for public office. His adventurous and
+erratic career closed by death on the 20th of March 1677.
+
+Bristol was one of the most striking and conspicuous figures of his time, a
+man of brilliant abilities, a great orator, one who distinguished himself
+without effort in any sphere of activity he chose to enter, but whose
+natural gifts were marred by a restless ambition and instability of
+character fatal to real greatness. Clarendon describes him as "the only man
+I ever knew of such incomparable parts that was none the wiser for any
+experience or misfortune that befell him," and records his extraordinary
+facility in making friends and making enemies. Horace Walpole characterized
+him in a series of his smartest antitheses as "a singular person whose life
+was one contradiction." "He wrote against popery and embraced it; he was a
+zealous opposer of the court and a sacrifice for it; was conscientiously
+converted in the midst of his prosecution of Lord Strafford and was most
+unconscientiously a persecutor of Lord Clarendon. With great parts, he
+always hurt himself and his friends; with romantic bravery, he was always
+an unsuccessful commander. He spoke for the Test Act, though a Roman
+Catholic; and addicted himself to astrology on the birthday of true
+philosophy." Besides his youthful correspondence with Sir K. Digby on the
+subject of religion already mentioned, he was the author of an _Apologie_
+(1643, Thomason Tracts, E. 34 (32)), justifying his support of the king's
+cause; of _Elvira ... a comedy_ (1667), printed in R. Dodsley's _Select
+Collect. of Old English Plays_ (Hazlitt, 1876), vol. xv., and of _Worse and
+Worse_, an adaptation from the Spanish, acted but not printed. Other
+writings are also ascribed to him, including the authorship with Sir Samuel
+Tuke of _The Adventures of Five Hours_ (1663). His eloquent and pointed
+speeches, many of which were printed, are included in the article in the
+_Biog. Brit._ and among the _Thomason Tracts_; see also the general
+catalogue in the British Museum. The catalogue of his library was published
+in 1680. He married Lady Anne Russell, daughter of Francis, 4th earl of
+Bedford, by whom, besides two daughters, he had two sons, Francis, who
+predeceased him unmarried, and John, who succeeded him as 3rd earl of
+Bristol, at whose death without issue the peerage became extinct.
+
+AUTHORITIES.--See the article in _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Wood's _Ath. Oxon._
+(Bliss), iii. 1100-1105; _Biographia Brit._ (Kippis), v. 210-238; H.
+Walpole's _Royal and Noble Authors_ (Park, 1806), iii. 191; _Roscius
+Anglicanus_, by J. Downes, pp. 31, 36 (1789); Cunningham's _Lives of
+Eminent Englishmen_ (1837), iii. 29; _Somers Tracts_ (1750), iii. (1809),
+iv.; _Harleian Miscellany_ (1808), v., vi.; _Life_ by T. H. Lister (1838);
+_State Papers_.
+
+(P. C. Y.)
+
+[1] _I.e._ in the Digby line; for the Herveys see above.
+
+[2] _Clarendon State Papers_, ii. 201.
+
+[3] _Memoires du Cardinal de Retz_ (1859), app. iii. 437, 442.
+
+[4] Pepys's _Diary_, iv. 51.
+
+[5] _Ib._ vii. 199.
+
+[6] _Ib._ 207; _Protests of the Lords_, by J.E.T. Rogers, i. 36.
+
+BRISTOL, JOHN DIGBY, 1ST EARL OF[1] (1580-1653) English diplomatist, son of
+Sir George Digby of Coleshill, Warwickshire, and of Abigail, daughter of
+Sir Arthur Henningham, was born in 1580, and entered Magdalen College,
+Oxford, in 1595 (M.A. 1605), becoming a member of the Inner Temple in 1598.
+In 1605 he was sent to James to inform him of the safety of the princess
+Elizabeth at the time of the Gunpowder Plot. He gained his favour, was made
+a gentleman of the privy chamber and one of the king's carvers, and was
+knighted in 1607. From 1610 to 1611 he was member of parliament for Heydon.
+In 1611 he was sent as ambassador to Spain to negotiate a marriage between
+Prince Henry and the infanta Anne, and to champion the cause of the English
+merchants, for whom he obtained substantial concessions, and arranged the
+appointment of consuls at Lisbon and Seville. He also discovered a list of
+the English pensioners of the Spanish court, which included some of the
+ministers, and came home in 1613 to communicate this important intelligence
+to the king. In 1614 he again went to Spain to effect a union between the
+infanta Maria and Charles, though he himself was in favour of a Protestant
+marriage, and desired a political and not a matrimonial treaty. In 1616, on
+the disgrace of Somerset, he was recalled home to give evidence concerning
+the latter's connexions with Spain, was made vice-chamberlain and a privy
+councillor, and obtained from James the manor of Sherborne forfeited by the
+late favourite. In 1618 he went once more to Spain to reopen the
+negotiations, returning in May, and being created Baron Digby on the 25th
+of November. He endeavoured to avoid a breach with Spain on the election of
+the elector palatine, the king's son-in-law, to the Bohemian throne; and in
+March 1621, after the latter's expulsion from Bohemia, Digby was sent to
+Brussels to obtain a suspension of hostilities in the Palatinate. On the
+4th of July he went to Vienna and drew up a scheme of pacification with the
+emperor, by which Frederick was to abandon Bohemia and be secured in his
+hereditary territories, but the agreement could never be enforced. After
+raising money for the defence of Heidelberg he returned home in October,
+and on the 21st of November explained his policy to the parliament, and
+asked for money and forces for its execution. The sudden dissolution of
+parliament, however, prevented the adoption of any measure of support, and
+entirely ruined Digby's plans. In 1622 he returned to Spain with nothing on
+which to rely but the goodwill of Philip IV., and nothing to offer but
+entreaties.
+
+On the 15th of September he was created earl of Bristol. He urged on the
+marriage treaty, believing it would include favourable conditions for
+Frederick, but the negotiations were taken out of his control, and finally
+wrecked by the arrival of Charles himself and Buckingham in March 1623. He
+incurred their resentment, of which the real inspiration was Buckingham's
+implacable jealousy, by a letter written to James informing him of
+Buckingham's unpopularity among the Spanish ministers, and by his
+endeavouring to maintain the peace with Spain after their departure. In
+January 1624 he left Spain, and on arriving at Dover in March, Buckingham
+and Charles having now complete ascendancy over the king, he was forbidden
+to appear at court and ordered to confine himself at Sherborne. He was
+required by Buckingham to answer a series of interrogatories, but he
+refused to inculpate himself and demanded a trial by parliament. On the
+death of James he was removed by Charles I. from the privy council, and
+ordered to absent himself from his first parliament. On his demand in
+January 1626 to be present at the coronation Charles angrily refused, and
+accused him of having tried to pervert his religion in Spain. In March
+1626, after the assembling of the second parliament, Digby applied to the
+Lords, who supported his rights, and Charles sent him his writ accompanied
+by a letter from Lord Keeper Coventry desiring him not to use it. Bristol,
+however, took his seat and demanded justice against Buckingham (Thomason
+Tracts, E. 126 (20)). The king endeavoured to obstruct his attack by
+causing Bristol on the 1st of May to be himself brought to the bar, on an
+accusation of high treason by the attorney-general. The Lords, however,
+ordered that both charges should be investigated simultaneously. Further
+proceedings were stopped by the dissolution of parliament on the 15th of
+June; a prosecution was ordered by Charles in the Star Chamber, and Bristol
+was sent to the [v.04 p.0578] Tower, where he remained till the 17th of
+March 1628, when the peers, on the assembling of Charles's third
+parliament, insisted on his liberation and restoration to his seat in the
+Lords.
+
+In the discussions upon the Petition of Right, Bristol supported the use of
+the king's prerogative in emergencies, and asserted that the king besides
+his legal had a regal power, but joined in the demand for a full acceptance
+of the petition by the king after the first unsatisfactory answer. He was
+now restored to favour, but took no part in politics till the outbreak of
+the Scottish rebellion, when he warned Charles of the danger of attacking
+with inadequate forces. He was the leader in the Great Council held at
+York, was a commissioner to treat with the Scots in September 1640 at
+Ripon, and advised strongly the summoning of the parliament. In February
+1641 he was one of the peers who advocated reforms in the administration
+and were given seats in the council. Though no friend to Strafford, he
+endeavoured to save his life, desiring only to see him excluded from
+office, and as a witness was excused from voting on the attainder. He was
+appointed gentleman of the bedchamber on the king's departure for Scotland,
+and on the 27th of December he was declared an evil counsellor by the House
+of Commons, Cromwell on the 28th moving an address to the king to dismiss
+him from his councils, on the plea that he had advocated the bringing up of
+the northern army to overawe parliament in the preceding spring. There is
+no evidence to support the charge, but Digby was regarded by the
+parliamentary party with special hatred and distrust, of which the chief
+causes were probably his Spanish proclivities and his indifference on the
+great matter of religion, to which was added the unpopularity reflected
+from his misguided son. On the 28th of March 1642 he was sent to the Tower
+for having failed to disclose to parliament the Kentish petition. Liberated
+in April, he spoke in the Lords on the 20th of May in favour of an
+accommodation, and again in June in vindication of the king; but finding
+his efforts ineffectual, and believing all armed rebellion against the king
+a wicked violation of the most solemn oaths, he joined Charles at York, was
+present at Edgehill and accompanied him to Oxford. On the 1st of February
+1643 he was named with Lord Herbert of Raglan for removal from the court
+and public office for ever, and in the propositions of November 1644 was
+one of those excepted from pardon. In January he had endeavoured to
+instigate a breach of the Independents with the Scots. Bristol, however,
+was not in favour of continuing the war, and withdrew to Sherborne,
+removing in the spring of 1644 to Exeter, and after the surrender of the
+city retiring abroad on the 11th of July by order of the Houses, which
+rejected his petition to compound for his estate. He took up his residence
+at Caen, passing the rest of his life in exile and poverty, and
+occasionally attending the young king. In 1647 he printed at Caen _An
+Apology_, defending his support of the royal cause. This was reprinted in
+1656 (Thomason Tracts, E. 897, 6). He died at Paris on the 16th of January
+1653.
+
+He is described by Clarendon as "a man of grave aspect, of a presence that
+drew respect, and of great parts and ability, but passionate and
+supercilious and too voluminous a discourser in council." His aim was to
+effect a political union between England and Spain apart from the religious
+or marriage questions--a policy which would probably have benefited both
+English and European interests; but it was one understood neither in Spain
+nor in England, and proved impracticable. He was a man of high character,
+who refused to compound with falsehood and injustice, whose misfortune it
+was to serve two Stuart sovereigns, and whose firm resistance to the king's
+tyranny led the way to the great movement which finally destroyed it.
+Besides his _Apology_, he was the author of several printed speeches and
+poems, and translated _A Defence of the Catholic Faith_ by Peter du Moulin
+(1610). He married Beatrix, daughter of Charles Walcot, and widow of Sir
+John Dyve, and besides two daughters left two sons, George, who succeeded
+him as 2nd earl of Bristol, and John, who died unmarried.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The best account of Bristol will be found in the scattered
+notices of him in the _Hist. of England_ and of the _Civil War_, by S. R.
+Gardiner, who also wrote the short sketch of his career in the _Dict. of
+Nat. Biog._, and who highly eulogizes his character and diplomacy. For
+lives, see _Biographia Britannica_ (Kippis), v. 199; Wood's _Ath. Oxon._
+(Bliss), iii. 338; D. Lloyd's _Memoires_ (1668), 579; Collins's _Peerage_
+(Brydges, 1812), v. 362; Fuller's _Worthies_ (Nichols, 1811), ii. 412; H.
+Walpole's _Royal and Noble Authors_ (Park, 1806), iii. 49; also Clarendon's
+_Hist of the Rebellion_, esp. vi. 388; _Clarendon State Papers_ and _Cal.
+of Cl. State Papers_; _Old Parliamentary History_; _Cabala_ (1691;
+letters); Camden Soc., _Miscellany_, vol. vi. (1871); _Defence of his
+Spanish Negotiations_, ed. by S.R. Gardiner; _Somers Tracts_ (1809), ii.
+501; _Thomason Tracts_ in Brit. Museum; _Hardwicke State Papers_, i. 494.
+The MSS. at Sherborne Castle, of which a selection was transcribed and
+deposited in the Public Record Office, were calendared by the Hist. MSS.
+Commission in _Rep._ viii. app. i. p. 213 and 10th _Rep._ app. i. p. 520;
+there are numerous references to Bristol in various collections calendared
+in the same publication and in the _Cal. of State Papers, Dom. Series_; see
+also _Harleian MSS._, Brit. Mus. 1580, art. 31-48, and _Add. MSS._ indexes
+and calendars.
+
+(P. C. Y.)
+
+[1] _I.e._ in the Digby line; for the Herveys see above.
+
+BRISTOL, a township of Hartford county, Connecticut, U.S.A., in the central
+part of the state, about 16 m. S.W. of Hartford. It has an area of 27 sq.
+m., and contains the village of Forestville and the borough of Bristol
+(incorporated in 1893). Both are situated on the Pequabuck river, and are
+served by the western branch of the midland division of the New York, New
+Haven & Hartford railway, and by electric railway to Hartford, New Britain
+and Terryville. Pop. (1890) 7382; (1900) 9643, including that of the
+borough, 6268 (1910) 13,502 (borough, 9527). Among the manufactures of the
+borough of Bristol are clocks, woollen goods, iron castings, hardware,
+brass ware, silverplate and bells. Bristol clocks, first manufactured soon
+after the War of Independence, have long been widely known. Bristol,
+originally a part of the township of Farmington, was first settled about
+1727, but did not become an independent corporation until the formation, in
+1742, of the first church, known after 1744 as the New Cambridge Society.
+In 1748 a Protestant Episcopal Church was organized, and before and during
+the War of Independence its members belonged to the Loyalist party; their
+rector, Rev. James Nichols, was tarred and feathered by the Whigs, and
+Moses Dunbar, a member of the church, was hanged for treason by the
+Connecticut authorities. Chippen's Hill (about 3 m. from the centre of the
+township) was a favourite rendezvous of the local Loyalists; and a cave
+there, known as "The Tories' Den," is a well-known landmark. In 1785 New
+Cambridge and West Britain, another ecclesiastical society of Farmington,
+were incorporated as the township of Bristol, but in 1806 they were divided
+into the present townships of Bristol and Burlington.
+
+BRISTOL, a city, county of a city, municipal, county and parliamentary
+borough, and seaport of England, chiefly in Gloucestershire but partly in
+Somersetshire, 1181/2 m. W. of London. Pop. (1901) 328,945. The Avon, here
+forming the boundary between Gloucestershire and Somerset, though entering
+the estuary of the Severn (Bristol Channel) only 8 m. below the city, is
+here confined between considerable hills, with a narrow valley-floor on
+which the nucleus of the city rests. Between Bristol and the Channel the
+valley becomes a gorge, crossed at a single stride by the famous Clifton
+Suspension Bridge. Above Bristol the hills again close in at Keynsham, so
+that the city lies in a basin-like hollow some 4 m. in diameter, and
+extends up the heights to the north. The Great Western railway, striking
+into the Avon valley near Bath, serves Bristol from London, connects it
+with South Wales by the Severn tunnel, and with the southern and
+south-western counties of England. Local lines of this company encircle the
+city on the north and the south, serving the outports of Avonmouth and
+Portishead on the Bristol Channel. A trunk line of the Midland railway
+connects Bristol with the north of England by way of Gloucester, Worcester,
+Birmingham and Derby. Both companies use the central station, Temple Meads.
+
+The nucleus of Bristol lies to the north of the river. The business centre
+is in the district traversed by Broad Street, High Street, Wine Street and
+Corn Street, which radiate from a centre close to the Floating Harbour. To
+the south of this centre, connected with it by Bristol Bridge, an island is
+formed between the Floating Harbour and the New Course of the Avon, [v.04
+p.0579] and here are Temple Meads station, above Victoria Street, two of
+the finest churches (the Temple and St Mary Redcliffe) the general hospital
+and other public buildings. Immediately above the bridge the little river
+Frome joins the Avon. Owing to the nature of the site the streets are
+irregular; in the inner part of the city they are generally narrow, and
+sometimes, with their ancient gabled houses, extremely picturesque. The
+principal suburbs surround the city to the west, north and east.
+
+_Churches, &c._--In the centre of Bristol a remarkable collection of
+architectural antiquities is found, principally ecclesiastical. This the
+city owes mainly to a few great baronial families, such as the earls of
+Gloucester and the Berkeleys, in its early history, and to a few great
+merchants, the Canyngs, Shipwards and Framptons, in its later career. The
+see of Bristol, founded by Henry VIII. in 1542, was united to that of
+Gloucester in 1836; but again separated in 1896. The diocese includes parts
+of Gloucestershire and Wiltshire, and a small but populous [Sidenote:
+Cathedral.] portion of Somerset. The cathedral, standing above the
+so-called Canons' Marsh which borders the Floating Harbour, is pleasantly
+situated on the south side of College Green. It has two western towers and
+a central tower, nave, short transepts, choir with aisles, an eastern Lady
+chapel and other chapels; and on the south, a chapter-house and cloister
+court. The nave is modern (by Street, 1877), imitating the choir of the
+14th century, with its curious skeleton-vaulting in the aisles. Besides the
+canopied tombs of the Berkeleys with their effigies in chain mail, and
+similarly fine tombs of the crosiered abbots, there are memorials to Bishop
+Butler, to Sterne's Eliza (Elizabeth Draper), and to Lady Hesketh (the
+friend of Cowper), who are all interred here. There is also here William
+Mason's fine epitaph to his wife (d. 1767), beginning "Take, holy earth,
+all that my soul holds dear." Of Fitz-Harding's abbey of St Augustine,
+founded in 1142 (of which the present cathedral was the church), the
+stately entrance gateway, with its sculptured mouldings, remains hardly
+injured. The abbot's gateway, the vestibule to the chapter-house, and the
+chapter-house itself, which is carved with Byzantine exuberance of
+decoration, and acknowledged to be one of the finest Norman chambers in
+Europe, are also perfect. On the north side of College Green is the small
+but ornate Mayor's chapel (originally St Mark's), devoted to the services
+of the mayor and corporation. It is mainly Decorated and Perpendicular. Of
+the churches within the centre of the city, the following are found within
+a radius of half-a-mile from Bristol Bridge. St Stephen's church, built
+between 1450 and 1490, is a dignified structure, chiefly interesting for
+its fan-traceried porch and stately tower. It was built entirely by the
+munificence of John Shipward, a wealthy merchant. The tower and spire of St
+John's (15th century) stand on one of the gateways of the city. This church
+is a parallelogram, without east or west windows or aisles, and is built
+upon a fine groined crypt. St James's church, the burial place of its
+founder, Robert, earl of Gloucester, dates from 1130, and fine Norman work
+remains in the nave. The tower is of the 14th century. St Philip's has an
+Early English tower, but its external walls and windows are for the most
+part debased Perpendicular. Robert FitzHamon's Norman tower of St Peter,
+the oldest church tower in Bristol, still presents its massive square to
+the eye. This church stands in Castle Street, which commemorates the castle
+of Robert, earl of Gloucester, the walls of which were 25 ft. thick at the
+base. Nothing remains of this foundation, but there still exist some walls
+and vaults of the later stronghold, including a fine Early English cell.
+Adjacent to the church is St Peter's hospital, a picturesque gabled
+building of Jacobean and earlier date, with a fine court room. St Mary le
+Port and St Augustine the Less are churches of the Perpendicular era, and
+not the richest specimens of their kind. St Nicholas church is modern, on a
+crypt of the date 1503, and earlier. On the island south of the Floating
+Harbour are two of the most interesting churches in the city. Temple
+church, with its leaning tower, 5 ft. off the perpendicular, retains
+nothing of the Templars' period, but is a fine building of the Decorated
+and Perpendicular periods. The church of St Mary Redcliffe, for grandeur of
+proportion and elaboration of design and finish, is the first
+ecclesiastical building in Bristol, and takes high rank among the parish
+churches of England. It was built for the most part in the latter part of
+the 14th century by William Canyng or Canynges (_q.v._), but the sculptured
+north porch is externally Decorated, and internally Early English. The fine
+tower is also Decorated, on an Early English base. The spire, Decorated in
+style, is modern. Among numerous monuments is that of Admiral Penn (d.
+1718), the father of the founder of Pennsylvania. The church exhibits the
+rare feature of transeptal aisles. Of St Thomas's, in the vicinity, only
+the tower (15th century) remains of the old structures. All Hallows church
+has a modern Italian campanile, but is in the main of the 15th century,
+with the retention of four Norman piers in the nave; and is interesting
+from its connexion with the ancient gild of calendars, whose office it was
+"to convert Jews, instruct youths," and keep the archives of the town.
+Theirs was the first free library in the city, possibly in England. The
+records of the church contain a singularly picturesque representation of
+the ancient customs of the fraternity.
+
+Among conventual remains, besides those already mentioned, there exist of
+the Dominican priory the Early English refectory and dormitory, the latter
+comprising a row of fifteen original windows and an oak roof of the same
+date; and of St Bartholomew's hospital there is a double arch, with
+intervening arcades, also Early English. These, with the small chapel of
+the Three Kings of Cologne, Holy Trinity Hospital, both Perpendicular, and
+the remains of the house of the Augustinian canons attached to the
+cathedral, comprise the whole of the monastic relics.
+
+There are many good specimens of ancient domestic architecture--notably
+some arches of a grand Norman hall and some Tudor windows of Colston's
+house, Small Street; and Canyng's house, with good Perpendicular oak roof.
+Of buildings to which historic interest attaches, there are the Merchant
+Venturers' almshouses (1699), adjoining their hall. This gild was
+established in the 16th century. A small house near St Mary Redcliffe was
+the school where the poet Chatterton received his education. His memorial
+is in the churchyard of St Mary, and in the church a chest contains the
+records among which he claimed to have discovered some of the manuscripts
+which were in reality his own. A house in Wine Street was the birthplace of
+the poet-laureate Robert Southey (1744).
+
+_Public Buildings, &c._--The public buildings are somewhat overshadowed in
+interest by the ecclesiastical. The council house, at the "Cross" of the
+four main thoroughfares, dates from 1827, was enlarged in 1894, and
+contains the city archives and many portraits, including a Van Dyck and a
+Kneller. The Guildhall is close by--a modern Gothic building. The exchange
+(used as a corn-market) is a noteworthy building by the famous architect of
+Bath, John Wood (1743). Edward Colston, a revered citizen and benefactor of
+the city (d. 1721), is commemorated by name in several buildings and
+institutions, notably in Colston Hall, which is used for concerts and
+meetings. A bank close by St Stephen's church claims to have originated in
+the first savings-bank established in England (1812). Similarly, the city
+free library (1613) is considered to be the original of its kind. The
+Bristol museum and reference library were transferred to the corporation in
+1893. Vincent Stuckey Lean (d. 1899) bequeathed to the corporation of
+Bristol the sum of L50,000 for the further development of the free
+libraries of the city, and with especial regard to the formation and
+sustenance of a general reference library of a standard and scientific
+character. The central library was opened in 1906. An art gallery,
+presented by Sir William Henry Wills, was opened in 1905.
+
+Among educational establishments, the technical college of the Company of
+Merchant Venturers (1885) supplies scientific, technical and commercial
+education. The extensive buildings of this institution were destroyed by
+fire in 1906. University College (1876) forms the nucleus of the university
+of Bristol (chartered 1909). Clifton College, opened in 1862 and
+incorporated in 1877, includes a physical science school, with
+laboratories, [v.04 p.0580] a museum and observatory. Colston's girls' day
+school (1891) includes domestic economy and calisthenics. Among the many
+charitable institutions are the general hospital, opened in 1858, and since
+repeatedly enlarged; royal hospital for sick children and women, Royal
+Victoria home, and the Queen Victoria jubilee convalescent home.
+
+Of the open spaces in and near Bristol the most extensive are those
+bordering the river in the neighbourhood of the gorge, Durdham and Clifton
+Downs, on the Gloucestershire side (see CLIFTON). Others are Victoria Park,
+south of the river, near the Bedminster station, Eastville Park by the
+Frome, on the north-east of the city beyond Stapleton Road station, St
+Andrew's Park near Montpelier station to the north, and Brandon Hill, west
+of the cathedral, an abrupt eminence commanding a fine view over the city,
+and crowned with a modern tower commemorating the "fourth centenary of the
+discovery of America by John Cabot, and sons Lewis, Sebastian and Sanctus."
+Other memorials in the city are the High Cross on College Green (1850), and
+statues of Queen Victoria (1888), Samuel Morley (1888), Edmund Burke
+(1894), and Edward Colston (1895), in whose memory are held annual Colston
+banquets.
+
+_Harbour and Trade._--Bristol harbour was formed in 1809 by the conversion
+of the Avon and a branch of the Frome into "the Float," by the cutting of a
+new channel for the Avon and the formation of two basins. Altogether the
+water area, at fixed level, is about 85 acres. Four dry docks open into the
+floating harbour. In 1884 the Avonmouth and Portishead docks at the river
+entrance were bought up by the city; and the port extends from Hanham Mills
+on the Avon to the mouth of the river, and for some distance down the
+estuary of the Severn. The city docks have a depth of 22 ft., while those
+at Avonmouth are accessible to the largest vessels. In 1902 the
+construction of the extensive Royal Edward dock at Avonmouth was put in
+hand by the corporation, and the dock was opened by King Edward VII. in
+1908. It is entered by a lock 875 ft. long and 100 ft. wide, with a depth
+of water on the sill of 46 ft. at ordinary spring, and 36 ft. at ordinary
+neap tides. The dock itself has a mean length of 1120 ft. and a breadth of
+1000 ft., and there is a branch and passage connecting with the old dock.
+The water area is about 30 acres, and the dock is so constructed as to be
+easily capable of extension. Portishead dock, on the Somerset shore, has an
+area of 12 acres. The port has a large trade with America, the West Indies
+and elsewhere, the principal imports being grain, fruit, oils, ore, timber,
+hides, cattle and general merchandise; while the exports include machinery,
+manufactured oils, cotton goods, tin and salt. The Elder Dempster, Dominion
+and other large steamship companies trade at the port.
+
+The principal industries are shipbuilding, ropewalks, chocolate factories,
+sugar refineries, tobacco mills and pipe-making, glass works, potteries,
+soaperies, shoe factories, leather works and tanneries, chemical works, saw
+mills, breweries, copper, lead and shot works, iron works, machine works,
+stained-paper works, anchors, chain cables, sail-cloth, buttons. A
+coalfield extending 16 m. south-east to Radstock avails much for Bristol
+manufactures.
+
+The parliamentary borough is divided into four divisions, each returning
+one member. The government of the city is in the hands of a lord mayor, 22
+aldermen and 66 councillors. The area in 1901 was 11,705 acres; but in 1904
+it was increased to 17,004 acres.
+
+_History._--Bristol (Brigstow, Bristou, Bristow, Bristole) is one of the
+best examples of a town that has owed its greatness entirely to trade. It
+was never a shire town or the site of a great religious house, and it owed
+little to its position as the head of a feudal lordship, or as a military
+post. Though it is near both British and Roman camps, there is no evidence
+of a British or Roman settlement. It was the western limit of the Saxon
+invasion of Britain, and about the year 1000 a Saxon settlement began to
+grow up at the junction of the rivers Frome and Avon, the natural
+advantages of the situation favouring the growth of the township. Bristol
+owed much to Danish rule, and during the reign of Canute, when the wool
+trade with Ireland began, it became the market for English slaves. In the
+reign of Edward the Confessor the town was included in the earldom of Sweyn
+Godwinsson, and at the date of the Domesday survey it was already a royal
+borough governed by a reeve appointed by the king as overlord, the king's
+geld being assessed at 110 marks. There was a mint at the time of the
+Conquest, which proves that Bristol must have been already a place of some
+size, though the fact that the town was a member of the royal manor of
+Baston shows that its importance was still of recent growth. One-third of
+the geld was paid to Geoffrey de Coutances, bishop of Exeter, who threw up
+the earthworks of the castle. He joined in a rebellion against William II.,
+and after his death the king granted the town and castle, as part of the
+honour of Gloucester, to Robert FitzHamon, whose daughter Mabel, marrying
+Earl Robert of Gloucester in 1119, brought him Bristol as her dowry. Earl
+Robert still further strengthened the castle, probably with masonry, and
+involved Bristol in the rebellion against Stephen. From the castle he
+harried the whole neighbourhood, threatened Bath, and sold his prisoners as
+slaves to Ireland. A contemporary chronicler describes Bristol castle as
+"seated on a mighty mound, and garrisoned with knights and foot soldiers or
+rather robbers and raiders," and he calls Bristol the stepmother of
+England.
+
+The history of the charters granted to Bristol begins about this time. A
+charter granted by Henry II. in 1172 exempted the burgesses of Bristol from
+certain tolls throughout the kingdom, and confirmed existing liberties.
+Another charter of the same year granted the city of Dublin to the men of
+Bristol as a colony with the same liberties as their own town.
+
+As a result probably of the close connexion between Bristol and Ireland the
+growth of the wool trade was maintained. Many Bristol men settled in
+Dublin, which for a long time was a Bristol beyond the seas, its charters
+being almost duplicates of those granted to Bristol. About this time
+Bristol began to export wool to the Baltic, and had developed a wine trade
+with the south of France, while soap-making and tanning were flourishing
+industries. Bristol was still organized manorially rather than municipally.
+Its chief courts were the weekly hundred court and the court leet held
+three times a year, and presided over by the reeve appointed by the earl of
+Gloucester. By the marriage of Earl John with the heiress of Earl William
+of Gloucester, Bristol became part of the royal demesne, the rent payable
+to the king being fixed, and the town shook off the feudal yoke. The
+charter granted by John in 1190 was an epoch in the history of the borough.
+It provided that no burgess should be impleaded without the walls, that no
+non-burgess should sell wine, cloth, wool, leather or corn in Bristol, that
+all should hold by burgage tenure, that corn need not be ground at the
+lord's mill, and that the burgesses should have all their reasonable gilds.
+At some uncertain date soon after this a commune was established in Bristol
+on the French model, Robert FitzNichol, the first mayor of Bristol, taking
+the oath in 1200. The mayor was chosen, not, like the reeve whom he had
+displaced, by the overlord, but by the merchants of Bristol who were
+members of the merchant gild. The first documentary evidence of the
+existence of the merchant gild appears in 1242. In addition, there were
+many craft gilds (later at least twenty-six were known to exist), the most
+important being the gilds of the weavers, tuckers and fullers, and the Gild
+of the Kalendars of Bristol, which devoted itself to religious, educational
+and social work. The mayor of Bristol was helped by two assistants, who
+were called provosts until 1267, and from 1267 to 1311 were known as
+stewards, and after that date as bailiffs. Before this time many religious
+houses had been founded. Earl Robert of Gloucester established the
+Benedictine priory of St James; there were Dominican and Franciscan
+priories, a monastery of Carmelites, and an abbey of St Augustine founded
+by Robert FitzHardinge.
+
+In the reign of John, Bristol began the struggle to absorb the neighbouring
+manor of Bedminster, the eastern half of which was held by the Templars by
+gift of Earl Robert of Gloucester, and the western half, known as
+Redcliffe, was sold by the same earl to Robert FitzHardinge, afterwards
+Lord Berkeley. The [v.04 p.0581] Templars acquiesced without much
+difficulty, but the wealthy owners of the manor of Redcliffe, who had their
+own manorial courts, market, fair and quay, resisted the union for nearly
+one hundred years. In 1247 a new course was cut for the river Frome which
+vastly improved the harbour, and in the same year a stone bridge was built
+over the Avon, bringing Temple and Redcliffe into closer touch with the
+city. The charter granted by Henry III. in 1256 was important. It gave the
+burgesses the right to choose coroners, and as they already farmed the geld
+payable to the king, Bristol must have been practically independent of the
+king. The growing exclusiveness of the merchant gild led to the great
+insurrection of 1312. The oligarchical party was supported by the
+Berkeleys, but the opposition continued their rebellion until 1313, when
+the town was besieged and taken by the royal forces. During the reign of
+Edward III. cloth manufacture developed in Bristol. Thomas Blanket set up
+looms in 1337, employing many foreign workmen, and in 1353 Bristol was made
+one of the Staple towns, the office of mayor of the staple being held by
+the mayor of the town.
+
+The charter of 1373 extended the boundaries of the town to include
+Redcliffe (thus settling the long-standing dispute) and the waters of the
+Avon and Severn up to the Steep and Flat Holmes; and made Bristol a county
+in itself, independent of the county courts, with an elected sheriff, and a
+council of forty to be chosen by the mayor and sheriff. The town was
+divided into five wards, each represented by an alderman, the aldermen
+alone being eligible for the mayoralty. This charter (confirmed in 1377 and
+1488) was followed by the period of Bristol's greatest prosperity, the era
+of William Canyng, of the foundation of the Society of Merchant Venturers,
+and of the voyages of John and Sebastian Cabot. William Canyng (1399-1474)
+was five times mayor and twice represented Bristol in parliament; he
+carried on a huge cloth trade with the Baltic and rebuilt St Mary
+Redcliffe. At the same time cloth was exported by Bristol merchants to
+France, Spain and the Levant. The records of the Society of Merchant
+Venturers began in 1467, and the society increased in influence so rapidly
+that in 1500 it directed all the foreign trade of the city and had a lease
+of the port dues. It was incorporated in 1552, and received other charters
+in 1638 and 1662. Henry VII. granted Bristol a charter in 1499 (confirmed
+in 1510) which removed the theoretically popular basis of the corporation
+by the provision that the aldermen were to be elected by the mayor and
+council. At the dissolution of the monasteries the diocese of Bristol was
+founded, which included the counties of Bristol and Dorset. The voyages of
+discovery in which Bristol had played a conspicuous part led to a further
+trade development. In the 16th century Bristol traded with Spain, the
+Canaries and the Spanish colonies in America, shared in the attempt to
+colonize Newfoundland, and began the trade in African slaves which
+flourished during the 17th century. Bristol took a great share in the Civil
+War and was three times besieged. Charles II. granted a formal charter of
+incorporation in 1664, the governing body being the mayor, 12 aldermen, 30
+common councilmen, 2 sheriffs, 2 coroners, a town clerk, clerk of the peace
+and 39 minor officials, the governing body itself filling up all vacancies
+in its number. In the 18th century the cloth trade declined owing to the
+competition of Ireland and to the general migration of manufactures to the
+northern coalfields, but the prosperity of the city was maintained by the
+introduction of manufactures of iron, brass, tin and copper, and by the
+flourishing West Indian trade, sugar being taken in exchange for African
+slaves.
+
+The hot wells became fashionable in the reign of Anne (who granted a
+charter in 1710), and a little later Bristol was the centre of the
+Methodist revival of Whitefield and Wesley. The city was small, densely
+populated and dirty, with dark, narrow streets, and the mob gained an
+unenviable notoriety for violence in the riots of 1708, 1753, 1767 and
+1831. At the beginning of the 19th century it was obvious that the
+prosperity of Bristol was diminishing, comparatively if not actually, owing
+to (1) the rise of Liverpool, which had more natural facilities as a port
+than Bristol could offer, (2) the abolition of the slave trade, which
+ruined the West Indian sugar trade, and (3) the extortionate rates levied
+by the Bristol Dock Company, incorporated in 1803. These rates made
+competition with Liverpool and London impossible, while other tolls were
+levied by the Merchant Venturers and the corporation. The decline was
+checked by the efforts of the Bristol chamber of commerce (founded in 1823)
+and by the Municipal Reform Act of 1835. The new corporation, consisting of
+48 councillors and 16 aldermen who elected the mayor, being themselves
+chosen by the burgesses of each ward, bought the docks in 1848 and reduced
+the fees. In 1877-1880 the docks at the mouth of the river at Avonmouth and
+Portishead were made, and these were bought by the corporation in 1884. A
+revival of trade, rapid increase of population and enlargement of the
+boundaries of the city followed. The chief magistrate became a lord mayor
+in 1899.
+
+See J. Corry, _History of Bristol_ (Bristol, 1816); J. Wallaway,
+_Antiquities_ (1834); J. Evans, _Chronological History of Bristol_ (1824);
+Bristol vol. of _Brit. Archaeol. Inst._; J.F. Nicholl and J. Taylor,
+_Bristol Past and Present_ (Bristol and London, 1882); W. Hunt, _Bristol_,
+in "Historic Towns" series (London, 1887); J. Latimer, _Annals of Bristol_
+(various periods); G.E. Weare, _Collectanea relating to the Bristol Friars_
+(Bristol, 1893); Samuel Seyer, _History of Bristol and Bristol Charters_
+(1812); _The Little Red Book of Bristol_ (1900); _The Maior's Kalendar_
+(Camden Soc., 1872); _Victoria County History, Gloucester_.
+
+BRISTOL, a borough of Bucks county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the Delaware
+river, opposite Burlington, New Jersey, 20 m. N.E. of Philadelphia. Pop.
+(1890) 6553; (1900) 7104 (1134 foreign-born); (1910) 9256. It is served by
+the Pennsylvania railway. The borough is built on level ground elevated
+several feet above the river, and in the midst of an attractive farming
+country. The principal business houses are on Mill Street; while Radcliffe
+Street extends along the river. Among Bristol's manufacturing
+establishments are machine shops, rolling mills, a planing mill, yarn,
+hosiery and worsted mills, and factories for making carpets, wall paper and
+patent leather. Bath Springs are located just outside the borough limits;
+though not so famous as they were early in the 18th century, these springs
+are still well known for the medicinal properties of their chalybeate
+waters. Bristol was one of the first places to be settled in Pennsylvania
+after William Penn received his charter for the province in 1681, and from
+its settlement until 1725 it was the seat of government of the county. It
+was laid out in 1697 and was incorporated as a borough in 1720; the present
+charter, however, dates only from 1851.
+
+BRISTOL, the shire-township of Bristol county, Rhode Island, U.S.A., about
+15 m. S.S.E. of Providence, between Narragansett Bay on the W. and Mount
+Hope Bay on the E., thus being a peninsula. Pop. (1900) 6901, of whom 1923
+were foreign-born; (1905; state census) 7512; (1910) 8565; area 12 sq. m.
+It is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford, and the Rhode Island
+Suburban railways, and is connected with the island of Rhode Island by
+ferry. Mount Hope (216 ft.), on the eastern side, commands delightful views
+of landscape, bay and river scenery. Elsewhere in the township the surface
+is gently undulating and generally well adapted to agriculture, especially
+to the growing of onions. A small island, Hog Island, is included in the
+township. The principal village, also known as Bristol, is a port of entry
+with a capacious and deep harbour, has manufactories of rubber and woollen
+goods, and is well known as a yacht-building centre, several defenders of
+the America's Cup, including the "Columbia" and the "Reliance," having been
+built in the Herreshoff yards here. At the close of King Philip's War in
+1676, Mount Hope Neck (which had been the seat of the vanquished sachem),
+with most of what is now the township of Bristol, was awarded to Plymouth
+Colony. In 1680, immediately after Plymouth had conveyed the "Neck" to a
+company of four, the village was laid out; the following year, in
+anticipation of future commercial importance, the township and the village
+were named Bristol, from the town in England. The township became the
+shire-township in 1685, passed under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts in
+1692, and in 1747 was annexed to Rhode Island. During the War of
+Independence the village was bombarded by the British on the 7th of October
+1775, but [v.04 p.0582] suffered little damage; on the 25th of May 1778 it
+was visited and partially destroyed by a British force.
+
+BRISTOL, a city of Sullivan county, Tennessee, and Washington county,
+Virginia, U.S.A., 130 m. N.E. of Knoxville, Tennessee, at an altitude of
+about 1700 ft. Pop. (1880) 3209; (1890) 6226; (1900) 9850 (including 1981
+negroes); (1910) 13,395, of whom 7148 were in Tennessee and 6247 were in
+Virginia. Bristol is served by the Holston Valley, the Southern, the
+Virginia & South-Western, and the Norfolk & Western railways, and is a
+railway centre of some importance. It is near the great mineral deposits of
+Virginia, Tennessee, West Virginia, Kentucky and North Carolina; an
+important distributing point for iron, coal and coke; and has tanneries and
+lumber mills, iron furnaces, tobacco factories, furniture factories and
+packing houses. It is the seat of Sullins College (Methodist Episcopal,
+South; 1870) for women, and of the Virginia Institute for Women (Baptist,
+1884), both in the state of Virginia, and of a normal college for negroes,
+on the Tennessee side of the state line. The Tennessee-Virginia boundary
+line runs through the principal street, dividing the place into two
+separate corporations, the Virginia part, which before 1890 (when it was
+chartered as a city) was known as Goodson, being administratively
+independent of the county in which it is situated. Bristol was settled
+about 1835, and the town of Bristol, Tennessee, was first incorporated in
+1856.
+
+BRISTOW, BENJAMIN HELM (1832-1896), American lawyer and politician, was
+born in Elkton, Kentucky, on the 20th of June 1832, the son of Francis
+Marion Bristow (1804-1864), a Whig member of Congress in 1854-1855 and
+1859-1861. He graduated at Jefferson College, Canonsburg, Pennsylvania, in
+1851, studied law under his father, and was admitted to the Kentucky bar in
+1853. At the beginning of the Civil War he became lieutenant-colonel of the
+25th Kentucky Infantry; was severely wounded at Shiloh; helped to recruit
+the 8th Kentucky Cavalry, of which he was lieutenant-colonel and later
+colonel; and assisted at the capture of John H. Morgan in July 1863. In
+1863-1865 he was state senator; in 1865-1866 assistant United States
+district-attorney, and in 1866-1870 district-attorney for the Louisville
+district; and in 1870-1872, after a few months' practice of law with John
+M. Harlan, was the (first appointed) solicitor-general of the United
+States. In 1873 President Grant nominated him attorney-general of the
+United States in case George H. Williams were confirmed as chief justice of
+the United States,--a contingency which did not arise. As secretary of the
+treasury (1874-1876) he prosecuted with vigour the so-called "Whisky Ring,"
+the headquarters of which was at St Louis, and which, beginning in 1870 or
+1871, had defrauded the Federal government out of a large part of its
+rightful revenue from the distillation of whisky. Distillers and revenue
+officers in St Louis, Milwaukee, Cincinnati and other cities were
+implicated, and the illicit gains--which in St Louis alone probably
+amounted to more than $2,500,000 in the six years 1870-1876--were divided
+between the distillers and the revenue officers, who levied assessments on
+distillers ostensibly for a Republican campaign fund to be used in
+furthering Grant's re-election. Prominent among the ring's alleged
+accomplices at Washington was Orville E. Babcock, private secretary to
+President Grant, whose personal friendship for Babcock led him to
+indiscreet interference in the prosecution. Through Bristow's efforts more
+than 200 men were indicted, a number of whom were convicted, but after some
+months' imprisonment were pardoned. Largely owing to friction between
+himself and the president, Bristow resigned his portfolio in June 1876; as
+secretary of the treasury he advocated the resumption of specie payments
+and at least a partial retirement of "greenbacks"; and he was also an
+advocate of civil service reform. He was a prominent candidate for the
+Republican presidential nomination in 1876. After 1878 he practised law in
+New York City, where he died on the 22nd of June 1896.
+
+See _Memorial of Benjamin Helm Bristow_, largely prepared by David Willcox
+(Cambridge, Mass., privately printed, 1897); _Whiskey Frauds_, 44th Cong.,
+1st Sess., Mis. Doc. No. 186; _Secrets of the Great Whiskey Ring_ (Chicago,
+1880), by John McDonald, who for nearly six years had been supervisor of
+internal revenue at St Louis,--a book by one concerned and to be considered
+in that light.
+
+BRISTOW, HENRY WILLIAM (1817-1889), English geologist, son of Major-General
+H. Bristow, who served in the Peninsular War, was born on the 17th of May
+1817. He was educated at King's College, London, under John Phillips, then
+professor of geology. In 1842 he was appointed assistant geologist on the
+Geological Survey, and in that service he remained for forty-six years,
+becoming director for England and Wales in 1872, and retiring in 1888. He
+was elected F.R.S. in 1862. He died in London on the 14th of June 1889. His
+publications (see _Geol. Mag._, 1889, p. 384) include _A Glossary of
+Mineralogy_ (1861) and _The Geology of the Isle of Wight_ (1862).
+
+BRITAIN (Gr. [Greek: Pretanikai nesoi, Brettania]; Lat. _Britannia_, rarely
+_Brittania_), the anglicized form of the classical name of England, Wales
+and Scotland, sometimes extended to the British Isles as a whole
+(_Britannicae Insulae_). The Greek and Roman forms are doubtless attempts
+to reproduce a Celtic original, the exact form of which is still matter of
+dispute. Brittany (Fr. _Bretagne_) in western France derived its name from
+Britain owing to migrations in the 5th and 6th century A.D. The
+personification of Britannia as a female figure may be traced back as far
+as the coins of Hadrian and Antoninus Pius (early 2nd century A.D.); its
+first appearance on modern coins is on the copper of Charles II. (see
+NUMISMATICS).
+
+In what follows, the archaeological interest of early Britain is dealt
+with, in connexion with the history of Britain in Pre-Roman, Roman, and
+Anglo-Saxon days; this account being supplementary to the articles ENGLAND;
+ENGLISH HISTORY; SCOTLAND, &c.
+
+PRE-ROMAN BRITAIN
+
+Geologists are not yet agreed when and by whom Britain was first peopled.
+Probably the island was invaded by a succession of races. The first, the
+Paleolithic men, may have died out or retired before successors arrived.
+During the Neolithic and Bronze Ages we can dimly trace further
+immigrations. Real knowledge begins with two Celtic invasions, that of the
+Goidels in the later part of the Bronze Age, and that of the Brythons and
+Belgae in the Iron Age. These invaders brought Celtic civilization and
+dialects. It is uncertain how far they were themselves Celtic in blood and
+how far they were numerous enough to absorb or obliterate the races which
+they found in Britain. But it is not unreasonable to think that they were
+no mere conquering caste, and that they were of the same race as the
+Celtic-speaking peoples of the western continent. By the age of Julius
+Caesar all the inhabitants of Britain, except perhaps some tribes of the
+far north, were Celts in speech and customs. Politically they were divided
+into separate and generally warring tribes, each under its own princes.
+They dwelt in hill forts with walls of earth or rude stone, or in villages
+of round huts sunk into the ground and resembling those found in parts of
+northern Gaul, or in subterranean chambered houses, or in hamlets of
+pile-dwellings constructed among the marshes. But, at least in the south,
+market centres had sprung up, town life was beginning, houses of a better
+type were perhaps coming into use, and the southern tribes employed a gold
+coinage and also a currency of iron bars or ingots, attested by Caesar and
+by surviving examples, which weigh roughly, some two-thirds of a pound,
+some 2-2/3 lb, but mostly 1-1/3 lb. In religion, the chief feature was the
+priesthood of Druids, who here, as in Gaul, practised magical arts and
+barbarous rites of human sacrifice, taught a secret lore, wielded great
+influence, but, at least as Druids, took ordinarily no part in politics. In
+art, these tribes possessed a native Late Celtic fashion, descended from
+far-off Mediterranean antecedents and more directly connected with the
+La-Tene culture of the continental Celts. Its characteristics were a
+flamboyant and fantastic treatment of plant and animal (though not of
+human) forms, a free use of the geometrical device called the "returning
+spiral," and much skill in enamelling. Its finest products were in bronze,
+but the artistic impulse spread to humbler work in wood and pottery. The
+late Celtic age was one which genuinely delighted in beauty of form and
+detail. In this it resembled the middle ages rather than the Roman empire
+or the present day, and it resembled [v.04 p.0583] them all the more in
+that its love of beauty, like theirs, was mixed with a feeling for the
+fantastic and the grotesque. The Roman conquest of northern Gaul (57-50
+B.C.) brought Britain into definite relation with the Mediterranean. It was
+already closely connected with Gaul, and when Roman civilization and its
+products invaded Gallia Belgica, they passed on easily to Britain. The
+British coinage now begins to bear Roman legends, and after Caesar's two
+raids (55, 54 B.C.) the southern tribes were regarded at Rome, though they
+do not seem to have regarded themselves, as vassals. Actual conquest was,
+however, delayed. Augustus planned it. But both he and his successor
+Tiberius realized that the greater need was to consolidate the existing
+empire, and absorb the vast additions recently made to it by Pompey, Caesar
+and Augustus.
+
+ROMAN BRITAIN
+
+I. _The Roman Conquest._--The conquest of Britain was undertaken by
+Claudius in A.D. 43. Two causes coincided to produce the step. On the one
+hand a forward policy then ruled at Rome, leading to annexations in various
+lands. On the other hand, a probably philo-Roman prince, Cunobelin (known
+to literature as Cymbeline), had just been succeeded by two sons,
+Caractacus (_q.v._) and Togodumnus, who were hostile to Rome. Caligula, the
+half-insane predecessor of Claudius, had made in respect to this event some
+blunder which we know only through a sensational exaggeration, but which
+doubtless had to be made good. An immediate reason for action was the
+appeal of a fugitive British prince, presumably a Roman partisan and victim
+of Cunobelin's sons. So Aulus Plautius with a singularly well equipped army
+of some 40,000 men landed in Kent and advanced on London. Here Claudius
+himself appeared--the one reigning emperor of the 1st century who crossed
+the waves of ocean,--and the army, crossing the Thames, moved forward
+through Essex and captured the native capital, Camulodunum, now Colchester.
+From the base of London and Colchester three corps continued the conquest.
+The left wing, the Second Legion (under Vespasian, afterwards emperor),
+subdued the south; the centre, the Fourteenth and Twentieth Legions,
+subdued the midlands, while the right wing, the Ninth Legion, advanced
+through the eastern part of the island. This strategy was at first
+triumphant. The lowlands of Britain, with their partly Romanized and partly
+scanty population and their easy physical features, presented no obstacle.
+Within three or four years everything south of the Humber and east of the
+Severn had been either directly annexed or entrusted, as protectorates, to
+native client-princes.
+
+A more difficult task remained. The wild hills and wilder tribes of Wales
+and Yorkshire offered far fiercer resistance. There followed thirty years
+of intermittent hill fighting (A.D. 47-79). The precise steps of the
+conquest are not known. Legionary fortresses were established at Wroxeter
+(for a time only), Chester and Caerleon, facing the Welsh hills, and at
+Lincoln in the northeast. Monmouthshire, and Flintshire with its lead
+mines, were early overrun; in 60 Suetonius Paulinus reached Anglesea. The
+method of conquest was the establishment of small detached forts in
+strategic positions, each garrisoned by 500 or 1000 men, and it was
+accompanied by a full share of those disasters which vigorous barbarians
+always inflict on civilized invaders. Progress was delayed too by the great
+revolt of Boadicea (_q.v._) and a large part of the nominally conquered
+Lowlands. Her rising was soon crushed, but the government was obviously
+afraid for a while to move its garrisons forward. Indeed, other needs of
+the empire caused the withdrawal of the Fourteenth Legion about 67. But the
+decade A.D. 70-80 was decisive. A series of three able generals commanded
+an army restored to its proper strength by the addition of Legio II.
+Adiutrix, and achieved the final subjugation of Wales and the first
+conquest of Yorkshire, where a legionary fortress at York was substituted
+for that at Lincoln.
+
+The third and best-known, if not the ablest, of these generals, Julius
+Agricola, moved on in A.D. 80 to the conquest of the farther north. He
+established between the Clyde and Forth a frontier meant to be permanent,
+guarded by a line of forts, two of which are still traceable at Camelon
+near Falkirk, and at Bar Hill. He then advanced into Caledonia and won a
+"famous victory" at Mons Graupius (sometimes, but incorrectly, spelt
+Grampius), probably near the confluence of the Tay and the Isla, where a
+Roman encampment of his date, Inchtuthill, has been partly examined (see
+GALGACUS). He dreamt even of invading Ireland, and thought it an easy task.
+The home government judged otherwise. Jealous possibly of a too brilliant
+general, certainly averse from costly and fruitless campaigns and needing
+the Legio II. Adiutrix for work elsewhere, it recalled both governor and
+legion, and gave up the more northerly of his nominal conquests. The most
+solid result of his campaigns is that his battlefield, misspelt Grampius,
+has provided to antiquaries, and through them to the world, the modern name
+of the Grampian Hills.
+
+What frontier was adopted after Agricola's departure, whether Tweed or
+Cheviot or other, is unknown. For thirty years (A.D. 85-115) the military
+history of Britain is a blank. When we recover knowledge we are in an
+altered world. About 115 or 120 the northern Britons rose in revolt and
+destroyed the Ninth Legion, posted at York, which would bear the brunt of
+any northern trouble. In 122 the second reigning emperor who crossed the
+ocean, Hadrian, came himself to Britain, brought the Sixth Legion to
+replace the Ninth, and introduced the frontier policy of his age. For over
+70 m. from Tyne to Solway, more exactly from Wallsend to Bowness, he built
+a continuous rampart, more probably of turf than of stone, with a ditch in
+front of it, a number of small forts along it, one or two outposts a few
+miles to the north of it, and some detached forts (the best-known is on the
+hill above Maryport) guarding the Cumberland coast beyond its western end.
+The details of his work are imperfectly known, for though many remains
+survive, it is hard to separate those of Hadrian's date from others that
+are later. But that Hadrian built a wall here is proved alike by literature
+and by inscriptions. The meaning of the scheme is equally certain. It was
+to be, as it were, a Chinese wall, marking the definite limit of the Roman
+world. It was now declared, not by the secret resolutions of cabinets, but
+by the work of the spade marking the solid earth for ever, that the era of
+conquest was ended.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+But empires move, though rulers bid them stand still. Whether the land
+beyond Hadrian's wall became temptingly peaceful or remained in vexing
+disorder, our authorities do not say. We know only that about 142 Hadrian's
+successor, Antoninus Pius, acting through his general Lollius Urbicus,
+advanced from the Tyne and Solway frontier to the narrower isthmus between
+Forth and Clyde, 36 m. across, which Agricola had fortified before him.
+Here he reared a continuous rampart with a ditch in front of it, fair-sized
+forts, probably a dozen in number, built either close behind it or actually
+abutting on it, and a connecting road running from end to end. An ancient
+writer states that the rampart was built of regularly laid sods (the same
+method which had probably been employed by Hadrian), and excavations in
+1891-1893 have verified the statement. The work still survives visibly,
+though in varying preservation, except in the agricultural districts near
+its two ends. Occasionally, as on Croyhill (near Kilsyth), at Westerwood,
+and in the covers of Bonnyside (3 m. west of Falkirk), wall and ditch and
+even road can be distinctly traced, and the sites of many of the forts are
+plain to practised eyes. Three of these forts have been excavated. All
+three show the ordinary features of Roman _castella_, though they differ
+more than one would expect in forts built at one time by one general. Bar
+Hill, the most completely explored, covers three acres--nearly five times
+as much as the earlier fort of Agricola on the same site. It had ramparts
+of turf, barrack-rooms of wood, and a headquarters building, storehouse and
+bath in stone: it stands a few yards back from the wall. Castle Cary covers
+nearly four acres: its ramparts contain massive and well-dressed masonry;
+its interior buildings, though they agree in material, do not altogether
+agree in plan with those of Bar Hill, and its north face falls in line with
+the frontier wall. Rough Castle, near Falkirk, is very much smaller; it is
+remarkable for the astonishing [v.04 p.0584] strength of its turf-built and
+earthen ramparts and ravelins, and for a remarkable series of defensive
+pits, reminiscent of Caesar's _lilia_ at Alesia, plainly intended to break
+an enemy's charge, and either provided with stakes to impale the assailant
+or covered over with hurdles or the like to deceive him. Besides the dozen
+forts on the wall, one or two outposts may have been held at Ardoch and
+Abernethy along the natural route which runs by Stirling and Perth to the
+lowlands of the east coast. This frontier was reached from the south by two
+roads. One, known in medieval times as Dere Street and misnamed Watling
+Street by modern antiquaries, ran from Corbridge on the Tyne past
+Otterburn, crossed Cheviot near Makendon Camps, and passed by an important
+fort at Newstead near Melrose, and another at Inveresk (outside of
+Edinburgh), to the eastern end of the wall. The other, starting from
+Carlisle, ran to Birrens, a Roman fort near Ecclefechan, and thence, by a
+line not yet explored and indeed not at all certain, to Carstairs and the
+west end of the wall. This wall was in addition to, and not instead of, the
+wall of Hadrian. Both barriers were held together, and the district between
+them was regarded as a military area, outside the range of civilization.
+
+The work of Pius brought no long peace. Sixteen years later disorder broke
+out in north Britain, apparently in the district between the Cheviots and
+the Derbyshire hills, and was repressed with difficulty after four or five
+years' fighting. Eighteen or twenty years later (180-185) a new war broke
+out with a different issue. The Romans lost everything beyond Cheviot, and
+perhaps even more. The government of Commodus, feeble in itself and vexed
+by many troubles, could not repair the loss, and the civil wars which soon
+raged in Europe (193-197) gave the Caledonians further chance. It was not
+till 208 that Septimius Severus, the ablest emperor of his age, could turn
+his attention to the island. He came thither in person, invaded Caledonia,
+commenced the reconstruction of the wall of Hadrian, rebuilding it from end
+to end in stone, and then in the fourth year of his operations died at
+York. Amid much that is uncertain and even legendary about his work in
+Britain, this is plain, that he fixed on the line of Hadrian's wall as his
+substantive frontier. His successors, Caracalla and Severus Alexander
+(211-235), accepted the position, and many inscriptions refer to building
+or rebuilding executed by them for the greater efficiency of the frontier
+defences. The conquest of Britain was at last over. The wall of Hadrian
+remained for nearly two hundred years more the northern limit of Roman
+power in the extreme west.
+
+II. _The Province of Britain and its Military System._--Geographically,
+Britain consists of two parts: (1) the comparatively flat lowlands of the
+south, east and midlands, suitable to agriculture and open to easy
+intercourse with the continent, i.e. with the rest of the Roman empire; (2)
+the district consisting of the hills of Devon and Cornwall, of Wales and of
+northern England, regions lying more, and often very much more, than 600
+ft. above the sea, scarred with gorges and deep valleys, mountainous in
+character, difficult for armies to traverse, ill fitted to the peaceful
+pursuits in agriculture. These two parts of the province differ also in
+their history. The lowlands, as we have seen, were conquered easily and
+quickly. The uplands were hardly subdued completely till the end of the 2nd
+century. They differ, thirdly, in the character of their Roman occupation.
+The lowlands were the scene of civil life. Towns, villages and country
+houses were their prominent features; troops were hardly seen in them save
+in some fortresses on the edge of the hills and in a chain of forts built
+in the 4th century to defend the south-east coast, the so-called Saxon
+Shore. The uplands of Wales and the north presented another spectacle. Here
+civil life was almost wholly absent. No country town or country house has
+been found more than 20 m. north of York or west of Monmouthshire. The
+hills were one extensive military frontier, covered with forts and
+strategic roads connecting them, and devoid of town life, country houses,
+farms or peaceful civilized industry. This geographical division was not
+reproduced by Rome in any administrative partitions of the province. At
+first the whole was governed by one _legatus Augusti_ of consular standing.
+Septimius Severus made it two provinces, Superior and Inferior, with a
+boundary which probably ran from Humber to Mersey, but we do not know how
+long this arrangement lasted. In the 5th century there were five provinces,
+Britannia Prima and Secunda, Flavia and Maxima Caesariensis and (for a
+while) Valentia, ruled by _praesides_ and _consulares_ under a _vicartus_,
+but the only thing known of them is that Britannia Prima included
+Cirencester.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Plan of Housesteads (Borcovicium) on Hadrian's
+Wall.]
+
+The army which guarded or coerced the province consisted, from the time of
+Hadrian onwards, of (1) three legions, the Second at Isca Silurum
+(Caerleon-on-Usk, _q.v._), the Ninth at Eburacum (_q.v._; now York), the
+Twentieth at Deva (_q.v._; now Chester), a total of some 15,000 heavy
+infantry; and (2) a large but uncertain number of auxiliaries, troops of
+the second grade, organized in infantry cohorts or cavalry _alae_, each 500
+or 1000 strong, and posted in _castella_ nearer the frontiers than the
+legions. The legionary fortresses were large rectangular enclosures of 50
+or 60 acres, surrounded by strong walls of which traces can still be seen
+in the lower courses of the north and east town-walls of Chester, in the
+abbey gardens at York, and on the south side of Caerleon. The auxiliary
+_castella_ were hardly a tenth of the size, varying generally from three to
+six acres according to the size of the regiment and the need for stabling.
+Of these upwards of 70 are known in England and some 20 more in Scotland.
+Of the English examples a few have been carefully excavated, notably
+Gellygaer between Cardiff and Brecon, one of the most perfect specimens to
+be found anywhere in the Roman empire of a Roman fort dating from the end
+of the 1st century A.D.; Hardknott, on a Cumberland moor overhanging Upper
+Eskdale; and Housesteads on Hadrian's wall. In Scotland excavation has been
+more active, in particular at the forts of Birrens, Newstead near Melrose,
+Lyne near Peebles, Ardoch between Stirling and Perth, and Castle Cary,
+Rough Castle and Bar Hill on the wall of Pius. The internal arrangements of
+all these forts follow one general plan. But in some of them the internal
+buildings are all of stone, while in [v.04 p.0585] others, principally (it
+seems) forts built before 150, wood is used freely and only the few
+principal buildings seem to have been constructed throughout of stone.
+
+We may illustrate their character from Housesteads, which, in the form in
+which we know it, perhaps dates from Septimius Severus. This fort measures
+about 360 by 600 ft. and covers a trifle less than 5 acres. Its ramparts
+are of stone, and its north rampart coincides with the great wall of
+Hadrian. Its interior is filled with stone buildings. Chief among these
+(see fig. 1), and in the centre of the whole fort, is the Headquarters, in
+Lat. _Principia_ or, as it is often (though perhaps less correctly) styled
+by moderns, _Praetorium_. This is a rectangular structure with only one
+entrance which gives access, first, to a small cloistered court (x. 4),
+then to a second open court (x. 7), and finally to a row of five rooms (x.
+8-12) containing the shrine for official worship, the treasury and other
+offices. Close by were officers' quarters, generally built round a tiny
+cloistered court (ix., xi., xii.), and substantially built storehouses with
+buttresses and dry basements (viii.). These filled the middle third of the
+fort. At the two ends were barracks for the soldiers (i.-vi.,
+xiii.-xviii.). No space was allotted to private religion or domestic life.
+The shrines which voluntary worshippers might visit, the public bath-house,
+and the cottages of the soldiers' wives, camp followers, &c., lay outside
+the walls. Such were nearly all the Roman forts in Britain. They differ
+somewhat from Roman forts in Germany or other provinces, though most of the
+differences arise from the different usage of wood and of stone in various
+places.
+
+Forts of this kind were dotted all along the military roads of the Welsh
+and northern hill-districts. In Wales a road ran from Chester past a fort
+at Caer-hyn (near Conway) to a fort at Carnarvon (Segontium). A similar
+road ran along the south coast from Caerleon-on-Usk past a fort at Cardiff
+and perhaps others, to Carmarthen. A third, roughly parallel to the shore
+of Cardigan Bay, with forts at Llanio and Tommen-y-mur (near Festiniog),
+connected the northern and southern roads, while the interior was held by a
+system of roads and forts not yet well understood but discernible at such
+points as Caer-gai on Bala Lake, Castle Collen near Llandrindod Wells, the
+Gaer near Brecon, Merthyr and Gellygaer. In the north of Britain we find
+three principal roads. One led due north from York past forts at Catterick
+Bridge, Piers Bridge, Binchester, Lanchester, Ebchester to the wall and to
+Scotland, while branches through Chester-le-Street reached the Tyne Bridge
+(Pons Aelius) at Newcastle and the Tyne mouth at South Shields. A second
+road, turning north-west from Catterick Bridge, mounted the Pennine Chain
+by way of forts at Rokeby, Bowes and Brough-under-Stainmoor, descended into
+the Eden valley, reached Hadrian's wall near Carlisle (Luguvallium), and
+passed on to Birrens. The third route, starting from Chester and passing up
+the western coast, is more complex, and exists in duplicate, the result
+perhaps of two different schemes of road-making. Forts in plenty can be
+detected along it, notably Manchester (Mancunium or Mamucium), Ribchester
+(Bremetennacum), Brougham Castle (Brocavum), Old Penrith (Voreda), and on a
+western branch, Watercrook near Kendal, Waterhead near the hotel of that
+name on Ambleside, Hardknott above Eskdale, Maryport (Uxellodunum), and Old
+Carlisle (possibly Petriana). In addition, two or three cross roads, not
+yet sufficiently explored, maintained communication between the troops in
+Yorkshire and those in Cheshire and Lancashire. This road system bears
+plain marks of having been made at different times, and with different
+objectives, but we have no evidence that any one part was abandoned when
+any other was built. There are signs, however, that various forts were
+dismantled as the country grew quieter. Thus, Gellygaer in South Wales and
+Hardknott in Cumberland have yielded nothing later than the opening of the
+2nd century.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Hadrian's Wall.
+
+From _Social England_, by permission of Cassell & Co., Ltd.]
+
+Besides these detached forts and their connecting roads, the north of
+Britain was defended by Hadrian's wall (figs. 2 and 3). The history of this
+wall has been given above. The actual works are threefold. First, there is
+that which to-day forms the most striking feature in the whole, the wall of
+stone 6-8 ft. thick, and originally perhaps 14 ft. high, with a deep ditch
+in front, and forts and "mile castles" and turrets and a connecting road
+behind it. On the high moors between Chollerford and Gilsland its traces
+are still plain, as it climbs from hill to hill and winds along perilous
+precipices. Secondly, there is the so-called "Vallum," in reality no
+_vallum_ at all, but a broad flat-bottomed ditch out of which the earth has
+been cast up on either side into regular and continuous mounds that
+resemble ramparts. Thirdly, nowhere very clear on the surface and as yet
+detected only at a few points, there are the remains of the "turf wall,"
+constructed of sods laid in regular courses, with a ditch in front. This
+turf wall is certainly older than the stone wall, and, as our ancient
+writers mention two wall-builders, Hadrian and Septimius Severus, the
+natural inference is that Hadrian built his wall of [v.04 p.0586] turf and
+Severus reconstructed it in stone. The reconstruction probably followed in
+general the line of Hadrian's wall in order to utilize the existing ditch,
+and this explains why the turf wall itself survives only at special points.
+In general it was destroyed to make way for the new wall in stone.
+Occasionally (as at Birdoswald) there was a deviation, and the older work
+survived. This conversion of earthwork into stone in the age of Severus can
+be paralleled from other parts of the Roman empire.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Section of Hadrian's Wall.]
+
+The meaning of the _vallum_ is much more doubtful. John Hodgson and Bruce,
+the local authorities of the 19th century, supposed that it was erected to
+defend the wall from southern insurgents. Others have ascribed it to
+Agricola, or have thought it to be the wall of Hadrian, or even assigned it
+to pre-Roman natives. The two facts that are clear about it are, that it is
+a Roman work, no older than Hadrian (if so old), and that it was not
+intended, like the wall, for military defence. Probably it is
+contemporaneous with either the turf wall or the stone wall, and marked
+some limit of the civil province of Britain. Beyond this we cannot at
+present go.
+
+III. _The Civilization of Roman Britain._--Behind these formidable
+garrisons, sheltered from barbarians and in easy contact with the Roman
+empire, stretched the lowlands of southern and eastern Britain. Here a
+civilized life grew up, and Roman culture spread. This part of Britain
+became Romanized. In the lands looking on to the Thames estuary (Kent,
+Essex, Middlesex) the process had perhaps begun before the Roman conquest.
+It was continued after that event, and in two ways. To some extent it was
+definitely encouraged by the Roman government, which here, as elsewhere,
+founded towns peopled with Roman citizens--generally discharged
+legionaries--and endowed them with franchise and constitution like those of
+the Italian municipalities. It developed still more by its own automatic
+growth. The coherent civilization of the Romans was accepted by the
+Britons, as it was by the Gauls, with something like enthusiasm. Encouraged
+perhaps by sympathetic Romans, spurred on still more by their own
+instincts, and led no doubt by their nobles, they began to speak Latin, to
+use the material resources of Roman civilized life, and in time to consider
+themselves not the unwilling subjects of a foreign empire, but the British
+members of the Roman state. The steps by which these results were reached
+can to some extent be dated. Within a few years of the Claudian invasion a
+_colonia_, or municipality of time-expired soldiers, had been planted in
+the old native capital of Colchester (Camulodunum), and though it served at
+first mainly as a fortress and thus provoked British hatred, it came soon
+to exercise a civilizing influence. At the same time the British town of
+Verulamium (St Albans) was thought sufficiently Romanized to deserve the
+municipal status of a _municipium_, which at this period differed little
+from that of a _colonia_. Romanized Britons must now have begun to be
+numerous. In the great revolt of Boadicea (60) the nationalist party seem
+to have massacred many thousands of them along with actual Romans. Fifteen
+or twenty years later, the movement increases. Towns spring up, such as
+Silchester, laid out in Roman fashion, furnished with public buildings of
+Roman type, and filled with houses which are Roman in fittings if not in
+plan. The baths of Bath (Aquae Sulis) are exploited. Another _colonia_ is
+planted at Lincoln (Lindum), and a third at Gloucester (Glevum) in 96. A
+new "chief judge" is appointed for increasing civil business. The
+tax-gatherer and recruiting officer begin to make their way into the hills.
+During the 2nd century progress was perhaps slower, hindered doubtless by
+the repeated risings in the north. It was not till the 3rd century that
+country houses and farms became common in most parts of the civilized area.
+In the beginning of the 4th century the skilled artisans and builders, and
+the cloth and corn of Britain were equally famous on the continent. This
+probably was the age when the prosperity and Romanization of the province
+reached its height. By this time the town populations and the educated
+among the country-folk spoke Latin, and Britain regarded itself as a Roman
+land, inhabited by Romans and distinct from outer barbarians.
+
+The civilization which had thus spread over half the island was genuinely
+Roman, identical in kind with that of the other western provinces of the
+empire, and in particular with that of northern Gaul. But it was defective
+in quantity. The elements which compose it are marked by smaller size, less
+wealth and less splendour than the same elements elsewhere. It was also
+uneven in its distribution. Large tracts, in particular Warwickshire and
+the adjoining midlands, were very thinly inhabited. Even densely peopled
+areas like north Kent, the Sussex coast, west Gloucestershire and east
+Somerset, immediately adjoin areas like the Weald of Kent and Sussex where
+Romano-British remains hardly occur.
+
+The administration of the civilized part of the province, while subject to
+the governor of all Britain, was practically entrusted to local
+authorities. Each Roman municipality ruled itself and a territory perhaps
+as large as a small county which belonged to it. Some districts belonged to
+the Imperial Domains, and were administered by agents of the emperor. The
+rest, by far the larger part of the country, was divided up among the old
+native tribes or cantons, some ten or twelve in number, each grouped round
+some country town where its council (_ordo_) met for cantonal business.
+This cantonal system closely resembles that which we find in Gaul. It is an
+old native element recast in Roman form, and well illustrates the Roman
+principle of local government by devolution.
+
+In the general framework of Romano-British life the two chief features were
+the town, and the _villa_. The towns of the province, as we have already
+implied, fall into two classes. Five modern cities, Colchester, Lincoln,
+York, Gloucester and St Albans, stand on the sites, and in some fragmentary
+fashion bear the names of five Roman municipalities, founded by the Roman
+government with special charters and constitutions. All of these reached a
+considerable measure of prosperity. None of them rivals the greater
+municipalities of other provinces. Besides them we trace a larger number of
+country towns, varying much in size, but all possessing in some degree the
+characteristics of a town. The chief of these seem to be cantonal capitals,
+probably developed out of the market centres or capitals of the Celtic
+tribes before the Roman conquest. Such are Isurium Brigantum, capital of
+the Brigantes, 12 m. north-west of York and the most northerly
+Romano-British town; Ratae, now Leicester, capital of the Coritani;
+Viroconium, now Wroxeter, near Shrewsbury, capital of the Cornovii; Venta
+Silurum, now Caerwent, near Chepstow; Corinium, now Cirencester, capital of
+the Dobuni; Isca Dumnoniorum, now Exeter, the most westerly of these towns;
+Durnovaria, now Dorchester, in Dorset, capital of the Durotriges; Venta
+Belgarum, now Winchester; Calleva Atrebatum, now Silchester, 10 m. south of
+Reading; Durovernum Cantiacorum, now Canterbury; and Venta Icenorum, now
+Caistor-by-Norwich. Besides these country towns, Londinium (London) was a
+rich and important trading town, centre of the road system, and the seat of
+the finance officials of the province, as the remarkable objects discovered
+in it abundantly prove, while Aquae Sulis (Bath) was a spa provided with
+splendid baths, and a richly adorned temple of the native patron deity, Sul
+or Sulis, whom the Romans called Minerva. Many smaller places, too, for
+example, Magna or Kenchester near Hereford, Durobrivae or Rochester in
+Kent, another Durobrivae near Peterborough, a site of uncertain name near
+Cambridge, another of uncertain name near Chesterford, exhibited some
+measure of town life.
+
+As a specimen we may take Silchester, remarkable as the one town in the
+whole Roman empire which has been completely [v.04 p.0587] and
+systematically uncovered. As we see it to-day, it is an open space of 100
+acres, set on a hill with a wide prospect east and south and west, in shape
+an irregular hexagon, enclosed in a circuit of a mile and a half by the
+massive ruins of a city wall which still stands here and there some 20 ft.
+high (fig. 4). Outside, on the north-east, is the grassy hollow of a tiny
+amphitheatre; on the west a line of earthworks runs in wider circuit than
+the walls. The area within the walls is a vast expanse of cultivated land,
+unbroken by any vestige of antiquity; yet the soil is thick with tile and
+potsherd, and in hot summers the unevenly growing corn reveals the remains
+of streets beneath the surface. Casual excavations were made here in 1744
+and 1833; more systematic ones intermittently between 1864 and 1884 by the
+Rev. J.G. Joyce and others; finally, in May 1890, the complete uncovering
+of the whole site was begun by Mr G.E. Fox and others. The work was carried
+on with splendid perseverance, and the uncovering of the interior was
+completed in 1908.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--General Plan of Silchester (Calleva Atrebatum).]
+
+The chief results concern the buildings. Though these have vanished wholly
+from the surface, the foundations and lowest courses of their walls survive
+fairly perfect below ground: thus the plan of the town can be minutely
+recovered, and both the character of the buildings which make up a place
+like Calleva, and the character of Romano-British buildings generally,
+become plainer. Of the buildings the chief are:--
+
+1. _Forum._--Near the middle of the town was a rectangular block covering
+two acres. It comprised a central open court, 132 ft. by 140 ft. in size,
+surrounded on three sides by a corridor or cloister, with rooms opening on
+the cloister (fig. 5). On the fourth side was a great hall, with rooms
+opening into it from behind. This hall was 270 ft. long and 58 ft. wide;
+two rows of Corinthian columns ran down the middle, and the clerestory roof
+may have stood 50 ft. above the floor; the walls were frescoed or lined
+with marble, and for ornament there were probably statues. Finally, a
+corridor ran round outside the whole block. Here the local authorities had
+their offices, justice was administered, traders trafficked, citizens and
+idlers gathered. Though we cannot apportion the rooms to their precise
+uses, the great hall was plainly the basilica, for meetings and business;
+the rooms behind it were perhaps law courts, and some of the rooms on the
+other three sides of the quadrangle may have been shops. Similar municipal
+buildings existed in most towns of the western Empire, whether they were
+full municipalities or (as probably Calleva was) of lower rank. The
+Callevan Forum seems in general simpler than others, but its basilica is
+remarkably large. Probably the British climate compelled more indoor life
+than the sunnier south.
+
+2. _Temples._--Two small square temples, of a common western-provincial
+type, were in the east of the town; the _cella_ of the larger measured 42
+ft. sq., and was lined with Purbeck marble. A third, circular temple stood
+between the forum and the south gate. A fourth, a smaller square shrine
+found in 1907 a little east of the forum, yielded some interesting
+inscriptions which relate to a gild (_collegium_) and incidentally confirm
+the name Calleva.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Plan of Forum, Basilica and surroundings,
+Silchester.]
+
+3. _Christian Church._--Close outside the south-east angle of the forum was
+a small edifice, 42 ft. by 27 ft., consisting of a nave and two aisles
+which ended at the east in a porch as wide as the building, and at the west
+in an apse and two flanking chambers. The nave and porch were floored with
+plain red tesserae: in the apse was a simple mosaic panel in red, black and
+white. Round the building was a yard, fenced with wooden palings; in it
+were a well near the apse, and a small structure of tile with a pit near
+the east end. No direct proof of date or use was discovered. But the ground
+plan is that of an early Christian church of the "basilican" type. This
+type comprised nave and aisles, ending at one end in an apse and two
+chambers resembling rudimentary transepts, and at the other end in a porch
+(_narthex_). Previous to about A.D. 420 the porch was often at the east end
+and the apse at the west, and the altar, often movable, stood in the
+apse--as at Silchester, perhaps, on the mosaic panel. A court enclosed the
+whole; near the porch was a laver for the ablutions of intending
+worshippers. Many such churches have been found in other countries,
+especially in Roman Africa; no other satisfactory instance is known in
+Britain.
+
+4. _Town Baths._--A suite of public baths stood a little east of the forum.
+At the entrance were a peristyle court for loungers and a latrine: hence
+the bather passed into the Apodyterium (dressing-room), the Frigidarium
+(cold room) fitted with a cold bath for use at the end of the bathing
+ceremony, and a series of hot rooms--the whole resembling many modern
+Turkish baths. In their first form the baths of Silchester were about 160
+ft. by 80 ft., but they were later considerably extended.
+
+5. _Private Houses._--The private houses of Silchester are of two types.
+They consist either of a row of rooms, with a corridor along them, and
+perhaps one or two additional rooms at one or both ends, or of three such
+corridors and rows of rooms, forming three sides of a large square open
+yard. They are detached houses, standing each in its own garden, and not
+forming terraces or rows. The country houses of Roman Britain have long
+been recognized as embodying these (or allied) types; now it becomes plain
+that they were the normal types throughout Britain. They differ widely from
+the town houses of Rome and Pompeii: they are less unlike some of the
+country houses of Italy and Roman Africa; but their real parallels occur in
+Gaul, and they may be Celtic types modified to Roman use--like Indian
+bungalows. Their internal fittings--hypocausts, frescoes, mosaics--are
+everywhere Roman; those at Silchester are average specimens, and, except
+for one mosaic, not individually striking. The largest Silchester house,
+with a special annexe for baths, is usually taken to be a guest-house or
+inn for travellers between London and the west (fig. 6). Altogether, the
+town probably did not contain more than seventy or eighty houses of any
+size, and large spaces were not built over at all. This fact and the
+peculiar character of the houses must have given to Silchester rather the
+appearance of a village with scattered cottages, each in its own plot
+facing its own way, than a town with regular and continuous streets.
+
+6. _Industries._--Shops are conjectured in the forum and elsewhere, [v.04
+p.0588] but were not numerous. Many dyers' furnaces, a little silver
+refinery, and perhaps a bakery have also been noticed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Plan of supposed Inn and Baths at Silchester.]
+
+7. _Streets, Roads, &c._--The streets were paved with gravel: they varied
+in width up to 281/2 ft. They intersect regularly at right angles, dividing
+the town into square blocks, like modern Mannheim or Turin, according to a
+Roman system usual in both Italy and the provinces: plainly they were laid
+out all at once, possibly by Agricola (Tac. _Agr._ 21) and most probably
+about his time. There were four chief gates, not quite symmetrically
+placed. The town-walls are built of flint and concrete bonded with
+ironstone, and are backed with earth. In the plans, though not in the
+reports, of the excavations, they are shown as built later than the
+streets. No traces of meat-market, theatre or aqueduct have come to light:
+water was got from wells lined with wooden tubs, and must have been scanty
+in dry summers. Smaller objects abound--coins, pottery, window and bottle
+and cup glass, bronze ornaments, iron tools, &c.--and many belong to the
+beginnings of Calleva, but few pieces are individually notable. Traces of
+late Celtic art are singularly absent; Roman fashions rule supreme, and
+inscriptions show that even the lower classes here spoke and wrote Latin.
+Outside the walls were the cemeteries, not yet explored. Of suburbs we have
+as yet no hint. Nor indeed is the neighbourhood of Calleva at all rich in
+Roman remains. In fact, as well as in Celtic etymology, it was "the town in
+the forest." A similar absence of remains may be noticed outside other
+Romano-British towns, and is significant of their economic position. Such
+doubtless were most of the towns of Roman Britain--thoroughly Romanized,
+peopled with Roman-speaking citizens, furnished with Roman appurtenances,
+living in Roman ways, but not very large, not very rich, a humble witness
+to the assimilating power of the Roman civilization in Britain.
+
+The country, as opposed to the towns, of Roman Britain seems to have been
+divided into estates, commonly (though perhaps incorrectly) known as
+"villas." Many examples survive, some of them large and luxurious
+country-houses, some mere farms, constructed usually on one of the two
+patterns described in the account of Silchester above. The inhabitants were
+plainly as various--a few of them great nobles and wealthy landowners,
+others small farmers or possibly bailiffs. Some of these estates were
+worked on the true "villa" system, by which the lord occupied the "great
+house," and cultivated the land close round it by slaves, while he let the
+rest to half-free _coloni_. But other systems may have prevailed as well.
+Among the most important country-houses are those of Bignor in west Sussex,
+and Woodchester and Chedworth in Gloucestershire.
+
+The wealth of the country was principally agrarian. Wheat and wool were
+exported in the 4th century, when, as we have said, Britain was especially
+prosperous. But the details of the trade are unrecorded. More is known of
+the lead and iron mines which, at least in the first two centuries, were
+worked in many districts--lead in Somerset, Shropshire, Flintshire and
+Derbyshire; iron in the west Sussex Weald, the Forest of Dean, and (to a
+slight extent) elsewhere. Other minerals were less notable. The gold
+mentioned by Tacitus proved scanty. The Cornish tin, according to present
+evidence, was worked comparatively little, and perhaps most in the later
+Empire.
+
+Lastly, the roads. Here we must put aside all idea of "Four Great Roads."
+That category is probably the invention of antiquaries, and certainly
+unconnected with Roman Britain (see ERMINE STREET). Instead, we may
+distinguish four main groups of roads radiating from London, and a fifth
+which runs obliquely. One road ran south-east to Canterbury and the Kentish
+ports, of which Richborough (Rutupiae) was the most frequented. A second
+ran west to Silchester, and thence by various branches to Winchester,
+Exeter, Bath, Gloucester and South Wales. A third, known afterwards to the
+English as Watling Street, ran by St Albans Wall near Lichfield
+(Letocetum), to Wroxeter and Chester. It also gave access by a branch to
+Leicester and Lincoln. A fourth served Colchester, the eastern counties,
+Lincoln and York. The fifth is that known to the English as the Fosse,
+which joins Lincoln and Leicester with Cirencester, Bath and Exeter.
+Besides these five groups, an obscure road, called by the Saxons Akeman
+Street, gave alternative access from London through Alchester (outside of
+Bicester) to Bath, while another obscure road winds south from near
+Sheffield, past Derby and Birmingham, and connects the lower Severn with
+the Humber. By these roads and their various branches the Romans provided
+adequate communications throughout the lowlands of Britain.
+
+IV. _The End of Roman Britain._--Early in the 4th century it was necessary
+to establish a special coast defence, reaching from the Wash to Spithead,
+against Saxon pirates: there were forts at Brancaster, Borough Castle (near
+Yarmouth), Bradwell (at the mouth of the Colne and Blackwater), Reculver,
+Richborough, Dover and Lymme (all in Kent), Pevensey in Sussex, Porchester
+near Portsmouth, and perhaps also at Felixstowe in Suffolk. After about
+350, barbarian assaults, not only of Saxons but also of Irish (Scoti) and
+Picts, became commoner and more terrible. At the end of the century Magnus
+Maximus, claiming to be emperor, withdrew many troops from Britain and a
+later pretender did the same. Early in the 5th century the Teutonic
+conquest of Gaul cut the island off from Rome. This does not mean that
+there was any great "departure of Romans." The central government simply
+ceased to send the usual governors and high officers. The Romano-British
+were left to themselves. Their position was weak. Their fortresses lay in
+the north and west, while the Saxons attacked the east and south. Their
+trained troops, and even their own numbers, must have been few. It is
+intelligible that they followed a precedent set by Rome in that age, and
+hired Saxons to repel Saxons. But they could not command the fidelity of
+their mercenaries, and the Saxon peril only grew greater. It would seem as
+if the Romano-Britons were speedily driven from the east of the island.
+Even Wroxeter on the Welsh border may have been finally destroyed before
+the end of the 5th century. It seems that the Saxons though apparently
+unable to maintain their hold so far to the west, were able to prevent the
+natives from recovering the lowlands. Thus driven from the centres of
+Romanized life, from the region of walled cities and civilized houses, into
+the hills of Wales and the north-west, the provincials underwent an
+intelligible change. The Celtic element, never quite extinct in those hills
+and, like most forms of barbarism, reasserting itself in this wild age--not
+without reinforcement from Ireland--challenged the remnants of Roman
+civilization and in the end absorbed them. The Celtic language reappeared;
+the Celtic art emerged from its shelters in the west to develop in new and
+medieval fashions.
+
+AUTHORITIES.--The principal references to early Britain in classical
+writers occur in Strabo, Diodorus, Julius Caesar, the elder Pliny, Tacitus,
+Ptolemy and Cassius Dio, and in the lists of the Antonine Itinerary
+(probably about A.D. 210-230; ed. Parthey, 1848), the _Notitia Dignitatum_
+(about A.D. 400; ed. Seeck, 1876), and the Ravennas (7th-century
+_rechauffe_; ed. Parthey 1860). The chief passages are collected in
+Petrie's _Monumenta Hist. Britann._ (1848), and (alphabetically) in
+Holder's _Altkeltische Sprachschatz_ (1896-1908). The Roman inscriptions
+have been collected by Huebner, _Corpus Inscriptionum Latin._ vii. (1873),
+and in supplements by Huebner and Haverfield in the periodical _Ephemeris
+epigraphica_; see also Huebner, _Inscript. Britann. Christianae_ (1876, now
+out of date), and J. Rhys on Pictish, &c., inscriptions, _Proceedings Soc.
+Antiq. Scotland_, xxvi., xxxii.
+
+Of modern works the best summary for Roman Britain and for Caesar's
+invasions is T.R. Holmes, _Ancient Britain_ (1907), who cites numerous
+authorities. See also Sir John Evans, _Stone Implements, [v.04 p.0589]
+Bronze Implements_, and _Ancient British Coins_ (with suppl.); Boyd
+Dawkins, _Early Man in Britain_ (1880); J. Rhys, _Celtic Britain_ (3rd ed.,
+1904). For late Celtic art see J.M. Kemble and A.W. Franks' _Horae Ferales_
+(1863), and Arthur J. Evans in _Archaeologia_, vols. lii.-lv. Celtic
+ethnology and philology (see CELT) are still in the "age of discussion."
+For ancient earthworks see A. Hadrian Allcroft, _Earthwork of England_
+(1909).
+
+For Roman Britain see, in general, Prof. F. Haverfield, _The Romanization
+of Roman Britain_ (Oxford, 1906), and his articles in the _Victoria County
+History_; also the chapter in Mommsen's _Roman Provinces_; and an article
+in the _Edinburgh Review_, 1899. For the wall of Hadrian see John Hodgson,
+_History of Northumberland_ (1840); J.C. Bruce, _Roman Wall_ (3rd ed.,
+1867); reports of excavations by Haverfield in the _Cumberland
+Archaeological Society Transactions_ (1894-1904); and R.C. Bosanquet,
+_Roman Camp at Housesteads_ (Newcastle, 1904). For the Scottish Excavations
+see _Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland_, xx.-xl., and
+especially J. Macdonald, _Bar Hill_ (reprint, Glasgow, 1906). For other
+forts see R.S. Ferguson, _Cumberland Arch. Soc. Trans._ xii., on Hardknott;
+and J. Ward, _Roman Fort of Gellygaer_ (London, 1903). For the Roman
+occupation of Scotland see Haverfield in _Antonine Wall Report_ (1899); J.
+Macdonald, _Roman Stones in Hunterian Mus._ (1897); and, though an older
+work, Stuart's _Caledonia Romana_ (1852). For Silchester, _Archaeologia_
+(1890-1908); for Caerwent (ib. 1901-1908); for London, Charles Roach Smith,
+_Roman London_ (1859); for Christianity in Roman Britain, _Engl. Hist.
+Rev._ (1896); for the villages, Gen. Pitt-Rivers' _Excavations in Cranborne
+Chase, &c._ (4 vols., 1887-1908), and _Proc. Soc. of Ant._ xviii. For the
+end of Roman Britain see _Engl. Hist. Rev._ (1904); Prof. Bury's _Life of
+St Patrick_ (1905); Haverfield's _Romanization_ (cited above); and P.
+Vinogradoff, _Growth of the Manor_ (1905), bk. i.
+
+(F. J. H.)
+
+ANGLO-SAXON BRITAIN
+
+1. _History._--The history of Britain after the withdrawal of the Roman
+troops is extremely obscure, but there can be little doubt that for many
+years the inhabitants of the provinces were exposed to devastating raids by
+the Picts and Scots. According to Gildas it was for protection against
+these incursions that the Britons decided to call in the Saxons. Their
+allies soon obtained a decisive victory; but subsequently they turned their
+arms against the Britons themselves, alleging that they had not received
+sufficient payment for their services. A somewhat different account,
+probably of English origin, may be traced in the _Historia Brittonum_,
+according to which the first leaders of the Saxons, Hengest and Horsa, came
+as exiles, seeking the protection of the British king, Vortigern. Having
+embraced his service they quickly succeeded in expelling the northern
+invaders. Eventually, however, they overcame the Britons through treachery,
+by inducing the king to allow them to send for large bodies of their own
+countrymen. It was to these adventurers, according to tradition, that the
+kingdom of Kent owed its origin. The story is in itself by no means
+improbable, while the dates assigned to the first invasion by various
+Welsh, Gaulish and English authorities, with one exception all fall within
+about a quarter of a century, viz. between the year 428 and the joint reign
+of Martian and Valentinian III. (450-455).
+
+For the subsequent course of the invasion our information is of the most
+meagre and unsatisfactory character. According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
+the kingdom of Sussex was founded by a certain Ella or AElle, who landed in
+477, while Wessex owed its origin to Cerdic, who arrived some eighteen
+years later. No value, however, can be attached to these dates; indeed, in
+the latter case the story itself is open to suspicion on several grounds
+(see WESSEX). For the movements which led to the foundation of the more
+northern kingdoms we have no evidence worth consideration, nor do we know
+even approximately when they took place. But the view that the invasion was
+effected throughout by small bodies of adventurers acting independently of
+one another, and that each of the various kingdoms owes its origin to a
+separate enterprise, has little probability in its favour. Bede states that
+the invaders belonged to three different nations, Kent and southern
+Hampshire being occupied by Jutes (_q.v._), while Essex, Sussex and Wessex
+were founded by the Saxons, and the remaining kingdoms by the Angli
+(_q.v._). The peculiarities of social organization in Kent certainly tend
+to show that this kingdom had a different origin from the rest; but the
+evidence for the distinction between the Saxons and the Angli is of a much
+less satisfactory character (see ANGLO-SAXONS). The royal family of Essex
+may really have been of Saxon origin (see ESSEX), but on the other hand the
+West Saxon royal family claimed to be of the same stock as that of
+Bernicia, and their connexions in the past seem to have lain with the
+Angli.
+
+We need not doubt that the first invasion was followed by a long period of
+warfare between the natives and the invaders, in which the latter gradually
+strengthened their hold on the conquered territories. It is very probable
+that by the end of the 5th century all the eastern part of Britain, at
+least as far as the Humber, was in their hands. The first important check
+was received at the siege of "Mons Badonicus" in the year 517 (_Ann.
+Cambr._), or perhaps rather some fifteen or twenty years earlier. According
+to Gildas this event was followed by a period of peace for at least
+forty-four years. In the latter part of the 6th century, however, the
+territories occupied by the invaders seem to have been greatly extended. In
+the south the West Saxons are said to have conquered first Wiltshire and
+then all the upper part of the Thames valley, together with the country
+beyond as far as the Severn. The northern frontier also seems to have been
+pushed considerably farther forward, perhaps into what is now Scotland, and
+it is very probable that the basin of the Trent, together with the central
+districts between the Trent and the Thames, was conquered about the same
+time, though of this we have no record. Again, the destruction of Chester
+about 615 was soon followed by the overthrow of the British kingdom of
+Elmet in south-west Yorkshire, and the occupation of Shropshire and the
+Lothians took place perhaps about the same period, that of Herefordshire
+probably somewhat later. In the south, Somerset is said to have been
+conquered by the West Saxons shortly after the middle of the 7th century.
+Dorset had probably been acquired by them before this time, while part of
+Devon seems to have come into their hands soon afterwards.
+
+The area thus conquered was occupied by a number of separate kingdoms, each
+with a royal family of its own. The districts north of the Humber contained
+two kingdoms, Bernicia (_q.v._) and Deira (_q.v._), which were eventually
+united in Northumbria. South of the Humber, Lindsey seems to have had a
+dynasty of its own, though in historical times it was apparently always
+subject to the kings of Northumbria or Mercia. The upper basin of the Trent
+formed the nucleus of the kingdom of Mercia (_q.v._), while farther down
+the east coast was the kingdom of East Anglia (_q.v._). Between these two
+lay a territory called Middle Anglia, which is sometimes described as a
+kingdom, though we do not know whether it ever had a separate dynasty.
+Essex, Kent and Sussex (see articles on these kingdoms) preserve the names
+of ancient kingdoms, while the old diocese of Worcester grew out of the
+kingdom of the Hwicce (_q.v._), with which it probably coincided in area.
+The south of England, between Sussex and "West Wales" (eventually reduced
+to Cornwall), was occupied by Wessex, which originally also possessed some
+territory to the north of the Thames. Lastly, even the Isle of Wight
+appears to have had a dynasty of its own. But it must not be supposed that
+all these kingdoms were always, or even normally, independent. When history
+begins, AEthelberht, king of Kent, was supreme over all the kings south of
+the Humber. He was followed by the East Anglian king Raedwald, and the
+latter again by a series of Northumbrian kings with an even wider
+supremacy. Before AEthelberht a similar position had been held by the West
+Saxon king Ceawlin, and at a much earlier period, according to tradition,
+by Ella or AElle, the first king of Sussex. The nature of this supremacy has
+been much discussed, but the true explanation seems to be furnished by that
+principle of personal allegiance which formed such an important element in
+Anglo-Saxon society.
+
+2. _Government._--Internally the various states seem to have been organized
+on very similar lines. In every case we find kingly government from the
+time of our earliest records, and there is no doubt that the institution
+goes back to a date anterior to the invasion of Britain (see OFFA;
+WERMUND). The royal title, however, was frequently borne by more than one
+person. Sometimes we find one supreme king together with a number of
+under-kings (_subreguli_); sometimes again, especially in the smaller
+kingdoms, Essex, Sussex and Hwicce, we meet with two [v.04 p.0590] or more
+kings, generally brothers, reigning together apparently on equal terms.
+During the greater part of the 8th century Kent seems to have been divided
+into two kingdoms; but as a rule such divisions did not last beyond the
+lifetime of the kings between whom the arrangement had been made. The kings
+were, with very rare exceptions, chosen from one particular family in each
+state, the ancestry of which was traced back not only to the founder of the
+kingdom but also, in a remoter degree, to a god. The members of such
+families were entitled to special wergilds, apparently six times as great
+as those of the higher class of nobles (see below).
+
+The only other central authority in the state was the king's council or
+court (_þeod_, _witan_, _plebs_, _concilium_). This body consisted partly
+of young warriors in constant attendance on the king, and partly of senior
+officials whom he called together from time to time. The terms used for the
+two classes by Bede are _milites_ (_ministri_) and _comites_, for which the
+Anglo-Saxon version has _þegnas_ and _gesiethas_ respectively. Both classes
+alike consisted in part of members of the royal family. But they were by no
+means confined to such persons or even to born subjects of the king.
+Indeed, we are told that popular kings like Oswine attracted young nobles
+to their service from all quarters. The functions of the council have been
+much discussed, and it has been claimed that they had the right of electing
+and deposing kings. This view, however, seems to involve the existence of a
+greater feeling for constitutionalism than is warranted by the information
+at our disposal. The incidents which have been brought forward as evidence
+to this effect may with at least equal probability be interpreted as cases
+of profession or transference of personal allegiance. In other respects the
+functions of the council seem to have been of a deliberative character. It
+was certainly customary for the king to seek their advice and moral support
+on important questions, but there is nothing to show that he had to abide
+by the opinion of the majority.
+
+For administrative purposes each of the various kingdoms was divided into a
+number of districts under the charge of royal reeves (_cyninges gerefa_,
+_praefectus_, _praepositus_). These officials seem to have been located in
+royal villages (_cyninges tun_, _villa regalis_) or fortresses (_cyninges
+burg_, _urbs regis_), which served as centres and meeting-places (markets,
+&c.) for the inhabitants of the district, and to which their dues, both in
+payments and services had to be rendered. The usual size of such districts
+in early times seems to have been 300, 600 or 1200 hides.[1] In addition to
+these districts we find mention also of much larger divisions containing
+2000, 3000, 5000 or 7000 hides. To this category belong the shires of
+Wessex (Hampshire, Wiltshire, Berkshire, &c.), each of which had an earl
+(_aldormon_, _princeps_, _dux_) of its own, at all events from the 8th
+century onwards. Many, if not all, of these persons were members of the
+royal family, and it is not unlikely that they originally bore the kingly
+title. At all events they are sometimes described as _subreguli_.
+
+3. _Social Organization._--The officials mentioned above, whether of royal
+birth or not, were probably drawn from the king's personal retinue. In
+Anglo-Saxon society, as in that of all Teutonic nations in early times, the
+two most important principles were those of kinship and personal
+allegiance. If a man suffered injury it was to his relatives and his lord,
+rather than to any public official, that he applied first for protection
+and redress. If he was slain, a fixed sum (_wergild_), varying according to
+his station, had to be paid to his relatives, while a further but smaller
+sum (_manbot_) was due to his lord. These principles applied to all classes
+of society alike, and though strife within the family was by no means
+unknown, at all events in royal families, the actual slaying of a kinsman
+was regarded as the most heinous of all offences. Much the same feeling
+applied to the slaying of a lord--an offence for which no compensation
+could be rendered. How far the armed followers of a lord were entitled to
+compensation when the latter was slain is uncertain, but in the case of a
+king they received an amount equal to the wergild. Another important
+development of the principle of allegiance is to be found in the custom of
+heriots. In later times this custom amounted practically to a system of
+death-duties, payable in horses and arms or in money to the lord of the
+deceased. There can be little doubt, however, that originally it was a
+restoration to the lord of the military outfit with which he had presented
+his man when he entered his service. The institution of thegnhood, _i.e._
+membership of the _comitatus_ or retinue of a prince, offered the only
+opening by which public life could be entered. Hence it was probably
+adopted almost universally by young men of the highest classes. The thegn
+was expected to fight for his lord, and generally to place his services at
+his disposal in both war and peace. The lord, on the other hand, had to
+keep his thegns and reward them from time to time with arms and treasure.
+When they were of an age to marry he was expected to provide them with the
+means of doing so. If the lord was a king this provision took the form of a
+grant, perhaps normally ten hides, from the royal lands. Such estates were
+not strictly hereditary, though as a mark of favour they were not
+unfrequently re-granted to the sons of deceased holders.
+
+The structure of society in England was of a somewhat peculiar type. In
+addition to slaves, who in early times seem to have been numerous, we find
+in Wessex and apparently also in Mercia three classes, described as
+_twelfhynde_, _sixhynde_ and _twihynde_ from the amount of their wergilds,
+viz. 1200, 600 and 200 shillings respectively. It is probable that similar
+classes existed also in Northumbria, though not under the same names.
+Besides these terms there were others which were probably in use
+everywhere, viz. _gesiethcund_ for the two higher classes and _ceorlisc_ for
+the lowest. Indeed, we find these terms even in Kent, though the social
+system of that kingdom seems to have been of an essentially different
+character. Here the wergild of the _ceorlisc_ class amounted to 100
+shillings, each containing twenty silver coins (_sceattas_), as against 200
+shillings of four (in Wessex five) silver coins, and was thus very much
+greater than the latter. Again, there was apparently but one _gestiethcund_
+class in Kent, with a wergild of 300 shillings, while, on the other hand,
+below the _ceorlisc_ class we find three classes of persons described as
+_laetas_, who corresponded in all probability to the _liti_ or freedmen of
+the continental laws, and who possessed wergilds of 80, 60 and 40 shillings
+respectively. To these we find nothing analogous in the other kingdoms,
+though the poorer classes of Welsh freemen had wergilds varying from 120 to
+60 shillings. It should be added that the differential treatment of the
+various classes was by no means confined to the case of wergilds. We find
+it also in the compensations to which they were entitled for various
+injuries, in the fines to which they were liable, and in the value attached
+to their oaths. Generally, though not always, the proportions observed were
+the same as in the wergilds.
+
+The nature of the distinction between the _gesiethcund_ and _ceorlisc_
+classes is nowhere clearly explained; but it was certainly hereditary and
+probably of considerable antiquity. In general we may perhaps define them
+as nobles and commons, though in view of the numbers of the higher classes
+it would probably be more correct to speak of gentry and peasants. The
+distinction between the _twelfhynde_ and _sixhynde_ classes was also in
+part at least hereditary, but there is good reason for believing that it
+arose out of the possession of land. The former consisted of persons who
+possessed, whether as individuals or families, at least five hides of
+land--which practically means a village--while the latter were landless,
+_i.e._ probably without this amount of land. Within the _ceorlisc_ class we
+find similar subdivisions, though they were not marked by a difference in
+wergild. The _gafolgelda_ or _tributarius_ (tribute-payer) seems to have
+been a ceorl who possessed at least a hide, while the _gebur_ was without
+land of his own, and received his outfit as a loan from his lord.
+
+4. _Payments and Services._--We have already had occasion to refer to the
+dues which were rendered by different classes of the population, and which
+the reeves in royal villages had to collect and superintend. The payments
+seem to have varied greatly according to the class from which they were
+due. Those [v.04 p.0591] rendered by landowners seem to have been known as
+_feorm_ or _fostor_, and consisted of a fixed quantity of articles paid in
+kind. In Ine's Laws (cap. 70) we find a list of payments specified for a
+unit of ten hides, perhaps the normal holding of a _twelfhynde_ man--though
+on the other hand it may be nothing more than a mere fiscal unit in an
+aggregate of estates. The list consists of oxen, sheep, geese, hens, honey,
+ale, loaves, cheese, butter, fodder, salmon and eels. Very similar
+specifications are found elsewhere. The payments rendered by the
+_gafolgelda_ (_tributarius_) were known as _gafol_ (_tributuni_), as his
+name implies. In Ine's Laws we hear only of the _hwitel_ or white cloak,
+which was to be of the value of six pence per household (hide), and of
+barley, which was to be six pounds in weight for each worker. In later
+times we meet with many other payments both in money and in kind, some of
+which were doubtless in accordance with ancient custom. On the other hand
+the _gebur_ seems not to have been liable to payments of this kind,
+presumably because the land which he cultivated formed part of the demesne
+(_inland_) of his lord. The term _gafol_, however, may have been applied to
+the payments which he rendered to the latter.
+
+The services required of landowners were very manifold in character.
+Probably the most important were military service (_fird_, _expeditio_) and
+the repairing of fortifications and bridges--the _trinoda necessitas_ of
+later times. Besides these we find reference in charters of the 9th century
+to the keeping of the king's hunters, horses, dogs and hawks, and the
+entertaining of messengers and other persons in the king's service. The
+duties of men of the _sixhynde_ class, if they are to be identified with
+the _radcnihtas_ (_radmanni_) of later times, probably consisted chiefly in
+riding on the king's (or their lord's) business. The services of the
+peasantry can only be conjectured from what we find in later times.
+Presumably their chief duty was to undertake a share in the cultivation of
+the demesne land. We need scarcely doubt also that the labour of repairing
+fortifications and bridges, though it is charged against the landowners,
+was in reality delegated by them to their dependents.
+
+5. _Warfare._--All classes are said to have been liable to the duty of
+military service. Hence, since the ceorls doubtless formed the bulk of the
+population, it has been thought that the Anglo-Saxon armies of early times
+were essentially peasant forces. The evidence at our disposal, however,
+gives little justification for such a view. The regulation that every five
+or six hides should supply a warrior was not a product of the Danish
+invasions, as is sometimes stated, but goes back at least to the beginning
+of the 9th century. Had the fighting material been drawn from the
+_ceorlisc_ class a warrior would surely have been required from each hide,
+but for military service no such regulation is found. Again, the fird
+(_fyrd_) was composed of mounted warriors during the 9th century, though
+apparently they fought on foot, and there are indications that such was the
+case also in the 7th century. No doubt ceorls took part in military
+expeditions, but they may have gone as attendants and camp-followers rather
+than as warriors, their chief business being to make stockades and bridges,
+and especially to carry provisions. The serious fighting, however, was
+probably left to the _gesiethcund_ classes, who possessed horses and more or
+less effective weapons. Indeed, there is good reason for regarding these
+classes as essentially military.
+
+The chief weapons were the sword and spear. The former were two-edged and
+on the average about 3 ft. long. The hilts were often elaborately
+ornamented and sometimes these weapons were of considerable value. No
+definite line can be drawn between the spear proper and the javelin. The
+spear-heads which have been found in graves vary considerably in both form
+and size. They were fitted on to the shaft, by a socket which was open on
+one side. Other weapons appear to have been quite rare. Bows and arrows
+were certainly in use for sporting purposes, but there is no reason for
+believing that they were much used in warfare before the Danish invasions.
+They are very seldom met with in graves. The most common article of
+defensive armour was the shield, which was small and circular and
+apparently of quite thin lime-wood, the edge being formed probably by a
+thin band of iron. In the centre of the shield, in order to protect the
+hand which held it, was a strong iron boss, some 7 in. in diameter and
+projecting about 3 in. It is clear from literary evidence that the helmet
+(_helm_) and coat of chain mail (_byrne_) were also in common use. They are
+seldom found in graves, however, whether owing to the custom of heriots or
+to the fact that, on account of their relatively high value, they were
+frequently handed on from generation to generation as heirlooms. Greaves
+are not often mentioned. It is worth noting that in later times the heriot
+of an "ordinary thegn" (_medema þegn_)--by which is meant apparently not a
+king's thegn but a man of the _twelfhynde_ class--consisted of his horse
+with its saddle, &c. and his arms, or two pounds of silver as an equivalent
+of the whole. The arms required were probably a sword, helmet, coat of mail
+and one or two spears and shields. There are distinct indications that a
+similar outfit was fairly common in Ine's time, and that its value was much
+the same. One would scarcely be justified, however, in supposing that it
+was anything like universal; for the purchasing power of such a sum was at
+that time considerable, representing as it did about 16-20 oxen or 100-120
+sheep. It would hardly be safe to credit men of the _sixhynde_ class in
+general with more than a horse, spear and shield.
+
+6. _Agriculture and Village Life._--There is no doubt that a fairly
+advanced system of agriculture must have been known to the Anglo-Saxons
+before they settled in Britain. This is made clear above all by the
+representation of a plough drawn by two oxen in one of the very ancient
+rock-carvings at Tegneby in Bohuslaen. In Domesday Book the heavy plough
+with eight oxen seems to be universal, and it can be traced back in Kent to
+the beginning of the 9th century. In this kingdom the system of
+agricultural terminology was based on it. The unit was the _sulung_
+(_aratrum_) or ploughland (from _sulh_, "plough"), the fourth part of which
+was the _geocled_ or _geoc_ (_jugum_), originally a yoke of oxen. An
+analogy is supplied by the _carucata_ of the Danelagh, the eighth part of
+which was the _bouata_ or "ox-land." In the 10th century the _sulung_ seems
+to have been identified with the hide, but in earlier times it contained
+apparently two hides. The hide itself, which was the regular unit in the
+other kingdoms, usually contained 120 acres in later times and was divided
+into four _girda_ (_virgatae_) or yardlands. But originally it seems to
+have meant simply the land pertaining to a household, and its area in early
+times is quite uncertain, though probably far less. For the acre also there
+was in later times a standard length and breadth, the former being called
+_furhlang_ (_furlong_) and reckoned at one-eighth of a mile, while the
+_aecerbraedu_ or "acre-breadth" (chain) was also a definite measure. We
+need not doubt, however, that in practice the form of the acre was largely
+conditioned by the nature of the ground. Originally it is thought to have
+been the measure of a day's ploughing, in which case the dimensions given
+above would scarcely be reached. Account must also be taken of the
+possibility that in early times lighter teams were in general use. If so
+the normal dimensions of the acre may very well have been quite different.
+
+The husbandry was of a co-operative character. In the 11th century it was
+distinctly unusual for a peasant to possess a whole team of his own, and
+there is no reason for supposing the case to have been otherwise in early
+times; for though the peasant might then hold a hide, the hide itself was
+doubtless smaller and not commensurate in any way with the ploughland. The
+holdings were probably not compact but consisted of scattered strips in
+common fields, changed perhaps from year to year, the choice being
+determined by lot or otherwise. As for the method of cultivation itself
+there is little or no evidence. Both the "two-course system" and the
+"three-course system" may have been in use; but on the other hand it is
+quite possible that in many cases the same ground was not sown more than
+once in three years. The prevalence of the co-operative principle, it may
+be observed, was doubtless due in large measure to the fact that the
+greater part of England, especially towards the east, was settled not in
+scattered farms or hamlets but in compact villages with the cultivated
+lands lying round them.
+
+[v.04 p.0592] The mill was another element which tended to promote the same
+principle. There can be little doubt that before the Anglo-Saxons came to
+Britain they possessed no instrument for grinding corn except the quern
+(_cweorn_), and in remote districts this continued in use until quite late
+times. The grinding seems to have been performed chiefly by female slaves,
+but occasionally we hear also of a donkey-mill (_esolcweorn_). The mill
+proper, however, which was derived from the Romans, as its name (_mylen_,
+from Lat. _molina_) indicates, must have come into use fairly early. In the
+11th century every village of any size seems to have possessed one, while
+the earliest references go back to the 8th century. It is not unlikely that
+they were in use during the Roman occupation of Britain, and consequently
+that they became known to the invaders almost from the first. The mills
+were presumably driven for the most part by water, though we have a
+reference to a windmill as early as the year 833.
+
+All the ordinary domestic animals were known. Cattle and sheep were
+pastured on the common lands appertaining to the village, while pigs, which
+(especially in Kent) seem to have been very numerous, were kept in the
+woods. Bee-keeping was also practised. In all these matters the invasion of
+Britain had brought about no change. The cultivation of fruit and
+vegetables on the other hand was probably almost entirely new. The names
+are almost all derived from Latin, though most of them seem to have been
+known soon after the invasion, at all events by the 7th century.
+
+From the considerations pointed out above we can hardly doubt that the
+village possessed a certain amount of corporate life, centred perhaps in an
+ale-house where its affairs were discussed by the inhabitants. There is no
+evidence, however, which would justify us in crediting such gatherings with
+any substantial degree of local authority. So far as the limited
+information at our disposal enables us to form an opinion, the
+responsibility both for the internal peace of the village, and for its
+obligations to the outside world, seems to have lain with the lord or his
+steward (_gerefa_, _villicus_) from the beginning. A quite opposite view
+has, it is true, found favour with many scholars, viz. that the villages
+were orginally settlements of free kindreds, and that the lord's authority
+was superimposed on them at a later date. This view is based mainly on the
+numerous place-names ending in _-ing_, _-ingham_, _-ington_, &c., in which
+the syllable _-ing_ is thought to refer to kindreds of cultivators. It is
+more probable, however, that these names are derived from persons of the
+_twelfhynde_ class to whom the land had been granted. In many cases indeed
+there is good reason for doubting whether the name is a patronymic at all.
+
+The question how far the villages were really new settlements is difficult
+to answer, for the terminations _-ham_, _-ton_, &c. cannot be regarded as
+conclusive evidence. Thus according to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (ann. 571)
+Bensington and Eynsham were formerly British villages. Even if the first
+part of Egonesham is English--which is by no means certain--it is hardly
+sufficient reason for discrediting this statement, for Canterbury
+(_Cantwaraburg_) and Rochester (_Hrofes ceaster_) were without doubt Roman
+places in spite of their English names. On the whole it seems likely that
+the cultivation of the land was not generally interrupted for more than a
+very few years; hence the convenience of utilizing existing sites of
+villages would be obvious, even if the buildings themselves had been burnt.
+
+7. _Towns._--Gildas states that in the time of the Romans Britain contained
+twenty-eight cities (_civitates_), besides a number of fortresses
+(_castetta_). Most of these were situated within the territories eventually
+occupied by the invaders, and reappear as towns in later times. Their
+history in the intervening period, however, is wrapped in obscurity.
+Chester appears to have been deserted for three centuries after its
+destruction early in the 7th century, and in most of the other cases there
+are features observable in the situation and plan of the medieval town
+which suggest that its occupation had not been continuous. Yet London and
+Canterbury must have recovered a certain amount of importance quite early,
+at all events within two centuries after the invasion, and the same is
+probably true of York, Lincoln and a few other places. The term applied to
+both the cities and the fortresses of the Romans was _ceaster_ (Lat.
+_castra_), less frequently the English word _burg_. There is little or no
+evidence for the existence of towns other than Roman in early times, for
+the word _urbs_ is merely a translation of _burg_, which was used for any
+fortified dwelling-place, and it is improbable that anything which could
+properly be called a town was known to the invaders before their arrival in
+Britain. The Danish settlements at the end of the 9th century and the
+defensive system initiated by King Alfred gave birth to a new series of
+fortified towns, from which the boroughs of the middle ages are mainly
+descended.
+
+8. _Houses._--Owing to the fact that houses were built entirely of
+perishable materials, wood and wattle, we are necessarily dependent almost
+wholly upon literary evidence for knowledge of this subject. Stone seems to
+have been used first for churches, but this was not before the 7th century,
+and we are told that at first masons were imported from Gaul. Indeed wood
+was used for many churches, as well as for most secular buildings, until a
+much later period. The walls were formed either of stout planks laid
+together vertically or horizontally, or else of posts at a short distance
+from one another, the interstices being filled up with wattlework daubed
+with clay. It is not unlikely that the houses of wealthy persons were
+distinguished by a good deal of ornamentation in carving and painting. The
+roof was high-pitched and covered with straw, hay, reeds or tiles. The
+regular form of the buildings was rectangular, the gable sides probably
+being shorter than the others. There is little evidence for partitions
+inside, and in wealthy establishments the place of rooms seems to have been
+supplied by separate buildings within the same enclosure. The windows must
+have been mere openings in the walls or roof, for glass was not used for
+this purpose before the latter part of the 7th century. Stoves were known,
+but most commonly heat was obtained from an open fire in the centre of the
+building. Of the various buildings in a wealthy establishment the chief
+were the hall (_heall_), which was both a dining and reception room, and
+the "lady's bower" (_brydbur_), which served also as a bedroom for the
+master and mistress. To these we have to add buildings for the attendants,
+kitchen, bakehouse, &c., and farm buildings. There is little or no evidence
+for the use of two-storeyed houses in early times, though in the 10th and
+11th centuries they were common. The whole group of buildings stood in an
+enclosure (_tun_) surrounded by a stockade (_burg_), which perhaps rested
+on an earthwork, though this is disputed. Similarly the homestead of the
+peasant was surrounded by a fence (_edor_).
+
+9. _Clothes._--The chief material for clothing was at first no doubt wool,
+though linen must also have been used and later became fairly common. The
+chief garments were the coat (_roc_), the trousers (_brec_), and the cloak,
+for which there seem to have been a number of names (_loetha_, _hacele_,
+_sciccing_, _pad_, _hwitel_). To these we may add the hat (_haet_), belt
+(_gyrdel_), stockings (_hosa_), shoes (_scoh_, _gescy_, _rifeling_) and
+gloves (_glof_). The _crusene_ was a fur coat, while the _serc_ or _smoc_
+seems to have been an undergarment and probably sleeveless. The whole
+attire was of national origin and had probably been in use long before the
+invasion of Britain. In the great bog-deposit at Thorsbjaerg in Angel,
+which dates from about the 4th century, there were found a coat with long
+sleeves, in a fair state of preservation, a pair of long trousers with
+remains of socks attached, several shoes and portions of square cloaks, one
+of which had obviously been dyed green. The dress of the upper classes must
+have been of a somewhat gorgeous character, especially when account is
+taken of the brooches and other ornaments which they wore. It is worth
+noting that according to Jordanes the Swedes in the 6th century were
+splendidly dressed.
+
+10. _Trade._--The few notices of this subject which occur in the early laws
+seem to refer primarily to cattle-dealing. But there can be no doubt that a
+considerable import and export trade with the continent had sprung up quite
+early. In Bede's time, if not before, London was resorted to by many
+merchants both by land and by sea. At first the chief export trade was
+[v.04 p.0593] probably in slaves. English slaves were to be obtained in
+Rome even before the end of the 6th century, as appears from the well-known
+story of Gregory the Great. Since the standard price of slaves on the
+continent was in general three or four times as great as it was in England,
+the trade must have been very profitable. After the adoption of
+Christianity it was gradually prohibited by the laws. The nature of the
+imports during the heathen period may be learned chiefly from the graves,
+which contain many brooches and other ornaments of continental origin, and
+also a certain number of silver, bronze and glass vessels. With the
+introduction of Christianity the ecclesiastical connexion between England
+and the continent without doubt brought about a large increase in the
+imports of secular as well as religious objects, and the frequency of
+pilgrimages by persons of high rank must have had the same effect. The use
+of silk (_seoluc_) and the adoption of the mancus (see below) point to
+communication, direct or indirect, with more distant countries. In the 8th
+century we hear frequently of tolls on merchant ships at various ports,
+especially London.
+
+11. _Coinage._--The earliest coins which can be identified with certainty
+are some silver pieces which bear in Runic letters the name of the Mercian
+king AEthelred (675-704). There are others, however, of the same type and
+standard (about 21 grains) which may be attributed with probability to his
+father Penda (d. 655). But it is clear from the laws of AEthelberht that a
+regular silver coinage was in use at least half a century before this time,
+and it is not unlikely that many unidentified coins may go back to the 6th
+century. These are fairly numerous, and are either without inscriptions or,
+if they do bear letters at all, they seem to be mere corruptions of Roman
+legends. Their designs are derived from Roman or Frankish coins, especially
+the former, and their weight varies from about 10 to 21 grains, though the
+very light coins are rare. Anonymous gold coins, resembling Frankish
+trientes in type and standard (21 grains), are also fairly common, though
+they must have passed out of use very early, as the laws give no hint of
+their existence. Larger gold coins (_solidi_) are very rare. In the early
+laws the money actually in use appears to have been entirely silver. In
+Offa's time a new gold coin, the _mancus_, resembling in standard the Roman
+solidus (about 70 grains), was introduced from Mahommedan countries. The
+oldest extant specimen bears a faithfully copied Arabic inscription. In the
+same reign the silver coins underwent a considerable change in type, being
+made larger and thinner, while from this time onwards they always bore the
+name of the king (or queen or archbishop) for whom they were issued. The
+design and execution also became remarkably good. Their weight was at first
+unaffected, but probably towards the close of Offa's reign it was raised to
+about 23 grains, at which standard it seems to have remained, nominally at
+least, until the time of Alfred. It is to be observed that with the
+exception of Burgred's coins and a few anonymous pieces the silver was
+never adulterated. No bronze coins were current except in Northumbria,
+where they were extremely common in the 9th century.
+
+Originally _scilling_ ("shilling") and _sceatt_ seem to have been the terms
+for gold and silver coins respectively. By the time of Ine, however,
+_pending_, _pen(n)ing_ ("penny"), had already come into use for the latter,
+while, owing to the temporary disappearance of a gold coinage, _scilling_
+had come to denote a mere unit of account. It was, however, a variable
+unit, for the Kentish shilling contained twenty _sceattas_ (pence), while
+the Mercian contained only four. The West Saxon shilling seems originally
+to have been identical with the Mercian, but later it contained five pence.
+Large payments were generally made by weight, 240-250 pence being reckoned
+to the pound, perhaps from the 7th century onwards. The mancus was equated
+with thirty pence, probably from the time of its introduction. This means
+that the value of gold relatively to silver was 10:1 from the end of Offa's
+reign. There is reason, however, for thinking that in earlier times it was
+as low as 6:1, or even 5:1. In Northumbria a totally different monetary
+system prevailed, the unit being the _tryms_, which contained three
+_sceattas_ or pence. As to the value of the bronze coins we are without
+information.
+
+The purchasing power of money was very great. The sheep was valued at a
+shilling in both Wessex and Mercia, from early times till the 11th century.
+One pound was the normal price of a slave and half a pound that of a horse.
+The price of a pig was twice, and that of an ox six times as great as that
+of a sheep. Regarding the prices of commodities other than live-stock we
+have little definite information, though an approximate estimate may be
+made of the value of arms. It is worth noticing that we often hear of
+payments in gold and silver vessels in place of money. In the former case
+the mancus was the usual unit of calculation.
+
+12. _Ornaments._--Of these the most interesting are the brooches which were
+worn by both sexes and of which large numbers have been found in heathen
+cemeteries. They may be classed under eight leading types: (1) circular or
+ring-shaped, (2) cruciform, (3) square-headed, (4) radiated, (5) S-shaped,
+(6) bird-shaped, (7) disk-shaped, (8) cupelliform or saucer-shaped. Of
+these Nos. 5 and 6 appear to be of continental origin, and this is probably
+the case also with No. 4 and in part with No. 7. But the last-mentioned
+type varies greatly, from rude and almost plain disks of bronze to
+magnificent gold specimens studded with gems. No. 8 is believed to be
+peculiar to England, and occurs chiefly in the southern Midlands, specimens
+being usually found in pairs. The interiors are gilt, often furnished with
+detachable plates and sometimes set with brilliants. The remaining types
+were probably brought over by the Anglo-Saxons at the time of the invasion.
+Nos. 1 and 3 are widespread outside England, but No. 2, though common in
+Scandinavian countries, is hardly to be met with south of the Elbe. It is
+worth noting that a number of specimens were found in the cremation
+cemetery at Borgstedterfeld near Rendsburg. In England it occurs chiefly in
+the more northern counties. Nos. 2 and 3 vary greatly in size, from 21/2 to 7
+in. or more. The smaller specimens are quite plain, but the larger ones are
+gilt and generally of a highly ornamental character. In later times we hear
+of brooches worth as much as six mancusas, _i.e._ equivalent to six oxen.
+
+Among other ornaments we may mention hairpins, rings and ear-rings, and
+especially buckles which are often of elaborate workmanship. Bracelets and
+necklets are not very common, a fact which is rather surprising, as in
+early times, before the issuing of a coinage, these articles (_beagas_)
+took the place of money to a large extent. The glass vessels are finely
+made and of somewhat striking appearance, though they closely resemble
+contemporary continental types. Since the art of glass-working was unknown,
+according to Bede, until nearly the end of the 7th century, it is probable
+that these were all of continental or Roman-British origin.
+
+13. _Amusements_.--It is clear from the frequent references to dogs and
+hawks in the charters that hunting and falconry were keenly pursued by the
+kings and their retinues. Games, whether indoor or outdoor, are much less
+frequently mentioned, but there is no doubt that the use of dice (_taefl_)
+was widespread. At court much time was given to poetic recitation, often
+accompanied by music, and accomplished poets received liberal rewards. The
+chief musical instrument was the harp (_hearpe_), which is often mentioned.
+Less frequently we hear of the flute (_pipe_) and later also of the fiddle
+(_fiethele_). Trumpets (_horn_, _swegelhorn_, _byme_) appear to have been
+used chiefly as signals.
+
+14. _Writing._--The Runic alphabet seems to have been the only form of
+writing known to the Anglo-Saxons before the invasion of Britain, and
+indeed until the adoption of Christianity. In its earliest form, as it
+appears in inscriptions on various articles found in Schleswig and in
+Scandinavian countries, it consisted of twenty-four letters, all of which
+occur in abecedaria in England. In actual use, however, two letters soon
+became obsolete, but a number of others were added from time to time, some
+of which are found also on the continent, while others are peculiar to
+certain parts of England. Originally the Runic alphabet seems to have been
+used for writing on wooden boards, though none of these have survived. The
+inscriptions which have come down to us are engraved partly on memorial
+stones, [v.04 p.0594] which are not uncommon in the north of England, and
+partly on various metal objects, ranging from swords to brooches. The
+adoption of Christianity brought about the introduction of the Roman
+alphabet; but the older form of writing did not immediately pass out of
+use, for almost all the inscriptions which we possess date from the 7th or
+following centuries. Coins with Runic legends were issued at least until
+the middle of the 8th century, and some of the memorial stones date
+probably even from the 9th. The most important of the latter are the column
+at Bewcastle, Cumberland, believed to commemorate Alhfrith, the son of
+Oswio, who died about 670, and the cross at Ruthwell, Dumfriesshire, which
+is probably about a century later. The Roman alphabet was very soon applied
+to the purpose of writing the native language, _e.g._ in the publication of
+the laws of AEthelberht. Yet the type of character in which even the
+earliest surviving MSS. are written is believed to be of Celtic origin.
+Most probably it was introduced by the Irish missionaries who evangelized
+the north of England, though Welsh influence is scarcely impossible.
+Eventually this alphabet was enlarged (probably before the end of the 7th
+century) by the inclusion of two Runic letters for _th_ and _w_.
+
+15. _Marriage._--This is perhaps the subject on which our information is
+most inadequate. It is evident that the relationships which prohibited
+marriage were different from those recognized by the Church; but the only
+fact which we know definitely is that it was customary, at least in Kent,
+for a man to marry his stepmother. In the Kentish laws marriage is
+represented as hardly more than a matter of purchase; but whether this was
+the case in the other kingdoms also the evidence at our disposal is
+insufficient to decide. We know, however, that in addition to the sum paid
+to the bride's guardian, it was customary for the bridegroom to make a
+present (_morgengifu_) to the bride herself, which, in the case of queens,
+often consisted of a residence and considerable estates. Such persons also
+had retinues and fortified residences of their own. In the Kentish laws
+provision is made for widows to receive a proportionate share in their
+husbands' property.
+
+16. _Funeral Rites._--Both inhumation and cremation were practised in
+heathen times. The former seems to have prevailed everywhere; the latter,
+however, was much more common in the more northern counties than in the
+south, though cases are fairly numerous throughout the valley of the
+Thames. In _Beowulf_ cremation is represented as the prevailing custom.
+There is no evidence that it was still practised when the Roman and Celtic
+missionaries arrived, but it is worth noting that according to the
+tradition given in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Oxfordshire, where the custom
+seems to have been fairly common, was not conquered before the latter part
+of the 6th century. The burnt remains were generally, if not always,
+enclosed in urns and then buried. The urns themselves are of clay, somewhat
+badly baked, and bear geometrical patterns applied with a punch. They vary
+considerably in size (from 4 to 12 in. or more in diameter) and closely
+resemble those found in northern Germany. Inhumation graves are sometimes
+richly furnished. The skeleton is laid out at full length, generally with
+the head towards the west or north, a spear at one side and a sword and
+shield obliquely across the middle. Valuable brooches and other ornaments
+are often found. In many other cases, however, the grave contained nothing
+except a small knife and a simple brooch or a few beads. Usually both
+classes of graves lie below the natural surface of the ground without any
+perceptible trace of a barrow.
+
+17. _Religion._--Here again the information at our disposal is very
+limited. There can be little doubt that the heathen Angli worshipped
+certain gods, among them Ti (Tig), Woden, Thunor and a goddess Frigg, from
+whom the names Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday and Friday are derived. Ti was
+probably the same god of whom early Roman writers speak under the name Mars
+(see TYR), while Thunor was doubtless the thunder-god (see THOR). From
+Woden (_q.v._) most of the royal families traced their descent. Seaxneat,
+the ancestor of the East Saxon dynasty, was also in all probability a god
+(see ESSEX, KINGDOM OF).
+
+Of anthropomorphic representations of the gods we have no clear evidence,
+though we do hear of shrines in sacred enclosures, at which sacrifices were
+offered. It is clear also that there were persons specially set apart for
+the priesthood, who were not allowed to bear arms or to ride except on
+mares. Notices of sacred trees and groves, springs, stones, &c., are much
+more frequent than those referring to the gods. We hear also a good deal of
+witches and valkyries, and of charms and magic; as an instance we may cite
+the fact that certain (Runic) letters were credited, as in the North, with
+the power of loosening bonds. It is probable also that the belief in the
+spirit world and in a future life was of a somewhat similar kind to what we
+find in Scandinavian religion. (See TEUTONIC PEOPLES, Sec.6.)
+
+The chief primary authorities are Gildas, _De Excidio Britanniae_, and
+Nennius, _Historia Britonum_ (ed. San-Marte, Berlin, 1844); Th. Mommsen in
+_Mon. Germ. Hist., Auct. Antiquiss._, tom. xiii. (Berlin, 1898); Bede,
+_Hist. Eccl._ (ed. C. Plummer, Oxford, 1896); the _Saxon Chronicle_ (ed. C.
+Plummer, Oxford, 1892-1899); and the _Anglo-Saxon Laws_ (ed. F. Liebermann,
+Halle, 1903), and Charters (W. de G. Birch, _Cartularium Saxonicum_,
+London, 1885-1893). Modern authorities: Sh. Turner, _History of the
+Anglo-Saxons_ (London, 1799-1805; 7th ed., 1852); Sir F. Palgrave, _Rise
+and Progress of the English Commonwealth_ (London, 1831-1832); J.M. Kemble,
+_The Saxons in England_ (London, 1849; 2nd ed., 1876); K. Maurer,
+_Kritische Ueberschau d. deutschen Gesetzgebung u. Rechtswissenschaft_,
+vols. i.-iii. (Munich, 1853-1855); J.M. Lappenberg, _Geschichte von
+England_ (Hamburg, 1834); _History of England under the Anglo-Saxon Kings_
+(London, 1845; 2nd ed., 1881); J.R. Green, _The Making of England_ (London,
+1881); T. Hodgkin, _History of England from the Earliest Times to the
+Norman Conquest_ (vol. i. of _The Political History of England_) (London,
+1906); F. Seebohm, _The English Village Community_ (London, 1883); A.
+Meitzen, _Siedelung und Agrarwesen d. Westgermanen, u. Ostgermanen, &c._
+(Berlin, 1895); Sir F. Pollock and F.W. Maitland, _History of English Law_
+(Cambridge, 1895; 2nd ed., 1898); F.W. Maitland, _Domesday Book and Beyond_
+(Cambridge, 1897); F. Seebohm, _Tribal Custom in Anglo-Saxon Law_ (London,
+1903); P. Vinogradoff, _The Growth of the Manor_ (London, 1905); H.M.
+Chadwick, _Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions_ (Cambridge, 1905); _The
+Origin of the English Nation_ (_ib._, 1907); M. Heyne, _Ueber die Lage und
+Construction der Halle Heorot_ (Paderborn, 1864); R. Henning, _Das deutsche
+Haus_ (_Quellen u. Forschungen_, 47) (Strassburg, 1882); M. Heyne,
+_Deutsche Hausaltertuemer_, i., ii., iii. (Leipzig, 1900-1903); G. Baldwin
+Brown, _The Arts in Early England_ (London, 1903); C.F. Keary, _Catalogue
+of Anglo-Saxon Coins in the British Museum_, vol. i. (London, 1887); C.
+Roach Smith, _Collectanea Antiqua_ (London, 1848-1868); R.C. Neville,
+_Saxon Obsequies_ (London, 1852); J.Y. Akerman, _Remains of Pagan Saxondom_
+(London, 1855); Baron J. de Baye, _Industrie anglo-saxonne_ (Paris, 1889);
+_The Industrial Arts of the Anglo-Saxons_ (London, 1893); G. Stephens, _The
+Old Northern Runic Monuments_ (London and Copenhagen, 1866-1901); W.
+Vietor, _Die northumbrischen Runensteine_ (Marburg, 1895). Reference must
+also be made to the articles on Anglo-Saxon antiquities in the _Victoria
+County Histories_, and to various papers in _Archaeologia_, the
+_Archaeological Journal_, the _Journal of the British Archaeological
+Society_, the _Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries_, the _Associated
+Architectural Societies' Reports_, and other antiquarian journals.
+
+(H. M. C.)
+
+[1] The hide (_hid_, _hiwisc_, _familia_, _tributarius_, _cassatus_,
+_manens_, &c.) was in later times a measure of land, usually 120 acres. In
+early times, however, it seems to have meant (1) household, (2) normal
+amount of land appertaining to a household.
+
+BRITANNICUS, son of the Roman emperor Claudius by his third wife
+Messallina, was born probably A.D. 41. He was originally called Claudius
+Tiberius Germanicus, and received the name Britannicus from the senate on
+account of the conquest made in Britain about the time of his birth. Till
+48, the date of his mother's execution, he was looked upon as the heir
+presumptive; but Agrippina, the new wife of Claudius, soon persuaded the
+feeble emperor to adopt Lucius Domitius, known later as Nero, her son by a
+previous marriage. After the accession of Nero, Agrippina, by playing on
+his fears, induced him to poison Britannicus at a banquet (A.D. 55). A
+golden statue of the young prince was set up by the emperor Titus.
+Britannicus is the subject of a tragedy by Racine.
+
+Tacitus, _Annals_, xii. 25, 41, xiii. 14-16; Suetonius, _Nero_, 33; Dio
+Cassius lx. 32, 34; works quoted under NERO.
+
+BRITISH CENTRAL AFRICA, the general name given to the British protectorates
+in South Central Africa north of the Zambezi river, but more particularly
+to a large territory lying between 8 deg. 25' S. on Lake Tanganyika and 17 deg. 6'
+S. on the river Shire, near its confluence with the Zambezi, and between
+36 deg. 10' E. (district of Mlanje) and 26 deg. 30' E. (river Luengwe-Kafukwe).
+Originally the term "British Central Africa" was applied by Sir H.H.
+Johnston to all the territories under British [v.04 p.0595] influence north
+of the Zambezi which were formerly intended to be under one administration;
+but the course of events having prevented the connexion of Barotseland (see
+BAROTSE) and the other Rhodesian territories with the more direct British
+administration north of the Zambezi, the name of British Central Africa was
+confined officially (in 1893) to the British protectorate on the Shire and
+about Lake Nyasa. In 1907 the official title of the protectorate was
+changed to that of Nyasaland Protectorate, while the titles "North Eastern
+Rhodesia" and "North Western Rhodesia" (Barotseland) have been given to the
+two divisions of the British South Africa Company's territory north of the
+Zambezi. The western boundary, however, of the territory here described has
+been taken to be a line drawn from near the source of the Lualaba on the
+southern boundary of Belgian Congo to the western source of the Luanga
+river, and thence the course of the Luanga to its junction with the
+Luengwe-Kafukwe, after which the main course of the Kafukwe delimits the
+territory down to the Zambezi. Thus, besides the Nyasaland Protectorate and
+North Eastern Rhodesia, part of North Western Rhodesia is included, and for
+the whole of this region British Central Africa is the most convenient
+designation.
+
+_Physical Features._--Within these limits we have a territory of about
+250,000 sq. m., which includes two-thirds of Lake Nyasa, the south end of
+Lake Tanganyika, more than half Lake Mweru, and the whole of Lake
+Bangweulu, nearly the whole courses of the rivers Shire and Luangwa (or
+Loangwa), the whole of the river Chambezi (the most remote of the
+headwaters of the river Congo), the right or east bank of the Luapula (or
+upper Congo) from its exit from Lake Bangweulu to its issue from the north
+end of Lake Mweru; also the river Luanga and the whole course of the Kafue
+or Kafukwe.[1] Other lesser sheets of water included within the limits of
+this territory are the Great Mweru Swamp, between Tanganyika and Mweru,
+Moir's Lake (a small mountain tarn--possibly a crater lake--lying between
+the Luangwa and the Luapula), Lake Malombe (on the upper Shire), and the
+salt lake Chilwa (wrongly styled Shirwa, being the Bantu word _Kilwa_),
+which lies on the borders of the Portuguese province of Mocambique. The
+southern border of this territory is the north bank of the Zambezi from the
+confluence of the Kafukwe to that of the Luangwa at Zumbo. Eastwards of
+Zumbo, British Central Africa is separated from the river Zambezi by the
+Portuguese possessions; nevertheless, considerably more than two-thirds of
+the country lies within the Zambezi basin, and is included within the
+subordinate basins of Lake Nyasa and of the rivers Luangwa and
+Luengwe-Kafukwe. The remaining portions drain into the basins of the river
+Congo and of Lake Tanganyika, and also into the small lake or half-dried
+swamp called Chilwa, which at the present time has no outlet, though in
+past ages it probably emptied itself into the Lujenda river, and thence
+into the Indian Ocean.
+
+As regards orographical features, much of the country is high plateau, with
+an average altitude of 3500 ft. above sea-level. Only a very minute portion
+of its area--the country along the banks of the river Shire--lies at
+anything like a low elevation; though the Luangwa valley may not be more
+than about 900 ft. above sea-level. Lake Nyasa lies at an elevation of 1700
+ft. above the sea, is about 350 m. long, with a breadth varying from 15 to
+40 m. Lake Tanganyika is about 2600 ft. above sea-level, with a length of
+about 400 m. and an average breadth of nearly 40 m. Lake Mweru and Lake
+Bangweulu are respectively 3000 and 3760 ft. above sea-level; Lake Chilwa
+is 1946 ft. in altitude. The highest mountain found within the limits
+previously laid down is Mount Mlanje, in the extreme south-eastern corner
+of the protectorate. This remarkable and picturesque mass is an isolated
+"chunk" of the Archean plateau, through which at a later date there has
+been a volcanic outburst of basalt. The summit and sides of this mass
+exhibit several craters. The highest peak of Mlanje reaches an altitude of
+9683 ft. (In German territory, near the north end of Lake Nyasa, and close
+to the British frontier, is Mount Rungwe, the altitude of which exceeds
+10,000 ft.) Other high mountains are Mounts Chongone and Dedza, in
+Angoniland, which reach an altitude of 7000 ft., and points on the Nyika
+Plateau and in the Konde Mountains to the north-west of Lake Nyasa, which
+probably exceed a height of 8000 ft. There are also Mounts Zomba (6900 ft.)
+and Chiradzulu (5500 ft.) in the Shire Highlands. The principal plateaus or
+high ridges are (1) the Shire Highlands, a clump of mountainous country
+lying between the river Shire, the river Ruo, Lake Chilwa and the south end
+of Lake Nyasa; (2) Angoniland--a stretch of elevated country to the west of
+Lake Nyasa and the north-west of the river Shire; (3) the Nyika Plateau,
+which lies to the north of Angoniland; and (4) the Nyasa-Tanganyika
+Plateau, between the basin of the river Luangwa, the vicinity of Tanganyika
+and the vicinity of Lake Mweru (highest point, 7000-8000 ft.). Finally may
+be mentioned the tract of elevated country between Lake Bangweulu and the
+river Luapula, and between Lake Bangweulu and the basin of the Luangwa; and
+also the Lukinga (Mushinga) or Ugwara Mountains of North Western Rhodesia,
+which attain perhaps to altitudes of 6000 ft.
+
+The whole of this part of Africa is practically without any stretch of
+desert country, being on the whole favoured with an abundant rainfall. The
+nearest approach to a desert is the rather dry land to the east and
+north-east of Lake Mweru. Here, and in parts of the lower Shire district,
+the annual rainfall probably does not exceed an average of 35 in.
+Elsewhere, in the vicinity of the highest mountains, the rainfall may
+attain an average of 75 in., in parts of Mount Mlanje possibly often
+reaching to 100 in. in the year. The average may be put at 50 in. per
+annum, which is also about the average rainfall of the Shire Highlands,
+that part of British Central Africa which at present attracts the greatest
+number of European settlers.
+
+_Geology._--The whole formation is Archean and Primary (with a few modern
+plutonic outbursts), and chiefly consists of granite, felspar, quartz,
+gneiss, schists, amphibolite and other Archean rocks, with Primary
+sandstones and limestones in the basin of Lake Nyasa (a great rift
+depression), the river Shire, and the regions within the northern watershed
+of the Zambezi river. Sandstones of Karroo age occur in the basin of the
+Luangwa (N.E. Rhodesia). There are evidences of recent volcanic activity on
+the summit of the small Mlanje plateau (S.E. corner of the protectorate:
+here there are two extinct craters with a basaltic outflow), and at the
+north end of Lake Nyasa and the eastern edge of the Tanganyika plateau.
+Here there are many craters and much basalt, or even lava; also hot
+springs.
+
+_Metals and Minerals._--Gold has been found in the Shire Highlands, in the
+hills along the Nyasa-Zambezi waterparting, and in the mountainous region
+west of Lake Nyasa; silver (galena, silver-lead) in the hills of the
+Nyasa-Zambezi waterparting; lead in the same district; graphite in the
+western basin of Lake Nyasa; copper (pyrites and pure ore) in the west
+Nyasa region and in the hills of North Western and North Eastern Rhodesia;
+iron ore almost universally; mica almost universally; coal occurs in the
+north and west Nyasa districts (especially in the Karroo sandstones of the
+Rukuru valley), and perhaps along the Zambezi-Nyasa waterparting; limestone
+in the Shire basin; malachite in south-west Angoniland and North Western
+Rhodesia; and perhaps petroleum in places along the Nyasa-Zambezi
+waterparting. (See also RHODESIA.)
+
+_Flora_.--No part of the country comes within the forest region of West
+Africa. The whole of it may be said to lie within the savannah or park-like
+division of the continent. As a general rule, the landscape is of a
+pleasing and attractive character, well covered with vegetation and fairly
+well watered. Actual forests of lofty trees, forests of a West African
+type, are few in number, and are chiefly limited to portions of the Nyika,
+Angoniland and Shire Highlands plateaus, and to a few nooks in valleys near
+the south end of Tanganyika. Patches of forest of tropical luxuriance may
+still be seen on the slopes of Mounts Mlanje and Chiradzulu. On the upper
+plateaus of Mount Mlanje there are forests of a remarkable conifer
+(_Widdringtonia whytei_), a relation of the cypress, which in appearance
+resembles much more the cedar, and is therefore wrongly styled the "Mlanje
+cedar." This tree is remarkable as being the most northern form of a group
+of yew-like conifers confined otherwise to South Africa (Cape Colony).
+Immense areas in the lower-lying plains are covered by long, coarse grass,
+sometimes reaching 10 ft. in height. Most of the West African forest trees
+are represented in British Central Africa. A full list of the known flora
+has been compiled by Sir W. Thiselton-Dyer and his assistants at Kew, and
+is given in the first and second editions of Sir H. H. Johnston's work on
+British Central Africa. Amongst the principal vegetable products of the
+country interesting for commercial purposes may be mentioned tobacco
+(partly native varieties and partly introduced); coffee (wild coffee is
+said to grow in some of the mountainous districts, but the actual coffee
+cultivated by the European settlers has been introduced from abroad);
+rubber--derived chiefly from the various species of _Landolphia_, _Ficus_,
+_Clitandra_, _Carpodinus_ and _Conopharygia_, and from other apocynaceous
+plants; the _Strophanthus_ pod (furnishing a valuable drug); ground-nuts
+(_Arachis_ and _Voandzeia_); the cotton plant; all African cultivated
+cereals (_Sorghum_, _Pennisetum_, maize, rice, wheat--cultivated chiefly by
+Europeans--and _Eleusine_); and six species of palms--the oil palm on the
+north-west (near Lake Nyasa, at the south end of Tanganyika and on the
+Luapula), the _Borassus_ and _Hyphaene_, _Phoenix_ (or wild date), _Raphia_
+and the coco-nut palm. The last named was introduced by Arabs and
+Europeans, and is found on Lake Nyasa and on the lower Shire. Most of the
+European vegetables have been introduced, and thrive exceedingly well,
+especially the potato. The mango has also been introduced from India, and
+has taken to the Shire Highlands as to a second home. Oranges, lemons and
+limes have been planted by Europeans and Arabs in a few districts. European
+fruit trees do not ordinarily flourish, though apples are grown to some
+extent at Blantyre. The vine hitherto has proved a failure. Pineapples give
+the best result [v.04 p.0596] among cultivated fruit, and strawberries do
+well in the higher districts. In the mountains the native wild brambles
+give blackberries of large size and excellent flavour. The vegetable
+product through which this protectorate first attracted trade was coffee,
+the export of which, however, has passed through very disheartening
+fluctuations. In 1905-1906, 773,919 lb of coffee (value L16,123) were
+exported; but during this twelve months the crop of cotton--quite a newly
+developed product, rose to 776,621 lb, from 285,185 lb in 1904-1905. An
+equally marked increase in tobacco and ground-nuts (_Arachis_) has taken
+place. Beeswax is a rising export.
+
+_Fauna._--The fauna is on the whole very rich. It has affinities in a few
+respects with the West African forest region, but differs slightly from the
+countries to the north and south by the absence of such animals as prefer
+drier climates, as for instance the oryx antelopes, gazelles and the
+ostrich. There is a complete blank in the distribution of this last between
+the districts to the south of the Zambezi and those of East Africa between
+Victoria Nyanza and the Indian Ocean. The giraffe is found in the Luanga
+valley; it is also met with in the extreme north-east of the country. The
+ordinary African rhinoceros is still occasionally, but very rarely, seen in
+the Shire Highlands, The African elephant is fairly common throughout the
+whole territory. Lions and leopards are very abundant; the zebra is still
+found in great numbers, and belongs to the Central African variety of
+Burchell's zebra, which is completely striped down to the hoofs, and is
+intermediate in many particulars between the true zebra of the mountains
+and Burchell's zebra of the plains. The principal antelopes found are the
+sable and the roan (_Hippotragus_), five species of _Cobus_ or waterbuck
+(the puku, the Senga puku, the lechwe, Crawshay's waterbuck and the common
+waterbuck); the pallah, tsessebe (_Damaliscus_), hartebeest, brindled gnu
+(perhaps two species), several duykers (including the large _Cephalophus
+sylvicultrix_), klipspringer, oribi, steinbok and reedbuck. Among
+tragelaphs are two or more bushbucks, the inyala, the water tragelaph
+(_Limnotragus selousi_), the kudu and Livingstone's eland. The only buffalo
+is the common Cape species. The hyaena is the spotted kind. The hunting dog
+is present. There are some seven species of monkeys, including two baboons
+and one colobus. The hippopotamus is found in the lakes and rivers, and all
+these sheets of water are infested with crocodiles, apparently belonging to
+but one species, the common Nile crocodile.
+
+_Inhabitants._--The human race is represented by only one indigenous native
+type--the Negro. No trace is anywhere found of a Hamitic intermixture
+(unless perhaps at the north end of Lake Nyasa, where the physique of the
+native Awankonde recalls that of the Nilotic negro). Arabs from Zanzibar
+have settled in the country, but not, as far as is known, earlier than the
+beginning of the 19th century. As the present writer takes the general term
+"Negro" to include equally the Bantu, Hottentot, Bushman and Congo Pygmy,
+this designation will cover all the natives of British Central Africa. The
+Bantu races, however, exhibit in some parts signs of Hottentot or Bushman
+intermixture, and there are legends in some mountain districts, especially
+Mount Mlanje, of the former existence of unmixed Bushman tribes, while
+Bushman stone implements are found at the south end of Tanganyika. At the
+present day the population is, as a rule, of a black or chocolate-coloured
+Negro type, and belongs, linguistically, entirely and exclusively to the
+Bantu family. The languages spoken offer several very interesting forms of
+Bantu speech, notably in the districts between the north end of Lake Nyasa,
+the south end of Lake Tanganyika, and the river Luapula. In the more or
+less plateau country included within these geographical limits, the Bantu
+dialects are of an archaic type, and to the present writer it has seemed as
+though one of them, Kibemba or Kiwemba, came near to the original form of
+the Bantu mother-language, though not nearer than the interesting Subiya of
+southern Barotseland. Through dialects spoken on the west and north of
+Tanganyika, these languages of North Eastern Rhodesia and northern
+Nyasaland and of the Kafukwe basin are connected with the Bantu languages
+of Uganda. They also offer a slight resemblance to Zulu-Kaffir, and it
+would seem as though the Zulu-Kaffir race must have come straight down from
+the countries to the north-east of Tanganyika, across the Zambezi, to their
+present home. Curiously enough, some hundreds of years after this southward
+migration, intestine wars and conflicts actually determined a
+north-eastward return migration of Zulus. From Matabeleland, Zulu tribes
+crossed the Zambezi at various periods (commencing from about 1820), and
+gradually extended their ravages and dominion over the plateaus to the
+west, north and north-east of Lake Nyasa. The Zulu language is still spoken
+by the dominating caste in West Nyasaland (see further ZULULAND:
+_Ethnology_; RHODESIA: _Ethnology_; and YAOS). As regards foreign settlers
+in this part of Africa, the Arabs may be mentioned first, though they are
+now met with only in very small numbers. The Arabs undoubtedly first
+_heard_ of this rich country--rich not alone in natural products such as
+ivory, but also in slaves of good quality--from their settlements near the
+delta of the river Zambezi, and these settlements may date back to an early
+period, and might be coeval with the suggested pre-Islamite Arab
+settlements in the gold-bearing regions of South East Africa. But the Arabs
+do not seem to have made much progress in their penetration of the country
+in the days before firearms; and when firearms came into use they were for
+a long time forestalled by the Portuguese, who ousted them from the
+Zambezi. But about the beginning of the 19th century the increasing power
+and commercial enterprise of the Arab sultanate of Zanzibar caused the
+Arabs of Maskat and Zanzibar to march inland from the east coast. They
+gradually founded strong slave-trading settlements on the east and west
+coasts of Lake Nyasa, and thence westwards to Tanganyika and the Luapula.
+They never came in great numbers, however, and, except here and there on
+the coast of Lake Nyasa, have left no mixed descendants in the population.
+The total native population of all British Central Africa is about
+2,000,000, that of the Nyasaland Protectorate being officially estimated in
+1907 at 927,355. Of Europeans the protectorate possesses about 600 to 700
+settlers, including some 100 officials. (For the European population of the
+other territories, see RHODESIA.) The Europeans of British Central Africa
+are chiefly natives of the United Kingdom or South Africa, but there are a
+few Germans, Dutchmen, French, Italians and Portuguese. The protectorate
+has also attracted a number of Indian traders (over 400), besides whom
+about 150 British Indian soldiers (Sikhs) are employed as the nucleus of an
+armed force.[2]
+
+_Trade and Communications._--The total value of the trade of the
+protectorate in the year 1899-1900 was L255,384, showing an increase of 75%
+on the figures for the previous year, 1898-1899. Imports were valued at
+L176,035, an increase of 62%, and exports at L79,449, an increase of 109%.
+In 1905-1906 the imports reached L222,581 and the exports L56,778. The
+value of imports into the Rhodesian provinces during the same period was
+about L50,000, excluding railway material, and the exports L18,000. The
+principal exports are (besides minerals) coffee, cotton, tobacco, rubber
+and ivory. A number of Englishmen and Scotsmen (perhaps 200) are settled,
+mainly in the Shire Highlands, as coffee planters.
+
+From the Chinde mouth of the Zambezi to Port Herald on the lower Shire
+communication is maintained by light-draught steamers, though in the dry
+season (April-November) steamers cannot always ascend as far as Port
+Herald, and barges have to be used to complete the voyage. A railway runs
+from Port Herald to Blantyre, the commercial capital of the Shire
+Highlands. The "Cape to Cairo" railway, which crossed the Zambezi in 1905
+and the Kafukwe in 1906, reached the Broken Hill mine in 1907, and in 1909
+was continued to the frontier of Belgian Congo. There are regular services
+by steamer between the ports on Lakes Nyasa and Tanganyika. The African
+trans-continental telegraph line (founded by Cecil Rhodes) runs through the
+protectorate, and a branch line has been established from Lake Nyasa to
+Fort Jameson, the present headquarters of the Chartered Company in North
+Eastern Rhodesia.
+
+_Towns._--The principal European settlement or town is Blantyre (_q.v._),
+at a height of about 3000 ft. above the sea, in the Shire Highlands. This
+place was named after Livingstone's birthplace, and was founded in 1876 by
+the Church of Scotland mission. The government capital of the protectorate,
+however, is Zomba, at the base of the mountain of that name. Other
+townships or sites of European settlements are Port Herald (on the lower
+Shire), Chiromo (at the junction of the Ruo and the Shire), Fort Anderson
+(on Mount Mlanje), Fort Johnston (near the outlet of the river Shire from
+the south end of Lake Nyasa), Kotakota and Bandawe (on the west coast of
+Lake Nyasa), Likoma (on an island off the east coast of Lake Nyasa),
+Karonga (on the north-west coast of Lake Nyasa), Fife (on the
+Nyasa-Tanganyika plateau), Fort Jameson (capital of N.E. Rhodesia, near the
+river Luangwa), Abercorn (on the south end of Lake Tanganyika), Kalungwisi
+(on the east coast of Lake Mweru) and Fort Rosebery (near the Johnston
+Falls on the Luapula [upper Congo]).
+
+_Administration._--The present political divisions of the country [v.04
+p.0597] are as follows:--The Nyasaland Protectorate, _i.e._ the districts
+surrounding Lake Nyasa and the Shire province, are administered directly
+under the imperial government by a governor, who acts under the orders of
+the colonial office. The governor is assisted by an executive council and
+by a nominated legislative council, which consists of at least three
+members. The districts to the westward, forming the provinces of North
+Eastern and North Western Rhodesia, are governed by two administrators of
+the British South Africa Chartered Company, in consultation with the
+governor of Nyasaland and the colonial office.
+
+_History._--The history of the territory dealt with above is recent and
+slight. Apart from the vague Portuguese wanderings during the 16th and 17th
+centuries, the first European explorer of any education who penetrated into
+this country was the celebrated Portuguese official, Dr F.J.M. de Lacerda e
+Almeida, who journeyed from Tete on the Zambezi to the vicinity of Lake
+Mweru. But the real history of the country begins with the advent of David
+Livingstone, who in 1859 penetrated up the Shire river and discovered Lake
+Nyasa. Livingstone's subsequent journeys, to the south end of Tanganyika,
+to Lake Mweru and to Lake Bangweulu (where he died in 1873), opened up this
+important part of South Central Africa and centred in it British interests
+in a very particular manner. Livingstone's death was soon followed by the
+entry of various missionary societies, who commenced the evangelization of
+the country; and these missionaries, together with a few Scottish settlers,
+steadily opposed the attempts of the Portuguese to extend their sway in
+this direction from the adjoining provinces of Mocambique and of the
+Zambezi. From out of the missionary societies grew a trading company, the
+African Lakes Trading Corporation. This body came into conflict with a
+number of Arabs who had established themselves on the north end of Lake
+Nyasa. About 1885 a struggle began between Arab and Briton for the
+possession of the country, which was not terminated until the year 1896.
+The African Lakes Corporation in its unofficial war enlisted volunteers,
+amongst whom were Captain (afterwards Sir F.D.) Lugard and Mr (afterwards
+Sir) Alfred Sharpe. Both these gentlemen were wounded, and the operations
+they undertook were not crowned with complete success. In 1889 Mr
+(afterwards Sir) H.H. Johnston was sent out to endeavour to effect a
+possible arrangement of the dispute between the Arabs and the African Lakes
+Corporation, and also to ensure the protection of friendly native chiefs
+from Portuguese aggression beyond a certain point. The outcome of these
+efforts and the treaties made was the creation of the British protectorate
+and sphere of influence north of the Zambezi (see AFRICA; Sec. 5). In 1891
+Johnston returned to the country as imperial commissioner and
+consul-general. In the interval between 1889 and 1891 Mr Alfred Sharpe, on
+behalf of Cecil Rhodes, had brought a large part of the country into treaty
+with the British South Africa Company, These territories (Northern
+Rhodesia) were administered for four years by Sir Harry Johnston in
+connexion with the British Central Africa protectorate. Between 1891 and
+1895 a long struggle continued, between the British authorities on the one
+hand and the Arabs and Mahommedan Yaos on the other, regarding the
+suppression of the slave trade. By the beginning of 1896 the last Arab
+stronghold was taken and the Yaos were completely reduced to submission.
+Then followed, during 1896-1898, wars with the Zulu (Angoni) tribes, who
+claimed to dominate and harass the native populations to the west of Lake
+Nyasa. The Angoni having been subdued, and the British South Africa Company
+having also quelled the turbulent Awemba and Bashukulumbwe, there is a
+reasonable hope of the country enjoying a settled peace and considerable
+prosperity. This prospect has been, indeed, already realized to a
+considerable extent, though the increase of commerce has scarcely been as
+rapid as was anticipated. In 1897, on the transference of Sir Harry
+Johnston to Tunis, the commissionership was conferred on Mr Alfred Sharpe,
+who was created a K.C.M.G. in 1903. In 1904 the administration of the
+protectorate, originally directed by the foreign office, was transferred to
+the colonial office. In 1907, on the change in the title of the
+protectorate, the designation of the chief official was altered from
+commissioner to governor, and executive and legislative councils were
+established. The mineral surveys and railway construction commenced under
+the foreign office were carried on vigorously under the colonial office.
+The increased revenue, from L51,000 in 1901-1902 to L76,000 in 1905-1906,
+for the protectorate alone (see also RHODESIA), is an evidence of
+increasing prosperity. Expenditure in excess of revenue is met by grants in
+aid from the imperial exchequer, so far as the Nyasaland Protectorate is
+concerned. The British South Africa Company finances the remainder. The
+native population is well disposed towards European rule, having, indeed,
+at all times furnished the principal contingent of the armed force with
+which the African Lakes Company, British South Africa Company or the
+British government endeavoured to oppose Arab, Zulu or Awemba aggression.
+The protectorate government maintains three gunboats on Lake Nyasa, and the
+British South Africa Company an armed steamer on Lake Tanganyika.
+
+Unfortunately, though so rich and fertile, the land is not as a rule very
+healthy for Europeans, though there are signs of improvement in this
+respect. The principal scourges are black-water fever and dysentery,
+besides ordinary malarial fever, malarial ulcers, pneumonia and bronchitis.
+The climate is agreeable, and except in the low-lying districts is never
+unbearably hot; while on the high mountain plateaus frost frequently occurs
+during the dry season.
+
+See _Narrative of an Expedition to the Zambezi_, &c., by David and Charles
+Livingstone (1865); _Last Journals of David Livingstone_, edited by the
+Rev. Horace Waller (1874); L. Monteith Fotheringham, _Adventures in
+Nyasaland_ (1891); Henry Drummond, _Tropical Africa_ (4th ed., 1891); Rev.
+D.C. Scott, _An Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Mang'anja Language, as
+spoken in British Central Africa_ (1891); Sir H.H. Johnston, _British
+Central Africa_ (2nd ed., 1898); Miss A. Werner, _The Natives of British
+Central Africa_ (1906); John Buchanan, _The Shire Highlands_ (1885); Lionel
+Decle, _Three Years in Savage Africa_ (1898); H.L. Duff, _Nyasaland under
+the Foreign Office_ (1903); J.E.S. Moore, _The Tanganyika Problem_ (1904);
+articles on North Eastern and North Western Rhodesia (chiefly by Frank
+Melland) in the _Journal of the African Society_ (1902-1906); annual
+_Reports_ on British Central Africa published by the Colonial Office;
+various linguistic works by Miss A. Werner, the Rev. Govan Robertson, Dr R.
+Laws, A.C. Madan, Father Torrend and Monsieur E. Jacottet.
+
+(H. H. J.)
+
+[1] The nomenclature of several of these rivers is perplexing. It should be
+borne in mind that the Luanga (also known as the Lunga) is a tributary of
+the Luengwe-Kafukwe, itself often called Kafue, and that the Luangwa (or
+Loangwa) is an independent affluent of the Zambezi (_q.v._).
+
+[2] The organized armed forces and police are under the direction of the
+imperial government throughout British Central Africa, and number about 880
+(150 Sikhs, 730 negroes and 14 British officers).
+
+BRITISH COLUMBIA, the western province of the Dominion of Canada. It is
+bounded on the east by the continental watershed in the Rocky Mountains,
+until this, in its north-westerly course, intersects 120 deg. W., which is
+followed north to 60 deg. N., thus including within the province a part of the
+Peace river country to the east of the mountains. The southern boundary is
+formed by 49 deg. N. and the strait separating Vancouver Island from the state
+of Washington. The northern boundary is 60 deg. N., the western the Pacific
+Ocean, upon which the province fronts for about 600 m., and the coast strip
+of Alaska for a further distance of 400 m. Vancouver Island and the Queen
+Charlotte Islands, as well as the smaller islands lying off the western
+coast of Canada, belong to the province of British Columbia.
+
+_Physical Features._--British Columbia is essentially a mountainous
+country, for the Rocky Mountains which in the United States lie to the east
+of the Great Basin, on running to the north bear toward the west and
+approach the ranges which border the Pacific coast. Thus British Columbia
+comprises practically the entire width of what has been termed the
+Cordillera or Cordilleran belt of North America, between the parallels of
+latitude above indicated. There are two ruling mountain systems in this
+belt--the Rocky Mountains proper on the north-east side, and the Coast
+Range on the south-west or Pacific side. Between these are subordinate
+ranges to which various local names have been given, as well as the
+"Interior Plateau"--an elevated tract of hilly country, the hill summits
+having an accordant altitude, which lies to the east of the Coast Range.
+The several ranges, having been produced by successive foldings of the
+earth's crust in a direction parallel to the border of the Pacific Ocean,
+have a common trend which is south-east and north-west. Vancouver Island
+and the Queen Charlotte Islands are remnants of still another mountain
+range, which runs parallel to the coast but is now almost entirely
+submerged beneath the waters of the Pacific. The province might be said to
+consist of a series of parallel mountain ranges with long narrow valleys
+lying between them.
+
+The Rocky Mountains are composed chiefly of palaeozoic sediments ranging in
+age from the Cambrian to the Carboniferous, with subordinate infolded areas
+of Cretaceous which hold coal. The average height of the range along the
+United States boundary is 8000 ft., but the range culminates between the
+latitudes of 51 deg. and 53 deg., the highest peak in the Canadian Rockies being
+Mount Robson, 13,700 [v.04 p.0598] ft., although the highest peak in
+British Columbia is Mount Fairweather on the International Boundary, which
+rises to 15,287 ft. Other high peaks in the Rocky Mountains of Canada are
+Columbia, 12,740 ft.; Forbes, 12,075; Assiniboine, 11,860; Bryce. 11,686;
+Temple, 11,626; Lyell, 11,463. There are a number of passes over the Rocky
+Mountains, among which may be mentioned, beginning from the south, the
+South Kootenay or Boundary Pass, 7100 ft.; the Crow's Nest Pass, 5500 (this
+is traversed by the southern branch of the Canadian Pacific railway and
+crosses great coal fields); the Kicking Horse or Wapta Pass, 5300 (which is
+traversed by the main line of the Canadian Pacific railway); the Athabasca
+Pass, 6025; the Yellow Head Pass, 3733 (which will probably be used by the
+Grand Trunk Pacific railway); the Pine River Pass, 2850; and the Peace
+River Pass, 2000, through which the Peace river flows.
+
+The Coast Range, sometimes called the Cascade Range, borders the Pacific
+coast for 900 m. and gives to it its remarkable character. To its partially
+submerged transverse valleys are due the excellent harbours on the coast,
+the deep sounds and inlets which penetrate far inland at many points, as
+well as the profound and gloomy fjords and the stupendous precipices which
+render the coast line an exaggerated reproduction of that of Norway. The
+coast is, in fact, one of the most remarkable in the world, measuring with
+all its indentations 7000 m. in the aggregate, and being fringed with an
+archipelago of innumerable islands, of which Vancouver Island and the Queen
+Charlotte Islands are the largest.
+
+Along the south-western side of the Rocky Mountains is a very remarkable
+valley of considerable geological antiquity, in which some seven of the
+great rivers of the Pacific slope, among them the Kootenay, Columbia,
+Fraser and Finlay, flow for portions of their upper courses. This valley,
+which is from 1 to 6 m. in width, can be traced continuously for a length
+of at least 800 m. One of the most important rivers of the province is the
+Fraser, which, rising in the Rocky Mountains, flows for a long distance to
+the north-west, and then turning south eventually crosses the Coast Range
+by a deep canton-like valley and empties into the Strait of Georgia, a few
+miles south of the city of Vancouver. The Columbia, which rises farther
+south in the same range, flows north for about 150 m., crossing the main
+line of the Canadian Pacific railway at Donald, and then bending abruptly
+back upon its former course, flows south, recrossing the Canadian Pacific
+railway at Revelstoke, and on through the Arrow Lakes in the Kootenay
+country into the United States, emptying into the Pacific Ocean at Astoria
+in the state of Oregon. These lakes, as well as the other large lakes in
+southern British Columbia, remain open throughout the winter. In the
+north-western part of the province the Skeena flows south-west into the
+Pacific, and still farther to the north the Stikine rises in British
+Columbia, but before entering the Pacific crosses the coast strip of
+Alaska. The Liard, rising in the same district, flows east and falls into
+the Mackenzie, which empties into the Arctic Ocean. The headwaters of the
+Yukon are also situated in the northern part of the province. All these
+rivers are swift and are frequently interrupted by rapids, so that, as
+means of communication for commercial purposes, they are of indifferent
+value. Wherever lines of railway are constructed, they lose whatever
+importance they may have held in this respect previously.
+
+At an early stage in the Glacial period British Columbia was covered by the
+Cordilleran glacier, which moved south-eastwards and north-westwards, in
+correspondence with the ruling features of the country, from a
+gathering-ground situated in the vicinity of the 57th parallel. Ice from
+this glacier poured through passes in the coast ranges, and to a lesser
+extent debouched upon the edge of the great plains, beyond the Rocky
+Mountain range. The great valley between the coast ranges and Vancouver
+Island was also occupied by a glacier that moved in both directions from a
+central point in the vicinity of Valdez Island. The effects of this glacial
+action and of the long periods of erosion preceding it and of other
+physiographic changes connected with its passing away, have most important
+bearings on the distribution and character of the gold-bearing alluviums of
+the province.
+
+_Climate._--The subjoined figures relating to temperature and precipitation
+are from a table prepared by Mr R.F. Stupart, director of the
+meteorological service. The station at Victoria may be taken as
+representing the conditions of the southern part of the coast of British
+Columbia, although the rainfall is much greater on exposed parts of the
+outer coast. Agassiz represents the Fraser delta and Kamloops the southern
+interior district. The mean temperature naturally decreases to the
+northward of these selected stations, both along the coast and in the
+interior, while the precipitation increases. The figures given for Port
+Simpson are of interest, as the Pacific terminus of the Grand Trunk Pacific
+railway will be in this vicinity.
+
+  +----------------+-----------------------------+----------------+
+  |                |                             |    Absolute    |
+  |                |       Mean Temp., Fahr.     |  Temperature.  |
+  +----------------+----------+----------+-------+--------+-------+
+  |                |  Coldest |  Warmest |Average|Highest.|Lowest.|
+  |                |   Month. |   Month. |Annual.|        |       |
+  +----------------+----------+----------+-------+--------+-------+
+  | Victoria[1]    |Jan. 37.5 deg.|July 60.3 deg.| 48.8 deg. |   90 deg.  |   -1 deg. |
+  | Agassiz[2]     |Jan. 33.0 deg.|Aug. 64.7 deg.| 48.9 deg. |   97 deg.  |  -13 deg. |
+  | Kamloops[3]    |Jan. 24.2 deg.|Aug. 68.5 deg.| 47.1 deg. |  101 deg.  |  -27 deg. |
+  | Port Simpson[4]|Jan. 34.9 deg.|Aug. 56.9 deg.| 45.1 deg. |   88 deg.  |  -10 deg. |
+  +----------------+----------+----------+-------+--------+-------+
+
+  +--------------+-----------------------------+
+  |              |                             |
+  |              |      Rainfall--Inches.      |
+  +--------------+----------+----------+-------+
+  |              |  Wettest |  Driest  |Average|
+  |              |   Month. |  Month.  |Annual.|
+  +--------------+----------+----------+-------+
+  | Victoria     |Dec.  7.98|July   .4 | 37.77 |
+  | Agassiz      |Dec.  9.43|July  1.55| 66.85 |
+  | Kamloops     |July  1.61|April  .37| 11.46 |
+  | Port Simpson |Oct. 12.42|June  4.37| 94.63 |
+  +--------------+----------+----------+-------+
+
+[1] 48 deg. 24' N., 123 deg. 19' W., height 85 ft.
+
+[2] 49 deg. 14' N., 121 deg. 31' W., height 52 ft.
+
+[3] 50 deg. 41' N., 120 deg. 29' W., height 1193 ft.
+
+[4] 54 deg. 34' N., 130 deg. 26' W., height 26 ft.
+
+_Fauna._--Among the larger mammals are the big-horn or mountain sheep
+(_Ovis canadensis_), the Rocky Mountain goat (_Mazama montana_), the
+grizzly bear, moose, woodland caribou, black-tailed or mule deer,
+white-tailed deer, and coyote. All these are to be found only on the
+mainland. The black bear, wolf, puma, lynx, wapiti, and Columbian or coast
+deer are common to parts of both mainland and islands. Of marine mammals
+the most characteristic are the sea-lion, fur-seal, sea-otter and
+harbour-seal. About 340 species of birds are known to occur in the
+province, among which, as of special interest, may be mentioned the
+burrowing owl of the dry, interior region, the American magpie, Steller's
+jay and a true nut-cracker, Clark's crow (_Picicorvus columbianus_). True
+jays and orioles are also well represented. The gallinaceous birds include
+the large blue grouse of the coast, replaced in the Rocky Mountains by the
+dusky grouse. The western form of the "spruce partridge" of eastern Canada
+is also abundant, together with several forms referred to the genus
+_Bonasa_, generally known as "partridges" or ruffed grouse. Ptarmigans also
+abound in many of the higher mountain regions. Of the _Anatidae_ only
+passing mention need be made. During the spring and autumn migrations many
+species are found in great abundance, but in the summer a smaller number
+remain to breed, chief among which are the teal, mallard, wood-duck,
+spoon-bill, pin-tail, buffle-head, red-head, canvas-back, scaup-duck, &c.
+
+_Area and Population._--The area of British Columbia is 357,600 sq. m., and
+its population by the census of 1901 was 190,000. Since that date this has
+been largely increased by the influx of miners and others, consequent upon
+the discovery of precious metals in the Kootenay, Boundary and Atlin
+districts. Much of this is a floating population, but the opening up of the
+valleys by railway and new lines of steamboats, together with the
+settlements made in the vicinity of the Canadian Pacific railway, has
+resulted in a considerable increase of the permanent population. The white
+population comprises men of many nationalities. There is a large Chinese
+population, the census of 1901 returning 14,201. The influx of Chinamen
+has, however, practically ceased, owing to the tax of $500 per head imposed
+by the government of the dominion. Many Japanese have also come in. The
+Japanese are engaged chiefly in lumbering and fishing, but the Chinese are
+found everywhere in the province. Great objection is taken by the white
+population to the increasing number of "Mongolians," owing to their
+competition with whites in the labour markets. The Japanese do not appear
+to be so much disliked, as they adapt themselves to the ways of white men,
+but they are equally objected to on the score of cheap labour; and in
+1907-1908 considerable friction occurred with the Dominion government over
+the Anti-Japanese attitude of British Columbia, which was shown in some
+rather serious riots. In the census of 1901 the Indian population is
+returned at 25,488; of these 20,351 are professing Christians and 5137 are
+pagans. The Indians are divided into very many tribes, under local names,
+but fall naturally on linguistic grounds into a few large groups. Thus the
+southern part of the interior is occupied by the Salish and Kootenay, and
+the northern interior by the Tinneh or Athapackan people. On the coast are
+the Haida, Tsimshian, Kwakiatl, Nootka, and about the Gulf of Georgia
+various tribes related to the Salish proper. There is no treaty with the
+Indians of British Columbia, as with those of the plains, for the
+relinquishment of their title to the land, but the government otherwise
+assists them. There is an Indian superintendent at Victoria, and under him
+are nine agencies throughout the province to attend to the
+Indians--relieving their sick and destitute, supplying them with seed and
+implements, settling their disputes and administering justice. The Indian
+fishing stations and burial grounds are reserved, and other land has been
+set apart for them for agricultural and pastoral purposes. A number of
+schools have been established for their education. They were at one time a
+dangerous element, but are now quiet and peaceable.
+
+The chief cities are Victoria, the capital, on Vancouver Island; and
+Vancouver on the mainland, New Westminster on the Fraser and Nanaimo on
+Vancouver Island. Rossland and Nelson in West Kootenay, as well as Fernie
+in East Kootenay and Grand Forks in the Boundary district, are also places
+of importance.
+
+_Mining._--Mining is the principal industry of British Columbia. The
+country is rich in gold, silver, copper, lead and coal, and has also iron
+deposits. From 1894 to 1904 the mining output increased from $4,225,717 to
+$18,977,359. In 1905 it had reached $22,460,295. The principal minerals, in
+order of value of output, are gold, copper, coal, lead and silver. Between
+1858--the year of the placer discoveries on the Fraser river and in the
+Cariboo district--and 1882, the placer yields were much heavier than in
+subsequent years, running from one to nearly four million dollars annually,
+but there was no quartz mining. Since 1899 placer mining has increased
+considerably, although the greater part of the return has been from lode
+mining. The Rossland, the Boundary and the Kootenay districts are the chief
+centres of vein-mining, yielding auriferous and cupriferous sulphide ores,
+as well as large quantities of silver-bearing lead ores. Ores of copper and
+the precious metals are being prospected and worked also, in several places
+along the coast and on Vancouver Island. The mining laws are liberal, and
+being based on the experience gained in the adjacent mining centres of the
+Western States, are convenient and effective. The most important smelting
+and reducing plants are those at Trail and Nelson in the West Kootenay
+country, and at Grand Forks and Greenwood in the Boundary district. There
+are also numerous concentrating plants. Mining machinery of the most modern
+types is employed wherever machinery is required.
+
+The province contains enormous supplies of excellent coal, most of which
+are as yet untouched. It is chiefly of Cretaceous age. The producing
+collieries are chiefly on Vancouver Island and on the western slope of the
+Rockies near the Crow's Nest Pass in the extreme south-eastern portion of
+the provinces. Immense beds of high grade bituminous coal and
+semi-anthracite are exposed in the Bulkley Valley, south of the Skeena
+river, not far from the projected line of the Grand Trunk Pacific railway.
+About one-half the coal mined is exported to the United States.
+
+_Fisheries._--A large percentage of the commerce is derived from the sea,
+the chief product being salmon. Halibut, cod (several varieties), oolachan,
+sturgeon, herring, shad and many other fishes are also plentiful, but with
+the exception of the halibut these have not yet become the objects of
+extensive industries. There are several kinds of salmon, and they run in
+British Columbia waters at different seasons of the year. The quinnat or
+spring salmon is the largest and best table fish, and is followed in the
+latter part of the summer by the sockeye, which runs in enormous numbers up
+the Fraser and Skeena rivers. This is the fish preferred for canning. It is
+of brighter colour, more uniform in size, and comes in such quantities that
+a constant supply can be reckoned upon by the canneries. About the mouth of
+the Fraser river from 1800 to 2600 boats are occupied during the run. There
+is an especially large run of sockeye salmon in the Fraser river every
+fourth year, while in the year immediately following there is a poor run.
+The silver salmon or cohoe arrives a little later than the sockeye, but is
+not much used for packing except when required to make up deficiencies. The
+dog-salmon is not canned, but large numbers are caught by the Japanese, who
+salt them for export to the Orient. The other varieties are of but little
+commercial importance at present, although with the increasing demand for
+British Columbia salmon, the fishing season is being extended to cover the
+runs of all the varieties of this fish found in the waters of the province.
+
+Great Britain is the largest but not the only market for British Columbia
+salmon. The years vary in productiveness, 1901 having been unusually large
+and 1903 the smallest in eleven years, but the average pack is about
+700,000 cases of forty-eight 1-lb tins, the greater part of all returns
+being from the Fraser river canneries, the Skeena river and the Rivers
+Inlet coming next in order. There are between 60 and 70 canneries, of which
+about 40 are on the banks of [v.04 p.0600] the Fraser river. There is
+urgent need for the enactment of laws restricting the catch of salmon, as
+the industry is now seriously threatened. The fish oils are extracted
+chiefly from several species of dog-fish, and sometimes from the basking
+shark, as well as from the oolachan, which is also an edible fish.
+
+The fur-seal fishery is an important industry, though apparently a
+declining one. Owing to the scarcity of seals and international
+difficulties concerning pelagic sealing in Bering Sea, where the greatest
+number have been taken, the business of seal-hunting is losing favour.
+Salmon fish-hatcheries have been established on the chief rivers frequented
+by these fish. Oysters and lobsters from the Atlantic coast have been
+planted in British Columbia waters.
+
+_Timber._--The province is rich in forest growth, and there is a steady
+demand for its lumber in the other parts of Canada as well as in South
+America, Africa, Australia and China. The following is a list of some of
+the more important trees--large leaved maple (_Acer macrophyllum_), red
+alder (_Alnus rubra_), western larch (_Larix occidentalis_), white spruce
+(_Picea alba_), Engellmann's spruce (_Picea Engelmanii_), Menzies's spruce
+(_Picea sitchensis_), white mountain pine (_Pinus monticola_), black pine
+(_Pinus murrayana_), yellow pine (_Pinus ponderosa_), Douglas fir
+(_Pseudotsuga Douglasii_), western white oak (_Quercus garryana_), giant
+cedar (_Thuya gigantea_), yellow cypress or cedar (_Thuya excelsa_),
+western hemlock (_Tsuga mertensiana_). The principal timber of commerce is
+the Douglas fir. The tree is often found 300 ft. high and from 8 to 10ft.
+in diameter. The wood is tough and strong and highly valued for ships'
+spars as well as for building purposes. Red or giant cedar, which rivals
+the Douglas fir in girth, is plentiful, and is used for shingles as well as
+for interior work. The western white spruce is also much employed for
+various purposes. There are about eighty sawmills, large and small, in the
+province. The amount of timber cut on Dominion government lands in 1904 was
+22,760,222 ft., and the amount cut on provincial lands was 325,271,568 ft.,
+giving a total of 348,031,790 ft. In 1905 the cut on dominion lands
+exceeded that in 1904, while the amount cut on provincial lands reached
+450,385,554 ft. The cargo shipments of lumber for the years 1904 and 1905
+were as follows:--
+
+                                 1904.                 1905.
+                                  Ft.                   Ft.
+  United Kingdom               7,498,301            13,690,869
+  South America               15,647,808            13.332,993
+  Australia                   10,045,094            11,596,482
+  South Africa                 2,517,154             7,093,681
+  China and Japan              4,802,426             4,787,784
+  Germany                                              983,342
+  Fiji Islands                   308,332                29,949
+  France                       1,308,662
+                               ---------             ----------
+                              42,199,777            51,515,100
+
+There is a very large market for British Columbia lumber in the western
+provinces of Canada.
+
+_Agriculture._--Although mountainous in character the province contains
+many tracts of good farming land. These lie in the long valleys between the
+mountain ranges of the interior, as well as on the lower slopes of the
+mountains and on the deltas of the rivers running out to the coast. On
+Vancouver Island also there is much good farming land. The conditions are
+in most places best suited to mixed farming; the chief crops raised are
+wheat, oats, potatoes and hay. Some areas are especially suited for cattle
+and sheep raising, among which may be mentioned the Yale district and the
+country about Kamloops. Much attention has been given to fruit raising,
+especially in the Okanagan valley. Apples, plums and cherries are grown, as
+well as peaches, apricots, grapes and various small fruits, notably
+strawberries. All these are of excellent quality. Hops are also cultivated.
+A large market for this fruit is opening up in the rapidly growing
+provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan.
+
+_Imports and Exports._--For the year ending June 30th 1905 the total
+exports and imports (showing a slight gradual increase on the two preceding
+years) were valued at $16,677,882 and $12,565,019 respectively. The exports
+were classified as follows:--Mines, $9,777,423; fisheries, $2,101,533;
+forests, $1,046,718; animals, $471,231; agriculture, $119,426;
+manufactures, $1,883,777; miscellaneous, $1,106,643; coin and bullion,
+$171,131.
+
+_Railways._--The Pacific division of the Canadian Pacific railway enters
+British Columbia through the Rocky Mountains on the east and runs for about
+500 m. across the province before reaching the terminus at Vancouver. A
+branch of the same railway leaves the main line at Medicine Hat, and
+running to the south-west, crosses the Rocky Mountains through the Crow's
+Nest Pass, and thus enters British Columbia a short distance north of the
+United States boundary. This continues across the province, running
+approximately parallel to the boundary as far as Midway in what is known as
+the Boundary district. The line has opened up extensive coal fields and
+crosses a productive mining district. On Vancouver Island there are two
+railways, the Esquimalt & Nanaimo railway (78 m.) connecting the coal
+fields with the southern ports, and the Victoria & Sydney railway, about 16
+m. in length. The Great Northern has also a number of short lines in the
+southern portion of the province, connecting with its system in the United
+States. In 1905 there were 1627m. of railway in the province, of which 1187
+were owned or controlled by the Canadian Pacific railway.
+
+_Shipping._--The Canadian Pacific Railway Company has two lines of mail
+steamer running from Vancouver and Victoria: (l) the Empress line, which
+runs to Japan and China once in three weeks, and (2) the Australian line to
+Honolulu, Fiji and Sydney, once a month. The same company also has a line
+of steamers running to Alaska, as well as a fleet of coasting steamers.
+
+_Government._--The province is governed by a lieutenant-governor, appointed
+by the governor-general in council for five years, but subject to removal
+for cause, an executive council of five ministers, and a single legislative
+chamber. The executive council is appointed by the lieutenant-governor on
+the advice of the first minister, and retains office so long as it enjoys
+the support of a majority of the legislature. The powers of the
+lieutenant-governor in regard to the provincial government are analogous to
+those of governor-general in respect of the dominion government.
+
+The British North America Act (1867) confederating the colonies, defines
+the jurisdiction of the provincial legislature as distinguished from that
+of the federal parliament, but within its own jurisdiction the province
+makes the laws for its own governance. The act of the legislature may be
+disallowed, within one year of its passage, by the governor-general in
+council, and is also subject to challenge as to its legality in the supreme
+court of Canada or on appeal to the juridical committee of the privy
+council of the United Kingdom. British Columbia sends three senators and
+seven members to the lower house of the federal parliament, which sits at
+Ottawa.
+
+_Justice._--There is a supreme court of British Columbia presided over by a
+chief justice and five puisne judges, and there are also a number of county
+courts. In British Columbia the supreme court has jurisdiction in divorce
+cases, this right having been invested in the colony before confederation.
+
+_Religion and Education._--In 1901 the population was divided by creeds as
+follows: Church of England, 40,687; Methodist, 25,047; Presbyterian,
+34,081; Roman Catholic, 33,639; others, 40,197; not stated, 5003; total,
+178,654. The educational system of British Columbia differs slightly from
+that of other provinces of Canada. There are three classes of
+schools--common, graded and high--all maintained by the government and all
+free and undenominational. There is only one college in the province, the
+"McGill University College of British Columbia" at Vancouver, which is one
+of the colleges of McGill University, whose chief seat is at Montreal. The
+schools are controlled by trustees selected by the ratepayers of each
+school district, and there is a superintendent of education acting under
+the provincial secretary.
+
+_Finance._--Under the terms of union with Canada, British Columbia receives
+from the dominion government annually a certain contribution, which in 1905
+amounted to $307,076. This, with provincial taxes on real property,
+personal property, income tax, sales of public land, timber dues, &c.,
+amounted in the year 1905 to $2,920,461. The expenditure for the year was
+$2,302,417. The gross debt of the province in 1905 was $13,252,097, with
+assets of $4,463,869, or a net debt of $8,788,228. These assets do not
+include new legislative buildings or other public works. The income tax is
+on a sliding scale. In 1899 a fairly close estimate was made of the capital
+invested in the province, which amounted to $307,385,000 including timber,
+$100,000,000; railways and telegraphs, $47,500,000; mining plant and
+smelters, $10,500,000; municipal assessments, $45,000,000; provincial
+assessments, $51,500,000; in addition to private wealth, $280,000,000.
+There are branch offices of one or more of the Canadian banks in each of
+the larger towns.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+_History._--The discovery of British Columbia was made by the Spaniard
+Perez in 1774. With Cook's visit the geographical exploration of the coast
+began in 1778. Vancouver, in 1792-1794, surveyed almost the entire coast of
+British Columbia with much of that to the north and south, for the British
+government. The interior, about the same time, was entered by Mackenzie and
+traders of the N.W. Company, which in 1821 became amalgamated with the
+Hudson's Bay Company. For the next twenty-eight years the Hudson's Bay
+Company ruled this immense territory with beneficent despotism. In 1849
+Vancouver Island was proclaimed a British colony. In 1858, consequent on
+the discovery of gold and the large influx of miners, the mainland
+territory was erected into a colony under the name of British Columbia, and
+in 1866 this was united with the colony of Vancouver Island, under the same
+name. In 1871 British Columbia entered the confederation and became part of
+the Dominion of Canada, sending three senators and six (now seven) members
+to the House of Commons of the federal parliament. One of the conditions
+under which the colony entered the dominion was the speedy construction of
+the Canadian Pacific railway, and in 1876 the non-fulfilment of this
+promise and the apparent indifference of the government at Ottawa to the
+representations of British Columbia created [v.04 p.0601] strained
+relations, which were only ameliorated when the construction of a
+transcontinental road was begun. In subsequent years the founding of the
+city of Vancouver by the C.P.R., the establishment of the first Canadian
+steamship line to China and Japan, and that to Australia, together with the
+disputes with the United States on the subject of pelagic sealing, and the
+discovery of the Kootenay and Boundary mining districts, have been the
+chief events in the history of the province.
+
+AUTHORITIES.--Cook's _Voyage to the Pacific Ocean_ (London, 1784);
+Vancouver, _Voyage of Discovery to the Pacific Ocean_ (London, 1798); H.H.
+Bancroft's works, vol. xxxii., _History of British Columbia_ (San
+Francisco, 1887); Begg's _History of British Columbia_ (Toronto, 1894);
+Gosnell, _Year Book_ (Victoria, British Columbia, 1897 and 1903); _Annual
+Reports British Columbia Board of Trade_ (Victoria); _Annual Reports of
+Minister of Mines and other Departmental Reports of the Provincial and
+Dominion Governments; Catalogue of Provincial Museum_ (Victoria); _Reports
+Geological Survey of Canada_ (from 1871 to date); _Reports of Canadian
+Pacific (Government) Surveys_ (1872-1880); _Reports of Committee of Brit.
+Assn. Adv. Science on N.W. Tribes_ (1884-1895); Lord, _Naturalist in
+Vancouver Island_ (London, 1866); _Bering Sea Arbitration_ (reprint of
+letters to _Times_), (London, 1893); _Report of Bering Sea Commission_
+(London, Government, 1892); A. Metin, _La Colombie Britannique_ (Paris,
+1908). See also various works of reference under CANADA.
+
+(G. M. D.; M. ST J.; F. D. A.)
+
+BRITISH EAST AFRICA, a term, in its widest sense, including all the
+territory under British influence on the eastern side of Africa between
+German East Africa on the south and Abyssinia and the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan
+on the north. It comprises the protectorates of Zanzibar, Uganda and East
+Africa. Apart from a narrow belt of coastland, the continental area belongs
+almost entirely to the great plateau of East Africa, rarely falling below
+an elevation of 2000 ft., while extensive sections rise to a height of 6000
+to 8000 ft. From the coast lowlands a series of steps with intervening
+plateaus leads to a broad zone of high ground remarkable for the abundant
+traces of volcanic action. This broad upland is furrowed by the eastern
+"rift-valley," formed by the subsidence of its floor and occupied in parts
+by lakes without outlet. Towards the west a basin of lower elevation is
+partially occupied by Victoria Nyanza, drained north to the Nile, while
+still farther inland the ground again rises to a second volcanic belt,
+culminating in the Ruwenzori range. (See ZANZIBAR, and for Uganda
+protectorate see UGANDA.) The present article treats of the East Africa
+protectorate only.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+_Topography._--The southern frontier, coterminous with the northern
+frontier of German East Africa, runs north-west from the mouth of the Umba
+river in 4 deg. 40' S. to Victoria Nyanza, which it strikes at 1 deg. S.,
+deviating, however, so as to leave Mount Kilimanjaro wholly in German
+territory. The eastern boundary is the Indian Ocean, the coast line being
+about 400 m. On the north the protectorate is bounded by Abyssinia and
+Italian Somaliland; on the west by Uganda. It has an area of about 240,000
+sq. m., and a population estimated at from 2,000,000 to 4,000,000,
+including some 25,000 Indians and 3000 Europeans. Of the Europeans many are
+emigrants from South Africa; they include some hundreds of Boer families.
+
+The first of the parallel zones--the coast plain or "Temborari"--is
+generally of insignificant width, varying from 2 to 10 m., except in the
+valleys of the main rivers. The shore line is broken by bays and branching
+creeks, often cutting off islands from the mainland. Such are Mvita or
+Mombasa in 4 deg. 4' S., and the larger islands of Lamu, Manda and Patta (the
+Lamu archipelago), between 2 deg. 20' and 2 deg. S. Farther north the coast becomes
+straighter, with the one indentation of Port Durnford in 1 deg. 10' S., but
+skirted seawards by a row of small islands. Beyond the coast plain the
+country rises in a generally well defined step or steps to an altitude of
+some 800 ft., forming the wide level plain called "Nyika" (uplands),
+largely composed of quartz. It contains large waterless areas, such as the
+Taru desert in the Mombasa district. The next stage in the ascent is marked
+by an intermittent line of mountains--gneissose or schistose--running
+generally north-north-west, sometimes in parallel chains, and representing
+the primitive axis of the continent. Their height varies from 5000 to 8000
+ft. Farther inland grassy uplands extend to the eastern edge of the
+rift-valley, though varied with cultivated ground and forest, the former
+especially in Kikuyu, the latter between 0 deg. and 0 deg. 40' S. The most
+extensive grassy plains are those of Kapte or Kapote and Athi, between 1 deg.
+and 2 deg. S. The general altitude of these uplands, the surface of which is
+largely composed of lava, varies from 5000 to 8000 ft. This zone contains
+the highest elevations in British East Africa, including the volcanic pile
+of Kenya (_q.v._) (17,007 ft.), Sattima (13,214 ft.) and Nandarua (about
+12,900 ft.). The Sattima (Settima) range, or Aberdare Mountains, has a
+general elevation of fully 10,000 ft. To the west the fall to the
+rift-valley is marked by a line of cliffs, of which the best-defined
+portions are the Kikuyu escarpment (8000 ft.), just south of 1 deg. S., and the
+Laikipia escarpment, on the equator. One of the main watersheds of East
+Africa runs close to the eastern wall of the rift-valley, separating the
+basins of inland drainage from the rivers of the east coast, of which the
+two largest wholly within British East Africa are the Sabaki and Tana, both
+separately noticed. The Guaso Nyiro rises in the hills north-west of Kenya
+and flows in a north-east direction. After a course of over 350 m. the
+river in about 1 deg. N., 39 deg. 30' E. is lost in a marshy expanse known as the
+Lorian Swamp.
+
+The rift-valley, though with a generally level floor, is divided by
+transverse ridges into a series of basins, each containing a lake without
+outlet. The southernmost section within British East Africa is formed by
+the arid Dogilani plains, drained south towards German territory. At their
+north end rise the extinct volcanoes of Suswa (7800 ft.) and Longonot
+(8700), the latter on the ridge dividing off the next basin--that of Lake
+Naivasha. This is a small fresh-water lake, 6135 ft. above the sea,
+measuring some 13 m each way. Its basin is closed to the north by the ridge
+of Mount Buru, beyond which is the basin of the [v.04 p.0602] still smaller
+Lakes Nakuro (5845 ft.) and Elmenteita (5860 ft.), followed in turn by that
+of Lakes Hannington and Baringo (_q.v._). Beyond Baringo the valley is
+drained north into Lake Sugota, in 2 deg. N., some 35 m. long, while north of
+this lies the much larger Lake Rudolf (_q.v._), the valley becoming here
+somewhat less defined.
+
+On the west of the rift-valley the wall of cliffs is best marked between
+the equator and 1 deg. S., where it is known as the Mau Escarpment, and about
+1 deg. N., where the Elgeyo Escarpment falls to a longitudinal valley separated
+from Lake Baringo by the ridge of Kamasia. Opposite Lake Naivasha the Mau
+Escarpment is over 8000 ft. high. Its crest is covered with a vast forest.
+To the south the woods become more open, and the plateau falls to an open
+country drained towards the Dogilani plains. On the west the cultivated
+districts of Sotik and Lumbwa, broken by wooded heights, fall towards
+Victoria Nyanza. The Mau plateau reaches a height of 9000 ft. on the
+equator, north of which is the somewhat lower Nandi country, well watered
+and partly forested. In the treeless plateau of Uasin Gishu, west of
+Elgeyo, the land again rises to a height of over 8000 ft., and to the west
+of this is the great mountain mass of Elgon (_q.v._). East of Lake Rudolf
+and south of Lake Stefanie is a large waterless steppe, mainly volcanic in
+character, from which rise mountain ranges. The highest peak is Mount
+Kanjora, 6900 ft. high. South of this arid region, strewn with great lava
+stones, are the Rendile uplands, affording pasturage for thousands of
+camels. Running north-west and south-east between Lake Stefanie and the
+Daua tributary of the Juba is a mountain range with a steep escarpment
+towards the south. It is known as the Goro Escarpment, and at its eastern
+end it forms the boundary between the protectorate and Abyssinia.
+South-east of it the country is largely level bush covered plain, mainly
+waterless.
+
+[_Geology._--The geological formations of British East Africa occur in four
+regions possessing distinct physiographical features. The coast plain,
+narrow in the south and rising somewhat steeply, consists of recent rocks.
+The foot plateau which succeeds is composed of sedimentary rocks dating
+from Trias to Jurassic. The ancient plateau commencing at Taru extends to
+the borders of Kikuyu and is composed of ancient crystalline rocks on which
+immense quantities of volcanic rocks--post-Jurassic to Recent--have
+accumulated to form the volcanic plateau of Central East Africa.
+
+The formations recognized are given in the following table:--
+
+  _Sedimentary._
+
+               (  1. Alluvium and superficial sands.
+  Recent       <  2. Modern lake deposits, living coral rock.
+               (  3. Raised coral rock, conglomerate of Mombasa Island.
+
+  Pleistocene  (  4. Gravels with flint implements.
+               (  5. Glacial beds of Kenya
+
+  Jurassic        6. Shales and limestones of Changamwe.
+
+  Karroo       (  7. Flags and sandstones.
+               (  8. Grits and shales of Masara and Taru.
+
+  Carboniferous?  9. Shales of the Sabaki river.
+
+  Archaean     ( 10. Schists and quartzites of Nandi.
+               ( 11. Gneisses, schists, granites.
+
+  _Igneous and Volcanic._
+
+  Recent        Active, dormant and extinct volcanoes.
+
+  Post-Jurassic ( Kibo and volcanoes of the rift-valley.
+  to Pleistocene( Kimawenzi, Kenya and plateau eruptions.
+
+_Archaean._--These rocks prevail in the districts of Taru, Nandi and
+throughout Ukamba. A course gneiss is the predominant rock, but is
+associated with garnetiferous mica-schists and much intrusive granite.
+Hornblende schists and beds of metamorphic limestone are rare. Cherty
+quartzites interbedded with mylonites occur on the flanks of the Nandi
+hills, but their age is not known.
+
+_Carboniferous?_--From shales on the Sabaki river Dr Gregory obtained
+fish-scales and specimens of _Palaeanodonta Fischeri._
+
+_Karroo._--The grits of Masara, near Rabai mission station and Mombasa,
+have yielded specimens of _Glossopteris browniana_ var. _indica_, thus
+indicating their Karroo age.
+
+_Jurassic._--Shales and limestones of this age are well seen along the
+railway near Changamwe. They contain gigantic ammonites. According to Dr
+Waagen the ammonites show a striking analogy to forms from the Acanthicus
+zone of East India. Belemnites are plentiful.
+
+_Pleistocene._--These are feebly represented by some boulder beds on the
+higher slopes of Kilimanjaro and Kenya. They show that in Pleistocene times
+the glaciers of Kilimanjaro and Kenya extended much farther down the
+mountain slopes.
+
+_Recent._--The ancient and more modern lake deposits have so far yielded no
+mammalian or other organic remains of interest.
+
+_Igneous and Volcanic._--A belt of volcanic rocks, over 150,000 sq. m. in
+area, extends from beyond the southern to beyond the northern territorial
+limits. They belong to an older and a newer set. The older group commenced
+with a series of fissure eruptions along the site of the present
+rift-valley and parallel with it. From these fissures immense and repeated
+flows of lava spread over the Kapte and Laikipia plateaus. At about the
+same time, or a little later, Kenya and Kimawenzi, Elgon and Chibcharagnani
+were in eruption. The age of these volcanic outbursts cannot be more
+definitely stated than that they are post-Jurassic, and probably extended
+through Cretaceous into early Tertiary times. This great volcanic period
+was followed by the eruptions of Kibo and some of the larger volcanoes of
+the rift-valley. The flows from Kibo include nepheline and leucite basanite
+lavas rich in soda felspars. They bear a close resemblance to the Norwegian
+"Rhombenporphyrs." The chain of volcanic cones along the northern lower
+slopes of Kilimanjaro, those of the Kyulu mountains, Donyo Longonot and
+numerous craters in the rift-valley region, are of a slightly more recent
+date. A few of the volcanoes in the latter region have only recently become
+extinct; a few may be only dormant. Donyo Buru still emits small quantities
+of steam, while Mount Teleki, in the neighbourhood of Lake Rudolf, was in
+eruption at the close of the 19th century.]
+
+_Climate, Flora and Fauna._--In its climate and vegetation British East
+Africa again shows an arrangement of zones parallel to the coast. The coast
+region is hot but is generally more healthy than the coast lands of other
+tropical countries, this being due to the constant breeze from the Indian
+Ocean and to the dryness of the soil. The rainfall on the coast is about 35
+in. a year, the temperature tropical. The succeeding plains and the outer
+plateaus are more arid. Farther inland the highlands--in which term may be
+included all districts over 5000 ft. high--are very healthy, fever being
+almost unknown. The average temperature is about 66 deg. F. in the cool season
+and 73 deg. F. in the hot season. Over 7000 ft. the climate becomes distinctly
+colder and frosts are experienced. The average rainfall in the highlands is
+between 40 and 50 in. The country bordering Victoria Nyanza is typically
+tropical; the rainfall exceeds 60 in. in the year, and this region is quite
+unsuitable to Europeans. The hottest period throughout the protectorate is
+December to April, the coolest, July to September. The "greater rains" fall
+from March to June, the "smaller rains" in November and December. The
+rainfall is not, however, as regular as is usual in countries within the
+tropics, and severe droughts are occasionally experienced.
+
+In the districts bordering Victoria Nyanza the flora resembles that of
+Uganda (_q.v._). The characteristic trees of the coast regions are the
+mangrove and coco-nut palm. Ebony grows in the scrub-jungle. Vast forests
+of olives and junipers are found on the Mau escarpment; the cotton, fig and
+bamboo on the Kikuyu escarpment; and in several regions are dense forests
+of great trees whose lowest branches are 50 ft. from the ground. Two
+varieties of the valuable rubber-vine, _Landolphia florida_ and _Landolphia
+Kirkii_, are found near the coast and in the forests. The higher mountains
+preserve distinct species, the surviving remnants of the flora of a cooler
+period.
+
+The fauna is not abundant except in large mammals, which are very numerous
+on the drier steppes. They include the camel (confined to the arid northern
+regions), elephant (more and more restricted to unfrequented districts),
+rhinoceros, buffalo, many kinds of antelope, zebra, giraffe, hippopotamus,
+lion and other carnivora, and numerous monkeys. In many parts the
+rhinoceros is particularly abundant and dangerous. Crocodiles are common in
+the larger rivers and in Victoria Nyanza. Snakes are somewhat rare, the
+most dangerous being the puff-adder. Centipedes and scorpions, as well as
+mosquitoes and other insects, are also less common than in most tropical
+countries. In some districts bees are exceedingly numerous. The birds
+include the ostrich, stork, bustard and secretary-bird among the larger
+varieties, the guinea fowl, various kinds of spur fowl, and the lesser
+bustard, the wild pigeon, weaver and hornbill. By the banks of lakes and
+rivers are to be seen thousands of cranes, pelicans and flamingoes.
+
+_Inhabitants._--The white population is chiefly in the Kikuyu uplands, the
+rift-valley, and in the Kenya region. The whites are mostly agriculturists.
+There are also numbers of Indian settlers in the same districts. The
+African races include representatives of various stocks, as the country
+forms a borderland between the Negro and Hamitic peoples, and contains many
+tribes of doubtful affinities. The Bantu division of the negroes is
+represented chiefly in the south, the principal tribes being the Wakamba,
+Wakikuyu and Wanyika. By the north-east shores of Victoria Nyanza dwell the
+Kavirondo (_q.v._), a race remarkable among the tribes of the protectorate
+for their nudity. Nilotic tribes, including the Nandi (_q.v._), Lumbwa, Suk
+and Turkana, are found in the north-west. Of Hamitic strain are the Masai
+(_q.v._), a race of cattle-rearers speaking a Nilotic language, who occupy
+part of the uplands bordering on the eastern rift-valley. A branch of the
+Masai which has adopted the settled life of agriculturists is known as the
+Wakuafi. The Galla section of the Hamites is represented, among others, by
+Borani living [v.04 p.0603] south of the Goro Escarpment (though the true
+Boran countries are Liban and Dirri in Abyssinian territory), while Somali
+occupy the country between the Tana and Juba rivers. Of the Somali tribes
+the Herti dwell near the coast and are more or less stationary. Further
+inland is the nomadic tribe of Ogaden Somali. The Gurre, another Somali
+tribe, occupy the country south of the lower Daua. Primitive hunting tribes
+are the Wandorobo in Masailand, and scattered tribes of small stature in
+various parts. The coast-land contains a mixed population of Swahili, Arab
+and Indian immigrants, and representatives of numerous interior tribes.
+
+_Provinces and Towns._--The protectorate has been divided into the
+provinces of Seyyidie (the south coast province, capital Mombasa); Ukamba,
+which occupies the centre of the protectorate (capital Nairobi); Kenya, the
+district of Mt. Kenya (capital Fort Hall); Tanaland, to the north of the
+two provinces first named (capital Lamu); Jubaland, the northern region
+(capital Kismayu); Naivasha (capital Naivasha); and Kisumu (capital
+Kisumu); each being in turn divided into districts and sub-districts.
+Naivasha and Kisumu, which adjoin the Victoria Nyanza, formed at first the
+eastern province of Uganda, but were transferred to the East Africa
+protectorate on the 1st of April 1902. The chief port of the protectorate
+is Mombasa (_q.v._) with a population of about 30,000. The harbour on the
+south-west side of Mombasa island is known as Kilindini, the terminus of
+the Uganda railway. On the mainland, nearly opposite Mombasa town, is the
+settlement of freed slaves named Freretown, after Sir Bartle Frere.
+Freretown (called by the natives Kisaoni) is the headquarters in East
+Africa of the Church Missionary Society. It is the residence of the bishop
+of the diocese of Mombasa and possesses a fine church and mission house.
+Lamu, on the island of the same name, 150 m. north-east of Mombasa, is an
+ancient settlement and the headquarters of the coast Arabs. Here are some
+Portuguese ruins, and a large Arab city is buried beneath the sands. The
+other towns of note on the coast are Malindi, Patta, Kipini and Kismayu. At
+Malindi, the "Melind" of _Paradise Lost_, is the pillar erected by Vasco da
+Gama when he visited the port in 1498. The harbour is very shallow.
+Kismayu, the northernmost port of the protectorate, 320 m. north-east of
+Mombasa, is the last sheltered anchorage on the east coast and is
+invaluable as a harbour of refuge. Flourishing towns have grown up along
+the Uganda railway. The most important, Nairobi (_q.v._), 327 m. from
+Mombasa, 257 from Port Florence, was chosen in 1907 as the administrative
+capital of the protectorate. Naivasha, 64 m. north-north-west of Nairobi,
+lies in the rift-valley close to Lake Naivasha, and is 6230 ft. above the
+sea. It enjoys an excellent climate and is the centre of a European
+agricultural settlement. Kisumu or Port Florence (a term confined to the
+harbour) is a flourishing town built on a hill overlooking Victoria Nyanza.
+It is the entrepot for the trade of Uganda.
+
+_Communications._--Much has been done to open up the country by means of
+roads, including a trunk road from Mombasa, by Kibwezi in the upper Sabaki
+basin, and Lake Naivasha, to Berkeley Bay on Victoria Nyanza. But the most
+important engineering work undertaken in the protectorate was the
+construction of a railway from Mombasa to Victoria Nyanza, for which a
+preliminary survey was executed in 1892, and on which work was begun in
+1896. The line chosen roughly coincides with that of the road, until the
+equator is reached, after which it strikes by a more direct route across
+the Mau plateau to the lake, which it reaches at Port Florence on Kavirondo
+Gulf. The railway is 584 m. long and is of metre (3.28 ft.) gauge, the
+Sudan, and South and Central African lines being of 3 ft. 6 in. gauge. The
+Uganda railway is essentially a mountain line, with gradients of one in
+fifty and one in sixty. From Mombasa it crosses to the mainland by a bridge
+half a mile long, and ascends the plateau till it reaches the edge of the
+rift-valley, 346 m. from its starting point, at the Kikuyu Escarpment,
+where it is 7600 ft. above the sea. It then descends across ravines bridged
+by viaducts to the valley floor, dropping to a level of 6011 ft., and next
+ascending the opposite (Mau) escarpment to the summit, 8321 ft. above
+sea-level--the highest point on the line. In the remaining 100 m. of its
+course the level sinks to 3738 ft., the altitude of the station at Port
+Florence. The railway was built by the British government at a cost of
+L5,331,000, or about L9500 per mile. The first locomotive reached Victoria
+Nyanza on the 26th of December 1901; and the permanent way was practically
+completed by March 1903, when Sir George Whitehouse, the engineer who had
+been in charge of the construction from the beginning, resigned his post.
+The railway, by doing away with the carriage of goods by men, gave the
+final death-blow to the slave trade in that part of East Africa. It also
+facilitated the continued occupation and development of Uganda, which was,
+previous to its construction, an almost impossible task, owing to the
+prohibitive cost of the carriage of goods from the coast--L60 per ton. The
+two avowed objects of the railway--the destruction of the slave trade and
+the securing of the British position in Uganda--have been attained;
+moreover, the railway by opening up land suitable for European settlement
+has also done much towards making a prosperous colony of the protectorate,
+which was regarded before the advent of the line as little better than a
+desert (see below, _History_). The railway also shows a fair return on the
+capital expenditure, the surplus after defraying all working expenses being
+L56,000 in 1905-1906 and L76,000 in 1906-1907.
+
+Mombasa is visited by the boats of several steamship companies, the German
+East Africa line maintaining a fortnightly service from Hamburg. There is
+also a regular service to and from India. A cable connecting Mombasa with
+Zanzibar puts the protectorate in direct telegraphic communication with the
+rest of the world. There is also an inland system of telegraphs connecting
+the chief towns with one another and with Uganda.
+
+_Agriculture and other Industries._--In the coast region and by the shores
+of Victoria Nyanza the products are tropical, and cultivation is mainly in
+the hands of the natives or of Indian immigrants. There are, however,
+numerous plantations owned by Europeans. Rice, maize and other grains are
+raised in large quantities; cotton and tobacco are cultivated. The coco-nut
+palm plantations yield copra of excellent quality, and the bark of the
+mangrove trees is exported for tanning purposes. In some inland districts
+beans of the castor oil plant, which grows in great abundance, are a
+lucrative article of trade. The sugar-cane, which grows freely in various
+places, is cultivated by the natives. The collection of rubber likewise
+employs numbers of people.
+
+Among the European settlers in the higher regions much attention is devoted
+to the production of vegetables, and very large crops of potatoes are
+raised. Oats, barley, wheat and coffee are also grown. The uplands are
+peculiarly adapted for the raising of stock, and many of the white settlers
+possess large flocks and herds. Merino sheep have been introduced from
+Australia. Ostrich farms have also been established. Clover, lucerne,
+ryegrass and similar grasses have been introduced to improve and vary the
+fodder. Other vegetable products of economic value are many varieties of
+timber trees, and fibre-producing plants, which are abundant in the scrub
+regions between the coast and the higher land bordering the rift-valley.
+Over the greater part of the country the soil is light reddish loam; in the
+eastern plains it is a heavy black loam. As a rule it is easily cultivated.
+While the majority of the African tribes in the territory are not averse
+from agricultural labour, the number of men available for work on European
+holdings is small. Moreover, on some of the land most suited for
+cultivation by white men there is no native population.
+
+In addition to the fibre industry and cotton ginning there are factories
+for the curing of bacon. Native industries include the weaving of cloth and
+the making of mats and baskets. Stone and lime quarries are worked, and
+copper is found in the Tsavo district. Diamonds have been discovered in the
+Thika river, one of the headstreams of the Tana.
+
+_Trade._--The imports consist largely of textiles, hardware and
+manufactured goods from India and Europe; Great Britain and India between
+them supplying over 50% of the total imports. Of other countries Germany
+has the leading share in the trade. The exports, which include the larger
+part of the external trade of Uganda, are chiefly copra, hides and skins,
+grains, potatoes, rubber, ivory, chillies, beeswax, cotton and fibre. The
+retail trade is largely in the hands of Indians. The value of the exports
+rose from L89,858 in 1900-1901 to L234,664 in 1904-1905, in which year the
+value of the imports for the first time exceeded L500,000. In 1906-1907 the
+volume of trade was L1,194,352, imports being valued at L753,647 and
+exports at L440,705. The United States takes 33% of the exports, Great
+Britain coming next with 15%.
+
+_Government._--The system of government resembles that of a British crown
+colony. At the head of the administration is a governor, who has a deputy
+styled lieutenant-governor, provincial commissioners presiding over each
+province. There are also executive and legislative councils, unofficial
+nominated members serving on the last-named council. In the "ten-mile
+strip" (see below, _History_), the sultan of Zanzibar being territorial
+sovereign, the laws of Islam apply to the native and Arab population. The
+extra-territorial jurisdiction granted by the sultan to various Powers was
+in 1907 transferred to Great Britain. Domestic slavery formerly existed;
+but on the advice of the British government a decree was issued by the
+sultan on the 1st of August 1890, enacting that no one born after that date
+could be a slave, and this was followed in 1907 by a decree abolishing the
+legal status of slavery. In the rest of the protectorate slavery is not
+recognized in any form. Legislation is by ordinances made by the governor,
+with the assent of the legislative council. The judicial system is based on
+Indian models, though in cases in which Africans are concerned regard is
+had to [v.04 p.0604] native customs. Europeans have the right to trial by
+jury in serious cases. There is a police force of about 2000 men, and two
+battalions of the King's African Rifles are stationed in the protectorate.
+Revenue is derived chiefly from customs, licences and excise, railway
+earnings, and posts and telegraphs. Natives pay a hut tax. Since the
+completion of the Uganda railway, trade, and consequently revenue, has
+increased greatly. In 1900-1901 the revenue was L64,275 and the expenditure
+L193,438; in 1904-1905 the figures were: revenue L154,756, expenditure
+L302,559; in 1905-1906 the totals were L270,362 and L418,839, and in
+1906-1907 (when the railway figures were included for the first time)
+L461,362 and L616,088. The deficiencies were made good by grants-in-aid
+from the imperial exchequer. The standard coin used is the rupee (16d.).
+
+Education is chiefly in the hands of the missionary societies, which
+maintain many schools where instruction is given in handicrafts, as well as
+in the ordinary branches of elementary education. There are Arab schools in
+Mombasa, and government schools for Europeans and Indians at Nairobi.
+
+_History._--From the 8th century to the 11th Arabs and Persians made
+settlements along the coast and gained political supremacy at many places,
+leading to the formation of the so-called Zenj empire. The history of the
+coast towns from that time until the establishment of British rule is
+identified with that of Zanzibar (_q.v._). The interior of what is now
+British East Africa was first made known in the middle of the 19th century
+by the German missionaries Ludwig Krapf and Johannes Rebmann, and by Baron
+Karl von der Decken (1833-1865) and others. Von der Decken and three other
+Europeans were murdered by Somali at a town called Bardera in October 1865,
+whilst exploring the Juba river. The countries east of Victoria Nyanza
+(Masailand, &c.) were, however, first traversed throughout their whole
+extent by the Scottish traveller Joseph Thomson (_q.v._) in 1883-1884. In
+1888 Count S. Teleki (a Hungarian) discovered Lakes Rudolf and Stefanie.
+
+The growth of British interests in the country now forming the protectorate
+arises from its connexion with the sultanate of Zanzibar. At Zanzibar
+British influence was very strong in the last quarter of the 19th century,
+and the seyyid or sultan, Bargash, depended greatly on the advice of the
+British representative, Sir John Kirk. In 1877 Bargash offered to Mr
+(afterwards Sir) William Mackinnon (1823-1893), chairman of the British
+India Steam Navigation Company, a merchant in whom he had great confidence,
+or to a company to be formed by him, a lease for 70 years of the customs
+and administration of the whole of the mainland dominions of Zanzibar
+including, with certain reservations, rights of sovereignty. This was
+declined owing to a lack of support by the foreign office, and concessions
+obtained in 1884 by Mr (afterwards Sir) H.H. Johnston in the Kilimanjaro
+district were, at the time, disregarded. The large number of concessions
+acquired by Germans in 1884-1885 on the East African coast aroused,
+however, the interest of those who recognized the paramount importance of
+the maintenance of British influence in those regions. A British claim,
+ratified by an agreement with Germany in 1886, was made to the districts
+behind Mombasa; and in May 1887 Bargash granted to an association formed by
+Mackinnon a concession for the administration of so much of his mainland
+territory as lay outside the region which the British government had
+recognized as the German sphere of operations. By international agreement
+the mainland territories of the sultan were defined as extending 10 m.
+inland from the coast. Mackinnon's association, whose object [Sidenote: A
+chartered company formed.] was to open up the hinterland as well as this
+ten-mile strip, became the Imperial British East Africa Company by a
+founder's agreement of April 1888, and received a royal charter in
+September of the same year. To this company the sultan made a further
+concession dated October 1888. On the faith of these concessions and the
+charters a sum of L240,000 was subscribed, and the company received formal
+charge of their concessions. The path of the company was speedily beset
+with difficulties, which in the first instance arose out of the aggressions
+of the German East African Company. This company had also received a grant
+from the sultan in October 1888, and its appearance on the coast was
+followed by grave disturbances among the tribes which had welcomed the
+British. This outbreak led to a joint British and German blockade, which
+seriously hampered trade operations. It had also been anticipated, in
+reliance on certain assurances of Prince Bismarck, emphasized by Lord
+Salisbury, that German enterprise in the interior of the country would be
+confined to the south of Victoria Nyanza. Unfortunately this expectation
+was not realized. Moreover German subjects put forward claims to coast
+districts, notably Lamu, within the company's sphere and in many ways
+obstructed the company's operations. In all these disputes the German
+government countenanced its own subjects, while the British foreign office
+did little or nothing to assist the company, sometimes directly
+discouraging its activity. Moreover, the company had agreed by the
+concession of October 1888 to pay a high revenue to the sultan--Bargash had
+died in the preceding March and the Germans were pressing his successor to
+give them a grant of Lamu--in lieu of the customs collected at the ports
+they took over. The disturbance caused by the German claims had a
+detrimental effect on trade and put a considerable strain on the resources
+of the company. The action of the company in agreeing to onerous financial
+burdens was dictated partly by regard for imperial interests, which would
+have been seriously weakened had Lamu gone to the Germans.
+
+By the hinterland doctrine, accepted both by Great Britain and Germany in
+the diplomatic correspondence of July 1887, Uganda would fall within Great
+Britain's "sphere of influence"; but German public opinion did not so
+regard the matter. German maps assigned the territory to Germany, while in
+England public opinion as strongly expected British influence to be
+paramount. In 1889 Karl Peters, a German official, led what was practically
+a raiding expedition into that country, after running a blockade of the
+ports. An expedition under F.J. Jackson had been sent by the company in the
+same year to Victoria Nyanza, but with instructions to avoid Uganda. In
+consequence of representations from Uganda, and of tidings he received of
+Peters's doings, Jackson, however, determined to go to that country. Peters
+retired at Jackson's approach, claiming, nevertheless, to have made certain
+treaties which constituted "effective occupation." Peters's treaty was
+dated the 1st of March 1890: Jackson concluded another in April. Meantime
+negotiations were proceeding in Europe; and by the Anglo-German agreement
+of the 1st of July 1890 Uganda was assigned to the British sphere. To
+consolidate their position in Uganda--the French missionaries there were
+hostile to Great Britain--the company sent thither Captain F.D. Lugard, who
+reached Mengo, the capital, in December 1890 and established the authority
+of the company despite French intrigues. In July 1890 representatives of
+the powers assembled at Brussels had agreed on common efforts for the
+suppression of the slave trade. The interference of the company in Uganda
+had been a material step towards that object, which they sought to further
+and at the same time to open up the country by the construction of a
+railway from Mombasa to Victoria Nyanza. But their resources being
+inadequate for such an undertaking they sought imperial aid. Although Lord
+Salisbury, then prime minister, paid the highest tribute to the company's
+labours, and a preliminary grant for the survey had been practically agreed
+upon, the scheme was wrecked in parliament. At a later date, however, the
+railway was built entirely at government cost (_supra_, Sec.
+_Communications_). Owing to the financial strain imposed upon it the
+company decided to withdraw Captain Lugard and his forces in August 1891;
+and eventually the British government assumed a protectorate over the
+country (see UGANDA).
+
+Further difficulties now arose which led finally to the extinction of the
+company. Its pecuniary interests sustained a severe [Sidenote: The company
+and the crown.] blow owing to the British government--which had taken
+Zanzibar under its protection in November 1890--declaring (June 1892) the
+dominions of the sultan within the free trade zone. This act extinguished
+the treaties regulating all tariffs and duties with foreign powers, and
+gave free trade all along the coast. The result for the company was that
+dues were now swept away without compensation, and the company was left
+saddled with the payment of the rent, and with the cost, in addition, of
+administration, [v.04 p.0605] the necessary revenue for which had been
+derived from the dues thus abolished. Moreover, a scheme of taxation which
+it drew up failed to gain the approval of the foreign office.
+
+In every direction the company's affairs had drifted into an _impasse_.
+Plantations had been taken over on the coast and worked at a loss, money
+had been advanced to native traders and lost, and expectations of trade had
+been disappointed. At this crisis Sir William Mackinnon, the guiding spirit
+of the company, died (June 1893). At a meeting of shareholders on the 8th
+of May 1894 an offer to surrender the charter to the government was
+approved, though not without strong protests. Negotiations dragged on for
+over two years, and ultimately the terms of settlement were that the
+government should purchase the property, rights and assets of the company
+in East Africa for L250,000. Although the company had proved unprofitable
+for the shareholders (when its accounts were wound up they disclosed a
+total deficit of L193,757) it had accomplished a great deal of good work
+and had brought under British sway not only the head waters of the upper
+Nile, but a rich and healthy upland region admirably adapted for European
+colonization. To the judgment, foresight and patriotism of Sir William
+Mackinnon British East Africa practically owes its foundation. Sir William
+and his colleagues of the company were largely animated by humanitarian
+motives--the desire to suppress slavery and to improve the condition of the
+natives. With this aim they prohibited the drink traffic, started
+industrial missions, built roads, and administered impartial justice. In
+the opinion of a later administrator (Sir C. Eliot), their work and that of
+their immediate successors was the greatest philanthropic achievement of
+the latter part of the 19th century.
+
+On the 1st of July 1895 the formal transfer to the British crown of the
+territory administered by the company took place at Mombasa, the foreign
+office assuming responsibility for its administration. The territory,
+hitherto known as "Ibea," from the initials of the company, was now styled
+the East Africa protectorate. The small sultanate of Witu (_q.v._) on the
+mainland opposite Lamu, from 1885 to 1890 a German protectorate, was
+included in the British protectorate. Coincident with the transfer of the
+administration to the imperial government a dispute as to the succession to
+a chieftainship in the Mazrui, the most important Arab family on the coast,
+led to a revolt which lasted ten months and involved much hard fighting. It
+ended in April 1896 in the flight of the rebel leaders to German territory,
+where they were interned. The rebellion marks an important epoch in the
+history of the protectorate as its suppression definitely substituted
+European for Arab influence. "Before the rebellion," says Sir C. Eliot,
+"the coast was a protected Arab state; since its suppression it has been
+growing into a British colony."
+
+From 1896, when the building of the Mombasa-Victoria Nyanza railway was
+begun, until 1903, when the line was [Sidenote: A white man's country.]
+practically completed, the energies of the administration were largely
+absorbed in that great work, and in establishing effective control over the
+Masai, Somali, and other tribes. The coast lands apart, the protectorate
+was regarded as valuable chiefly as being the high road to Uganda. But as
+the railway reached the high plateaus the discovery was made that there
+were large areas of land--very sparsely peopled--where the climate was
+excellent and where the conditions were favourable to European
+colonization. The completion of the railway, by affording transport
+facilities, made it practicable to open the country to settlers. The first
+application for land was made in April 1902 by the East Africa Syndicate--a
+company in which financiers belonging to the Chartered Company of South
+Africa were interested--which sought a grant of 500 sq. m.; and this was
+followed by other applications for considerable areas, a scheme being also
+propounded for a large Jewish settlement.
+
+During 1903 the arrival of hundreds of prospective settlers, chiefly from
+South Africa, led to the decision to entertain no more applications for
+large areas of land, especially as questions were raised concerning the
+preservation for the Masai of their rights of pasturage. In the carrying
+out of this policy a dispute arose between Lord Lansdowne, foreign
+secretary, and Sir Charles Eliot, who had been commissioner since 1900. The
+foreign secretary, believing himself bound by pledges given to the
+syndicate, decided that they should be granted the lease of the 500 sq. m.
+they had applied for; but after consulting officials of the protectorate
+then in London, he refused Sir Charles Eliot permission to conclude leases
+for 50 sq. m. each to two applicants from South Africa. Sir Charles
+thereupon resigned his post, and in a public telegram to the prime
+minister, dated Mombasa, the 21st of June 1904, gave as his reason:--"Lord
+Lansdowne ordered me to refuse grants of land to certain private persons
+while giving a monopoly of land on unduly advantageous terms to the East
+Africa Syndicate. I have refused to execute these instructions, which I
+consider unjust and impolitic."[1]
+
+On the day Sir Charles sent this telegram the appointment of Sir Donald W.
+Stewart, the chief commissioner of Ashanti, to succeed him was announced.
+Sir Donald induced the Masai whose grazing rights were threatened to remove
+to another district, and a settlement of the land claims was arranged. An
+offer to the Zionist Association of land for colonization by Jews was
+declined in August 1905 by that body, after the receipt of a report by a
+commissioner sent to examine the land (6000 sq. m.) offered. Sir Donald
+Stewart died on the 1st of October 1905, and was succeeded by Colonel Hayes
+Sadler, the commissioner of Uganda. Meantime, in April 1905, the
+administration of the protectorate had been transferred from the foreign to
+the colonial office. By the close of 1905 considerably over a million acres
+of land had been leased or sold by the protectorate authorities--about half
+of it for grazing purposes. In 1907, to meet the demands of the increasing
+number of white inhabitants, who had formed a Colonists' Association[2] for
+the promotion of their interests, a legislative council was established,
+and on this council representatives of the settlers were given seats. The
+style of the chief official was also altered, "governor" being substituted
+for "commissioner". In the same year a scheme was drawn up for assisting
+the immigration of British Indians to the regions adjacent to the coast and
+to Victoria Nyanza, districts not suitable for settlement by Europeans.
+
+In general the relations of the British with the tribes of the interior
+have been satisfactory. The Somali in Jubaland have given some trouble, but
+the Masai, notwithstanding their warlike reputation, accepted peaceably the
+control of the whites. This was due, in great measure, to the fact that at
+the period in question plague carried off their cattle wholesale and
+reduced them for years to a state of want and weakness which destroyed
+their warlike habits. One of the most troublesome tribes proved to be the
+Nandi, who occupied the southern part of the plateau west of the Mau
+escarpment. They repeatedly raided their less warlike neighbours and
+committed wholesale thefts from the railway and telegraph lines. In
+September 1905 an expedition was sent against them which reduced the tribe
+to submission in the following November; and early in 1906 the Nandi were
+removed into a reserve. The majority of the natives, unaccustomed to
+regular work, showed themselves averse from taking service under the white
+farmers. The inadequacy of the labour supply was an early cause of trouble
+to the settlers, while the labour regulations enforced led, during
+1907-1908, to considerable friction between the colonists and the
+administration.
+
+For several years after the establishment of the protectorate the northern
+region remained very little known and no attempt was made to administer the
+district. The natives were frequently raided by parties of Gallas and
+Abyssinians, and in the absence of a defined frontier Abyssinian government
+posts were pushed south to Lake Rudolf. The Abyssinians also made
+themselves masters of the Boran country. After long negotiations an
+agreement as to the boundary line between the lake and [v.04 p.0606] the
+river Juba was signed at Adis Ababa on the 6th of December 1907, and in
+1908-1909 the frontier was delimited by an Anglo-Abyssinian commission,
+Major C.W. Gwynn being the chief British representative. Save for its
+north-eastern extremity Lake Rudolf was assigned to the British, Lake
+Stefanie falling to Abyssinia, while from about 4 deg. 20' N. the Daua to its
+junction with the Juba became the frontier.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The most comprehensive account of the protectorate to the
+close of 1904, especially of its economic resources, is _The East Africa
+Protectorate_, by Sir Charles Eliot (London, 1905). The progress of the
+protectorate is detailed in the _Reports_ by the governor issued annually
+by the British government since 1896, and in _Drumkey's Year Book for East
+Africa_ (Bombay), first issued in 1908. The _Precis of Information_
+concerning the British East Africa Protectorate (issued by the War Office,
+London, 1901) is chiefly valuable for its historical information. The work
+of the Imperial British East Africa Company is concisely and
+authoritatively told from official documents in _British East Africa or
+Ibea_, by P.L. McDermont (new ed., London, 1895). Another book, valuable
+for its historical perspective, is _The Foundation of British East Africa_,
+by J.W. Gregory (London, 1901). Bishop A.R. Tucker's _Eighteen Years in
+Uganda and East Africa_ (London, 1908) contains a summary of missionary
+labours. Of the works of explorers _Through Masai Land_, by Joseph Thomson
+(London, 1886), is specially valuable. For the northern frontier see Capt.
+P. Maud's report in _Africa No. 13_ (1904). For geology see, besides
+Thomson's book, _The Great Rift Valley_, by J.W. Gregory (London, 1896);
+_Across an East African Glacier_, by Hans Meyer (London and Leipzig, 1890);
+and _Report relating to the Geology of the East Africa Protectorate_, by
+H.B. Muff (Colonial Office, London, 1908). For big game and ornithology see
+_On Safari_, by A. Chapman (London, 1908). The story of the building of the
+Uganda railway is summarized in the _Final Report of the Uganda Railway
+Committee, Africa, No. 11_ (1904), published by the British government.
+
+(F. R. C.)
+
+[1] See _Correspondence relating to the Resignation of Sir C. Eliot,
+Africa, No. 8_ (1904).
+
+[2] The Planters and Farmers' Association, as this organization was
+originally called, dates from 1903.
+
+BRITISH EMPIRE, the name now loosely given to the whole aggregate of
+territory, the inhabitants of which, under various forms of government,
+ultimately look to the British crown as the supreme head. The term "empire"
+is in this connexion obviously used rather for convenience than in any
+sense equivalent to that of the older or despotic empires of history.
+
+The land surface of the earth is estimated to extend over about 52,500,000
+sq. m. Of this area the British empire occupies [Sidenote: Extent.] nearly
+one-quarter, extending over an area of about 12,000,000 sq. m. By far the
+greater portion lies within the temperate zones, and is suitable for white
+settlement. The notable exceptions are the southern half of India and
+Burma; East, West and Central Africa; the West Indian colonies; the
+northern portion of Australia; New Guinea, British Borneo and that portion
+of North America which extends into Arctic regions. The area of the
+territory of the empire is divided almost equally between the southern and
+the northern hemispheres, the great divisions of Australasia and South
+Africa covering between them in the southern hemisphere 5,308,506 sq. m.,
+while the United Kingdom, Canada and India, including the native states,
+cover between them in the northern hemisphere 5,271,375 sq. m. The
+alternation of the seasons is thus complete, one-half of the empire
+enjoying summer, while one-half is in winter. The division of territory
+between the eastern and western hemispheres is less equal, Canada occupying
+alone in the western hemisphere 3,653,946 sq. m., while Australasia, South
+Africa, India and the United Kingdom occupy together in the eastern
+hemisphere 6,925,975 sq. m. As a matter of fact, however, the eastern
+portions of Australasia border so nearly upon the western hemisphere that
+the distribution of day and night throughout the empire is, like the
+alternations of the seasons, almost complete, one-half enjoying daylight,
+while the other half is in darkness. These alternations of time and of
+seasons, combined with the variety of soils and climates, are calculated to
+have an increasingly important effect upon the material and industrial, as
+well as upon the social and political developments of the empire. This will
+become evident in considering the industrial productions of the different
+divisions, and the harvest seasons which permit the summer produce of one
+portion of the empire to supply the winter requirements of its other
+markets, and conversely.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The empire contains or is bounded by some of the highest mountains, the
+greatest lakes, and the most important rivers of the world. Its climates
+may be said to include all the known climates of the world; its soils are
+no less various. In the prairies of central Canada it possesses some of the
+most valuable wheat-producing land; in the grass lands of the interior of
+Australia the best pasture country; and in the uplands of South Africa the
+most valuable gold- and diamond-bearing beds which exist. The United
+Kingdom at present produces more coal than any other single country except
+the United States. The effect of climate throughout the empire in modifying
+the type of the Anglo-Saxon race has as yet received only partial
+attention, and conclusions regarding it are of a somewhat empiric nature.
+The general tendency in Canada is held to be towards somewhat smaller size,
+and a hardy active habit; in Australia to a tall, slight, pale development
+locally known as "cornstalkers," characterized by considerable nervous and
+intellectual activity. In New Zealand the type preserves almost exactly the
+characteristics of the British Isles. The South African, both Dutch and
+British, is readily recognized by an apparently sun-dried, lank and hard
+habit of body. In the tropical possessions of the empire, where white
+settlement does not take place to any considerable extent, the individual
+alone is affected. The type undergoes no modification. It is to be observed
+in reference to this interesting aspect of imperial development, that the
+multiplication and cheapening of channels of communication and means of
+travel throughout the empire will tend to modify the future accentuation of
+race difference, while the variety of elements in the vast area occupied
+should have an important, though as yet not scientifically traced, effect
+upon the British imperial type.
+
+The white population of the empire[1] reached in 1901 a total of over
+53,000,000, or something over one-eighth of its entire [Sidenote:
+Population.] population, which, including native races, is estimated at
+about 400,000,000. The white population includes some French, Dutch and
+Spanish peoples, but is mainly of Anglo-Saxon race. It is distributed
+roughly as follows:--
+
+  United Kingdom and home dependencies  41,608,791
+  Australasia                            4,662,000
+  British North America                  5,500,000
+  Africa (Dutch and British)             1,000,000[2]
+  India                                    169,677
+  West Indies and Bermuda                  100,000
+                                        ----------
+                                        53,040,468
+
+The native population of the empire includes types of the principal black,
+yellow and brown races, classing with these the high-type races of the
+East, which may almost be called white. The native population of India,
+mainly high type, brown, was returned at the census of 1901 as 294,191,379.
+The population of India is divided into 118 groups on the basis of
+language. These may, however, be collected into the following principal
+groups:--
+
+  (A) Malayo-Polynesian.
+  (B) Indo-Chinese:
+      i. Mon-Khmer.
+      ii. Tibeto-Burman.
+      iii. Siamese-Chinese.
+  (C) Dravido-Mu[n.]da:
+      i. Mu[n.]da (Kolarian).
+      ii. Dravidian.
+  (D) Indo-European.
+      Indo-Aryan sub-family.
+  (E) Semitic.
+  (F) Hamitic.
+  (G) Unclassed, e.g. Gipsy.
+
+_Eastern Colonies_
+
+
+  Ceylon, high type, brown and mixed            3,568,824
+  Straits Settlements, brown, mixed and Chinese   570,000
+  Hong-Kong, Chinese and brown                    306,130
+  North Borneo, mixed brown and Sarawak           700,000
+                                                ---------
+                                                5,144,954
+
+[v.04 p.0607] Of the various races which inhabit these Eastern dependencies
+the most important are the 2,000,000 Sinhalese and the 954,000 Tamil that
+make up the greater part of the population of Ceylon. The rest is made up
+of Arabs, Malays, Chinese (in the Straits Settlements and Hong-Kong),
+Dyaks, Eurasians and others.
+
+_West Indies._
+
+The West Indies, including the continental colonies of British Guiana and
+Honduras, and seventeen islands or groups of islands, have a total coloured
+population of about 1,912,655. The colonies of this group which have the
+largest coloured populations are:--
+
+  Jamaica--Chiefly black, some brown and yellow    790,000
+  Trinidad and Tobago--Black and brown             250,000
+  British Guiana--Black and brown                  286,000
+                                                 ---------
+                                                 1,326,000
+
+The populations of the West Indies are very various, being made up largely
+of imported African negroes. In Jamaica these contribute four-fifths of the
+population. There are also in the islands a considerable number of imported
+East Indian coolies and some Chinese. The aboriginal races include American
+Indians of the mainland and Caribs. With these there has been intermixture
+of Spanish and Portuguese blood, and many mixed types have appeared. The
+total European population of this group of colonies amounts to upwards of
+80,000, to which 15,000 on account of Bermuda may be added.
+
+_Africa._
+
+  Chiefly black, estimated
+  South                                          5,211,329
+  Central                                        2,000,000
+
+The aboriginal races of South Africa were the Bushmen and Hottentots. Both
+these races are rapidly diminishing in numbers, and in British South Africa
+it is expected that they will in the course of the twentieth century become
+extinct. Besides these primitive races there are the dark-skinned negroids
+of Bantu stock, commonly known in their tribal groups as Kaffirs, Zulu,
+Bechuana and Damara, which are again subdivided into many lesser groups.
+The Bantu compose the greater part of the native population. There are also
+in South Africa Malays and Indians and others, who during the last two
+hundred years have been introduced from Java, Ceylon, Madagascar,
+Mozambique and British India, and by intermarriage with each other and with
+the natives have produced a hybrid population generally classed together
+under the heading of the Mixed Races. These are of all colours, varying
+from yellow to dark brown. The tribes of Central Africa are as yet less
+known. Many of them exhibit racial characteristics allied to those of the
+tribes of South Africa, but with in some cases an admixture of Arab blood.
+
+_East Africa._
+
+
+  Protectorate--Black and brown:
+      Natives  (estimated)                     4,000,000
+      Asiatics (estimated)                        25,000
+  Zanzibar--Black and brown                      200,000
+  Uganda                                       3,200,000
+                                               ---------
+                           Total               7,425,000
+
+_West Africa._
+
+                                                Estimated.
+  Nigeria (including Lagos)--Black and brown   15,000,000
+  Gold Coast and hinterland--Chiefly black      2,700,000
+  Sierra Leone                   "     "        1,000,000
+  Gambia                         "     "          163,000
+                                               ----------
+                                               18,863,000
+
+From east to west across Africa the aboriginal nations are mostly of the
+black negroid type, their varieties being only imperfectly known. The
+tendency of some of the lower negroid types has been to drift towards the
+west coast, where they still practise cannibalistic and fetish rites. On
+the east coast are found much higher types approaching to the Christian
+races of Abyssinia, and from east to west there has been a wide admixture
+of Arab blood producing a light-brown type. In Uganda and Nigeria a large
+proportion of the population is Arab and relatively light-skinned.
+
+_Australasia_.
+
+  Australia--Black, very low type                      200,000
+             Chinese and half castes, yellow            50,000
+  New Zealand--Maoris, brown, Chinese and half castes   53,000
+  Fiji--Polynesian, black and brown                    121,000
+  Papua--Polynesian, black and brown                   400,000
+                                                       -------
+                                                       824,000
+
+The native races of Australia and the Polynesian groups of islands are
+divided into two main types known as the dark and light Polynesian. The
+dark type, which is black, is of a very low order, and in some of the
+islands still retains its cannibal habits. The aboriginal tribes of
+Australia are of a low-class black race, but generally peaceful and
+inoffensive in their habits. The white Polynesian races are of a very
+superior type, and exhibit, as in the Maoris of New Zealand,
+characteristics of a high order. The natives of Papua (New Guinea) are in a
+very low state of civilization. The estimate given of their numbers is
+approximate, as no census has been taken.
+
+_Canada._
+
+  Indians--Brown                                     100,000
+
+The only coloured native races of Canada are the Red Indians, many in
+tribal variety, but few in number.
+
+_Summary_.
+
+  Native Populations:
+  India                                          294,191,379
+  Ceylon and Eastern Colonies                      5,144,954
+  West Indies                                      1,912,655
+  South Africa                                     5,211,329
+  British Central Africa                           2,000,000
+  East Africa                                      7,425,000
+  West Africa                                     18,863,000
+  Australasia and Islands                            824,000
+  Canada                                             100,000
+                                                 -----------
+                                                 335,672,317
+  White populations                               53,040,468
+                                  Total          388,712,785
+
+This is without taking into account the population of the lesser crown
+colonies or allowing for the increase likely to be shown by later censuses.
+Throughout the empire, and notably in the United Kingdom, there is among
+the white races a considerable sprinkling of Jewish blood.
+
+The latest calculation of the entire population of the world, including a
+liberal estimate of 650,000,000 for peoples not brought under any census,
+gives a total of something over 1,500,000,000. The population of the empire
+may therefore be calculated as amounting to something more than one-fourth
+of the population of the world.
+
+It is a matter of first importance in the geographical distribution of the
+empire that the five principal divisions, the United [Sidenote: Divisions.]
+Kingdom, South Africa, India, Australia and Canada are separated from each
+other by the three great oceans of the world. The distance as usually
+calculated in nautical miles: from an English port to the Cape of Good Hope
+is 5840 m.; from the Cape of Good Hope to Bombay is 4610; from Bombay to
+Melbourne is 5630; from Melbourne to Auckland is 1830; from Auckland to
+Vancouver is 6210; from Halifax to Liverpool is 2744. From a British port
+direct to Bombay by way of the Mediterranean it is 6272; from a British
+port by the same route to Sydney 11,548 m. These great distances have
+necessitated the acquisition of intermediate ports suitable for coaling
+stations on the trade routes, and have determined the position of many of
+the lesser crown colonies which are held simply for military and commercial
+purposes. Such are the Bermudas, Gibraltar, Malta, Aden, Ceylon, the
+Straits Settlements, Labuan, Hong-Kong, which complete the [v.04 p.0608]
+chain of connexion on the eastern route, and such on other routes are the
+lesser West African stations, Ascension, St. Helena, the Mauritius and
+Seychelles, the Falklands, Tristan da Cunha, and the groups of the western
+Pacific. Other annexations of the British empire have been rocky islets of
+the northern Pacific required for the purpose of telegraph stations in
+connexion with an all-British cable.
+
+For purposes of political administration the empire falls into the three
+sections of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, with the
+dependencies of the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man; the Indian empire,
+consisting of British India and the feudatory native states; and the
+colonial empire, comprising all other colonies and dependencies.
+
+In the modern sense of extension beyond the limits of the United Kingdom
+the growth of the empire is of comparatively [Sidenote: Growth.] recent
+date. The Channel Islands became British as a part of the Norman
+inheritance of William the Conqueror. The Isle of Man, which was for a
+short time held in conquest by Edward I. and restored, was sold by its
+titular sovereign to Sir William Scrope, earl of Wiltshire, in 1393, and by
+his subsequent attainder for high treason and the confiscation of his
+estates, became a fief of the English crown. It was granted by Henry IV. in
+1406 to Sir John Stanley, K.C., ancestor of the earls of Derby, by whom it
+was held till 1736, when it passed to James Murray, 2nd duke of Atholl, as
+heir-general of the 10th earl. It was inherited by his daughter Charlotte,
+wife of the 3rd duke of Atholl, who sold it to the crown for L70,000 and an
+annuity of L2000. With these exceptions and the nominal possession taken of
+Newfoundland by Sir Humphrey Gilbert in 1583, all the territorial
+acquisitions of the empire have been made in the 17th and subsequent
+centuries.
+
+The following is a list of the British colonies and dependencies (other
+than those belonging to the Indian empire) together with a summary
+statement of the date and method of their acquisition. Arranged in
+chronological order they give some idea of the rate of growth of the
+empire. The dates are not, however, in all cases those in which British
+sovereignty was established. They indicate in some instances only the first
+definite step, such as the building of a fort, the opening of a trading
+station, or other act, which led later to the incorporation in the empire
+of the country indicated. In the case of Australian states or Canadian
+provinces originally part of other states or provinces the date is that,
+approximately, of the first settlement of British in the district named;
+_e.g._ there were British colonists in Saskatchewan in the last half of the
+18th century, but the province was not constituted until 1905. Save where
+otherwise stated, British authority has been continuous from the first date
+mentioned in the table. Reference should be made to the articles on the
+various colonies.
+
+Name.                           Date.     Method of Acquisition.
+
+Newfoundland                    1583     Possession taken by Sir H. Gilbert
+                                           for the crown.
+
+                 _17th Century._
+
+Barbados                      1605-1625  Settlement.
+Bermudas                        1609         "
+Gambia                       c. 1618         "   A second time in 1816.
+St Christopher                  1623         "   Did not become wholly
+                                                   British until 1713.
+Novia Scotia                    1628         "   Ceded to France 1632;
+                                           recovered 1713.
+Nevis                           1628         "
+Montserrat                      1632         "
+Antigua                         1632         "
+Honduras                        1638         "
+St Lucia                        1638         "    Finally passed to Great
+                                           Britain in 1803.
+Gold Coast                   c. 1650     Settlement. Danish forts bought
+                                           1850, Dutch forts 1871. Northern
+                                           Territories added 1897.
+St Helena                       1651     Settled by East India Co.
+                                           Government vested in British
+                                           crown 1833.
+Jamaica                         1655     Conquest.
+Bahamas                         1666     Settlement.
+Virgin Islands               1666-1672   Settlement and conquest.
+N.W. Territories of Canada      1669     Settlement under royal charter of
+                                           Hudson's Bay Co. Purchased from
+                                           imp. gov. 1869, and transferred
+                                           to Canada 1870.
+Turks and Caicos Is.            1678     Settlement.
+
+                 _18th Century._
+Gibraltar                       1704     Capitulation.
+New Brunswick                   1713     Cession.
+Prince Edward Is.               1758     Conquest.
+Ontario                       1759-1790  With New Brunswick and Nova
+Quebec                        1759-1790  Scotia constituted Dominion of
+                                           Canada 1867. Prince Edward Is.
+                                           enters the confederation 1873.
+                                           In 1880 all British possessions
+                                           (other than Newfoundland) in
+                                           North America annexed to the
+                                           Dominion.
+Dominica                        1761     Conquest.
+St Vincent                      1762     Capitulation.
+Grenada                         1762          "
+Tobago                          1763     Cession. Afterwards in French
+                                           possession. Reconquered 1803.
+Falkland Is.                    1765     Settlement. Reoccupied 1832.
+Saskatchewan                    1766     Settlement. Separation from N.W.
+                                           Territories of Canada 1905.
+Pitcairn I.                     1780     Settlement.
+Straits Settlements         1786 to 1824  Settlement and cession. Vested
+                                           (1858) in crown by E.I. Co.
+                                           Transferred from Indian to
+                                           colonial possessions 1867.
+                                           Malacca in British occupation
+                                           1795-1818.
+Sierra Leone                    1787     Settlement.
+Alberta                        c. 1788   Separated from N. W. Territories
+                                           of Canada 1905.
+New South Wales                 1788     Settlement.
+Ceylon                          1795     Capitulation.
+Trinidad                        1797          "
+Malta                           1800          "
+
+              _19th Century._
+
+British Guiana                  1803     Capitulation.
+Tasmania                        1803     Settlement.
+Cape of Good Hope               1806     Capitulation. Present limits not
+                                           attained until 1895. First
+                                           British occupation 1795-1803.
+Seychelles                      1806     Capitulation.
+Mauritius                       1810          "
+Manitoba                        1811     Settlement by Red River or Selkirk
+                                           colony. Created province of
+                                           Canada 1870.
+Ascension and Tristan da Cunha  1815     Military occupation.
+B. Columbia and Vancouver Island  1821   Settlement under Hudson's Bay Co.
+                                           Entered Canadian confederation
+                                           1871.
+Natal                           1824     Settlement. Natal Boers submit
+                                           1843.
+Queensland                      1824     Separated from New South Wales
+                                           1859.
+West Australia                  1826     Settlement.
+Victoria                        1834     Separated from New South Wales
+                                           1851.
+South Australia                 1836     Settlement.
+New Zealand                     1840     Settlement and treaty.
+Hong-Kong                       1841     Treaties. Kowloon on the mainland
+                                           added in 1860; additional area
+                                           leased 1898.
+Labuan                          1846     Cession. Incorporated in Straits
+                                           Settlements 1906.
+Lagos                           1861     Cession. South Nigeria amalgamated
+                                           with Lagos, under style of
+                                           Colony and Protectorate of
+                                           Southern Nigeria 1906.
+Basutoland                      1868     Annexation.
+Fiji                            1874     Cession.
+[v.04 p.0609]
+W. Pacific Islands, including   1877     High commission created by order
+  including Union, Ellice,                 in council, giving jurisdiction
+  Gilbert, Southern Solomon,               over islands not included in
+  and other groups                         other colonial governments, nor
+                                           within jurisdiction of other
+                                           civilized powers. Protectorates
+                                           over all these islands by 1900.
+Federated Malay States        1874-1895  Treaty.
+Cyprus                          1878     Occupied by treaty.
+North Borneo                    1881     Treaty and settlement under royal
+                                           charter. Protectorate assumed
+                                           1888.
+Papua                           1884     Protectorate declared.
+Nigeria                       1884-1886  Treaty, conquest and settlement
+                                           under royal charter. Chartered
+                                           Co.'s territory transferred to
+                                           crown, and whole divided into
+                                           North and South Nigeria 1900.
+Somaliland                    1884-1886  Occupation and cession.
+                                         Protectorate declared 1887.
+Bechuanaland                  1885-1891  Protectorate declared. Southern
+                                           portion annexed to Cape Colony
+                                           1895.
+Zululand                        1887     Annexation. Incorporated in Natal
+                                           1897.
+Sarawak                         1888     Protectorate declared.
+Brunei                          1888           "          "
+British East Africa             1888     Treaty, conquest and settlement
+                                         under royal charter. Transferred
+                                         to crown 1895.
+Rhodesia                      1888-1893  Treaty, conquest and settlement
+                                         under royal charter.
+Zanzibar                        1890     Protectorate declared.
+Uganda                        1890-1896  Treaty and protectorate.
+Nyasaland                       1891     Protectorate declared.
+Ashanti                         1896     Military occupation.
+Wei-hai-wei                     1898     Lease from China.
+Pacific Islands--
+  Christmas, Fanning,           1898     Annexed for purposes of projected
+  Penrhyn, Suvarov                       Pacific cable.
+  Choiseul and Isabel Is.       1899     Cession.
+    (Solomon Group)
+  Tonga and Niue                1900     Protectorate declared.
+Orange Free State               1900     Annexation. Formerly British
+                                           1848-1854.
+Transvaal and Swaziland         1900     Annexation. Formerly British
+                                           1877-1881.
+
+                               _20th Century._
+Kelantan, Trengganu, &c.        1909     Cession from Siam.
+
+In the Pacific are also Bird Island, Bramble Cay, Cato Island, Cook
+Islands, Danger Islands, Ducie Island, Dudosa, Howland Island, Jarvis
+Island, Kermadec Islands, Macquarie Island, Manihiki Islands, Nassau
+Island, Palmerston Island, Palmyra Island, Phoenix Group, Purdy Group,
+Raine Island, Rakaanga Island, Rotumah Island, Surprise Island, Washington
+or New York Island, Willis Group and Wreck Reef.
+
+In the Indian Ocean there are, besides the colonies already mentioned,
+Rodriguez, the Chagos Islands, St Brandon Islands, Amirante Islands,
+Aldabra, Kuria Muria Islands, Maldive Islands and some other small groups.
+
+In certain dependencies the sovereignty of Great Britain is not absolute.
+The island of Cyprus is nominally still part of the Turkish empire, but in
+1878 was handed over to Great Britain for occupation and administration;
+Great Britain now making to the Porte on account of the island an annual
+payment of L5000. The administration is in the hands of an official styled
+high commissioner, who is invested with the powers usually conferred on a
+colonial governor. In Zanzibar and other regions of equatorial Africa the
+native rulers retain considerable powers; in the Far East certain areas are
+held on lease from China.
+
+Egypt, without forming part of the British empire, came under the military
+occupation of Great Britain in 1882. "By right of conquest" Great Britain
+subsequently claimed a share in the administration of the former Sudan
+provinces of Egypt, and an agreement of the 19th of January 1899
+established the joint sovereignty of Great Britain and Egypt over what is
+now known as the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.
+
+The Indian section of the empire was acquired during the 17th-19th
+centuries under a royal charter granted to the East India Company by Queen
+Elizabeth in 1600. It was transferred to the imperial government in 1858,
+and Queen Victoria was proclaimed empress under the Royal Titles Act in
+1877. The following list gives the dates and method of acquisition of the
+centres of the main divisions of the Indian empire. They have, in most
+instances, grown by general process of extension to their present
+dimensions.
+
+  Name.                 Date.     Method of Acquisition.
+
+  Madras                1639      By treaty and subsequent conquest.
+                         to         Fort St George, the foundation
+                        1748        of Madras was the first territorial
+                                    possession of the E.I. Co. in India.
+                                    It was acquired by treaty with its
+                                    Indian ruler. Madras was raised into
+                                    a presidency in 1683; ceded to France
+                                    1746; recovered 1748.
+
+  Bombay                1608      Treaty and cession. Trade first
+                         to         established 1608. Ceded to British
+                        1685        crown by Portugal 1661. Transferred
+                                    to E.I. Co. 1668. Presidency removed
+                                    from Surat 1687.
+
+  Bengal                1633      Treaty and subsequent conquests. First
+                         to         trade settlement established by
+                        1765        treaty at Pipli in Orissa 1633.
+                                    Erected into presidency by separation
+                                    from Madras 1681. Virtual sovereignty
+                                    announced by E.I. Co., as result of
+                                    conquests of Clive, 1765.
+
+  United Provinces      1764      By conquests and treaty through
+    of Agra and Oudh     to         successive stages, of which the
+                        1856        principal dates were 1801-3-14-15.
+                                    In 1832 the nominal sovereignty of
+                                    Delhi, till then retained by the
+                                    Great Mogul, was resigned into the
+                                    hands of the E.I. Co. Oudh, of which
+                                    the conquest may be said to have
+                                    begun with the battle of Baxar in
+                                    1764, was finally annexed in 1856.
+
+  Central Provinces   1802-1817   By conquest and treaty.
+  Eastern Bengal      1825-1826   Conquest and cession. The Bengal
+    and Assam                       portion of the province by
+                                    separation from Bengal in 1905.
+  Burma               1824-1852   Conquest and cession.
+  Punjab                1849      Conquest and annexation. Made into
+                                    distinct province 1859.
+  N.-W. Frontier        1901      Subdivision.
+    Province
+  Ajmere and Merwara    1818      By conquest and cession.
+  Coorg                 1834      Conquest and annexation.
+  British Baluchistan 1854-1876   Conquest and treaty.
+  Andaman Islands       1858      Annexation.
+
+The following is a list of some of the principal Indian states which are
+more or less under the control of the British government:--
+
+1. In direct political relations with the governor-general in council.
+
+  Hyderabad.
+  Baroda.
+  Mysote.
+  Kashmir.
+
+2. Under the Rajputana agency.
+
+  Udaipur.
+  Jodhpur.
+  Bikanir.
+  Jaipur (and feudatories).
+  Bharatpur.
+  Dholpur.
+  Alwar.
+  Tonk.
+
+3. Under the Central Indian agency.
+
+  Indore.
+  Rewa.
+  Bhopal.
+  Gwalior.
+
+4. Under the Bombay government.
+
+  Cutch.
+  Kolhapur (and dependencies).
+  Khairpur (Sind).
+  Bhaunagar.
+
+[v.04 p.0610] 5. Under the Madras government.
+
+  Travancore.
+  Cochin.
+
+6. Under the Central Provinces government.
+
+  Bastar.
+
+7. Under the Bengal government.
+
+  Kuch Behar.
+  Sikkim.
+
+8. Under United Provinces government.
+
+  Rampur.
+  Garhwal.
+
+9. Under the Punjab government.
+
+  Patiala.
+  Bahawalpur.
+  Jind.
+  Nabha.
+  Kapurthala.
+  Mandi.
+  Sirmur (Nahan).
+  Faridkot.
+  Chamba.
+
+10. Under the government of Burma.
+
+  Shan states.
+  Karen states.
+
+In addition to these there are British tracts known as the Upper Burma
+frontier and the Burma frontier. There is also a sphere of British
+influence in the border of Afghanistan. The state of Nepal, though
+independent as regards its internal administration, has been since the
+campaign of 1814-15 in close relations with Great Britain. It is bound to
+receive a British resident, and its political relations with other states
+are controlled by the government of India. All these native states have
+come into relative dependency upon Great Britain as a result of conquest or
+of treaty consequent upon the annexation of the neighbouring provinces. The
+settlement of Aden, with its dependencies of Perim and Sokotra Island,
+forms part of the government of Bombay.
+
+This vast congeries of states, widely different in character, and acquired
+by many different methods, holds together under [Sidenote: Administration.]
+the supreme headship of the crown on a generally acknowledged triple
+principle of self-government, self-support and self-defence. The principle
+is more fully applied in some parts of the empire than in others; there are
+some parts which have not yet completed their political evolution; some
+others in which the principle is temporarily or for special reasons in
+abeyance; others, again--chiefly those of very small extent, which are held
+for purposes of the defence or advantage of the whole--to which it is not
+applicable; but the principle is generally acknowledged as the structural
+basis upon which the constitution of the empire exists.
+
+In its relation to the empire the home section of the British Isles is
+distinguished from the others as the place of origin of the British race
+and the residence of the crown. The history and constitutional development
+of this portion of the empire will be found fully treated under separate
+headings. (See ENGLAND; WALES; IRELAND; SCOTLAND; UNITED KINGDOM; ENGLISH
+HISTORY; INDIA; AFRICA; AUSTRALIA; CANADA; &c.)
+
+It is enough to say that for purposes of administration the Indian empire
+is divided into nine great provinces and four minor commissionerships. The
+nine great provinces are presided over by two governors (Bombay and
+Madras), five lieut.-governors (Bengal, Eastern Bengal and Assam, United
+Provinces [Agra and Oudh], the Punjab and Burma), a chief commissioner (the
+Central Provinces) and an agent to the governor-general (the N.-W. Frontier
+Province). The four minor commissionerships are presided over each by a
+chief commissioner. Above these the supreme executive authority in India is
+vested in the viceroy in council. The council consists of six ordinary
+members besides the existing commander-in-chief. For legislative purposes
+the governor-general's council is increased by the addition of fifteen
+members nominated by the crown, and has power under certain restrictions to
+make laws for British India, for British subjects in the native states, and
+for native Indian subjects of the crown in any part of the world. The
+administration of the Indian empire in England is carried on by a secretary
+of state for India assisted by a council of not less than ten members. The
+expenditure of the revenues is under the control of the secretary in
+council.
+
+The colonial empire comprises over fifty distinct governments. It is
+divided into colonies of three classes and dependencies; these, again, are
+in some instances associated for administrative purposes in federated
+groups. The three classes of colonies are crown colonies, colonies
+possessing representative institutions but not responsible government, and
+colonies possessing representative institutions and responsible government.
+In crown colonies the crown has entire control of legislation, and the
+public officers are under the control of the home government. In
+representative colonies the crown has only a veto on legislation, but the
+home government retains control of the public officers. In responsible
+colonies the crown retains a veto upon legislation, but the home government
+has no control of any public officer except the governor.
+
+In crown colonies--with the exception of Gibraltar and St Helena, where
+laws may be made by the governor alone--laws are made by the governor with
+the concurrence of a council nominated by the crown. In some crown
+colonies, chiefly those acquired by conquest or cession, the authority of
+this council rests wholly on the crown; in others, chiefly those acquired
+by settlement, the council is created by the crown under the authority of
+local or imperial laws. The crown council of Ceylon may be cited as an
+example of the first kind, and the crown council of Jamaica of the second.
+
+In colonies possessing representative institutions without responsible
+government, the crown cannot (generally) legislate by order in council, and
+laws are made by the governor with the concurrence of the legislative body
+or bodies, one at least of these bodies in cases where a second chamber
+exists possessing a preponderance of elected representatives. The Bahamas,
+Barbados, and Bermuda have two legislative bodies--one elected and one
+nominated by the crown; Malta and the Leeward Islands have but one, which
+is partly elected and partly nominated.
+
+Under responsible government legislation is carried on by parliamentary
+means exactly as at home, with a cabinet responsible to parliament, the
+crown reserving only a right of veto, which is exercised at the discretion
+of the governor in the case of certain bills. The executive councils in
+those colonies, designated as at home by parliamentary choice, are
+appointed by the governor alone, and the other public officers only
+nominally by the governor on the advice of his executive council.
+
+Colonial governors are classed as governors-general; governors;
+lieut.-governors; administrators; high commissioners; and commissioners,
+according to the status of the colony and dependency, or group of colonies
+and dependencies, over which they preside. Their powers vary according to
+the position which they occupy. In all cases they represent the crown.
+
+As a consequence of this organization the finance of crown colonies is
+under the direct control of the imperial government; the finance of
+representative colonies, though not directly controlled, is usually
+influenced in important departures by the opinion of the imperial
+government. In responsible colonies the finance is entirely under local
+control, and the imperial government is dissociated from either moral or
+material responsibility for colonial debts.
+
+In federated groups of colonies and dependencies matters which are of
+common interest to a given number of separate governments are by mutual
+consent of the federating communities adjudged to the authority of a common
+government, which, in the case of self-governing colonies, is voluntarily
+created for the purpose. The associated states form under the federal
+government one federal body, but the parts retain control of local matters,
+and exercise all their original rights of government in regard to these.
+The two great self-governing groups of federated colonies within the empire
+are the Dominion of Canada and the Commonwealth of Australia. In South
+Africa unification was preferred to federation, the then self-governing
+colonies being united in 1910 into one state--the Union of South Africa.
+India, of which the associated provinces are under the control of the
+central government, may be given as an example of the practical federation
+of dependencies. Examples [v.04 p.0611] of federated crown colonies and
+lesser dependencies are to be found in the Leeward Island group of the West
+Indies and the federated Malay States.
+
+This rough system of self-government for the empire has been evolved not
+without some strain and friction, by the recognition through the
+vicissitudes of three hundred years of the value of independent initiative
+in the development of young countries. Queen Elizabeth's first patent to
+Sir Walter Raleigh permitted British subjects to accompany him to America,
+"with guarantee of a continuance of the enjoyment of all the rights which
+her subjects enjoyed at home."
+
+This guarantee may presumably have been intended at the time only to assure
+the intending settlers that they should lose no rights of British
+citizenship at home by taking up their residence in America. Its mutual
+interpretation in a wider sense, serving at once to establish in the colony
+rights of citizenship equivalent to those enjoyed in England, and to
+preserve for the colonist the status of British subject at home and abroad,
+has formed in application to all succeeding systems of British colonization
+the unconscious charter of union of the empire.
+
+The first American colonies were settled under royal grants, each with its
+own constitution. The immense distance in time which in those days
+separated America from Great Britain secured them from interference by the
+home authorities. They paid their own most moderate governing expenses, and
+they contributed largely to their own defence. From the middle of the 17th
+century their trade was not free, but this was the only restriction from
+which they suffered. The great war with France in the middle of the 18th
+century temporarily destroyed this system. That war, which resulted in the
+conquest of Canada and the delivery of the North American colonies from
+French antagonism, cost the imperial exchequer L90,000,000. The attempt to
+avert the repetition of such expenditure by the assertion of a right to tax
+the colonies through the British parliament led to the one great rupture
+which has marked the history of the empire. It has to be noted that at home
+during the latter half of the 17th century and the earlier part of the 18th
+century parliamentary power had to a great extent taken the place of the
+divine right of kings. But parliamentary power meant the power of the
+English people and taxpayers. The struggle which developed itself between
+the American colonies and the British parliament was in fact a struggle on
+the part of the people and taxpayers of one portion of the empire to resist
+the domination of the people and taxpayers of another portion. In this
+light it may be accepted as having historically established the fundamental
+axiom of the constitution of the empire, that the crown is the supreme head
+from which the parts take equal dependence.
+
+The crown requiring advice in the ordinary and constitutional manner
+receives it in matters of colonial administration from the secretaries of
+state for the colonies and for India. After the great rupture separate
+provision in the home government for the administration of colonial affairs
+was at first judged to be unnecessary, and the "Council[3] of Trade and
+Plantations," which up to that date had supplied the place now taken by the
+two offices of the colonies and India, was suppressed in 1782. There was a
+reaction from the liberal system of colonial self-government, and an
+attempt was made to govern the colonies simply as dependencies.
+
+In 1791, not long after the extension of the range of parliamentary
+authority in another portion of the empire, by the creation in 1784 of the
+Board of Control for India, Pitt made the step forward of granting to
+Canada representative institutions, of which the home government kept the
+responsible control. Similar institutions were also given at a later period
+to Australia and South Africa. But the long peace of the early part of the
+19th century was marked by great colonial developments; Australia, Canada
+and South Africa became important communities. Representative institutions
+controlled by the home government were insufficient, and they reasserted
+the claim for liberty to manage their own affairs.
+
+Fully responsible government was granted to Canada in 1840, and gradually
+extended to the other colonies. In 1854 a separate secretary of state for
+the colonies was appointed at home, and the colonial office was established
+on its present footing. In India, as in the colonies, there came with the
+growing needs of empire a recognition of the true relations of the parts to
+each other and of the whole to the crown. In 1858, on the complete
+transference of the territories of the East India Company to the crown, the
+board of control was abolished, and the India Council, under the presidency
+of a secretary of state for India, was created. It was especially provided
+that the members of the council may not sit in parliament.
+
+Thus, although it has not been found practicable in the working of the
+British constitution to carry out the full theory of the direct and
+exclusive dependence of colonial possessions on the crown, the theory is
+recognized as far as possible. It is understood that the principal sections
+of the empire enjoy equal rights under the crown, and that none is
+subordinate to another. The intervention of the imperial parliament in
+colonial affairs is only admitted theoretically in so far as the support of
+parliament is required by the constitutional advisers of the crown. To
+bring the practice of the empire into complete harmony with the theory it
+would be necessary to constitute, for the purpose of advising the crown on
+imperial affairs, a council in which all important parts of the empire
+should be represented.
+
+The gradual recognition of the constitutional theory of the British empire,
+and the assumption by the principal [Sidenote: Imperialism.] colonies of
+full self-governing responsibilities, has cleared the way for a movement in
+favour of a further development which should bring the supreme headship of
+the empire more into accord with modern ideas.
+
+It was during the period of domination of the "Manchester school," of which
+the most effective influence in public affairs was exerted for about thirty
+years, extending from 1845 to 1875, that the fullest development of
+colonial self-government was attained, the view being generally accepted at
+that time that self-governing institutions were to be regarded as the
+preliminary to inevitable separation. A general inclination to withdraw
+from the acceptance of imperial responsibilities throughout the world gave
+to foreign nations at the same time an opportunity by which they were not
+slow to profit, and contributed to the force of a reaction of which the
+part played by Great Britain in the scramble for Africa marked the
+culmination. Under the increasing pressure of foreign enterprise, the value
+of a federation of the empire for purposes of common interest began to be
+discussed. Imperial federation was openly spoken of in New Zealand as early
+as 1852. A similar suggestion was officially put forward by the general
+association of the Australian colonies in London in 1857. The Royal
+Colonial Institution, of which the motto "United Empire" illustrates its
+aims, was founded in 1868. First among leading British statesmen to
+repudiate the old interpretation of colonial self-government as a
+preliminary to separation, Lord Beaconsfield, in 1872, spoke of the
+constitutions accorded to the colonies as "part of a great policy of
+imperial consolidation." In 1875 W. E. Forster, afterwards a member of the
+Liberal government, made a speech in which he advocated imperial federation
+as a means by which it might become practicable to "replace dependence by
+association." The foundation of the Imperial Federation League--in 1884,
+with Forster for its first president, shortly to be succeeded by Lord
+Rosebery--marked a distinct step forward. The Colonial Conferences of 1887
+and subsequent years (the title being changed to Imperial Conference in
+1907), in which colonial opinion was sought and accepted in respect of
+important questions of imperial organization and defence, and the
+enthusiastic loyalty displayed by the colonies towards the crown on the
+occasion of the jubilee manifestations of Queen Victoria's reign, were
+further indications of progress in the same direction. Coincidently with
+this development, the achievements of Sir George Goldie and Cecil Rhodes,
+who, the one in West Africa and the other in South Africa, added between
+them to the empire in a space of less than twenty years a dominion of
+greater extent than the whole of British [v.04 p.0612] India, followed by
+the action of a host of distinguished disciples in other parts of the
+world, effectually stemmed the movement initiated by Cobden and Bright. A
+tendency which had seemed temporarily to point towards a complacent
+dissolution of the empire was arrested, and the closing years of the 19th
+century were marked by a growing disposition to appreciate the value and
+importance of the unique position which the British empire has created for
+itself in the world. No stronger demonstration of the reality of imperial
+union could be needed than that which was afforded by the support given to
+the imperial forces by the colonies and India in the South African War. It
+remained only to be seen by what process of evolution the further
+consolidation of the empire would find expression in the machinery of
+government. A step in this direction was taken in 1907, when at the
+Colonial Conference held in London that year it was decided to form a
+permanent secretariat to deal with the common interests of the
+self-governing colonies and the mother-country. It was further decided that
+conferences, to be called in future Imperial Conferences, between the home
+government and the governments of the self-governing dominions, should be
+held every four years, and that the prime minister of Great Britain should
+be _ex officio_ president of the conference. No executive power was,
+however, conferred upon the conference.
+
+The movement in favour of tariff reform initiated by Mr Chamberlain
+(_q.v._) in 1903 with the double object of giving a preference to colonial
+goods and of protecting imperial trade by the imposition in certain cases
+of retaliative duties on foreign goods, was a natural evolution of the
+imperialist idea, and of the fact that by this time the trade-statistics of
+the United Kingdom had proved that trade with the colonies was forming an
+increasingly large proportion of the whole. In spite of the defeat of the
+Unionist party in England in 1906, and the accession to power of a Liberal
+government opposed to anything which appeared to be inconsistent with free
+trade, the movement for colonial preference, based on tariff reform,
+continued to make headway in the United Kingdom, and was definitely adopted
+by the Unionist party. And at the Imperial Conference of 1907 it was
+advocated by all the colonial premiers, who could point to the progress
+made in their own states towards giving a tariff preference to British
+goods and to those of one another.
+
+The question of self-government is closely associated with the question of
+self-support. Plenty of good land and the liberty to manage their own
+affairs were the causes assigned by Adam Smith for the marked prosperity of
+the British colonies towards the end of the 18th century. The same causes
+are still observed to produce the same effects, and it may be pointed out
+that, since the date of the latest of Adam Smith's writings, upwards of
+6,000,000 sq. m. of virgin soil, rich with possibilities of agricultural,
+pastoral and mineral wealth, have been added to the empire. In the same
+period the white population has grown from about 12,000,000 to 53,000,000,
+and the developments of agricultural and industrial machinery have
+multiplied, almost beyond computation, the powers of productive labour.
+
+It is scarcely possible within this article to deal with so widely varied a
+subject as that of the productions and industry of the [Sidenote: The
+imperial factor in industry and trade.] empire. For the purposes of a
+general statement, it is interesting to observe that concurrently with the
+acquisition of the vast continental areas during the 19th century, the
+progress of industrial science in application to means of transport and
+communication brought about a revolution of the most radical character in
+the accepted laws of economic development. Railways did away with the old
+law that the spread of civilization is necessarily governed by facilities
+for water carriage and is consequently confined to river valleys and
+sea-shores. Steam and electricity opened to industry the interior of
+continents previously regarded as unapproachable. The resources of these
+vast inland spaces which have lain untouched since history began became
+available to individual enterprise, and over a great portion of the earth's
+surface were brought within the possessions of the British empire. The
+production of raw material within the empire increased at a rate which can
+only be appreciated by a careful study of figures, and by a comparison of
+the total of these figures with the total figures of the world. The
+tropical and temperate possessions of the empire include every field of
+production which can be required for the use of man. There is no main
+staple of human food which is not grown; there is no material of textile
+industry which is not produced. The British empire gives occupation to more
+than one-third of the persons employed in mining and quarrying in the
+world. It may be interesting, as an indication of the relative position in
+this respect of the British empire to the world, to state that at present
+it produces one-third of the coal supply of the world, one-sixth of the
+wheat supply, and very nearly two-thirds of the gold supply. But while
+these figures may be taken as in themselves satisfactory, it is far more
+important to remember that as yet the potential resources of the new lands
+opened to enterprise have been barely conceived, and their wealth has been
+little more than scratched. Population as yet has been only very sparsely
+sprinkled over the surface of many of the areas most suitable for white
+settlement. In the wheat lands of Canada, the pastoral country of
+Australasia, and the mineral fields of South Africa and western Canada
+alone, the undeveloped resources are such as to ensure employment to the
+labour and satisfaction to the needs of at least as many millions as they
+now contain thousands of the British race. In respect of this promise of
+the future the position of the British empire is unique.
+
+It is not too much to say that trade has been at once the most active cause
+of expansion and the most potent bond of union in the development of the
+empire. Trade with the tropical and settlement in the temperate regions of
+the world formed the basis upon which the foundations of the empire were
+laid. Trading companies founded most of the American and West Indian
+colonies; a trading company won India; a trading company colonized the
+north-western districts of Canada; commercial wars during the greater part
+of the 18th century established the British command of the sea, which
+rendered the settlement of Australasia possible. The same wars gave Great
+Britain South Africa, and chartered companies in the 19th century carried
+the British flag into the interior of the African continent from south and
+east and west. Trading companies developed Borneo and Fiji. The bonds of
+prosperous trade have kept the Australasian colonies within the empire. The
+protection of colonial commerce by the imperial navy is one of the
+strongest of material links which connect the crown with the outlying
+possessions of the empire.
+
+The trade of the empire, like the other developments of imperial public
+life, has been profoundly influenced by the variety of [Sidenote: Imperial
+trade policy.] local conditions under which it has flourished. In the early
+settlement of the North American colonies their trade was left practically
+free; but by the famous Navigation Act of 1660 the importation and
+exportation of goods from British colonies were restricted to British
+ships, of which the master and three-fourths of the mariners were English.
+This act, of which the intention was to encourage British shipping and to
+keep the monopoly of British colonial trade for the benefit of British
+merchants, was followed by many others of a similar nature up to the time
+of the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846 and the introduction of free trade
+into Great Britain. The Navigation Acts were repealed in 1849. Thus for
+very nearly two hundred years British trade was subject to restrictions, of
+which the avowed intention was to curtail the commercial intercourse of the
+empire with the world. During this period the commercial or mercantile
+system, of which the fallacies were exposed by the economists of the latter
+half of the 18th century, continued to govern the principles of British
+trade. Under this system monopolies were common, and among them few were
+more important than that of the East India Company. In 1813 the trade of
+India was, however, thrown open to competition, and in 1846, after the
+introduction of free trade at home, the principal British colonies which
+had not yet at that date received the grant of responsible government were
+specially empowered to abolish differential duties upon foreign trade. A
+first result of the commercial emancipation of the [v.04 p.0613] colonies
+was the not altogether unnatural rise in the manufacturing centres of the
+political school known as the Manchester school, which was disposed to
+question the value to Great Britain of the retention of colonies which were
+no longer bound to give her the monopoly of their commercial markets. An
+equally natural desire on the part of the larger colonies to profit by the
+opportunity which was opened to them of establishing local manufactures of
+their own, combined with the convenience in new countries of using the
+customs as an instrument of taxation, led to something like a reciprocal
+feeling of resentment, and there followed a period during which the policy
+of Great Britain was to show no consideration for colonial trade, and the
+policy of the principal colonies was to impose heavy duties upon British
+trade. By a gradual process of better understanding, largely helped by the
+development of means of communication, the antagonistic extreme was
+abandoned, and a tendency towards a system of preferential duties within
+the empire displayed itself.
+
+At the Colonial Conference held in London in 1887 a proposal was formally
+submitted by the South [Sidenote: Colonial preference.] African delegate
+for the establishment within the empire of a preferential system, imposing
+a duty of 2% upon all foreign goods, the proceeds to be directed to the
+maintenance of the imperial navy. To this end it was requested that certain
+treaties with foreign nations which imposed restrictions on the trade of
+various parts of the empire with each other should be denounced. Some years
+later, a strong feeling having been manifested in England against any
+foreign engagement standing in the way of new domestic trade arrangements
+between a colony and the mother-country, the German and Belgian treaties in
+question were denounced (1897). Meanwhile, simultaneously with the movement
+in favour of reciprocal fiscal advantages to be granted within the empire
+by the many local governments to each other, there was a growth of the
+perception that an increase of the foreign trade of Great Britain, carried
+on chiefly in manufactured goods, was accompanied by a corresponding
+enlargement of the home markets for colonial raw material, and consequently
+that injury to the foreign trade of Great Britain, while as yet it so
+largely outweighed the trade between the United Kingdom and the colonies,
+must necessarily react upon the colonies. This view was definitely
+expressed at the Colonial Conference at Ottawa in 1894, and was one of the
+factors which led to the relinquishment of the demand that in return for
+colonial concessions there should be an imposition on the part of Great
+Britain of a differential duty upon foreign goods. Canada was the first
+important British colony to give substantial expression to the new imperial
+sentiment in commercial matters by the introduction in 1897 of an imperial
+tariff, granting without any reciprocal advantage a deduction of 25% upon
+customs duties imposed upon British goods. The same advantage was offered
+to all British colonies trading with her upon equal terms. In later years
+the South African states, Australia and New Zealand also granted
+preferential treatment to British goods. Meanwhile in Great Britain the
+system of free imports, regarded as "free trade" (though only one-sided
+free trade), had become the established policy, customs duties being only
+imposed for purposes of revenue on a few selected articles, and about half
+the national income was derived from customs and excise. In most of the
+colonies customs form of necessity one of the important sources of revenue.
+It is, however, worthy of remark that in the self-governing colonies, even
+those which are avowedly protectionist, a smaller proportion of the public
+revenue was derived from customs and excise than was derived from these
+sources in the United Kingdom. The proportion in Australasia before
+federation was about one quarter. In Canada it is more difficult to
+estimate it, as customs and excise form the principal provision made for
+federal finance, and note must therefore be taken of the separate sources
+of revenue in the provinces. With these reservations it will still be seen
+that customs, or, in other words, a tax upon the movements of trade, forms
+one of the chief sources of imperial revenue.
+
+The development of steam shipping and electricity gave to the movements of
+trade a stimulus no less remarkable than that given by the introduction of
+railroads and industrial machinery to production and manufactures. Whereas
+at the beginning of the 19th century the journey to Australia occupied
+eight months, and business communications between Sydney and London could
+not receive answers within the year, at the beginning of the 20th century
+the journey could be accomplished in thirty-one days, and telegraphic
+despatches enabled the most important business to be transacted within
+twenty-four hours. For one cargo carried in the year at the beginning of
+the 19th century at least six could now be carried by the same ship, and
+from the point of view of trade the difference of a venture which realizes
+its profits in two months, as compared with one which occupied a whole
+year, does not need to be insisted on. The increased rapidity of the voyage
+and the power of daily communication by telegraph with the most distant
+markets have introduced a wholly new element into the national trade of the
+empire, and commercial intercourse between the southern and the northern
+hemispheres has received a development from the natural alternation of the
+seasons, of which until quite recent years the value was not even
+conceived. Fruit, eggs, butter, meat, poultry and other perishable
+commodities pass in daily increasing quantities between the northern and
+the southern hemispheres with an alternate flow which contributes to raise
+in no inconsiderable degree the volume of profitable trade. Thus the butter
+season of Australasia is from October to March, while the butter season of
+Ireland and northern Europe is from March to October. In three years after
+the introduction of ice-chambers into the steamers of the great shipping
+lines, Victoria and New South Wales built up a yearly butter trade of
+L1,000,000 with Great Britain without seriously affecting the Irish and
+Danish markets whence the summer supply is drawn. These facilities,
+combined with the enormous additions made to the public stock of land and
+labour, contributed to raise the volume of trade of the empire from a total
+of less than L100,000,000 in the year 1800 to a total of nearly
+L1,500,000,000 in 1900. The declared volume of British exports to all parts
+of the world in 1800 was L38,120,120, and the value of British imports from
+all parts of the world was L30,570,605; total, L68,690,725. As in those
+days the colonies were not allowed to trade with any other country this
+must be taken as representing imperial trade. The exact figures of the
+trade of India, the colonies, and the United Kingdom for 1900 were:
+imports, L809,178,209; exports, L657,899,363; total, L1,467,077,572.
+
+A question of sovereign importance to the continued existence of the empire
+is the question of defence. A country of which [Sidenote: Imperial
+defence.] the main thoroughfares are the oceans of the world demands in the
+first instance a strong navy. It has of late years been accepted as a
+fundamental axiom of defence that the British navy should exceed in
+strength any reasonable combination of foreign navies which could be
+brought against it, the accepted formula being the "two-power standard,"
+_i.e._ a 10% margin over the joint strength of the two next powers. The
+expense of maintaining such a floating armament must be colossal, and until
+within the decade 1890-1900 it was borne exclusively by the taxpayers of
+the United Kingdom. As the benefits of united empire have become more
+consciously appreciated in the colonies, and the value of the fleet as an
+insurance for British commerce has been recognized, a desire has manifested
+itself on the part of the self-governing colonies to contribute towards the
+formation of a truly imperial navy. In 1895 the Australasian colonies voted
+a subsidy of L126,000 per annum for the maintenance of an Australasian
+squadron, and in 1897 the Cape Colony also offered a contribution of
+L30,000 a year to be used at the discretion of the imperial government for
+naval purposes. The Australian contribution was in 1902 increased to
+L240,000, and that of the Cape to L50,000, while Natal voted L35,000 a year
+and Newfoundland L3000. But apart from these comparatively slight
+contributions, and the local up-keep of colonial fortifications,--and the
+beginning in 1908-1909 of an Australian torpedo-boat flotilla provided by
+the Commonwealth,--the whole cost of the imperial navy, on which ultimately
+the security of the empire rested, remained to be [v.04 p.0614] borne by
+the taxpayers in the British islands. The extent of this burden was
+emphasized in 1909 by the revelations as to the increase of the German (and
+the allied Austrian) fleet. At this crisis in the history of the two-power
+standard a wave of enthusiasm started in the colonies, resulting in the
+offer of "Dreadnoughts" from New Zealand and elsewhere; and the British
+government called an Imperial Conference to consider the whole question
+afresh.
+
+Land defence, though a secondary branch of the great question of imperial
+defence, has been intimately connected with the development and internal
+growth of the empire. In the case of the first settlement of the American
+colonies they were expected to provide for their own land defence. To some
+extent in the early part of their career they carried out this expectation,
+and even on occasion, as in the taking of Louisburg, which was subsequently
+given back at the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle as the price of the French
+evacuation of Madras, rendered public service to the empire at large. In
+India the principle of local self-defence was from the beginning carried
+into practice by the East India Company. But in America the claim of the
+French wars proved too heavy for local resources. In 1755 Great Britain
+intervened with troops sent from home under General Braddock, and up to the
+outbreak of the American War the cost of the defence of the North American
+colonies was borne by the imperial exchequer. To meet this expense the
+imperial parliament took upon itself the right to tax the American
+colonies. In 1765 a Quartering Act was passed by which 10,000 imperial
+troops were quartered in the colonies. As a result of the American War
+which followed and led to the loss of the colonies affected, the imperial
+authorities accepted the charge of the land defences of the empire, and
+with the exception of India and the Hudson Bay territories, where the
+trading companies determined to pay their own expenses, the whole cost of
+imperial defence was borne, like the cost of the navy, by the taxpayers of
+the United Kingdom. This condition of affairs lasted till the end of the
+Napoleonic Wars. During the thirty years' peace which followed there came
+time for consideration. The fiscal changes which towards the middle of the
+19th century gave to the self-governing colonies the command of their own
+resources very naturally carried with them the consequence that a call
+should be made on colonial exchequers to provide for their own governing
+expenses. Of these defence is obviously one of the most essential.
+Coincidently, therefore, with the movements of free trade at home, the
+renunciation of what was known as the mercantile system and the
+accompanying grants of constitutional freedom to the colonies, a movement
+for the reorganization of imperial defence was set on foot. In the decade
+which elapsed between 1846 and 1856 the movement as regards the colonies
+was confined chiefly to calls made upon them to contribute to their own
+defence by providing barracks, fortifications, &c., for the accommodation
+of imperial troops, and in some cases paying for the use of troops not
+strictly required for imperial purposes. In 1857 the Australian colonies
+agreed to pay the expenses of the imperial garrison quartered in Australia.
+This was a very wide step from the imperial attempt to tax the American
+colonies for a similar purpose in the preceding century. Nevertheless, in
+evidence given before a departmental committee in 1859, it was shown that
+at that time the colonies of Great Britain were free from almost every
+obligation of contributing either by personal service or money payment
+towards their own defence, and that the cost of military expenditure in the
+colonies in the preceding year had amounted in round figures to L4,000,000.
+A committee of the House of Commons sat in 1861 to consider the question,
+and in 1862 it was resolved, without a division, that "colonies exercising
+the right of self-government ought to undertake the main responsibility of
+providing for their own internal order and security, and ought to assist in
+their own external defence." The decision was accepted as the basis of
+imperial policy. The first effect was the gradual withdrawing of imperial
+troops from the self-governing colonies, together with the encouragement of
+the development of local military systems by the loan, when desired, of
+imperial military experts. A call was also made for larger military
+contributions from some of the crown colonies. The committee of 1859 had
+emphasized in its report the fact that the principal dependence of the
+colonies for defence is necessarily upon the British navy, and in 1865,
+exactly 100 years after the Quartering Act, which had been the cause of the
+troubles that led to the independence of the United States, a Colonial
+Naval Defence Act was passed which gave power to the colonies to provide
+ships of war, steamers, and volunteers for their own defence, and in case
+of necessity to place them at the disposal of the crown. In 1868 the
+Canadian Militia Act gave the fully organized nucleus of a local army to
+Canada. In the same year the imperial troops were withdrawn from New
+Zealand, leaving the colonial militia to deal with the native war still in
+progress. In 1870 the last imperial troops were withdrawn from Australia,
+and in 1873 it was officially announced that military expenditure in the
+colonies was almost "wholly for imperial purposes." In 1875 an imperial
+officer went to Australia to report for the Australian government upon
+Australian defence. The appointment in 1879 of a royal commission to
+consider the question of imperial defence, which presented its report in
+1882, led to a considerable development and reorganization of the system of
+imperial fortifications. Coaling stations were also selected with reference
+to the trade routes. In 1885 rumours of war roused a very strong feeling in
+connexion with the still unfinished and in many cases unarmed condition of
+the fortifications recommended by the commission of 1879. Military activity
+was stimulated throughout the empire, and the Colonial Defence Committee
+was created to supply a much-felt need for organized direction and advice
+to colonial administrations acting necessarily in independence of each
+other. The question of colonial defence was among the most important of the
+subjects discussed at the colonial conference held in London in 1887, and
+it was at this conference that the Australasian colonies first agreed to
+contribute to the expense of their own naval defence. From this date the
+principle of local responsibility for self-defence has been fully accepted.
+India has its own native army, and pays for the maintenance within its
+frontiers of an imperial garrison. Early in the summer of 1899, when
+hostilities in South Africa appeared to be imminent, the governments of the
+principal colonies took occasion to express their approval of the South
+African policy pursued by the imperial government, and offers were made by
+the governments of India, the Australasian colonies, Canada, Hong-Kong, the
+Federal Malay states, some of the West African and other colonies, to send
+contingents for active service in the event of war. On the outbreak of
+hostilities these offers, on the part of the self-governing colonies, were
+accepted, and colonial contingents upwards of 30,000 strong were among the
+most efficient sections of the British fighting force. The manner in which
+these colonial contingents were raised, their admirable fighting qualities,
+and the service rendered by them in the field, disclosed altogether new
+possibilities of military organization within the empire, and in subsequent
+years the subject continued to engage the attention of the statesmen of the
+empire. Progress in this field lay chiefly in the increased support given
+in the colonial states to the separate local movements for self-defence;
+but in 1909 a scheme was arranged by Mr Haldane, by which the British War
+Office should co-operate with the colonial governments in providing for the
+training of officers and an interchange of views on a common military
+policy.
+
+The important questions of justice, religion and instruction will be found
+dealt with in detail under the headings of separate [Sidenote: Justice,
+&c.] sections of the empire. Systems of justice throughout the empire have
+a close resemblance to each other, and the judicial committee of the privy
+council, on which the self-governing colonies and India are represented,
+constitutes a supreme court of appeal (_q.v._) for the entire empire. In
+the matter of religion, while no imperial organization in the strict sense
+is possible, the progress made by the Lambeth Conferences and otherwise
+(see ANGLICAN COMMUNION) has done much to bring the work of the Church of
+England in different parts of the world into a co-operative system.
+Religion, of which the forms are infinitely varied, is however everywhere
+free, [v.04 p.0615] except in cases where the exercise of religious rites
+leads to practices foreign to accepted laws of humanity. It is perhaps
+interesting to state that the number of persons in the empire nominally
+professing the Christian religion is 58,000,000, of Mahommedans 94,000,000,
+of Buddhists 12,000,000, of Hindus 208,000,000, of pagans and others
+25,000,000. Systems of instruction, of which the aim is generally similar
+in the white portions of the empire and is directed towards giving to every
+individual the basis of a liberal education, are governed wholly by local
+requirements. Native schools are established in all settled communities
+under British rule.
+
+LITERATURE.--In recent years the subject of British imperialism has
+inspired a growing literature, and it is only possible here to name a
+selected number of the more important works which may usefully be consulted
+on different topics: Sir C.P. Lucas, _Historical Geography of the British
+Colonies_ (1888, et seq.); H.E. Egerton, _Short History of British Colonial
+Policy_ (1897); H.J. Mackinder, _Britain and the British Seas_ (1902); Sir
+J.R. Seeley, _Expansion of England_ (1883); _Growth of British Policy_
+(1895); Sir Charles Dilke, _Greater Britain_ (1869), _Problems of Greater
+Britain_ (1890), _The British Empire_ (1899); G.R. Parkin, _Imperial
+Federation_ (1892); Sir John Colomb, _Imperial Federation, Naval and
+Military_ (1886); Sir G.S. Clarke, _Imperial Defence_ (1897); Sidney
+Goldmann and others, _The Empire and the Century_ (1905); J.L. Garvin,
+_Imperial Reciprocity_ (1903); J.W. Welsford, _The Strength of a Nation_
+(1907); _Compatriots Club Essays_ (1906); Sir H. Jenkyns, _British Rule and
+Jurisdiction beyond the Seas_ (1902); Bernard Holland, _Imperium et
+libertas_ (1901); (for an anti-imperialist view) J.A. Hobson, _Imperialism_
+(1902). See also the Reports of the various colonial conferences,
+especially that of the Imperial Conference of 1907; and for trade
+statistics, J. Holt Schooling s _British Trade Book_. For the tariff reform
+movement in England see the articles FREE TRADE and PROTECTION.
+
+(F. L. L.)
+
+[1] The census returns for 1901 from the various parts of the empire were
+condensed for the first time in 1906 into a blue-book under the title of
+_Census of the British Empire, Report with Summary_.
+
+[2] The white population of British South Africa according to the census of
+1904 was 1,132,226.
+
+[3] Or "Board," as it became in 1605.
+
+BRITISH HONDURAS, formerly called BALIZE, or BELIZE, a British crown colony
+in Central America; bounded on the N. and N.W. by the Mexican province of
+Yucatan, N.E. and E. by the Bay of Honduras, an inlet of the Caribbean Sea,
+and S. and W. by Guatemala. (For map, see CENTRAL AMERICA.) Pop. (1905)
+40,372; area, 7562 sq. m. The frontier of British Honduras, as defined by
+the conventions of 1859 and 1893 between Great Britain and Guatemala,
+begins at the mouth of the river Sarstoon or Sarstun, in the Bay of
+Honduras; ascends that river as far as the rapids of Gracias a Dios; and
+thence, turning to the right, runs in a straight line to Garbutt's Rapids,
+on the Belize river. From this point it proceeds due north to the Mexican
+frontier, where it follows the river Hondo to its mouth in Chetumal Bay.
+
+British Honduras differs little from the rest of the Yucatan peninsula. The
+approach to the coast is through the islets known as cays, and through
+coral reefs. It is both difficult and dangerous. For some miles inland the
+ground is low and swampy, thickly covered with mangroves and tropical
+jungle. Next succeeds a narrow belt of rich alluvial land, not exceeding a
+mile in width, beyond which, and parallel to the rivers, are vast tracts of
+sandy, arid land, called "pine ridges," from the red pines with which they
+are covered. Farther inland these give place, first, to the less elevated
+"broken ridges," and then to what are called "cahoon ridges," with a deep
+rich soil covered with myriads of palm trees. Next come broad savannas,
+studded with clumps of, trees, through which the streams descending from
+the mountains wind in every direction. The mountains themselves rise in a
+succession of ridges parallel to the coast. The first are the Manatee
+Hills, from 800 to 1000 ft. high; and beyond these are the Cockscomb
+Mountains, which are about 4000 ft. high. No less than sixteen streams,
+large enough to be called rivers, descend from these mountains to the sea,
+between the Hondo and Sarstoon. The uninhabited country between Garbutt's
+Rapids and the coast south of Deep river was first explored in 1879, by
+Henry Fowler, the colonial secretary of British Honduras; it was then found
+to consist of open and undulating grasslands, affording fine pasturage in
+the west and of forests full of valuable timber in the east. Its elevation
+varies from 1200 to 3300 ft. Auriferous quartz and traces of other minerals
+have been discovered, but not in sufficient quantity to repay the cost of
+mining. The geology, fauna and flora of British Honduras do not materially
+differ from those of the neighbouring regions (see CENTRAL AMERICA).
+
+Although the colony is in the tropics, its climate is subtropical. The
+highest shade temperature recorded is 98 deg. F., the lowest 50 deg.. Easterly
+sea-winds prevail during the greater part of the year. The dry season lasts
+from the middle of February to the middle of May; rain occurs at intervals
+during the other months, and almost continuously in October, November and
+December. The annual rainfall averages about 811/2 in., but rises in some
+districts to 150 in. or more. Cholera, yellow fever and other tropical
+diseases occur sporadically, but, on the whole, the country is not
+unhealthy by comparison with the West Indies or Central American states.
+
+_Inhabitants._--British Honduras is a little larger than Wales, and has a
+population smaller than that of Chester (England). In 1904 the inhabitants
+of European descent numbered 1500, the Europeans 253, and the white
+Americans 118. The majority belong to the hybrid race descended from negro
+slaves, aboriginal Indians and white settlers. At least six distinct racial
+groups can be traced. These consist of (1) native Indians, to be found
+chiefly in forest villages in the west and north of the colony away from
+the sea coast; (2) descendants of the English buccaneers, mixed with
+Scottish and German traders; (3) the woodcutting class known as "Belize
+Creoles," of more or less pure descent from African negroes imported, as
+slaves or as labourers, from the West Indies; (4) the Caribs of the
+southern districts, descendants of the population deported in 1796 from St
+Vincent, who were of mixed African and Carib origin; (5) a mixed population
+in the south, of Spanish-Indian origin, from Guatemala and Honduras; and
+(6) in the north another Spanish-Indian group which came from Yucatan in
+1848. The population tends slowly to increase; about 45% of the births are
+illegitimate, and males are more numerous than females. Many tracts of
+fallow land and forest were once thickly populated, for British Honduras
+has its ruined cities, and other traces of a lost Indian civilization, in
+common with the rest of Central America.
+
+_Natural Products._---For more than two centuries British Honduras has been
+supported by its trade in timber, especially in mahogany, logwood, cedar
+and other dye-woods and cabinet-woods, such as lignum-vitae, fustic,
+bullet-wood, santa-maria, ironwood, rosewood, &c. The coloured inhabitants
+are unsurpassed as woodmen, and averse from agriculture; so that there are
+only about 90 sq. m. of tilled land. Sugar-cane, bananas, cocoanut-palms,
+plantains, and various other fruits are cultivated; vanilla, sarsaparilla,
+sapodilla or chewing-gum, rubber, and the cahoon or coyol palm, valuable
+for its oil, grow wild in large quantities. In September 1903 all the pine
+trees on crown lands were sold to Mr B. Chipley, a citizen of the United
+States, at one cent (1/2 d.) per tree; the object of the sale being to secure
+the opening up of undeveloped territory. Unsuccessful attempts have been
+made to establish sponge fisheries on a large scale.
+
+_Chief Towns and Communications._--Belize (pop. in 1904, 9969), the capital
+and principal seaport, is described in a separate article. Other towns are
+Stann Creek (2459), Corosal (1696), Orange Walk (1244), Punta Gorda (706),
+the Cayo (421), Monkey River (384) and Mullins River (243). All these are
+administered by local boards, whose aggregate revenue amounts to some
+L7000. Telegraph and telephone lines connect the capital with Corosal in
+the north, and Punta Gorda in the south; but there are no railways, and few
+good roads beyond municipal limits. Thus the principal means of
+communication are the steamers which ply along the coast. Mail steamers
+from New Orleans, Liverpool, Colon and Puerto Cortes in Honduras, regularly
+visit Belize.
+
+_Commerce and Finance._--Between 1901 and 1905 the tonnage of vessels
+accommodated at the ports of British Honduras rose from 300,000 to 496,465;
+the imports rose from L252,500 to L386,123; the exports from L285,500 to
+L377,623. The exports consist of the timber, fruit and other vegetable
+products already mentioned, besides rum, deerskins, tortoiseshell, turtles
+and sponges, while the principal imports are cotton goods, hardware, beer,
+wine, spirits, groceries and specie. The sea-borne trade is mainly shared
+by Great Britain and the United States. On the 14th of October 1894, the
+American gold dollar was adopted as the standard coin, in place of the
+Guatemalan dollar; and the silver of North, South and Central America
+ceased to be legal tender. Government notes are issued to the value of 1,
+2, 5, 10, 50 and 100 dollars, and there is a local currency of one cent
+bronze pieces, and of 5, 10, 25 and 50 cent silver pieces. The British
+sovereign and half sovereign are legal tender. In 1846 the government
+savings bank was founded in Belize; branches were afterwards opened in the
+principal towns; and in 1903 the British Bank of Honduras was established
+at Belize. The revenue, chiefly derived from customs, rose from L60,150 in
+1901 to L68,335 in 1905. The expenditure, in which the cost of police [v.04
+p.0616] and education are important items, rose, during the same period,
+from L51,210 to L61,800. The public debt, amounting in 1905 to L34,736,
+represents the balance due on three loans which were raised in 1885, 1887,
+and 1891, for public works in Belize. The loans are repayable between 1916
+and 1923.
+
+_Constitution and Administration._--From 1638 to 1786 the colonists were
+completely independent, and elected their own magistrates, who performed
+all judicial and executive functions. The customs and precedents thus
+established were codified and published under the name of "Burnaby's Laws,"
+after the visit of Admiral Sir W. Burnaby, in 1756, and were recognized as
+valid by the crown. In 1786 a superintendent was appointed by the home
+government, and although this office was vacant from 1790 to 1797, it was
+revived until 1862. An executive council was established in 1839, and a
+legislative assembly, of three nominated and eighteen elected members, in
+1853. British Honduras was declared a colony in 1862, with a lieutenant
+governor, subject to the governor of Jamaica, as its chief magistrate. In
+1870 the legislative assembly was abolished, and a legislative council
+substituted--the constitution of this body being fixed, in 1892, at three
+official and five unofficial members. In 1884 the lieutenant governor was
+created governor and commander-in-chief, and rendered independent of
+Jamaica. He is assisted by an executive council of three official and three
+unofficial members. For administrative purposes the colony is divided into
+six districts--Belize, Corosal, Orange Walk, the Cayo, Stann Creek and
+Toledo. The capital of the last named is Punta Gorda; the other districts
+take the names of their chief towns. English common law is valid throughout
+British Honduras, subject to modification by local enactments, and to the
+operation of the _Consolidated Laws of British Honduras_. This collection
+of ordinances, customs, &c., was officially revised and published between
+1884 and 1888. Appeals may be carried before the privy council or the
+supreme court of Jamaica,
+
+_Religion and Education._--The churches represented are Roman Catholic,
+Anglican, Wesleyan, Baptist and Presbyterian; but none of them receives
+assistance from public funds. The bishopric of British Honduras is part of
+the West Indian province of the Church of England. Almost all the schools,
+secondary as well as primary, are denominational. School fees are charged,
+and grants-in-aid are made to elementary schools. Most of these, since
+1894, have been under the control of a board, on which the religious bodies
+managing the schools are represented.
+
+_Defence._--The Belize volunteer light infantry corps, raised in 1897,
+consists of about 200 officers and men; a mounted section, numbering about
+40, was created in 1904. For the whole colony, the police Dumber about 120.
+There is also a volunteer fire brigade of 335 officers and men.
+
+_History._--"His Majesty's Settlement in the Bay of Honduras," as the
+territory was formerly styled in official documents, owes, its origin, in
+1638, to log-wood cutters who had formerly been buccaneers. These were
+afterwards joined by agents of the Chartered Company which exploited the
+pearl fisheries of the Mosquito coast. Although thus industriously
+occupied, the settlers so far retained their old habits as to make frequent
+descents on the logwood establishments of the Spaniards, whose attempts to
+expel them were generally successfully resisted. The most formidable of
+these was made by the Spaniards in April 1754, when, in consequence of the
+difficulty of approaching the position from the sea, an expedition,
+consisting of 1500 men, was organized inland at the town of Peten. As it
+neared the coast, it was met by 250 British, and completely routed. The
+log-wood cutters were not again disturbed for a number of years, and their
+position had become so well established that, in the treaty of 1763 with
+Spain, Great Britain, while agreeing to demolish "all fortifications which
+English subjects had, erected in the Bay of Honduras," insisted oh a clause
+in favour of the hitters of logwood, that "they or their Workmen were not
+to be disturbed or molested, under any pretext whatever, in their said
+places of cutting and loading logwood." Strengthened by the recognition of
+the crown, the British settlers made fresh encroachments on Spanish
+territory. The Spaniards, asserting that they were engaged in smuggling and
+other illicit practices, organized a large force, and on the 15th of
+September 1779, suddenly attacked and destroyed the establishment at
+Belize, taking the inhabitants prisoners to Merida in Yucatan, and
+afterwards to Havana, where most of them died, The survivors were liberated
+in 1782, and allowed to go to Jamaica. In 1783 they returned with many new
+adventurers, and were soon engaged in cutting woods. On the 3rd of
+September in that year a new treaty was signed between Great Britain and
+Spain, in which it was expressly agreed that his Britannic Majesty's
+subjects should have "the right of cutting, loading, and carrying away
+logwood in the district lying between the river Wallis or Belize and Rio
+Hondo, taking the course of these two rivers for unalterable boundaries."
+These concessions "were not to be considered as derogating from the rights
+of sovereignty of the king of Spain" over the district in question, where
+all the English dispersed in the Spanish territories were to concentrate
+themselves within eighteen months. This did not prove a satisfactory
+arrangement; for in 1786 a new treaty was concluded, in which the king of
+Spain made an additional grant of territory, embracing the area between the
+rivers Sibun or Jabon and Belize. But these extended limits were coupled
+with still more rigid restrictions. It is not to be supposed that a
+population composed of so lawless a set of men was remarkably exact in its
+observance of the treaty. They seem to have greatly annoyed their Spanish
+neighbours, who eagerly availed themselves of the breaking out of war
+between the two countries in 1796 to concert a formidable attack on Belize.
+They concentrated a force of 2000 men at Campeachy, which, under the
+command of General O'Neill, set sail in thirteen vessels for Belize, and
+arrived on the 10th of July, 1798. The settlers, aided by the British sloop
+of war "Merlin," had strongly fortified a small island in the harbour,
+called St George's Cay. They maintained a determined resistance against the
+Spanish forces, which were obliged to retire to Campeachy. This was the
+last attempt to dislodge the British.
+
+The defeat of the Spanish attempt of 1798 has been adduced as an act of
+conquest, thereby permanently establishing British sovereignty. But those
+who take this view overlook the important fact that, in 1814, by a new
+treaty with Spain, the provisions of the earlier treaty were revived. They
+forget also that for many years the British government never laid claim to
+any rights acquired in virtue of the successful defence; for so late as
+1817-1819 the acts of parliament relating to Belize always refer to it as
+"a settlement, for certain purposes, under the protection of His Majesty."
+After Central America had attained its independence (1819-1822) Great
+Britain secured its position by incorporating the provisions of the treaty
+of 1786 in a new treaty with Mexico (1826), and in the drafts of treaties
+with New Granada (1825) and the United States of Central America (1831).
+The territories between the Belize and Sarstoon rivers were claimed by the
+British in 1836. The subsequent peaceful progress of the country under
+British rule; the exception of Belize from that provision of the
+Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (_q.v._) of 1850 which forbade Great Britain and the
+United States to fortify or colonize any point on the Central American
+mainland; and the settlement of the boundary disputes with Guatemala in
+1859, finally confirmed the legal sovereignty of Great Britain over the
+whole colony, including the territories claimed in 1836. The Bay Islands
+were recognized as part of the republic of Honduras in 1859. Between 1849,
+when the Indians beyond the Hondo rose against their Mexican rulers, and
+1901, when they were finally subjugated, rebel bands occasionally attacked
+the northern and north-western marches of the colony. The last serious raid
+was foiled in 1872.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For all statistical matter relating to the colony, see the
+annual reports to the British Colonial Office (London). For the progress of
+exploration, see _A Narrative of a Journey across the unexplored Portion of
+British Honduras_, by H. Fowler (Belize, 1879); and "An Expedition to the
+Cockscomb Mountains," by J. Bellamy, in _Proceedings of the Royal
+Geographical Society_, vol. xi. (London, 1889). A good general description
+is given in the _Handbook of British Honduras_, by L.W. Bristowe and P.B.
+Wright (Edinburgh, 1892); and the local history is recounted in the
+_History of British Honduras_, by A.R. Gibbs (London, 1883); in _Notes on
+Central America_, by E.J. Squier (New York, 1855); and in _Belize or
+British Honduras_, a paper read before the Society of Arts by Chief Justice
+Temple (London, 1847).
+
+(K. G. J.)
+
+BRITOMARTIS ("sweet maiden"), an old Cretan goddess, later identified with
+Artemis. According to Callimachus (_Hymn to Diana_, 190), she was a nymph,
+the daughter of Zeus and Carme, and a favourite companion of Artemis. Being
+pursued by Minos, king of Crete, who was enamoured of her, she sprang from
+a rock into the sea, but was saved from drowning by falling into some
+fishermen's nets. She was afterwards made a goddess by Artemis under the
+name of Dictynna ([Greek: diktuon], "a [v.04 p.0617] net"). She was the
+patroness of hunters, fishermen and sailors, and also a goddess of birth
+and health. The centre of her worship was Cydonia, whence it extended to
+Sparta and Aegina (where she was known as Aphaea) and the islands of the
+Mediterranean. By some she is considered to have been a moon-goddess, her
+flight from Minos and her leap into the sea signifying the revolution and
+disappearance of the moon (Pausanias ii. 30, iii. 14; Antoninus Liberalis
+40).
+
+BRITON-FERRY, a seaport in the mid-parliamentary division of
+Glamorganshire, Wales, on the eastern bank of the estuary of the Neath
+river in Swansea Bay, with stations on the Great Western and the Rhondda &
+Swansea Bay railways, being 174 m. by rail from London. Pop. of urban
+district (1901) 6973. A tram-line connects it with Neath, 2 m. distant, and
+the Vale of Neath Canal (made in 1797) has its terminus here. The district
+was formerly celebrated for its scenery, but this has been considerably
+marred by industrial development which received its chief impetus from the
+construction in 1861 of a dock of 13 acres, the property of the Great
+Western Railway Company, and the opening up about the same time of the
+mining districts of Glyncorrwg and Maesteg by means of the South Wales
+mineral railway, which connects them with the dock and supplies it with its
+chief export, coal. Steel and tinplates are manufactured here on a large
+scale. There are also iron-works and a foundry.
+
+The name La Brittone was given by the Norman settlers of the 12th century
+to its ferry across the estuary of the Neath (where Archbishop Baldwin and
+Giraldus crossed in 1188, and which is still used), but the Welsh name of
+the town from at least the 16th century has been Llansawel.
+
+BRITTANY, or BRITANNY (Fr. _Bretagne_), known as Armorica (_q.v._) until
+the influx of Celts from Britain, an ancient province and duchy of France,
+consisting of the north-west peninsula, and nearly corresponding to the
+departments of Finistere, Cotes-du-Nord, Morbihan, Ille-et-Vilaine and
+Lower Loire. It is popularly divided into Upper or Western, and Lower or
+Eastern Brittany. Its greatest length between the English Channel and the
+Atlantic Ocean is 250 kilometres (about 155 English miles), and its
+superficial extent is 30,000 sq. kilometres (about 18,630 English sq. m.).
+It comprises two distinct zones, a maritime zone and an inland zone. In the
+centre there are two plateaus, partly covered with _landes_, unproductive
+moorland: the southern plateau is continued by the Montagnes Noires, and
+the northern is dominated by the Monts d'Arree. These ranges nowhere exceed
+1150 ft. in height, but from their wild nature they recall the aspect of
+high mountains. The waterways of Brittany are for the most part of little
+value owing to their torrent-like character. The only river basin of any
+importance is that of the Vilaine, which flows through Rennes. The coast is
+very much indented, especially along the English Channel, and is rocky and
+lined with reefs and islets. The mouths of the rivers form deep estuaries.
+Thus nature itself condemned Brittany to remain for a long time shut out
+from civilization. But in the 19th century the development of railways and
+other means of communication drew Brittany from its isolation. In the 19th
+century also agriculture developed in a remarkable manner. Many of the
+_landes_ were cleared and converted into excellent pasturage, and on the
+coast market-gardening made great progress. In the fertile districts
+cereals too are cultivated. Industrial pursuits, except in a few seaport
+towns, which are rather French than Breton, have hitherto received but
+little attention.
+
+The Bretons are by nature conservative. They cling with almost equal
+attachment to their local customs and their religious superstitions. It was
+not till the 17th century that paganism was even nominally abolished in
+some parts, and there is probably no district in Europe where the popular
+Christianity has assimilated more from earlier creeds. Witchcraft and the
+influence of fairies are still often believed in. The costume of both sexes
+is very peculiar both in cut and colour, but varies considerably in
+different districts. Bright red, violet and blue are much used, not only by
+the women, but in the coats and waistcoats of the men. The reader will find
+full illustrations of the different styles in Bouet's _Breiz-izel, ou vie
+des Breions de l'Armorique_ (1844). The Celtic language is still spoken in
+lower Brittany. Four dialects are pretty clearly marked (see the article
+CELT: _Language_, "_Breton_," p. 328). Nowhere has the taste for marvellous
+legends been kept so green as in Brittany; and an entire folk-literature
+still flourishes there, as is manifested by the large number of folk-tales
+and folk-songs which have been collected of late years.
+
+The whole duchy was formerly divided into nine bishoprics:--Rennes, Dol,
+Nantes, St Malo and St Brieuc, in Upper Brittany and Treguier, Vannes,
+Quimper and St Pol de Leon in Lower.
+
+_History._--Of Brittany before the coming of the Romans we have no exact
+knowledge. The only traces left by the primitive populations are the
+megalithic monuments (dolmens, menhirs and cromlechs), which remain to this
+day in great numbers (see STONE MONUMENTS). In 56 B.C. the Romans destroyed
+the fleet of the Veneti, and in 52 the inhabitants of Armorica took part in
+the great insurrection of the Gauls against Caesar, but were subdued
+finally by him in 51. Roman civilization was then established for several
+centuries in Brittany.
+
+In the 5th century numbers of the Celtic inhabitants of Britain, flying
+from the Angles and Saxons, emigrated to Armorica, and populated a great
+part of the peninsula. Converted to Christianity, the new-comers founded
+monasteries which helped to clear the land, the greater part of which was
+barren and wild. The Celtic immigrants formed the counties of Vannes,
+Cornouaille, Leon and Domnonee. A powerful aristocracy was constituted,
+which owned estates and had them cultivated by serfs or villeins. The Celts
+sustained a long struggle against the Frankish kings, who only nominally
+occupied Brittany. Louis the Pious placed a native chief Nomenoe at the
+head of Brittany. There was then a fairly long period of peace; but Nomenoe
+rebelled against Charles the Bald, defeated him, and forced him, in 846, to
+recognize the independence of Brittany. The end of the 9th century and the
+beginning of the 10th were remarkable for the invasions of the Northmen. On
+several occasions they were driven back--by Salomon (d. 874) and afterwards
+by Alain, count of Vannes (d. 907)--but it was Alain Barbetorte (d. 952)
+who gained the decisive victory over them.
+
+In the second half of the 10th century and in the 11th century the counts
+of Rennes were predominant in Brittany. Geoffrey, son of Conan, took the
+title of duke of Brittany in 992. Conan II., Geoffrey's grandson,
+threatened by the revolts of the nobles, was attacked also by the duke of
+Normandy (afterwards William I. of England). Alain Fergent, one of his
+successors, defeated William in 1085, and forced him to make peace. But in
+the following century the Plantagenets succeeded in establishing themselves
+in Brittany. Conan IV., defeated by the revolted Breton nobles, appealed to
+Henry II. of England, who, in reward for his help, forced Conan to give his
+daughter in marriage to his son Geoffrey. Thus Henry II. became master of
+Brittany, and Geoffrey was recognized as duke of Brittany. But this new
+dynasty was not destined to last long. Geoffrey's posthumous son, Arthur,
+was assassinated by John of England in 1203, and Arthur's sister Alix, who
+succeeded to his rights, was married in 1212 to Pierre de Dreux, who became
+duke. This was the beginning of a ducal dynasty of French origin, which
+lasted till the end of the 15th century.
+
+From that moment the ducal power gained strength in Brittany and succeeded
+in curbing the feudal nobles. Under French influence civilization made
+notable progress. For more than a century peace reigned undisturbed in
+Brittany. But in 1341 the death of John III., without direct heir, provoked
+a war of succession between the houses of Blois and Montfort, which lasted
+till 1364. This war of succession was, in reality, an incident of the
+Hundred Years' War, the partisans of Blois and Montfort supporting
+respectively the kings of France and England. In 1364 John of Montfort (d.
+1399) was recognized as duke of Brittany under the style of John IV.[1],
+but his reign [v.04 p.0618] was constantly troubled, notably by his
+struggle with Olivier de Clisson (1336-1407). John V. (d. 1442), on the
+other hand, distinguished himself by his able and pacific policy. During
+his reign and the reigns of his successors, Francis I., Peter II. and
+Arthur III., the ducal authority developed in a remarkable manner. The
+dukes formed a standing army, and succeeded in levying hearth taxes
+(_fouages_) throughout Brittany. Francis II. (1435-1488) fought against
+Louis XI., notably during the War of the Public Weal, and afterwards
+engaged in the struggle against Charles VIII., known as "The Mad War" (_La
+Guerre Folle_). After the death of Francis II. the king of France invaded
+Brittany, and forced Francis's daughter, Anne of Brittany, to marry him in
+1491. Thus the reunion of Brittany and France was prepared. After the death
+of Charles VIII. Anne married Louis XII. Francis I., who married Claude,
+the daughter of Louis XII. and Anne, settled the definitive annexation of
+the duchy by the contract of 1532, by which the maintenance of the
+privileges and liberties of Brittany was guaranteed. Until the Revolution
+Brittany retained its own estates. The royal power, however, was exerted to
+reduce the privileges of the province as much as possible. It often met
+with vigorous resistance, notably in the 18th century. The struggle was
+particularly keen between 1760 and 1769, when E. A. de V. du Plessis
+Richelieu, duc d'Aiguillon, had to fight simultaneously the estates and the
+parliament, and had a formidable adversary in L. R. de C. de la Chalotais.
+But under the monarchy the only civil war in Brittany in which blood was
+shed was the revolt of the duc de Mercoeur (d. 1602) against the crown at
+the time of the troubles of the League, a revolt which lasted from 1589 to
+1598. Mention, however, must also be made of a serious popular revolt which
+broke out in 1675--"the revolt of the stamped paper."
+
+See Bertrand d'Argentre, _Histoire de Bretagne_ (Paris, 1586); Dom
+Lobineau, _Histoire de Bretagne_ (Paris, 1702); Dom Morice, _Histoire de
+Bretagne_ (1742-1756); T. A. Trollope, _A Summer in Brittany_ (1840); A. du
+Chatellier, _L'Agriculture et les classes agricoles de la Bretagne_ (1862);
+F. M. Luzel, _Legendes chretiennes de la Basse-Bretagne_ (Paris, 1881), and
+_Veillees bretonnes_ (Paris, 1879); A. Dupuy, _La Reunion de la Bretagne a
+la France_ (Paris, 1880), and _Etudes sur l'administration municipale en
+Bretagne au XVIII^e siecle_ (1891); J. Loth, _L'Emigration bretonne en
+Armorique du V^e au VII^e siecle_ (Rennes, 1883); H. du Cleuziou, _Bretagne
+artistique et pittoresque_ (Paris, 1886); Arthur de la Borderie, _Histoire
+de Bretagne_ (Rennes, 1896 seq.); J. Lemoine, _La Revolte du papier timbre
+ou des bonnets rouges en Bretagne en 1675_ (1898); M. Marion, _La Bretagne
+et le duc d'Aiguillon_ (Paris, 1898); B. Pocquet, _Le Duc d'Aiguillon et la
+Chalotais_ (Paris, 1900-1902); Anatole le Braz, _Vieilles Histoires du pays
+breton_ (1897), and _La Legende de la mort_ (Paris, 1902); Ernest Lavisse,
+_Histoire de France_, vol. i. (Paris, 1903); Henri See, _Etude sur les
+classes rurales en Bretagne au moyen age_ (1896), and _Les Classes rurales
+en Bretagne du XVI^e siecle a la Revolution_ (1906).
+
+[1] Certain authorities count the father of this duke, another John of
+Montfort (d. 1345), among the dukes of Brittany, and according to this
+enumeration the younger John becomes John V., not John IV., and his
+successor John VI. and not John V.
+
+BRITTON, JOHN (1771-1857), English antiquary, was born on the 7th of July
+1771 at Kington-St-Michael, near Chippenham. His parents were in humble
+circumstances, and he was left an orphan at an early age. At sixteen he
+went to London and was apprenticed to a wine merchant. Prevented by
+ill-health from serving his full term, he found himself adrift in the
+world, without money or friends. In his fight with poverty he was put to
+strange shifts, becoming cellarman at a tavern and clerk to a lawyer,
+reciting and singing at a small theatre, and compiling a collection of
+common songs. After some slight successes as a writer, a Salisbury
+publisher commissioned him to compile an account of Wiltshire and, in
+conjunction with his friend Edward Wedlake Brayley, Britton produced _The
+Beauties of Wiltshire_ (1801; 2 vols., a third added in 1825), the first of
+the series _The Beauties of England and Wales_, nine volumes of which
+Britton and his friend wrote. Britton was the originator of a new class of
+literary works. "Before his time," says Digby Wyatt, "popular topography
+was unknown." In 1805 Britton published the first part of his
+_Architectural Antiquities of Great Britain_ (9 vols., 1805-1814); and this
+was followed by _Cathedral Antiquities of England_ (14 vols., 1814-1835).
+In 1845 a Britton Club was formed, and a sum of L1000 was subscribed and
+given to Britton, who was subsequently granted a civil list pension by
+Disraeli, then chancellor of the exchequer. Britton was an earnest advocate
+of the preservation of national monuments, proposing in 1837 the formation
+of a society such as the modern Society for the Preservation of Ancient
+Monuments. Britton himself supervised the reparation of Waltham Cross and
+Stratford-on-Avon church. He died in London on the 1st of January 1857.
+
+Among other works with which Britton was associated either as author or
+editor are _Historical Account of Redcliffe Church, Bristol_ (1813);
+_Illustrations of Fonthill Abbey_ (1823); _Architectural Antiquities of
+Normandy_, with illustrations by Pugin (1825-1827); _Picturesque
+Antiquities of English Cities_ (1830); and _History of the Palace and
+Houses of Parliament at Westminster_ (1834-1836), the joint work of Britton
+and Brayley. He contributed much to the _Gentleman's Magazine_ and other
+periodicals.
+
+His _Autobiography_ was published in 1850. A _Descriptive Account of his
+Literary Works_ was published by his assistant T.E. Jones.
+
+BRITTON, the title of the earliest summary of the law of England in the
+French tongue, which purports to have been written by command of King
+Edward I. The origin and authorship of the work have been much disputed. It
+has been attributed to John le Breton, bishop of Hereford, on the authority
+of a passage found in some MSS. of the history of Matthew of Westminster;
+there are difficulties, however, involved in this theory, inasmuch as the
+bishop of Hereford died in 1275, whereas allusions are made in _Britton_ to
+several statutes passed after that time, and more particularly to the
+well-known statute _Quia emptores terrarum_, which was passed in 1290. It
+was the opinion of Selden that the book derived its title from Henry de
+Bracton, the last of the chief justiciaries, whose name is sometimes
+spelled in the fine Rolls "Bratton" and "Bretton", and that it was a royal
+abridgment of Bracton's great work on the customs and laws of England, with
+the addition of certain subsequent statutes. The arrangement, however, of
+the two works is different, and but a small proportion of Bracton's work is
+incorporated in _Britton_. The work is entitled in an early MS. of the 14th
+century, which was once in the possession of Selden, and is now in the
+Cambridge university library, _Summa de legibus Anglie que vocatur
+Bretone_; and it is described as "a book called Bretoun" in the will of
+Andrew Horn, the learned chamberlain of the city of London, who bequeathed
+it to the chamber of the Guildhall in 1329, together with another book
+called _Mirroir des Justices_.
+
+_Britton_ was first printed in London by Robert Redman, without a date,
+probably about the year 1530. Another edition of it was printed in 1640,
+corrected by E. Wingate. A third edition of it, with an English
+translation, was published at the University Press, Oxford, 1865, by F. M.
+Nichol. An English translation of the work without the Latin text had been
+previously published by R. Kelham in 1762.
+
+BRITZSKA, or BRITSKA (from the Polish _bryczka_; a diminutive of _bryka_, a
+goods-wagon), a form of carriage, copied in England from Austria early in
+the 19th century; as used in Poland and Russia it had four wheels, with a
+long wicker-work body constructed for reclining and a calash (hooded) top.
+
+BRIVE, or BRIVES-LA-GAILLARDE, a town of south-central France, capital of
+an arrondissement in the department of Correze, 62 m. S.S.E. of Limoges on
+the main line of the Orleans railway from Paris to Montauban. Pop. (1906)
+town 14,954; commune 20,636. It lies on the left bank of the Correze in an
+ample and fertile plain, which is the meeting-place of important roads and
+railways. The _enceinte_ which formerly surrounded the town has been
+replaced by shady boulevards, and a few wide thoroughfares have been made,
+but many narrow winding streets and ancient houses still remain. Outside
+the boulevards lie the modern quarters, also the fine promenade planted
+with plane trees which stretches to the Correze and contains the chief
+restaurants and the theatre. Here also is the statue of Marshal Guillaume
+Marie Anne Brune, who was a native of Brive. A fine bridge leads over the
+river to suburbs on its right bank. The public buildings are of little
+interest apart from the church of St Martin, which stands in the heart of
+the old town. It is a building of the 12th century in the Romanesque style
+of Limousin, with three narrow naves of almost equal height. The
+ecclesiastical seminary occupies a graceful mansion of the 16th century,
+with a facade, a staircase and fireplaces of fine Renaissance workmanship.
+Brive is the seat of a sub-prefect [v.04 p.0619] and has a tribunal of
+first instance, a tribunal of commerce, a communal college and a school of
+industry. Its position makes it a market of importance, and it has a very
+large trade in the early vegetables and fruit of the valley of the Correze,
+and in grain, live-stock and truffles. Table-delicacies, paper, wooden
+shoes, hats, wax and earthenware are manufactured, and there are slate and
+millstone workings and dye-works.
+
+In the vicinity are numerous rock caves, many of them having been used as
+dwellings in prehistoric times. The best known are those of Lamouroux,
+excavated in stages in a vertical wall of rock, and four grotto-chapels
+resorted to by pilgrims in memory of St Anthony of Padua, who founded a
+Franciscan monastery at Brive in 1226. Under the Romans Brive was known as
+_Briva Curretiae_ (bridge of the Correze). In the middle ages it was the
+capital of lower Limousin.
+
+BRIXEN (Ital. _Bressanone_), a small city in the Austrian province of
+Tirol, and the chief town of the administrative district of Brixen. Pop.
+(1900) 5767. It is situated in the valley of the Eisack, at the confluence
+of that stream with the Rienz, and is a station on the Brenner railway,
+being 34 m. south-east of that pass, and 24 m. north-east of Botzen. The
+aspect of the city is very ecclesiastical; it is still the see of a bishop,
+and contains an 18th-century cathedral church, an episcopal palace and
+seminary, twelve churches and five monasteries. The see was founded at the
+end of the 8th century (possibly of the 6th century) at Saeben on the rocky
+heights above the town of Klausen (some way to the south of Brixen), but in
+992 was transferred to Brixen, which, perhaps a Roman station, became later
+a royal estate, under the name of _Prichsna_, and in 901 was given by Louis
+the Child to the bishop. In 1027 the bishop received from the emperor
+Conrad II. very extensive temporal powers, which he only lost to Austria in
+1803. The town was surrounded in 1030 by walls. In 1525 it was the scene of
+the first outbreak of the great peasants' revolt. About 51/2 m. north of
+Brixen is the great fortress of Franzensfeste, built 1833-1838, to guard
+the route over the Brenner and the way to the east up the Pusterthal. (W.
+A. B. C.)
+
+BRIXHAM, a seaport and market town in the Torquay parliamentary division of
+Devonshire, England, 33 m. S. of Exeter, on a branch of the Great Western
+railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 8092. The town is irregularly built
+on the cliffs to the south of Torbay, and its harbour is sheltered by a
+breakwater. Early in the 19th century it was an important military post,
+with fortified barracks on Berry Head. It is the headquarters of the
+Devonshire sea-fisheries, having also a large coasting trade. Shipbuilding
+and the manufacture of ropes, paint and sails are industries. There is
+excellent bathing, and Brixham is in favour as a seaside resort. St Mary's,
+the ancient parish church, has an elaborate 14th-century font and some
+monuments of interest. At the British Seamen's Orphans' home boys are fed,
+clothed and trained as apprentices for the merchant service. A statue
+commemorates the landing, in 1688, of William of Orange.
+
+_Brixham Cave_, called also Windmill Hill Cavern, is a well-known
+ossiferous cave situated near Brixham, on the brow of a hill composed of
+Devonian limestone. It was discovered by chance in 1858, having been until
+then hermetically sealed by a mass of limestone breccia. Dr Hugh Falconer
+with the assistance of a committee of geologists excavated it. The
+succession of beds in descending order is as follows:--(1) Shingle
+consisting of pebbles of limestone, slate and other local rocks, with
+fragments of stalagmite and containing a few bones and worked flints. The
+thickness varies from five to sixteen feet. (2) Red cave earth with angular
+fragments of limestone, bones and worked flints, and having a thickness of
+3 to 4 ft. (3) Remnants (_in situ_) of an old stalagmitic floor about nine
+inches thick. (4) Black peaty soil varying in thickness, the maximum being
+about a foot. (5) Angular debris fallen from above varying in thickness
+from one to ten feet. (6) Stalagmite with a few bones and antlers of
+reindeer, the thickness varying from one to fifteen inches. Of particular
+interest is the presence of patches or ledges of an old stalagmitic floor,
+three to four feet above the present floor. On the under-side, there are
+found attached fragments of limestone and quartz, showing that the shingle
+bed once extended up to it, and that it then formed the original floor. The
+shingle therefore stood some feet higher than it does now, and it is
+supposed that a shock or jar, such as that of an earthquake, broke up the
+stalagmite, and the pebbles and sand composing the shingle sunk deeper into
+the fissures in the limestone. This addition to the size of the cave was
+partially filled up by the cave earth. At a later period the fall of
+angular fragments at the entrance finally closed the cave, and it ceased to
+be accessible except to a few burrowing animals, whose remains are found
+above the second and newer stalagmite floor.
+
+The fauna of Brixham cavern closely resembles that of Kent's Hole. The
+bones of the bear, horse, rhinoceros, lion, elephant, hyena and of many
+birds and small rodents were unearthed. Altogether 1621 bones, nearly all
+broken and gnawed, were found; of these 691 belonged to birds and small
+rodents of more recent times. The implements are of a roughly-chipped type
+resembling those of the Mousterian period. From these structural and
+palaeontological evidences, geologists suppose that the formation of the
+cave was carried on simultaneously with the excavation of the valley; that
+the small streams, flowing down the upper ramifications of the valley,
+entered the western opening of the cave, and traversing the fissures in the
+limestone, escaped by the lower openings in the chief valley; and that the
+rounded pebbles found in the shingle bed were carried in by these streams.
+It would be only at times of drought that the cave was frequented by
+animals, a theory which explains the small quantity of animal remains in
+the shingle. The implements of man are relatively more common, seventeen
+chipped flints having been found. As the excavation of the valley
+proceeded, the level of the stream was lowered and its course diverted; the
+cave consequently became drier and was far more frequently inhabited by
+predatory animals. It was now essentially an animal den, the occasional
+visits of man being indicated by the rare occurrence of flint-implements.
+Finally, the cave became a resort of bears; the remains of 334 specimens,
+in all stages of growth, including even sucking cubs, being discovered.
+
+See Sir Joseph Prestwich, _Geology_ (1888); Sir John Evans, _Ancient Stone
+Implements of Great Britain_, p. 512; Report on the Cave, _Phil. Trans._
+(Royal Society, 1873).
+
+BRIXTON, a district in the south of London, England, included in the
+metropolitan borough of Lambeth (_q.v._).
+
+BRIZEUX, JULIEN AUGUSTE PELAGE (1803-1858), French poet, was born at
+Lorient (Morbihan) on the 12th of September 1803. He belonged to a family
+of Irish origin, long settled in Brittany, and was educated for the law,
+but in 1827 he produced at the Theatre Francais a one-act verse comedy,
+_Racine_, in collaboration with Philippe Busoni. A journey to Italy in
+company with Auguste Barbier made a great impression on him, and a second
+visit (1834) resulted in 1841 in the publication of a complete translation
+of the _Divina Commedia_ in _terza rima_. With _Primel el Nola_ (1852) he
+included poems written under Italian influence, entitled _Les Ternaires_
+(1841), but in the rustic idyl of _Marie_ (1836) turned to Breton country
+life; in _Les Bretons_ (1845) he found his inspiration in the folklore and
+legends of his native province, and in _Telen-Aroor_ (1844) he used the
+Breton dialect. His _Histoires poetiques_ (1855) was crowned by the French
+Academy. His work is small in bulk, but is characterized by simplicity and
+sincerity. Brizeux was an ardent student of the philology and archaeology
+of Brittany, and had collected materials for a dictionary of Breton
+place-names He died at Montpellier on the 3rd of May 1858.
+
+His _Oeuvres completes_ (2 vols., 1860) were edited with a notice of the
+author by Saint-Rene Taillandier. Another edition appeared in 1880-1884 (4
+vols.). A long list of articles on his work may be consulted in an
+exhaustive monograph, _Brizeux; sa vie et ses oeuvres_ (1898), by the abbe
+C. Lecigne.
+
+BRIZO, an ancient goddess worshipped in Delos. She delivered oracles in
+dreams to those who consulted her about fishery and seafaring. The women of
+Delos offered her presents consisting of little boats filled with all kinds
+of eatables (with the exception of [v.04 p.0620] fish) in order to obtain
+her protection for those engaged on the sea (Athenaeus viii. p. 335).
+
+BROACH, or BHARUCH, an ancient city and modern district of British India,
+in the northern division of Bombay. The city is on the right bank of the
+Nerbudda, about 30 m. from the sea, and 203 m. N. of Bombay. The area,
+including suburbs, occupies 2-1/6 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 42,896. The sea-borne
+trade is confined to a few coasting vessels. Handloom-weaving is almost
+extinct, but several cotton mills have been opened. There are also large
+flour-mills. Broach is the Barakacheva of the Chinese traveller Hsuean Tsang
+and the Barygaza of Ptolemy and Arrian. Upon the conquest of Gujarat by the
+Mahommedans, and the formation of the state of that name, Broach formed
+part of the new kingdom. On its overthrow by Akbar in 1572, it was annexed
+to the Mogul empire and governed by a Nawab. The Mahrattas became its
+masters in 1685, from which period it was held in subordination to the
+peshwa until 1772, when it was captured by a force under General Wedderburn
+(brother to Lord Loughborough), who was killed in the assault. In 1783 it
+was ceded by the British to Sindhia in acknowledgment of certain services.
+It was stormed in 1803 by a detachment commanded by Colonel Woodington, and
+was finally ceded to the East India Company by Sindhia under the treaty of
+Sarji Anjangaom.
+
+The DISTRICT OF BROACH contains an area of 1467 sq. m. Consisting chiefly
+of the alluvial plain at the mouth of the river Nerbudda, the land is rich
+and highly cultivated, and though it is without forests it is not wanting
+in trees. The district is well supplied with rivers, having in addition to
+the Nerbudda the Mahi in the north and the Kim in the south. The population
+comprises several distinct races or castes, who, while speaking a common
+dialect, Gujarati, inhabit separate villages. Thus there are Koli, Kunbi or
+Voro (Bora) villages, and others whose lands are almost entirely held and
+cultivated by high castes, such as Rajputs, Brahmans or Parsees. In 1901
+the population was 291,763, showing a decrease of 15%, compared with an
+increase of 5% in the preceding decade. The principal crops are cotton,
+millet, wheat and pulse. Dealing in cotton is the chief industry, the
+dealers being organized in a gild. Besides the cotton mills in Broach city
+there are several factories for ginning and pressing cotton, some of them
+on a very large scale. The district is traversed throughout its length by
+the Bombay & Baroda railway, which crosses the Nerbudda opposite Broach
+city on an iron-girder bridge of 67 spans. The district suffered severely
+from the famine of 1899-1900.
+
+BROACH (Fr. _broche_, a pointed instrument, Med. Lat. _brocca_, cf. the
+Latin adjective _brochus_ or _broccus_, projecting, used of teeth), a word,
+of which the doublet "brooch" (_q.v._) has a special meaning, for many
+forms of pointed instruments, such as a bodkin, a wooden needle used in
+tapestry-making, a spit for roasting meat, and a tool, also called a
+"rimer," used with a wrench for enlarging or smoothing holes (see TOOL).
+From the use of a similar instrument to tap casks, comes "to broach" or
+"tap" a cask. A particular use in architecture is that of "broach-spire," a
+term employed to designate a particular form of spire, found only in
+England, which takes its name from the stone roof of the lower portion. The
+stone spire being octagonal and the tower square on plan, there remained
+four angles to be covered over. This was done with a stone roof of slight
+pitch, compared with that of the spire, and it is the intersection of this
+roof with the octagonal faces of the spire which forms the broach.
+
+BROADSIDE, sometimes termed BROADSHEET, a single sheet of paper containing
+printed matter on one side only. The broadside seems to have been employed
+from the very beginning of printing for royal proclamations, papal
+indulgences and similar documents. England appears to have been its chief
+home, where it was used chiefly for ballads, particularly in the 16th
+century, but also as a means of political agitation and for personal
+statements of all kinds, especially for the dissemination of the dying
+speeches and confessions of criminals. It is prominent in the history of
+literature because, particularly during the later part of the 17th century,
+several important poems, by Dryden, Butler and others, originally appeared
+printed on the "broad side" of a sheet. The term is also used of the
+simultaneous discharge of the guns on one side of a ship of war.
+
+BROADSTAIRS, a watering-place, in the Isle of Thanet parliamentary division
+of Kent, England, 3 m. S.E. of Margate, on the South-Eastern & Chatham
+railway. Pop. of urban district, Broadstairs and St Peter's (1901) 6466.
+From 1837 to 1851 Broadstairs was a favourite summer resort of Charles
+Dickens, who, in a sketch called "Our English Watering-Place," described it
+as a place "left high and dry by the tide of years." This seaside village,
+with its "semicircular sweep of houses," grew into a considerable town
+owing to the influx of summer visitors, for whose entertainment there are,
+besides the "Albion" mentioned by Dickens, numerous hotels and
+boarding-houses, libraries, a bathing establishment and a fine promenade.
+Dickens' residence was called Fort House, but it became known as Bleak
+House, through association with his novel of that name, though this was
+written after his last visit to Broadstairs in 1851. Broadstairs has a
+small pier for fishing-boats, first built in the reign of Henry VIII. An
+archway leading down to the shore bears an inscription showing that it was
+erected by George Culmer in 1540, and not far off is the site of a chapel
+of the Virgin, to which ships were accustomed to lower their top-sails as
+they passed. St Peter's parish, lying on the landward side of Broadstairs,
+and included in the urban district, has a church dating from the 12th to
+the end of the 16th century. Kingsgate, on the North Foreland, north of
+Broadstairs on the coast, changed its name from St Bartholomew's Gate in
+honour of Charles II.'s landing here with the duke of York in 1683 on his
+way from London to Dover. Stonehouse, close by, now a preparatory school
+for boys, was the residence of Archbishop Tait, whose wife established the
+orphanage here.
+
+BROCA, PAUL (1824-1880), French surgeon and anthropologist, was born at
+Sainte-Foy la Grande, Gironde, on the 28th of June 1824. He early developed
+a taste for higher mathematics, but circumstances decided him in adopting
+medicine as his profession. Beginning his studies at Paris in 1841, he made
+rapid progress, becoming house-surgeon in 1844, assistant anatomical
+lecturer in 1846, and three years later professor of surgical anatomy. He
+had already gained a reputation by his pathological researches. In 1853 he
+was named fellow of the Faculty of Medicine, and in 1867 became member of
+the Academy of Medicine and professor of surgical pathology to the Faculty.
+During the years occupied in winning his way to the head of his profession
+he had published treatises of much value on cancer, aneurism and other
+subjects. It was in 1861 that he announced his discovery of the seat of
+articulate speech in the left side of the frontal region of the brain,
+since known as the convolution of Broca. But famous as he was as a surgeon,
+his name is associated most closely with the modern school of anthropology.
+Establishing the Anthropological Society of Paris in 1859, of which he was
+secretary till his death, he was practically the inventor of the modern
+science of craniology. He rendered distinguished service in the
+Franco-German War, and during the Commune by his organization and
+administration of the public hospitals. He founded _La Revue
+d'Anthropologie_ in 1872, and it was in its pages that the larger portion
+of his writings appeared. In his last years Broca turned from his labours
+in the region of craniology to the exclusive study of the brain, in which
+his greatest triumphs were achieved (see APHASIA). He was decorated with
+the Legion of Honour in 1868, and was honorary fellow of the leading
+anatomical, biological and anthropological societies of the world. He died
+on the 9th of July 1880. A statue of him by Choppin was erected in 1887 in
+front of the Faculty of Medicine in Paris.
+
+BROCADE, the name usually given to a class of richly decorative
+shuttle-woven fabrics, often made in coloured silks and with or without
+gold and silver threads. Ornamental features in brocade are emphasized and
+wrought as additions to the main fabric, sometimes stiffening it, though
+more frequently producing on its face the effect of low relief. These
+additions present a distinctive appearance on the back of the stuff where
+[v.04 p.0621] the weft or floating threads of the brocaded or broached
+parts hang in loose groups or are clipped away.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Brocade woven in red and olive green silks and gold
+thread on a cream-coloured ground. Along the top is the Kufic inscription
+"Arrahman" (The Merciful) several times repeated in olive green on a
+gold-thread ground. Pairs of seated animals, _addorsed regardant_ and geese
+_vis-a-vis_ are worked within the lozenge-shaped compartments of the
+trellis framework which regulates the pattern. Both animals and birds are
+separated by conventional trees, and the latter are enclosed in
+inscriptions of Kufic characters. _Siculo-Saracenic_; 11th or 12th century.
+51/2 in. sq.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Part of a Siculo-Saracenic brocade woven in the
+12th century. l61/2 in. wide.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Piece of stuff woven or brocaded with red silk and
+gold thread, with an ogival framing enclosing alternately, pairs of
+parrots, _addorsed regardant_, and a well-known Persian (or Sassanian)
+leaf-shaped fruit device. Probably of Rhenish-Byzantine manufacture in the
+12th or 13th century. 9 in. long.]
+
+The Latin word _broccus_ is related equally to the Italian _brocato_, the
+Spanish _brocar_ and the French _brocarts_ and _brocher_, and implies a
+form of stitching or broaching, so that textile fabrics woven with an
+appearance of stitching or broaching have consequently come to be termed
+"brocades." A Spanish document dated 1375 distinguishes between _los draps
+d'or e d'argent o de seda_ and _brocats d'or e d'argent_, a difference
+which is readily perceived, upon comparing for instance cloths of gold,
+Indian kincobs, with Lyons silks that are _broches_ with threads of gold,
+silk or other material. Notwithstanding this, many Indian kincobs and
+dainty gold and coloured silk-weavings of Persian workmanship, both without
+floating threads, are often called brocades, although in neither is the
+ornamentation really _broche_ or brocaded. Contemporary in use with the
+Spanish _brocats_ is the word _brocado_. In addition to _brocarts_ the
+French now use the word _brocher_ in connexion with certain silk stuffs
+which however are not brocades in the same sense as the _brocarts_. A
+wardrobe account of King Edward IV. (1480) has an entry of "satyn broched
+with gold"--a description that fairly applies to such an enriched satin as
+that for instance shown in fig. 4. But some three centuries earlier than
+the date of that specimen, decorative stuffs were partly _broches_ with
+gold threads by oriental weavers, especially those of Persia, Syria and
+parts of southern Europe and northern Africa under the domination of the
+Saracens, to whom the earlier germs, so to speak, of brocading may be
+traced. Of such is the 11th or 12th century Siculo-Saracenic specimen in
+fig. 1, in which the heads only of the pairs of animals and birds are
+broched with gold thread. Another sort of brocaded material is indicated in
+fig. 2, taken from a part of a sumptuous Siculo-Saracenic weaving produced
+in coloured silks and gold threads at the famous Hotel des Tiraz in Palermo
+for an official robe of Henry IV. (1165-1197) as emperor of the Holy Roman
+Empire, and still preserved in the cathedral of Regensburg. Fig. 3 is a
+further variety of textile that would be classed as _brocat_. This is of
+the 12th or 13th century manufacture, possibly by German or
+Rhenish-Byzantine weavers, or even by Spanish weavers, many of whom at
+Almeria, Malaga, Grenada and Seville rivalled those at Palermo. In the 14th
+century the making of satins heavily brocaded with gold threads was
+associated conspicuously with such Italian towns as Lucca, Genoa, Venice
+and Florence. Fig. 4 is from a piece of 14th-century dark-blue satin
+broached in relief with gold thread in a design the like of which appears
+in the background of Orcagna's "Coronation of the Virgin," now in the
+National Gallery, London. During the 17th century Genoa, Florence and Lyons
+vied with each other in making brocades in which the enrichments were as
+frequently of coloured silks as of gold intermixed with silken threads.
+Fig. 5 is from a piece of crimson silk damask flatly brocaded with flowers,
+scroll forms, fruit and birds in gold. This is probably of Florentine
+workmanship. Rather more closely allied to modern brocades is the Lyons
+specimen given in fig. 6, in which the brocading is done not only with
+silver but also with coloured silks. Early in the 18th century Spitalfields
+was busy as a competitor with Lyons in manufacturing many sorts of
+brocades, specified in a collection of designs preserved in the national
+art library of the Victoria and [v.04 p.0622] Albert Museum, under such
+trade titles as "brocade lutstring, brocade tabby, brocade tissue, brocade
+damask, brocade satin, Venetian brocade, and India figured brocade."
+Brocading in China seems to be of considerable antiquity, and Dr Bushell in
+his valuable handbook on Chinese art cites a notice of five rolls of
+brocade with dragons woven upon a crimson ground, presented by the emperor
+Ming Ti of the Wei dynasty, in the year A.D. 238, to the reigning empress
+of Japan; and varieties of brocade patterns are recorded as being in use
+during the Sung dynasty (960-1279). The first edition of an illustrated
+work upon tillage and weaving was published in China in 1210, and contains
+an engraving of a loom constructed to weave flowered-silk brocades such as
+are woven at the present time at Suchow and Hangchow and elsewhere. On the
+other hand, although they are described usually as brocades, certain
+specimens of imperial Chinese robes sumptuous in ornament, sheen of
+coloured silks and the glisten of golden threads, are woven in the
+tapestry-weaving manner and without any floating threads. It seems
+reasonable to infer that Persians and Syrians derived the art of weaving
+brocades from the Chinese, and as has been indicated, passed it on to
+Saracens as well as Europeans.
+
+(A. S. C.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Piece of blue satin brocaded with gold threads. The
+unit of the pattern is a symmetrical arrangement of fantastic birds, vine
+leaves and curving stems. The bird shapes are remotely related to, if not
+derived from, the Chinese mystical "fonghoang." North Italian weaving of
+the 14th century; about 11 in. square.]
+
+Illustration: FIG. 5.--Piece of crimson silk damask brocaded in gold thread
+with symmetrically arranged flowers, scrolls, birds, &c. Italian
+(?Florentine). Late 17th century; about 2 ft. 6 in. long.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Piece of pink silk brocaded in silver and white and
+coloured silks. French middle 18th century; about 15 in. square.]
+
+BROCCHI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1772-1826), Italian mineralogist and geologist,
+was born at Bassano on the 18th of February 1772. He studied at the
+university of Pisa, where his attention was turned to mineralogy and
+botany. In 1802 he was appointed professor of botany in the new lyceum of
+Brescia; but he more especially devoted himself to geological researches in
+the adjacent districts. The fruits of these labours appeared in different
+publications, particularly in his _Trattato mineralogico e chemico sulle
+miniere di ferro del dipartimento del Mella_ (1808)--treatise on the iron
+mines of Mella. These researches procured him the office of inspector of
+mines in the recently established kingdom of Italy, and enabled him to
+extend his investigations over great part of the country. In 1811 he
+produced a valuable essay entitled _Memoria mineralogica sulla Valle di
+Fassa in Tirolo_; but his most important work is the _Conchiologia fossile
+subapennina con osservazioni geologiche sugli Apennini, e sul suolo
+adiacente_ (2 vols., 4to, Milan, 1814), containing accurate details of the
+structure of the Apennine range, and an account of the fossils of the
+Italian Tertiary strata compared with existing species. These subjects were
+further illustrated by his geognostic map, and his _Catalogo ragionato di
+una raccolta di rocce, disposto con ordine geografico, per servire alla
+geognosia dell' Italia_ (Milan, 1817). His work _Dello stato fisico del
+suolo di Roma_ (1820), with its accompanying map, is likewise noteworthy.
+In it he corrected the erroneous views of Breislak, who conceived that Rome
+occupies the site of a volcano, to which he ascribed the volcanic materials
+that cover the seven hills. Brocchi pointed out that these materials were
+derived either from Mont Albano, [v.04 p.0623] an extinct volcano, 12 m.
+from the city, or from Mont Cimini, still farther to the north. Several
+papers by him, on mineralogical subjects, appeared in the _Biblioteca
+Italiana_ from 1816 to 1823. In the latter year Brocchi sailed for Egypt,
+in order to explore the geology of that country and report on its mineral
+resources. Every facility was granted by Mehemet Ali, who in 1823 appointed
+him one of a commission to examine the district of Sennaar; but Brocchi,
+unfortunately for science, fell a victim to the climate, and died at
+Khartum on the 25th of September 1826.
+
+BROCHANT DE VILLIERS, ANDRE JEAN FRANCOIS MARIE (1772-1840), French
+mineralogist and geologist, was born at Villiers, near Nantes, on the 6th
+of August 1772. After studying at the Ecole Polytechnique, he was in 1794
+the first pupil admitted to the Ecole des Mines. In 1804 he was appointed
+professor of geology and mineralogy in the Ecole des Mines, which had been
+temporarily transferred to Pezay in Savoy, and he returned with the school
+to Paris in 1815. Later on he became inspector general of mines and a
+member of the Academy of Sciences. He investigated the transition strata of
+the Tarantaise, wrote on the position of the granite rocks of Mont Blanc,
+and on the lead minerals of Derbyshire and Cumberland. He was charged with
+the superintendence of the construction of the geological map of France,
+undertaken by his pupils Dufrenoy and Elie de Beaumont. He died in Paris on
+the 16th of May 1840. His publications include _Traite elementaire de
+mineralogie_ (2 vols., 1801-1802; 2nd ed., 1808), and _Traite abrege de
+cristallographie_ (Paris, 1818).
+
+[Illustration]
+
+BROCHANTITE, a mineral species consisting of a basic copper sulphate
+Cu_4(OH)_6SO_4, crystallizing in the orthorhombic system. The crystals are
+usually small and are prismatic or acicular in habit; they have a perfect
+cleavage parallel to the face lettered a in the adjoining figure. They are
+transparent to translucent, with a vitreous lustre, and are of an
+emerald-green to blackish-green colour. Specific gravity 3.907; hardness
+31/2-4. The mineral was first found associated with malachite and native
+copper in the copper mines of the Urals, and was named by A. Levy in 1824
+after A.J.M. Brochant de Villiers. Several varieties, differing somewhat in
+crystalline form, have been distinguished, some of them having originally
+been described as distinct species, but afterwards proved to be essentially
+identical with brochantite; these are koenigine from the Urals,
+brongniartine from Mexico, krisuvigite from Iceland, and warringtonite from
+Cornwall. Of other localities, mention may be made of Roughten Gill,
+Caldbeck Fells, Cumberland, where small brilliant crystals are associated
+with malachite and chrysocolla in a quartzose rock; Rezbanya in the Bihar
+Mountains, Hungary; Atacama in Chile, with atacamite, which closely
+resembles brochantite in general appearance; the Tintic district in Utah. A
+microscopical examination of the green copper ores of secondary origin in
+the Clifton and Morenci district of Arizona proves brochantite to be of
+extremely common occurrence mostly intergrown with malachite which
+effectually masks its presence: it is not unlikely that the malachite of
+other localities will on examination be found to be intergrown with
+brochantite.
+
+Mention may be here made of another orthorhombic basic copper sulphate not
+unlike brochantite in general characters, but differing from it in
+containing water of crystallization and in its fine blue colour; this is
+the Cornish mineral langite, which has the composition
+CuSO_4.3Cu(OH)_2+H_2O.
+
+(L. J. S.)
+
+BROCK, SIR ISAAC (1769-1812), British soldier and administrator, was born
+at St Peter Port, Guernsey, on the 6th of October 1769. Joining the army at
+the age of fifteen as an ensign of the 8th regiment, he became a
+lieutenant-colonel in 1797, after less than thirteen years' service. He
+commanded the 49th regiment in the expedition to North Holland in 1799, was
+wounded at the battle of Egmont-op-Zee, and subsequently served on board
+the British fleet at the battle of Copenhagen. From 1802 to 1805 he was
+with his regiment in Canada, returning thither in 1806 in view of the
+imminence of war between Great Britain and the United States. From
+September 1806 till August 1810 he was in charge of the garrison at Quebec;
+in the latter year he assumed the command of the troops in Upper Canada,
+and soon afterwards took over the civil administration of that province as
+provisional lieutenant-governor. On the outbreak of the war of 1812 Brock
+had to defend Upper Canada against invasion by the United States. In the
+face of many difficulties and not a little disaffection, he organized the
+militia of the province, drove back the invaders, and on the 16th of August
+1812, with about 730 men and 600 Indians commanded by their chief Tecumseh,
+compelled the American force of 2500 men under General William Hull
+(1753-1825) to surrender at Detroit, an achievement which gained him a
+knighthood of the Bath and the popular title of "the hero of Upper Canada"
+From Detroit he hurried to the Niagara frontier, but on the 13th of October
+in the same year was killed at the battle of Queenston Heights. The House
+of Commons voted a public monument to his memory, which was erected in
+Saint Paul's cathedral, London. On the 13th of October 1824, the twelfth
+anniversary of his death, his remains were removed from the bastions of
+Fort George, where they had been originally interred, and placed beneath a
+monument on Queenston Heights, erected by the provincial legislature. This
+was blown up by a fanatic in 1840, but as the result of a mass-meeting of
+over 8000 citizens held on the spot, a new and more stately monument was
+erected.
+
+His _Life and Correspondence_ by his nephew, Ferdinand Brock Tupper (2nd
+edition, London, 1847), still remains the best; later lives are by D.R.
+Read (Toronto, 1894), and by Lady Edgar (Toronto and London,1905).
+
+(W. L. G.)
+
+BROCK, THOMAS (1847- ), English sculptor, was the chief pupil of Foley, and
+later became influenced by the new romantic movement. His group "The Moment
+of Peril" was followed by "The Genius of Poetry," "Eve," and other ideal
+works that mark his development. His busts, such as those of Lord Leighton
+and Queen Victoria; his statues, such as "Sir Richard Owen" and "Dr
+Philpott, bishop of Worcester"; his sepulchral monuments, such as that to
+Lord Leighton in St Paul's cathedral, a work of singular significance,
+refinement and beauty; and his memorial statues of Queen Victoria, at Hove
+and elsewhere, are examples of his power as a portraitist, sympathetic in
+feeling, sound and restrained in execution, and dignified and decorative in
+arrangement. The colossal equestrian statue of "Edward the Black Prince"
+was set up in the City Square in Leeds in 1901, the year in which the
+sculptor was awarded the commission to execute the vast Imperial Memorial
+to Queen Victoria in front of Buckingham Palace. Brock was elected an
+associate of the Royal Academy in 1883 and full member in 1891.
+
+BROCKEN, a mountain of Germany, in Prussian Saxony, the highest point (3733
+ft.) of the Harz. It is a huge, bare, granite-strewn, dome-shaped mass and,
+owing to its being the greatest elevation in north Germany, commands
+magnificent views in all directions. From it Magdeburg and the Elbe, the
+towers of Leipzig and the Thuringian forest are distinctly visible in clear
+weather. Access to the summit is attained by a mountain railway (12 m.)
+from Dreiannen-Hohne, a station on the normal gauge line
+Wernigerode-Nordhausen, and by two carriage roads from the Bodetal and
+Ilsenburg respectively. In the folklore of north Germany the Brocken holds
+an important place, and to it cling many legends. Long after Christianity
+had penetrated to these regions, the Brocken remained a place of heathen
+worship. Annually, on Walpurgis night (1st of May), curious rites were here
+enacted, which, condemned by the priests of the Christian church, led to
+the belief that the devil and witches here held their orgies. Even to this
+day, this superstition possesses the minds of many country people around,
+who believe the mountain to be haunted on this night. In literature [v.04
+p.0624] it is represented by the famous "Brocken scene" in Goethe's
+_Faust_.
+
+See Jacobs, _Der Brocken in Geschichte und Sage_ (Halle, 1878); and Proehle,
+_Brockensagen_ (Magdeburg, 1888).
+
+BROCKEN, SPECTRE OF THE (so named from having been first observed in 1780
+on the Brocken), an enormously magnified shadow of an observer cast upon a
+bank of cloud when the sun is low in high mountain regions, reproducing
+every motion of the observer in the form of a gigantic but misty image of
+himself.
+
+BROCKES, BARTHOLD HEINRICH (1680-1747), German poet, was born at Hamburg on
+the 22nd of September 1680. He studied jurisprudence at Halle, and after
+extensive travels in Italy, France and Holland, settled in his native town
+in 1704. In 1720 he was appointed a member of the Hamburg senate, and
+entrusted with several important offices. Six years (from 1735 to 1741) he
+spent as _Amtmann_ (magistrate) at Ritzebtuetel. He died in Hamburg on the
+16th of January 1747. Brockes' poetic works were published in a series of
+nine volumes under the fantastic title _Irdisches Vergnuegen in Gott_
+(1721-1748); he also translated Marini's _La Strage degli innocenti_
+(1715), Pope's _Essay on Man_ (1740) and Thomson's _Seasons_ (1745). His
+poetry has small intrinsic value, but it is symptomatic of the change which
+came over German literature at the beginning of the 18th century. He was
+one of the first German poets to substitute for the bombastic imitations of
+Marini, to which he himself had begun by contributing, a clear and simple
+diction. He was also a pioneer in directing the attention of his countrymen
+to the new poetry of nature which originated in England. His verses,
+artificial and crude as they often are, express a reverential attitude
+towards nature and a religious interpretation of natural phenomena which
+was new to German poetry and prepared the way for Klopstock.
+
+Brockes' autobiography was published by J.M. Lappenberg in the _Zeitschrift
+des Vereins fuer Hamburger Geschichte,_ ii. pp. 167 ff. (1847). See also A.
+Brandl, _B. H. Brockes_ (1878), and D.F. Strauss, _Brockes und H.S.
+Reimarus_ (_Gesammelte Schriften_, ii.). A short selection of his poetry
+will be found in vol. 39 (1883) of Kuerschner's _Deutsche
+Nationalliteratur_.
+
+BROCKHAUS, FRIEDRICH ARNOLD (1772-1823), German publisher, was born at
+Dortmund, on the 4th of May 1772. He was educated at the gymnasium of his
+native place, and from 1788 to 1793 served an apprenticeship in a
+mercantile house at Duesseldorf. He then devoted two years at Leipzig to the
+study of modern languages and literature, after which he set up at Dortmund
+an emporium for English goods. In 1801 he transferred this business to
+Arnheim, and in the following year to Amsterdam. In 1805, having given up
+his first line of trade, he began business as a publisher. Two journals
+projected by him were not allowed by the government to survive for any
+length of time, and in 1810 the complications in the affairs of Holland
+induced him to return homewards. In 1811 he settled at Altenburg. About
+three years previously he had purchased the copyright of the
+_Konversations-Lexikon_, started in 1796, and in 1810-1811 he completed the
+first edition of this celebrated work (14th ed. 1901-4). A second edition
+under his own editorship was begun in 1812, and was received with universal
+favour. His business extended rapidly, and in 1818 Brockhaus removed to
+Leipzig, where he established a large printing-house. Among the more
+extensive of his many literary undertakings were the critical
+periodicals--_Hermes_, the _Literarisches Konversationsblatt_ (afterwards
+the _Blaetter fuer literarische Unterhaltung_), and the _Zeitgenossen_, and
+some large historical and bibliographical works, such as Raumer's
+_Geschichte der Hohenstaufen_, and Ebert's _Allgemeines bibliographisches
+Lexikon_. F.A. Brockhaus died at Leipzig on the 20th of August 1823. The
+business was carried on by his sons, Friedrich Brockhaus (1800-1865) who
+retired in 1850, and Heinrich Brockhaus (1804-1874), under whom it was
+considerably extended. The latter especially rendered great services to
+literature and science, which the university of Jena recognized by making
+him, in 1858, honorary doctor of philosophy. In the years 1842-1848,
+Heinrich Brockhaus was member of the Saxon second chamber, as
+representative for Leipzig, was made honorary citizen of that city in 1872,
+and died there on the 15th of November 1874.
+
+See H. E. Brockhaus, _Friedrich A. Brockhaus, sein Leben und Wirken nach
+Briefen und andern Aufzeichnungen_ (3 vols., Leipzig, 1872-1881); also by
+the same author, _Die Firma F. A. Brockhaus von der Begrundung bis zum
+hundertjahrigen Jubilaum_ (1805-1905, Leipzig, 1905).
+
+Another of Friedrich's sons, HERMANN BROCKHAUS (1806-1877), German
+Orientalist, was born at Amsterdam on the 28th of January 1806. While his
+two brothers carried on the business he devoted himself to an academic
+career. He was appointed extraordinary professor in Jena in 1838, and in
+1841 received a call in a similar capacity to Leipzig, where in 1848 he was
+made ordinary professor of ancient Semitic. He died at Leipzig on the 5th
+of January 1877. Brockhaus was an Oriental scholar in the old sense of the
+word, devoting his attention, not to one language only, but to acquiring a
+familiarity with the principal languages and literature of the East. He
+studied Hebrew, Arabic and Persian, and was able to lecture on Sanskrit,
+afterwards his specialty, Pali, Zend and even on Chinese. His most
+important work was the _editio princeps_ of the _Katha-sarit-sagara_, "The
+Ocean of the Streams of Story," the large collection of Sanskrit stories
+made by Soma Deva in the 12th century. By this publication he gave the
+first impetus to a really scientific study of the origin and spreading of
+popular tales, and enabled Prof. Benfey and others to trace the great bulk
+of Eastern and Western stories to an Indian, and more especially to a
+Buddhistic source. Among Prof. Brockhaus's other publications were his
+edition of the curious philosophical play _Prabodhachandrodaya_, "The Rise
+of the Moon of Intelligence," his critical edition of the "Songs of Hafiz,"
+and his publication in Latin letters of the text of the "Zend-Avesta."
+
+BROCKLESBY, RICHARD (1722-1797), English physician, was born at Minehead,
+Somersetshire, on the 11th of August 1722. He was educated at Ballitore, in
+Ireland, where Edmund Burke was one of his schoolfellows, studied medicine
+at Edinburgh, and finally graduated at Leiden in 1745. Appointed physician
+to the army in 1758, he served in Germany during part of the Seven Years'
+War, and on his return settled down to practise in London. In 1764 he
+published _Economical and Medical Observations_, which contained
+suggestions for improving the hygiene of army hospitals. In his latter
+years he withdrew altogether into private life. The circle of his friends
+included some of the most distinguished literary men of the age. He was
+warmly attached to Dr Johnson, to whom about 1784 he offered an annuity of
+L100 for life, and whom he attended on his death-bed, while in 1788 he
+presented Burke, of whom he was an intimate friend, with L1000, and offered
+to repeat the gift "every year until your merit is rewarded as it ought to
+be at court." He died on the 11th of December 1797, leaving his house and
+part of his fortune to his grand-nephew, Dr Thomas Young.
+
+BROCKTON, a city of Plymouth county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., about 20 m. S.
+of Boston, and containing an area of 21 sq. m. of rolling surface. Pop.
+(1870) 8007; (1880)13,608; (1890) 27,294; (1900) 40,063, of whom 9484 were
+foreign-born, including 2667 Irish, 2199 English Canadians and 1973 Swedes;
+(1910, census) 56,878. It is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford
+railway. Brockton has a public library, with 54,000 volumes, in 1908. By
+popular vote, beginning in 1886 (except in 1898), the liquor traffic was
+prohibited annually. The death-rate, 13.18 in 1907, is very low for a
+manufacturing city of its size. Brockton is the industrial centre of a
+large population surrounding it (East and West Bridgewater, North Easton,
+Avon, Randolph, Holbrook and Whitman), and is an important manufacturing
+place. Both in 1900 and in 1905 it ranked first among the cities of the
+United States in the manufacture of boots and shoes. The city's total
+factory product in 1900 was valued at $24,855,362, and in 1905 at
+$37,790,982, an increase during the five years of 52%. The boot and shoe
+product in 1905 was valued at $30,073,014 (9.4% of the value of the total
+boot and shoe product of the United States), the boot [v.04 p.0625] and
+shoe cut stock at $1,344,977, and the boot and shoe findings at
+$2,435,137--the three combined representing 89.6% of the city's total
+manufactured product. In 1908 there were 35 shoe factories, including the
+W.L. Douglas, the Ralston, the Walkover, the Eaton, the Keith and the
+Packard establishments, and, in 1905, 14,000,000 (in 1907 about 17,000,000)
+pairs of shoes were produced in the city. Among the other products are
+lasts, blacking, paper and wooden packing boxes, nails and spikes, and shoe
+fittings and tools. The assessed valuation of the city rose from $6,876,427
+in 1881 to $37,408,332 in 1907. Brockton was a part of Bridgewater until
+1821, when it was incorporated as the township of North Bridgewater. Its
+present name was adopted in 1874, and it was chartered as a city in 1881.
+Brockton was the first city in Massachusetts to abolish all grade crossings
+(1896) within its limits.
+
+BROCKVILLE, a town and port of entry of Ontario, Canada, and capital of
+Leeds county, named after General Sir Isaac Brock, situated 119 m. S.W. of
+Montreal, on the left bank of the St Lawrence, and on the Grand Trunk, and
+Brockville & Westport railways. A branch line connects it with the Canadian
+Pacific. It has steamer communication with the St Lawrence and Lake Ontario
+ports, and is a summer resort. The principal manufactures are hardware,
+furnaces, agricultural implements, carriages and chemicals. It is the
+centre of one of the chief dairy districts of Canada, and ships large
+quantities of cheese and butter. Pop. (1881) 7609; (1901) 8940.
+
+BROD, a town of Croatia-Slavonia, in the county of Pozega, on the left bank
+of the river Save, 124 m. by rail S.E. by E. of Agram. Pop. (1900) 7310.
+The principal Bosnian railway here crosses the river, to meet the Hungarian
+system. Brod has thus a considerable transit trade, especially in cereals,
+wine, spirits, prunes and wood. It is sometimes called Slavonisch-Brod, to
+distinguish it from Bosna-Brod, or Bosnisch-Brod, across the river. The
+town owes its name to a ford (Servian _brod_) of the Save, and dates at
+least from the 15th century. Brod was frequently captured and recaptured in
+the wars between Turkey and Austria; and it was here that the Austrian army
+mustered, in 1879, for the occupation of Bosnia.
+
+BRODERIP, WILLIAM JOHN (1789-1859), English naturalist, was born in Bristol
+on the 21st of November 1789. After graduating at Oxford he was called to
+the bar in 1817, and for some years was engaged in law-reporting. In 1822
+he was appointed a metropolitan police magistrate, and filled that office
+until 1856, first at the Thames police court and then at Westminster. His
+leisure was devoted to natural history, and his writings did much to
+further the study of zoology in England. The zoological articles in the
+_Penny Cyclopaedia_ were written by him, and a series of articles
+contributed to _Fraser's Magazine_ were reprinted in 1848 as _Zoological
+Recreations_, and were followed in 1852 by _Leaves from the Note-book of a
+Naturalist_. He was one of the founders of the Zoological Society of
+London, and a large collection of shells which he formed was ultimately
+bought by the British Museum. He died in London on the 27th of February
+1859.
+
+BRODHEAD, JOHN ROMEYN (1814-1873), American historical scholar, was born in
+Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 2nd of January 1814, the son of Jacob
+Brodhead (1782-1855), a prominent clergyman of the Dutch Reformed Church.
+He graduated at Rutgers College in 1831, and in 1835 was admitted to the
+bar in New York City. After 1837, however, he devoted himself principally
+to the study of American colonial history, and in order to have access to
+the records of the early Dutch settlements in America he obtained in 1839
+an appointment as attache of the American legation at the Hague. His
+investigations here soon proved that the Dutch archives were rich in
+material on the early history of New York, and led the state legislature to
+appropriate funds for the systematic gathering from various European
+archives of transcripts of documents relating to New York. Brodhead was
+appointed (1841) by Governor William H. Seward to undertake the work, and
+within several years gathered from England, France and Holland some eighty
+manuscript volumes of transcriptions, largely of documents which had not
+hitherto been used by historians. These transcriptions were subsequently
+edited by Edward O'Callaghan (vols. i.-xi. incl.) and by Berthold Fernow
+(vols. xii.-xv., incl.), and published by the state under the title
+_Documents relating to the Colonial History of New York_ (15 vols.,
+1853-1883). From 1846 to 1849, while George Bancroft was minister to Great
+Britain, Brodhead held under him the post of secretary of legation. In
+1853-1857 he was naval officer of the port of New York. He published
+several addresses and a scholarly _History of the State of New York_ (2
+vols., 1853-1871), generally considered the best for the brief period
+covered (1609-1690). He died in New York City on the 6th of May 1873.
+
+BRODIE, SIR BENJAMIN COLLINS, 1st Bart. (1783-1862), English physiologist
+and surgeon, was born in 1783 at Winterslow, Wiltshire. He received his
+early education from his father; then choosing medicine as his profession
+he went to London in 1801, and attended the lectures of John Abernethy. Two
+years later he became a pupil of Sir Everard Home at St George's hospital,
+and in 1808 was appointed assistant surgeon at that institution, on the
+staff of which he served for over thirty years. In 1810 he was elected a
+fellow of the Royal Society, to which in the next four or five years he
+contributed several papers describing original investigations in
+physiology. At this period also he rapidly obtained a large and lucrative
+practice, and from time to time he wrote on surgical questions,
+contributing numerous papers to the Medical and Chirurgical Society, and to
+the medical journals. Probably his most important work is that entitled
+_Pathological and Surgical Observations on the Diseases of the Joints_, in
+which he attempts to trace the beginnings of disease in the different
+tissues that form a joint, and to give an exact value to the symptom of
+pain as evidence of organic disease. This volume led to the adoption by
+surgeons of measures of a conservative nature in the treatment of diseases
+of the joints, with consequent reduction in the number of amputations and
+the saving of many limbs and lives. He also wrote on diseases of the
+urinary organs, and on local nervous affections of a surgical character. In
+1854 he published anonymously a volume of _Psychological Inquiries_; to a
+second volume which appeared in 1862 his name was attached. He received
+many honours during his career. He attended George IV., was
+sergeant-surgeon to William IV. and Queen Victoria, and was made a baronet
+in 1834. He became a corresponding member of the French Institute in 1844,
+D.C.L. of Oxford in 1855, and president of the Royal Society in 1858, and
+he was the first president of the general medical council. He died at
+Broome Park, Surrey, on the 21st of October 1862. His collected works, with
+autobiography, were published in 1865 under the editorship of Charles
+Hawkins.
+
+His eldest son, Sir Benjamin Collins Brodie, 2nd Bart. (1817-1880), was
+appointed professor of chemistry at Oxford in 1865, and is chiefly known
+for his investigations on the allotropic states of carbon and for his
+discovery of graphitic acid.
+
+BRODIE, PETER BELLINGER (1815-1897), English geologist, son of P.B. Brodie,
+barrister, and nephew of Sir Benjamin C. Brodie, was born in London in
+1815. While still residing with his father at Lincoln's Inn Fields, he
+gained some knowledge of natural history and an interest in fossils from
+visits to the museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, at a time when W.
+Clift was curator. Through the influence of Clift he was elected a fellow
+of the Geological Society early in 1834. Proceeding afterwards to Emmanuel
+College, Cambridge, he came under the spell of Sedgwick, and henceforth
+devoted all his leisure time to geology. Entering the church in 1838, he
+was curate at Wylye in Wiltshire, and for a short time at Steeple Claydon
+in Buckinghamshire, becoming later rector of Down Hatherley in
+Gloucestershire, and finally (1855) vicar of Rowington in Warwickshire, and
+rural dean. Records of geological observations in all these districts were
+published by him. At Cambridge he obtained fossil shells from the
+Pleistocene deposit at Barn well; in the Vale of Wardour he discovered in
+Purbeck Beds the isopod named by Milne-Edwards _Archaeoniscus Brodiei_; in
+Buckinghamshire he described the outliers of Purbeck and [v.04 p.0626]
+Portland Beds; and in the Vale of Gloucester the Lias and Oolites claimed
+his attention. Fossil insects, however, formed the subject of his special
+studies (_History of the Fossil Insects of the Secondary Rocks of England_,
+1845), and many of his published papers relate to them. He was an active
+member of the Cotteswold Naturalists' Club and of the Warwickshire Natural
+History and Archaeological Society, and in 1854 he was chief founder of the
+Warwickshire Naturalists' and Archaeologists' Field Club. In 1887 the
+Murchison medal was awarded to him by the Geological Society of London. He
+died at Rowington, on the 1st of November 1897.
+
+See Memoir by H. B. Woodward in _Geological Magazine_, 1897, p. 481 (with
+portrait).
+
+BRODY, a town of Austria, in Galicia, 62 m. E. of Lemberg by rail. Pop.
+(1900) 17,360, of which about two-thirds are Jews. It is situated near the
+Russian frontier, and has been one of the most important commercial centres
+in Galicia, especially for the trade with Russia. But since 1879, when its
+charter as a free commercial city was withdrawn, its trade has also greatly
+diminished. Brody was created a town in 1684, and was raised to the rank of
+a free commercial city in 1779.
+
+BROEKHUIZEN, JAN VAN [JANUS BROUKHUSIUS], (1649-1707), Dutch classical
+scholar and poet, was born on the 20th of November 1649, at Amsterdam.
+Having lost his father when very young, he was placed with an apothecary,
+with whom he lived several years. Not liking this employment, he entered
+the army, and in 1674 was sent with his regiment to America, in the fleet
+under Admiral de Ruyter, but returned to Holland the same year. In 1678 he
+was sent to the garrison at Utrecht, where he contracted a friendship with
+the celebrated Graevius; here he had the misfortune to be so deeply
+implicated in a duel that, according to the laws of Holland, his life was
+forfeited. Graevius, however, wrote immediately to Nicholas Heinsius, who
+obtained his pardon. Not long afterwards he became a captain of one of the
+companies then at Amsterdam. After the peace of Ryswick, 1697, his company
+was disbanded, and he retired on a pension to a country house near
+Amsterdam and pursued his classical and literary studies at leisure. His
+Dutch poems, in which he followed the model of Pieter Hooft, were first
+published in 1677; a later edition, with a biography by D. van Hoogstraten,
+appeared in 1712, the last edition, 1883, was edited by R.A. Kollewijn. His
+classical reputation rests on his editions of Propertius (1702) and
+Tibullus (1707). His Latin poems (_Carmina_) appeared in 1684; a later
+edition(_Poemata_) by D. van Hoogstraten appeared in 1711. The _Select
+Letters_ (_Jani Browkhusii Epistolae Selectae_, 1889 and 1893) were edited
+by J.A. Worp, who also wrote his biography, 1891. Broekhuizen died on the
+15th of December 1707.
+
+BROeGGER, WALDEMAR CHRISTOFER (1851- ), Norwegian geologist, was born in
+Christiania on the 10th of November 1851, and educated in that city. In
+1876 he was appointed curator of the geological museum in his native city,
+and assistant on the Geological Survey. He was professor of mineralogy and
+geology from 1881 to 1890 in the university of Stockholm, and from 1890 in
+the university of Christiania. He also became rector and president of the
+senate of the royal university of Christiania. His observations on the
+igneous rocks of south Tirol compared with those of Christiania afford much
+information on the relations of the granitic and basic rocks. The subject
+of the differentiation of rock-types in the process of solidification as
+plutonic or volcanic rocks from a particular magma received much attention
+from him. He dealt also with the Palaeozoic rocks of Norway, and with the
+late glacial and post-glacial changes of level in the Christiania region.
+The honorary degree of Ph.D. was conferred upon him by the university of
+Heidelberg and that of LL.D. by the university of Glasgow. The Murchison
+medal of the Geological Society of London was awarded to him in 1891.
+
+BROGLIE, DE, the name of a noble French family which, originally
+Piedmontese, emigrated to France in the year 1643. The head of the family,
+FRANCOIS MARIE (1611-1656), then took the title of comte de Broglie. He had
+already distinguished himself as a soldier, and died, as a
+lieutenant-general, at the siege of Valenza on the 2nd of July 1656. His
+son, VICTOR MAURICE, COMTE DE BROGLIE (1647-1727), served under Conde,
+Turenne and other great commanders of the age of Louis XIV., becoming
+_marechal de camp_ in 1676, lieutenant-general in 1688, and finally marshal
+of France in 1724.
+
+The eldest son of Victor Marie, FRANCOIS MARIE, afterwards DUC DE BROGLIE
+(1671-1745), entered the army at an early age, and had a varied career of
+active service before he was made, at the age of twenty-three,
+lieutenant-colonel of the king's regiment of cavalry. He served
+continuously in the War of the Spanish Succession and was present at
+Malplaquet. He was made lieutenant-general in 1710, and served with Villars
+in the last campaign of the war and at the battle of Denain. During the
+peace he continued in military employment, and in 1719 he was made
+director-general of cavalry and dragoons. He was also employed in
+diplomatic missions, and was ambassador in England in 1724. The war in
+Italy called him into the field again in 1733, and in the following year he
+was made marshal of France. In the campaign of 1734 he was one of the chief
+commanders on the French side, and he fought the battles of Parma and
+Guastalla. A famous episode was his narrow personal escape when his
+quarters on the Secchia were raided by the enemy on the night of the 14th
+of September 1734. In 1735 he directed a war of positions with credit, but
+he was soon replaced by Marshal de Noailles. He was governor-general of
+Alsace when Frederick the Great paid a secret visit to Strassburg (1740).
+In 1742 de Broglie was appointed to command the French army in Germany, but
+such powers as he had possessed were failing him, and he had always been
+the "man of small means," safe and cautious, but lacking in elasticity and
+daring. The only success obtained was in the action of Sahay (25th May
+1742), for which he was made a duke. He returned to France in 1743, and
+died two years later.
+
+His son, VICTOR FRANCOIS, DUC DE BROGLIE (1718-1804), served with his
+father at Parma and Guastalla, and in 1734 obtained a colonelcy. In the
+German War he took part in the storming of Prague in 1742, and was made a
+brigadier. In 1744 and 1745 he saw further service on the Rhine, and in
+1756 he was made _marechal de camp_. He subsequently served with Marshal
+Saxe in the low countries, and was present at Roucoux, Val and Maastricht.
+At the end of the war he was made a lieutenant-general. During the Seven
+Years' War he served successively under d'Estrees, Soubise and Contades,
+being present at all the battles from Hastenbeck onwards. His victory over
+Prince Ferdinand at Bergen (1759) won him the rank of marshal of France
+from his own sovereign and that of prince of the empire from the emperor
+Francis I. In 1760 he won an action at Corbach, but was defeated at
+Vellinghausen in 1761. After the war he fell into disgrace and was not
+recalled to active employment until 1778, when he was given command of the
+troops designed to operate against England. He played a prominent part in
+the Revolution, which he opposed with determination. After his emigration,
+de Broglie commanded the "army of the princes" for a short time (1792). He
+died at Muenster in 1804.
+
+Another son of the first duke, CHARLES FRANCOIS, COMTE DE BROGLIE
+(1719-1781), served for some years in the army, and afterwards became one
+of the foremost diplomatists in the service of Louis XV. He is chiefly
+remembered in connexion with the _Secret du Roi_, the private, as distinct
+from the official, diplomatic service of Louis, of which he was the ablest
+and most important member. The son of Victor Francois, VICTOR CLAUDE,
+PRINCE DE BROGLIE (1757-1794), served in the army, attaining the rank of
+_marechal de camp_. He adopted revolutionary opinions, served with
+Lafayette and Rochambeau in America, was a member of the Jacobin Club, and
+sat in the Constituent Assembly, constantly voting on the Liberal side. He
+served as chief of the staff to the Republican army on the Rhine; but in
+the Terror he was denounced, arrested and executed at Paris on the 27th of
+June 1794. His dying admonition to his little son was to remain [v.04
+p.0627] faithful to the principles of the Revolution, however unjust and
+ungrateful.
+
+ACHILLE CHARLES LEONCE VICTOR, DUC DE BROGLIE (1785-1870), statesman and
+diplomatist, son of the last-named, was born at Paris on the 28th of
+November 1785. His mother had shared her husband's imprisonment, but
+managed to escape to Switzerland, where she remained till the fall of
+Robespierre. She now returned to Paris with her children and lived there
+quietly until 1796, when she married a M. d'Argenson, grandson of Louis
+XV.'s minister of war. Under the care of his step-father young de Broglie
+received a careful and liberal education and made his entree into the
+aristocratic and literary society of Paris under the Empire. In 1809, he
+was appointed a member of the council of state, over which Napoleon
+presided in person; and was sent by the emperor on diplomatic missions, as
+attache, to various countries. Though he had never been in sympathy with
+the principles of the Empire, de Broglie was not one of those who rejoiced
+at its downfall. In common with all men of experience and sense he realized
+the danger to France of the rise to power of the forces of violent
+reaction. With Decazes and Richelieu he saw that the only hope for a calm
+future lay in "the reconciliation of the Restoration with the Revolution."
+By the influence of his uncle, Prince Amedee de Broglie, his right to a
+peerage had been recognized; and to his own great surprise he received, in
+June 1814, a summons from Louis XVIII. to the Chamber of Peers. There,
+after the Hundred Days, he distinguished himself by his courageous defence
+of Marshal Ney, for whose acquittal he, alone of all the peers, both spoke
+and voted. After this defiant act of opposition it was perhaps fortunate
+that his impending marriage gave him an excuse for leaving the country. On
+the 15th of February 1816, he was married at Leghorn to the daughter of
+Madame de Stael. He returned to Paris at the end of the year, but took no
+part in politics until the elections of September 1817 broke the power of
+the "ultra-royalists" and substituted for the _Chambre introuvable_ a
+moderate assembly. De Broglie's political attitude during the years that
+followed is best summed up in his own words: "From 1812 to 1822 all the
+efforts of men of sense and character were directed to reconciling the
+Restoration and the Revolution, the old regime and the new France. From
+1822 to 1827 all their efforts were directed to resisting the growing power
+of the counter-revolution. From 1827 to 1830 all their efforts aimed at
+moderating and regulating the reaction in a contrary sense." During the
+last critical years of Charles X.'s reign, de Broglie identified himself
+with the _doctrinaires_, among whom Royer-Collard and Guizot were the most
+prominent. The July revolution placed him in a difficult position; he knew
+nothing of the intrigues which placed Louis Philippe on the throne; but,
+the revolution once accomplished, he was ready to uphold the _fait
+accompli_ with characteristic loyalty, and on the 9th of August took office
+in the new government as minister of public worship and education. As he
+had foreseen, the ministry was short-lived, and on the 2nd of November he
+was once more out of office. During the critical time that followed he
+consistently supported the principles which triumphed with the fall of
+Laffitte and the accession to power of Casimir Perier in March 1832. After
+the death of the latter and the insurrection of June 1832, de Broglie took
+office once more as minister for foreign affairs (October 11th). His tenure
+of the foreign office was coincident with a very critical period in
+international relations. But for the sympathy of Great Britain under
+Palmerston, the July monarchy would have been completely isolated in
+Europe; and this sympathy the aggressive policy of France in Belgium and on
+the Mediterranean coast of Africa had been in danger of alienating. The
+Belgian crisis had been settled, so far as the two powers were concerned,
+before de Broglie took office; but the concerted military and naval action
+for the coercion of the Dutch, which led to the French occupation of
+Antwerp, was carried out under his auspices. The good understanding of
+which this was the symbol characterized also the relations of de Broglie
+and Palmerston during the crisis of the first war of Mehemet Ali (_q.v._)
+with the Porte, and in the affairs of the Spanish peninsula their common
+sympathy with constitutional liberty led to an agreement for common action,
+which took shape in the treaty of alliance between Great Britain, France,
+Spain and Portugal, signed at London on the 22nd of April 1834. De Broglie
+had retired from office in the March preceding, and did not return to power
+till March of the following year, when he became head of the cabinet. In
+1836, the government having been defeated on a proposal to reduce the five
+per cents, he once more resigned, and never returned to official life. He
+had remained in power long enough to prove what honesty of purpose,
+experience of affairs, and common sense can accomplish when allied with
+authority. The debt that France and Europe owed him may be measured by
+comparing the results of his policy with that of his successors under not
+dissimilar circumstances. He had found France isolated and Europe full of
+the rumours of war; he left her strong in the English alliance and the
+respect of Liberal Europe, and Europe freed from the restless apprehensions
+which were to be stirred into life again by the attitude of Thiers in the
+Eastern Question and of Guizot in the affair of the "Spanish marriages."
+From 1836 to 1848 de Broglie held almost completely aloof from politics, to
+which his scholarly temperament little inclined him, a disinclination
+strengthened by the death of his wife on the 22nd of September 1838. His
+friendship for Guizot, however, induced him to accept a temporary mission
+in 1845, and in 1847 to go as French ambassador to London. The revolution
+of 1848 was a great blow to him, for he realized that it meant the final
+ruin of the Liberal monarchy--in his view the political system best suited
+to France. He took his seat, however, in the republican National Assembly
+and in the Convention of 1848, and, as a member of the section known as the
+"Burgraves," did his best to stem the tide of socialism and to avert the
+reaction in favour of autocracy which he foresaw. He shared with his
+colleagues the indignity of the _coup d'etat_ of the 2nd of December 1851,
+and remained for the remainder of his life one of the bitterest enemies of
+the imperial regime, though he was heard to remark, with that caustic wit
+for which he was famous, that the empire was "the government which the
+poorer classes in France desired and the rich deserved." The last twenty
+years of his life were devoted chiefly to philosophical and literary
+pursuits. Having been brought up by his step-father in the sceptical
+opinions of the time, he gradually arrived at a sincere belief in the
+Christian religion. "I shall die," said he, "a penitent Christian and an
+impenitent Liberal." His literary works, though few of them have been
+published, were rewarded in 1856 by a seat in the French Academy, and he
+was also a member of another branch of the French Institute, the Academy of
+Moral and Political Science. In the labours of those learned bodies he took
+an active and assiduous part. He died on the 25th of January 1870.
+
+Besides his _Souvenirs_, in 4 vols. (Paris, 1885-1888), the duc de Broglie
+left numerous works, of which only some have been published. Of these may
+be mentioned _Ecrits et discours_ (3 vols., Paris, 1863); _Le Libre Echange
+et l'impot_ (Paris, 1879); _Vues sur le gouvernement de la France_ (Paris,
+1861). This last was confiscated before publication by the imperial
+government. See Guizot, _Le Duc de Broglie_ (Paris, 1870), and _Memoires_
+(Paris, 1858-1867); and the histories of Thureau-Dangin and Duvergier de
+Hauranne.
+
+JACQUES VICTOR ALBERT, DUC DE BROGLIE (1821-1901), his eldest son, was born
+at Paris on the 13th of June 1821. After a brief diplomatic career at
+Madrid and Rome, the revolution of 1848 caused him to withdraw from public
+life and devote himself to literature. He had already published a
+translation of the religious system of Leibnitz (1846). He now at once made
+his mark by his contributions to the _Revue des deux Mondes_ and the
+Orleanist and clerical organ _Le Correspondant_, which were afterwards
+collected under the titles of _Etudes morales et litteraires_ (1853) and
+_Questions de religion et d'histoire_ (1860). These were supplemented in
+1869 by a volume of _Nouvelles etudes de litterature et de morale_. His
+_L'Eglise et l'empire romain au IVe siecle_ (1856-1866) brought him the
+succession to Lacordaire's seat in the Academy in 1862. In 1870 he
+succeeded his father in the dukedom, having previously been known as the
+prince de Broglie. In the following year he was elected to the National
+[v.04 p.0628] Assembly for the department of the Eure, and a few days later
+(on the 19th of February) was appointed ambassador in London; but in March
+1872, in consequence of criticisms upon his negotiations concerning the
+commercial treaties between England and France, he resigned his post and
+took his seat in the National Assembly, where he became the leading spirit
+of the monarchical campaign against Thiers. On the replacement of the
+latter by Marshal MacMahon, the duc de Broglie became president of the
+council and minister for foreign affairs (May 1873), but in the
+reconstruction of the ministry on the 26th of November, after the passing
+of the septennate, transferred himself to the ministry of the interior. His
+tenure of office was marked by an extreme conservatism, which roused the
+bitter hatred of the Republicans, while he alienated the Legitimist party
+by his friendly relations with the Bonapartists, and the Bonapartists by an
+attempt to effect a compromise between the rival claimants to the monarchy.
+The result was the fall of the cabinet on the 16th of May 1874. Three years
+later (on the 16th of May 1877) he was entrusted with the formation of a
+new cabinet, with the object of appealing to the country and securing a new
+chamber more favourable to the reactionaries than its predecessor had been.
+The result, however, was a decisive Republican majority. The duc de Broglie
+was defeated in his own district, and resigned office on the 20th of
+November. Not being re-elected in 1885, he abandoned politics and reverted
+to his historical work, publishing a series of historical studies and
+biographies written in a most pleasing style, and especially valuable for
+their extensive documentation. He died in Paris on the 19th of January
+1901.
+
+Besides editing the _Souvenirs_ of his father (1886, &c.), the _Memoires_
+of Talleyrand (1891, &c.), and the _Letters_ of the Duchess Albertine de
+Broglie (1896), he published _Le Secret du roi, Correspondance secrete de
+Louis XV avec ses agents diplomatiques, 1752-1774_ (1878); _Frederic II et
+Marie Therese_ (1883); _Frederic II et Louis XV_ (1885); _Marie Therese
+Imperatrice_ (1888); _Le Pere Lacordaire_ (1889); _Maurice de Saxe et le
+marquis d'Argenson_ (1891); _La Paix d'Aix-la-Chapelle_ (1892); _L'Alliance
+autrichienne_ (1895); _La Mission de M. de Gontaut-Biron a Berlin_ (1896);
+_Voltaire avant et pendant la Guerre de Sept Ans_ (1898); _Saint Ambroise_,
+translated by Margaret Maitland in the series of "The Saints" (1899).
+
+BROGUE, (1) A rough shoe of raw leather (from the Gael. _brog_, a shoe)
+worn in the wilder parts of Ireland and the Scottish Highlands. (2) A
+dialectical accent or pronunciation (of uncertain origin), especially used
+of the Irish accent in speaking English.
+
+BROHAN, AUGUSTINE SUSANNE (1807-1887), French actress, was born in Paris on
+the 22nd of January 1807. She entered the Conservatoire at the age of
+eleven, and took the second prize for comedy in 1820, and the first in
+1821. She served her apprenticeship in the provinces, making her first
+Paris appearance at the Odeon in 1832 as Dorine in _Tartuffe_. Her success
+there and elsewhere brought her a summons to the Comedie Francaise, where
+she made her _debut_ on the 15th of February 1834, as Madelon in _Les
+Precieuses ridicules_, and Suzanne in _Le Mariage de Figaro_. She retired
+in 1842, and died on the 16th of August 1887.
+
+Her elder daughter, JOSEPHINE FELICITE AUGUSTINE BROHAN (1824-1893), was
+admitted to the Conservatoire when very young, twice taking the second
+prize for comedy. The soubrette part, entrusted for more than 150 years at
+the Comedie Francaise to a succession of artists of the first rank, was at
+the moment without a representative, and Mdlle Augustine Brohan made her
+_debut_ there on the 19th of May 1841, as Dorine in _Tartuffe_, and Lise in
+_Rivaux d'eux-memes_. She was immediately admitted _pensionnaire_, and at
+the end of eighteen months unanimously elected _societaire_. She soon
+became a great favourite, not only in the plays of Moliere and de Regnard,
+but also in those of Marivaux. On her retirement from the stage in 1866,
+she made an unhappy marriage with Edmond David de Gheest (d. 1885),
+secretary to the Belgian legation in Paris.
+
+Susanne Brohan's second daughter, EMILIE MADELEINE BROHAN (1833-1900), also
+took first prize for comedy at the Conservatoire (1850). She was engaged at
+once by the Comedie Francaise, but instead of making her _debut_ in some
+play of the _repertoire_ of the theatre, the management put on for her
+benefit a new comedy by Scribe and Legouve, _Les Contes de la reine de
+Navarre_, in which she created the part of Marguerite on the 1st of
+September 1850. Her talents and beauty made her a success from the first,
+and in less than two years from her _debut_ she was elected _societaire_.
+In 1853 she married Mario Uchard, from whom she was soon separated, and in
+1858 she returned to the Comedie Francaise in leading parts, until her
+retirement in 1886. Her name is associated with a great number of plays,
+besides those in the classical _repertoire_, notably _Le Monde ou l'on
+s'ennuie_, _Par droit de conquete_, _Les Deux Veuves_, and _Le Lion
+amoureux_, in which, as the "marquise de Maupas", she had one of her
+greatest successes.
+
+BROKE, or BROOKE, ARTHUR (d. 1563), English author, wrote the first English
+version of the story of Romeo and Juliet. _The Tragicall Historye of Romeus
+and Julieit_ (1562) is a rhymed account of the story, taken, not directly
+from Bandello's collection of novels (1554), but from the French
+translation (_Histoires tragiques_) of Pierre Boaistuau or Boisteau,
+surnamed Launay, and Francois de Belleforest. Broke adds some detail to the
+story as told by Boisteau. As the poem contains many scenes which are not
+known to exist elsewhere, but which were adopted by Shakespeare in _Romeo
+and Juliet_, there is no reasonable doubt that it may be regarded as the
+main source of the play. Broke perished by shipwreck in 1563, on his way
+from Newhaven to join the English troops fighting on the Huguenot side in
+France.
+
+The genesis of the Juliet story, and a close comparison of Shakespeare's
+play with Broke's version, are to be found in a reprint of the poem and of
+William Paynter's prose translation from the _Palace of Pleasure_, edited
+by Mr P. A. Daniel for the New Shakespere Society (1875).
+
+BROKE, SIR PHILIP BOWES VERE, BART. (1776-1841), British rear-admiral, was
+born at Broke Hall, near Ipswich, on the 9th of September 1776, a member of
+an old Suffolk family. Entering the navy in June 1792, he saw active
+service in the Mediterranean from 1793 to 1795, and was with the British
+fleet at the battle of Cape St Vincent, 1797. In 1798 he was present at the
+defeat and capture of the French squadron off the north coast of Ireland.
+From 1799 to 1801 he served with the North Sea fleet, and in the latter
+year was made captain. Unemployed for the next four years, he commanded in
+1805 a frigate in the English and Irish Channels. In 1806 he was appointed
+to the command of the "Shannon", 38-gun frigate, remaining afloat,
+principally in the Bay of Biscay, till 1811. The "Shannon" was then ordered
+to Halifax, Nova Scotia. For a year after the declaration of war between
+Great Britain and the United States in 1812, the frigate saw no important
+service, though she captured several prizes. Broke utilized this period of
+comparative inactivity to train his men thoroughly. He paid particular
+attention to gunnery, and the "Shannon" ere long gained a unique reputation
+for excellence of shooting. Broke's opportunity came in 1813. In May of
+that year the "Shannon" was cruising off Boston, watching the "Chesapeake",
+an American frigate of the same nominal force but heavier armament. On the
+1st of June Broke, finding his water supply getting low, wrote to Lawrence,
+the commander of the "Chesapeake", asking for a meeting between the two
+ships, stating the "Shannon's" force, and guaranteeing that no other
+British ship should take part in the engagement. Before this letter could
+be delivered, however, the "Chesapeake", under full sail, ran out of Boston
+harbour, crowds of pleasure-boats accompanying her to witness the
+engagement. Broke briefly addressed his men. "Don't cheer," he concluded,
+"go quietly to your quarters. I feel sure you will all do your duty." As
+the "Chesapeake" rounded to on the "Shannon's" weather quarter, at a
+distance of about fifty yards, the British frigate received her with a
+broadside. A hundred of the "Chesapeake's" crew were struck down at once,
+Lawrence himself being mortally wounded. A second broadside, equally
+well-aimed, increased the confusion, and, her tiller-ropes being shot away,
+the American frigate drifted foul of the "Shannon". Broke sprang on board
+with some sixty of his men following him. After a brief struggle [v.04
+p.0629] the fight was over. Within fifteen minutes of the firing of the
+first shot, the "Chesapeake" struck her flag, but Broke himself was
+seriously wounded. For his services he was rewarded with a baronetcy, and
+subsequently was made a K.C.B. His exploit captivated the public fancy, and
+his popular title of "Brave Broke" gives the standard by which his action
+was judged. Its true significance, however, lies deeper. Broke's victory
+was due not so much to courage as to forethought. "The 'Shannon,'" said
+Admiral Jurien de La Graviere, "captured the 'Chesapeake' on the 1st of
+June 1813; but on the 14th of September 1806, when he took command of his
+frigate, Captain Broke had begun to prepare the glorious termination to
+this bloody affair." Broke's wound incapacitated him from further service,
+and for the rest of his life caused him serious suffering. He died in
+London on the 2nd of January 1841.
+
+BROKEN HILL, a silver-mining town of Yancowinna county, New South Wales,
+Australia, 925 m. directly W. by N. of Sydney, and connected with Adelaide
+by rail. Pop. (1901) 27,518. One of the neighbouring mines, the
+Proprietary, is the richest in the world; gold is associated with the
+silver; large quantities of lead, good copper lodes, zinc and tin are also
+found. The problem of the profitable treatment of the sulphide ores has
+been practically solved here. In addition Broken Hill is the centre of one
+of the largest pastoral districts in Australia. The town is the seat of the
+Roman Catholic bishop of Wilcannia.
+
+BROKER (according to the _New English Dictionary_, from Lat. _brocca_,
+spit, spike, _broccare_, to "broach"--another Eng. form of the same word;
+hence O. Fr. _vendre a broche_, to retail, e.g. wine, from the tap, and
+thus the general sense of dealing; see also for a discussion of the
+etymology and early history of the use of the word, J.R. Dos Passos, _Law
+of Stockbrokers_, chap. i., New York, 1905). In the primary sense of the
+word, a broker is a mercantile agent, of the class known as general agents,
+whose office is to bring together intending buyers and sellers and make a
+contract between them, for a remuneration called brokerage or commission;
+e.g. cotton brokers, wool brokers or produce brokers. Originally the only
+contracts negotiated by brokers were for the sale or purchase of
+commodities; but the word in its present use includes other classes of
+mercantile agents, such as stockbrokers, insurance-brokers, ship-brokers or
+bill-brokers. Pawnbrokers are not brokers in any proper sense of the word;
+they deal as principals and do not act as agents. In discussing the chief
+questions of modern legal interest in connexion with brokers, we shall deal
+with them, firstly, in the original sense of agents for the purchase and
+sale of goods.
+
+_Relations between Broker and Principal._--A broker has not, like a factor,
+possession of his principal's goods, and, unless expressly authorized,
+cannot buy or sell in his own name; his business is to bring into privity
+of contract his principal and the third party. When the contract is made,
+ordinarily he drops out altogether. Brokers very frequently act as factors
+also, but, when they do so, their rights and duties as factors must be
+distinguished from their rights and duties as brokers. It is a broker's
+duty to carry out his principal's instructions with diligence, skill and
+perfect good faith. He must see that the terms of the bargain accord with
+his principal's orders from a commercial point of view, e.g. as to quality,
+quantity and price; he must ensure that the contract of sale effected by
+him be legally enforceable by his principal against the third party; and he
+must not accept any commission from the third party, or put himself in any
+position in which his own interest may become opposed to his principal's.
+As soon as he has made the contract which he was employed to make, in most
+respects his duty to, and his authority from, his principal alike cease;
+and consequently the law of brokers relates principally to the formation of
+contracts by them.
+
+The most important formality in English law, in making contracts for the
+sale of goods, with which a broker must comply, in order to make the
+contract legally enforceable by his principal against the third party, is
+contained in section 4 of the Sale of Goods Act 1893, which (in substance
+re-enacting section 17 of the Statute of Frauds) provides as follows:--"A
+contract for the sale of any goods of the value of ten pounds or upwards
+shall not be enforceable by action unless the buyer shall accept part of
+the goods as sold, and actually receive the same, or give something in
+earnest to bind the contract, or in part payment, or _unless some note or
+memorandum in writing of the contract be made and signed by the party to be
+charged or his agent in that behalf_."
+
+From the reign of James I. till 1884 brokers in London were admitted and
+licensed by the corporation, and regulated by statute; and it was common to
+employ one broker only, who acted as intermediary between, and was the
+agent of both buyer and seller. When the Statute of Frauds was passed in
+the reign of Charles II., it became the practice for the broker, acting for
+both parties, to insert in a formal book, kept for the purpose, a
+memorandum of each contract effected by him, and to sign such memorandum on
+behalf of both parties, in order that there might be a written memorandum
+of the contract of sale, signed by the agent of the parties as required by
+the statute. He would then send to the buyer a copy of this memorandum,
+called the "bought note", and to the seller a "sold note", which would run
+as follows:--
+
+  "I have this day bought for you from A B [or "my principal"] ..."
+                                [signed] "M, _Broker_."
+
+  "I have this day sold for you to A B [or "my principal"] ..."
+                                [signed] "M, _Broker_."
+
+There was in the earlier part of the 19th century considerable discussion
+in the courts as to whether the entry in a broker's book, or the bought and
+sold notes (singly or together), constituted the statutory memorandum; and
+judicial opinion was not unanimous on the point. But at the present day
+brokers are no longer regulated by statute, either in London or elsewhere,
+and keep no formal book; and as an entry made in a private book kept by the
+broker for another purpose, even if signed, would probably not be regarded
+as a memorandum signed by the agent of the parties in that behalf, the old
+discussion is now of little practical interest.
+
+Under modern conditions of business the written memorandum of the contract
+of sale effected by the broker is usually to be found in a "contract note";
+but the question whether, in the particular circumstances of each case, the
+contract note affords a sufficient memorandum in writing, depends upon a
+variety of considerations--e.g. whether the transaction is effected through
+one or through two brokers; whether the contract notes are rendered by one
+broker only, or by both; and, if the latter, whether exchanged between the
+brokers, or rendered by each broker to his own client; for under present
+practice any one of these methods may obtain, according to the trade in
+which the transaction is effected, and the nature of the particular
+transaction.
+
+Where one and the same broker is employed by both seller and buyer, bought
+and sold notes rendered in the old form provide the necessary memorandum of
+the contract. Where two brokers are employed, one by the seller and one by
+the buyer, sometimes one drops out as soon as the terms are negotiated, and
+the other makes out, signs and sends to the parties the bought and sold
+notes. The latter then becomes the agent of both parties for the purpose of
+signing the statutory memorandum, and the position is the same as if one
+broker only had been employed. On the other hand, if one broker does not
+drop out of the transaction, each broker remains to the end the agent of
+his own principal only, and neither becomes the agent of the other party
+for the purpose of signing the memorandum. In such a case it is the usual
+practice for the buyer's broker to send to the seller's broker a note of
+the contract,--"I, acting on account of A. B. [or, "of my principal,"],
+have this day bought _from_ you, acting on account of C. D. [or, "of your
+principal"],"--and to receive a corresponding note from the seller's
+broker. Thus each of the parties receives through his own agent a
+memorandum signed by the other party's agent. These contract notes are
+usually known as, and serve the purpose of, "bought" and "sold" notes. In
+all the above three cases the broker's duty of compliance with all
+formalities necessary to make the contract of sale legally enforceable is
+performed, [v.04 p.0630] and both parties obtain a written memorandum of
+the contract upon which they can sue.
+
+The broker, on performing his duty in accordance with the terms upon which
+he is employed, is entitled to be paid his "brokerage." This usually takes
+the form of a percentage, varying according to the nature and conditions of
+the business, upon the total price of the goods bought or sold through him.
+When he guarantees the solvency of the other party, he is said to be
+employed upon _del credere_ terms, and is entitled to a higher rate of
+remuneration. In some trades it is the custom for the selling broker to
+receive payment from the buyer or his broker; and in such case it is his
+duty to account to his principal for the purchase money. A broker who
+properly expends money or incurs liability on his principal's behalf in the
+course of his employment, is entitled to be reimbursed the money, and
+indemnified against the liability. Not having, like a factor, possession of
+the goods, a broker has no lien by which to enforce his rights against his
+principal. If he fails to perform his duty, he loses his right to
+remuneration, reimbursement and indemnity, and further becomes liable to an
+action for damages for breach of his contract of employment, at the suit of
+his principal.
+
+_Relations between Broker and Third Party._--A broker who signs a contract
+note _as broker_ on behalf of a principal, whether named or not, is not
+personally liable on the contract to the third party. But if he makes the
+contract in such a way as to make himself a party to it, the third party
+may sue either the broker or his principal, subject to the limitation that
+the third party, by his election to treat one as the party to the contract,
+may preclude himself from suing the other. In this respect the ordinary
+rules of the law of agency apply to a broker. Generally, a broker has not
+authority to receive payment, but in trades in which it is customary for
+him to do so, if the buyer pays the seller's broker, and is then sued by
+the seller for the price by reason of the broker having become insolvent or
+absconded, he may set up the payment to the broker as a defence to the
+action by the broker's principal. Brokers may render themselves liable for
+damages in tort for the conversion of the goods at the suit of the true
+owner if they negotiate a sale of the goods for a selling principal who has
+no title to the goods.
+
+_The Influence of Exchanges._--The relations between brokers and their
+principals, and also between brokers and third parties as above defined,
+have been to some extent modified in practice by the institution since the
+middle of the 19th century in important commercial centres of "Exchanges,"
+where persons interested in a particular trade, whether as merchants or as
+brokers, meet for the transaction of business. By the contract of
+membership of the association in whose hands is vested the control of the
+exchange, every person on becoming a member agrees to be bound by the rules
+of the association, and to make his contracts on the market in accordance
+with them. A governing body or committee elected by the members enforces
+observance of the rules, and members who fail to meet their engagements on
+the market, or to conform to the rules, are liable to suspension or
+expulsion by the committee. All disputes between members on their contracts
+are submitted to an arbitration tribunal composed of members; and the
+arbitrators in deciding the questions submitted to them are guided by the
+rules. A printed book of rules is available for reference; and various
+printed forms of contract suited to the various requirements of the
+business are specified by the rules and supplied by the association for the
+use of members. In order to simplify the settlement of accounts between
+members, particularly in respect of "futures," i.e. contracts for future
+delivery, a weekly or other periodical settlement is effected by means of a
+clearing-house; each member paying or receiving in respect of all his
+contracts which are still open, the balance of his weekly "differences,"
+i.e. the difference between the contract price and the market price fixed
+for the settlement, or between the last and the present settlement prices.
+
+As all contracts on the market are made subject to the rules, it follows
+that so far as the rules alter the rights and liabilities attached by law,
+the ordinary law is modified. The most important modification in the
+position of brokers effected by membership of such an exchange is due to
+the rule that as, between themselves, all members are principals, on the
+market no agents are recognized; a broker employed by a non-member to buy
+for him on the market is treated by the rules as buying for himself, and
+is, therefore, personally liable on the contract. If it be a contract in
+futures, he is required to conform to the weekly settlement rules. If his
+principal fails to take delivery, the engagement is his and he is required
+to make good to the member who sold to him any difference between the
+contract and market price at the date of delivery. But whilst this practice
+alters directly the relations of the broker to the third party, it also
+affects or tends to affect indirectly the relations of the broker to his
+own principal. The terms of the contract of employment being a matter of
+negotiation and agreement between them, it is open to a broker, if he
+chooses, to stipulate for particular terms; and it is the usual practice of
+exchanges to supply printed contract forms for the use of members in their
+dealings with non-members who employ them as brokers, containing a
+stipulation that the contract is made subject to the rules of the exchange;
+and frequently also a clause that the contract is made with the broker as
+_principal_. In addition to these express terms, there is in the contract
+of employment the term, implied by law in all trade contracts, that the
+parties consent to be bound by such trade usages as are consistent with the
+express terms of the contract, and reasonable. On executing an order the
+broker sends to his client a contract-note either in the form of the old
+bought and sold notes "I have this day [bought / sold] for you," or, when
+the principal clause is inserted, "I have this day [sold to / bought] from
+you." These are not bought and sold notes proper, for the broker is not the
+agent of the third party for the purpose of signing them as statutory
+memoranda of the sale. But they purport to record the terms of the contract
+of employment, and the principal may treat himself as bound by their
+provisions. Sometimes they are accompanied by a detachable form, known as
+the "client's return contract note," to be filled in, signed and returned
+by the client; but even the "client's return contract note" is retained by
+the client's own broker, and is only a memorandum of the terms of
+employment. The following is a form of contract note rendered by a broker
+to his client for American cotton, bought on the Liverpool Cotton Exchange
+for future delivery. The client's contract note is attached to it, and is
+in precisely corresponding form.
+
+    AMERICAN COTTON
+
+    _Delivery Contract Note._
+
+    Liverpool,................
+
+    M................
+
+    DEAR SIRS,
+
+    We have this day.............. to/from you .............. lb American
+    Cotton, net weight, to be contained in .............. American Bales,
+    more or less, to be delivered in Liverpool, during .............. on
+    the basis of .......... per lb for ............ on the terms of the
+    rules, bye-laws, and Clearing House regulations of the Liverpool Cotton
+    Association, Limited, whether endorsed hereon or not.
+
+    The contract, of which this is a note, is made between ourselves and
+    yourselves, and not by or with any person, whether disclosed or not, on
+    whose instructions or for whose benefit the same may have been entered
+    into. Yours faithfully,
+
+    ...................
+
+    The contract, of which the above is a note, was made on the date
+    specified, within the business hours fixed by the Liverpool Cotton
+    Association, Limited.
+
+    ......... per cent to us.
+
+    Please confirm by signing and returning the contract attached.
+
+The above form of contract note illustrates the tendency of exchanges to
+alter the relations between the broker and his principal. The object of
+inserting in the printed form the provision that the contract is made
+subject to the rules of the [v.04 p.0631] Liverpool Cotton Association is
+to make those rules binding upon the principal, and if he employs his
+broker upon the basis of the printed form, he does bind himself to any
+modification of the relations between himself and his broker which those
+rules may effect. The object of the principal clause in the above and
+similar printed forms is apparently to entitle the broker to sell to or buy
+from his principal on his own account and not as agent at all, thus
+disregarding the duty incumbent upon him as broker of making for his
+principal a contract with a third party.
+
+It is not possible, except very generally, to state how far exchanges have
+succeeded in imposing their own rules and usages on non-members, but it is
+probably correct to say that in most cases if the question came before the
+courts, the outside client would be held to have accepted the rules of the
+exchange so far as they did not alter the fundamental duties to him of his
+broker. On the other hand, provisions purporting to entitle the broker in
+disregard of his duties as broker himself to act as principal, would be
+rejected by the courts as radically inconsistent with the primary object of
+the contract of brokerage and, therefore, meaningless. But it is
+undoubtedly too often the practice of brokers who are members of exchanges
+to consider themselves entitled to act as principals and sell on their own
+account to their own clients, particularly in futures. The causes of this
+opinion, erroneously, though quite honestly held, are probably to be looked
+for partly in the habit of acting as principal on the market in accordance
+with the rules, partly in the forms of contract notes containing "principal
+clauses" which they send to their clients, and perhaps, also, in the
+occasional difficulty of effecting actual contracts on the market at the
+time when they are instructed so to do.
+
+A _stockbroker_ is a broker who contracts for the sale of stocks and
+shares. Stockbrokers differ from brokers proper chiefly in that stocks and
+shares are not "goods," and the requirement of a memorandum in writing,
+enacted by the Sale of Goods Act 1893, does not apply. Hence actions may be
+brought by the principals to a contract for the sale of stocks and shares
+although no memorandum in writing exists. For instance, the jobber, on
+failing to recover from the buyer's broker the price of shares sold, by
+reason of the broker having failed and been declared a defaulter, may sue
+the buyer whose "name was passed" by the broker. The employment of a
+stockbroker is subject to the rules and customs of the Stock Exchange, in
+accordance with the principles discussed above, which apply to the
+employment of brokers proper. A custom which is illegal, such as the Stock
+Exchange practice of disregarding Leeman's Act (1867), which enacts that
+contracts for the sale of joint-stock bank shares shall be void unless the
+registered numbers of the shares are stated therein, is not binding on the
+client to the extent of making the contract of sale valid. But if a client
+choose to instruct his broker to buy bank shares in accordance with that
+practice, the broker is entitled to be indemnified by his client for money
+which he pays on his behalf, even though the contract of sale so made is
+unenforceable. For further information the reader is referred to the
+article STOCK EXCHANGE and to the treatises on stock exchange law.
+
+An _insurance broker_ is an agent whose business is to effect policies of
+marine insurance. He is employed by the person who has an interest to
+insure, pays the premiums to the underwriter, takes up the policy, and
+receives from the underwriter payment in the event of a loss under the
+policy. By the custom of the trade the underwriter looks solely to the
+broker for payment of premiums, and has no right of action against the
+assured; and, on the other hand, the broker is paid his commission by the
+underwriter, although he is employed by the assured. Usually the broker
+keeps a current account with the underwriter, and premiums and losses are
+dealt with in account. It is only in the event of the underwriter refusing
+to pay on a loss, that the broker drops out and the assured sues the
+underwriter direct. Agents who effect life, fire or other policies, are not
+known as insurance brokers.
+
+_Ship-brokers_ are, firstly, "commission agents," and, secondly, very often
+also ships' managers. Their office is to act as agents for owners of ships
+to procure purchasers for ships, or ships for intending purchasers, in
+precisely the same manner as house-agents act in respect of houses. They
+also act as agents for ship-owners in finding charterers for their ships,
+or for charterers in finding ships available for charter, and in either
+case they effect the charter-party (see AFFREIGHTMENT).
+
+Chartering brokers are customarily paid by the ship-owner, when the
+charter-party is effected, whether originally employed by him or by the
+charterer. Charter-parties effected through brokers often contain a
+provision--"_21/2% on estimated amount of freight to be paid to A B, broker,
+on the signing of this charter-party, and the ship to be consigned to him
+for ship's business at the port of X_ [inserting the name of the port where
+A B carries on business]." The broker cannot sue on the charter-party
+contract because he is not a party to it, but the insertion of the clause
+practically prevents his right from being disputed by the ship-owner. When
+the broker does the ship's business in port, it is his duty to clear her at
+the customs and generally to act as "ship's husband."
+
+A _bill-broker_ was originally an agent who, for a commission, procured for
+country bankers the discounting of their bills in London. But the practice
+arose of the broker guaranteeing the London banker or financier; and
+finally the brokers ceased to deposit with the London bankers the bills
+they received, and at the present day a bill-broker, as a rule, buys bills
+on his own account at a discount, borrows money on his own account and upon
+his own security at interest, and makes his profit out of the difference
+between the discount and the interest. When acting thus the bill-broker is
+not a broker at all, as he deals as principal and does not act as agent.
+
+AUTHORITIES.--Story, _Commentaries on the Law of Agency_ (Boston, 1882);
+Brodhurst, _Law and Practice of the Stock Exchange_ (London, 1897); Gow,
+_Handbook of Marine Insurance_ (London, 1900); Arnould, _On Marine
+Insurance_, edited by Messrs Hart & Simey (1901); J.R. Dos Passos, _Law of
+Stock-Brokers and Stock Exchanges_ (New York, 1905).
+
+(L. F. S.)
+
+BROMBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Posen, 32 m. by
+rail W.N.W. from the fortress of Thorn, 7 m. W. from the bank of the
+Vistula, and at the centre of an important network of railways, connecting
+it with the strategical points on the Prusso-Russian frontier. Pop. (1900)
+52,082; (1905) 54,229. Its public buildings comprise two Roman Catholic and
+three Protestant churches, a Jewish synagogue, a seminary, high grade
+schools and a theatre. The town also possesses a bronze statue of the
+emperor William I., a monument of the war of 1870-71, and a statue of
+Benkenhoff, the constructor of the Bromberg Canal. This engineering work,
+constructed in 1773-1774, by command of Frederick II., connects the Brahe
+with the Netze, and thus establishes communication between the Vistula, the
+Oder and the Elbe. The principal industrial works are iron foundries and
+machine shops, paper factories and flour mills; the town has, moreover, an
+active trade in agricultural and other products. In view of its strategical
+position, a large garrison is concentrated in and about the town. Bromberg
+is mentioned as early as 1252. It fell soon afterwards into the hands of
+the Poles, from whom it was taken in 1327 by the Teutonic Order, which held
+it till 1343, when the Poles recaptured it. Destroyed in the course of
+these struggles, it was restored by Casimir of Poland in 1346, and down to
+the close of the 16th century it continued to be a flourishing commercial
+city. It afterwards suffered so much from war and pestilence that about
+1772, when the Prussians took possession, it contained only from five to
+six hundred inhabitants. By the treaty of Tilsit it was transferred to the
+duchy of Warsaw; in 1813 it was occupied by the Russians, and in 1815 was
+restored to Prussia.
+
+BROME, ALEXANDER (1620-1666), English poet, was by profession an attorney,
+and was the author of many drinking songs and of satirical verses in favour
+of the Royalists and against the Rump. He published in 1661 _Songs and
+other Poems_, containing songs on various subjects, followed by a series of
+political songs; ballads, epistles, elegies and epitaphs; epigrams and
+translations. Izaak Walton wrote an introductory eclogue for this volume in
+praise of the writer, and his gaiety and wit won for him the title of the
+"English Anacreon" in Edward Phillips's _Theatrum Poetarum_. Brome
+published in 1666 a translation of Horace by himself and others, and was
+the author of a comedy entitled _The Cunning Lovers_ (1654). He also edited
+two volumes of Richard Brome's plays.
+
+BROME, RICHARD (d. 1652), English dramatist, was originally a servant of
+Ben Jonson, and owed much to his master. The development of his plots, the
+strongly marked characters and the amount of curious information to be
+found in his work, all show Jonson's influence. The relation of master and
+servant developed into friendship, and our knowledge of Brome's personal
+character is chiefly drawn from Ben Jonson's lines to him, prefixed to _The
+Northern Lasse_ (1632), the play which made Brome's reputation. Brome's
+genius lay entirely in comedy. He has left fifteen pieces. _Five New
+Playes_ (ed. by Alex. Brome, 1652?) contained _Madd Couple Well Matcht_
+(acted 1639?); [v.04 p.0632] _Novella_ (acted 1632); _Court Begger_ (acted
+1632); _City Witt; The Damoiselle or the New Ordinary. Five New Playes_
+(1659) included _The English Moor, or The Mock Marriage; The Love-Sick
+Court, or The Ambitious Politique; Covent Garden Weeded; The New Academy,
+or The New Exchange_; and _The Queen and Concubine_. _The Antipodes_ (acted
+1638, pr. 1640); _The Sparagus Garden_ (acted 1635, pr. 1640); _A Joviall
+Crew, or the Merry Beggars_ (acted 1641, pr. 1652, revised in 1731 as an
+"opera"), and _The Queenes Exchange_ (pr. 1657), were published separately.
+He collaborated with Thomas Heywood in _The late Lancashire Witches_ (pr.
+1634).
+
+See A.W. Ward, _History of English Dramatic Literature_, vol. iii. pp.
+125-131 (1899). _The Dramatic Works of Richard Brome ..._ were published in
+1873.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Fruit of the pine-apple (_Ananas sativa_),
+consisting of numerous flowers and bracts united together so as to form a
+collective or anthocarpous fruit. The crown of the pine-apple, c, consists
+of a series of empty bracts prolonged beyond the fruit.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--_Tillandsia usneoides_, Spanish moss, slightly
+reduced. 1, Small branch with flower; 2, flower cut vertically; 3, section
+of seed of _Bromelia_.
+
+(From _The Botanical Magazine_, by permission of Lovell, Reeve & Co)]
+
+BROMELIACEAE, in botany, a natural order of Monocotyledons, confined to
+tropical and sub-tropical America. It includes the pine-apple (fig. 1) and
+the so-called Spanish moss (fig. 2), a rootless plant, which hangs in long
+grey lichen-like festoons from the branches of trees, a native of Mexico
+and the southern United States; the water required for food is absorbed
+from the moisture in the air by peculiar hairs which cover the surface of
+the shoots. The plants are generally herbs with a much shortened stem
+bearing a rosette of leaves and a spike or panicle of flowers. They are
+eminently dry-country plants (xerophytes); the narrow leaves are protected
+from loss of water by a thick cuticle, and have a well-developed sheath
+which embraces the stem and forms, with the sheaths of the other leaves of
+the rosette, a basin in which water collects, with fragments of rotting
+leaves and the like. Peculiar hairs are developed on the inner surface of
+the sheath by which the water and dissolved substances are absorbed, thus
+helping to feed the plant. The leaf-margins are often spiny, and the
+leaf-spines of _Puya chilensis_ are used by the natives as fish-hooks.
+Several species are grown as hot-house plants for the bright colour of
+their flowers or flower-bracts, e.g. species of _Tillandsia_, _Billbergia_,
+_Aechmea_ and others.
+
+BROMINE (symbol Br, atomic weight 79.96), a chemical element of the halogen
+group, which takes its name from its pungent unpleasant smell ([Greek:
+bromos], a stench). It was first isolated by A.J. Balard in 1826 from the
+salts in the waters of the Mediterranean. He established its elementary
+character, and his researches were amplified by K.J. Loewig (1803-1890) in
+_Das Brom und seine chemischen Verhaltnisse_ (1829). Bromine does not occur
+in nature in the uncombined condition, but in combination with various
+metals is very widely but sparingly distributed. Potassium, sodium and
+magnesium bromides are found in mineral waters, in river and sea-water, and
+occasionally in marine plants and animals. Its chief commercial sources are
+the salt deposits at Stassfurt in Prussian Saxony, in which magnesium
+bromide is found associated with various chlorides, and the brines of
+Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania and West Virginia, U.S.A.; small quantities
+are obtained from the mother liquors of Chile saltpetre and kelp. In
+combination with silver it is found as the mineral bromargyrite (bromite).
+
+_Manufacture._--The chief centres of the bromine industry are Stassfurt and
+the central district of Michigan. It is manufactured from the magnesium
+bromide contained in "bittern" (the mother liquor of the salt industry), by
+two processes, the continuous and the periodic. The continuous process
+depends upon the decomposition of the bromide by chlorine, which is
+generated in special stills. A regular current of chlorine mixed with steam
+is led in at the bottom of a tall tower filled with broken bricks, and
+there meets a descending stream of hot bittern: bromine is liberated and is
+swept out of the tower together with some chlorine, by the current of
+steam, and then condensed in a worm. Any uncondensed bromine vapour is
+absorbed by moist iron borings, and the resulting iron bromide is used for
+the manufacture of potassium bromide. The periodic process depends on the
+interaction between manganese dioxide (pyrolusite), sulphuric acid, and a
+bromide, and the operation is carried out in sandstone stills heated to 60 deg.
+C., the product being condensed as in the continuous process. The
+substitution of potassium chlorate for pyrolusite is recommended when
+calcium chloride is present in the bittern. The crude bromine is purified
+by repeated shaking with potassium, sodium or ferrous bromide and
+subsequent redistillation. Commercial bromine is rarely pure, the chief
+impurities present in it being chlorine, hydrobromic acid, and bromoform
+(M. Hermann, _Annalen_, 1855, 95, p. 211). E. Gessner (_Berichte_, 1876, 9,
+p. 1507) removes chlorine by repeated shaking with water, followed by
+distillation over sulphuric acid; hydrobromic acid is removed by
+distillation with pure manganese dioxide, or mercuric oxide, and the
+product dried over sulphuric acid. J.S. Stas, in his stoichiometric
+researches, prepared chemically pure bromine from potassium bromide, by
+converting it into the bromate which was purified by repeated
+crystallization. By heating the bromate it was partially converted into the
+bromide, and the resulting mixture was distilled with sulphuric acid. The
+distillate was further purified by digestion with milk of lime,
+precipitation with water, and further digestion with calcium bromide and
+barium oxide, and was finally redistilled.
+
+_Characters._--Bromine at ordinary temperatures is a mobile liquid of fine
+red colour, which appears almost black in thick layers. It boils at 59 deg. C.
+According to Sir W. Ramsay and S. Young, bromine, when dried over sulphuric
+acid, boils at 57.65 deg. C., and when dried over phosphorus pentoxide, boils
+at 58.85 deg. C. (under a pressure of 755.8 mm.), forming a deep red vapour,
+which exerts an irritating and directly poisonous action on the respiratory
+organs. It solidifies at -21 deg. C. (Quincke) to a dark brown solid. Its
+specific gravity is 3.18828 (0/4 deg.), latent heat of fusion 16.185 calories,
+latent heat of vaporization 45.6 calories, specific heat 0.1071. The
+specific heat of bromine vapour, at constant pressure, is 0.05504 and at
+constant volume is 0.04251 (K. Strecker). Bromine is soluble in water, to
+the extent of 3.226 grammes of bromine per 100 grammes of solution at 15 deg.
+C., the solubility being slightly increased by the presence of potassium
+bromide. The solution is of an orange-red colour, and is quite permanent in
+the dark, but on exposure to light, gradually becomes colourless, owing to
+decomposition into hydrobromic acid and oxygen. By cooling the aqueous
+solution, hyacinth-red octahedra of a crystalline hydrate of composition
+Br.4H_2O or Br_2.8H_2O are obtained (Bakhuis Roozeboom, _Zeits. phys.
+Chem._, 1888, 2. p. 449). Bromine is readily soluble in chloroform, alcohol
+and ether.
+
+Its chemical properties are in general intermediate between those of
+chlorine and iodine; thus it requires the presence of a catalytic agent, or
+a fairly high temperature, to bring about its union with hydrogen. It does
+not combine directly with oxygen, nitrogen or carbon. With the other
+elements it unites to form bromides, often with explosive violence;
+phosphorus detonates in liquid bromine and inflames in the vapour; iron is
+occasionally used to absorb bromine vapour, potassium reacts energetically,
+but sodium requires to be heated to 200 deg. C. The chief use of bromine in
+analytical chemistry is based upon the oxidizing action of bromine water.
+Bromine and bromine water both bleach organic colouring matters. [v.04
+p.0633] The use of bromine in the extraction of gold (_q.v._) was proposed
+by R. Wagner (_Dingler's Journal_, 218, p. 253) and others, but its cost
+has restricted its general application. Bromine is used extensively in
+organic chemistry as a substituting and oxidizing agent and also for the
+preparation of addition compounds. Reactions in which it is used in the
+liquid form, in vapour, in solution, and in the presence of the so-called
+"bromine carriers," have been studied. Sunlight affects the action of
+bromine vapour on organic compounds in various ways, sometimes retarding or
+accelerating the reaction, while in some cases the products are different
+(J. Schramm, _Monatshefte fur Chemie_, 1887, 8, p. 101). Some reactions,
+which are only possible by the aid of nascent bromine, are carried out by
+using solutions of sodium bromide and bromate, with the amount of sulphuric
+acid calculated according to the equation 5NaBr + NaBrO_3 + 6H_2SO_4 =
+6NaHSO_4 + 3H_2O + 6Br. (German Patent, 26642.) The diluents in which
+bromine is employed are usually ether, chloroform, acetic acid,
+hydrochloric acid, carbon bisulphide and water, and, less commonly,
+alcohol, potassium bromide and hydrobromic acid; the excess of bromine
+being removed by heating, by sulphurous acid or by shaking with mercury.
+The choice of solvent is important, for the velocity of the reaction and
+the nature of the product may vary according to the solvent used, thus A.
+Baeyer and F. Blom found that on brominating orthoacetamido-acetophenone in
+presence of water or acetic acid, the bromine goes into the benzene
+nucleus, whilst in chloroform or sulphuric acid or by use of bromine vapour
+it goes into the side chain as well. The action of bromine is sometimes
+accelerated by the use of compounds which behave catalytically, the more
+important of these substances being iodine, iron, ferric chloride, ferric
+bromide, aluminium bromide and phosphorus. For oxidizing purposes bromine
+is generally employed in aqueous and in alkaline solutions, one of its most
+important applications being by Emil Fischer (_Berichte_, 1889, 22, p. 362)
+in his researches on the sugars. The atomic weight of bromine has been
+determined by J.S. Stas and C. Marignac from the analysis of potassium
+bromide, and of silver bromide. G.P. Baxter (_Zeit. anorg. Chem._ 1906, 50,
+p. 389) determined the ratios Ag: AgBr, and AgCl: Ag Br.
+
+_Hydrobromic Acid._--This acid, HBr, the only compound of hydrogen and
+bromine, is in many respects similar to hydrochloric acid, but is rather
+less stable. It may be prepared by passing hydrogen gas and bromine vapour
+through a tube containing a heated platinum spiral. It cannot be prepared
+with any degree of purity by the action of concentrated sulphuric acid on
+bromides, since secondary reactions take place, leading to the liberation
+of free bromine and formation of sulphur dioxide. The usual method employed
+for the preparation of the gas consists in dropping bromine on to a mixture
+of amorphous phosphorus and water, when a violent reaction takes place and
+the gas is rapidly liberated. It can be obtained also, although in a
+somewhat impure condition, by the direct action of bromine on various
+saturated hydrocarbons (e.g. paraffin-wax), while an aqueous solution may
+be obtained by passing sulphuretted hydrogen through bromine water.
+Alexander Scott (_Journal of Chem. Soc._, 1900, 77, p. 648) prepares pure
+hydrobromic acid by covering bromine, which is contained in a large flask,
+with a layer of water, and passing sulphur dioxide into the water above the
+surface of the bromine, until the whole is of a pale yellow colour; the
+resulting solution is then distilled in a slow current of air and finally
+purified by distillation over barium bromide. At ordinary temperatures
+hydrobromic acid is a colourless gas which fumes strongly in moist air, and
+has an acid taste and reaction. It can be condensed to a liquid, which
+boils at -64.9 deg. C. (under a pressure of 738.2 mm.), and, by still further
+cooling, gives colourless crystals which melt at -88.5 deg. C. It is readily
+soluble in water, forming the aqueous acid, which when saturated at 0 deg. C.
+has a specific gravity of 1.78. When boiled, the aqueous acid loses either
+acid or water until a solution of constant boiling point is obtained,
+containing 48% of the acid and boiling at 126 deg. C. under atmospheric
+pressure; should the pressure, however, vary, the strength of the solution
+boiling at a constant temperature varies also. Hydrobromic acid is one of
+the "strong" acids, being ionized to a very large extent even in
+concentrated solution, as shown by the molecular conductivity increasing by
+only a small amount over a wide range of dilution.
+
+_Bromides._--Hydrobromic acid reacts with metallic oxides, hydroxides and
+carbonates to form bromides, which can in many cases be obtained also by
+the direct union of the metals with bromine. As a class, the metallic
+bromides are solids at ordinary temperatures, which fuse readily and
+volatilize on heating. The majority are soluble in water, the chief
+exceptions being silver bromide, mercurous bromide, palladious bromide and
+lead bromide; the last is, however, soluble in hot water. They are
+decomposed by chlorine, with liberation of bromine and formation of
+metallic chlorides; concentrated sulphuric acid also decomposes them, with
+formation of a metallic sulphate and liberation of bromine and sulphur
+dioxide. The non-metallic bromides are usually liquids, which are readily
+decomposed by water. Hydrobromic acid and its salts can be readily detected
+by the addition of chlorine water to their aqueous solutions, when bromine
+is liberated; or by warming with concentrated sulphuric acid and manganese
+dioxide, the same result being obtained. Silver nitrate in the presence of
+nitric acid gives with bromides a pale yellow precipitate of silver
+bromide, AgBr, which is sparingly soluble in ammonia. For their
+quantitative determination they are precipitated in nitric acid solution by
+means of silver nitrate, and the silver bromide well washed, dried and
+weighed.
+
+No oxides of bromine have as yet been isolated, but three oxy-acids are
+known, namely hypobromous acid, HBrO, bromous acid, HBrO_2, and bromic
+acid, HBrO_3. Hypobromous acid is obtained by shaking together bromine
+water and precipitated mercuric oxide, followed by distillation of the
+dilute solution _in vacuo_ at low temperature (about 40 deg. C.). It is a very
+unstable compound, breaking up, on heating, into bromine and oxygen. The
+aqueous solution is light yellow in colour, and possesses strong bleaching
+properties. Bromous acid is formed by adding bromine to a saturated
+solution of silver nitrate (A. H. Richards, _J. Soc Chem. Ind._, 1906, 25,
+p. 4). Bromic acid is obtained by the addition of the calculated amount of
+sulphuric acid (previously diluted with water) to the barium salt; by the
+action of bromine on the silver salt, in the presence of water, 5AgBrO_3 +
+3Br_2 + 3H_2O = 5AgBr + 6HBrO_3, or by passing chlorine through a solution
+of bromine in water. The acid is only known in the form of its aqueous
+solution; this is, however, very unstable, decomposing on being heated to
+100 deg. C. into water, oxygen and bromine. By reducing agents such, for
+example, as sulphuretted hydrogen and sulphur-dioxide, it is rapidly
+converted into hydrobromic acid. Hydrobromic acid decomposes it according
+to the equation HBrO_3 + 5HBr = 3H_2O + 3Br_2. Its salts are known as
+bromates, and are as a general rule difficultly soluble in water, and
+decomposed by heat, with evolution of oxygen.
+
+_Applications._--The salts of bromine are widely used in photography,
+especially bromide of silver. For antiseptic purposes it has been prepared
+as "bromum solidificatum," which consists of kieselguhr or similar
+substance impregnated with about 75% of its weight of bromine. In medicine
+it is largely employed in the form of bromides of potassium, sodium and
+ammonium, as well as in combination with alkaloids and other substances.
+
+_Medicinal Use._--Bromide of potassium is the safest and most generally
+applicable sedative of the nervous system. Whilst very weak, its action is
+perfectly balanced throughout all nervous tissue, so much so that Sir
+Thomas Lauder Brunton has suggested its action to be due to its replacement
+of sodium chloride (common salt) in the fluids of the nervous system. Hence
+bromide of potassium--or bromide of sodium, which is possibly somewhat
+safer still though not quite so certain in its action--is used as a
+hypnotic, as the standard anaphrodisiac, as a sedative in mania and all
+forms of morbid mental excitement, and in hyperaesthesia of all kinds. Its
+most striking success is in epilepsy, for which it is the specific remedy.
+It may be given in doses of from ten to fifty grains or more, and may be
+continued without ill effect for long periods in grave cases of epilepsy
+(_grand mal_). Of the three bromides in common use the potassium salt is
+the most rapid and certain in its action, but may depress the heart in
+morbid states of that organ; in such cases the sodium salt--of which the
+base is inert--may be employed. In whooping-cough, when a sedative is
+required but a stimulant is also indicated, ammonium bromide is often
+invaluable. The conditions in which bromides are most frequently used are
+insomnia, epilepsy, whooping-cough, delirium tremens, asthma, migraine,
+laryngismus stridulus, the symptoms often attendant upon the climacteric in
+women, hysteria, neuralgia, certain nervous disorders of the heart,
+strychnine poisoning, nymphomania and spermatorrhoea. Hydrobromic acid is
+often used to relieve or prevent the headache and singing in the ears that
+may follow the administration of quinine and of salicylic acid or
+salicylates.
+
+BROMLEY, SIR THOMAS (1530-1587), English lord chancellor, was born in
+Staffordshire in 1530. He was educated at Oxford University and called to
+the bar at the Middle Temple. Through family influence as well as the
+patronage of Sir Nicholas Bacon, the lord keeper, he quickly made progress
+in his profession. In 1566 he was appointed recorder of London, and in 1569
+he became solicitor-general. He sat in parliament successively for
+Bridgnorth, Wigan and Guildford. On the death of Sir Nicholas Bacon in 1579
+he was appointed lord chancellor. As an equity judge he showed great and
+profound knowledge, and his judgment in Shelley's case (_q.v._) is a
+landmark in the history of English real property law. He presided over the
+commission which tried Mary, queen of Scots, in 1586, but the strain of the
+trial, coupled with the responsibility which her execution involved upon
+him, proved too much for his strength, and he died on the 12th of April
+1587. He was buried in Westminster Abbey.
+
+See Foss, _Lives of the Judges_; Campbell, _Lives of the Lord Chancellors_.
+
+BROMLEY, a municipal borough in the Sevenoaks parliamentary division of
+Kent, England, 101/2 m. S.E. by S. of London by the South Eastern & Chatham
+railway. Pop. (1901) 27,354. It lies on high ground north of the small
+river Ravensbourne, in a well-wooded district, and has become a favourite
+residential locality for those whose business lies in London. The former
+palace of the bishops of Rochester was erected in 1777 in room [v.04
+p.0634] of an older structure. The manor belonged to this see as early as
+the reign of Ethelbert. In the gardens is a chalybeate spring known as St
+Blaize's Well, which was in high repute before the Reformation. The church
+of St Peter and St Paul, mainly Perpendicular, retains a Norman font and
+other remains of an earlier building. Here is the gravestone of the wife of
+Dr Johnson. Bromley College, founded by Bishop Warner in 1666 for "twenty
+poor widows of loyal and orthodox clergymen," has been much enlarged, and
+forty widows are in receipt of support. Sheppard College (1840) is an
+affiliated foundation for unmarried daughters of these widows. In the
+vicinity of Bromley, Bickley is a similar residential township, Hayes
+Common is a favourite place of excursion, and at Holwood Hill near Keston
+are remains of a large encampment known as Caesar's Camp. Bromley was
+incorporated in 1903, and is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18
+councillors. Area, 4703 acres.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+BROMLITE, a member of the aragonite group of minerals. It consists of an
+isomorphous mixture of calcium and barium carbonates in various
+proportions, (Ca, Ba) CO_3, and thus differs chemically from barytocalcite
+(_q.v._) which is a double salt of these carbonates in equal molecular
+proportions. Being isomorphous with aragonite, it crystallizes in the
+orthorhombic system, but simple crystals are not known. The crystals are
+invariably complex twins, and have the form of doubly terminated
+pseudo-hexagonal pyramids, like those of witherite but more acute; the
+faces are horizontally striated and are divided down their centre by a
+twin-suture, as represented in the adjoining figure. The examination in
+polarized light of a transverse section shows that each compound crystal is
+built up of six differently orientated individuals arranged in twelve
+segments. The crystals are translucent and white, sometimes with a shade of
+pink. Sp. gr. 3.706; hardness 4-41/2. The mineral has been found at only two
+localities, both of which are in the north of England. At the Fallowfield
+lead mine, near Hexham in Northumberland, it is associated with witherite;
+and at Bromley Hill, near Alston in Cumberland, it occurs in veins with
+galena. The species was named bromlite by T. Thomson in 1837, and alstonite
+by A. Breithaupt in 1841, both of which names, derived from the locality,
+have been in common use.
+
+(L. J. S.)
+
+BROMPTON, a western district of London, England, in the south-east of the
+metropolitan borough of Kensington. Brompton Road, leading south-west from
+Knightsbridge, is continued as Old Brompton Road and Richmond Road, to join
+Lillie Road, at which point are the District and West London railway
+stations of West Brompton. The Oratory of St Philip Neri, commonly called
+Brompton Oratory, close by the Victoria and Albert Museum, the Brompton
+consumption hospital and the West London or Brompton cemetery are included
+in this district, which is mainly occupied by residences of the better
+class. (See KENSINGTON.)
+
+BROMSGROVE, a market town in the Eastern parliamentary division of
+Worcestershire, England, 12 m. N.N.E. of Worcester, with a station 1 m.
+from the town on the Bristol-Birmingham line of the Midland railway. Pop.
+of urban district (1901) 8418. It lies in a pleasant undulating district
+near the foot of the Lickey Hills, to surmount which the railway towards
+Birmingham here ascends for 2 m. one of the steepest gradients in England
+over such a distance. There remain several picturesque half-timbered
+houses, dating from 1572 and later. The church of St John is a fine
+building, Perpendicular and earlier in date, picturesquely placed on an
+elevation above the town, with a lofty tower and spire. There are a
+well-known grammar-school, founded by Edward VI., with university
+scholarships; a college school, a literary institute, and a school of art.
+Birmingham Sanatorium stands in the parish. Cloth was formerly a staple of
+trade, but manufactures of nails and buttons are now pre-eminent, while the
+river Salwarpe works a number of mills in the neighbourhood, and near the
+town are carriage works belonging to the Midland railway.
+
+BRONCHIECTASIS (Gr. [Greek: bronchia], bronchial tubes, and [Greek:
+ektasis], extension), dilatation of the bronchi, a condition occurring in
+connexion with many diseases of the lungs. Bronchitis both acute and
+chronic, chronic pneumonia and phthisis, acute pneumonia and
+broncho-pneumonia, may all leave after them a bronchiectasis whose position
+is determined by the primary lesion. Other causes, acting mechanically, are
+tracheal and bronchial obstruction, as from the pressure of an aneurism,
+new growth, &c. It used to be considered a disease of middle age, but of
+late years Dr Walter Carr has shown that the condition is a fairly common
+one among debilitated children after measles, whooping cough, &c. The
+dilatation is commonly cylindrical, more rarely saccular, and it is the
+medium and smaller sized tubes that are generally affected, except where
+the cause is mechanical. The affection is usually of one lung only.
+Emphysema is a very common accompaniment. Though at first the symptoms
+somewhat resemble those of bronchitis, later they are quite distinctive.
+Cough is very markedly paroxysmal in character, and though severe is
+intermittent, the patient being entirely free for many hours at the time.
+The effect of posture is very marked. If the patient lie on the affected
+side, he may be free from cough the whole night, but if he turn to the
+sound side, or if he rises and bends forward, he brings up large quantities
+of bronchial secretion. The expectoration is characterized by its abundance
+and manner of expulsion. Where the dilatation is of the saccular variety,
+it may come up in such quantities and with so much suddenness as to gush
+from the mouth. It is very commonly foetid, as it is retained and
+decomposed _in situ_. Dyspnoea and haemoptysis occasionally occur, but are
+by no means the rule. If pyrexia is present, it is a serious symptom, as it
+is a sign of septic absorption in the bronchi, and may be the forerunner of
+gangrene. If gangrene does set in, it will be accompanied by severe attacks
+of shivering and sweating. Where the disease has lasted long, clubbing of
+fingers and toes is very common. The diagnosis from putrid bronchitis is
+usually fairly easily made, but at times it may be a matter of extreme
+difficulty to distinguish between this condition and a tuberculous cavity
+in the lung. Nothing can be done directly to cure this disease, but the
+patient's condition can be greatly alleviated. Creosote vapour baths are
+eminently satisfactory. A mechanical treatment much recommended by some of
+the German physicians is that of forced expiration.
+
+BRONCHITIS, the name given to inflammation of the mucous membrane of the
+bronchial tubes (see RESPIRATORY SYSTEM: _Pathology_). Two main varieties
+are described, specific and non-specific bronchitis. The bronchitis which
+occurs in infectious or specific disorders, as diphtheria, influenza,
+measles, pneumonia, &c., due to the micro-organisms observed in these
+diseases, is known as specific; whereas that which results from extension
+from above, or from chemical or mechanical irritation, is known as
+non-specific. It is convenient to describe it, however, under the chemical
+divisions of _acute_ and _chronic_ bronchitis.
+
+_Acute bronchitis_, like other inflammatory affections of the chest,
+generally arises as the result of exposure to cold, particularly if
+accompanied with damp, or of sudden change from a heated to a cool
+atmosphere. The symptoms vary according to the severity of the attack, and
+more especially according to the extent to which the inflammatory action
+spreads in the bronchial tubes. The disease usually manifests itself at
+first in the form of a catarrh, or common cold; but the accompanying
+feverishness and general constitutional disturbance proclaim the attack to
+be something more severe, and symptoms denoting the onset of bronchitis
+soon present themselves. A short, painful, dry cough, accompanied with
+rapid and wheezing respiration, a feeling of rawness and pain in the throat
+and behind the breast bone, and of oppression or tightness throughout the
+chest, mark the early stages of the disease. In some cases, from the first,
+symptoms of the form of asthma (_q.v._) known as the _bronchitic_ are
+superadded, and greatly aggravate the patient's suffering.
+
+[v.04 p.0635] After a few days expectoration begins to come with the cough,
+at first scanty and viscid or frothy, but soon becoming copious and of
+purulent character. In general, after free expectoration has been
+established the more urgent and painful symptoms abate; and while the cough
+may persist for a length of time, often extending to three or four weeks,
+in the majority of instances convalescence advances, and the patient is
+ultimately restored to health, although there is not unfrequently left a
+tendency to a recurrence of the disease on exposure to its exciting causes.
+
+When the ear or the stethoscope is applied to the chest of a person
+suffering from such an attack as that now described, there are heard in the
+earlier stages snoring or cooing sounds, mixed up with others of wheezing
+or fine whistling quality, accompanying respiration. These are denominated
+dry sounds, and they are occasionally so abundant and distinct, as to
+convey their vibrations to the hand applied to the chest, as well as to be
+audible to a bystander at some distance. As the disease progresses these
+sounds become to a large extent replaced by others of crackling or bubbling
+character, which are termed moist sounds or rales. Both these kinds of
+abnormal sounds are readily explained by a reference to the pathological
+condition of the parts. One of the first effects of inflammation upon the
+bronchial mucous membrane is to cause some degree of swelling, which,
+together with the presence of a tough secretion closely adhering to it,
+tends to diminish the calibre of the tubes. The respired air as it passes
+over this surface gives rise to the dry or sonorous breath sounds, the
+coarser being generated in the large, and the finer or wheezing sounds in
+the small divisions of the bronchi. Before long, however, the discharge
+from the bronchial mucous membrane becomes more abundant and less
+glutinous, and accumulates in the tubes till dislodged by coughing. The
+respired air, as it passes through this fluid, causes the moist rales above
+described. In most instances both moist and dry sounds are heard abundantly
+in the same case, since different portions of the bronchial tubes are
+affected at different times in the course of the disease.
+
+Such are briefly the main characteristics presented by an ordinary attack
+of acute bronchitis running a favourable course. The case is, however, very
+different when the inflammation spreads into, or when it primarily affects,
+the minute ramifications of the bronchial tubes which are in immediate
+relation to the air-cells of the lungs, giving rise to that form of the
+disease known as _capillary bronchitis_ or _broncho-pneumonia_ (see
+RESPIRATORY SYSTEM: _Pathology_; and PNEUMONIA). When this takes place all
+the symptoms already detailed become greatly intensified, and the patient's
+life is placed in imminent peril in consequence of the interruption to the
+entrance of air into the lungs, and thus to the due aeration of the blood.
+The feverishness and restlessness increase, the cough becomes incessant,
+the respiration extremely rapid and laboured, the nostrils dilating with
+each effort, and evidence of impending suffocation appears. The surface of
+the body is pale or dusky, the lips are livid, while breathing becomes
+increasingly difficult, and is attended with suffocative paroxysms which
+render the recumbent posture impossible. Unless speedy relief is obtained
+by successful efforts to clear the chest by coughing and expectoration, the
+patient's strength gives way, somnolence and delirium set in and death
+ensues. All this may be brought about in the space of a few days, and such
+cases, particularly among the very young, sometimes prove fatal within
+forty-eight hours.
+
+Acute bronchitis must at all times be looked upon as a severe and even
+serious ailment, but there are certain circumstances under which its
+occurrence is a matter of special anxiety to the physician. It is
+pre-eminently dangerous at the extremes of life, and mortality statistics
+show it to be one of the most fatal of the diseases of those periods. This
+is to be explained not only by the well-recognized fact that all acute
+diseases tell with great severity on the feeble frames alike of infants and
+aged people, but more particularly by the tendency which bronchitis
+undoubtedly has in attacking them to assume the capillary form, and when it
+does so to prove quickly fatal. The importance, therefore, of early
+attention to the slightest evidence of bronchitis among the very young or
+the aged can scarcely be overrated.
+
+Bronchitis is also apt to be very severe when it occurs in persons who are
+addicted to intemperance. Again, in those who suffer from any disease
+affecting directly or indirectly the respiratory functions, such as
+consumption or heart disease, the supervention of an attack of acute
+bronchitis is an alarming complication, increasing, as it necessarily does,
+the embarrassment of breathing. The same remark is applicable to those
+numerous instances of its occurrence in children who are or have been
+suffering from such diseases as have always associated with them a certain
+degree of bronchial irritation, such as measles and whooping-cough.
+
+One other source of danger of a special character in bronchitis remains to
+be mentioned, viz. collapse of the lung. Occasionally a branch of a
+bronchial tube becomes plugged up with secretion, so that the area of the
+lung to which this branch conducts ceases to be inflated on inspiration.
+The small quantity of air imprisoned in the portion of lung gradually
+escapes, but no fresh air enters, and the part collapses and becomes of
+solid consistence. Increased difficulty of breathing is the result, and
+where a large portion of lung is affected by the plugging up of a large
+bronchus, a fatal result may rapidly follow, the danger being specially
+great in the case of children. Fortunately, the obstruction may sometimes
+be removed by vigorous coughing, and relief is then obtained.
+
+With respect to the treatment of acute bronchitis, in those mild cases
+which are more of the nature of a simple catarrh, little else will be found
+necessary than confinement in a warm room, or in bed, for a few days, and
+the use of light diet, together with warm diluent drinks. Additional
+measures are however called for when the disease is more markedly
+developed. Medicines to allay fever and promote perspiration are highly
+serviceable in the earlier stages. Later, with the view of soothing the
+pain of the cough, and favouring expectoration, mixtures of tolu, with the
+addition of some opiate, such as the ordinary paregorics, may be
+advantageously employed. The use of opium, however, in any form should not
+be resorted to in the case of young children without medical advice, since
+its action on them is much more potent and less under control than it is in
+adults. Not a few of the so-called "soothing mixtures" have been found to
+contain opium in quantity sufficient to prove dangerous when administered
+to children, and caution is necessary in using them.
+
+From the outset of the attack the employment of fomentations, or especially
+a turpentine stupe, gives great relief, and occasionally in the
+non-specific form this treatment, combined with a good dose of calomel and
+salts, may render the attack abortive. Some relief is always obtained by
+inhalations, and theoretically, an acute specific bronchitis should be
+successfully treated by inhalation of antiseptic and soothing remedies. In
+practice, however, it is found that the strength cannot be sufficiently
+strong to destroy the bacteria in the bronchial tubes. However, much relief
+is obtained from the use of steam atomizers filled with an aqueous solution
+of compound tincture of benzoin, creosote or guaiacol. A still more
+practicable means of introducing volatile antiseptic oils is the globe
+nebulizer, which throws oleaginous solutions in the form of a fine fog,
+that can be deeply inhaled. Menthol, eucalyptol and white pine extract are
+some of the remedies that may be tried dissolved in benzoinol, to which
+cocaine or opium may be added if the cough is troublesome.
+
+When the bronchitis is of the capillary form, the great object is to
+maintain the patient's strength, and to endeavour to secure the expulsion
+of the morbid secretion from the fine bronchi. In addition to the remedies
+already alluded to, stimulants are called for from the first; and should
+the cough be ineffectual in relieving the bronchial tubes, the
+administration of an emetic dose of sulphate of zinc may produce a good
+effect.
+
+During the whole course of any attack of bronchitis attention must be paid
+to the due nourishment of the patient; and during the subsequent
+convalescence, which, particularly in elderly persons, is apt to be slow,
+tonics and stimulants may have to be prescribed.
+
+[v.04 p.0636] _Chronic bronchitis_ may arise as the result of repeated
+attacks of the acute form, or it may exist altogether independently. It
+occurs more frequently among persons advanced in life than among the young,
+although no age is exempt from it. The usual history of this form of
+bronchitis is that of a cough recurring during the colder seasons of the
+year, and in its earlier stages, departing entirely in summer, so that it
+is frequently called "winter cough." In many persons subject to it,
+however, attacks are apt to be excited at any time by very slight causes,
+such as changes in the weather; and in advanced cases of the disease the
+cough is seldom altogether absent. The symptoms and auscultatory signs of
+chronic bronchitis are on the whole similar to those pertaining to the
+acute form, except that the febrile disturbance and pain are much less
+marked. The cough is usually more troublesome in the morning than during
+the day. There is usually free and copious expectoration, and occasionally
+this is so abundant as to constitute what is termed _bronchorrhoea_.
+
+Chronic bronchitis leads to alterations of structure in the affected
+bronchial tubes, their mucous membrane becoming thickened or even
+ulcerated, while occasionally permanent dilatation of the bronchi takes
+place, often accompanied with profuse foetid expectoration. In
+long-standing cases of chronic bronchitis the nutrition of the lungs
+becomes impaired, and dilatation of the air-tubes (_emphysema_) and other
+complications result, giving rise to more or less constant breathlessness.
+
+Chronic bronchitis may arise secondarily to some other ailment. This is
+especially the case in Bright's disease of the kidneys and in heart
+disease, of both of which maladies it often proves a serious complication,
+also in gout and syphilis. The influence of occupation is seen in the
+frequency in which persons following certain employments suffer from
+chronic bronchitis. Hirt has shown that the inhalation of vegetable dust is
+very liable to produce bronchitis through the irritation produced by the
+dust particles and the growth of organisms carried in with the dust.
+Consequently, millers and grain-shovellers are especially liable to it,
+while next in order come weavers and workers in cotton factories.
+
+The treatment to be adopted in chronic bronchitis depends upon the severity
+of the case, the age of the patient and the presence or absence of
+complications. Attention to the general health is a matter of prime
+importance in all cases of the disease, more particularly among persons
+whose avocations entail exposure, and tonics with cod-liver oil will be
+found highly advantageous. The use of a respirator in very cold or damp
+weather is a valuable means of protection. In those aggravated forms of
+chronic bronchitis, where the slightest exposure to cold air brings on
+fresh attacks, it may become necessary, where circumstances permit, to
+enjoin confinement to a warm room or removal to a more genial climate
+during the winter months.
+
+BRONCHOTOMY (Gr. [Greek: bronchos], wind-pipe, and [Greek: temnein], to
+cut), a medical term used to describe a surgical incision into the throat;
+now largely superseded by the terms laryngotomy, thyrotomy and tracheotomy,
+which indicate more accurately the place of incision.
+
+BRONCO, usually incorrectly spelt BRONCHO (a Spanish word meaning rough,
+rude), an unbroken or untamed horse, especially in the United States, a
+mustang; the word entered America by way of Mexico.
+
+BROeNDSTED, PETER OLUF (1780-1842), Danish archaeologist and traveller, was
+born at Fruering in Jutland on the 17th of November 1780. After studying at
+the university of Copenhagen he visited Paris in 1806 with his friend Georg
+Koes. After remaining there two years, they went together to Italy. Both
+were zealously attached to the study of antiquities; and congeniality of
+tastes and pursuits induced them, in 1810, to join an expedition to Greece,
+where they excavated the temples of Zeus in Aegina and of Apollo at Bassae
+in Arcadia. After three years of active researches in Greece, Broendsted
+returned to Copenhagen, where, as a reward for his labours, he was
+appointed professor of Greek in the university. He then began to arrange
+and prepare for publication the vast materials he had collected during his
+travels; but finding that Copenhagen did not afford him the desired
+facilities, he exchanged his professorship for the office of Danish envoy
+at the papal court in 1818, and took up his abode at Rome. In 1820 and 1821
+he visited Sicily and the Ionian Isles to collect additional materials for
+his great work. In 1826 he went to London, chiefly with a view of studying
+the Elgin marbles and other remains of antiquity in the British Museum, and
+became acquainted with the principal archaeologists of England. From
+1828-1832 he resided in Paris, to superintend the publication of his
+_Travels_, and then returned to Copenhagen on being appointed director of
+the museum of antiquities and the collection of coins and medals. In 1842
+he became rector of the university; but a fall from his horse caused his
+death on the 26th of June. His principal work was the _Travels and
+Archaeological Researches in Greece_ (in German and French, 1826-1830), of
+which only two volumes were published, dealing with the island of Ceos and
+the metopes of the Parthenon.
+
+BRONGNIART, ADOLPHE THEODORE (1801-1876), French botanist, son of the
+geologist Alexandre Brongniart, was born in Paris on the 14th of January
+1801. He soon showed an inclination towards the study of natural science,
+devoting himself at first more particularly to geology, and later to
+botany, thus equipping himself for what was to be the main occupation of
+his life--the investigation of fossil plants. In 1826 he graduated as
+doctor of medicine with a dissertation on the Rhamnaceae; but the career
+which he adopted was botanical, not medical. In 1831 he became assistant to
+R.L. Desfontaines at the Musee d'Histoire Naturelle, and two years later
+succeeded him as professor, a position which he continued to hold until his
+death in Paris on the 18th of February 1876.
+
+Brongniart was an indefatigable investigator and a prolific writer, so that
+he left behind him, as the fruit of his labours, a large number of books
+and memoirs. As early as 1822 he published a paper on the classification
+and distribution of fossil plants (_Mem. Mus. Hist. Nat._ viii.). This was
+followed by several papers chiefly bearing upon the relation between
+extinct and existing forms--a line of research which culminated in the
+publication of the _Histoire des vegetaux fossiles_, which has earned for
+him the title of "father of palaeobotany." This great work was heralded by
+a small but most important "Prodrome" (contributed to the _Grand
+Dictionnaire d'Hist. Nat._, 1828, t. lvii.) which brought order into chaos
+by a classification in which the fossil plants were arranged, with
+remarkably correct insight, along with their nearest living allies, and
+which forms the basis of all subsequent progress in this direction. It is
+of especial botanical interest, because, in accordance with Robert Brown's
+discoveries, the Cycadeae and Coniferae were placed in the new group
+_Phanerogames gymnospermes_. In this book attention was also directed to
+the succession of forms in the various geological periods, with the
+important result (stated in modern terms) that in the Palaeozoic period the
+Pteridophyta are found to predominate; in the Mesozoic, the Gymnosperms; in
+the Cainozoic, the Angiosperms, a result subsequently more fully stated in
+his "Tableau des genres de vegetaux fossiles" (D'Orbigny, _Dict. Univ.
+d'Hist. Nat._, 1849). But the great _Histoire_ itself was not destined to
+be more than a colossal fragment; the publication of successive parts
+proceeded regularly from 1828 to 1837, when the first volume was completed,
+but after that only three parts of the second volume appeared. Brongniart,
+no doubt, was overwhelmed with the continually increasing magnitude of the
+task that he had undertaken. Apart from his more comprehensive works, his
+most important palaeontological contributions are perhaps his observations
+on the structure of _Sigillaria_ (_Arch. Mus. Hist. Nat._ i., 1839) and his
+researches (almost the last he undertook) on fossil seeds, of which a full
+account was published posthumously in 1880. His activity was by no means
+confined to palaeobotany, but extended into all branches of botany, more
+particularly anatomy and phanerogamic taxonomy. Among his achievements in
+these directions the most notable is the memoir "Sur la generation et le
+developpement de l'embryon des Phanerogames" (_Ann. Sci. Nat._ xii., 1827).
+This is remarkable in that it contains the [v.04 p.0637] first account of
+any value of the development of the pollen; as also a description of the
+structure of the pollen-grain, the confirmation of G. B. Amici's (1823)
+discovery of the pollen-tube, the confirmation of R. Brown's views as to
+the structure of the unimpregnated ovule (with the introduction of the term
+"sac embryonnaire"); and in that it shows how nearly Brongniart anticipated
+Amici's subsequent (1846) discovery of the entrance of the pollen-tube into
+the micropyle, fertilizing the female cell which then develops into the
+embryo. Of his anatomical works, those of the greatest value are probably
+the "_Recherches sur la structure et les fonctions des feuilles_" (_Ann.
+Sci. Nat._ xxi., 1830), and the "Nouvelles Recherches sur l'Epiderme"
+(_Ann. Sci. Nat._ i., 1834), in which, among other important observations,
+the discovery of the cuticle is recorded; and, further, the "Recherches sur
+l'organisation des tiges des Cycadees" (_Ann. Sci. Nat._ xvi., 1829),
+giving the results of the first investigation of the anatomy of those
+plants. His systematic work is represented by a large number of papers and
+monographs, many of which relate to the flora of New Caledonia; and by his
+_Enumeration des genres de plantes cultivees au Musee d'Histoire Naturelle
+de Paris_ (1843), which is an interesting landmark in the history of
+classification in that it forms the starting-point of the system, modified
+successively by A. Braun, A.W. Eichler and A. Engler, which is now adopted
+in Germany. In addition to his scientific and professorial labours,
+Brongniart held various important official posts in connexion with the
+department of education, and interested himself greatly in agricultural and
+horticultural matters. With J.V. Audouin and J.B.A. Dumas, his future
+brothers-in-law, he established the _Annales des Sciences Naturelles_ in
+1824; he also founded the Societe Botanique de France in 1854, and was its
+first president.
+
+For accounts of his life and work see _Bull. de la Soc. Geol. de France_,
+1876, and _La Nature_, 1876; the _Bulletin de la Soc. Bot. de France_ for
+1876, vol. xxiii., contains a list of his works and the orations pronounced
+at his funeral.
+
+(S. H. V.*)
+
+BRONGNIART, ALEXANDRE (1770-1847), French mineralogist and geologist, son
+of the eminent architect who designed the Bourse and other public buildings
+of Paris, was born in that city on the 5th of February 1770. At an early
+age he studied chemistry, under Lavoisier, and after passing through the
+Ecole des Mines he took honours at the Ecole de Medecine; subsequently he
+joined the army of the Pyrenees as _pharmacien_; but having committed some
+slight political offence, he was thrown into prison and detained there for
+some time. Soon after his release he was appointed professor of natural
+history in the College des Quatre Nations. In 1800 he was made director of
+the Sevres porcelain factory, a post which he retained to his death, and in
+which he achieved his greatest work. In his hands Sevres became the leading
+porcelain factory in Europe, and the researches of an able band of
+assistants enabled him to lay the foundations of ceramic chemistry. In
+addition to his work at Sevres, quite enough to engross the entire energy
+of any ordinary man, he continued his more purely scientific work. He
+succeeded Hauey as professor of mineralogy in the Museum of Natural History;
+but he did not confine himself to mineralogy, for it is to him that we owe
+the division of Reptiles into the four orders of Saurians, Batrachians,
+Chelonians and Ophidians. Fossil as well as living animals engaged his
+attention, and in his studies of the strata around Paris he was
+instrumental in establishing the Tertiary formations. In 1816 he was
+elected to the Academy; and in the following year he visited the Alps of
+Switzerland and Italy, and afterwards Sweden and Norway. The result of his
+observations was published from time to time in the _Journal des Mines_ and
+other scientific journals. Wide as was the range of his interests his most
+famous work was accomplished at Sevres, and his most enduring monument is
+his classic _Traite des arts ceramiques_ (1844). He died in Paris on the
+7th of October 1847.
+
+His other principal works are :--_Traite elementaire de mineralogie, avec
+des applications aux arts_(2 vols., Paris, 1807); _Histoire naturelle des
+crustaces fossiles_ (Paris, 1822); _Classification et caracteres
+mineralogiques des roches homogenes et heterogenes_ (Paris, 1827); the
+_Tableau des terrains qui composent l'ecorce du globe, ou Essai sur la
+structure de la partie connue de la terre_ (Paris, 1829); and the _Traite
+des arts ceramiques_ (1844). Brongniart was also the coadjutor of Cuvier in
+the admirable _Essai sur la geographie mineralogique des environs de Paris_
+(Paris, 1811); originally published in _Ann. Mus. Hist. Nat._ (Paris, xi.
+1808).
+
+BRONN, HEINRICH GEORG (1800-1862), German geologist, was born on the 3rd of
+March 1800 at Ziegelhausen near Heidelberg. Studying at the university at
+Heidelberg he took his doctor's degree in the faculty of medicine in 1821,
+and in the following year was appointed professor of natural history. He
+now devoted himself to palaeontological studies, and to fieldwork in
+various parts of Germany, Italy and France. From its commencement in 1830
+to 1862 he assisted in editing the _Jahrbuch fuer Mineralogie_, &c.,
+continued as _Neues Jahrbuch._ His principal work, _Lethaea Geognostica_ (2
+vols., Stuttgart, 1834-1838; 3rd ed. with F. Roemer, 3 vols., 1851-1856),
+has been regarded as one of the foundations of German stratigraphical
+geology. His _Handbuch einer Geschichte der Natur_, of which the first part
+was issued in 1841, gave a general account of the physical history of the
+earth, while the second part dealt with the life-history, species being
+regarded as direct acts of creation. The third part included his famous
+_Index Palaeontologicus_, and was issued in 3 vols., 1848-1849, with the
+assistance of H. von Meyer and H. R. Goeppert. This record of fossils has
+proved of inestimable value to all palaeontologists. An important work on
+recent and fossil zoology, _Die Klassen und Ordnungen des Thier-Reichs_,
+was commenced by Bronn. He wrote the volumes dealing with Amorphozoa,
+Actinozoa, and Malacozoa, published 1859-1862; the work was continued by
+other naturalists. In 1861 Bronn was awarded the Wollaston medal by the
+Geological Society of London. He died at Heidelberg on the 5th of July
+1862.
+
+BRONSART VON SCHELLENDORF, PAUL (1832-1891), Prussian general, was born at
+Danzig in 1832. He entered the Prussian Guards in 1849, and was appointed
+to the general staff in 1861 as a captain; after three years of staff
+service he returned to regimental duty, but was soon reappointed to the
+staff, and lectured at the war academy, becoming major in 1865 and
+lieut.-colonel in 1869. During the war of 1870 he was chief of a section on
+the Great General Staff, and conducted the preliminary negotiations for the
+surrender of the French at Sedan. After the war Bronsart was made a colonel
+and chief of staff of the Guard army corps, becoming major-general in 1876
+and lieut.-general (with a division command) in 1881. Two years later he
+became war minister, and during his tenure of the post (1883-1889) many
+important reforms were carried out in the Prussian army, in particular the
+introduction of the magazine rifle. He was appointed in 1889 to command the
+I. army corps at Koenigsberg. He died on the 23rd of June 1891 at his estate
+near Braunsberg. Bronsart's military writings include two works of great
+importance--_Ein Rueckblick auf die taktischen Ruckblicke_ (2nd ed., Berlin,
+1870), a pamphlet written in reply to Captain May's _Tactical Retrospect of
+1866_; and _Der Dienst des Generalstabes_ (1st ed., Berlin, 1876; 3rd ed.
+revised by General Meckel, 1893; new ed. by the author's son, Major
+Bronsart von Schellendorf, Berlin, 1904), a comprehensive treatise on the
+duties of the general staff. The third edition of this work was soon after
+its publication translated into English and issued officially to the
+British army as _The Duties of the General Staff_. Major Bronsart's new
+edition of 1904 was reissued in English by the General Staff, under the
+same title, in 1905.
+
+BRONTE, CHARLOTTE (1816-1855), EMILY (1818-1848), and ANNE (1820-1849),
+English novelists, were three of the six children of Patrick Bronte, a
+clergyman of the Church of England, who for the last forty-one years of his
+life was perpetual incumbent of the parish of Haworth in the West Riding of
+Yorkshire. Patrick Bronte was born at Emsdale, Co. Down, Ireland, on the
+17th of March 1777. His parents were of the peasant class, their original
+name of Brunty apparently having been changed by their son on his entry at
+St John's College, Cambridge, in 1802. In the intervening years he had been
+successively a weaver and schoolmaster in his native country. From
+Cambridge [v.04 p.0638] he became a curate, first at Wethersfield in Essex,
+in 1806, then for a few months at Wellington, Salop, in 1809. At the end of
+1809 he accepted a curacy at Dewsbury, Yorkshire, following up this by one
+at Hartshead-cum-Clifton in the same county. At Hartshead Patrick Bronte
+married in 1812 Maria Branwell, a Cornishwoman, and there two children were
+born to him, Maria (1813-1825) and Elizabeth (1814-1825). Thence Patrick
+Bronte removed to Thornton, some 3 m. from Bradford, and here his wife gave
+birth to four children, Charlotte, Patrick Branwell (1817-1848), Emily
+Jane, and Anne, three of whom were to attain literary distinction.
+
+In April 1820, three months after the birth of Anne Bronte, her father
+accepted the living of Haworth, a village near Keighley in Yorkshire, which
+will always be associated with the romantic story of the Brontes. In
+September of the following year his wife died. Maria Bronte lives for us in
+her daughter's biography only as the writer of certain letters to her "dear
+saucy Pat," as she calls her lover, and as the author of a recently
+published manuscript, an essay entitled _The Advantages of Poverty in
+Religious Concerns_, full of a sententiousness much affected at the time.
+
+Upon the death of Mrs Bronte her husband invited his sister-in-law,
+Elizabeth Branwell, to leave Penzance and to take up her residence with his
+family at Haworth. Miss Branwell accepted the trust and would seem to have
+watched over her nephew and five nieces with conscientious care. The two
+eldest of those nieces were not long in following their mother. Maria and
+Elizabeth, Charlotte and Emily, were all sent to the Clergy Daughters'
+school at Cowan Bridge in 1824, and Maria and Elizabeth returned home in
+the following year to die. How far the bad food and drastic discipline were
+responsible cannot be accurately demonstrated. Charlotte gibbeted the
+school long years afterwards in _Jane Eyre_, under the thin disguise of
+"Lowood," and the principal, the Rev. William Carus Wilson (1792-1859), has
+been universally accepted as the counterpart of Mr Naomi Brocklehurst in
+the same novel. But congenital disease more probably accounts for the
+tragedy from which happily Charlotte and Emily escaped, both returning in
+1825 to a prolonged home life at Haworth. Here the four surviving children
+amused themselves in intervals of study under their aunt's guidance with
+precocious literary aspirations. The many tiny booklets upon which they
+laboured in the succeeding years have been happily preserved. We find
+stories, verses and essays, all in the minutest handwriting, none giving
+any indication of the genius which in the case of two of the four children
+was to add to the indisputably permanent in literature.
+
+At sixteen years of age--in 1831--Charlotte Bronte became a pupil at the
+school of Miss Margaret Wooler (1792-1885) at Roe Head, Dewsbury. She left
+in the following year to assist in the education of the younger sisters,
+bringing with her much additional proficiency in drawing, French and
+composition; she took with her also the devoted friendship of two out of
+her ten fellow-pupils--Mary Taylor (1817-1893) and Ellen Nussey
+(1817-1897). With Miss Taylor and Miss Nussey she corresponded for the
+remainder of her life, and her letters to the latter make up no small part
+of what has been revealed to us of her life story. Her next three years at
+Haworth were varied by occasional visits to one or other of these friends.
+In 1835 she returned to Miss Wooler's school at Roe Head as a governess,
+her sister Emily accompanying her as a pupil, but remaining only three
+months, and Anne then taking her place. The year following the school was
+removed to Dewsbury. In 1838 Charlotte went back to Haworth and soon
+afterwards received her first offer of marriage--from a clergyman, Henry
+Nussey, the brother of her friend Ellen. This was followed a little later
+by a second offer from a curate named Bryce. She refused both and took a
+situation as nursery governess, first with the Sidgwicks of Stonegappe,
+Yorkshire, and later with the Whites at Rawdon in the same county. A few
+months of this, however, filled her with an ambition to try and secure
+greater independence as the possessor of a school of her own, and she
+planned to acquire more proficiency in "languages" on the continent, as a
+preliminary step. The aunt advanced some money, and accompanied by her
+sister Emily she became in February 1842 a pupil at the Pensionnat Heger,
+Brussels. Here both girls worked hard, and won the goodwill and indeed
+admiration of the principal teacher, M. Heger, whose wife was at the head
+of the establishment. But the two girls were hastily called back to England
+before the year had expired by the announcement of the critical illness of
+their aunt. Miss Branwell died on the 29th of October 1842. She bequeathed
+sufficient money to her nieces to enable them to reconsider their plan of
+life. Instead of a school at Bridlington which had been talked of, they
+could now remain with their father, utilize their aunt's room as a
+classroom, and take pupils. But Charlotte was not yet satisfied with what
+the few months on Belgian soil had done for her, and determined to accept
+M. Heger's offer that she should return to Brussels as a governess. Hence
+the year 1843 was passed by her at the Pensionnat Heger in that capacity,
+and in this period she undoubtedly widened her intellectual sphere by
+reading the many books in French literature that her friend M. Heger lent
+her. But life took on a very sombre shade in the lonely environment in
+which she found herself. She became so depressed that on one occasion she
+took refuge in the confessional precisely as did her heroine Lucy Snowe in
+_Villette_. In 1844 she returned to her father's house at Haworth, and the
+three sisters began immediately to discuss the possibilities of converting
+the vicarage into a school. Prospectuses were issued, but no pupils were
+forthcoming.
+
+Matters were complicated by the fact that the only brother, Patrick
+Branwell, had about this time become a confirmed drunkard. Branwell had
+been the idol of his aunt and of his sisters. Educated under his father's
+care, he had early shown artistic leanings, and the slender resources of
+the family had been strained to provide him with the means of entering at
+the Royal Academy as a pupil. This was in 1835. Branwell, it would seem,
+indulged in a glorious month of extravagance in London and then returned
+home. His art studies were continued for a time at Leeds, but it may be
+assumed that no commissions came to him, and at last he became tutor to the
+son of a Mr Postlethwaite at Barrow-in-Furness. Ten months later he was a
+booking-clerk at Sowerby Bridge station on the Leeds & Manchester railway,
+and later at Luddenden Foot. Then he became tutor in the family of a
+clergyman named Robinson at Thorp Green, where his sister Anne was
+governess. Finally he returned to Haworth to loaf at the village inn, shock
+his sisters by his excesses, and to fritter his life away in painful
+sottishness. He died in September 1848, having achieved nothing reputable,
+and having disappointed all the hopes that had been centred in him. "My
+poor father naturally thought more of his _only_ son than of his
+daughters," is one of Charlotte's dreary comments on the tragedy. In early
+years he had himself written both prose and verse; and a foolish story
+invented long afterwards attributed to him some share in his sisters'
+novels, particularly in Emily Bronte's _Wuthering Heights_. But Charlotte
+distinctly tells us that her brother never knew that his sisters had
+published a line. He was too much under the effects of drink, too besotted
+and muddled in that last year or two of life, to have any share in their
+intellectual enthusiasms.
+
+The literary life had, however, opened bravely for the three girls during
+those years. In 1846 a volume of verse appeared from the shop of Aylott &
+Jones of Paternoster Row; "_Poems_, by Currer, Ellis and Acton Bell," was
+on the title-page. These names disguised the identity of Charlotte, Emily
+and Anne Bronte. The venture cost the sisters about L50 in all, but only
+two copies were sold. There were nineteen poems by Charlotte, twenty-one by
+Emily, and the same number by Anne. A consensus of criticism has accepted
+the fact that Emily's verse alone revealed true poetic genius. This was
+unrecognized then except by her sister Charlotte. It is obvious now to all.
+
+The failure of the poems did not deter the authors from further effort.
+They had each a novel to dispose of. Charlotte Bronte's was called _The
+Master_, which before it was sent off to London was retitled _The
+Professor_. Emily's story was entitled [v.04 p.0639] _Wuthering Heights_,
+and Anne's _Agnes Gray_. All these stories travelled from publisher to
+publisher. At last _The Professor_ reached the firm of Smith, Elder & Co.,
+of Cornhill. The "reader" for that firm, R. Smith Williams (1800-1875), was
+impressed, as were also his employers. Charlotte Bronte received in August
+1847 a letter informing her that whatever the merits of _The
+Professor_--and it was hinted that it lacked "varied interest"--it was too
+short for the three-volume form then counted imperative. The author was
+further told that a longer novel would be gladly considered. She replied in
+the same month with this longer novel, and _Jane Eyre_ appeared in October
+1847, to be wildly acclaimed on every hand, although enthusiasm was to
+receive a counterblast when more than a year later, in December 1848, Miss
+Rigby, afterwards Lady Eastlake (1809-1893), reviewed it in the
+_Quarterly_.
+
+Meanwhile the novels of Emily and Anne had been accepted by T. C. Newby.
+They were published together in three volumes in December 1847, two months
+later than _Jane Eyre_, although the proof sheets had been passed by the
+authors before their sister's novel had been sent to the publishers. The
+dilatoriness of Mr Newby was followed up by considerable energy when he saw
+the possibility of the novels by Ellis and Acton Bell sailing on the wave
+of Currer Bell's popularity, and he would seem very quickly to have
+accepted another manuscript by Anne Bronte, for _The Tenant of Wildfell
+Hall_ was published by Newby in three volumes in June 1848. It was Newby's
+clever efforts to persuade the public that the books he published were by
+the author of _Jane Eyre_ that led Charlotte and Anne to visit London this
+summer and interview Charlotte's publishers in Cornhill with a view to
+establishing their separate identity. Soon after their return home Branwell
+died (the 24th of September 1848), and less than three months later Emily
+died also at Haworth (the 19th December 1848). Then Anne became ill and on
+the 24th of May 1849 Charlotte accompanied her to Scarborough in the hope
+that the sea air would revive her. Anne died there on the 28th of May, and
+was buried in Scarborough churchyard. Thus in exactly eight months
+Charlotte Bronte lost all the three companions of her youth, and returned
+to sustain her father, fast becoming blind, in the now desolate home at
+Haworth.
+
+In the interval between the death of Branwell and of Emily, Charlotte had
+been engaged upon a new novel--_Shirley_. Two-thirds were written, but the
+story was then laid aside while its author was nursing her sister Anne. She
+completed the book after Anne's death, and it was published in October
+1849. The following winter she visited London as the guest of her
+publisher, Mr George Smith, and was introduced to Thackerary, to whom she
+had dedicated _Jane Eyre_. The following year she repeated the visit, sat
+for her portrait to George Richmond, and was considerably lionized by a
+host of admirers. In August 1850 she visited the English lakes as the guest
+of Sir James Kay-Shuttleworth, and met Mrs Gaskell, Miss Martineau, Matthew
+Arnold and other interesting men and women. During this period her
+publishers assiduously lent her books, and her criticisms of them contained
+in many letters to Mr George Smith and Mr Smith Williams make very
+interesting reading. In 1851 she received a third offer of marriage, this
+time from Mr James Taylor, who was in the employment of her publishers. A
+visit to Miss Martineau at Ambleside and also to London to the Great
+Exhibition made up the events of this year. On her way home she visited
+Manchester and spent two days with Mrs Gaskell. During the year 1852 she
+worked hard with a new novel, _Villette_, which was published in January of
+1853. In September of that year she received a visit from Mrs Gaskell at
+Haworth; in May 1854 she returned it, remaining three days at Manchester,
+and planning with her hostess the details of her marriage, for at this time
+she had promised to unite herself with her father's curate, Arthur Bell
+Nicholls (1817-1906), who had long been a pertinacious suitor for her hand
+but had been discouraged by Mr Bronte. The marriage took place in Haworth
+church on the 29th of June 1854, the ceremony being performed by the Rev.
+Sutcliffe Sowden, Miss Wooler and Miss Nussey acting as witnesses. The
+wedded pair spent their honeymoon in Ireland, returning to Haworth, where
+they made their home with Mr Bronte, Mr Nicholls having pledged himself to
+continue in his position as curate to his father-in-law. After less than a
+year of married life, however, Charlotte Nicholls died of an illness
+incidental to childbirth, on the 31st of March 1855. She was buried in
+Haworth church by the side of her mother, Branwell and Emily. The father
+followed in 1861, and then her husband returned to Ireland, where he
+remained some years afterwards, dying in 1906.
+
+The bare recital of the Bronte story can give no idea of its undying
+interest, its exceeding pathos. Their life as told by their biographer Mrs
+Gaskell is as interesting as any novel. Their achievement, however, will
+stand on its own merits. Anne Bronte's two novels, it is true, though
+constantly reprinted, survive principally through the exceeding vitality of
+the Bronte tradition. As a hymn writer she still has a place in most
+religious communities. Emily is great alike as a novelist and as a poet.
+Her "Old Stoic" and "Last Lines" are probably the finest achievement of
+poetry that any woman has given to English literature. Her novel _Wuthering
+Heights_ stands alone as a monument of intensity owing nothing to
+tradition, nothing to the achievement of earlier writers. It was a thing
+apart, passionate, unforgettable, haunting in its grimness, its grey
+melancholy. Among women writers Emily Bronte has a sure and certain place
+for all time. As a poet or maker of verse Charlotte Bronte is
+undistinguished, but there are passages of pure poetry of great
+magnificence in her four novels, and particularly in _Villette_. The novels
+_Jane Eyre_ and _Villette_ will always command attention whatever the
+future of English fiction, by virtue of their intensity, their
+independence, their rough individuality.
+
+The _Life of Charlotte Bronte_, by Mrs Gaskell, was first published in
+1857. Owing to the many controversial questions it aroused, as to the
+identity of Lowood in _Jane Eyre_ with Cowan Bridge school, as to the
+relations of Branwell Bronte with his employer's wife, as to the supposed
+peculiarities of Mr Bronte, and certain other minor points, the third
+edition was considerably changed. The _Life_ has been many times reprinted,
+but may be read in its most satisfactory form in the Haworth edition
+(1902), issued by the original publishers, Smith, Elder & Co. To this
+edition are attached a great number of letters written by Miss Bronte to
+her publisher, George Smith. The first new material supplied to supplement
+Mrs Gaskell's _Life_ was contained in _Charlotte Bronte: a Monograph_, by
+T. Wemyss Reid (1877). This book inspired Mr A.C. Swinburne to issue
+separately a forcible essay on Charlotte and Emily Bronte, under the title
+of _A Note on Charlotte Bronte_ (1877). A further collection of letters
+written by Miss Bronte was contained in _Charlotte Bronte and her Circle_,
+by Clement Shorter (1896), and interesting details can be gathered from the
+_Life of Charlotte Bronte_, by Augustine Birrell (1887), _The Brontes in
+Ireland_, by William Wright, D.D. (1893), _Charlotte Bronte and her
+Sisters_, by Clement Shorter (1906), and the Bronte Society publications,
+edited by Butler Wood (1895-1907). Miss A. Mary F. Robinson (Madame
+Duclaux) wrote a separate biography of Emily Bronte in 1883, and an essay
+in her _Grands Ecrivains d'outre-Manche_. _The Brontes: Life and Letters_,
+by Clement Shorter (1907), contains the whole of C. Bronte's letters in
+chronological order.
+
+(C. K. S.)
+
+BRONTE, a town of the province of Catania, Sicily, on the western slopes of
+Mt. Etna, 24 m. N.N.W. of Catania direct, and 34 m. by rail. Pop. (1901)
+20,366. It was founded by the emperor Charles V. The town, with an
+extensive estate which originally belonged to the monastery of Maniacium
+(Maniace), was granted, as a dukedom, to Nelson by Ferdinand IV. of Naples
+in 1799.
+
+BRONX, THE, formerly a district comprising several towns in Westchester
+county, New York, U.S.A., now (since 1898) the northernmost of the five
+boroughs of New York City (_q.v._). Several settlements in the Bronx were
+made by the English and the Dutch between 1640 and 1650.
+
+BRONZE, an alloy formed wholly or chiefly of copper and tin in variable
+proportions. The word has been etymologically connected with the same root
+as appears in "brown," but according to M.P.E. Berthelot (_La Chimie au
+moyen age_) it is a place-name derived from _aes Brundusianum_ (cf. Pliny,
+_Nat. Hist._ xxxiii. ch. ix. Sec.45, "specula optima apud majores fuerunt
+Brundusiana, stanno et aere mixtis"). A Greek MS. of about the 11th century
+in the library of St Mark's, Venice, contains [v.04 p.0640] the form
+[Greek: brontesion], and gives the composition of the alloy as 1 lb of
+copper with 2 oz. of tin. The product obtained by adding tin to copper is
+more fusible than copper and thus better suited for casting; it is also
+harder and less malleable. A soft bronze or _gun-metal_ is formed with 16
+parts of copper to 1 of tin, and a harder gun-metal, such as was used for
+bronze ordnance, when the proportion of tin is about doubled. The _steel
+bronze_ of Colonel Franz Uchatius (1811-1881) consisted of copper alloyed
+with 8% of tin, the tenacity and hardness being increased by cold-rolling.
+Bronze containing about 7 parts of copper to 1 of tin is hard, brittle and
+sonorous, and can be tempered to take a fine edge. _Bell-metal_ varies
+considerably in composition, from about 3 to 5 parts of copper to 1 of tin.
+In _speculum metal_ there are 2 to 21/2 parts of copper to 1 of tin. Statuary
+bronze may contain from 80 to 90% of copper, the residue being tin, or tin
+with zinc and lead in various proportions. The bronze used for the British
+and French copper coinage consists of 95% copper, 4% tin and 1% zinc. Many
+copper-tin alloys employed for machinery-bearings contain a small
+proportion of zinc, which gives increased hardness. "Anti-friction metals,"
+also used in bearings, are copper-tin alloys in which the amount of copper
+is small and there is antimony in addition. Of this class an example is
+"Babbitt's metal," invented by Isaac Babbitt (1799-1862); it originally
+consisted of 24 parts of tin, 8 parts of antimony and 4 parts of copper,
+but in later compositions for the same purpose the proportion of tin is
+often considerably higher. Bronze is improved in quality and strength when
+fluxed with phosphorus. Alloys prepared in this way, and known as _phosphor
+bronze_, may contain only about 1% of phosphorus in the ingot, reduced to a
+mere trace after casting, but their value is nevertheless enhanced for
+purposes in which a hard strong metal is required, as for pump plungers,
+valves, the bushes of bearings, &c. Bronze again is improved by the
+presence of manganese in small quantity, and various grades of _manganese
+bronze_, in some of which there is little or no tin but a considerable
+percentage of zinc, are extensively used in mechanical engineering. Alloys
+of copper with aluminium, though often nearly or completely destitute of
+tin, are known as _aluminium bronze_, and are valuable for their strength
+and the resistance they offer to corrosion. By the addition of a small
+quantity of silicon the tensile strength of copper is much increased; a
+sample of such _silicon bronze_, used for telegraph wires, on analysis was
+found to consist of 99.94% of copper, 0.03% of tin, and traces of iron and
+silicon.
+
+The bronze (Gr. [Greek: chalkos], Lat. _aes_) of classical antiquity
+consisted chiefly of copper, alloyed with one or more of the metals, zinc,
+tin, lead and silver, in proportions that varied as times changed, or
+according to the purposes for which the alloy was required. Among bronze
+remains the copper is found to vary from 67 to 95%. From the analysis of
+coins it appears that for their bronze coins the Greeks adhered to an alloy
+of copper and tin till 400 B.C., after which time they used also lead with
+increasing frequency. Silver is rare in their bronze coins. The Romans also
+used lead as an alloy in their bronze coins, but gradually reduced the
+quantity, and under Caligula, Nero, Vespasian and Domitian, coined pure
+copper coins; afterwards they reverted to the mixture of lead. So far the
+words [Greek: chalkos] and _aes_ may be translated as bronze. Originally,
+no doubt, [Greek: chalkos] was the name for pure copper. It is so employed
+by Homer, who calls it [Greek: eruthros] (red), [Greek: aithups]
+(glittering), [Greek: phaennos] (shining), terms which apply only to
+copper. But instead of its following from this that the process of alloying
+copper with other metals was not practised in the time of the poet, or was
+unknown to him, the contrary would seem to be the case from the passage
+(_Iliad_ xviii. 474) where he describes Hephaestus as throwing into his
+furnace copper, tin, silver and gold to make the shield of Achilles, so
+that it is not always possible to know whether when he uses the word
+[Greek: chalkos] he means copper pure or alloyed. Still more difficult is
+it to make this distinction when we read of the mythical Dactyls of Ida in
+Crete or the Telchines or Cyclopes being acquainted with the smelting of
+[Greek: chalkos]. It is not, however, likely that later Greek writers, who
+knew bronze in its true sense, and called it [Greek: chalkos], would have
+employed this word without qualification for objects which they had seen
+unless they had meant it to be taken as bronze. When Pausanias (iii. 17. 6)
+speaks of a statue, one of the oldest figures he had seen of this material,
+made of separate pieces fastened together with nails, we understand him to
+mean literally bronze, the more readily since there exist very early
+figures and utensils of bronze so made.
+
+For the use of bronze in art, see METAL-WORK.
+
+BRONZE AGE, the name given by archaeologists to that stage in human
+culture, intermediate between the Stone and Iron Ages, when weapons,
+utensils and implements were, as a general rule, made of bronze. The term
+has no absolute chronological value, but marks a period of civilization
+through which it is believed that most races passed at one time or another.
+The "finds" of stone and bronze, of bronze and iron, and even of stone and
+iron implements together in tumuli and sepulchral mounds, suggest that in
+many countries the three stages in man's progress overlapped. From the
+similarity of types of weapons and implements of the period found
+throughout Europe a relatively synchronous commencement has been inferred
+for the Bronze Age in Europe, fixed by most authorities at between 2000
+B.C. to 1800 B.C. But it must have been earlier in some countries, and is
+certainly known to have been later in others; while the Mexicans and
+Peruvians were still in their bronze age in recent times. Not a few
+archaeologists have denied that there ever was a distinct Bronze Age. They
+have found their chief argument in the fact that weapons of these ages have
+been found side by side in prehistoric burial-places. But when it is
+admitted that the ages must have overlapped, it is fairly easy to undertand
+the mixed "finds." The beginning, the prevalence and duration of the Bronze
+Age in each country would have been ordered by the accessibility of the
+metals which form the alloy. Thus in some lands bronze may have continued
+to be a substance of extreme value until the Iron Age was reached, and in
+tumuli in which more than one body was interred, as was frequently the
+case, it would only be with the remains of the richer tenants of the tomb
+that the more valuable objects would be placed. There is, moreover, much
+reason to believe that sepulchral mounds were opened from age to age and
+fresh interments made, and in such a practice would be found a simple
+explanation of the mixing of implements. Another curious fact has been
+seized on by those who argue against the existence of a Bronze Age. Among
+all the "finds" examined in Europe there is a most remarkable absence of
+copper implements. The sources of tin in Europe are practically restricted
+to Cornwall and Saxony. How then are we to explain on the one hand the
+apparent stride made by primitive man when from a Stone Age civilization he
+passed to a comparatively advanced metallurgical skill? On the other, how
+account for a comparatively synchronous commencement of bronze civilization
+when one at least of the metals needed for the alloy would have been
+naturally difficult of access, if not unknown to many races? The answer is
+that there can be but little doubt that the knowledge of bronze came to the
+races of Europe from outside. Either by the Phoenicians or by the Greeks
+metallurgy was taught to men who no sooner recognized the nature and
+malleable properties of copper than they learnt that by application of heat
+a substance could be manufactured with tin far better suited to their
+purposes. Copper would thus have been but seldom used unalloyed; and the
+relatively synchronous appearance of bronze in Europe, and the scanty
+"finds" of copper implements, are explained. We may conclude then that
+there was a Bronze Age in most countries; that it was the direct result of
+increasing intercommunication of races and the spread of commerce; and that
+the discovery of metals was due to information brought to Stone-Age man in
+Europe by races which were already skilful metallurgists.
+
+The Bronze Age in Europe is characterized by weapons, utensils and
+implements, distinct in design and size from those in use in the preceding
+or succeeding stage of man's civilization. Moreover--and this has been
+employed as an argument in favour of the foreign origin of the knowledge of
+bronze--all the [v.04 p.0641] objects in one part of Europe are identical
+in pattern and size with those found in another part. The implements of the
+Bronze Age include swords, awls, knives, gouges, hammers, daggers and
+arrow-heads. A remarkable confirmation of the theory that the Bronze Age
+culture came from the East is to be found in the patterns of the arms,
+which are distinctly oriental; while the handles of swords and daggers are
+so narrow and short as to make it unlikely that they would be made for use
+by the large-handed races of Europe. The Bronze Age is also characterized
+by the fact that cremation was the mode of disposal of the dead, whereas in
+the Stone Age burial was the rule. Barrows and sepulchral mounds strictly
+of the Bronze Age are smaller and less imposing than those of the Stone
+Age. Besides varied and beautiful weapons, frequently exhibiting high
+workmanship, amulets, coronets, diadems of solid gold, and vases of elegant
+form and ornamentation in gold and bronze are found in the barrows. These
+latter appear to have been used as tribal or family cemeteries. In Denmark
+as many as seventy deposits of burnt bones have been found in a single
+mound, indicating its use through a long succession of years. The
+ornamentation of the period is as a rule confined to spirals, bosses and
+concentric circles. What is remarkable is that the swords not only show the
+design of the cross in the shape of the handle, but also in tracery what is
+believed to be an imitation of the Svastika, that ancient Aryan symbol
+which was probably the first to be made with a definite intention and a
+consecutive meaning. The pottery is all "hand-made," and the bulk of the
+objects excavated are cinerary urns, usually found full of burnt bones.
+These vary from 12 to 18 in. in height. Their decoration is confined to a
+band round the upper part of the pot, or often only a projecting flange
+lapped round the whole rim. A few have small handles, formed of pierced
+knobs of clay and sometimes projecting rolls of clay, looped, as it were,
+all round the urn. The ornamentation consists of dots, zigzags, chevrons or
+crosses. The lines were frequently made by pressing a twisted thong of skin
+against the moist clay; the patterns in all cases being stamped into the
+pot before it was hardened by fire.
+
+See ARCHAEOLOGY, &c. Also Lord Avebury, _Prehistoric Times_ (1900); Sir J.
+Evans, _Ancient Bronze Implements of Great Britain_ (1881); Chartre's _Age
+du bronze en France_.
+
+BRONZING, a process by which a bronze-like surface is imparted to objects
+of metal, plaster, wood, &c. On metals a green bronze colour is sometimes
+produced by the action of such substances as vinegar, dilute nitric acid
+and sal-ammoniac. An antique appearance may be given to new bronze articles
+by brushing over the clean bright metal with a solution of sal-ammoniac and
+salt of sorrel in vinegar, and rubbing the surface dry, the operation being
+repeated as often as necessary. Another solution for the same purpose is
+made with sal-ammoniac, cream of tartar, common salt and silver nitrate.
+With a solution of platinic chloride almost any colour can be produced on
+copper, iron, brass or new bronze, according to the dilution and the number
+of applications. Articles of plaster and wood may be bronzed by coating
+them with size and then covering them with a bronze powder, such as Dutch
+metal, beaten into fine leaves and powdered. The bronzing of gun-barrels
+may be effected by the use of a strong solution of antimony trichloride.
+
+BRONZINO, IL, the name given to ANGELO ALLORI (1502-1572), the Florentine
+painter. He became the favourite pupil of J. da Pontormo. He painted the
+portraits of some of the most famous men of his day, such as Dante,
+Petrarch and Boccaccio. Most of his best works are in Florence, but
+examples are in the National Gallery, London, and elsewhere.
+
+BRONZITE, a member of the pyroxene group of minerals, belonging with
+enstatite and hypersthene to the orthorhombic series of the group. Rather
+than a distinct species, it is really a ferriferous variety of enstatite,
+which owing to partial alteration has acquired a bronze-like sub-metallic
+lustre on the cleavage surfaces. Enstatite is magnesium metasilicate,
+MgSiO_3, with the magnesia partly replaced by small amounts (up to about
+5%) of ferrous oxide; in the bronzite variety, (Mg,Fe)SiO_3, the ferrous
+oxide ranges from about 5 to 14%, and with still more iron there is a
+passage to hypersthene. The ferriferous varieties are liable to a
+particular kind of alteration, known as "schillerization," which results in
+the separation of the iron as very fine films of oxide and hydroxides along
+the cleavage cracks of the mineral. The cleavage surfaces therefore exhibit
+a metallic sheen or "schiller," which is even more pronounced in
+hypersthene than in bronzite. The colour of bronzite is green or brown; its
+specific gravity is about 3.2-3.3, varying with the amount of iron present.
+Like enstatite, bronzite is a constituent of many basic igneous rocks, such
+as norites, gabbros, and especially peridotites, and of the serpentines
+which have been derived from them. It also occurs in some crystalline
+schists.
+
+Bronzite is sometimes cut and polished, usually in convex forms, for small
+ornamental objects, but its use for this purpose is less extensive than
+that of hypersthene. It often has a more or less distinct fibrous
+structure, and when this is pronounced the sheen has a certain resemblance
+to that of cat's-eye. Masses sufficiently large for cutting are found in
+the norite of the Kupferberg in the Fichtelgebirge, and in the serpentine
+of Kraubat near Leoben in Styria. In this connexion mention may be made of
+an altered form of enstatite or bronzite known as _bastite_ or
+_schiller-spar_. Here, in addition to schillerization, the original
+enstatite has been altered by hydration and the product has approximately
+the composition of serpentine. In colour bastite is brown or green with the
+same metallic sheen as bronzite. The typical locality is Baste in the
+Radauthal, Harz, where patches of pale greyish-green bastite are embedded
+in a darker-coloured serpentine. This rock when cut and polished makes an
+effective decorative stone, although little used for that purpose.
+
+(L. J. S.)
+
+BROOCH, or BROACH (from the Fr. _broche_, originally an awl or bodkin; a
+spit is sometimes called a broach, and hence the phrase "to broach a
+barrel"; see BROKER), a term now used to denote a clasp or fastener for the
+dress, provided with a pin, having a hinge or spring at one end, and a
+catch or loop at the other.
+
+Brooches of the safety-pin type (_fibulae_) were extensively used in
+antiquity, but only within definite limits of time and place. They seem to
+have been unknown to the Egyptians, and to the oriental nations untouched
+by Greek influence. In lands adjacent to Greece, they do not occur in Crete
+or at Hissarlik. The place of origin cannot as yet be exactly determined,
+but it would seem to have been in central Europe, towards the close of the
+Bronze Age, somewhat before 1000 B.C. The earliest form is little more than
+a pin, bent round for security, with the point caught against the head. One
+such actual pin has been found. In its next simplest form, very similar to
+that of the modern safety-pin (in which the coiled spring forces the point
+against the catch), it occurs in the lower city of Mycenae, and in late
+deposits of the Mycenaean Age, such as at Enkomi in Cyprus. It occurs also
+(though rarely) in the "terramare" deposits of the Po valley, in the Swiss
+lake-dwellings of the later Bronze Age, in central Italy, in Hungary and in
+Bosnia. (fig. 1).[1]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Early type from Peschiera.]
+
+From the comparatively simple initial form, the fibula developed in
+different lines of descent, into different shapes, varying according to the
+structural feature which was emphasized. On account of the number of local
+variations, the subject is extremely complex, but the main lines of
+development were approximately as follows.
+
+Towards the end of the Bronze Age the safety-pin was arched into a bow, so
+as to include a greater amount of stuff in its compass.
+
+In the older Iron Age or "Hallstatt period" the bow and its accessories are
+thickened and modified in various directions, so as to give greater
+rigidity, and prominences or surfaces for decoration. The chief types have
+been conveniently classed by [v.04 p.0642] Montelius in four main groups,
+according to the characteristic forms:--
+
+I. The wire of the catch-plate is hammered into a flat disk, on which the
+pin rests (fig. 2)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Type I. with disk for catch-plate.]
+
+II. The bow is thickened towards the middle, so as to assume the "leech"
+shape, or it is hollowed out underneath, into the "boat" form. The
+catch-plate is only slightly turned up, but it becomes elongated, in order
+to mask the end of a long pin (fig. 3).
+
+III. The catch-plate is flattened out as in group I., but additional
+convolutions are added to the bow (fig. 4).
+
+IV. The bow is convoluted (but the convolutions are sometimes represented
+by knobs); the catch-plate develops as in group II. (fig. 5). For further
+examples of the four types, see _Antiquities of Early Iron Age in British
+Museum_, p. 32.
+
+Among the special variations of the early form, mention should be made of
+the fibulae of the geometric age of Greece, with an exaggerated development
+of the vertical portion of the catch-plate (fig. 6).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Type II. with turned-up and elongated catch-plate.
+a, "Leech" fibula; b, "Boat" fibula; c. variation of "Boat" fibula.]
+
+The example shown in fig. 7 is an ornate development of type II. above.
+
+In the later Iron Age (or early La Tene period) the prolongation of the
+catch-plate described in the second and fourth groups above has a terminal
+knob ornament, which is reflexed upwards, at first slightly (fig. 8), and
+then to a marked extent, turning back towards the bow.
+
+A far-reaching change in the design was at the same time brought about by a
+simple improvement in principle, apparently introduced within the area of
+the La Tene culture. Instead of a unilateral spring--that is, of one coiled
+on one side only of the bow as commonly in the modern safety-pin--the
+brooch became bilateral. The spring was coiled on one side of the axis of
+the bow, and thence the wire was taken to the other side of the axis, and
+again coiled in a corresponding manner before starting in a straight line
+to form the pin. Once invented, the bilateral spring became almost
+universal, and its introduction serves to divide the whole mass of ancient
+fibulae into an older and a younger group.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Type III with disk for catch-plate, and convoluted
+bow.]
+
+With the progress of the La Tene period (300-1 B.C.) the reflection of the
+catch-plate terminal became yet more marked, until it became practically
+merged in the bow (fig. 9). Meanwhile, the bilateral spring described above
+was developing into two marked projections on each side of the axis. In
+order to give the double spring strength and protection it was given a
+metal core, and a containing tube. When the core had been provided the pin
+was no longer necessarily a continuation of the bow, and it became in fact
+a separate member, as in a modern brooch of a non-safety-pin type, and was
+no longer actuated by its own spring.
+
+The T-shaped or "cross-bow" fibula was thus developed. During the first
+centuries of the Empire it attained great size and importance (figs.
+10-12). The form is conveniently dated at its highest development by its
+occurrence on the ivory diptych of Stilicho at Monza (c. A.D. 400).
+
+In the tombs of the Frankish and kindred Teutonic tribes between the 5th
+and 9th centuries the crossbar of the T becomes a yet more elaborately
+decorated semicircle, often surrounded by radial knobs and a chased
+surface. The base of the shaft is flattened out, and is no less ornate
+(fig. 13). At the beginning of this period the fibula of King Childeric
+(A.D. 481) has a singularly complicated pin-fastening.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Type IV. with turned-up catch-plate and convoluted
+bow.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Greek geometric fibula.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Gold fibula from Naples.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Early La Tene period. Reflexed terminal ornament.]
+
+So far we have traced the history of the safety-pin form of brooch.
+Concurrently with it, other forms of brooch were developed in which the
+safety-pin principle is either absent or effectually disguised. One such
+form is that of the circular medallion brooch. It is found in Etruscan
+deposits of a fully developed style, and is commonly represented in Greek
+and Roman sculptures as a stud to fasten the cloak on the shoulder. In the
+Roman provinces the circular brooches are very numerous, and are frequently
+decorated with inlaid stone, paste or enamel. Another kind of brooch, also
+known from early times, is in the form of an animal. In the early types the
+animal is a decorative appendage, but in later examples it forms the body
+of the brooch, to which a pin like the modern brooch-pin is attached
+underneath. Both of these shapes, namely the medallion and the animal form,
+are found in Frankish cemeteries, together with the later variations of the
+T-shaped brooch described above. Such brooches were made in gold, silver or
+bronze, adorned with precious stones, filigree work, or enamel; but
+whatever the richness of the material, the pin was nearly always of iron.
+The Scandinavian or northern group of T-shaped brooches are in their early
+forms indistinguishable from those of the Frankish tombs, but as time went
+on they became more massive, and richly decorated with intricate devices
+(perhaps brought in by Irish missionary influence), into which animal forms
+were introduced. The period covered is from the 5th to the 8th centuries.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9, a-d.--Fibula of the La Tene period, showing the
+development of the reflexed terminal, and the bilateral spring.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Military Fibula. 3rd century A.D.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Fibula with niello work. 3rd century A.D.]
+
+The T-form, the medallion-form, and (occasionally) the animal forms occur
+in Anglo-Saxon graves in England. In Kent the medallion-form predominates.
+The Anglo-Saxon brooches [v.04 p.0643] were exquisite works of art,
+ingeniously and tastefully constructed. They are often of gold, with a
+central boss, exquisitely decorated, the flat part of the brooch being a
+mosaic of turquoises, garnets on gold foil, mother of pearl, &c. arranged
+in geometric patterns, and the gold work enriched with filigree or
+decorated with dragonesque engravings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Gold Fibula. 4th century A.D.]
+
+The Scandinavian brooches of the Viking period (A.D. 800-1050) were oval
+and convex, somewhat in the form of a tortoise. In their earliest form they
+occur in the form of a frog-like animal, itself developed from the previous
+Teutonic T-shaped type. With the introduction of the intricate system of
+ornament described above, the frog-like animal is gradually superseded by
+purely decorative lines. The convex bowls are then worked _a jour_ with a
+perforated upper shell of chased work over an under shell of impure bronze,
+gilt on the convex side. These outer cases are at last decorated with open
+crown-like ornament and massive projecting bosses. The geographical
+distribution of these peculiar brooches indicates the extent of the
+conquests of the Northmen. They occur in northern Scotland, England,
+Ireland, Iceland, Normandy and Livonia.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Fibula of the Frankish period.]
+
+The Celtic group is characterized by the penannular form of the ring of the
+brooch and the greater length of the pin. The penannular ring, inserted
+through a hole at the head of the long pin, could be partially turned when
+the pin had been thrust through the material in such a way that the brooch
+became in effect a buckle. These brooches are usually of bronze or silver,
+chased or engraved with intricate designs of interlaced or dragonesque work
+in the style of the illuminated Celtic manuscripts of the 7th, 8th and 9th
+centuries. The Hunterston brooch, which was found at Hawking Craig in
+Ayrshire, is a well-known example of this style. Silver brooches of immense
+size, some having pins 15 in. in length, and the penannular ring of the
+brooch terminating in large knobs resembling thistle heads, are
+occasionally found in Viking hoards of this period, consisting of bullion,
+brooches and Cufic and Anglo-Saxon coins buried on Scottish soil. In
+medieval times the form of the brooch was usually a simple, flat circular
+disk, with open centre, the pin being equal in length to the diameter of
+the brooch. They were often inscribed with religious and talismanic
+_formulae_. The Highland brooches were commonly of this form, but the disk
+was broader, and the central opening smaller in proportion to the size of
+the brooch. They were ornamented in the style so common on Highland
+powder-horns, with engraved patterns of interlacing work and foliage,
+arranged in geometrical spaces, and sometimes mingled with figures of
+animals.
+
+(A. H. SM.)
+
+[1] The illustrations of this article are from Dr Robert Forrer's
+_Reallexikon_, by permission of W. Spemann, Berlin and Stuttgart.
+
+BROOKE, FRANCES (1724-1789), English novelist and dramatist, whose maiden
+name was Moore, was born in 1724. Of her novels, some of which enjoyed
+considerable popularity in their day, the most important were _The History
+of Lady Julia Mandeville_ (1763), _Emily Montague_ (1769) and _The
+Excursion_ (1777). Her dramatic pieces and translations from the French are
+now forgotten. She died in January 1789.
+
+BROOKE, FULKE GREVILLE, 1ST BARON (1554-1628), English poet, only son of
+Sir Fulke Greville, was born at Beauchamp Court, Warwickshire. He was sent
+in 1564, on the same day as his life-long friend, Philip Sidney, to
+Shrewsbury school. He matriculated at Jesus College, Cambridge, in 1568.
+Sir Henry Sidney, president of Wales, gave him in 1576 a post connected
+with the court of the Marches, but he resigned it in 1577 to go to court
+with Philip Sidney. Young Greville became a great favourite with Queen
+Elizabeth, who treated him with less than her usual caprice, but he was
+more than once disgraced for leaving the country against her wishes. Philip
+Sidney, Sir Edward Dyer and Greville were members of the "Areopagus," the
+literary clique which, under the leadership of Gabriel Harvey, supported
+the introduction of classical metres into English verse. Sidney and
+Greville arranged to sail with Sir Francis Drake in 1585 in his expedition
+against the Spanish West Indies, but Elizabeth peremptorily forbade Drake
+to take them with him, and also refused Greville's request to be allowed to
+join Leicester's army in the Netherlands. Philip Sidney, who took part in
+the campaign, was killed on the 17th of October 1586, and Greville shared
+with Dyer the legacy of his books, while in his _Life of the Renowned Sir
+Philip Sidney_ he raised an enduring monument to his friend's memory. About
+1591 Greville served for a short time in Normandy under Henry of Navarre.
+This was his last experience of war. In 1583 he became secretary to the
+principality of Wales, and he represented Warwickshire in parliament in
+1592-1593, 1597, 1601 and 1620. In 1598 he was made treasurer of the navy,
+and he retained the office through the early years of the reign of James I.
+In 1614 he became chancellor and under-treasurer of the exchequer, and
+throughout the reign he was a valued supporter of the king's party,
+although in 1615 he advocated the summoning of a parliament. In 1618 he
+became commissioner of the treasury, and in 1621 he was raised to the
+peerage with the title of Baron Brooke, a title which had belonged to the
+family of his paternal grandmother, Elizabeth Willoughby. He received from
+James I. the grant of Warwick Castle, in the restoration of which he is
+said to have spent L20,000. He died on the 30th of September 1628 in
+consequence of a wound inflicted by a servant who was disappointed at not
+being named in his master's will. Brooke was buried in St Mary's church,
+Warwick, and on his tomb was inscribed the epitaph he had composed for
+himself: "Folk Grevill Servant to Queene Elizabeth Conceller to King James
+Frend to Sir Philip Sidney. Trophaeum Peccati."
+
+A rhyming elegy on Brooke, published in Huth's _Inedited Poetical
+Miscellanies_, brings charges of extreme penuriousness against him, but of
+his generous treatment of contemporary writers there is abundant testimony.
+His only works published during his lifetime were four poems, one of which
+is the elegy on Sidney which appeared in _The Phoenix Nest_ (1593), and the
+_Tragedy of Mustapha_. A volume of his works appeared in 1633, another of
+_Remains_ in 1670, and his biography of Sidney in 1652. He wrote two
+tragedies on the Senecan model, _Alaham_ and _Mustapha_. The scene of
+Alaham is laid in Ormuz. The development of the piece fully bears out the
+gloom of the prologue, in which the ghost of a former king of Ormuz reveals
+the magnitude of the curse about to descend on the doomed family. The theme
+of _Mustapha_ is borrowed from Madeleine de Scudery's _Ibrahim ou
+l'illustre Bassa_, and turns on the ambition of the sultana Rossa. The
+choruses of these plays are really philosophical dissertations, and the
+connexion with the rest of the drama is often very slight. In _Mustapha_,
+for instance, the third chorus is a dialogue between Time and Eternity,
+while the fifth consists of an invective against the evils of superstition,
+followed by a chorus of priests that does nothing to dispel [v.04 p.0644]
+the impression of scepticism contained in the first part. He tells us
+himself that the tragedies were not intended for the stage. Charles Lamb
+says they should rather be called political treatises. Of Brooke Lamb says,
+"He is nine parts Machiavel and Tacitus, for one of Sophocles and
+Seneca.... Whether we look into his plays or his most passionate
+love-poems, we shall find all frozen and made rigid with intellect." He
+goes on to speak of the obscurity of expression that runs through all
+Brooke's poetry, an obscurity which is, however, due more to the intensity
+and subtlety of the thought than to any lack of mere verbal lucidity.
+
+It is by his biography of Sidney that Fulke Greville is best known. The
+full title expresses the scope of the work. It runs: _The Life of the
+Renowned Sr. Philip Sidney. With the true Interest of England as it then
+stood in relation to all Forrain Princes: And particularly for suppressing
+the power of Spain Stated by Him: His principall Actions, Counsels,
+Designes, and Death. Together with a short account of the Maximes and
+Policies used by Queen Elizabeth in her Government_. He includes some
+autobiographical matter in what amounts to a treatise on government. He had
+intended to write a history of England under the Tudors, but Robert Cecil
+refused him access to the necessary state papers.
+
+Brooke left no sons, and his barony passed to his cousin, Robert Greville
+(c. 1608-1643), who thus became 2nd Lord Brooke. This nobleman was
+imprisoned by Charles I. at York in 1639 for refusing to take the oath to
+fight for the king, and soon became an active member of the parliamentary
+party; taking part in the Civil War he defeated the Royalists in a skirmish
+at Kineton in August 1642. He was soon given a command in the midland
+counties, and having seized Lichfield he was killed there on the 2nd of
+March 1643. Brooke, who is eulogized as a friend of toleration by Milton,
+wrote on philosophical, theological and current political topics. In 1746
+his descendant, Francis Greville, the 8th baron (1710-1773), was created
+earl of Warwick, a title still in his family.
+
+Dr A.B. Grosart edited the complete works of Fulke Greville for the _Fuller
+Worthies Library_ in 1870, and made a small selection, published in the
+_Elizabethan Library_ (1894). Besides the works above mentioned, the
+volumes include _Poems of Monarchy, A Treatise of Religion, A Treatie of
+Humane Learning, An Inquisition upon Fame and Honour, A Treatie of Warres,
+Caelica in CX Sonnets_, a collection of lyrics in various forms, a letter
+to an "Honourable Lady," a letter to Grevill Varney in France, and a short
+speech delivered on behalf of Francis Bacon, some minor poems, and an
+introduction including some of the author's letters. The life of Sidney was
+reprinted by Sir S. Egerton Brydges in 1816; and with an introduction by N.
+Smith in the "Tudor and Stuart Library" in 1907; _Caelica_ was reprinted in
+M.F. Crow's "Elizabethan Sonnet Cycles" in 1898. See also an essay in Mrs.
+C.C. Stopes's _Shakespeare's Warwickshire Contemporaries_ (1907).
+
+BROOKE, HENRY (c. 1703-1783), Irish author, son of William Brooke, rector
+of Killinkere, Co. Cavan, was born at Rantavan in the same county, about
+1703. His mother was a daughter of Simon Digby, bishop of Elphin. Dr Thomas
+Sheridan was one of his schoolmasters, and he was entered at Trinity
+College, Dublin, in 1720; in 1724 he was sent to London to study law. He
+married his cousin and ward, Catherine Meares, before she was fourteen.
+Returning to London he published a philosophical poem in six books entitled
+_Universal Beauty_ (1735). He attached himself to the party of the prince
+of Wales, and took a small house at Twickenham near to Alexander Pope. In
+1738 he translated the first and second books of Tasso's _Gerusalemme
+liberata_, and in the next year he produced a tragedy, _Gustavas Vasa, the
+Deliverer of his Country_. This play had been rehearsed for five weeks at
+Drury Lane, but at the last moment the performance was forbidden. The
+reason of this prohibition was a supposed portrait of Sir Robert Walpole in
+the part of Trollio. In any case the spirit of fervent patriotism which
+pervaded the play was probably disliked by the government. The piece was
+printed and sold largely, being afterwards put on the Irish stage under the
+title of _The Patriot_. This affair provoked a satirical pamphlet from
+Samuel Johnson, entitled "A Complete Vindication of the Licensers of the
+Stage from the malicious and scandalous Aspersions of Mr Brooke" (1739).
+His wife feared that his connexion with the opposition was imprudent, and
+induced him to return to Ireland. He interested himself in Irish history
+and literature, but a projected collection of Irish stories and a history
+of Ireland from the earliest times were abandoned in consequence of
+disputes about the ownership of the materials. During the Jacobite
+rebellion of 1745 Brooke issued his _Farmer's Six Letters to the
+Protestants of Ireland_ (collected 1746) the form of which was suggested by
+Swift's _Drapier's Letters_. For this service he received from the
+government the post of barrack-master at Mullingar, which he held till his
+death. He wrote other pamphlets on the Protestant side, and was secretary
+to an association for promoting projects of national utility. About 1760 he
+entered into negotiations with leading Roman Catholics, and in 1761 he
+wrote a pamphlet advocating alleviation of the penal laws against them. He
+is said to have been the first editor of the _Freeman's Journal_,
+established at Dublin in 1763. Meanwhile he had been obliged to mortgage
+his property in Cavan, and had removed to Co. Kildare. Subsequently a
+bequest from Colonel Robert Brooke enabled him to purchase an estate near
+his old home, and he spent large sums in attempting to reclaim the
+waste-land. His best-known work is the novel entitled _The Fool of Quality;
+or the History of Henry Earl of Moreland_, the first part of which was
+published in 1765; and the fifth and last in 1770. The characters of this
+book, which relates the education of an ideal nobleman by an ideal
+merchant-prince, are gifted with a "passionate and tearful sensibility,"
+and reflect the real humour and tenderness of the writer. Brooke's
+religious and philanthropic temper recommended the book to John Wesley, who
+edited (1780) an abridged edition, and to Charles Kingsley, who published
+it with a eulogistic notice in 1859. Brooke had a large family, but only
+two children survived him. His wife's death seriously affected him, and he
+died at Dublin in a state of mental infirmity on the 10th of October 1783.
+
+His daughter, Charlotte Brooke, published _The Poetical Works of Henry
+Brooke_ in 1792, but was able to supply very little biographical material.
+Other sources for Brooke's biography are C. H. Wilson, _Brookiana_ (2
+vols., 1804), and a biographical preface by E. A. Baker prefixed to a new
+edition (1906) of _The Fool of Quality_. Brooke's other works include
+several tragedies, only some of which were actually staged. He also wrote:
+_Jack the Giant Queller_ (1748), an operatic satire, the repetition of
+which was forbidden on account of its political allusions; "Constantia, or
+the Man of Lawe's Tale" (1741), contributed to George Ogle's _Canterbury
+Tales modernized; Juliet Grenville; or the History of the Human Heart_
+(1773), a novel; and some fables contributed to Edward Moore's _Fables for
+the Female Sex_ (1744).
+
+BROOKE, SIR JAMES (1803-1868), English soldier, traveller and raja of
+Sarawak, was born at Coombe Grove near Bath, on the 29th of April 1803. His
+father, a member of the civil service of the East India Company, had long
+lived in Bengal. His mother was a woman of superior mind, and to her care
+he owed his careful early training. He received the ordinary school
+education, entered the service of the East India Company, and was sent out
+to India about 1825. On the outbreak of the Burmese War he was despatched
+with his regiment to the valley of the Brahmaputra; and, being dangerously
+wounded in an engagement near Rungpore, was compelled to return home
+(1826). After his recovery he travelled on the continent before going to
+India, and circumstances led him soon after to leave the service of the
+company. In 1830 he made a voyage to China, and during his passage among
+the islands of the Indian Archipelago, so rich in natural beauty,
+magnificence and fertility, but occupied by a population of savage tribes,
+continually at war with each other, and carrying on a system of piracy on a
+vast scale and with relentless ferocity, he conceived the great design of
+rescuing them from barbarism and bringing them within the pale of
+civilization. His purpose was confirmed by observations made during a
+second visit to China, and on his return to England he applied himself in
+earnest to making the necessary preparations. Having succeeded on the death
+of his father to a large property, he bought and equipped a yacht, the
+"Royalist," of 140 tons burden, and for three years tested its capacities
+and trained his crew of [v.04 p.0645] twenty men, chiefly in the
+Mediterranean. At length, on the 27th of October 1838, he sailed from the
+Thames on his great adventure. On reaching Borneo, after various delays, he
+found the raja Muda Hassim, uncle of the reigning sultan, engaged in war in
+the province of Sarawak with several of the Dyak tribes, who had revolted
+against the sultan. He offered his aid to the raja; and with his crew, and
+some Javanese who had joined them, he took part in a battle with the
+insurgents, and they were defeated. For his services the title of raja of
+Sarawak was conferred on him by Muda Hassim, the former raja being deprived
+in his favour. It was, however, some time before the sultan could be
+induced to confirm his title (September 1841). During the next five years
+Raja Brooke was engaged in establishing his power, in making just reforms
+in administration, preparing a code of laws and introducing just and humane
+modes of dealing with the degraded subjects of his rule. But this was not
+all. He looked forward to the development of commerce as the most effective
+means of putting an end to the worst evils that afflicted the archipelago;
+and in order to make this possible, the way must first be cleared by the
+suppression, or a considerable diminution, of the prevailing piracy, which
+was not only a curse to the savage tribes engaged in it, but a standing
+danger to European and American traders in those seas. Various expeditions
+were therefore organized and sent out against the marauders, Dyaks and
+Malays, and sometimes even Arabs. Captain (afterwards Admiral Sir Harry)
+Keppel, and other commanders of British ships of war, received permission
+to co-operate with Raja Brooke in these expeditions. The pirates were
+attacked in their strongholds, they fought desperately, and the slaughter
+was immense. Negotiations with the chiefs had been tried, and tried in
+vain. The capital of the sultan of Borneo was bombarded and stormed, and
+the sultan with his army routed. He was, however, soon after restored to
+his dominion. So large was the number of natives, pirates and others, slain
+in these expeditions, that the "head-money" awarded by the British
+government to those who had taken part in them amounted to no less than
+L20,000. In October 1847 Raja Brooke returned to England, where he was well
+received by the government; and the corporation of London conferred on him
+the freedom of the city. The island of Labuan, with its dependencies,
+having been acquired by purchase from the sultan of Borneo, was erected
+into a British colony, and Raja Brooke was appointed governor and
+commander-in-chief. He was also named consul-general in Borneo. These
+appointments had been made before his arrival in England. The university of
+Oxford conferred on him the honorary degree of D.C.L., and in 1848 he was
+created K.C.B. He soon after returned to Sarawak, and was carried thither
+by a British man-of-war. In the summer of 1849 he led an expedition against
+the Seribas and Sakuran Dyaks, who still persisted in their piratical
+practices and refused to submit to British authority. Their defeat and
+wholesale slaughter was a matter of course. At the time of this engagement
+Sir James Brooke was lying ill with dysentery. He visited twice the capital
+of the sultan of Sala, and concluded a treaty with him, which had for one
+of its objects the expulsion of the sea-gypsies and other tribes from his
+dominions. In 1851 grave charges with respect to the operations in Borneo
+were brought against Sir James Brooke in the House of Commons by Joseph
+Hume and other members, especially as to the "head-money" received. To meet
+these accusations, and to vindicate his proceedings, he came to England.
+The evidence adduced was so conflicting that the matter was at length
+referred to a royal commission, to sit at Singapore. As the result of its
+investigation the charges were declared to be "not proven." Sir James,
+however, was soon after deprived of the governorship of Labuan, and the
+head-money was abolished. In 1867 his house in Sarawak was attacked and
+burnt by Chinese pirates, and he had to fly from the capital, Kuching. With
+a small force he attacked the Chinese, recovered the town, made a great
+slaughter of them, and drove away the rest. In the following year he came
+to England, and remained there for three years. During this time he was
+attacked by paralysis, a public subscription was raised, and an estate in
+Devonshire was bought and presented to him. He made two more visits to
+Sarawak, and on each occasion had a rebellion to suppress. He spent his
+last days on his estate at Burrator in Devonshire, and died there, on the
+11th of June 1868, being succeeded as raja of Sarawak by his nephew. Sir
+James Brooke was a man of the highest personal character, and he displayed
+rare courage both in his conflicts in the East and under the charges
+advanced against him in England.
+
+His _Private Letters_ (1838 to 1853) were published in 1853. Portions of
+his _Journal_ were edited by Captains Munday and Keppel. (See also
+SARAWAK.)
+
+BROOKE, STOPFORD AUGUSTUS (1832- ), English divine and man of letters, born
+at Letterkenny, Donegal, Ireland, in 1832, was educated at Trinity College,
+Dublin. He was ordained in the Church of England in 1857, and held various
+charges in London. From 1863 to 1865 he was chaplain to the empress
+Frederick in Berlin, and in 1872 he became chaplain in ordinary to Queen
+Victoria. But in 1880 he seceded from the Church, being no longer able to
+accept its leading dogmas, and officiated as a Unitarian minister for some
+years at Bedford chapel, Bloomsbury. Bedford chapel was pulled down about
+1894, and from that time he had no church of his own, but his eloquence and
+powerful religious personality continued to make themselves felt among a
+wide circle. A man of independent means, he was always keenly interested in
+literature and art, and a fine critic of both. He published in 1865 his
+_Life and Letters of F. W. Robertson_ (of Brighton), and in 1876 wrote an
+admirable primer of _English Literature_ (new and revised ed., 1900),
+followed in 1892 by _The History of Early English Literature_ (2 vols.,
+1892) down to the accession of Alfred, and _English Literature from the
+Beginnings to the Norman Conquest_ (1898). His other works include various
+volumes of sermons; _Poems_ (1888); _Dove Cottage_ (1890); _Theology in the
+English Poets--Cowper, Coleridge, Wordsworth, Burns_ (1874); _Tennyson, his
+Art and Relation to Modern Life_ (1894); _The Poetry of Robert Browning_
+(1902); _On Ten Plays of Shakespeare_ (1905); and _The Life Superlative_
+(1906).
+
+BROOK FARM, the name applied to a tract of land in West Roxbury,
+Massachusetts, on which in 1841-1847 a communistic experiment was
+unsuccessfully tried. The experiment was one of the practical
+manifestations of the spirit of "Transcendentalism," in New England, though
+many of the more prominent transcendentalists took no direct part in it.
+The project was originated by George Ripley, who also virtually directed it
+throughout. In his words it was intended "to insure a more natural union
+between intellectual and manual labour than now exists; to combine the
+thinker and the worker, as far as possible, in the same individual; to
+guarantee the highest mental freedom by providing all with labour adapted
+to their tastes and talents, and securing to them the fruits of their
+industry; to do away with the necessity of menial services by opening the
+benefits of education and the profits of labour to all; and thus to prepare
+a society of liberal, intelligent and cultivated persons whose relations
+with each other would permit a more simple and wholesome life than can be
+led amidst the pressure of our competitive institutions." In short, its aim
+was to bring about the best conditions for an ideal civilization, reducing
+to a minimum the labour necessary for mere existence, and by this and by
+the simplicity of its social machinery saving the maximum of time for
+mental and spiritual education and development. At a time when Ralph Waldo
+Emerson could write to Thomas Carlyle, "We are all a little wild here with
+numberless projects of social reform; not a reading man but has a draft of
+a new community in his waistcoat pocket,"--the Brook Farm project certainly
+did not appear as impossible a scheme as many others that were in the air.
+At all events it enlisted the co-operation of men whose subsequent careers
+show them to have been something more than visionaries. The association
+bought a tract of land about 10 m. from Boston, and in the summer of 1841
+began its enterprise with about twenty members. In September the "Brook
+Farm Institute of Agriculture and Education" was formally organized, the
+members [v.04 p.0646] signing the Articles of Association and forming an
+unincorporated joint-stock company. The farm was assiduously, if not very
+skilfully, cultivated, and other industries were established--most of the
+members paying by labour for their board--but nearly all of the income, and
+sometimes all of it, was derived from the school, which deservedly took
+high rank and attracted many pupils. Among these were included George
+William Curtis and his brother James Burrill Curtis, Father Isaac Thomas
+Hecker (1819-1888), General Francis C. Barlow (1834-1896), who as
+attorney-general of New York in 1871-1873 took a leading part in the
+prosecution of the "Tweed Ring." For three years the undertaking went on
+quietly and simply, subject to few outward troubles other than financial,
+the number of associates increasing to seventy or eighty. It was during
+this period that Nathaniel Hawthorne had his short experience of Brook
+Farm, of which so many suggestions appear in the _Blithedale Romance_,
+though his preface to later editions effectually disposed of the
+idea--which gave him great pain--that he had either drawn his characters
+from persons there, or had meant to give any actual description of the
+colony. Emerson refused, in a kind and characteristic letter, to join the
+undertaking, and though he afterwards wrote of Brook Farm with not
+uncharitable humour as "a perpetual picnic, a French Revolution in small,
+an age of reason in a patty-pan," among its founders were many of his near
+friends. In 1844 the growing need of a more scientific organization, and
+the influence which F.M.C. Fourier's doctrines, as modified by Albert
+Brisbane (1809-1890), had gained in the minds of Ripley and many of his
+associates, combined to change the whole plan of the community. It was
+transformed, with the strong approval of all its chief members and the
+consent of the rest, into a Fourierist "phalanx" in 1845. There was an
+accession of new members, a momentary increase of prosperity, a brilliant
+new undertaking in the publication of a weekly journal, the _Harbinger_, in
+which Ripley, Charles A. Dana, Francis G. Shaw and John S. Dwight were the
+chief writers, and to which James Russell Lowell, J.G. Whittier, George
+William Curtis, Parke Godwin, T.W. Higginson, Horace Greeley and many more
+now and then contributed. But the individuality of the old Brook Farm was
+gone. The association was not rescued even from financial troubles by the
+change. With increasing difficulty it kept on till the spring of 1846, when
+a fire which destroyed its nearly completed "phalanstery" brought losses
+which caused, or certainly gave the final ostensible reason for, its
+dissolution. The experiment was abandoned in the autumn of 1847. Besides
+Ripley and Hawthorne, the principal members of the community were Charles
+A. Dana, John S. Dwight, Minot Pratt (c. 1805-1878), the head farmer, who,
+like George Partridge Bradford (1808-1890), left in 1845, and Warren Burton
+(1810-1866) a preacher and, later, a writer on educational subjects.
+Indirectly connected with the experiment, also, as visitors for longer or
+shorter periods but never as regular members, were Emerson, Amos Bronson
+Alcott, Orestes A. Brownson, Theodore Parker and William Henry Channing,
+Margaret Fuller and Elizabeth Palmer Peabody. The estate itself, after
+passing through various hands, came in 1870 into the possession of the
+"Association of the Evangelical Lutheran Church for Works of Mercy," which
+established here an orphanage, known as the "Martin Luther Orphan Home."
+
+The best account of Brook Farm is Lindsay Swift's _Brook Farm, Its Members,
+Scholars and Visitors_ (New York, 1900). _Brook Farm: Historic and Personal
+Memoirs_ (Boston, 1894), is by Dr J.T. Codman, one of the pupils in the
+school. See also Morris Hillquit's _History of Socialism in the United
+States_ (New York, 1903).
+
+(E. L. B.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--_Pellia epiphylla_. Group of plants bearing mature
+sporogonia.
+
+From Cooke, _Handbook of British Hepaticae_.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--_Pellia epiphylla_.
+
+A, Longitudinal section of thallus at the time of fertilization. an,
+Antheridia; ar, archegonia; in, involucre.
+
+B, Longitudinal section of almost mature sporogonium attached to the
+thallus. in, Involucre; cal, calyptra; f, foot; s, seta; caps, capsule
+(semi-diagrammatic).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--_Pellia epiphylla_. Group of plants bearing mature
+sporogonia.
+
+From Cooke, _Handbook of British Hepaticae_.]
+
+_Pellia epiphylla_ (fig. 2) can be found at any season growing in large
+patches on the damp soil of woods, banks, &c. The broad flat thallus is
+green and may be a couple of inches long. It is sparingly branched, the
+branching being apparently dichotomous; the growing point is situated in a
+depression at the anterior end of each branch. The wing-like lateral
+portions of the thallus gradually thin out from the midrib; from the
+projecting lower surface of this numerous rhizoids spring. These are
+elongated superficial cells, and serve to fix the thallus to the soil and
+obtain water and salts from it. No leaf-like appendages are borne on the
+thallus, but short glandular hairs occur behind the apex. The plant is
+composed throughout of very similar living cells, the more superficial ones
+containing numerous chlorophyll grains, while starch is stored in the
+internal cells of the midrib. The cells contain a number of oil-bodies the
+function of which is imperfectly understood. The growth of the thallus
+proceeds by the regular segmentation of a single apical cell. The sexual
+organs are borne on the upper surface, and both antheridia and archegonia
+occur on the same branch (fig. 3, A). The antheridia (an) are scattered
+over the middle region of the thallus, and each is surrounded by a tubular
+upgrowth from the surface. The archegonia (ar) are developed in a group
+behind the apex, and the latter continues to grow for a time after their
+formation, so that they come to be seated in a depression of the upper
+surface. They are further protected by the growth of the hinder margin of
+the depression to form a scale-like involucre (in). Fertilization takes
+place about June, and the sporogonium is fully developed by the winter. The
+embryo developed from the fertilized ovum consists at first of a number of
+tiers of cells. Its terminal tier gives rise to the capsule, the first
+divisions in the four cells of the tier marking off the wall of the capsule
+from the cells destined to produce the spores. In fig. 4, C, which
+represents a longitudinal section of a young embryo of _Pellia_, these
+archesporial cells are shaded. The tiers below give rise to the seta and
+foot. The mature sporogonium (fig. 3, B) consists of the foot embedded in
+the tissue of the thallus, the seta, which remains short until just before
+the shedding of the spores, and the spherical capsule. It remains for long
+enclosed within the calyptra formed by the further development of the
+archegonial wall and surmounted by the neck of the archegonium. The
+calyptra is ultimately burst through, and in early spring the seta
+elongates rapidly, raising the dark-coloured capsule (fig. 2). In the young
+condition the wall of the capsule, which consists of two layers of cells,
+encloses a mass of similar cells developed from the archesporium. Some of
+these become spore-mother-cells and give rise by cell division to four
+spores, while others remain undivided and become the elaters. The latter
+are elongated spindle-shaped cells with thick brown spiral bands on the
+inside of their thin walls. They radiate out from a small plug of sterile
+cells projecting into the base of the capsule, and some are attached to
+this, while others lie free among the spores. The latter are large, and at
+first are unicellular; but in _Pellia_, which in this respect is
+exceptional, they commence their further development within the capsule,
+and thus consist of several cells when shed. [v.04 p.0647] The cells of the
+capsule wall have incomplete, brown, thickened rings on their walls, and
+the capsule opens by splitting into four valves, which bend away from one
+another, allowing the loose spores to be readily dispersed by the wind,
+assisted by the hygroscopic movements of the elaters. On falling upon damp
+soil the spores germinate, growing into a thallus, which gradually attains
+its full size and bears sexual organs.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Semi-diagrammatic figures of young embryos of
+Liverworts in longitudinal section. The cells which will produce the
+sporogenous tissue are shaded. (After Kienitz-Gerloff and Leitgeb.)
+
+A, _Riccia_.
+
+B, _Marchantia polymorpha_.
+
+C, _Pellia epiphylla_.
+
+D, _Anthoceros laevis_.
+
+E, _Cephalozia bicuspidata_.
+
+F, _Radula complanata_.]
+
+While the general course of the life-history of all liverworts resembles
+that of _Pellia_, the three great groups into which they are divided differ
+from one another in the characters of both generations. Each group exhibits
+a series leading from more simple to more highly organized forms, and the
+differentiation has proceeded on distinct and to some extent divergent
+lines in the three groups. The Marchantiales are a series of thalloid
+forms, in which the structure of the thallus is specialized to enable them
+to live in more exposed situations. The lowest members of the series
+(_Riccia_) possess the simplest sporogonia known, consisting of a wall of
+one layer of cells enclosing the spores. In the higher forms a sterile foot
+and seta is present, and sterile cells or elaters occur with the spores.
+The lower members of the Jungermanniales are also thalloid, but the thallus
+never has the complicated structure characteristic of the Marchantiales,
+and progress is in the direction of the differentiation of the plant into
+stem and leaf. Indications of how this may have come about are afforded by
+the lower group of the Anacrogynous Jungermanniaceae, and throughout the
+Acrogynous Jungermanniacae the plant has well-marked stem and leaves. The
+sporogonium even in the simplest forms has a sterile foot, but in this
+series also the origin of elaters from sterile cells can be traced. The
+Anthocerotales are a small and very distinct group, in which the
+gametophyte is a thallus, while the sporogonium possesses a sterile
+columella and is capable of long-continued growth and spore production. The
+mode of development of the sporogonium presents important differences in
+the three series that may be briefly referred to here. In fig. 4 young
+sporogonia of a number of liverworts are shown in longitudinal section, and
+the archesporial cells from which the spores and elaters will arise are
+shaded. In _Riccia_ (fig. 4, A) the whole mass of cells derived from the
+ovum forms a spherical capsule, the only sterile tissue being the single
+layer of peripheral cells forming the wall. In other Marchantiales (fig. 4,
+B) the lower half of the embryo separated by the first transverse wall (1,
+I) forms the sterile foot and seta, while in the upper half (ka) the
+peripheral layer forms the wall of the capsule, enclosing the archesporial
+cells from which spores and elaters arise. In the Jungermanniales (fig. 4,
+C, E, F) the embryo is formed of a number of tiers of cells, and the
+archesporium is defined by the first divisions parallel to the surface in
+the cells of one or more of the upper tiers; a number of tiers go to form
+the seta and foot, while the lowest segment (a) usually forms a small
+appendage of the latter. In the Anthocerotales (fig. 4, D) the lowest tiers
+form the foot, and the terminal tier the capsule. The first periclinal
+divisions in the cells of the terminal tier separate a central group of
+cells which form the sterile columella (col). The archesporium arises by
+the next divisions in the outer layer of cells, and thus extends over the
+summit of the columella. In none of the liverworts does the sporogonium
+develop by means of an apical cell, as is the rule in mosses.
+
+Leaving details of form and structure to be considered under the several
+groups, some general features of the Hepaticae may be looked at here in
+relation to the conditions under which the plants live. The organization of
+the gametophyte stands in the closest relation to the factors of light and
+moisture in the environment. With hardly an exception the liverworts are
+dorsiventral, and usually one side is turned to the substratum and the
+other exposed to the light. In thalloid forms a thinner marginal expansion
+or a definite wing increasing the surface exposed to the light can be
+distinguished from a thicker midrib serving for storage and conduction. The
+leaves and stem of the foliose forms effect the same division of labour in
+another way. The relation of the plant to its water supply varies within
+the group. In the Marchantiales the chief supply is obtained from the soil
+by the rhizoids, and its loss in transpiration is regulated and controlled.
+In most liverworts, on the other hand, water is absorbed directly by the
+whole general surface, and the rhizoids are of subordinate importance. Many
+forms only succeed in a constantly humid atmosphere, while others sustain
+drying for a period, though their powers of assimilation and growth are
+suspended in the dry state. The cell-walls are capable of imbibing water
+rapidly, and their thickness stands in relation to this rather than to the
+prevention of loss of water from the plant. The large surface presented by
+the leafy forms facilitates the retention and absorption of water. The
+importance of prolonging the moistened condition as long as possible is
+further shown by special adaptations to retain water either between the
+appressed lobes of the leaves or in special pitcher-like sacs. In thalloid
+forms fimbriate or lobed margins or outgrowths from the surface lead to the
+same result. Sometimes adaptations to protect the plant during seasons of
+drought, such as the rolling up of the thallus in many xerophytic
+Marchantiales, can be recognized, but more often a prolonged dry season is
+survived in some resting state. The formation of subterranean tubers, which
+persist when the rest of the plant is killed by drought, is an interesting
+adaptation to this end, and is found in all three groups (_e.g._ in species
+of _Riccia_, _Fossombronia_ and _Anthoceros_). No examples of total
+saprophytism or of parasitism are known, but two interesting cases of a
+symbiosis with other organisms which is probably a mutually beneficial one,
+though the nature of the physiological relation between the organisms is
+not clearly established, may be mentioned. Fungal hyphae occur in the
+rhizoids and in the cells of the lower region of the thallus of many
+liverworts, as in the endotrophic mycorhiza of higher plants. Colonies of
+_Nostoc_ are constantly found in the Anthocerotaceae and in _Blasia_. In
+the latter they are protected by special concave scales, while in the
+Anthocerotaceae they occupy some of the mucilage slits between the cells of
+the lower surface of the thallus.
+
+Other adaptations concern the protection of the sexual organs and
+sporogonia, and the retention of water in the neighbourhood of the
+archegonia to enable the spermatozoid to reach the ovum. In thalloid forms
+the sexual organs are often sunk in depressions, while in the foliose forms
+protection is afforded by the surrounding leaves. In addition special
+involucres around the archegonia have arisen independently in several
+series. The characters of the sporogonium have as their object the
+nutrition and effective distribution of the spores, and only exceptionally,
+as in the Anthocerotaceae, are concerned with independent assimilation. In
+most forms the capsule is raised above the general surface at the time of
+opening, usually by the rapid growth of the seta, but in the Marchantiaceae
+by the sporogonia being raised on a special archegoniophore. The elaters
+serve as lines of conduction of plastic material to the developing spores,
+and later usually assist in their dispersal. The spores, with few
+exceptions, are unicellular when shed, and may develop at once or after a
+resting period. In their germination a short filament of a few cells is
+usually developed, and the apical cell of the plant is established in the
+terminal cell. In other cases a small plate or mass of cells is formed.
+With one or two exceptions, however, this preliminary [v.04 p.0648] phase,
+which may be compared with the protonema of mosses, is of short duration.
+
+The power of vegetative propagation is widely spread. When artificially
+divided small fragments of the gametophyte are found to be capable of
+growing into new individuals. Apart from the separation of branches by the
+decay of older portions, special gemmae are found in many species. In
+_Aneura_ the contents of superficial cells, after becoming surrounded by a
+new wall and dividing, escape as bi-cellular gemmae. Usually the gemmae
+arise by the outgrowth of superficial cells, and become free by breaking
+away from their stalk. When separated they may be single cells or consist
+of two or numerous cells. In _Blasia_ and _Marchantia_ the gemmae are
+formed within tubular or cup-shaped receptacles, out of which they are
+forced by the swelling of mucilage secreted by special hairs.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--_Marchantia polymorpha_. (After Sachs.)
+
+A. Portion of thallus (t) bearing two stalked antheridiophores (hu).
+
+B. Longitudinal section through a young antheridiophore. The antheridia (a)
+are seated in depressions of the upper surface (o); b, scales; h, rhizoids.
+
+C. Longitudinal section of antheridium; st, stalk; w, wall.
+
+D. Two spermatozoids.]
+
+_Marchantiales._--The plants of this group are most abundant in warm sunny
+localities, and grow for the most part on soil or rocks often in exposed
+situations. Nine genera are represented in Britain. _Targionia_ is found on
+exposed rocks, but the other forms are less strikingly xerophytic;
+_Marchantia polymorpha_ and _Lunularia_ spread largely by the gemmae formed
+in the special gemma-cups on the thallus, and occur commonly in
+greenhouses. The large thallus of _Conocephalus_ covers stones by the
+waterside, while _Dumortiera_ is a hygrophyte confined to damp and shady
+situations. Among the Ricciaceae, most of which grow on soil,
+_Ricciocarpus_ and _Riccia natans_ occur floating on still water. The
+dorsiventral thallus is constructed on the same plan throughout the group,
+and shows a lower region composed of cells containing little chlorophyll
+and an upper stratum specialized for assimilation and transpiration. The
+lower region usually forms a more or less clearly marked midrib, and
+consists of parenchymatous cells, some of which may contain oil-bodies or
+be differentiated as mucilage cells or sclerenchyma fibres. Behind the
+apex, which has a number of initial cells, a series of amphigastria or
+ventral scales is formed. These consist of a single layer of cells, and
+their terminal appendages often fold over the apex and protect it. Usually
+they stand in two rows, but sometimes accessory rows occur, and in _Riccia_
+only a single median row is present. The thallus bears two sorts of
+rhizoids, wider ones with smooth walls which grow directly down into the
+soil, and longer, narrower ones, with peg-like thickenings of the wall
+projecting into the cell-cavity. The peg-rhizoids, which are peculiar to
+the group, converge under shelter of the amphigastria to the midrib,
+beneath which they form a wick-like strand. Through this water is conducted
+by capillarity as well as in the cell cavities. The upper stratum of the
+thallus is constructed to regulate the giving off of the water thus
+absorbed. It consists of a series of air-chambers (fig. 6, B) formed by
+certain lines of the superficial cells growing up from the surface, and as
+the thallus increases in area continuing to divide so as to roof in the
+chamber. The layer forming the roof is called the "epidermis," and the
+small opening left leading into the chamber is bounded by a special ring of
+cells and forms the "stoma" or air-pore. In most species of _Riccia_ the
+air-chambers are only narrow passages, but in the other Marchantiales they
+are more extended. In the simplest cases the sides and base of the chambers
+perform the work of assimilation (_e.g._ _Corsinia_). Usually the surface
+is extended by the development of partitions in the chambers (_Reboulia_),
+or by the growth from the floor of the chamber of short filaments of
+chlorophyllous cells (_Targionia_. _Marchantia_, fig. 6). The stomata may
+be simply surrounded by one or more series of narrower cells, or, as in the
+thallus of _Marchantia_ and on the archegoniophores of other forms, may
+become barrel-shaped structures by the division of the ring of cells
+bounding the pore. In some cases the lowermost circle of cells can be
+approximated so as to close the pore. In _Dumortiera_ the air-chambers are
+absent, their formation being only indicated at the apex.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--_Marchantia polymorpha._ A, Stoma in surface view.
+B, Air-chamber with the filaments of assimilating cells and stoma in
+vertical section.
+
+From Strasburger's _Text-book of Botany_.]
+
+The sexual organs are always situated on the morphologically upper surface
+of the thallus. In _Riccia_ they are scattered singly and protected by the
+air-chamber layer. The scattered position of the antheridia is also found
+in some of the higher forms, but usually they are grouped on special
+antheridiophores which in _Marchantia_ are stalked, disk-shaped
+branch-systems (fig. 5). The individual antheridia are sunk in depressions
+from which the spermatozoids are in some cases forcibly ejected. The
+archegonial groups in _Corsinia_ are sunk in a depression of the upper
+surface, while in _Targionia_ they are displaced to the lower side of the
+anterior end of a branch. In all the other forms they are borne on special
+archegoniophores which have the form of a disk-shaped head borne on a
+stalk. The archegoniophore may be an upgrowth from the dorsal surface of
+the thallus (_e.g._ _Plagiochasma_), or the apex of the branch may take
+part in its formation. When the disk, around which archegonia are developed
+at intervals, is simply raised on a stalk-like continuation of the branch,
+a single groove protecting a strand of peg-rhizoids is found on the ventral
+face of the stalk (_Reboulia_). In the highest forms (_e.g._ _Marchantia_)
+the archegoniophore corresponds to the repeatedly branched continuation of
+the thallus, and the archegonia arise in relation to the growing points
+which are displaced to the lower surface of the disk. In this case two
+grooves are found in the stalk. The archegonia are protected by being sunk
+in depressions of the disk or by a special two-lipped involucre. In
+_Marchantia_ and _Fimbriaria_ an additional investment termed in
+descriptive works the perianth, grows up around each fertilized archegonium
+(fig. 1, 3, d). The simple sporogonium found in the Ricciaceae (fig. 4, A)
+has been described above; as the spores develop, the wall of the spherical
+capsule is absorbed and the spores lie free in the calyptra, by the decay
+of which they are set free. In _Corsinia_ the capsule has a well-developed
+foot, but the sterile cells found among the spore-mother-cells do not
+become elaters, but remain thin-walled and simply contribute to the
+nutrition of the spores. In all other forms elaters with spirally thickened
+walls are found. The seta is short, the capsule being usually raised upon
+the archegoniophore. Dehiscence takes place either by the upper portion of
+the capsule splitting into short teeth or falling away as a whole or in
+fragments as a sort of operculum. The spores on germination form a short
+germ-tube, in the terminal cell of which the apical cell is established,
+but the direction of growth of the young thallus is usually not in the same
+straight line as the germ-tube. The Marchantiales are divided into a number
+of groups which represent distinct lines of advance from forms like the
+Ricciaceae, but the details of their classification cannot be entered upon
+here. The general nature of the progression exhibited by the group as a
+whole will, however, be evident from the above account.
+
+_Jungermanniales._--This large series of liverworts, which presents great
+variety in the organization of the sexual generation, is divided into two
+main groups according to whether the formation of archegonia terminates the
+growth of the branch or does not utilize the apex. The latter condition is
+characteristic of the more primitive group of the Anacrogynous
+Jungermanniaceae, in which the branch continues its growth after the
+formation of archegonia so that they (and later the sporogonia) stand on
+the dorsal surface of the thallus or leafy plant. In the Acrogynous
+Jungermanniaceae the plant is throughout foliose, and the archegonia occupy
+the ends of the main shoot or of its branches. The antheridia are usually
+globular and long-stalked. The capsule opens by splitting into four halves.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--_Blasia pusilla._ The margin of the thallus bears
+leaf-life lobes. r, Rhizoids; s, sporogonium.
+
+From Strasburger's _Text-book of Botany_.]
+
+_Jungermanniaceae Anacrogynae._--The great range of form in the sexual
+plant is well illustrated by the nine genera of this group [v.04 p.0649]
+which occur in Britain. One thalloid form has already been described in
+_Pellia_ (fig. 2). _Sphaerocarpus_, which occurs rarely in stubble fields,
+is in many respects one of the simplest of the liverworts. The small
+thallus bears the antheridia and archegonia, each of which is surrounded by
+a tubular involucre, on the upper surface of distinct individuals. The
+sporogonium has a small foot, but the sterile cells among the spores do not
+develop into elaters. The same is true of the capsule of _Riella_. The
+plants of this genus, none of the species of which are British, grow in
+shallow water rooted in the mud, and are unlike all other liverworts in
+appearance. The usually erect thallus has a broad wing-like outgrowth from
+the dorsal surface and two rows of rather large scales below. No provision
+for the opening of the capsule exists in either of these genera. In
+_Aneura_ the form of the plant may be complicated by a division of labour
+between root-like, stem-like and assimilating branches of the thallus. The
+sexual organs are borne on short lateral branches, while in the related
+genus _Metzgeria_, which occurs on rocks and tree trunks, the small sexual
+branches spring from the lower surface of the midrib of the narrow thallus.
+In these two genera the elaters are attached to a sterile group of cells
+projecting into the upper end of the capsule, and on dehiscence remain
+connected with the tips of the valves. _Pallavicinia_ and some related
+genera have a definite midrib and broad wings formed of one layer of cells,
+and are of interest owing to the presence of a special water-conducting
+strand in the midrib. This consists of elongated lignified cells with
+pitted walls. _Blasia pusilla_, which occurs commonly by ditches and
+streams, affords a transition to the foliose types. Its thallus (fig. 7)
+has thin marginal lobes of limited growth, which are comparable to the more
+definite leaves of other anacrogynous forms. The ventral surface bears flat
+scales in addition to the concave scales which, as mentioned above, are
+inhabited by _Nostoc_. This interesting liverwort produces two kinds of
+gemmae, and in the localities in which it grows is largely reproduced by
+their means. In _Fossombronia_, of which there are a number of British
+species, the plant consists of a flattened stem creeping on muddy soil and
+bearing two rows of large obliquely-placed leaves. The sexual organs are
+borne on the upper surface of the midrib, and the sporogonium is surrounded
+by a bell-shaped involucre which grows up after fertilization. _Treubia_,
+which grows on rotting wood in the mountain forests of Java, is similarly
+differentiated into stem and leaf, and is the largest liverwort known,
+reaching a length of thirty centimetres. Lastly _Haplomitrium_, a rare
+British genus, forms with the exotic _Calobryum_, an isolated group which
+is most naturally placed among the anacrogynous forms although the
+archegonia are in terminal groups. The erect branches bear three rows of
+leaves, and spring from a creeping axis from which root-like branches
+destitute of rhizoids extend into the substratum.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--_Chiloscyphus polyanthos._ The plant bears three
+mature sporogonia which show the elongation of the seta. One of the
+sporogonia has opened. B, The "perianth" with the small perichaetial leaves
+below it. (After Goebel.)]
+
+_Jungermanniaceae Acrogynae._--The plant consists of leafy shoots, the
+origin of which can be understood in the light of the foliose forms
+described above. The great majority of existing liverworts belong to this
+group, the general plan of construction of which is throughout very
+similar. In Britain thirty-nine genera with numerous species are found.
+With few exceptions the stem grows by means of a pyramidal apical cell
+cutting off three rows of segments. Each segment gives rise to a leaf, but
+usually the leaves of the ventral row (amphigastria) are smaller and
+differently shaped from those of the two lateral rows; in a number of
+genera they are wanting altogether. Sometimes the leaves retain their
+transverse insertion on the stem, and the two lobes of which they consist
+are developed equally. More often they come to be obliquely inserted, the
+anterior edge of each leaf lying under or over the edge of the leaf in
+front. The two lobes are often unequally developed. In _Scapania_ the upper
+lobe is the smaller, while in _Radula_, _Poretta_ and the _Lejeuneae_ this
+is the case with the lower lobe. The folding of one lobe against another
+assists in the retention of water. Pitcher-like structures have arisen in
+different ways in a number of genera, and are especially common in
+epiphytic forms (_Frullania_, _Lepidolaena_, _Pleurozia_). In some forms
+the leaves are finely divided, and along with the hair-like paraphyllia
+form a loose weft around the stem (_Trichocolea_). The rhizoids spring from
+the lower surface of the stem, and sometimes from the bases of the leaves.
+The branches arise below and by the side of the leaves.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--_Cephalozia bicuspidata._ Longitudinal section of
+the summit of a shoot bearing a nearly mature sporogonium, sg, still
+enclosed in the calyptra; ar', archegonia which have remained unfertilized;
+st, stem; b, leaf; p, perianth. (After Hofmeister.)]
+
+The sexual organs may occur on the same or on distinct individuals. The
+antheridia are protected by leaves which are often modified in shape. The
+archegonia are borne at the apex of the main stem or of a lateral branch. A
+single archegonium may arise from the apical cell (_Lejeunea_); more
+commonly a number of others are formed from the surrounding segments. The
+leaves below the archegonial group are frequently modified in size and
+shape, but the chief protection is afforded by a tubular perianth, which
+corresponds to a coherent whorl of leaves and grows up independently of
+fertilization. The perianth serves also to enclose and protect the
+sporogonium during its development. In a number of forms belonging to
+different groups the end of the stem on which the sporogonium is borne
+grows downwards so as to form a hollow tubular sac enclosing the
+sporogonium; in other cases this marsupial sac is formed by the base of the
+sporogonium boring into the thickened end of the stem. The sac usually
+penetrates into the soil and bears rhizoids on its outer surface. _Kantia_,
+_Calypogeia_ and _Saccogyna_ are British forms, which have their sporogonia
+protected in this way. The sporogonium is very similar throughout the group
+(figs. 8, 9). At maturity the seta elongates rapidly, and the wall of the
+capsule splits more or less completely into four valves, allowing the
+elaters and spores to escape. In the Jubuloideae, which in other respects
+form a well-marked group, the seta is short and the elaters extend from the
+upper part of the capsule to the base; at dehiscence they remain fixed to
+the valves into which the capsule splits. The germinating spore usually
+forms a short filament, but in other cases a flat plate of cells growing by
+a two-sided apical cell is first formed (_Radula_, _Lejeunea_). In one or
+two tropical forms the pro-embryonic stage is prolonged, and leafy shoots
+only arise in connexion with the sexual organs. In _Protocephalozia_, which
+grows on bare earth in South America, this pro-embryo is filamentous, while
+in _Lejeunea Metzgeriopsis_, which grows on the leaves of living plants, it
+is a flat branched thallus closely applied to the substratum. Other cases
+of the plant being, with the exception of the sexual branches, apparently
+thalloid, are on the other hand to be explained as due to the reduction of
+the leaves and flattening of the stem of a shoot (_Pteropsiella_,
+_Zoopsis_).
+
+The Acrogynous Jungermanniaceae fall into a number of natural groups, which
+cannot, however, be followed out here. They occur in very various
+situations, on the ground, on rocks and stones, on tree trunks, and, in the
+damp tropics, on leaves. Usually they form larger or smaller tufts of a
+green colour, but some forms have a reddish tint.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--_Anthoceros laevis._ sp, Sporogonium; c,
+columella.
+
+From Strasburger's _Text-book of Botany_.]
+
+_Anthocerotales._--This small and very natural group includes the three
+genera _Anthoceros_, _Dendroceros_ and _Notothylas_, and stands in [v.04
+p.0650] many respects in an isolated position among the Bryophyta. Three
+species of _Anthoceros_ occur in Britain, growing on the damp soil of
+fields, ditches, &c. The dark green thallus has an ill-defined midrib, and
+is composed of parenchymatous cells. In each assimilating cell there is
+usually a single large chloroplast. The apical region, which has a single
+initial cell, is protected by mucilage secreted by the mucilage slits,
+which are small pit-like depressions between superficial cells of the lower
+surface. Mucilage is also often formed in intercellular spaces within the
+thallus. Colonies of _Nostoc_ are constantly found living in some of the
+mucilage slits which then become enlarged. The sexual organs are scattered
+over the upper surface. The stalked globular antheridia are exceptional in
+being formed endogenously, and are situated in groups in special
+intercellular spaces. The superficial layer of cells bounding the cavity
+does not break down until the antheridia are nearly mature. Occasionally
+antheridia develop on the surface of shaded portions of the thallus. The
+necks of the archegonia hardly project above the general surface of the
+thallus. In structure and development they agree with other Hepaticae,
+though differences of detail exist. The young sporogonium is protected by a
+thick calyptra derived from the tissue of the thallus around the
+archegonium. The sporogonium consists of a large bulbous foot, the
+superficial cells of which grow out into processes, and a long capsule,
+which continues to grow for months by the activity of a zone of cells
+between it and the foot, and may attain the length of an inch and a half.
+The wall of the capsule is several layers of cells thick, and since the
+epidermis contains functional stomata and the underlying cells possess
+chlorophyll it is capable of assimilation. In the centre of the capsule is
+a strand of narrow elongated cells forming the columella, and between this
+and the wall spores mixed with elaters are formed from the dome-shaped
+archesporium, the origin of which has already been described (fig. 4, D).
+The capsule opens by splitting into two valves from the apex downwards, and
+the mature spores escape while others are developing in succession below.
+In _Dendroceros_, which grows as an epiphyte in the tropics, the thallus
+has a well-defined midrib and broad wings composed of a single layer of
+cells. The capsule is similar to that of _Anthoceros_, but has no stomata,
+and the elaters have spirally thickened walls. Some species of _Anthoceros_
+agree with it in these respects. _Notothylas_ resembles _Anthoceros_ in its
+thallus, but the sporogonium is much smaller. In some species, although the
+columella and archesporium arise in the usual way, both give rise to
+mingled spores and elaters, and no sterile columella is developed.
+
+_Musci_ (Mosses).
+
+Though the number of species of mosses is far greater than of liverworts,
+the group offers much less diversity of form. The sexual generation is
+always a leafy plant, which is not developed directly from the spore but is
+borne on a well-marked and usually filamentous protonema. The general
+course of the life-history and the main features of form and structure will
+be best understood by a brief account of a particular example.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--_Funaria hygrometrica._
+
+A, Leafy shoot (g) bearing a young sporogonium enclosed in the calyptra
+(c).
+
+B, Similar plant with an almost mature sporogonium; s, seta; f, capsule; c,
+calyptra.
+
+C, Median longitudinal section of a capsule, with the seta gradually
+widening into the apophysis at its base; d, operculum; p, peristome; a,
+annulus; c, columella; s, archesporium; h, air-space between the spore-sac
+and the wall of the capsule.
+
+(From Goebel's _Pflanzenmorphologie_, by permission of W Engelmann)]
+
+_Funaria hygrometrica_ is a moss of very common occurrence even in towns on
+the soil of paths, at the foot of walls and in similar places. The small
+plants grow closely crowded in tufts, and consist of short leafy shoots
+attached to the soil by numerous fine rhizoids. The latter, in contrast to
+the rhizoids of liverworts, are composed of rows of elongated cells and are
+branched. The leaves are simple, and except for the midrib are only one
+layer of cells thick. The structure of the stem though simple is more
+complicated than in any liverwort. The superficial cells are thick-walled,
+and there is a central strand of narrow cells forming a water-conducting
+tissue. The small strand of elongated cells in the midrib of the leaf runs
+down into the stem, but is not usually connected with the central strand.
+The sexual organs are developed in groups at the apices, the antheridial
+group usually terminating the main axis while the archegonia are borne on a
+lateral branch. The brown tint of the hair-like paraphyses mixed with
+antheridia (fig. 15) makes the male branch conspicuous, while the
+archegonia have to be carefully looked for enclosed by the surrounding
+leaves (fig. 16, B). The sporogonium developed from the fertilized ovum
+grows by means of a two-sided apical cell (fig. 16 A), and is at first of
+uniform thickness. After a time the upper region increases in diameter and
+forms the capsule, while the lower portion forms the long seta and the foot
+which is embedded in the end of the stem. With the growth of the
+sporogonium the archegonial wall, which for a time kept pace with it, is
+broken through, the larger upper part terminated by the neck being carried
+up on the capsule as the calyptra, while the basal portion remains as a
+tubular sheath round the lower end of the seta (cf. figs. 16, C, and fig.
+11, A, B). The seta widens out at the base of the capsule into a region
+known as the apophysis. The peripheral cells of the seta are thick-walled,
+and it has a central strand of elongated conducting cells. In the epidermis
+of the apophysis functional stomata, similar to those of the higher plants,
+are present and, since cells containing chlorophyll are present below the
+superficial layers of the apophysis and capsule, the sporogonium is capable
+of independent assimilation. The construction of the capsule will be best
+understood from the median longitudinal section (fig. 11, C). The central
+region extending between the apophysis and the operculum is composed of
+sterile tissue and forms the columella (c). Immediately around this is the
+layer of cells from which the spores will be developed (s), and the layers
+of cells on either side of this form the walls of the spore-sac, which will
+contain the spores. Between the wall of the capsule, which is composed of
+several layers of cells, and the spore-sac is a wide intercellular space
+(h) bridged across by trabeculae consisting of rows of
+chlorophyll-containing cells. At the junction of the operculum (d) with the
+rest of the capsule is a circle of cells forming the annulus (a), by help
+of which the operculum is detached at maturity as a small lid. Its removal
+does not, however, leave the mouth of the capsule wide open, for around the
+margin are two circles of pointed teeth forming the peristome. These are
+the thickened cell-walls of a definite layer of cells (p), and appear [v.04
+p.0651] as separate teeth owing to the breaking down of the unthickened
+cell-walls. The numerous spores which have been developed in the spore sac
+can thus only escape from the pendulous capsule through narrow slits
+between the teeth, and these are closed in damp air. The unicellular spores
+when supplied with moisture germinate (fig. 12) and give rise to the sexual
+generation. A filamentous protonema is first developed, some of the
+branches of which are exposed to the light and contain abundant
+chlorophyll, while others penetrate the substratum as brown or colourless
+rhizoids. The moss-plants arise from single projecting cells, and numerous
+plants may spring from the protonema developed from a single spore.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--_Funaria hygrometrica._ (After Goebel.)
+
+A, Germinating spores. s, Wall of spore; v, vacuole; w, rhizoid.
+
+B, Part of a developed protonema. h, Creeping filament with brown walls
+from which the filaments of chlorophyll-containing cells (b) arise; k,
+young moss-plant; w, its first rhizoid.]
+
+The majority of the mosses belong to the same great group as _Funaria_, the
+Bryales. The other two subdivisions of the Musci are each represented by a
+single genus. In the Andreaeales the columella does not extend to the upper
+end of the capsule, and the latter opens by a number of lateral slits. The
+Sphagnales also have a dome-shaped spore-sac continued over the columella,
+and, though their capsule opens by an operculum, they differ widely from
+other mosses in the development of the sporogonium as well as in the
+characters of the sexual generation. The three groups are described
+separately below, but some more general features of the mosses may be
+considered here.
+
+On the whole mosses grow in drier situations than the liverworts, and the
+arrangements they present for the conduction of water in the plant are also
+more complete and suggest in some cases comparisons with the higher plants.
+In spite of this, however, they are in great part dependent on the
+absorption of water through the general surface of the shoot, and the power
+of rapid imbibition possessed by their cell-walls, the crowded position of
+the small leaves on the stem, and special adaptations for the retention of
+water on the surface, have the same significance as in the foliose
+liverworts. The different appearance of exposed mosses in dry weather and
+after a shower illustrates this relation to the water supply. The protonema
+is always a well-marked stage in the life-history. Not only does a
+moss-plant never arise directly from the spore, but in all cases of
+vegetative reproduction, apart from the separation of branches by decay of
+older regions of the plant, a protonema is found. Usually the protonema is
+filamentous and ceases to be evident after the plants have developed. But
+in some small mosses (e.g. _Ephemerum_) it plays the chief part in
+assimilation and lives on from year to year. In _Sphagnum_, _Andreaea_ and
+some genera of the Bryales the protonema or some of its branches have the
+form of flat plates or masses of cells. The formation of the moss-plant on
+the protonema is always from a single cell and is similar in all mosses.
+The first three walls in this cell intersect one another, and define the
+three-sided pyramidal apical cell by means of which the shoot continues to
+grow. In _Fissidens_ and a few other mosses the apical cell is two-sided.
+The leaves formed by the successive segments gradually attain their normal
+size and structure. Each segment of the initial cell gives rise to a leaf
+and a portion of the stem; the branches arise from the lower portion of a
+segment and stand immediately below a leaf. The leaves may form three
+vertical rows, but usually their arrangement, owing to the direction of the
+segment walls at the apex, becomes more complicated. Their growth proceeds
+by means of a two-sided apical cell, and the midrib does not become more
+than one cell thick until later. In addition to the leaves the stem often
+bears hair-like structures of different kinds, some of which correspond to
+modified branches of protonema. The branched filamentous rhizoids which
+spring from the lower region of the stem also correspond to protonemal
+branches. The structure of both stem and leaf reaches a high grade of
+organization in some mosses. Not only are thick-walled sclerenchymatous
+cells developed to give rigidity to the periphery of the stem and the
+midrib of the leaf, but in many cases a special water-conducting tissue,
+consisting of elongated cells, the end walls of which are thin and oblique,
+forms a definite central strand in the stem. In the forms in which it is
+most highly developed (Polytrichaceae) this tissue, which is comparable
+with the xylem of higher plants, is surrounded by a zone of tissue
+physiologically comparable to phloem, and in the rhizome may be limited by
+an endodermis. The conducting strands in the leaves show the same tissues
+as in the central strand of the stem, and in the Polytrichaceae and some
+other mosses are in continuity with it. The independent origin of this
+conducting system is of great interest for comparison with the vascular
+system of the sporophyte of the higher plants.
+
+The sexual organs, with the exception of the antheridia of _Sphagnum_, are
+borne at the apices of the main shoot or of branches. Their general
+similarity to the mature antheridia and archegonia of liverworts and the
+main difference in their development have been referred to. The antheridia
+open by means of a cap cell or groups of cells with mucilaginous contents.
+The details of construction of the sporogonium are referred to below. In
+all cases (except _Archidium_) a columella is present, and all the cells
+derived from the archesporium produce spores, no elaters being formed. In a
+few cases the germination of the spore commences within the capsule. The
+development of the sporogonium proceeds in all cases (except in _Sphagnum_)
+by means of an apical cell cutting off two rows of segments. The first
+periclinal division in the region forming the capsule separates an inner
+group of cells (the endothecium) form the peripheral layer (amphithecium).
+In _Sphagnum_, as in _Anthoceros_, the archesporium is derived from the
+amphithecium; in all other mosses it is the outermost layer of the
+endothecium.
+
+Vegetative propagation is widely spread in the mosses, and, as mentioned
+above, a protonema is always formed in the development of the new plant.
+The social growth of the plants characteristic of many mosses is a result
+of the formation of numerous plants on the original protonema and on
+developments from the rhizoids. Besides this, gemmae may be formed on the
+protonema, on the leaves or at the apex, and some mosses have specialized
+shoots for their better protection or distribution. Thus in _Georgia_ the
+stalked, multicellular gemmae are borne at the ends of shoots surrounded by
+a rosette of larger leaves, and in _Aulacomnium androgynum_ they are raised
+on an elongated leafless region of the shoot. In other cases detached
+leaves or shoots may give rise to new plants, and when a moss is
+artificially divided almost any fragment may serve for reproduction.
+
+Even in those rare cases in which the sexual generation can be developed
+without the intervention of spore production from the tissues of the
+sporogonium, a protonema is formed from cut pieces of the seta or in some
+cases from intact sporogonia still attached to the plant. This phenomenon
+of _apospory_ was first discovered in mosses, but is now also known in a
+number of ferns (see PTERIDOPHYTA).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--_Sphagnum acutifolium._ (After Schimper.)
+
+A. Longitudinal section of apex of a bud bearing archegonia (ar), enclosed
+by the large leaves (y); ch, small perichaetial leaves.
+
+B. Longitudinal section of the sporogonium borne on the pseudopodium (ps);
+c, calyptra; ar, neck of archegonium; sg', foot; sg, capsule.
+
+C. _S. squarrosum._ Ripe sporogonium raised on the pseudopodium (qs) above
+the enclosing leaves (ch); c, the ruptured calyptra; sg, capsule; d,
+operculum.]
+
+_Sphagnales._--The single genus _Sphagnum_ occupies a very distinct and
+isolated position among mosses. The numerous species, which are familiar as
+the bog-mosses, are so similar that minute structural characters have to be
+relied on in their identification. The plants occur in large patches of a
+pale green or reddish colour on moors, and, when filling up small lakes or
+pools, may attain a length of some feet. Their growth has played a large
+part in the formation of peat. The species are distributed in temperate and
+arctic climates, but in the tropics only occur at high levels. The
+protonema forms a flat, lobed, thalloid structure attached to the soil by
+rhizoids, and the plants arise from marginal cells. The main shoot bears
+numerous branches which appear to stand in whorls; some of them bend down
+and become applied to the surface of the main axis. The structure of the
+stem and leaves is peculiar. The former shows on cross-section a
+thin-walled central tissue surrounded by a zone of thick-walled cells.
+Outside this come one to five layers of large clear cells, which when
+mature are dead and empty; their walls are strengthened with a spiral
+thickening and perforated with round pores. They serve to absorb and
+conduct water by capillarity. The leaves have no midrib and similar empty
+cells occur regularly among the narrow chlorophyll-containing cells, which
+thus appear as a green network. The antheridia are globular and have long
+stalks. They stand by the side of leaves of special club-shaped branches.
+The archegonial groups occupy the apices of short branches (fig. 13, A.).
+The mature sporogonium consists of a wide foot separated by a constriction
+from the globular capsule (B). There is no distinct seta, but the capsule
+is raised on a leafless outgrowth of the end of the branch called a
+pseudopodium (C, qs). The capsule, the wall of which bears rudimentary
+stomata, has a small operculum but no peristome. There is a short, wide
+columella, over which the dome-shaped spore-sac extends, and no air-space
+is present between the spore-sac and the wall. In the embryo a number of
+tiers of cells are first formed. The lower tiers [v.04 p.0652] form the
+foot, while in the upper part the first divisions mark off the columella,
+around which the archesporium, derived from the amphithecium, extends. The
+sporogonium when nearly mature bursts the calyptra irregularly. The capsule
+opens explosively in dry weather, the operculum and spores being thrown to
+a distance. The spore on germination forms a short filament which soon
+broadens out into the thalloid protonema. Some twelve species of _Sphagnum_
+are found in Britain.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.--_Andreaea petrophila_. Plant bearing opened
+capsule.
+
+(k) ps, Pseudopodium.
+
+c, Calyptra.
+
+spf, Foot of sporogonium.
+
+From Strasburger's _Textbook of Botany_]
+
+_Andreaeales._--The species of the single genus _Andreaea_ (fig. 14) are
+small, dark-coloured mosses growing for the most part in tufts on bare
+rocks in alpine and arctic regions. Four species occur on alpine rocks in
+Britain. The spore on germination gives rise to a small mass of cells from
+which one or more short filaments grow. The filament soon broadens into a
+ribbon-shaped thallus, several cells thick, which is closely applied to the
+rock. Erect branches may arise from the protonema, and gemmae may be
+developed on it. The stem of the plant, which arises in the usual way, has
+no conducting strand and the leaves may or may not have midribs. The leaf
+grows by a dome-shaped instead of by the usual two-sided initial cell. The
+antheridia are long-stalked. The upper portion of the archegonial wall is
+carried up as a calyptra on the sporogonium, which, as in _Sphagnum_, has
+no seta and is raised on a pseudopodium. The development of the sporogonium
+proceeds as in the Bryales, but the dome-shaped archesporium extends over
+the summit of the columella and an air-space is wanting. The capsule does
+not open by an operculum but by four or six longitudinal slits, which do
+not reach either the base or apex. In one exotic species the splits occur
+only at the upper part of the capsule, and the terminal cap breaks away.
+This isolated example thus appears to approach the Bryales in its mode of
+dehiscence.
+
+_Bryales._--In contrast to the preceding two this group includes a very
+large number of genera and species. Thus even in Britain between five and
+six hundred species belonging to more than one hundred genera are found.
+They occur in the most varied situations, on soil, on rocks and trees, and,
+in a few instances (_Fontinalis_), in water. Although exhibiting a wide
+range in size and in the structural complexity of both generations, they
+all conform to a general type, so that _Funaria_, described above, will
+serve as a fair example of the group. The protonema is usually filamentous,
+and in some of the simplest forms is long-lived, while the small plants
+borne on it serve mainly to protect the sexual organs and sporogonia. This
+is the case in _Ephemerum_, which grows on the damp soil of clayey fields,
+and the plants are even more simply constructed in _Buxbaumia_, which
+occurs on soil rich in humus and is possibly partially saprophytic. In this
+moss the filamentous protonema is capable of assimilation, but the leaves
+of the small plants are destitute of chlorophyll, so that they are
+dependent on the protonema. The male plant has no definite stem, and
+consists of a single concave leaf protecting the antheridium. The female
+plant is rather more highly organized, consisting of a short stem bearing a
+few leaves around the group of archegonia. The sporogonium is of large size
+and highly organized, though it presents peculiar features in the
+peristome. _Buxbaumia_ has been regarded by Goebel as representing a stage
+which other mosses have passed, and has been described by him as the
+simplest type of moss. In _Ephemerum_ also we may probably regard the
+relation of the small plants to the protonema as a primitive one. On the
+other hand, in the case of _Ephemeropsis_, which grows on the leaves of
+living plants in Java, the high organization of the sporogonium makes it
+probable that the persistent protonema is an adaptation to the peculiar
+conditions of life. A highly developed protonema provided with leaf-like
+assimilating organs is found in _Georgia_, _Diphyscium_ and _Oedipodium_,
+all of which show peculiarities in the sporogonium as well. The cells of
+the protonema of _Schistostega_, which lives in the shade of caves, are so
+constructed as to concentrate the feeble available light on the
+chloroplasts.
+
+We may perhaps regard the persistent protonema bearing small leafy plants
+as a primitive condition, and look upon those larger plants which remain
+unbranched and bear the sexual organs at the apex (e.g. _Schistostega_) as
+representing the next stage. From this condition different lines of
+specialization in the form and structure of the plant can be recognized. A
+large number of mosses stand at about the same grade as _Funaria_, in that
+the plants are small, sparingly branched, usually radial, and do not show a
+very highly differentiated internal structure. In others the form of the
+plant becomes more complex by copious branching and the differentiation of
+shoots of different orders. In these cases the shoot system is often more
+or less dorsiventral, and the sexual organs are borne on short lateral
+branches (e.g. _Thuidium tamariscinum_). The Polytrichaceae, on the other
+hand, show a specialization in structure rather than in form. The high
+organization of their conducting system has been referred to above, but
+though many species are able to exist in relatively dry situations, the
+plants are still dependent on the absorption of water by the general
+surface. The parallel lamellae of assimilating cells which grow from the
+upper surface of the leaf in these and some other mosses probably serve to
+retain water in the neighbourhood of the assimilating cells and so prolong
+their activity. As common adaptive features in the leaves the occurrence of
+papillae or outgrowths of the cell-walls to retain water, and the white
+hairlike leaf tips, which assist in protecting the young parts at the apex
+of many xerophytic mosses, may be mentioned. The leaves of _Leucobryum_,
+which occurs in pale green tufts in shaded woods, show a parallel
+adaptation to that found in _Sphagnum_. They are several cells thick, and
+the small assimilating cells lie between two layers of empty water-storage
+cells, the walls of which are perforated by pores.
+
+With the possible exception of _Archidium_, the sporogonium is throughout
+the Bryales constructed on one plan. _Archidium_ is a small moss occurring
+occasionally on the soil of wet fields. The protonema is not persistent,
+and the plants are well developed, resembling those of _Pleuridium_. The
+sporogonium has a small foot and practically no seta, and differs in the
+development and structure of its capsule from all other mosses. The spores
+are derived from the endothecium, but no distinction of a sterile columella
+and an archesporium is established in this, a variable number of its cells
+becoming spore-mother-cells while the rest serve to nourish the spores. The
+layer of cells immediately around the endothecium becomes the spore-sac,
+and an air-space forms between this and the wall of the capsule. The very
+large, thin-walled spores escape on the decay of the capsule, which
+ruptures the archegonial wall irregularly. On account of the absence of a
+columella _Archidium_ is sometimes placed in a distinct group, but since
+its peculiarities have possibly arisen by reduction it seems at present
+best retained among the Bryales. In all other Bryales there is a definite
+columella extending from the base to the apex of the capsule, the
+archesporium is derived from the outermost layer of cells of the
+endothecium, and an air space is formed between the spore-sac and the wall.
+In the Polytrichaceae another air space separates the spore-sac from the
+columella. There is great variety in the length of the seta, which is
+sometimes practically absent. The apophysis, which may be a more or less
+distinct region, usually bears stomata and is the main organ of
+assimilation. In the Splachnaceae it is expanded for this purpose, while in
+_Oedipodium_ it constitutes most of the long pale stalk which supports the
+capsule. A distinct operculum is usually detached by the help of the
+annulus, and its removal may leave the mouth of the capsule widely open.
+More usually there is a peristome, consisting of one or two series of
+teeth, which serves to narrow the opening and in various ways to ensure the
+gradual shedding of the spores in dry weather. In most mosses the teeth are
+portions of thickened cell-walls but in the Polytrichaceae they are formed
+of a number of sclerenchymatous cells. In _Polytrichum_ a membranous
+epiphragm stretches across the wide mouth of the capsule between the tips
+of the short peristome teeth, and closes the opening except for the
+interspaces of the peristome.
+
+In a number of forms, which were formerly grouped together, the capsule
+does not open to liberate the spores. These cleistocarpous forms are now
+recognized as related to various natural groups, in which the majority of
+the species possess an operculum. In such forms as _Phascum_ the columella
+persists, and the only peculiarity is in the absence of arrangements for
+dehiscence. In _Ephemerum_ [v.04 p.0653] (and the closely related
+_Nanomitrium_ which has a small operculum) the columella becomes absorbed
+during the development of the spores. Stomata are present on the wall of
+the small capsule. Such facts as these suggest that in many cases the
+cleistocarpous condition is the result of reduction rather than primitive,
+and that possibly the same holds for _Archidium_.
+
+The former subdivision of the Bryales into Musci Cleistocarpi and Musci
+Stegocarpi according to the absence or presence of an operculum is thus
+clearly artificial. The same holds even more obviously for the grouping of
+the stegocarpous forms into those in which the archegonial group terminates
+a main axis (acrocarpi) and those in which it is borne on a more or less
+developed lateral branch (pleurocarpi). Modern classifications of the
+Bryales depend mainly on the construction of the peristome.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.--_Funaria hygrometrica._ Longitudinal section
+through the summit of a male branch. (After Sachs.)
+
+e, Leaves.
+
+d, Leaves cut through the mid-ribs.
+
+c, Paraphyses.
+
+b, Antheridia.]
+
+It remains to be considered to what extent the several natural groups of
+plants classed together in the Bryophyta can be placed in a phylogenetic
+relation to one another. Practically no help is afforded by palaeobotany,
+and only the comparison of existing forms can be depended on. The
+indications of probable lines of evolution are clearest in the Hepaticae.
+The Marchantiales form an obviously natural evolutionary group, and the
+same is probably true of the Jungermanniales, although in neither case can
+the partial lines of progression within the main groups be said to be quite
+clear. Such a form as _Sphaerocarpus_, which has features in common with
+the lower Marchantiales, enables us to form an idea of the divergence of
+the two groups from a common ancestry. The Anthocerotales, on the other
+hand, stand in an isolated position, and recent researches have served to
+emphasize this rather than to confirm the relationship with the
+Jungermanniales suggested by Leitgeb. The indications of a serial
+progression are not so clear in the mosses, but the majority of the forms
+may be regarded as forming a great phylogenetic group in the evolution of
+which the elaboration of the moss-plant has proceeded until the protonema
+appears as a mere preliminary stage to the formation of the plants.
+Parallel with the evolution of the gametophyte in form and structure, a
+progression can be traced in the sporogonium, although the simplest
+sporogonia available for study may owe much of their simplicity to
+reduction. The Andreaeales may perhaps be looked on as a divergent
+primitive branch of the same stock. On the other hand, the Sphagnales show
+such considerable and important differences from the rest of the mosses,
+that like the Anthocerotales among the liverworts, they may be regarded as
+a group, the relationship of which to the main stem is at least
+problematical. Between the Hepaticae, Anthocerotales, Sphagnales and Musci,
+there are no connecting forms known, and it must be left as an open
+question whether the Bryophyta are a monophyletic or polyphyletic group.
+
+The question of the relationship of the Bryophyta on the one hand to the
+Thallophyta and on the other to the Pteridophyta lies even more in the
+region of speculation, on slender grounds without much hope of decisive
+evidence. In a general sense we may regard the Bryophyta as derived from an
+algal ancestry, without being able to suggest the nature of the ancestral
+forms or the geological period at which they arose. Recent researches on
+those Algae such as _Coleochaete_ which appeared to afford a close
+comparison in their alternation of generations with _Riccia_, have shown
+that the body resulting from the segmentation of the fertilized ovum is not
+so strictly comparable in the two cases as had been supposed. The series of
+increasingly complex sporogonia among Bryophytes appears to be most
+naturally explained on an hypothesis of progressive sterilization of
+sporogenous tissue, such as has been advanced by Bower. On the other hand
+there are not wanting indications of reduction in the Bryophyte sporogonium
+which make an alternative view of its origin at least possible. With regard
+to the relationship of the Bryophyta and Pteridophyta the article on the
+latter group should be consulted. It will be sufficient to say in
+conclusion that while the alternating generations in the two groups are
+strictly comparable, no evidence of actual relationship is yet forthcoming.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.--_Funaria hygrometrica._ (After Goebel.)
+
+A. Longitudinal section of the very young sporogonium (f, f') enclosed in
+the archegonial wall (b, h).
+
+B, C. Further stages of the development of the sporogonium (f) enclosed in
+the calyptra formed from the archegonial wall (c) and still bearing the
+neck (h). The foot of the sporogonium has penetrated into the underlying
+tissue of the stem of the moss-plant.]
+
+For further information consult: Campbell, _Mosses and Ferns_ (London,
+1906); Engler and Prantl, _Die naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien_, Teil i. Abt.
+3 (Leipzig, 1893-1907); Goebel, _Organography of Plants_ (Oxford, 1905).
+Full references to the literature of the subject will be found in these
+works. For the identification of the British species of liverworts and
+mosses the following recent works will be of use: Pearson, _The Hepaticae
+of the British Isles_ (London, 1902); Dixon and Jameson, _The Student's
+Handbook of British Mosses_ (London, 1896); Braithwaite, _British Moss
+Flora_ (London, 1887-1905).
+
+(W. H. L.)
+
+BRZOZOWSKI, THADDEUS (d. 1820), nineteenth general of the Jesuits, was
+appointed in succession to Gabriel Gruber on the 2nd of September 1805. In
+1801 Pius VII. had given the Jesuits liberty to reconstitute themselves in
+north Russia (see JESUITS: _History_), and in 1812 Brzozowski secured the
+recognition of the Jesuit college of Polotsk as a university, though he
+could not obtain permission to go to Spain to agitate for the recognition
+[v.04 p.0654] of the Spanish Jesuits. In 1814 Pius VII., in accordance with
+the bull _Sollicitudo omnium ecclesiarum_, gave to Brzozowski among others
+full authority to receive those who desired to enter the society. The
+Russian government, however, soon began to be alarmed at the growth of the
+Jesuits, and on the 20th of December 1815 published an edict expelling them
+from St Petersburg. Brzozowski, having vainly requested to be allowed to
+retire to Rome, died on the 5th of February 1820. He is interesting mainly
+from the fact that he was general of the Society at the time of its
+restoration throughout Europe.
+
+BUBASTIS, the Graecized name of the Egyptian goddess Ubasti, meaning "she
+of [the city] Bast" (B;s-t), a city better known by its later name,
+P-ubasti, "place of Ubasti"; thus the goddess derived her name Ubasti from
+her city (Bast), and in turn the city derived its name P-ubasti from that
+of the goddess; the Greeks, confusing the name of the city with that of the
+goddess, called the latter Bubastis, and the former also Bubastis (later
+Bubastos). Bubastis, capital of the 19th nome of Lower Egypt, is now
+represented by a great mound of ruins called Tell Basta, near Zagazig,
+including the site of a large temple (described by Herodotus) strewn with
+blocks of granite. The monuments discovered there, although only those in
+hard stone have survived, are more important than at any other site in the
+Delta except Tanis and cover a wider range, commencing with Khufu (Cheops)
+and continuing to the thirtieth dynasty.
+
+Ubasti was one of many feline goddesses, figured with the head of a
+lioness. In the great development of reverence for sacred animals which
+took place after the New Kingdom, the domestic cat was especially the
+animal of Bubastis, although it had also to serve for all the other feline
+goddesses, owing no doubt to the scarcity and intractability of its
+congeners. Her hieratic and most general form was still lioness-headed, but
+a popular form, especially in bronze, was a cat-headed women, often holding
+in her right hand a lion aegis, i.e. a broad semicircular pectoral
+surmounted by the head of a lioness, and on the left arm a basket. The cat
+cemetery on the west side of the town consisted of numbers of large brick
+chambers, crammed with burnt and decayed mummies, many of which had been
+enclosed in cat-shaped cases of wood and bronze. Herodotus describes the
+festival of Bubastis, which was attended by thousands from all parts of
+Egypt and was a very riotous affair; it has its modern equivalent in the
+Moslem festival of the sheikh Said el Badawi at Tanta. The tablet of
+Canopus shows that there were two festivals of Bubastis, the great and the
+lesser: perhaps the lesser festival was held at Memphis, where the quarter
+called Ankhto contained a temple to this goddess. Her name is found on
+monuments from the third dynasty onwards, but a great stimulus was given to
+her worship by the twenty-second (Bubastite) dynasty and generally by the
+increased importance of Lower Egypt in later times. Her character seems to
+have been essentially mild and playful, in contrast to Sokhmi and other
+feline goddesses. The Greeks equated Ubasti with their Artemis, confusing
+her with the leonine Tafne, sister of Shoeou (Apollo). The Egyptians
+themselves delighted in identifying together goddesses of the most diverse
+forms and attributes; but Ubasti was almost indistinguishable in form from
+Tafne. The name of her son Iphthimis (Nfr-tm), pronounced Eftem, may mean
+"All-good," and, in the absence of other information about him, suggests a
+reason why he was identified with Prometheus.
+
+See K. Sethe in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopaedie_; E. Naville, _Bubastis_,
+and _Festival Hall of Osorkon II._; Herodotus ii. 67, 137-156; Grenfell and
+Hunt, _Hibeh Papyri_, i.
+
+(F. LL. G.)
+
+BUCARAMANGA, a city of Colombia, capital of the department of Santander,
+about 185 m. N.N.E. of Bogota. Pop. (estimate, 1902) 25,000. It is situated
+on the Lebrija river, 3248 ft. above sea-level, in a mountainous country
+rich in gold, silver and iron mines, and having superior coffee-producing
+lands in the valleys and on the lower slopes. The city is laid out with
+wide, straight streets, is well built, and has many public buildings of a
+substantial character.
+
+BUCCANEERS, the name given to piratical adventurers of different
+nationalities united in their opposition to Spain, who maintained
+themselves chiefly in the Caribbean Sea during the 17th century.
+
+The island of Santo Domingo was one of several in the West Indies which had
+early in the 16th century been almost depopulated by the oppressive
+colonial policy of Spain. Along its coast there were several isolated
+establishments presided over by Spaniards, who were deprived of a
+convenient market for the produce of the soil by the monopolies imposed by
+the mother country. Accordingly English, Dutch and French vessels were
+welcomed and their cargoes readily bought. The island, thinned of its
+former inhabitants, had become the home of immense herds of wild cattle;
+and it became the habit of smugglers to provision at Santo Domingo. The
+natives still left were skilled in preserving flesh at their little
+establishments called _boucans_. The adventurers learned "boucanning" from
+the natives; and gradually Hispaniola became the scene of an extensive and
+illicit butcher trade. Spanish monopolies filled the seamen who sailed the
+Caribbean with a natural hate of everything Spanish. The pleasures of a
+roving life, enlivened by occasional skirmishes with forces organized and
+led by Spanish officials, gained upon them. Out of such conditions arose
+the buccaneer, alternately sailor and hunter, even occasionally a
+planter--roving, bold, unscrupulous, often savage, with an intense
+detestation of Spain. As the Spaniards would not recognize the right of
+other races to make settlements, or even to trade in the West Indies, the
+governments of France, England and Holland would do nothing to control
+their subjects who invaded the islands. They left them free to make
+settlements at their own risk. Each nation contributed a band of colonists,
+who selected the island of St Kitts or St Christopher, in the West Indies,
+where the settlers of both nations were simultaneously planted. The English
+and French were, however, not very friendly; and in 1629, after the
+retirement of several of the former to an adjoining island, the remaining
+colonists were surprised and partly dispersed by the arrival of a Spanish
+fleet of thirty-nine sail. But on the departure of the fleet the scattered
+bands returned, and encouragement was given to their countrymen in Santo
+Domingo. For buccaneering had now become a most profitable employment,
+operations were extended, and a storehouse secure from the attacks of the
+Spaniards was required. The small island of Tortuga (north-west of
+Hispaniola) was seized for this purpose in 1630, converted into a magazine
+for the goods of the rivals, and made their headquarters, Santo Domingo
+itself still continuing their hunting ground. A purely English settlement
+directed by a company in London was made at Old Providence, an island in
+the Caribbean Sea, now belonging to Colombia. It began a little before
+1630, and was suppressed by the Spaniards in 1641.
+
+Spain was unable to take immediate action. Eight years later, however,
+watching their opportunity when many buccaneers were absent in the larger
+island, the Spaniards attacked Tortuga, and massacred every settler they
+could seize. But the others returned; and the buccaneers, now in open
+hostility to the Spanish arms, began to receive recruits from every
+European trading nation, and for three-quarters of a century became the
+scourge of the Spanish-American trade and dominions.
+
+France, throughout all this, had not been idle. She had named the governor
+of St Kitts "Governor-General for the French West India Islands," and in
+1641 he took possession of Tortuga, expelled all English from the island,
+and attempted the same with less success in Santo Domingo. England was
+absorbed in the Civil War, and the buccaneers had to maintain themselves as
+best they could,--now mainly on the sea.
+
+In 1654 the Spaniards regained Tortuga from the French, into whose hands it
+again, however, fell after six years. But this state of affairs was too
+insecure even for these rovers, and they would speedily have succumbed had
+not a refuge been found for them by the fortunate conquest of Jamaica in
+1655 by the navy of the English Commonwealth. These conquests were not made
+without the aid of the buccaneers themselves. The taking and re-taking of
+Tortuga by the French was always with the assistance of the roving
+community; and at the conquest of Jamaica the English navy had the same
+influence in its favour. The [v.04 p.0655] buccaneers, in fact, constituted
+a mercenary navy, ready for employment against the power of Spain by any
+other nation, on condition of sharing the plunder; and they were noted for
+their daring, their cruelty and their extraordinary skill in seamanship.
+
+Their history now divides itself into three epochs. The first of these
+extends from the period of their rise to the capture of Panama by Morgan in
+1671, during which time they were hampered neither by government aid nor,
+till near its close, by government restriction. The second, from 1671 to
+the time of their greatest power, 1685, when the scene of their operations
+was no longer merely the Caribbean, but principally the whole range of the
+Pacific from California to Chile. The third and last period extends from
+that year onwards; it was a time of disunion and disintegration, when the
+independence and rude honour of the previous periods had degenerated into
+unmitigated vice and brutality.
+
+It is chiefly during the first period that those leaders flourished whose
+names and doings have been associated with all that was really influential
+in the exploits of the buccaneers--the most prominent being Mansfield and
+Morgan. The floating commerce of Spain had by the middle of the 17th
+century become utterly insignificant. But Spanish settlements remained; and
+in 1654 the first great expedition on land made by the buccaneers, though
+attended by considerable difficulties, was completed by the capture and
+sack of New Segovia, on the mainland of America. The Gulf of Venezuela,
+with its towns of Maracaibo and Gibraltar, were attacked and plundered
+under the command of a Frenchman named L'Ollonois, who performed, it is
+said, the office of executioner upon the whole crew of a Spanish vessel
+manned with ninety seamen. Such successes removed the buccaneers further
+and further from the pale of civilized society, fed their revenge, and
+inspired them with an avarice almost equal to that of the original settlers
+from Spain. Mansfield indeed, in 1664, conceived the idea of a permanent
+settlement upon a small island of the Bahamas, named New Providence, and
+Henry Morgan, a Welshman, intrepid and unscrupulous, joined him. But the
+untimely death of Mansfield nipped in the bud the only rational scheme of
+settlement which seems at any time to have animated this wild community;
+and Morgan, now elected commander, swept the whole Caribbean, and from his
+headquarters in Jamaica led triumphant expeditions to Cuba and the
+mainland. He was leader of the expedition wherein Porto Bello, one of the
+best-fortified ports in the West Indies, was surprised and plundered.
+
+This was too much for even the adverse European powers; and in 1670 a
+treaty was concluded between England and Spain, proclaiming peace and
+friendship among the subjects of the two sovereigns in the New World,
+formally renouncing hostilities of every kind. Great Britain was to hold
+all her possessions in the New World as her own property (a remarkable
+concession on the part of Spain), and consented, on behalf of her subjects,
+to forbear trading with any Spanish port without licence obtained.
+
+The treaty was very ill observed in Jamaica, where the governor, Thomas
+Modyford (1620-1679), was in close alliance with the "privateers," which
+was the official title of the buccaneers. He had already granted
+commissions to Morgan and others for a great attack on the Isthmus of
+Panama, the route by which the bullion of the South American mines was
+carried to Porto Bello, to be shipped to Spain. The buccaneers to the
+number of 2000 began by seizing Chagres, and then marched to Panama in
+1671. After a difficult journey on foot and in canoes, they found
+themselves nearing the shores of the South Sea and in view of the city. On
+the morning of the tenth day they commenced an engagement which ended in
+the rout of the defenders of the town. It was taken, and, accidentally or
+not, it was burnt. The sack of Panama was accompanied by great barbarities.
+The Spaniards had, however, removed the treasure before the city was taken.
+When the booty was divided, Morgan is accused of having defrauded his
+followers. It is certain that the share per man was small, and that many of
+the buccaneers died of starvation while trying to return to Jamaica.
+Modyford was recalled, and in 1672 Morgan was called home and imprisoned in
+the Tower. In 1674 he was allowed to come back to the island as
+lieutenant-governor with Lord Vaughan. He had become so unpopular after the
+expedition of 1671 that he was followed in the streets and threatened by
+the relations of those who had perished. During his later years he was
+active in suppressing the buccaneers who had now inconvenient claims on
+him.
+
+From 1671 to 1685 is the time of the greatest daring, prosperity and power
+of the buccaneers. The expedition against Panama had not been without its
+influence. Notwithstanding their many successes in the Caribbean and on
+land, including a second plunder of Porto Bello, their thoughts ran
+frequently on the great expedition across the isthmus, and they pictured
+the South Sea as a far wider and more lucrative field for the display of
+their united power.
+
+In 1680 a body of marauders over 300 strong, well armed and provisioned,
+landed on the shore of Darien and struck across the country; and the
+cruelty and mismanagement displayed in the policy of the Spaniards towards
+the Indians were now revenged by the assistance which the natives eagerly
+rendered to the adventurers. They acted as guides during a difficult
+journey of nine days, kept the invaders well supplied with food, provided
+them with canoes, and only left them after the taking of the fort of Santa
+Maria, when the buccaneers were fairly embarked on a broad and safe river
+which emptied itself into the South Sea. With John Coxon as commander they
+entered the Bay of Panama, where rumour had been before them, and where the
+Spaniards had hastily prepared a small fleet to meet them. But the valour
+of the buccaneers won for them another victory; within a week they took
+possession of four Spanish ships, and now successes flowed upon them. The
+Pacific, hitherto free from their intrusion, showed many sail of merchant
+vessels, while on land opposition south of the Bay of Panama was of little
+avail, since few were acquainted with the use of fire-arms. Coxon and
+seventy men returned as they had gone, but the others, under Sawkins, Sharp
+and Watling, roamed north and south on islands and mainland, and remained
+for long ravaging the coast of Peru. Never short of silver and gold, but
+often in want of the necessaries of life, they continued their practices
+for a little longer; then, evading the risk of recrossing the isthmus, they
+boldly cleared Cape Horn, and arrived in the Indies. Again, in 1683,
+numbers of them under John Cook departed for the South Sea by way of Cape
+Horn. On Cook's death his successor, Edward Davis, undoubtedly the greatest
+and most prudent commander who ever led the forces of the buccaneers at
+sea, met with a certain Captain Swan from England, and the two captains
+began a cruise which was disastrous to the Spanish trade in the Pacific.
+
+In 1685 they were joined in the Bay of Panama by large numbers of
+buccaneers who had crossed the isthmus under Townley and others. This
+increased body of men required an enlarged measure of adventure, and this
+in a few months was supplied by the viceroy of Peru. That officer, seeing
+the trade of the colony cut off, supplies stopped, towns burned and raided,
+and property harassed by continual raids, resolved by vigorous means to put
+an end to it. But his aim was not easily accomplished. In this same year a
+Spanish fleet of fourteen sail met, but did not engage, ten buccaneer
+vessels which were found in the Bay of Panama.
+
+At this period the power of the buccaneers was at its height. But the
+combination was too extensive for its work, and the different nationality
+of those who composed it was a source of growing discord. Nor was the dream
+of equality ever realized for any length of time. The immense spoil
+obtained on the capture of wealthy cities was indeed divided equally. But
+in the gambling and debauchery which followed, nothing was more common than
+that one-half of the conquerors should find themselves on the morrow in
+most pressing want; and while those who had retained or increased their
+share would willingly have gone home, the others clamoured for renewed
+attacks. The separation of the English and French buccaneers, who together
+presented a united front to the Spanish fleet in 1685, marks the beginning
+of the third and last epoch in their history.
+
+The brilliant exploits begun by the sack of Leon and Realejo [v.04 p.0656]
+by the English under Davis have, even in their variety and daring, a
+sameness which deprives them of interest, and the wonderful confederacy is
+now seen to be falling gradually to pieces. The skill of Davis at sea was
+on one occasion displayed in a seven days' engagement with two large
+Spanish vessels, and the interest undoubtedly centres in him. Townley and
+Swan had, however, by this time left him, and after cruising together for
+some time, they, too, parted. In 1688 Davis cleared Cape Horn and arrived
+in the West Indies, while Swan's ship, the "Cygnet," was abandoned as
+unseaworthy, after sailing as far as Madagascar. Townley had hardly joined
+the French buccaneers remaining in the South Sea ere he died, and the
+Frenchmen with their companions crossed New Spain to the West Indies. And
+thus the Pacific, ravaged so long by this powerful and mysterious band of
+corsairs, was at length at peace.
+
+The West Indies had by this time become hot enough even for the banded
+pirates. They hung doggedly along the coasts of Jamaica and Santo Domingo,
+but their day was nearly over. Only once again--at the siege of
+Carthagena--did they appear great; but even then the expedition was not of
+their making, and they were mere auxiliaries of the French regular forces.
+After the treachery of the French commander of this expedition a spirit of
+unity and despairing energy seemed reawakened in them; but this could not
+avert and scarcely delayed the rapidly approaching extinction of the
+community.
+
+The French and English buccaneers could not but take sides in the war which
+had arisen between their respective countries in 1689. Thus was broken the
+bond of unity which had for three-quarters of a century kept the subjects
+of the two nations together in schemes of aggression upon a common foe. In
+the short peace of 1697-1700 England and France were using all their
+influence, both in the Old World and in the New, to ingratiate themselves
+into the favour of the king of Spain. With the resumption of hostilities in
+1700 and the rise of Spain consequent upon the accession of the French
+claimant to the throne the career of the buccaneers was effectually closed.
+
+But the fall of the buccaneers is no more accounted for fully by these
+circumstances than is their rise by the massacre of the islanders of Santo
+Domingo. There was that in the very nature of the community which, from its
+birth, marked it as liable to speedy decline.
+
+The principles which bound the buccaneers together were, first the desire
+for adventure and gain, and, in the second place, hatred of the Spaniard.
+The first was hardly a sufficient bond of union, among men of different
+nationalities, when booty could be had nearly always by private venture
+under the colours of the separate European powers. Of greater validity was
+their second and great principle of union, namely, that they warred not
+with one another, nor with every one, but with a single and a common foe.
+For while the buccaneer forces included English, French and Dutch sailors,
+and were complemented occasionally by bands of native Indians, there are
+few instances during the time of their prosperity and growth of their
+falling upon one another, and treating their fellows with the savagery
+which they exulted in displaying against the subjects of Spain. The
+exigencies, moreover, of their perilous career readily wasted their
+suddenly acquired gains.
+
+Settled labour, the warrant of real wealth, was unacceptable to those who
+lived by promoting its insecurity. Regular trade--though rendered
+attractive by smuggling--and pearl gathering and similar operations which
+were spiced with risk, were open in vain to them, and in the absence of any
+domestic life, a hand-to-mouth system of supply and demand rooted out
+gradually the prudence which accompanies any mode of settled existence. In
+everything the policy of the buccaneers, from the beginning to the end of
+their career, was one of pure destruction, and was, therefore, ultimately
+suicidal.
+
+Their great importance in history lies in the fact that they opened the
+eyes of the world, and specially of the nations from whom these buccaneers
+had sprung, to the whole system of Spanish-American government and
+commerce--the former in its rottenness, and the latter in its possibilities
+in other hands. From this, then, along with other causes, dating primarily
+from the helplessness and presumption of Spain, there arose the West Indian
+possessions of Holland, England and France.
+
+A work published at Amsterdam in 1678, entitled _De Americaensche Zee
+Roovers_, from the pen of a buccaneer named Exquemelin, was translated into
+several European languages, receiving additions at the hands of the
+different translators. The French translation by Frontignieres is named
+_Histoire des avanturiers qui se sont signalez dans les Indes_; the English
+edition is entitled _The Bucaniers of America._ Other works are Raynal's
+_History of the Settlements and Trade of the Europeans in the East and West
+Indies_, book x., English translation 1782; Dampier's _Voyages_; Geo. W.
+Thornbury's _Monarchs of the Main, &c._ (1855); Lionel Wafer's _Voyage and
+Description of the Isthmus of America_ (1699); and the _Histoire de l'isle
+Espagnole, &c._, and _Histoire et description generale de la Nouvelle
+France_ of Pere Charlevoix. The statements in these works are to be
+received with caution. A really authentic narrative, however, is Captain
+James Burney's _History of the Buccaneers of America_ (London, 1816). The
+_Calendar of State Papers_, Colonial Series (London, 1860 et seq.),
+contains much evidence for the history of the buccaneers in the West
+Indies.
+
+(D. H.)
+
+BUCCARI (Serbo-Croatian _Bakar_), a royal free town of Croatia-Slavonia,
+Hungary; situated in the county of Modrus-Fiume, 7 m. S.E. of Fiume, on a
+small bay of the Adriatic Sea. Pop. (1900) 1870. The Hungarian state
+railway from Zakany and Agram terminates 21/2 m. from Buccari. The harbour,
+though sometimes dangerous to approach, affords good anchorage to small
+vessels. Owing to competition from Fiume, Buccari lost the greater part of
+its trade during the 19th century. The staple industry is boatbuilding, and
+there is an active coasting trade in fish, wine, wood and coal. The
+tunny-fishery is of some importance. In the neighbourhood of the town is
+the old castle of Buccarica, and farther south the flourishing little port
+of Porto Re or Kraljevica.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Buccina in the National Museum, Naples.
+
+From a photo by Brogi.]
+
+BUCCINA (more correctly _Bucina_, Gr. [Greek: Bukane], connected with
+_bucca_, cheek, and Gr. [Greek: Buzo], a brass wind instrument extensively
+used in the ancient Roman army. The Roman instrument consisted of a brass
+tube measuring some 11 to 12 ft. in length, of narrow cylindrical bore, and
+played by means of a cup-shaped mouthpiece. The tube is bent round upon
+itself from the mouthpiece to the bell in the shape of a broad C and is
+strengthened by means of a bar across the curve, which the performer grasps
+while playing, in order to steady the instrument; the bell curves over his
+head or shoulder as in the modern helicon. Three Roman buccinas were found
+among the ruins of Pompeii and are now deposited in the museum at Naples.
+V. C. Mahillon, of Brussels[1] has made a facsimile of one of these
+instruments; it is in G and has almost the same harmonic series as the
+French horn and the trumpet. The buccina, the cornu (see HORN), and the
+tuba were used as signal instruments in the Roman army and camp to sound
+the four night watches (hence known as _buccina prima, secunda, &c._), to
+summon them by means of the special signal known as _classicum_, and to
+give orders.[2] Frontinus relates[3] that a Roman general, who had been
+surrounded by the enemy, escaped during the night by means of the stratagem
+of leaving behind him a _buccinator_ (trumpeter), who sounded [v.04 p.0657]
+the watches throughout the night.[4] Vegetius gives brief descriptions of
+the three instruments, which suffice to establish their identity; the tuba,
+he says, is straight; the buccina is of bronze bent in the form of a
+circle.[5]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Busine, 14th century. (From MS. R. 10 E. IV. Brit.
+Mus.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Busine, 14th century. (From MS. R. 10 E. IV. Brit.
+Mus.)]
+
+The buccina, in respect of its technical construction and acoustic
+properties, was the ancestor of both trumpet and trombone; the connexion is
+further established by the derivation of the words Sackbut and _Posaune_
+(the German for trombone) from buccina. The relation was fully recognized
+in Germany during the 15th and 16th centuries, as two translations of
+Vegetius, published at Ulm in 1470, and at Augsburg in 1534, clearly
+demonstrate: "Bucina das ist die trumet oder pusan"[6] ("the bucina is the
+trumpet or trombone") and ("Bucina ist die trummet die wirt ausz und
+eingezogen"[7] ("the bucina is the trumpet which is drawn out and in"). A
+French translation by Jean de Meung (Paris, 1488),[8] renders the passage
+(chap. iii. 5) thus: "Trompe est longue et droite; buisine est courte et
+reflechist en li meisme si comme partie de cercle." On Trajan's column[9]
+the tuba, the cornu and the buccina are distinguishable. Other
+illustrations of the buccina may be seen in Francois Mazois' _Les Ruines de
+Pompei_ (Paris, 1824-1838), pt. iv, pl. xlviii. fig. 1, and in J.N. von
+Wilmowsky's _Eine roemische Villa zu Nennig_ (Bonn, 1865), pl. xii.
+(mosaics), where the buccinator is accompanied on the hydraulus. The
+military buccina described is a much more advanced instrument than its
+prototype the _buccina marina_, a primitive trumpet in the shape of a
+conical shell, often having a spiral twist, which in poetry is often called
+_concha_. The buccina marina is frequently depicted in the hands of Tritons
+(Macrobius i. 8), or of sailors, as for instance on terra-cotta lamp shown
+by G.P. Bellori (_Lucernae veterum sepulcrales iconicae_, 1702, iii. 12).
+The highly imaginative writer of the apocryphal letter of St Jerome to
+Dardanus also has a word to say concerning the buccina among the Semitic
+races: "Bucca vocatur tuba apud Hebreos: deinde per diminutionem buccina
+dicitur." After the fall of the Roman empire the art of bending metal tubes
+was gradually lost, and although the buccina survived in Europe both in
+name and in principle of construction during the middle ages, it lost for
+ever the characteristic curve like a "C" which it possessed in common with
+the cornu, an instrument having a conical bore of wider calibre. Although
+we regard the buccina as essentially Roman, an instrument of the same type,
+but probably straight and of kindred name, was widely known and used in the
+East, in Persia, Arabia and among the Semitic races. After a lapse of years
+during which records are almost wanting, the buccina reappeared all over
+Europe as the busine, buisine, pusin, busaun, pusun, posaun, busna (Slav),
+&c.; whether it was a Roman survival or a re-introduction through the Moors
+of Spain in the West and the Byzantine empire in the East, we have no
+records to show. An 11th-century mural painting representing the Last
+Judgment in the cathedral of S. Angelo in Formis (near Capua), shows the
+angels blowing the last trump on busines.[10]
+
+There are two distinct forms of the busine which may be traced during the
+middle ages:--(i) a long straight tube (fig. 2) consisting of 3 to 5 joints
+of narrow cylindrical bore, the last joint alone being conical and ending
+in a pommel-shaped bell, precisely as in the curved buccina (fig. 1); (2) a
+long straight cylindrical tube of somewhat wider bore than the busine,
+ending in a wide bell curving out abruptly from the cylindrical tube (fig.
+3).
+
+The history of the development of the trumpet, the sackbut and the trombone
+from the buccina will be found more fully treated under those headings; for
+the part played by the buccina in the evolution of the French horn see
+HORN.
+
+(K. S.)
+
+[1] See _Catalogue descriptif_ (Ghent, 1880), p. 330, and illustration,
+vol. ii. (1896), p. 30.
+
+[2] Livy vii. 35, xxvi. 15; Prop. v. 4, 63; Tac. _Ann._ xv. 30; Vegetius,
+_De re militari_, ii. 22, iii. 5; Polyb. vi. 365, xiv. 3, 7.
+
+[3] _Stratagematicon_, i. 5, Sec. 17.
+
+[4] For another instance see Caesar, _Comm. Bell. Civ._ ii. 35.
+
+[5] Vegetius, op. cit. iii. 5.
+
+[6] Idem, ii. 7.
+
+[7] Idem, iii. 5.
+
+[8] A reprint edited by Ulysse Robert has been published by the Soc. des
+Anciens Textes Francais (Paris, 1897).
+
+[9] See Conrad Cichorius, _Die Reliefs der Traiansaule_, 3 vols. of text
+and 2 portfolios of heliogravures (Berlin, 1896, &c.), Bd. i. pl. x.
+buccina and tubae; pl. viii. buccina; pl. lxxvi. buccina and two cornua;
+pl. xx. cornu, &c.; or W. Froehner, _La Colonne de Trajan_ (Paris, 1872),
+vol. i. pl. xxxii., xxxvi., li., tome ii. pl. lxvi., tome iii. pl. cxxxiv.,
+&c.
+
+[10] See F.X. Kraus, "Die Wandgemaelde von San Angelo in Formis," in
+_Jahrbuch der kgl. preuss. Kunstsamml._ (1893), pl. i.
+
+BUCCLEUCH, DUKES OF. The substantial origin of the ducal house of the
+Scotts of Buccleuch dates back to the large grants of lands in Scotland to
+Sir Walter Scott of Kirkurd and Buccleuch, a border chief, by James II., in
+consequence of the fall of the 8th earl of Douglas (1452); but the family
+traced their descent back to a Sir Richard le Scott (1240-1285). The estate
+of Buccleuch is in Selkirkshire. Sir Walter Scott of Branxholm and
+Buccleuch (d. 1552) distinguished himself at the battle of Pinkie (1547),
+and furnished material for his later namesake's famous poem, _The Lay of
+the Last Minstrel_; and his great-grandson Sir Walter (1565-1611) was
+created Lord Scott of Buccleuch in 1606. An earldom followed in 1619. The
+second earl's daughter Anne (1651-1732), who succeeded him as a countess in
+her own right, married in 1663 the famous duke of Monmouth (_q.v._), who
+was then created 1st duke of Buccleuch; and her grandson Francis became 2nd
+duke. The latter's son Henry (1746-1812) became 3rd duke, and in 1810
+succeeded also, on the death of William Douglas, 4th duke of Queensberry,
+to that dukedom as well as its estates and other honours, according to the
+entail executed by his own great-grandfather, the 2nd duke of Queensberry,
+in 1706; he married the duke of Montagu's daughter, and was famous for his
+generosity and benefactions. His son Charles William Henry (d. 1819),
+grandson Walter Francis Scott (1806-1884), and great-grandson William Henry
+Walter Montagu Douglas Scott (b. 1831), succeeded in turn as 4th, 5th and
+6th dukes of Buccleuch and 6th, 7th, and 8th dukes of Queensberry. The 5th
+duke was lord privy seal 1842-1846, and president of the council 1846. It
+was he who at a cost of over L500,000 made the harbour at Granton, near
+Edinburgh. He was president of the Highland and Agricultural Society, the
+Society of Antiquaries and of the British Association. The 6th duke sat in
+the House of Commons as Conservative M.P. for Midlothian, 1853-1868 and
+1874-1880; his wife, a daughter of the 1st duke of Abercorn, held the
+office of mistress of the robes.
+
+See Sir W. Fraser, _The Scotts of Buccleuch_ (1878).
+
+BUCENTAUR (Ital. _bucintoro_), the state gallery of the doges of Venice, on
+which, every year on Ascension day up to 1789, they put into the Adriatic
+in order to perform the ceremony of "wedding the sea." The name _bucintoro_
+is derived from the Ital. _buzino d' oro_, "golden bark," latinized in the
+middle ages as _bucentaurus_ on the analogy of a supposed Gr. [Greek:
+boukentauros], ox-centaur (from [Greek: bous] and [Greek: Kentauros]). This
+led to the explanation of the name as derived from the head of an ox having
+served as the galley's figurehead. This derivation is, however, fanciful;
+the name _bucentaurus_ is unknown in ancient mythology, and the figurehead
+of the bucentaurs, of which representations have come down to us, is the
+lion of St Mark. [v.04 p.0658] The name bucentaur seems, indeed, to have
+been given to any great and sumptuous Venetian galley. Du Cange (_Gloss._,
+_s.v._ "Bucentaurus") quotes from the chronicle of the doge Andrea Dandolo
+(d. 1354): _cum uno artificioso et solemni Bucentauro, super quo venit
+usque ad S. Clementem, quo jam pervenerat principalior et solemnior
+Bucentaurus cum consiliariis_, &c. The last and most magnificent of the
+bucentaurs, built in 1729, was destroyed by the French in 1798 for the sake
+of its golden decorations. Remains of it are preserved at Venice in the
+Museo Civico Correr and in the Arsenal; in the latter there is also a fine
+model of it.
+
+The "Marriage of the Adriatic," or more correctly "of the sea" (_Sposalizio
+del Mar_) was a ceremony symbolizing the maritime dominion of Venice. The
+ceremony, established about A.D. 1000 to commemorate the doge Orseolo II.'s
+conquest of Dalmatia, was originally one of supplication and placation,
+Ascension day being chosen as that on which the doge had set out on his
+expedition. The form it took was a solemn procession of boats, headed by
+the doge's _maesta nave_, afterwards the Bucentaur (from 1311) out to sea
+by the Lido port. A prayer was offered that "for us and all who sail
+thereon the sea may be calm and quiet," whereupon the doge and the others
+were solemnly aspersed with holy water, the rest of which was thrown into
+the sea while the priests chanted "Purge me with hyssop and I shall be
+clean." To this ancient ceremony a sacramental character was given by Pope
+Alexander III in 1177, in return for the services rendered by Venice in the
+struggle against the emperor Frederick I. The pope drew a ring from his
+finger and, giving it to the doge, bade him cast such a one into the sea
+each year on Ascension day, and so wed the sea. Henceforth the ceremonial,
+instead of placatory and expiatory, became nuptial. Every year the doge
+dropped a consecrated ring into the sea, and with the words _Desponsamus
+te, mare_ (We wed thee, sea) declared Venice and the sea to be indissolubly
+one (see H. F. Brown, _Venice_, London, 1893, pp. 69, 110).
+
+BUCEPHALUS (Gr. [Greek: boukephalos]), the favourite Thracian horse of
+Alexander the Great, which died in 326 B.C., either of wounds received in
+the battle on the Hydaspes, or of old age. In commemoration Alexander built
+the city of Bucephala (Boukephala), the site of which is almost certainly
+to be identified with a mound on the bank of the river opposite the modern
+Jhelum.
+
+See especially Arrian v. 20; other stories in Plutarch, _Alex._ 6; Curtius
+vi. 8. For the identification of Bucephala, Vincent A. Smith, _Early Hist.
+of India_ (2nd ed., 1908), pp. 65, 66 note.
+
+BUCER (or BUTZER), MARTIN (1491-1551), German Protestant reformer, was born
+in 1491 at Schlettstadt in Alsace. In 1506 he entered the Dominican order,
+and was sent to study at Heidelberg. There he became acquainted with the
+works of Erasmus and Luther, and was present at a disputation of the latter
+with some of the Romanist doctors. He became a convert to the reformed
+opinions, abandoned his order by papal dispensation in 1521, and soon
+afterwards married a nun. In 1522 he was pastor at Landstuhl in the
+palatinate, and travelled hither and thither propagating the reformed
+doctrine. After his excommunication in 1523 he made his headquarters at
+Strassburg, where he succeeded Matthew Zell. Henry VIII of England asked
+his advice in connexion with the divorce from Catherine of Aragon. On the
+question of the sacrament of the Lord's Supper, Bucer's opinions were
+decidedly Zwinglian, but he was anxious to maintain church unity with the
+Lutheran party, and constantly endeavoured, especially after Zwingli's
+death, to formulate a statement of belief that would unite Lutheran, south
+German and Swiss reformers. Hence the charge of ambiguity and obscurity
+which has been laid against him. In 1548 he was sent for to Augsburg to
+sign the agreement, called the _Interim_, between the Catholics and
+Protestants. His stout opposition to this project exposed him to many
+difficulties, and he was glad to accept Cranmer's invitation to make his
+home in England. On his arrival in 1549 he was appointed regius professor
+of divinity at Cambridge. Edward VI. and the protector Somerset showed him
+much favour and he was consulted as to the revision of the Book of Common
+Prayer. But on the 27th of February 1551 he died, and was buried in the
+university church, with great state. In 1557, by Mary's commissioners, his
+body was dug up and burnt, and his tomb demolished; it was subsequently
+reconstructed by order of Elizabeth. Bucer is said to have written
+ninety-six treatises, among them a translation and exposition of the Psalms
+and a work _Deregno Christi_. His name is familiar in English literature
+from the use made of his doctrines by Milton in his divorce treatises.
+
+A collected edition of his writings has never been published. A volume
+known as the _Tomus Anglicanus_ (Basel, 1577) contains those written in
+England. See J.W. Baum, _Capito and Butzer_ (Strassburg, 1860); A.
+Erichson, _Martin Butzer_ (1891); and the articles in the _Dict. Nat.
+Biog._ (by A.W. Ward), and in Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopaedie_ (by Paul
+Gruenberg).
+
+BUCK, CHRISTIAN LEOPOLD VON, BARON (1774-1853), German geologist and
+geographer, a member of an ancient and noble Prussian family, was born at
+Stolpe in Pomerania on the 26th of April 1774. In 1790-1793 he studied at
+the mining school of Freiberg under Werner, one of his fellow-students
+there being Alexander von Humboldt. He afterwards completed his education
+at the universities of Halle and Goettingen. His _Versuch einer
+mineralogischen Beschreibung von Landeck_ (Breslau, 1797) was translated
+into French (Paris, 1805), and into English as _Attempt at a Mineralogical
+Description of Landeck_ (Edinburgh, 1810); he also published in 1802
+_Entwurf einer geognostischen Beschreibung von Schlesien (Geognostische
+Beobachtungen auf Reisen durch Deutschland und Italien_, Band i.). He was
+at this time a zealous upholder of the Neptunian theory of his illustrious
+master. In 1797 he met Humboldt at Salzburg, and with him explored the
+geological formations of Styria, and the adjoining Alps. In the spring of
+the following year, von Buch extended his excursions into Italy, where his
+faith in the Neptunian theory was shaken. In his previous works he had
+advocated the aqueous origin of basaltic and other formations. In 1799 he
+paid his first visit to Vesuvius, and again in 1805 he returned to study
+the volcano, accompanied by Humboldt and Gay Lussac. They had the good
+fortune to witness a remarkable eruption, which supplied von Buch with data
+for refuting many erroneous ideas then entertained regarding volcanoes. In
+1802 he had explored the extinct volcanoes of Auvergne. The aspect of the
+Puy de Dome, with its cone of trachyte and its strata of basaltic lava,
+induced him to abandon as untenable the doctrines of Werner on the
+formation of these rocks. The scientific results of his investigations he
+embodied in his _Geognostische Beobachtungen auf Reisen durch Deutschland
+und Italien_ (Berlin, 1802-1809). From the south of Europe von Buch
+repaired to the north, and spent two years among the Scandinavian islands,
+making many important observations on the geography of plants, on
+climatology and on geology. He showed that many of the erratic blocks on
+the North German plains must have come from Scandinavia. He also
+established the fact that the whole of Sweden is slowly but continuously
+rising above the level of the sea from Frederikshald to Abo. The details of
+these discoveries are given in his _Reise durch Norwegen und Lappland_
+(Berlin, 1810). In 1815 he visited the Canary Islands in company with
+Christian Smith, the Norwegian botanist. His observations here convinced
+him that these and other islands of the Atlantic owed their existence to
+volcanic action of the most intense kind, and that the groups of islands in
+the South Sea are the remains of a pre-existing continent. The physical
+description of the Canary Islands was published at Berlin in 1825, and this
+work alone is regarded as an enduring monument of his labours. After
+leaving the Canaries von Buch proceeded to the Hebrides and the coasts of
+Scotland and Ireland. Palaeontology also claimed his attention, and he
+described in 1831 and later years a number of Cephalopods, Brachiopods and
+Cystidea, and pointed out their stratigraphical importance. In addition to
+the works already mentioned von Buch published in 1832 the magnificent
+_Geological Map of Germany_ (42 sheets, Berlin). His geological excursions
+were continued without interruption till his 78th year. Eight months before
+his death he visited [v.04 p.0659] the mountains of Auvergne; and on
+returning home he read a paper on the Jurassic formation before the Academy
+of Berlin. He died at Berlin on the 4th of March 1853. Von Buch had
+inherited from his father a fortune more than sufficient for his wants. He
+was never married, and was unembarrassed by family ties. His excursions
+were always taken on foot, with a staff in his hand, and the large pockets
+of his overcoat filled with papers and geological instruments. Under this
+guise, the passer-by would not easily have recognized the man whom Humboldt
+pronounced the greatest geologist of his time.
+
+A complete edition of his works was published at Berlin (1867-1885).
+
+BUCHAN, EARLS OF. The earldom of Mar and Buchan was one of the seven
+original Scottish earldoms; later, Buchan was separated from Mar, and among
+the early earls of Buchan were Alexander Comyn (d. 1289), John Comyn (d. c.
+1313), both constables of Scotland, and Henry Beaumont (d. 1340), who had
+married a Comyn. John Comyn's wife, Isabel, was the countess of Buchan who
+crowned Robert the Bruce king at Scone in 1306, and was afterwards
+imprisoned at Berwick; not, however, in a cage hung on the wall of the
+castle. About 1382 Sir Alexander Stewart (d. c. 1404), the "wolf of
+Badenoch," a son of King Robert II., became earl of Buchan, and the
+Stewarts appear to have held the earldom for about a century and a half,
+although not in a direct line from Sir Alexander.[1] Among the most
+celebrated of the Stewart earls were the Scottish regent, Robert, duke of
+Albany, and his son John, who was made constable of France and was killed
+at the battle of Verneuil in 1424. In 1617 the earldom came to James
+Erskine (d. 1640), a son of John Erskine, 2nd (or 7th) earl of Mar, whose
+wife Mary had inherited it from her father, James Douglas (d. 1601), and
+from that time it has been retained by the Erskines.
+
+Perhaps the most celebrated of the later earls of Buchan was the eccentric
+David Steuart Erskine, 11th earl (1742-1829), a son of Henry David, 10th
+earl (d. 1767), and brother of Henry Erskine (_q.v._), and of Thomas, Lord
+Erskine (_q.v._). His pertinacity was instrumental in effecting a change in
+the method of electing Scottish representative peers, and in 1780 he
+succeeded in founding the Scottish Society of Antiquaries. Among his
+correspondents was Horace Walpole, and he wrote an _Essay on the Lives of
+Fletcher of Saltoun and the Poet Thomson_ (1792), and other writings. He
+died at his residence at Dryburgh in April 1829, leaving no legitimate
+children, and was followed as 12th earl by his nephew Henry David
+(1783-1857), the ancestor of the present peer. The 11th earl's natural son,
+Sir David Erskine (1772-1837), who inherited his father's unentailed
+estates, was an antiquary and a dramatist.
+
+[1] In August 1908, during some excavations at Dunkeld, remains were found
+which are supposed to be those of Alexander Stewart, the "wolf of
+Badenoch."
+
+BUCHAN, ELSPETH (1738-1791), founder of a Scottish religious sect known as
+the Buchanites, was the daughter of John Simpson, proprietor of an inn near
+Banff. Having quarrelled with her husband, Robert Buchan, a potter of
+Greenock, she settled with her children in Glasgow, where she was deeply
+impressed by a sermon preached by Hugh White, minister of the Relief church
+at Irvine. She persuaded White and others that she was a saint with a
+special mission, that in fact she was the woman, and White the man-child,
+described in Revelation xii. White was condemned by the presbytery, and the
+sect, which ultimately numbered forty-six adherents, was expelled by the
+magistrates in 1784 and settled in a farm, consisting of one room and a
+loft, known as New Cample in Dumfriesshire. Mrs Buchan claimed prophetic
+inspiration and pretended to confer the Holy Ghost upon her followers by
+breathing upon them; they believed that the millennium was near, and that
+they would not die, but be translated. It appears that they had community
+of wives and lived on funds provided by the richer members. Robert Burns,
+the poet, in a letter dated August 1784, describes the sect as idle and
+immoral. In 1785 White and Mrs Buchan published a _Divine Dictionary_, but
+the sect broke up on the death of its founder in spite of White's attempts
+to prove that she was only in a trance. Even White was eventually
+undeceived. Andrew Innes, the last survivor, died in 1848. See J. Train,
+_The Buchanites from First to Last_ (Edinburgh, 1846).
+
+BUCHAN, PETER (1790-1854), Scottish editor, was born at Peterhead,
+Aberdeenshire, in 1790. In 1816 he started in business as a printer at
+Peterhead, and was successful enough to be able eventually to retire and
+devote himself to the collection and editing of Scottish ballads. His
+_Ancient Ballads and Songs of the North of Scotland_ (1828) contained a
+large number of hitherto unpublished ballads, and newly discovered versions
+of existing ones. Another collection made by him was published by the Percy
+Society, under the title _Scottish Traditional Versions of Ancient Ballads_
+(1845). Two unpublished volumes of Buchan's ballad collections are in the
+British Museum. He died on the 19th of September 1854.
+
+BUCHANAN, CLAUDIUS (1766-1815), English divine, was born at Cambuslang,
+near Glasgow, and educated at the universities of Glasgow and Cambridge. He
+was ordained in 1795, and after holding a chaplaincy in India at Barrackpur
+(1797-1799) was appointed Calcutta chaplain and vice-principal of the
+college of Fort William. In this capacity he did much to advance
+Christianity and native education in India, especially by organizing
+systematic translations of the Scriptures. An account of his travels in the
+south and west of India, which added considerably to our knowledge of
+nature life, is given in his _Christian Researches in Asia_ (Cambridge,
+1811). After his return to England in 1808, he still took an active part in
+matters connected with India, and by his book entitled _Colonial
+Ecclesiastical Establishment_ (London, 1813), he assisted in settling the
+controversy of 1813, which ended in the establishment of the Indian
+episcopate.
+
+BUCHANAN, GEORGE (1506-1582), Scottish humanist, was born in February 1506.
+His father, a younger son of an old family, was the possessor of the farm
+of Moss, in the parish of Killearn, Stirlingshire, but he died at an early
+age, leaving his widow and children in poverty. His mother, Agnes Heriot,
+was of the family of the Heriots of Trabroun, Haddingtonshire, of which
+George Heriot, founder of Heriot's hospital, was also a member. Buchanan is
+said to have attended Killearn school, but not much is known of his early
+education. In 1520 he was sent by his uncle, James Heriot, to the
+university of Paris, where, as he tells us in an autobiographical sketch,
+he devoted himself to the writing of verses "partly by liking, partly by
+compulsion (that being then the one task prescribed to youth)." In 1522 his
+uncle died, and Buchanan being thus unable to continue longer in Paris,
+returned to Scotland. After recovering from a severe illness, he joined the
+French auxiliaries who had been brought over by John Stewart, duke of
+Albany, and took part in an unsuccessful inroad into England (see the
+account in his _Hist. of Scotland_). In the following year he entered the
+university of St Andrews, where he graduated B.A. in 1525. He had gone
+there chiefly for the purpose of attending the celebrated John Major's
+lectures on logic; and when that teacher removed to Paris, Buchanan
+followed him in 1526. In 1527 he graduated B.A., and in 1528 M.A. at Paris.
+Next year he was appointed regent, or professor, in the college of
+Sainte-Barbe, and taught there for upwards of three years. In 1529 he was
+elected Procurator of the "German Nation" in the university of Paris, and
+was re-elected four times in four successive months. He resigned his
+regentship in 1531, and in 1532 became tutor to Gilbert Kennedy, 3rd earl
+of Cassilis, with whom he returned to Scotland about the beginning of 1537.
+
+At this period Buchanan was content to assume the same attitude towards the
+Church of Rome that Erasmus maintained. He did not repudiate its doctrines,
+but considered himself free to criticize its practice. Though he listened
+with interest to the arguments of the Reformers, he did not join their
+ranks before 1553. His first production in Scotland, when he was in Lord
+Cassilis's household in the west country, was the poem _Somnium_, a
+satirical attack upon the Franciscan friars and monastic life generally.
+This assault on the monks was not displeasing to James V., who engaged
+Buchanan as tutor to one of his natural [v.04 p.0660] sons, Lord James
+Stewart (not the son who was afterwards the regent Murray), and encouraged
+him to a still more daring effort. In these circumstances the poems
+_Palinodia_ and _Franciscanus & Fratres_ were written, and, although they
+remained unpublished for many years, it is not surprising that the author
+became an object of bitterest hatred to the order and their friends. Nor
+was it yet a safe matter to assail the church. In 1539 there was a bitter
+persecution of the Lutherans, and Buchanan among others was arrested. He
+managed to effect his escape and with considerable difficulty made his way
+to London and thence to Paris. In Paris, however, he found his enemy,
+Cardinal David Beaton, who was there as an ambassador, and on the
+invitation of Andre de Gouvea, proceeded to Bordeaux. Gouvea was then
+principal of the newly founded college of Guienne at Bordeaux, and by his
+exertions Buchanan was appointed professor of Latin. During his residence
+here several of his best works, the translations of _Medea_ and _Alcestis_,
+and the two dramas, _Jephthes (sive Votum)_ and _Baptistes (sive
+Calumnia)_, were completed. Montaigne was Buchanan's pupil at Bordeaux and
+acted in his tragedies. In the essay _Of Presumption_ he classes Buchanan
+with Aurat, Beza, de L'Hopital, Montdore and Turnebus, as one of the
+foremost Latin poets of his time. Here also Buchanan formed a lasting
+friendship with Julius Caesar Scaliger; in later life he won the admiration
+of Joseph Scaliger, who wrote an epigram on Buchanan which contains the
+couplet, famous in its day:--
+
+  "Imperii fuerat Romani Scotia limes;
+  Romani eloquii Scotia limes erit?"
+
+In 1542 or 1543 he returned to Paris, and in 1544 was appointed regent in
+the college of Cardinal le Moine. Among his colleagues were the renowned
+Muretus and Turnebus.
+
+In 1547 Buchanan joined the band of French and Portuguese humanists who had
+been invited by Andre de Gouvea to lecture in the Portuguese university of
+Coimbra. The French mathematician Elie Vinet, and the Portuguese historian,
+Jeronimo de Osorio, were among his colleagues; Gouvea, called by Montaigne
+_le plus grand principal de France_, was rector of the university, which
+had reached the summit of its prosperity under the patronage of King John
+III. But the rectorship had been coveted by Diogo de Gouvea, uncle of Andre
+and formerly head of Sainte-Barbe. It is probable that before Andre's death
+at the end of 1547 Diogo had urged the Inquisition to attack him and his
+staff; up to 1906, when the records of the trial were first published in
+full, Buchanan's biographers generally attributed the attack to the
+influence of Cardinal Beaton, the Franciscans, or the Jesuits, and the
+whole history of Buchanan's residence in Portugal was extremely obscure.
+
+A commission of inquiry was appointed in October 1549 and reported in June
+1550. Buchanan and two Portuguese, Diogo de Teive and Joao da Costa (who
+had succeeded to the rectorship), were committed for trial. Teive and Costa
+were found guilty of various offences against public order, and the
+evidence shows that there was ample reason for a judicial inquiry. Buchanan
+was accused of Lutheran and Judaistic practices. He defended himself with
+conspicuous ability, courage and frankness, admitting that some of the
+charges were true. About June 1551 he was sentenced to abjure his errors,
+and to be imprisoned in the monastery of Sao Bento in Lisbon. Here he was
+compelled to listen to edifying discourses from the monks, whom he found
+"not unkind but ignorant." In his leisure he began to translate the Psalms
+into Latin verse. After seven months he was released, on condition that he
+remained in Lisbon; and on the 28th of February 1552 this restriction was
+annulled. Buchanan at once sailed for England, but soon made his way to
+Paris, where in 1553 he was appointed regent in the college of Boncourt. He
+remained in that post for two years, and then accepted the office of tutor
+to the son of the Marechal de Brissac. It was almost certainly during this
+last stay in France, where Protestantism was being repressed with great
+severity by Francis I., that Buchanan ranged himself on the side of the
+Calvinists.
+
+In 1560 or 1561 he returned to Scotland, and in April 1562 we find him
+installed as tutor to the young queen Mary, who was accustomed to read Livy
+with him daily. Buchanan now openly joined the Protestant, or Reformed
+Church, and in 1566 was appointed by the earl of Murray principal of St
+Leonard's College, St Andrews. Two years before he had received from the
+queen the valuable gift of the revenues of Crossraguel Abbey. He was thus
+in good circumstances, and his fame was steadily increasing. So great,
+indeed, was his reputation for learning and administrative capacity that,
+though a layman, he was made moderator of the general assembly in 1567. He
+had sat in the assemblies from 1563.
+
+Buchanan accompanied the regent Murray into England, and his _Detectio_
+(published in 1572) was produced to the commissioners at Westminster. In
+1570, after the assassination of Murray, he was appointed one of the
+preceptors of the young king, and it was through his tuition that James VI.
+acquired his scholarship. While discharging the functions of royal tutor he
+also held other important offices. He was for a short time director of
+chancery, and then became lord privy seal, a post which entitled him to a
+seat in the parliament. He appears to have continued in this office for
+some years, at least till 1579. He died on the 28th of September 1582.
+
+His last years had been occupied with two of his most important works. The
+first was the treatise _De Jure Regni apud Scotos_, published in 1579. In
+this famous work, composed in the form of a dialogue, and evidently
+intended to instil sound political principles into the mind of his pupil,
+Buchanan lays down the doctrine that the source of all political power is
+the people, that the king is bound by those conditions under which the
+supreme power was first committed to his hands, and that it is lawful to
+resist, even to punish, tyrants. The importance of the work is proved by
+the persistent efforts of the legislature to suppress it during the century
+following its publication. It was condemned by act of parliament in 1584,
+and again in 1664; and in 1683 it was burned by the university of Oxford.
+The second of his larger works is the history of Scotland, _Rerum
+Scoticarum Historia_, completed shortly before his death (1579), and
+published in 1582. It is of great value for the period personally known to
+the author, which occupies the greater portion of the book. The earlier
+part is based, to a considerable extent, on the legendary history of Boece.
+Buchanan's purpose was to "purge" the national history "of sum Inglis lyis
+and Scottis vanite" (_Letter to Randolph_), but he exaggerated his freedom
+from partisanship and unconsciously criticized his work when he said that
+it would "content few and displease many."
+
+Buchanan is one of Scotland's greatest scholars. For mastery over the Latin
+language he has seldom been surpassed by any modern writer. His style is
+not rigidly modelled upon that of any classical author, but has a certain
+freshness and elasticity of its own. He wrote Latin as if it had been his
+mother tongue. But in addition to this perfect command over the language,
+Buchanan had a rich vein of poetical feeling, and much originality of
+thought. His translations of the Psalms and of the Greek plays are more
+than mere versions; the smaller satirical poems abound in wit and in happy
+phrase; his two tragedies, _Baptistes_ and _Jephthes_, have enjoyed from
+the first an undiminished European reputation for academic excellence. In
+addition to the works already named, Buchanan wrote in prose _Chamaeleon_,
+a satire in the vernacular against Maitland of Lethington, first printed in
+1711; a Latin translation of Linacre's Grammar (Paris, 1533); _Libettus de
+Prosodia_ (Edinburgh, 1640); and _Vita ab ipso scripta biennio ante mortem_
+(1608), edited by R. Sibbald (1702). His other poems are _Fratres
+Fraterrimi_, _Elegiae_, _Silvae_, two sets of verses entitled
+_Hendecasyllabon Liber_ and _Iambon Liber_; three books of _Epigrammata_; a
+book of miscellaneous verse; _De Sphaera_ (in five books), suggested by the
+poem of Joannes de Sacrobosco, and intended as a defence of the Ptolemaic
+theory against the new Copernican view.
+
+There are two editions of Buchanan's works:--(a) _Georgii Buchanani Scoti,
+Poetarum sui seculi facile principis, Opera Omnia_, in two vols. fol.,
+edited by Ruddiman (Edinburgh, Freebairn, 1715); (b) edited by Burman, 4to,
+1725. The _Vernacular Writings_, [v.04 p.0661] consisting of the
+_Chamaeleon_ (_u.s._), a tract on the Reformation of St Andrews University,
+_Ane Admonitioun to the Trew Lordis_, and two letters, were edited for the
+Scottish Text Society by P. Hume Brown. The principal biographies
+are:--David Irving, _Memoirs of the Life and Writings of George Buchanan_
+(Edinburgh,1807 and 1817); P. Hume Brown, _George Buchanan, Humanist and
+Reformer_ (Edinburgh, 1890), _George Buchanan and his Times_ (Edinburgh,
+1906); Rev. D. Macmillan, _George Buchanan, a Biography_ (Edinburgh, 1906).
+Buchanan's quatercentenary was celebrated at different centres in Scotland
+in 1906, and was the occasion of several encomia and studies. The most
+important of these are: _George Buchanan: Glasgow Quatercentenary Studies_
+(Glasgow, 1906), and _George Buchanan, a Memoir_, edited by D.A. Millar (St
+Andrews, 1907). A verse translation of the _Baptistes_, entitled
+_Tyrannicall-Government Anatomized_ (1642), has been attributed to Milton;
+its authorship is discussed in the _Glasgow Quatercentenary Studies_. The
+records of Buchanan's trial, discovered by the Portuguese historian, G.J.C.
+Henriques, were published by him under the title _George Buchanan in the
+Lisbon Inquisition. The Records of his Trial, with a Translation thereof
+into English, Facsimiles of some of the Papers, and an Introduction_
+(Lisbon, 1906).
+
+BUCHANAN, JAMES (1791-1868), fifteenth president of the United States, was
+born near Foltz, Franklin county, Pennsylvania, on the 23rd of April 1791.
+Both parents were of Scottish-Irish Presbyterian descent. He graduated at
+Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pennsylvania, in 1809, studied law at
+Lancaster in 1809-1812, and was admitted to the bar in 1812. He served in
+the lower house of the state legislature in 1814-1816, and as a
+representative in Congress from 1821 to 1831. As chairman of the judiciary
+committee he conducted the impeachment trial (1830) of Judge James H. Peck,
+led an unsuccessful movement to increase the number of Supreme Court judges
+and to relieve them of their circuit duties, and succeeded in defeating an
+attempt to repeal the twenty-fifth section of the Judiciary Act of 1789,
+which gave the Supreme Court appellate jurisdiction by writ of error to the
+state courts in cases where federal laws and treaties are in question.
+After the dissolution of the Federalist party, of which he had been a
+member, he supported the Jackson-Van Buren faction, and soon came to be
+definitely associated with the Democrats. He represented the United States
+at the court of St Petersburg in 1832-1833, and there negotiated an
+important commercial treaty. He was a Democratic member of the United
+States Senate from December 1834 until March 1845, ardently supporting
+President Jackson, and was secretary of state in the cabinet of President
+Polk from 1845 to 1849--a period marked by the annexation of Texas, the
+Mexican War, and negotiations with Great Britain relative to the Oregon
+question. After four years of retirement spent in the practice of his
+profession, he was appointed by President Pierce minister to Great Britain
+in 1853.
+
+Up to this time Buchanan's attitude on the slavery question had been that
+held by the conservative element among Northern Democrats. He felt that the
+institution was morally wrong, but held that Congress could not interfere
+with it in the states in which it existed, and ought not to hinder the
+natural tendency toward territorial expansion through a fear that the evil
+would spread. He voted for the bill to exclude anti-slavery literature from
+the mails, approved of the annexation of Texas, the war with Mexico, and
+the Compromise of 1850, and disapproved of the Wilmot Proviso. Fortunately
+for his career he was abroad during the Kansas-Nebraska debates, and hence
+did not share in the unpopularity which attached to Stephen A. Douglas as
+the author of the bill, and to President Pierce as the executive who was
+called upon to enforce it. At the same time, by joining with J.Y. Mason and
+Pierre Soule in issuing the Ostend Manifesto in 1854, he retained the
+good-will of the South.[1] Accordingly on his return from England in 1856
+he was nominated by the Democrats as a compromise candidate for president,
+and was elected, receiving 174 electoral votes to 114 for John C. Fremont,
+Republican, and 8 for Millard Fillmore, American or "Know-Nothing."
+
+His high moral character, the breadth of his legal knowledge, and his
+experience as congressman, cabinet member and diplomat, would have made
+Buchanan an excellent president in ordinary times; but he lacked the
+soundness of judgment, the self-reliance and the moral courage needed to
+face a crisis. At the beginning of his administration he appointed Robert
+J. Walker of Mississippi, territorial governor of Kansas, and Frederick P.
+Stanton of Tennessee, secretary, and assured them of his determination to
+adhere to the popular sovereignty principle. He soon began to use his
+influence, however, to force the admission of Kansas into the Union under
+the pro-slavery Lecompton Constitution, contrary to the wishes of the
+majority of the settlers. Stanton was removed from office for opposing the
+scheme, and Walker resigned in disgust. This change of policy was doubtless
+the result of timidity rather than of a desire to secure re-election by
+gaining the favour of the Southern Democracy. Under the influence of Howell
+Cobb of Georgia, secretary of the treasury, and Jacob Thompson of
+Mississippi, secretary of the interior, the president was convinced that it
+was the only way to avoid civil war. Federal patronage was freely used to
+advance the Lecompton measure and the compromise English Bill, and to
+prevent Douglas's election to the Senate in 1858. Some of these facts were
+brought out in the famous Covode Investigation conducted by a committee of
+the House of Representatives in 1860. The investigations, however, were
+very partisan in character, and there is reason to doubt the constitutional
+power of the House to make it, except as the basis for an impeachment
+trial.
+
+The call issued by the South Carolina legislature just after the election
+of Lincoln for a state convention to decide upon the advisability of
+secession brought forward the most serious question of Buchanan's
+administration. The part of his annual message of the 4th of December 1860
+dealing with it is based upon a report prepared by Attorney-General
+Jeremiah S. Black of Pennsylvania. He argued that a state had no legal
+right to secede, but denied that the federal government had any power
+forcibly to prevent it. At the same time it was the duty of the president
+to call out the army and navy of the United States to protect federal
+property or to enforce federal laws. Soon after the secession movement
+began the Southern members of the cabinet resigned, and the president
+gradually came under the influence of Black, Stanton, Dix, and other
+Northern leaders. He continued, however, to work for a peaceful settlement,
+supporting the Crittenden Compromise and the work of the Peace Congress. He
+disapproved of Major Anderson's removal of his troops from Fort Moultrie to
+Fort Sumter in December 1860; but there is probably no basis for the charge
+made by Southern writers that the removal itself was in violation of a
+pledge given by the president to preserve the _status quo_ in Charleston
+harbour until the arrival of the South Carolina commissioners in
+Washington. Equally unfounded is the assertion first made by Thurlow Weed
+in the London _Observer_ (9th of February 1862) that the president was
+prevented from ordering Anderson back to Fort Moultrie only by the threat
+of four members of the cabinet to resign.
+
+[v.04 p.0662] On the expiration of his term of office (March 4, 1861)
+Buchanan retired to his home at Wheatland, near Lancaster, Pennsylvania,
+where he died on the 1st of June 1868. His mistakes as president have been
+so emphasized as to obscure the fact that he was a man of unimpeachable
+honesty, of the highest patriotism, and of considerable ability. He never
+married.
+
+See George Ticknor Curtis, _The Life of James Buchanan_ (2 vols., New York,
+1883), the standard biography; Curtis, however, was a close personal and
+political friend, and his work is too eulogistic. More trustworthy, but at
+times unduly severe, is the account given by James Ford Rhodes in the first
+two volumes of his _History of the United States since the Compromise of
+1850_ (New York, new edition, 1902-1907). John Bassett Moore has edited
+_The Works of James Buchanan, comprising his Speeches, State Papers, and
+Private Correspondence_ (Philadelphia, 1908-1910).
+
+[1] This "manifesto," which was bitterly attacked in the North, was agreed
+upon (October 18, 1854) by the three ministers after several meetings at
+Ostend and at Aix-la-Chapelle, arranged in pursuance of instructions to
+them from President Pierce to "compare opinions, and to adopt measures for
+perfect concert of action in aid of the negotiations at Madrid" on the
+subject of reparations demanded from Spain by the United States for alleged
+injuries to American commerce with Cuba. In the manifesto the three
+ministers asserted that "from the peculiarity of its geographical position,
+and the considerations attendant upon it, Cuba is as necessary to the North
+American republic as any of its present members"; spoke of the danger to
+the United States of an insurrection in Cuba; asserted that "we should be
+recreant to our duty, be unworthy of our gallant forefathers, and commit
+base treason against our posterity, should we permit Cuba to be Africanized
+and become a second Santo Domingo, with all its attendant horrors to the
+white race, and suffer the flames to extend to our own neighboring shores,
+seriously to endanger or actually destroy the fair fabric of our Union";
+and recommended that "the United States ought, if practicable, to purchase
+Cuba as soon as possible." To Spain, they argued, the sale of the island
+would be a great advantage. The most startling declaration of the manifesto
+was that if Spain should refuse to sell "after we shall have offered a
+price for Cuba far beyond its present value," and if Cuba, in the
+possession of Spain, should seriously endanger "our internal peace and the
+existence of our cherished Union," then "by every law, human and divine, we
+shall be justified in wresting it from Spain if we have the power."
+
+BUCHANAN, ROBERT WILLIAMS (1841-1901), British poet, novelist and
+dramatist, son of Robert Buchanan (1813-1866), Owenite lecturer and
+journalist, was born at Caverswall, Staffordshire, on the 18th of August
+1841. His father, a native of Ayr, after living for some years in
+Manchester, removed to Glasgow, where Buchanan was educated, at the high
+school and the university, one of his fellow-students being the poet David
+Gray. His essay on Gray, originally contributed to the _Cornhill Magazine_,
+tells the story of their close friendship, and of their journey to London
+in 1860 in search of fame. After a period of struggle and disappointment
+Buchanan published _Undertones_ in 1863. This "tentative" volume was
+followed by _Idyls and Legends of Inverburn_ (1865), _London Poems_ (1866),
+and _North Coast and other Poems_ (1868), wherein he displayed a faculty
+for poetic narrative, and a sympathetic insight into the humbler conditions
+of life. On the whole, Buchanan is at his best in these narrative poems,
+though he essayed a more ambitious flight in _The Book of Orm: A Prelude to
+the Epic_, a study in mysticism, which appeared in 1870. He was a frequent
+contributor to periodical literature, and obtained notoriety by an article
+which, under the _nom de plume_ of Thomas Maitland, he contributed to the
+_Contemporary Review_ for October 1871, entitled "The Fleshly School of
+Poetry." This article was expanded into a pamphlet (1872), but he
+subsequently withdrew from the criticisms it contained, and it is chiefly
+remembered by the replies it evoked from D.G. Rossetti in a letter to the
+_Athenaeum_ (16th December 1871), entitled "The Stealthy School of
+Criticism," and from Mr Swinburne in _Under the Microscope_ (1872).
+Buchanan himself afterwards regretted the violence of his attack, and the
+"old enemy" to whom _God and the Man_ is dedicated was Rossetti. In 1876
+appeared _The Shadow of the Sword_, the first and one of the best of a long
+series of novels. Buchanan was also the author of many successful plays,
+among which may be mentioned _Lady Clare_, produced in 1883; _Sophia_
+(1886), an adaptation of _Tom Jones; A Man's Shadow_ (1890); and _The
+Charlatan_ (1894). He also wrote, in collaboration with Harriett Jay, the
+melodrama _Alone in London_. In 1896 he became, so far as some of his work
+was concerned, his own publisher. In the autumn of 1900 he had a paralytic
+seizure, from which he never recovered. He died at Streatham on the 10th of
+June 1901.
+
+Buchanan's poems were collected into three volumes in 1874, into one volume
+in 1884; and as _Complete Poetical Works_ (2 vols., 1901). Among his poems
+should also be mentioned: "The Drama of Kings" (1871); "St Abe and his
+Seven Wives," a lively tale of Salt Lake City, published anonymously in
+1872; and "Balder the Beautiful" (1877); "The City of Dream" (1888); "The
+Outcast: a Rhyme for the Time" (1891); and "The Wandering Jew" (1893). His
+earlier novels, _The Shadow of the Sword_, and _God and the Man_ (1881), a
+striking tale of a family feud, are distinguished by a certain breadth and
+simplicity of treatment which is not so noticeable in their successors,
+among which may be mentioned _The Martyrdom of Madeline_ (1882); _Foxglove
+Manor_ (1885); _Effie Hetherington_ (1896); and _Father Anthony_ (1898).
+_David Gray and other Essays, chiefly on Poetry_ (1868); _Master Spirits_
+(1873); _A Poet's Sketch Book_ (1883), in which the interesting essay on
+Gray is reprinted; and _A Look round Literature_ (1887), contain Buchanan's
+chief contributions to periodical literature. More valuable is _The Land of
+Lorne_ (2 vols., 1871), a vivid record of yachting experiences on the west
+coast of Scotland.
+
+See also Harriett Jay, _Robert Buchanan; some Account of his Life_ (1903).
+
+BUCHAREST (_Bucuresci_), also written Bucarest, Bukarest, Bukharest,
+Bukorest and Bukhorest, the capital of Rumania, and chief town of the
+department of Ilfov. Although _Bucharest_ is the conventional English
+spelling, the forms _Bucarest_ and _Bukarest_ more nearly represent the
+correct pronunciation. The population in 1900 was 282,071, including 43,274
+Jews, and 53,056 aliens, mostly Austro-Hungarian subjects. With its
+outlying parts, Bucharest covers more than 20 sq. m. It lies in a hollow,
+traversed from north-west to south-east by the river Dimbovitza
+(_Dambovita_ or _Dimbovita_), and is built mainly on the left bank. A range
+of low hills affords shelter on the west and south-west; but on every other
+side there are drained, though still unhealthy, marshes, stretching away to
+meet the central Walachian plains. From a distance, the multitude of its
+gardens, and the turrets and metal-plated or gilded cupolas of its many
+churches give Bucharest a certain picturesqueness. In a few of the older
+districts, too, where land is least valuable, there are antique
+one-storeyed houses, surrounded by poplars and acacias; while the gipsies
+and Rumans, wearing their brightly coloured native costumes, the Russian
+coachmen, or sleigh-drivers, of the banished Lipovan sect, and the pedlars,
+with their doleful street cries, render Bucharest unlike any western
+capital. Nevertheless, the city is modern. Until about 1860, indeed, the
+dimly lit lanes were paved with rough stone blocks, imbedded in the clay
+soil, which often subsided, so as to leave the surface undulating like a
+sea. Drains were rare, epidemics common. Owing to the frequency of
+earthquakes, many houses were built of wood, and in 1847 fully a quarter of
+the city was laid waste by fire. The plague visited Bucharest in 1718,
+1738, 1793, when an earthquake destroyed a number of old buildings, and in
+1813, when 70,000 of the inhabitants died in six weeks. From the accession
+of Prince Charles, in 1866, a gradual reform began. The river was enclosed
+between stone embankments; sewerage and pure water were supplied, gas and
+electric light installed; and horse or electric tramways laid down in the
+principal thoroughfares, which were paved with granite or wood. The older
+houses are of brick, overlaid with white or tinted plaster, and ornamented
+with figures or foliage in terra-cotta; but owing to the great changes of
+temperature in Rumania, the plaster soon cracks and peels off, giving a
+dilapidated appearance to many streets. The chief modern buildings, such as
+the Athenaeum, with its Ionic facade and Byzantine dome, are principally on
+the quays and boulevards, and are constructed of stone.
+
+Bucharest is often called "The Paris of the East," partly from a supposed
+social resemblance, partly from the number of its boulevards and avenues.
+Three main thoroughfares, the Plevna, Lipscani, and Vacaresci, skirt the
+left bank of the river; the Elizabeth Boulevard, and the Calea Victoriei,
+or "Avenue of Victory," which commemorates the Rumanian success at Plevna,
+in 1877, radiate east and north, respectively, from the Lipscani, and meet
+a broad road which surrounds all sides of Bucharest, except the north-west.
+The Lipscani was originally the street of merchants who obtained their
+wares from the annual fair at Leipzig; for almost all crafts or gilds,
+other than the bakers and tavern-keepers, were long confined to separate
+quarters; and the old names have survived, as in the musicians', furriers',
+and money-changers' quarters. Continuous with the Calea Victoriei, on the
+north, is the Kisilev Park, traversed by the Chausee, a favourite drive,
+leading to the pretty Baneasa race-course, where spring and autumn meetings
+are held. The Cismegiu or Cismigiu Park, which has a circumference of about
+1 m., is laid out between the Plevna road and the Calea Victoriei; and
+there are botanical and zoological gardens.
+
+The Orthodox Greek churches are generally small, with very narrow windows,
+and are built of brick in a modified Byzantine style. They are usually
+surmounted by two or three towers, but the bells are hung in a kind of
+wooden porch, resembling a [v.04 p.0663] lych-gate, and standing about
+twenty paces from the church. The cathedral, or metropolitan church, where
+the metropolitan primate of Rumania officiates, was built between 1656 and
+1665. It has the shape of a Greek cross, surrounded by a broad cloister,
+with four main entrances, each surmounted by a turret. The whole culminates
+in three brick towers. Standing on high ground, the cathedral overlooks all
+Bucharest, and commands a view of the Carpathians. Other interesting
+churches are St Spiridion the New (1768), the loftiest and most beautiful
+of all; the Doamna Balasa (1751), noteworthy for its rich carved work
+without, and frescoes within; and the ancient Biserica Bucur, said, in
+local traditions, to derive its name from Bucur, a shepherd whom legend
+makes the founder of Bucharest. The real founder and date of this church,
+and of many others, are unknown, thanks to the frequent obliteration of
+Slavonic inscriptions by the Greek clergy. The Protestants, Armenians and
+Lipovans worship in their own churches, and the Jews have several
+synagogues. Bucharest is also the seat of a Roman Catholic archbishop; but
+the Roman Catholics, though numbering nearly 37,000 in 1899, possess only
+three churches, including the cathedral of St Joseph.
+
+Bucharest is a great educational centre. Besides the ordinary
+ecclesiastical seminaries, lyceums, gymnasia and elementary schools, it
+possesses schools of commerce, science and art institutes, and training
+colleges, for engineers and veterinary surgeons; while the university,
+founded in 1864, has faculties of theology, philosophy, literature, law,
+science, medicine and pharmacy. Students pay no fees except for board. The
+national library, containing many precious Oriental documents, and the
+meeting-hall of the Rumanian senate, are both included in the university
+buildings, which, with the Athenaeum (used for literary conferences and for
+music), and the central girls' school, are regarded as the best example of
+modern Rumanian architecture. Other libraries are those of the Nifon
+seminary, of the Charles University Foundation (_Fundatiunea universitara
+Carol_), which endows research, and rewards literary or scientific merit;
+the central library, and the library of the Academy, which also contains a
+museum of natural history and antiquities. Among philanthropic institutions
+may be mentioned the Coltei, Brancovan, Maternitate, Philantropia and
+Pantelimon hospitals; the Marcutza lunatic asylum; and the Princess Elena
+refuge (_Asilul Elena Doamna_), founded by Princess Elena Couza in 1862, to
+provide for 230 orphan girls. The summer home of these girls is a convent
+in the Transylvanian Alps. Hotels and restaurants are numerous. There are
+two theatres, the National and the Lyric, which is mainly patronized by
+foreign players; but minor places of amusement abound; as also do
+clubs--political, social and sporting. Socially, indeed, the progress of
+Bucharest is remarkable, its political, literary and scientific circles
+being on a level with those of most European capitals.
+
+Bucharest is the winter residence of the royal family, the meeting-place of
+parliament, and the seat of an appeal court (_Curtea de Apel_), of the
+supreme court (_Curtea de Casatie_), of the ministries, the national bank,
+the bank of Rumania, many lesser credit establishments, and a chamber of
+commerce. The railway lines which meet on the western limit of the city
+give access to all parts, and the telephone system, besides being
+internally complete, communicates with Braila, Galatz, Jassy and Sinaia.
+Bucharest has a very large transit trade in petroleum, timber and
+agricultural produce; above all, in wheat and maize. Its industries include
+petroleum-refining, extraction of vegetable oils, cabinet-making,
+brandy-distilling, tanning, and the manufacture of machinery, wire, nails,
+metal-ware, cement, soap, candles, paste, starch, paper, cardboard, pearl
+buttons, textiles, leather goods, ropes, glucose, army supplies, preserved
+meat and vegetables, and confectionery. An important fair is held for seven
+days in each year. The mercantile community is largely composed of
+Austrians, Frenchmen, Germans, Greeks and Swiss, who form exclusive
+colonies. Bucharest is the headquarters of the II. army corps, and a
+fortress of the first rank. The fortifications were constructed in
+1885-1896 on a project drafted by the Belgian engineer, General Brialmont,
+in 1883. The mean distance of the forts from the city is 4 m., and the
+perimeter of the defences (which are technically of special importance as
+embodying the system of Brialmont) is about 48 m., this perimeter being
+defended by 36 armoured forts and batteries. There are barracks for over
+30,000 cavalry and infantry, an arsenal, a military hospital and three
+military academies.
+
+The legend of Bucur is plainly unhistorical, and the meaning of _Bucharest_
+has been much disputed. One account derives it from an Albanian word
+_Bukur_, meaning joy, in memory of a victory won by Prince Mircea of
+Walachia (c. 1383-1419) over the Turks. For this reason Bucharest is often
+called "The City of Joy". Like most ancient cities of Rumania, its
+foundation has also been ascribed to the first Walachian prince, the
+half-mythical Radu Negru (c. 1290-1314). More modern historians declare
+that it was originally a fortress, erected on the site of the Daco-Roman
+Thyanus, to command the approaches to Tirgovishtea, formerly the capital of
+Walachia. It soon became the summer residence of the court. In 1595 it was
+burned by the Turks; but, after its restoration, continued to grow in size
+and prosperity, until, in 1698, Prince Constantine Brancovan chose it for
+his capital. During the 18th century the possession of Bucharest was
+frequently disputed by the Turks, Austrians and Russians. In 1812 it gave
+its name to the treaty by which Bessarabia and a third of Moldavia were
+ceded to Russia. In the war of 1828 it was occupied by the Russians, who
+made it over to the prince of Walachia in the following year. A rebellion
+against Prince Bibescu in 1848 brought both Turkish and Russian
+interference, and the city was again held by Russian troops in 1853-1854.
+On their departure an Austrian garrison took possession and remained till
+March 1857. In 1858 the international congress for the organization of the
+Danubian principalities was held in the city; and when, in 1861, the union
+of Walachia and Moldavia was proclaimed, Bucharest became the Rumanian
+capital. Prince Cuza, the first ruler of the united provinces, was driven
+from his throne by an insurrection in Bucharest in 1866. For the subsequent
+history of the city see RUMANIA: _History_.
+
+BUeCHELER, FRANZ (1837-1908), German classical scholar, was born in
+Rheinberg on the 3rd of June 1837, and educated at Bonn. He held
+professorships successively at Freiburg (1858), Greifswald (1866), and Bonn
+(1870), and in 1878 became joint-editor of the _Rheinisches Museum fuer
+Philologie_. Both as a teacher and as a commentator he was extremely
+successful. Among his editions are: _Frontini de aquis urbis Romae_
+(Leipzig, 1858); _Pervigilium Veneris_ (Leipzig, 1859); _Petronii satirarum
+reliquiae_ (Berlin, 1862; 3rd ed., 1882); _Hymnus Cereris Homericus_
+(Leipzig, 1869); _Q. Ciceronis reliquiae_ (1869); _Herondae mimiambi_
+(Bonn, 1892). He wrote also _Grundriss der lateinischen Deklination_
+(1866); _Das Recht von Gortyn_ (Frankfort, 1885, with Zitelmann); and
+supervised the third edition (1893) of O. Jahn's _Persii, Juvenalis,
+Sulpiciae saturae_.
+
+BUCHAR, LOTHAR (1817-1892), German publicist, was born on the 25th of
+October 1817 at Neu Stettin, in Pomerania, his father being master at a
+gymnasium. After studying at the university of Berlin he adopted the legal
+profession. Elected a member of the National Assembly in Berlin in 1848, he
+was an active leader of the extreme democratic party. With others of his
+colleagues he was in 1850 brought to trial for having taken part in
+organizing a movement for refusal to pay taxes; he was condemned to fifteen
+months' imprisonment in a fortress, but left the country before the
+sentence was executed. For ten years he lived in exile, chiefly in London;
+he acted as special correspondent of the _National Zeitung_, and gained a
+great knowledge of English life; and he published a work, _Der
+Parliamentarismus wie er ist_, a criticism of parliamentary government,
+which shows a marked change in his political opinions. In 1860 he returned
+to Germany, and became intimate with Lassalle, who made him his literary
+executor. In 1864 he was offered by Bismarck, and accepted, a high position
+in the Prussian foreign office. The reasons that led him to a step which
+involved so complete a break with his earlier friends and associations are
+not clearly known. From this time till his death he acted as Bismarck's
+secretary, and was the man who probably enjoyed the greatest [v.04 p.0664]
+amount of his confidence. It was he who drew up the text of the
+constitution of the North German Confederation; in 1870 he was sent on a
+very confidential mission to Spain in connexion with the Hohenzollern
+candidature for the Spanish crown; he assisted Bismarck at the final
+negotiations for the treaty of Frankfort, and was one of the secretaries to
+the congress of Berlin; he also assisted Bismarck in the composition of his
+memoirs. Bucher, who was a man of great ability, had considerable
+influence, which was especially directed against the economic doctrines of
+the Liberals; in 1881 he published a pamphlet criticizing the influence and
+principles of the Cobden Club. He identified himself completely with
+Bismarck's later commercial and colonial policy, and probably had much to
+do with introducing it, and he did much to encourage anti-British feeling
+in Germany. He died at Glion, in Switzerland, on the 12th of October 1892.
+
+See Heinrich v. Poschinger, _Ein 48er: Lothar Buchers Leben und Werke_ (3
+vols., Berlin, 1890); Busch, _Bismarck: Some Secret Pages of his History_
+(London, 1898).
+
+(J. W. HE.)
+
+BUCHEZ, PHILIPPE JOSEPH BENJAMIN (1796-1865), French author and politician,
+was born on the 31st of March 1796 at Matagne-la-Petite, now in Belgium,
+then in the French department of the Ardennes. He finished his general
+education in Paris, and afterwards applied himself to the study of natural
+science and medicine. In 1821 he co-operated with Saint-Amand Bazard and
+others in founding a secret association, modelled on that of the Italian
+Carbonari, with the object of organizing a general armed rising against the
+government. The organization spread rapidly and widely, and displayed
+itself in repeated attempts at revolution. In one of these attempts, the
+affair at Belfort, Buchez was gravely compromised, although the jury which
+tried him did not find the evidence sufficient to warrant his condemnation.
+In 1825 he graduated in medicine, and soon after he published with Ulisse
+Trelat a _Precis elementaire d'hygiene_. About the same time he became a
+member of the Saint-Simonian Society, presided over by Bazard, Barthelemy
+Prosper Enfantin, and Olinde Rodrigues, and contributed to its organ, the
+_Producteur_. He left it in consequence of aversion to the strange
+religious ideas developed by its "Supreme Father," Enfantin, and began to
+elaborate what he regarded as a Christian socialism. For the exposition and
+advocacy of his principles he founded a periodical called _L'Europeen_. In
+1833 he published an _Introduction a la science de l'histoire_, which was
+received with considerable favour (2nd ed., improved and enlarged, 2 vols.,
+1842). Notwithstanding its prolixity, this is an interesting work. The part
+which treats of the aim, foundation and methods of the science of history
+is valuable; but what is most distinctive in Buchez's theory--the division
+of historical development into four great epochs originated by four
+universal revelations, of each epoch into three periods corresponding to
+desire, reasoning and performance, and of each of these periods into a
+theoretical and practical age--is merely ingenious (see Flint's _Philosophy
+of History in Europe_, i. 242-252). Buchez next edited, along with M.
+Roux-Lavergne (1802-1874), the _Histoire parlementaire de la Revolution
+francaise_ (1833-1838; 40 vols.). This vast and conscientious publication
+is a valuable store of material for the early periods of the first French
+Revolution. There is a review of it by Carlyle (_Miscellanies_), the first
+two parts of whose own history of the French Revolution are mainly drawn
+from it. The editors worked under the inspiration of a strong admiration of
+the principles of Robespierre and the Jacobins, and in the belief that the
+French Revolution was an attempt to realize Christianity. In the _Essai
+d'un traite complet de philosophie au point de vue du Catholicisme et du
+progres_ (1839-1840) Buchez endeavoured to co-ordinate in a single system
+the political, moral, religious and natural phenomena of existence. Denying
+the possibility of innate ideas, he asserted that morality comes by
+revelation, and is therefore not only certain, but the only real certainty.
+
+It was partly owing to the reputation which he had acquired by these
+publications, but still more owing to his connexion with the _National_
+newspaper, and with the secret societies hostile to the government of Louis
+Philippe, that he was raised, by the Revolution of 1848, to the presidency
+of the Constituent Assembly. He speedily showed that he was not possessed
+of the qualities needed in a situation so difficult and in days so
+tempestuous. He retained the position only for a very short time. After the
+dissolution of the assembly he was not re-elected. Thrown back into private
+life, he resumed his studies, and added several works to those which have
+been already mentioned. A _Traite de politique_ (published 1866), which may
+be considered as the completion of his _Traite de philosophie_, was the
+most important of the productions of the last period of his life. His
+brochures are very numerous and on a great variety of subjects, medical,
+historical, political, philosophical, &c. He died on the 12th of August
+1865. He found a disciple of considerable ability in M.A. Ott, who
+advocated and applied his principles in various writings.
+
+See also A. Ott, "P.B.J. Buchez," in _Journal des economistes_ for 1865.
+
+BUCHHOLZ, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, 1700 ft. above the
+sea, on the Sehma, 18 m. S. by E. of Chemnitz by rail. Pop. (1905) 9307. It
+has a Gothic Evangelical church and monuments of Frederick the Wise of
+Saxony, and Bismarck. There is a school for instruction in lace-making, an
+industry dating from 1589, which still forms the chief employment of the
+inhabitants.
+
+BUeCHNER, FRIEDRICH KARL CHRISTIAN LUDWIG (1824-1899), German philosopher
+and physician, was born at Darmstadt. He studied at Giessen, Strassburg,
+Wuerzburg and Vienna. In 1852 he became lecturer in medicine at the
+university of Tuebingen, where he published his great work _Kraft und Stoff_
+(1855). In this work, the product, according to Lange, of a fanatical
+enthusiasm for humanity, he sought to demonstrate the indestructibility of
+matter and force, and the finality of physical force. The extreme
+materialism of this work excited so much opposition that he was compelled
+to give up his post at Tuebingen. He retired to Darmstadt, where he
+practised as a physician and contributed regularly to pathological and
+physiological magazines. He continued his philosophical work in defence of
+materialism, and published _Natur und Geist_ (1857), _Aus Natur und
+Wissenschaft_ (vol. i., 1862; vol. ii., 1884), _Fremdes und Eigenes aus dem
+geistigen Leben der Gegenwart_ (1890), _Darwinismus und Socialismus_
+(1894), _Im Dienste der Wahrheit_ (1899). He died at Darmstadt on the 1st
+of May 1899. In estimating Buechner's philosophy it must be remembered that
+he was primarily a physiologist, not a metaphysician. Matter and force (or
+energy) are infinite; the conservation of force follows from the
+imperishability of matter, the ultimate basis of all science. Buechner is
+not always clear in his theory of the relation between matter and force. At
+one time he refuses to explain it, but generally he assumes that all
+natural and spiritual forces are indwelling in matter. "Just as a
+steam-engine," he says in _Kraft und Stoff_ (7th ed., p. 130), "produces
+motion, so the intricate organic complex of force-bearing substance in an
+animal organism produces a total sum of certain effects, which, when bound
+together in a unity, are called by us mind, soul, thought." Here he
+postulates force and mind as emanating from original matter--a
+materialistic monism. But in other parts of his works he suggests that mind
+and matter are two different aspects of that which is the basis of all
+things--a monism which is not necessarily materialistic, and which, in the
+absence of further explanation, constitutes a confession of failure.
+Buechner was much less concerned to establish a scientific metaphysic than
+to protest against the romantic idealism of his predecessors and the
+theological interpretations of the universe. Nature according to him is
+purely physical; it has no purpose, no will, no laws imposed by extraneous
+authority, no supernatural ethical sanction.
+
+See Frauenstaedt, _Der Materialismus_ (Leipzig, 1856); Janet, _The
+Materialism of the Present Day: A Criticism of Dr Buechner's System_, trans.
+Masson (London, 1867).
+
+BUCHON, JEAN ALEXANDRE (1791-1849), French scholar, was born on the 21st of
+May 1791 at Menetou-Salon (Cher), and died on the 29th of August 1849. An
+ardent Liberal, he took an active part in party struggles under the
+Restoration, while [v.04 p.0665] throwing himself with equal vigour into
+the great work of historical regeneration which was going on at that
+period. During 1822 and the succeeding years he travelled about Europe on
+the search for materials for his _Collection des chroniques nationales
+francaises ecrites en langue vulgaire du XIII^e au XVI^e siecle_ (47 vols.,
+1824-1829). After the revolution of 1830 he founded the _Pantheon
+litteraire_, in which he published a _Choix d'ouvrages mystiques_ (1843), a
+_Choix de monuments primitifs de l'eglise chretienne_ (1837), a _Choix des
+historiens grecs_ (1837), a collection of _Chroniques etrangeres relatives
+aux expeditions francaises pendant le XIII^e siecle_ (1840), and, most
+important of all, a _Choix de chroniques et memoires sur l'histoire de
+France_ (1836-1841). His travels in southern Italy and in the East had put
+him upon the track of the medieval French settlements in those regions, and
+to this subject he devoted several important works: _Recherches et
+materiaux pour servir a une histoire de la domination francaise dans les
+provinces demembrees de l'empire grec_ (1840); _Nouvelles recherches
+historiques sur la principaute francaise de Moree et ses hautes baronnies_
+(2 vols., 1843-1844); _Histoire des conquetes et de l'etablissement des
+Francais dans les etats de l'ancienne Grece sous es Villehardouin_ (1846,
+unfinished). None of the numerous publications which we owe to Buchon can
+be described as thoroughly scholarly; but they have been of great service
+to history, and those concerning the East have in especial the value of
+original research.
+
+BUCHU, or BUKA LEAVES, the produce of several shrubby plants belonging to
+the genus Barosma (nat. order Rutaceae), natives of the Cape of Good Hope.
+The principal species, _B. crenulata_, has leaves of a smooth leathery
+texture, oblong-ovate in shape, from an inch to an inch and a half in
+length, with serrulate or crenulate margins, on which as well as on the
+under side are conspicuous oil-glands. The other species which yield buchu
+are _B. serratifolia_, having linear-lanceolate sharply serrulate leaves,
+and _B. betulina_, the leaves of which are cuneate-obovate, with
+denticulate margins. They are all, as found in commerce, of a pale
+yellow-green colour; they emit a peculiar aromatic odour, and have a
+slightly astringent bitter taste. Buchu leaves contain a volatile oil,
+which is of a dark yellow colour, and deposits a form of camphor on
+exposure to air, a liquid hydro-carbon being the solvent of the camphor
+within the oil-glands. There is also present a minute quantity of a bitter
+principle. The leaves of a closely allied plant, _Empleurum serratulum_,
+are employed as a substitute or adulterant for buchu. As these possess no
+glands they are a worthless substitute. The British Pharmacopoeia contains
+an infusion and tincture of buchu. The former may be given in doses of an
+ounce and the latter in doses of a drachm. The drug has the properties
+common to all substances that contain a volatile oil. The infusion contains
+very little of the oil and is of very slight value. Until the advent of the
+modern synthetic products buchu was valued in diseases of the urinary
+tract, but its use is now practically obsolete.
+
+BUCK, CARL DARLING (1866- ), American philologist, was born on the 2nd of
+October 1866, at Bucksport, Maine. He graduated at Yale in 1886, was a
+graduate student there for three years, and studied at the American School
+of Classical Studies in Athens (1887-1889) and in Leipzig (1889-1892). In
+1892 he became professor of Sanskrit and Indo-European comparative
+philology in the University of Chicago; but it is in the narrower field of
+the Italic dialects that his important work lies, including _Der Vocalismus
+der oskischen Sprache_ (1892), _The Oscan-Umbrian Verb-System_ (1895), and
+_Grammar of Oscan and Umbrian_ (1904), as well as an excellent _precis_ of
+the Italic languages in _Johnson's Universal Cyclopaedia_. He collaborated
+with W.G. Hale (_q.v._) in the preparation of _A Latin Grammar_ (1903). Of
+his contributions to reviews on phonological topics, perhaps the most
+important is his discussion of "Brugmann's Law."
+
+BUCK, DUDLEY (1839-1909), American musical composer, was born in Hartford,
+Connecticut, on the 10th of March 1839, the son of a merchant who gave him
+every opportunity for cultivating his musical talents; and for four years
+(1858-1862) he studied at Leipzig, Dresden and Paris. On returning to
+America he held the position of organist at Hartford, Chicago (1869), and
+Boston (1871). In 1875 he went to New York to assist Theodore Thomas as
+conductor of the orchestral concerts, and from 1877 to 1903 was organist at
+Holy Trinity church. Meanwhile he had become well known as a composer of
+church music, a number of cantatas (_Columbus_, 1876; _Golden Legend_,
+1880; _Light of Asia_, 1885, &c), a grand opera, _Serapis_, a comic opera,
+_Deseret_ (1880), a symphonic overture, _Marmion_, a symphony in E flat,
+and other orchestral and vocal works. He died on the 6th of October 1909.
+
+BUCK, (1) (From the O. Eng. _buc_, a he-goat, and _bucca_, a male deer),
+the male of several animals, of goats, hares and rabbits, and particularly
+of the fallow-deer. During the 18th century the word was used of a
+spirited, reckless young man of fashion, and later, with particular
+reference to extravagance in dress, of a dandy. (2) (From a root common to
+Teutonic and Romance languages, cf. the Ger. _Bauch_, Fr. _buee_, and Ital.
+_bucata_), the bleaching of clothes in lye, also the lye itself, and the
+clothes to be bleached, so a "buck-basket" means a basket of clothes ready
+for the wash. (3) Either from an obsolete word meaning "body," or from the
+sense of bouncing or jumping, derived from (1), a word now only found in
+compound words, as "buck-board," a light four-wheeled vehicle, the
+primitive form of which has one or more seats on a springy board, joining
+the front and rear axles and serving both as springs and body; a
+"buck-wagon" (Dutch, _bok-wagen_) is a South African cart with a frame
+projecting over the wheels, used for the transport of heavy loads. (4)
+(Either from "buck" a he-goat, or from a common Teutonic root, to bend, as
+seen in the Ger. _buecken_, and Eng. "bow"), a verb meaning "to leap"; seen
+especially in the compound "buck-jumper," a horse which leaps clear off the
+ground, with feet tucked together and arched back, descending with
+fore-feet rigid and head down and drawn inwards.
+
+BUCK-BEAN, or BOG-BEAN (_Menyanthes trifoliata_, a member of the Gentian
+family), a bog-plant with a creeping stem, alternately arranged large
+leaves each with three leaflets, and spikes of white or pink flowers. The
+stout stem is bitter and has tonic and febrifuge properties. The plant is
+widely distributed through the north temperate zone.
+
+BUeCKEBURG, a town of Germany, capital of the principality of
+Schaumburg-Lippe, pleasantly situated at the foot of the Harrelberg on the
+river Aue, 6 m. from Minden, on the main railway from Cologne to Berlin.
+Pop. 6000. It has a palace standing in extensive grounds, a gymnasium, a
+normal seminary, a library, a synagogue, and three churches, one of which
+has the appropriate inscription, _Religionis non structurae exemplum_. The
+first houses of Bueckeburg began to gather round the castle about 1365; and
+it was not till the 17th century that the town was surrounded with walls,
+which have given place to a ring of pretty promenades. The poet J.G. von
+Herder was court preacher here from 1771 to 1776.
+
+BUCKERIDGE, JOHN (c. 1562-1631), English divine, was a son of William
+Buckeridge, and was educated at the Merchant Taylors school and at St
+John's College, Oxford. He became a fellow of his college, and acted as
+tutor to William Laud, whose opinions were perhaps shaped by him. Leaving
+Oxford, Buckeridge held several livings, and was highly esteemed by King
+James I., whose chaplain he became. In 1605 he was elected president of St
+John's College, a position which he vacated on being made bishop of
+Rochester in 1611. He was transferred to the bishopric of Ely in 1628, and
+died on the 23rd of May 1631. The bishop won some fame as a theologian and
+a controversialist. Among his intimate friends was Bishop Lancelot
+Andrewes, whose "Ninety-one Sermons" were published by Laud and Buckeridge
+in 1629.
+
+BUCKETSHOP, a slang financial term for the office or business of an
+inferior class of stockbroker, who is not a member of an official exchange
+and conducts speculative operations for his clients, who deposit a margin
+or cover. The operations consist, as a rule, of a simple bet or wager
+between the broker and client, no pretence of an actual purchase or sale
+being attempted. The term is sometimes, though loosely and wrongfully,
+applied to [v.04 p.0666] all stockbrokers who are not members of the
+recognized local exchange. The origin of the word is American. According to
+the _New English Dictionary_ it is supposed to have arisen in Chicago. The
+Board of Trade there forbade dealings in "options" in grain of less than
+5000 bushels. An "Open Board of Trade" or unauthorized exchange was opened,
+for the purpose of small gamblers, in a neighbouring street below the rooms
+of the Board of Trade. The lift used by members of the Board of Trade would
+be sent down to bring up from the open Board what was known as a
+"bucketful" of the smaller speculators, when business was slack.
+
+BUCKHOLDT [properly BEUKELSZ, or BOCKELSZOON], JOHANN (c. 1508-1535), Dutch
+Anabaptist fanatic, better known as JOHN OF LEIDEN, from his place of
+birth, was the illegitimate son of Bockel, burgomaster of Soevenhagen, who
+afterwards married his mother. He was born about 1508, apprenticed to a
+tailor, became infected with the opinions of Thomas Muenzer, travelled in
+pursuit of his trade (being four years in London), married a widow, became
+bankrupt, and in September 1533 joined the Anabaptist movement under Johann
+Matthysz (Matthyszoon), baker of Haarlem. He had little education, but some
+literary faculty, and had written plays. On the 13th of January 1534 he
+appeared in Muenster as an apostle of Matthysz. Good-looking and fluent, he
+fascinated women, and won the confidence of Bernard Knipperdollinck, a
+revolutionary cloth merchant, who gave him his daughter in marriage. The
+Muenster Anabaptists took up arms on the 9th of February 1534 (see
+ANABAPTISTS). On the death of Matthysz (1534), Buckholdt succeeded him as
+prophet, added his widow to the number of his wives, and organized a new
+constitution for Muenster, with twelve elders (suggested by the tribes of
+Israel) and other officers of a theocracy, but soon superseded these,
+making himself king of the new Zion. His arbitrary rule was marked by pomp
+and severity. Muenster was retaken (June 25, 1535) by its prince-bishop,
+Franz von Waldeck. Buckholdt, after many indignities, was cruelly executed
+on the 22nd of January 1536; his body, and those of his companions, were
+hung in cages to the tower of the Lamberti church. His portrait is in
+_Grouwelen der Hooftketteren_ (Leiden, 1607; an English edition is appended
+to Alexander Ross's _Pansebeia_, 2nd ed., 1655); a better example of the
+same is given by Arend.
+
+See Arend, _Algemeene Geschiedenis des Vaderlands_ (1846), ii., iii., 629;
+Van der Aa, _Biographisch Woordenboek der Nederlanden_ (1853); E. Belfort
+Bax, _Rise and Fail of the Anabaptists_ (1903).
+
+(A. GO.*)
+
+BUCKIE, a fishing town and police burgh of Banffshire, Scotland, on the
+Moray Firth, at the mouth of Buckie burn, about 17 m. W. of Banff, with a
+station on the Great North of Scotland railway. Pop. (1891) 5849; (1901)
+6549. Its public buildings include a hall and literary institute with
+library and recreation rooms. It attracts one of the largest Scottish
+fleets in the herring season, and is also the chief seat of line fishing in
+Scotland. The harbour, with an outer and an inner basin, covers an area of
+9 acres and has half a mile of quayage. Besides the fisheries, there are
+engineering works, distilleries, and works for the making of ropes, sails
+and oil. The burn, which divides the town into Nether Buckie and Eastern
+Buckie, rises near the Hill of Clashmadin, about 5 m. to the south-west.
+Portgordon, 11/2 m. west of Buckie, is a thriving fishing village, and
+Rathven, some 2 m. east, lies in a fertile district, where there are
+several interesting Danish cairns and other relics of the remote past.
+
+BUCKINGHAM, EARLS, MARQUESSES AND DUKES OF. The origin of the earldom of
+Buckingham (to be distinguished from that of Buckinghamshire, _q.v._) is
+obscure. According to Mr J.H. Round (in G.E.C.'s _Peerage_, _s.v._) there
+is some charter evidence for its existence under William Rufus; but the
+main evidence for reckoning Walter Giffard, lord of Longueville in
+Normandy, who held forty-eight lordships in the county, as the first earl,
+is that of Odericus Vitalis, who twice describes Walter as "Comes
+Bucchingehamensis," once in 1097, and again at his death in 1102. After the
+death of Walter Giffard, 2nd earl in 1164, the title was assumed by Richard
+de Clare, earl of Pembroke ("Strongbow"), in right of his wife, Rohais,
+sister of Walter Giffard I.; and it died with him in 1176. In 1377 Thomas
+of "Woodstock" (duke of Gloucester) was created earl of Buckingham at the
+coronation of Richard II. (15th of July), and the title of Gloucester
+having after his death been given to Thomas le Despenser, his son Humphrey
+bore that of earl of Buckingham only. On Humphrey's death, his sister Anne
+became countess of Buckingham in her own right. She married Edmund
+Stafford, earl of Stafford, and on her death (1438) the title of Buckingham
+passed to her son Humphrey Stafford, earl of Stafford, who in 1444 was
+created duke of Buckingham. This title remained in the Stafford family
+until the attainder and execution of Edward, 3rd duke, in 1521 (see
+BUCKINGHAM, HENRY STAFFORD, 2nd duke of).
+
+In 1617 King James I. created George Villiers earl, in 1618 marquess, and
+in 1623 duke of Buckingham (see BUCKINGHAM, GEORGE VILLIERS, 1st duke of).
+The marquessate and dukedom became extinct with the death of the 2nd
+(Villiers) duke (_q.v._) in 1687; but the earldom was claimed, under the
+special remainder in the patent of 1617, by a collateral line of doubtful
+legitimacy claiming descent from John Villiers, 1st Viscount Purbeck. The
+title was not actually borne after the death of John Villiers, styling
+himself earl of Buckingham, in 1723. The claim was extinguished by the
+death of George Villiers, a clergyman, in 1774.
+
+In 1703 John Sheffield, marquess of Normanby, was created "duke of the
+county of Buckingham and of Normanby" (see below). He was succeeded by his
+son Edmund who died in October 1735 when the titles became extinct.
+
+The title of marquess and duke of Buckingham in the Grenville family (to
+the holders of which the remainder of this article applies) was derived,
+not from the county, but from the town of Buckingham. It originated in
+1784, when the 2nd Earl Temple was created marquess of Buckingham "in the
+county of Buckingham," this title being elevated into the dukedom of
+Buckingham and Chandos for his son in 1822.
+
+GEORGE NUGENT TEMPLE GRENVILLE, 1st marquess of Buckingham (1753-1813), was
+the second son of George Grenville, and was born on the 17th of June 1753.
+Educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, he was appointed a teller of
+the exchequer in 1764, and ten years later was returned to parliament as
+one of the members for Buckinghamshire. In the House of Commons he was a
+sharp critic of the American policy of Lord North. In September 1779 he
+succeeded his uncle as 2nd Earl Temple; in 1782 was appointed
+lord-lieutenant of Buckinghamshire; and in July of the same year became a
+member of the privy council and lord-lieutenant of Ireland in the ministry
+of the earl of Shelburne. On his advice the Renunciation Act of 1783 was
+passed, which supplemented the legislative independence granted to Ireland
+in 1782. By royal warrant he created the order of St Patrick in February
+1783, with himself as the first grand master. Temple left Ireland in 1783,
+and again turned his attention to English politics. He enjoyed the
+confidence of George III., and having opposed Fox's East India Bill, he was
+authorized by the king to say that "whoever voted for the India Bill was
+not only not his friend, but would be considered by him as an enemy," a
+message which ensured the defeat of the bill. He was appointed a secretary
+of state when the younger Pitt formed his ministry in December 1783, but
+resigned two days later. In December 1784 he was created marquess of
+Buckingham "in the county of Buckingham." In November 1787 he was appointed
+lord-lieutenant of Ireland under Pitt, but his second tenure of this office
+was hardly as successful as the first. He was denounced by Grattan for
+extravagance; was censured by the Irish Houses of parliament for refusing
+to transmit to England in address calling upon the prince of Wales to
+assume the regency; and he could only maintain his position by resorting to
+bribery on a large scale. Having become very unpopular he resigned his
+office in September 1789, and subsequently took very little part in
+politics, although he spoke in favour of the union with Ireland. He died at
+his residence, Stowe House, [v.04 p.0667] Buckingham, on the 11th of
+February 1813, and was buried at Wotton. In 1775 he had married Mary
+Elizabeth (d. 1812), daughter of Robert, Earl Nugent.
+
+His elder son, RICHARD GRENVILLE, 1st duke of Buckingham and Chandos
+(1776-1839), was one of the members of parliament for Buckinghamshire from
+1797 to 1813, and, as Earl Temple, took an active part in politics. In
+February 1813 he succeeded his father as marquess of Buckingham; and having
+married the only child of the 3rd duke of Chandos, he was created duke of
+Buckingham and Chandos in 1822. He died in 1839. Owing to financial
+embarrassments, the duke lived out of England for some time, and in 1862 an
+account of his travels was published, as _The Private Diary of Richard,
+Duke of Buckingham and Chandos_.
+
+He was succeeded by his only child, RICHARD GRENVILLE, 2nd duke of
+Buckingham and Chandos (1797-1861). Educated at Eton and Oriel College,
+Oxford, he was known as Earl Temple and subsequently as marquess of
+Chandos. He was member of parliament for Buckinghamshire from 1818 to 1839,
+and was responsible for the "Chandos clause" in the Reform Bill of 1832. He
+was lord privy seal from September 1841 to January 1842, and partly owing
+to his opposition to the repeal of the corn laws was known as the "Farmers'
+Friend." He found the estates heavily encumbered when he succeeded to the
+dukedom in 1839, and his own generous and luxurious tastes brought matters
+to a climax. In 1847 his residences were seized by his creditors, and the
+duke left England. His personal property and many of his landed estates
+were sold, and returning to England he devoted himself to literature. He
+died in London, on the 29th of July 1861. His wife, whom he married in
+1819, was Mary (d. 1862), daughter of John, 1st marquess of Breadalbane,
+and she obtained a divorce from him in 1850. Buckingham's chief
+publications are, _Memoirs of the Court and Cabinets of George III._
+(London, 1853-1855); _Memoirs of the Court of England_, 1811-1820 (London,
+1856); _Memoirs of the Court of George IV._ (London, 1859); and _Memoirs of
+the Court and Cabinets of William IV. and Victoria_ (London, 1861).
+
+RICHARD GRENVILLE, 3rd duke of Buckingham and Chandos (1823-1889), the only
+son of the 2nd duke, was educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, and,
+as marquess of Chandos, represented the borough of Buckingham in parliament
+from 1846 to 1857. He was chairman of the London & North-Western railway
+from 1853 to 1861. After succeeding to the dukedom he became lord president
+of the council, and subsequently secretary for the colonies in the
+Conservative government of 1866-1868. From 1875 to 1880 he was governor of
+Madras, and in 1886 was chosen chairman of committees in the House of
+Lords. He was twice married and left three daughters. As he left no son the
+dukedom became extinct on his death; but the Scottish barony of Kinloss (to
+which he established his title in 1868) passed to his eldest daughter,
+Mary, the wife of Captain L. F. H. C. Morgan; the earldom of Temple to his
+nephew, William Stephen Gore-Langton; and the viscounty of Cobham to his
+kinsman, Charles George, 5th Baron Lyttelton. His widow married the 1st
+Earl Egerton of Tatton in 1894.
+
+BUCKINGHAM, GEORGE VILLIERS, 1ST DUKE OF[1] (1592-1628), English statesman,
+born in August 1592,[2] was a younger son of Sir George Villiers of
+Brooksby. His mother, Mary, daughter of Anthony Beaumont of Glenfield,
+Leicestershire, who was left a widow early, educated him for a courtier's
+life, sending him to France with Sir John Eliot; and the lad, being "by
+nature contemplative," took kindly to the training. He could dance well,
+fence well, and talk a little French, when in August 1614 he was brought
+before the king's notice, in the hope that he would take a fancy to him.
+
+The moment was favourable. Since Salisbury's death James had taken the
+business of government upon himself. But he wanted some one who would chat
+with him, and amuse him, and would also fill the office of private
+secretary, and save him from the trouble of saying no to importunate
+suitors. It would be an additional satisfaction if he could train the youth
+whom he might select in those arts of statesmanship of which he believed
+himself to be a perfect master. His first choice had not proved a happy
+one. Robert Carr, who had lately become earl of Somerset, had had his head
+turned by his elevation. He had grown peevish toward his master, and had
+placed himself at the head of the party which was working for a close
+alliance with Spain.
+
+The appearance of Villiers, beaming with animal spirits and good humour,
+was therefore welcomed by all who had an interest in opposing the designs
+of Spain, and he was appointed cupbearer the same year. For some little
+time still Somerset's pre-eminence was maintained. But on the 23rd of April
+1615, Villiers, in spite of Somerset, was promoted to be gentleman of the
+bedchamber, and was knighted on the 24th; the charge of murdering Overbury,
+brought against Somerset in September, completed his downfall, and Villiers
+at once stepped into the place which he had vacated. On the 3rd of January
+1616 he became master of the horse, on the 24th of April he received the
+order of the Garter, and on the 27th of August 1616 was created Viscount
+Villiers and Baron Waddon, receiving a grant of land valued at L80,000,
+while on the 5th of January 1617 he was made earl, and on the 1st of
+January 1618 marquess of Buckingham. With the exception of the earl of
+Pembroke he was the richest nobleman in England.
+
+Those who expected him to give his support to the anti-Spanish party were
+at first doomed to disappointment. As yet he was no politician, and he
+contented himself with carrying out his master's orders, whatever they
+were. In his personal relations he was kindly and jovial towards all who
+did not thwart his wishes. But James had taught him to consider that the
+patronage of England was in his hands, and he took good care that no man
+should receive promotion of any kind who did not in one way or another pay
+court to him. As far as can be ascertained, he cared less for money than
+for the gratification of his vanity. But he had not merely himself to
+consider. His numerous kinsfolk were to be enriched by marriage, if in no
+other way, and Bacon, the great philosopher and statesman, was all but
+thrust from office because he had opposed a marriage suggested for one of
+Buckingham's brothers, while Cranfield, the first financier of the day, was
+kept from the treasury till he would forsake the woman whom he loved, to
+marry a penniless cousin of the favourite. On the 19th of January 1619
+James made him lord high admiral of England, hoping that the ardent,
+energetic youth would impart something of his own fire to those who were
+entrusted with the oversight of that fleet which had been almost ruined by
+the peculation and carelessness of the officials. Something of this, no
+doubt, was realized under Buckingham's eye. But he himself never pretended
+to the virtues of an administrator, and he was too ready to fill up
+appointments with men who flattered him, and too reluctant to dismiss them,
+if they served their country ill, to effect any permanent change for the
+better.
+
+It was about this time that he first took an independent part in politics.
+All England was talking of the revolution in Bohemia in the year before,
+and men's sympathy with the continental Protestants was increased when it
+was known that James's son-in-law had accepted the crown of Bohemia, and
+that in the summer of 1620 a Spanish force was preparing to invade the
+Palatinate. Buckingham at first had thrown himself into the popular
+movement. Before the summer of 1620 was at end, incensed by injuries
+inflicted on English sailors by the Dutch in the East Indies, he had swung
+round, and was in close agreement with Gondomar, the Spanish ambassador. He
+had now married Lady Katherine Manners, the daughter of the earl of
+Rutland, who was at heart a Roman Catholic, though she outwardly conformed
+to the English Church, and this alliance may have had something to do with
+the change.
+
+Buckingham's mistakes were owing mainly to his levity. If he passed briskly
+from one camp to the other, an impartial [v.04 p.0668] observer might
+usually detect some personal motive at the bottom. But it is hardly
+probable that he was himself conscious of anything of the sort. When he was
+in reality acting under the influence of vanity or passion it was easy for
+him to persuade himself that he was doing his duty to his country.
+
+The parliament which met in 1621, angry at discovering that no help was to
+be sent to the Palatinate, broke out into a loud outcry against the system
+of monopolies, from which Buckingham's brothers and dependants had drawn a
+profit, which was believed to be greater than it really was. At first he
+pleaded for a dissolution. But he was persuaded by Bishop Williams that it
+would be a wiser course to put himself at the head of the movement, and at
+a conference of the Commons with the Lords acknowledged that his two
+brothers had been implicated, but declared that his father had begotten a
+third who would aid in punishing them. In the impeachment of Bacon which
+soon followed, Buckingham, who owed much to his wise counsels, gave him
+that assistance which was possible without imperilling his own position and
+influence. He at first demanded the immediate dissolution of parliament,
+but afterwards, when the cry rose louder against the chancellor, joined in
+the attack, making however some attempt to mitigate the severity of the
+charges against him during the hearing of his case before the House of
+Lords. Notwithstanding, he took advantage of Bacon's need of assistance to
+wring from him the possession of York House.
+
+In the winter of 1621, and the succeeding year, Buckingham was entirely in
+Gondomar's hands; and it was only with some difficulty that in May 1622
+Laud argued him out of a resolution to declare himself a Roman Catholic. In
+December 1621 he actively supported the dissolution of parliament, and
+there can be little doubt that when the Spanish ambassador left England the
+following May, he had come to an understanding with Buckingham that the
+prince of Wales should visit Madrid the next year, on which occasion the
+Spanish court hoped to effect his conversion to the Roman Catholic Church
+before giving him the hand of the infanta Maria. They set out on their
+adventurous expedition on the 17th of February 1623, arriving at Madrid,
+after passing through Paris on the 7th of March. Each party had been the
+dupe of the other. Charles and Buckingham were sanguine in hoping for the
+restitution of the Palatinate to James's son-in-law, as a marriage gift to
+Charles; while the Spaniards counted on the conversion of Charles to Roman
+Catholicism and other extreme concessions (see CHARLES I.). The political
+differences were soon accentuated by personal disputes between Buckingham
+and Olivares and the grandees, and when the two young men sailed together
+from Santander in September, it was with the final resolution to break
+entirely with Spain.
+
+James had gratified his favourite in his absence by raising him to a
+dukedom. But the splendour which now gathered round Buckingham was owing to
+another source than James's favour. He had put himself at the head of the
+popular movement against Spain, and when James, acknowledging sorely
+against his will that the Palatinate could only be recovered by force,
+summoned the parliament which met in February 1624, Buckingham, with the
+help of the heir apparent, took up an independent political position. James
+was half driven, half persuaded to declare all negotiations with Spain at
+an end. For the moment Buckingham was the most popular man in England.
+
+It was easier to overthrow one policy than to construct another. The
+Commons would have been content with sending some assistance to the Dutch,
+and with entering upon a privateering war with Spain. James, whose object
+was to regain the Palatinate, believed this could only be accomplished by a
+continental alliance, in which France took part. As soon as parliament was
+prorogued, negotiations were opened for a marriage between Charles and the
+sister of Louis XIII., Henrietta Maria. But a difficulty arose. James and
+Charles had engaged to the Commons that there should be no concessions to
+the English Roman Catholics, and Louis would not hear of the marriage
+unless very large concessions were made. Buckingham, impatient to begin the
+war as soon as possible, persuaded Charles, and the two together persuaded
+James to throw over the promises to the Commons, and to accept the French
+terms. It was no longer possible to summon parliament to vote supplies for
+the war till the marriage had been completed, when remonstrances to its
+conditions would be useless.
+
+Buckingham, for Buckingham was now virtually the ruler of England, had thus
+to commence war without money. He prepared to throw 12,000 Englishmen,
+under a German adventurer, Count Mansfeld, through France into the
+Palatinate. The French insisted that he should maroh through Holland. It
+mattered little which way he took. Without provisions, and without money to
+buy them, the wretched troops sickened and died in the winter frosts.
+Buckingham's first military enterprise ended in disastrous failure.
+
+Buckingham had many other schemes in his teeming brain. He had offered to
+send aid to Christian IV., king of Denmark, who was proposing to make war
+in Germany, and had also a plan for sending an English fleet to attack
+Genoa, the ally of Spain, and a plan for sending an English fleet to attack
+Spain itself.
+
+Before these schemes could be carried into operation James died on the 27th
+of March 1625. The new king and Buckingham were at one in their aims and
+objects. Both were anxious to distinguish themselves by the chastisement of
+Spain, and the recovery of the Palatinate. Both were young and
+inexperienced. But Charles, obstinate when his mind was made up, was
+sluggish in action and without fertility in ideas, and he had long
+submitted his mind to the versatile and brilliant favourite, who was never
+at a loss what to do next, and who unrolled before his eyes visions of
+endless possibilities in the future. Buckingham was sent over to Paris to
+urge upon the French court the importance of converting its alliance into
+active co-operation.
+
+There was a difficulty in the way. The Huguenots of La Rochelle were in
+rebellion, and James had promised the aid of English ships to suppress that
+rebellion. Buckingham, who seems at first to have consented to the scheme,
+was anxious to mediate peace between the king of France and his subjects,
+and to save Charles from compromising himself with his parliament by the
+appearance of English ships in an attack upon Protestants. When he returned
+his main demands were refused, but hopes were given him that peace would be
+made with the Huguenots. On his way through France he had the insolence to
+make love to the queen of France.
+
+Soon after his return parliament was opened. It would have been hard for
+Charles to pass through the session with credit. Under Buckingham's
+guidance he had entered into engagements involving an enormous expenditure,
+and these engagements involved a war on the continent, which had never been
+popular in the House of Commons. The Commons, too, suspected the marriage
+treaty contained engagements of which they disapproved. They asked for the
+full execution of the laws against the Roman Catholics, and voted but
+little money in return. Before they reassembled at Oxford on the 1st of
+August, the English ships had found their way into the hands of the French,
+to be used against La Rochelle. The Commons met in an ill-humour. They had
+no confidence in Buckingham, and they asked that persons whom they could
+trust should be admitted to the king's council before they would vote a
+penny. Charles stood by his minister, and on the 12th of August he
+dissolved his first parliament.
+
+Buckingham and his master set themselves to work to conquer public opinion.
+On the one hand, they threw over their engagements to France on behalf of
+the English Roman Catholics. On the other hand they sent out a large fleet
+to attack Cadiz, and to seize the Spanish treasure-ships. Buckingham went
+to the Hague to raise an immediate supply by pawning the crown jewels, to
+place England at the head of a great Protestant alliance, and to enter into
+fresh obligations to furnish money to the king of Denmark. It all ended in
+failure. The fleet returned from Cadiz, having effected nothing. The crown
+jewels produced but a small sum, and the money for the king of Denmark
+could only be raised by an appeal to parliament. In the meanwhile the king
+of France was deeply offended by the treatment of [v.04 p.0669] the Roman
+Catholics, and by the seizure of French vessels on the ground that they
+were engaged in carrying goods for Spain.
+
+When Charles's second parliament met on the 6th of February 1626, it was
+not long before, under Eliot's guidance, it asked for Buckingham's
+punishment. He was impeached before the House of Lords on a long string of
+charges. Many of these charges were exaggerated, and some were untrue. His
+real crime was his complete failure as the leader of the administration.
+But as long as Charles refused to listen to the complaints of his
+minister's incompetency, the only way in which the Commons could reach him
+was by bringing criminal charges against him. Charles dissolved his second
+parliament as he had dissolved his first. Subsequently the Star Chamber
+declared the duke innocent of the charges, and on the 1st of June
+Buckingham was elected chancellor of Cambridge University.
+
+To find money was the great difficulty. Recourse was had to a forced loan,
+and men were thrown into prison for refusing to pay it. Disasters had
+occurred to Charles's allies in Germany. The fleet sent out under Lord
+Willoughby (earl of Lindsey) against the Spaniards returned home shattered
+by a storm, and a French war was impending in addition to the Spanish one.
+The French were roused to reprisals by Charles's persistence in seizing
+French vessels. Unwilling to leave La Rochelle open to the entrance of an
+English fleet, Richelieu laid siege to that stronghold of the French
+Huguenots. On the 27th of June 1627 Buckingham sailed from Portsmouth at
+the head of a numerous fleet, and a considerable land force, to relieve the
+besieged city.
+
+His first enterprise was the siege of the fort of St Martin's, on the Isle
+of Re. The ground was hard, and the siege operations were converted into a
+blockade. On the 27th of September the defenders of the fort announced
+their readiness to surrender the next morning. In the night a fresh gale
+brought over a flotilla of French provision boats, which dashed through the
+English blockading squadron. The fort was provisioned for two months more.
+Buckingham resolved to struggle on, and sent for reinforcements from
+England. Charles would gladly have answered to his call. But England had
+long since ceased to care for the war. There was no money in the exchequer,
+no enthusiasm in the nation to supply the want. Before the reinforcements
+could arrive the French had thrown a superior force upon the island, and
+Buckingham was driven to retreat on the 29th of October with heavy loss,
+only 2989 troops out of nearly 7000 returning to England.
+
+His spirits were as buoyant as ever. Ill luck, or the misconduct of others,
+was the cause of his failure. He had new plans for carrying on the war. But
+the parliament which met on the 17th of March 1628 was resolved to exact
+from the king an obligation to refrain from encroaching for the future on
+the liberties of his subjects.
+
+In the parliamentary battle, which ended in the concession of the Petition
+of Right, Buckingham took an active share as a member of the House of
+Lords. He resisted as long as it was possible to resist the demand of the
+Commons, that the king should abandon his claim to imprison without showing
+cause. When the first unsatisfactory answer to the petition was made by the
+king on the 2nd of June, the Commons suspected, probably with truth, that
+it had been dictated by Buckingham. They prepared a remonstrance on the
+state of the nation, and Coke at last named the duke as the cause of all
+the misfortunes that had occurred. "The duke of Bucks is the cause of all
+our miseries ... that man is the grievance of grievances." Though on the
+7th of June the king granted a satisfactory answer to the petition, the
+Commons proceeded with their remonstrance, and on the 11th demanded that he
+might no longer continue in office.
+
+Once more Charles refused to surrender Buckingham, and a few days later he
+prorogued parliament in anger. The popular feeling was greatly excited.
+Lampoons circulated freely from hand to hand, and Dr Lambe, a quack doctor,
+who dabbled in astrology, and was believed to exercise influence over
+Buckingham, was murdered in the streets of London. Rude doggerel lines
+announced that the duke should share the doctor's fate.
+
+With the clouds gathering round him, Buckingham went down to Portsmouth to
+take the command of one final expedition for the relief of La Rochelle. For
+the first time even he was beginning to acknowledge that he had undertaken
+a task beyond his powers. There was a force of inertia in the officials
+which resisted his efforts to spur them on to an enterprise which they
+believed to be doomed to failure. He entered gladly into a scheme of
+pacification proposed by the Venetian ambassador. But before he could know
+whether there was to be peace or war, the knife of an assassin put an end
+to his career. John Felton, who had served at Re, had been disappointed of
+promotion, and had not been paid that which was due to him for his
+services, read the declaration of the Commons that Buckingham was a public
+enemy, and eagerly caught at the excuse for revenging his private wrongs
+under cover of those of his country. Waiting, on the morning of the 23rd of
+August, beside the door of the room in which Buckingham was breakfasting,
+he stabbed him to the heart as he came out.
+
+Buckingham married Lady Katherine Manners, daughter of Francis, 6th earl of
+Rutland, by whom he left three sons and one daughter, of whom George, the
+second son (1628-1687), succeeded to the dukedom.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Article in the _Dict. of Nat. Biography_, by S.R. Gardiner;
+_Life of Buckingham_, by Sir Henry Wotton (1642), reprinted in _Harleian
+Miscellany_, viii. 613; _A Parallel between Robert Earl of Essex and George
+late Duke of Buckingham_, by the same writer (1641), in the _Thomason
+Tracts_, 164 (20); _Characters_ of the same by Edward, Earl of Clarendon
+(1706); _Life of George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham, &c._ (London, 1740);
+_Historical and Biographical Memoirs of George Villiers, Duke of
+Buckingham_ (London, 1819); _Letters of the Duke and Duchess of Buckingham_
+(Edinburgh, 1834); _Historia Vitae ... Ricardi II., &c._, by Thos. Hearne
+(1729); _Documents illustrating the Impeachment of Buckingham_, published
+by the Camden Society and edited by S.R. Gardiner (1889); _Epistolae
+Hoelianae_ (James Howell), 187, 189, 203; _Poems and Songs relating to
+George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham_, ed. by R. W. Fairholt for the Percy
+Society (1850); Rous's _Diary_ (Camden Soc., 1856), p. 27; _Gent. Mag._
+(1845), ii. 137-144 (portrait of Buckingham dead); _Cal. of State Papers_,
+and MSS. in the British Museum (various collections). Hist. MSS. Comm.
+Series. See also P. Gibbs, _The Romance of George Villiers, 1st Duke of
+Buckingham_ (1908).
+
+(S. R. G.; P. C. Y.)
+
+[1] _i.e._ in the Villiers line; see above.
+
+[2] The _Life_, by Sir Henry Wotton, gives August 28th as the date of his
+birth, but, when relating his death on August 23rd, adds, "thus died the
+great peer in the 36th year of his age compleat and three days over."
+August 28th was therefore probably a misprint for August 20th.
+
+BUCKINGHAM, GEORGE VILLIERS, 2ND DUKE OF[1] (1628-1687), English statesman,
+son of the 1st duke, was born on the 30th of January 1628. He was brought
+up, together with his younger brother Francis, by King Charles I. with his
+own children, and was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he
+obtained the degree of M.A. in 1642. He fought for the king in the Civil
+War, and took part in the attack on Lichfield Close in April 1643.
+Subsequently, under the care of the earl of Northumberland, the two
+brothers travelled abroad and lived at Florence and Rome. When the Second
+Civil War broke out they joined the earl of Holland in Surrey, in July
+1648. Lord Francis was killed near Kingston, and Buckingham and Holland
+were surprised at St Neots on the 10th, the duke succeeding in escaping to
+Holland. In consequence of his participation in the rebellion, his lands,
+which had been restored to him in 1647 on account of his youth, were now
+again confiscated, a considerable portion passing into the possession of
+Fairfax; and he refused to compound. Charles II. conferred on him the
+Garter on the 19th of September 1649, and admitted him to the privy council
+on the 6th of April 1650. In opposition to Hyde he supported the alliance
+with the Scottish presbyterians, accompanied Charles to Scotland in June,
+and allied himself with Argyll, dissuading Charles from joining the
+royalist plot of October 1650, and being suspected of betraying the plan to
+the convenanting leaders. In May he had been appointed general of the
+eastern association in England, and was commissioned to raise forces
+abroad; and in the following year he was chosen to lead the projected
+movement in Lancashire and to command the Scottish royalists. He was
+present with Charles at the battle of Worcester on the 3rd of September
+1651, and escaped safely [v.04 p.0670] alone to Rotterdam in October. His
+subsequent negotiations with Cromwell's government, and his readiness to
+sacrifice the interests of the church, separated him from the rest of
+Charles's advisers and diminished his influence; while his estrangement
+from the royal family was completed by his audacious courtship of the
+king's sister, the widowed princess of Orange, and by a money dispute with
+Charles. In 1657 he returned to England, and on the 15th of September
+married Mary, daughter of Lord Fairfax, who had fallen in love with him
+although the banns of her intended marriage with the earl of Chesterfield
+had been twice called in church. Buckingham was soon suspected of
+organizing a presbyterian plot against the government, and in spite of
+Fairfax's interest with Cromwell an order was issued for his arrest on the
+9th of October. He was confined at York House about April 1658, and having
+broken bounds was rearrested on the 18th of August and imprisoned in the
+Tower, where he remained till the 23rd of February 1659, being then
+liberated on his promise not to abet the enemies of the government, and on
+Fairfax's security of L20,000. He joined the latter in his march against
+Lambert in January 1660, and afterwards claimed to have gained Fairfax to
+the cause of the Restoration.
+
+On the king's return Buckingham, who met him at his landing at Dover, was
+at first received coldly; but he was soon again in favour, was appointed a
+gentleman of the bedchamber, carried the orb at the coronation on the 23rd
+of April 1661, and was made lord-lieutenant of the West Riding of Yorkshire
+on the 21st of September. The same year he accompanied the princess
+Henrietta to Paris on her marriage with the duke of Orleans, but made love
+to her himself with such imprudence that he was recalled. On the 28th of
+April 1662 he was admitted to the privy council. His confiscated estates
+amounting to L26,000 a year were restored to him, and he was reputed the
+king's richest subject. He took part in the suppression of the projected
+insurrection in Yorkshire in 1663, went to sea in the first Dutch war in
+1665, and was employed in taking measures to resist the Dutch or French
+invasion in June 1666.
+
+He was, however, debarred from high office by Clarendon's influence.
+Accordingly Buckingham's intrigues were now directed to effect the
+chancellor's ruin. He organized parties in both houses of parliament in
+support of the bill of 1666 prohibiting the import of Irish cattle, partly
+to oppose Clarendon and partly to thwart the duke of Ormonde. Having
+asserted during the debates that "whoever was against the bill had either
+an Irish interest or an Irish understanding," he was challenged by Lord
+Ossory. Buckingham avoided the encounter, and Ossory was sent to the Tower.
+A short time afterwards, during a conference between the two houses on the
+19th of December, he came to blows with the marquess of Dorchester, pulling
+off the latter's periwig, while Dorchester at the close of the scuffle "had
+much of the duke's hair in his hand."[2] According to Clarendon no
+misdemeanour so flagrant had ever before offended the dignity of the House
+of Lords. The offending peers were both sent to the Tower, but were
+released after apologizing; and Buckingham vented his spite by raising a
+claim to the title of Lord Roos held by Dorchester's son-in-law. His
+opposition to the government had forfeited the king's favour, and he was
+now accused of treasonable intrigues, and of having cast the king's
+horoscope. His arrest was ordered on the 25th of February 1667, and he was
+dismissed from all his offices. He avoided capture till the 27th of June,
+when he gave himself up and was imprisoned in the Tower. He was released,
+however, by July 17th, was restored to favour and to his appointments on
+the 15 of September, and took an active part in the prosecution of
+Clarendon. On the latter's fall he became the chief minister, though
+holding no high office except that of master of the horse, bought from the
+duke of Albermarle in 1668. In 1671 he was elected chancellor of Cambridge,
+and in 1672 high steward of Oxford university. He favoured religious
+toleration, and earned the praise of Richard Baxter; he supported a scheme
+of comprehension in 1668, and advised the declaration of indulgence in
+1672. He upheld the original jurisdiction of the Lords in Skinner's case.
+With these exceptions Buckingham's tenure of office was chiefly marked by
+scandals and intrigues. His illicit connexion with the countess of
+Shrewsbury led to a duel with her husband at Barn Elms on the 16th of
+January 1668, in which Shrewsbury was fatally wounded. The tale that the
+countess, disguised as a page, witnessed the encounter, appears to have no
+foundation; but Buckingham, by installing the "widow of his own creation"
+in his own and his wife's house, outraged even the lax opinion of that day.
+He was thought to have originated the project of obtaining the divorce of
+the childless queen. He intrigued against James, against Sir William
+Coventry--one of the ablest statesmen of the time, whose fall he procured
+by provoking him to send him a challenge--and against the great duke of
+Ormonde, who was dismissed in 1669. He was even suspected of having
+instigated Thomas Blood's attempt to kidnap and murder Ormonde, and was
+charged with the crime in the king's presence by Ormonde's son, Lord
+Ossory, who threatened to shoot him dead in the event of his father's
+meeting with a violent end. Arlington, next to Buckingham himself the most
+powerful member of the cabal and a favourite of the king, was a rival less
+easy to overcome; and he derived considerable influence from the control of
+foreign affairs entrusted to him. Buckingham had from the first been an
+adherent of the French alliance, while Arlington concluded through Sir
+William Temple in 1668 the Triple Alliance. But on the complete
+_volte-face_ and surrender made by Charles to France in 1670, Arlington as
+a Roman Catholic was entrusted with the first treaty of Dover of the 20th
+of May--which besides providing for the united attack on Holland, included
+Charles's undertaking to proclaim himself a Romanist and to reintroduce the
+Roman Catholic faith into England,--While Buckingham was sent to France to
+carry on the sham negotiations which led to the public treaties of the 31st
+of December 1670 and the 2nd of February 1672. He was much pleased with his
+reception by Louis XIV., declared that he had "more honours done him than
+ever were given to any subject," and was presented with a pension of 10,000
+livres a year for Lady Shrewsbury. In June 1672 he accompanied Arlington to
+the Hague to impose terms on the prince of Orange, and with Arlington
+arranged the new treaty with Louis. After all this activity he suffered a
+keen disappointment in being passed over for the command of the English
+forces in favour of Schomberg. He now knew of the secret treaty of Dover,
+and towards the end of 1673 his jealousy of Arlington became open
+hostility. He threatened to impeach him, and endeavoured with the help of
+Louis to stir up a faction against him in parliament. This, however, was
+unsuccessful, and in January 1674 an attack was made upon Buckingham
+himself simultaneously in both houses. In the Lords the trustees of the
+young earl of Shrewsbury complained that Buckingham continued publicly his
+intimacy with the countess, and that a son of theirs had been buried in
+Westminster Abbey with the title of earl of Coventry; and Buckingham, after
+presenting an apology, was required, as was the countess, to give security
+for L10,000 not to cohabit together again. In the Commons he was attacked
+as the promoter of the French alliance, of "popery" and arbitrary
+government. He defended himself chiefly by endeavouring to throw the blame
+upon Arlington; but an address was voted petitioning the king to remove him
+from his councils, presence and from employment for ever. Charles, who had
+only been waiting for a favourable opportunity, and who was enraged at
+Buckingham's disclosures, consented with alacrity. Buckingham retired into
+private life, reformed his ways, attended church with his wife, began to
+pay his debts, became a "patriot," and was claimed by the country or
+opposition party as one of their leaders. In the spring of 1675 he was
+conspicuous for his opposition to the Test oath and for his abuse of the
+bishops, and on the 16th of November he introduced a bill for the relief of
+the nonconformists. On the 15th of February 1677 he was one of the four
+lords who endeavoured to embarrass the government by raising the question
+whether the parliament, not having assembled according to the act of Edward
+III. once in the year, had not been dissolved by [v.04 p.0671] the recent
+prorogation. The motion was rejected and the four lords were ordered to
+apologize. On their refusing, they were sent to the Tower, Buckingham in
+particular exasperating the House by ridiculing its censure. He was
+released in July, and immediately entered into intrigues with Barillon, the
+French ambassador, with the object of hindering the grant of supplies to
+the king; and in 1678 he visited Paris to get the assistance of Louis XIV.
+for the cause of the opposition. He took an active part in the prosecution
+of those implicated in the supposed Popish Plot, and accused the lord chief
+justice (Sir William Scroggs) in his own court while on circuit of
+favouring the Roman Catholics. In consequence of his conduct a writ was
+issued for his apprehension, but it was never served. He promoted the
+return of Whig candidates to parliament, constituted himself the champion
+of the dissenters, and was admitted a freeman of the city of London. He,
+however, separated himself from the Whigs on the exclusion question,
+probably on account of his dislike of Monmouth and Shaftesbury, was absent
+from the great debate in the Lords on the 15th of November 1680, and was
+restored to the king's favour in 1684.
+
+He took no part in public life after James's accession, but returned to his
+manor of Helmsley in Yorkshire, the cause of his withdrawal being probably
+exhausted health and exhausted finances. In 1685 he published a pamphlet,
+entitled _A short Discourse on the Reasonableness of Man's having a
+Religion_ (reprinted in _Somers Tracts_ (1813, ix. 13), in which after
+discussing the main subject he returned to his favourite topic, religious
+toleration. The tract provoked some rejoinders and was defended, amongst
+others, by William Penn, and by the author himself in _The Duke of
+Buckingham's Letter to the unknown author of a short answer to the Duke of
+Buckingham's Paper_ (1685). In hopes of converting him to Roman Catholicism
+James sent him a priest, but Buckingham turned his arguments into ridicule.
+He died on the 16th of April 1687, from a chill caught while hunting, in
+the house of a tenant at Kirkby Moorside in Yorkshire, expressing great
+repentance and feeling himself "despised by my country and I fear forsaken
+by my God."[3] The miserable picture of his end drawn by Pope, however, is
+greatly exaggerated. He was buried on the 7th of June 1687 in Henry VII.'s
+chapel in Westminster Abbey, in greater state, it was said, than the late
+king, and with greater splendour. With his death the family founded by the
+extraordinary rise to power and influence of the first duke ended. As he
+left no legitimate children the title became extinct, and his great estate
+had been completely dissipated; of the enormous mansion constructed by him
+at Cliveden in Buckinghamshire not a stone remains.
+
+The ostentatious licence and the unscrupulous conduct of the Alcibiades of
+the 17th century have been deservedly censured. But even his critics agree
+that he was good-humoured, good-natured, generous, an unsurpassed mimic and
+the leader of fashion; and with his good looks, in spite of his moral
+faults and even crimes, he was irresistible to his contemporaries. Many
+examples of his amusing wit have survived. His portrait has been drawn by
+Burnet, Count Hamilton in the _Memoires de Grammont_, Dryden, Pope in the
+_Epistle to Lord Bathurst_, and Sir Walter Scott in _Peveril of the Peak_.
+He is described by Reresby as "the first gentleman of person and wit I
+think I ever saw," and Burnet bears the same testimony. Dean Lockier, after
+alluding to his unrivalled skill in riding, dancing and fencing, adds,
+"When he came into the presence-chamber it was impossible for you not to
+follow him with your eye as he went along, he moved so gracefully." Racing
+and hunting were his favourite sports, and his name long survived in the
+hunting songs of Yorkshire. He was the patron of Cowley, Sprat, Matthew
+Clifford and Wycherley. He dabbled in chemistry, and for some years,
+according to Burnet, "he thought he was very near the finding of the
+philosopher's stone." He set up glass works at Lambeth the productions of
+which were praised by Evelyn; and he spent much money, according to his
+biographer Brian Fairfax, in building _insanae substructions_. Dryden
+described him under the character of Zimri in the celebrated lines in
+_Absalom and Achitophel_ (to which Buckingham replied in _Poetical
+Reflections on a late Poem ... by a Person of Honour, 1682_):--
+
+  "A man so various, that he seemed to be
+  Not one, but all mankind's epitome;
+  Stiff in opinions, always in the wrong,
+  Was everything by starts and nothing long;
+  But in the course of one revolving moon,
+  Was chymist, fiddler, statesman and buffoon....
+  Beggar'd by fools, whom still he found too late,
+  He had his jest, but they had his estate."
+
+Buckingham, however, cannot with any truth be called the "epitome of
+mankind." On the contrary, the distinguishing features of his life are its
+incompleteness, aimlessness, imperfection, insignificance, neglect of
+talents and waste of opportunities. "He saw and approved the best," says
+Brian Fairfax, "but did too often _deteriora sequi_." He is more severely
+but more justly judged by himself. In gay moments indeed he had written--
+
+  "Methinks, I see the wanton houres flee,
+  And as they passe, turne back and laugh at me,"[4]--
+
+but his last recorded words on the approach of death, "O! what a prodigal
+have I been of that most valuable of all possessions--Time!" express with
+exact truth the fundamental flaw of his character and career, of which he
+had at last become conscious.
+
+Buckingham wrote occasional verses and satires showing undoubted but
+undeveloped poetical gifts, a collection of which, containing however many
+pieces not from his pen, was first published by Tom Brown in 1704; while a
+few extracts from a commonplace book of Buckingham of some interest are
+given in an article in the _Quarterly Review_ of January 1898. He was the
+author of _The Rehearsal_, an amusing and clever satire on the heroic drama
+and especially on Dryden (first performed on the 7th of December 1671, at
+the Theatre Royal, and first published in 1672), a deservedly popular play
+which was imitated by Fielding in _Tom Thumb the Great_, and by Sheridan in
+the _Critic_. Buckingham also published two adapted plays, _The Chances_,
+altered from Fletcher's play of the same name (1682) and _The Restoration
+or Right will take place_, from Beaumont and Fletcher's _Philaster_ (publ.
+1714); and also _The Battle of Sedgmoor_ and _The Militant Couple_ (publ.
+1704). The latest edition of his works is that by T. Evans (2 vols. 8vo,
+1775). Another work is named by Wood _A Demonstration of the Deity_, of
+which there is now no trace.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The life of Buckingham has been well and accurately traced
+and the chief authorities collected in the article in the _Dict, of Nat.
+Biography_ (1899) by C.H. Firth, and in _George Villiers, 2nd Duke of
+Buckingham_, by Lady Burghclere (1903). Other biographies are in Wood's
+_Athenae Oxon_ (Bliss), iv. 207; in _Biographia Britannica_; by Brian
+Fairfax, printed in H. Walpole's _Catalogue of Pictures of George Duke of
+Buckingham_ (1758); in Arber's edition of the _Rehearsal_ (1868); and by
+the author of _Hudibras_ in _The Genuine Remains of Mr Samuel Butler_, by
+R. Thyer (1759), ii. 72. The following may also be mentioned:--_Quarterly
+Review, Jan. 1898_ (commonplace book); _A Conference on the Doctrine of
+Transubstantiation between ... the Duke of Buckingham and Father
+FitzGerald_ (1714); _A Narrative of the Cause and Manner of the
+Imprisonment of the Lords_ (1677); _The Declaration of the ... Duke of
+Buckingham and the Earls of Holland and Peterborough ... associated for the
+King_ (1648); S.R. Gardiner's _Hist. of the Commonwealth_ (1894-1901);
+_Hist. of Eng. Poetry_, by W.J. Courthope (1903), iii. 460; Horace
+Walpole's _Royal and Noble Authors_, iii. 304; _Miscellania Aulica_, by T.
+Brown (1702); and the _Fairfax Correspondence_ (1848-1849). For the
+correspondence see _Charles II. and Scotland in 1650_ (Scottish History
+Soc., vol. xvii., 1894); _Calendars of St. Pap. Dom.; Hist. MSS. Comm.
+Series, MSS. of Duke of Buccleuch at Montagu House, of Mrs
+Frankland-Russell-Astley_, of _Marq. of Ormonde_, and _Various
+Collections_; and _English Hist. Rev._ (April 1905), xx. 373.
+
+(P. C. Y.)
+
+[1] i.e. in the Villiers line; see above.
+
+[2] Clarendon, _Life and Continuation_, 979.
+
+[3] _Quarterly Review_, January 1898, p. 110.
+
+[4] From his Common place Book (_Quarterly Rev._ vol. 187, p. 87).
+
+BUCKINGHAM, HENRY STAFFORD, 2ND DUKE OF[1] (1454-1483), was the son of
+Humphrey Stafford, killed at the first battle of St Albans in 1455, and
+grandson of Humphrey the 1st duke (cr. 1444), killed at Northampton in
+1460, both fighting for Lancaster. The 1st duke, who bore the title of earl
+of Buckingham in right of his mother, was the son of Edmund, 5th earl of
+Stafford, and of Anne, daughter of Thomas, duke [v.04 p.0672] of
+Gloucester, youngest son of Edward III.; Henry's mother was Margaret,
+daughter of Edmund Beaufort, 2nd duke of Somerset, grandson of John of
+Gaunt. Thus he came on both sides of the blood royal, and this, coupled
+with the vastness of his inheritance, made the young duke's future of
+importance to Edward IV. He was recognized as duke in 1465, and next year
+was married to Catherine Woodville, the queen's sister. On reaching manhood
+he was made a knight of the Garter in 1474, and in 1478 was high steward at
+the trial of George, duke of Clarence. He had not otherwise filled any
+position of importance, but his fidelity might seem to have been secured by
+his marriage. However, after Edward's death, Buckingham was one of the
+first persons worked upon by Richard, duke of Gloucester. It was through
+his help that Richard obtained possession of the young king, and he was at
+once rewarded with the offices of justiciar and chamberlain of North and
+South Wales, and constable of all the royal castles in the principality and
+Welsh Marches. In the proceedings which led to the deposition of Edward V.
+he took a prominent part, and on the 24th of June 1483 he urged the
+citizens at the Guildhall to take Richard as king, in a speech of much
+eloquence, "for he was neither unlearned and of nature marvellously well
+spoken." (More). At Richard's coronation he served as chamberlain, and
+immediately afterwards was made constable of England and confirmed in his
+powers in Wales. Richard might well have believed that the duke's support
+was secured. But early in August Buckingham withdrew from the court to
+Brecon. He may have thought that he deserved an even greater reward, or
+possibly had dreams of establishing his own claims to the crown. At all
+events, at Brecon he fell somewhat easily under the influence of his
+prisoner, John Morton (_q.v._), who induced him to give his support to his
+cousin Henry Tudor, earl of Richmond. A widespread plot was soon formed,
+but Richard had early warning, and on the 15th of October, issued a
+proclamation against Buckingham. Buckingham, as arranged, prepared to enter
+England with a large force of Welshmen. His advance was stopped by an
+extraordinary flood on the Severn, his army melted away without striking a
+blow, and he himself took refuge with a follower, Ralph Bannister, at Lacon
+Hall, near Wem. The man betrayed him for a large reward, and on the 1st of
+November, Buckingham was brought to the king at Salisbury. Richard refused
+to see him, and after a summary trial had him executed next day (2nd of
+November 1483), though it was a Sunday.
+
+Buckingham's eldest son, Edward (1478-1521), eventually succeeded him as
+3rd duke, the attainder being removed in 1485; the second son, Henry, was
+afterwards earl of Wiltshire. The 3rd duke played an important part as lord
+high constable at the opening of the reign of Henry VIII., and is
+introduced into Shakespeare's play of that king, but he fell through his
+opposition to Wolsey, and in 1521 was condemned for treason and executed
+(17th of May); the title was then forfeited with his attainder, his only
+son Henry (1501-1563), who in his father's lifetime was styled earl of
+Stafford, being, however, given back his estates in 1522, and in 1547
+restored in blood by parliament with the title of Baron Stafford, which
+became extinct in this line with Roger, 5th Baron in 1640. In that year the
+barony of Stafford was granted to William Howard (1614-1680), who after two
+months was created Viscount Stafford; he was beheaded in 1680, and his son
+was created earl of Stafford in 1688, a title which became extinct in 1762;
+but in 1825 the descent to the barony of 1640 was established, to the
+satisfaction of the House of Lords, in the person of Sir G.W. Jerningham,
+in whose family it then continued.
+
+The chief original authorities for the life of the 2nd duke of Buckingham
+are the _Continuation of the Croyland Chronicle_; Sir Thomas More's
+_Richard III._; and Fabyan's _Chronicle_. Amongst modern authorities
+consult J. Gairdner's _Richard III._; and Sir. J. Ramsay's _Lancaster and
+York_.
+
+(C. L. K.)
+
+[1] i.e. in the Stafford line; see above.
+
+BUCKINGHAM, JAMES SILK (1786-1855), English author and traveller, was born
+near Falmouth on the 25th of August 1786, the son of a farmer. His youth
+was spent at sea. After years of wandering he established in 1818 the
+_Calcutta Journal_. This venture at first proved highly successful, but in
+1823 the paper's outspoken criticisms of the East India Company led to the
+expulsion of Buckingham from India and to the suppression of the paper by
+John Adam, the acting governor-general. His case was brought before
+parliament, and a pension of L200 a year was subsequently awarded him by
+the East India Company as compensation. Buckingham continued his
+journalistic ventures on his return to England, and started the _Oriental
+Herald_ (1824) and the _Athenaeum_ (1828) which was not a success in his
+hands. In parliament, where he sat as member for Sheffield from 1832-1837,
+he was a strong advocate of social reform. He was a most voluminous writer.
+He had travelled much in Europe, America and the East, and wrote a great
+number of useful books of travel. In 1851 the value of these and of his
+other literary work was recognized by the grant of a civil list pension of
+L200 a year. At the time of his death in London, on the 30th of June 1855,
+Buckingham was at work on his autobiography, two volumes of the intended
+four being completed and published (1855).
+
+His youngest son, Leicester Silk Buckingham (1825-1867), achieved no little
+popularity as a playwright, several of his free adaptations of French
+comedies being produced in London between 1860 and 1867.
+
+BUCKINGHAM, a market town and municipal borough and the county town of
+Buckinghamshire, England, in the Buckingham parliamentary division, 61 m.
+N.W. of London by a branch of the London & North-Western railway. Pop.
+(1901) 3152. It lies in an open valley on the upper part of the river Ouse,
+which encircles the main portion of the town on three sides. The church of
+St Peter and St Paul, which was extensively restored by Sir Gilbert Scott,
+a native of this neighbourhood, is of the 18th century, and stands on the
+site of the old castle; the town hall dates from the close of the previous
+century; and the grammar school was founded by Edward VI., in part
+occupying buildings of earlier date, which retain Perpendicular and
+Decorated windows, and a Norman door. A chantry, founded in 1268 by Matthew
+Stratton, archdeacon of Buckingham, previously occupied the site; the
+Norman work may be a remnant of the chapel of a gild of the Holy Trinity.
+The manor house is of the early part of the 17th century, and other old
+houses remain. The adjacent mansion of Stowe, approached from the town by a
+magnificent avenue of elms, and surrounded by gardens very beautifully laid
+out, was the seat of the dukes of Buckingham until the extinction of the
+title in 1889. Buckingham is served by a branch of the Grand Junction
+Canal, and has agricultural trade, manufactures of condensed milk and
+artificial manure, maltings and flour-mills; while an old industry survives
+to a modified extent in the manufacture of pillow-lace. The borough is
+under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 5006 acres.
+
+Buckingham (Bochingeham, Bukyngham) was an important stronghold in
+pre-Conquest times, and in 918 Edward the Elder encamped there with his
+army for four weeks, and threw up two forts on either side of the water. At
+the time of the Domesday survey there were twenty-six burgesses in
+Buckingham, which, together with the hamlet of Bourton, was assessed at one
+hide. Although it appears as a borough thus early, the town received no
+charter until 1554, when Queen Mary created it a free borough corporate
+with a bailiff, twelve principal burgesses and a steward, and defined the
+boundaries as extending in width from Dudley bridge to Thornborowe bridge
+and in length from Chackmore bridge to Padbury Mill bridge. A charter from
+Charles II. in 1684 was very shortly abandoned in favour of the original
+grant, which held force until the Municipal Corporations Act of 1835. In
+1529 and from 1545 onwards Buckingham returned two members to parliament,
+until deprived by the Representation of the People Act of 1867 of one
+member, and by the Redistribution of Seats Act of 1885 of the other. Early
+mentions occur of markets and fairs, and from 1522, when Henry VIII.
+granted to Sir Henry Marney the borough of Buckingham with a Saturday
+market and two annual fairs, grants of fairs by various sovereigns were
+numerous. Buckingham was formerly an important agricultural centre, and
+Edward III. fixed here one of the staples for wool, but after the removal
+of these to Calais the trade suffered such decay that in an act of 32 Henry
+VIII. Buckingham is mentioned among thirty-six impoverished towns.
+
+BUCKINGHAM AND NORMANBY, JOHN SHEFFIELD, 1ST DUKE OF (1648-1721), English
+statesman and poet, was born on [v.04 p.0673] the 7th of April 1648. He was
+the son of Edmund, 2nd earl of Mulgrave, and succeeded to that title on his
+father's death in 1658. At the age of eighteen he joined the fleet, to
+serve in the first Dutch war; on the renewal of hostilities in 1672 he was
+present at the battle of Southwold Bay, and in the next year received the
+command of a ship. He was also made a colonel of infantry, and served for
+some time under Turenne. In 1680 he was put in charge of an expedition sent
+to relieve the town of Tangier. It was said that he was provided with a
+rotten ship in the hope that he would not return, but the reason of this
+abortive plot, if plot there was, is not exactly ascertained. At court he
+took the side of the duke of York, and helped to bring about Monmouth's
+disgrace. In 1682 he was dismissed from the court, apparently for putting
+himself forward as a suitor for the princess Anne, but on the accession of
+King James he received a seat in the privy council, and was made lord
+chamberlain. He supported James in his most unpopular measures, and stayed
+with him in London during the time of his flight. He also protected the
+Spanish ambassador from the dangerous anger of the mob. He acquiesced,
+however, in the Revolution, and in 1694 was made marquess of Normanby. In
+1696 he refused in company with other Tory peers to sign an agreement to
+support William as their "rightful and lawful king" against Jacobite
+attempts, and was consequently dismissed from the privy council. On the
+accession of Anne, with whom he was a personal favourite, he became lord
+privy seal and lord-lieutenant of the North Riding of Yorkshire, and in
+1703 duke of Buckingham and Normanby. During the predominance of the Whigs
+between 1705 and 1710, Buckingham was deprived of his office as lord privy
+seal, but in 1710 he was made lord steward, and in 1711 lord president of
+the council. After the death of Anne he held no state appointment. He died
+on the 24th of February 1721 at his house in St James's Park, which stood
+on the site of the present Buckingham Palace. Buckingham was succeeded by
+his son, Edmund (1716-1735) on whose death the titles became extinct.
+
+Buckingham, who is better known by his inherited titles as Lord Mulgrave,
+was the author of "An Account of the Revolution" and some other essays, and
+of numerous poems, among them the _Essay on Poetry_ and the _Essay on
+Satire_. It is probable that the _Essay on Satire_, which attacked many
+notable persons, "sauntering Charles" amongst others, was circulated in MS.
+It was often attributed at the time to Dryden, who accordingly suffered a
+thrashing at the hands of Rochester's bravoes for the reflections it
+contained upon the earl. Mulgrave was a patron of Dryden, who may possibly
+have revised it, but was certainly not responsible, although it is commonly
+printed with his works. Mulgrave adapted Shakespeare's _Julius Caesar_,
+breaking it up into two plays, _Julius Caesar_ and _Marcus Brutus_. He
+introduced choruses between the acts, two of these being written by Pope,
+and an incongruous love scene between Brutus and Portia. He was a constant
+friend and patron of Pope, who expressed a flattering opinion of his _Essay
+on Poetry_. This, although smoothly enough written, deals chiefly with
+commonplaces.
+
+In 1721 Edmund Curll published a pirated edition of his works, and was
+brought before the bar of the House of Lords for breach of privilege
+accordingly. An authorized edition under the superintendence of Pope
+appeared in 1723, but the authorities cut out the "Account of the
+Revolution" and "The Feast of the Gods" on account of their alleged
+Jacobite tendencies. These were printed at the Hague in 1727. Pope
+disingenuously repudiated any knowledge of the contents. Other editions
+reappeared in 1723, 1726, 1729, 1740 and 1753. His _Poems_ were included in
+Johnson's and other editions of the British poets.
+
+BUCKINGHAMSHIRE, EARLS OF. The first earl of Buckinghamshire (to be
+distinguished from the earls of Buckingham, _q.v._) was John Hobart (c.
+1694-1756), a descendant of Sir Henry Hobart (d. 1625), attorney-general
+and chief justice of the common pleas under James I., who was made a
+baronet in 1611, and who was the great-grandson of Sir James Hobart (d.
+1507), attorney-general to Henry VII. The Hobarts had been settled in
+Norfolk and Suffolk for many years, when in 1728 John Hobart, who was a son
+of Sir Henry Hobart, the 4th baronet (d. 1698), was created Baron Hobart of
+Blickling. In 1740 Hobart became lord-lieutenant of Norfolk and in 1746
+earl of Buckinghamshire, his sister, Henrietta Howard, countess of Suffolk,
+being the mistress of George II. He died on the 22nd of September 1756, and
+was succeeded as 2nd earl[1] by his eldest son John (1723-1793), who was
+member of parliament for Norwich and comptroller of the royal household
+before his accession to the title. From 1762 to 1766 he was ambassador to
+Russia, and from 1776 to 1780 lord-lieutenant of Ireland, but he was hardly
+equal to the exceptional difficulties with which he had to deal in the
+latter position. He died without sons at Blickling Hall, Norfolk, on the
+3rd of August 1793, when his half-brother George (c. 1730-1804), became 3rd
+earl. Blickling Hall and his Norfolk estates, however, passed to his
+daughter, Henrietta (1762-1805), the wife of William Kerr, afterwards 6th
+marquess of Lothian.
+
+Robert Hobart, 4th earl of Buckinghamshire (1760-1816), the eldest son of
+the 3rd earl, was born on the 6th of May 1760. He was a soldier, and then a
+member of both the English and the Irish Houses of Commons; from 1789 to
+1793 he was chief secretary to the lord-lieutenant of Ireland, exerting his
+influence in this country to prevent any concessions to the Roman
+Catholics. In 1793, being known by the courtesy title of Lord Hobart, he
+was sent to Madras as governor, but in 1798, after serious differences
+between himself and the governor-general of India, Sir John Shore,
+afterwards Lord Teignmouth, he was recalled. Returning to British politics,
+Hobart was called up to the House of Lords in 1798 (succeeding to the
+earldom of Buckinghamshire in 1804); he favoured the union between England
+and Ireland; from March 1801 to May 1804 he was secretary for war and the
+colonies (his family name being taken for Hobart Town in Tasmania), and in
+1805 he became chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster under Pitt. For a short
+time he was joint postmaster-general, and from 1812 until his death on the
+4th of February 1816 he was president of the Board of Control, a post for
+which his Indian experience had fitted him.
+
+The 4th earl left no sons, and his titles passed to his nephew, George
+Robert Hobart (1789-1849), a son of George Vere Hobart (1761-1802),
+lieutenant-governor of Grenada. In 1824 the 5th earl inherited the
+Buckinghamshire estates of the Hampden family and took the name of Hampden,
+his ancestor, Sir John Hobart, 3rd baronet, having married Mary Hampden
+about 1655. On his death in February 1849 his brother, Augustus Edward
+Hobart (1793-1884), who took the name of Hobart-Hampden in 1878, became 6th
+earl. His two sons, Vere Henry, Lord Hobart (1818-1875), governor of Madras
+from 1872, and Frederick John Hobart (1821-1875), predeceased him, and when
+the 6th earl died he was succeeded by his grandson, Sidney Carr
+Hobart-Hampden (b. 1860), who became 7th earl of Buckinghamshire, and who
+added to his name that of Mercer-Henderson. Another of the 6th earl's sons
+was Augustus Charles Hobart-Hampden, generally known as Hobart Pasha
+(_q.v._).
+
+See Lord Hobart's _Essays and Miscellaneous Writings_, edited with
+biography by Lady Hobart (1885).
+
+[1] Until 1784, when George Grenville, Earl Temple, was created marquess of
+Buckingham, the 2nd earl of Buckinghamshire always signed himself
+"Buckingham"; his contemporaries knew him by this name, and hence a certain
+amount of confusion has arisen.
+
+BUCKINGHAMSHIRE (abbreviated _Bucks_) a south midland county of England,
+bounded N. by Northamptonshire, E. by Bedfordshire, Hertfordshire and
+Middlesex, S. for a short distance by Surrey, and by Berkshire, and W. by
+Oxfordshire. Its area is 743.2 sq. m. The county is divided between the
+basins of the rivers Ouse and Thames. The first in its uppermost course
+forms part of the north-western boundary, passes the towns of Buckingham,
+Stony Stratford, Wolverton, Newport Pagnell and Olney, and before quitting
+the county forms a short stretch of the north-eastern boundary. The
+principal tributary it receives within the county is the Ouzel. The Thames
+forms the entire southern boundary; and of its tributaries Buckinghamshire
+includes the upper part of the Thames. To the north-west of Buckingham, and
+both east and west of the Ouzel, the land rises in gentle undulations to a
+height of nearly 500 ft., and north of the Thames valley a few nearly
+isolated hills stand boldly, such as Brill Hill and Muswell Hill, each over
+600 ft., but the hilliest [v.04 p.0674] part of the county is the south,
+which is occupied by part of the Chiltern system, the general direction of
+which is from south-west to north-east. The crest-line of these hills
+crosses the county at its narrowest point, along a line, above the towns of
+Prince's Risborough and Wendover, not exceeding 11 m. in length. This line
+divides the county into two parts of quite different physical character;
+for to the south almost the whole land is hilly (the longer slope of the
+Chiltern system lying in this direction), well wooded, and pleasantly
+diversified with narrow vales. The chief of these are watered by the Wye,
+Misbourne and Chess streams. The beech tree is predominant in the woods, in
+so much that William Camden, writing c. 1585, supposed the county to take
+name from this feature (A.S. _boc_, beech). In the south a remnant of
+ancient forest is preserved as public ground under the name of Burnham
+Beeches. The Chilterns reach a height of nearly 900 ft. within the county.
+
+_Geology._--The northern half of the county is occupied by Jurassic strata,
+in the southern half Cretaceous rocks predominate except in the
+south-eastern corner, where they are covered by Tertiary beds. Thus the
+oldest rocks are in the north, succeeded continuously by younger strata to
+the south; the general dip of all the rocks is south-easterly. A few
+patches of Upper Lias Clay appear near the northern boundary near Grafton
+Regis and Castle Thorpe, and again in the valley of the Ouse near Stoke
+Goldington and Weston Underwood. The Oolitic series is represented by the
+Great Oolite, with limestones in the upper part, much quarried for building
+stones at Westbury, Thornborough, Brock, Whittlewood Forest, &c.; the lower
+portions are more argillaceous. The Forest Marble is seen about Thornton as
+a thin bed of clay with an oyster-bearing limestone at the base. Next above
+is the Cornbrash, a series of rubbly and occasionally hard limestones and
+thin clays. The outcrop runs by Tingwick, Buckingham, Berehampton and
+Newport Pagnell, it is quarried at Wolverton and elsewhere for road metal.
+Inliers of these rocks occur at Marsh Gibbon and Stan Hill. The Oxford Clay
+and Kimmeridge Clay, with the Gault, lie in the vale of Aylesbury. The clay
+is covered by numerous outliers of Portland, Purbeck and Lower Greensand
+beds. The Portland beds are sandy below, calcareous above; the outcrop
+follows the normal direction in the county, from south-west to north-east,
+from Thame through Aylesbury; they are quarried at several places for
+building stone and fossils are abundant. The Hartwell Clay is in the Lower
+Portland. Freshwater Purbeck beds lie below the Portland and Lower
+Greensand beds; they cap the ridge between Oving and Whitchurch.
+Glass-making sands have been worked from the Lower Greensand at Hartwell,
+and phosphatic nodules from the same beds at Brickhill as well as from the
+Gault at Towersey. A broad band of Gault, a bluish clay, extends from
+Towersey across the county in a north-easterly direction. Resting upon the
+Gault is the Upper Greensand; at the junction of the two formations
+numerous springs arise, a circumstance which has no doubt determined the
+site of several villages. The Chalk rises abruptly from the low lying
+argillaceous plain to form the Chiltern Hills. The form of the whole of the
+hilly district round Chesham, High Wycombe and the Chalfonts is determined
+by the Chalk. Reading beds, mottled clays and sands, repose upon the Chalk
+at Woburn, Barnham, Fulmer and Denham, and these are in turn covered by the
+London Clay, which is exposed on the slopes about Stoke Common and Iver.
+Between the Tertiary-capped Chalk plateau and the Thames, a gentler slope,
+covered with alluvial gravel and brick earth, reaches down to the river.
+Thick deposits of plateau gravel cover most of the high ground in the
+southern corner of the county, while much of the northern part is obscured
+by glacial clays and gravels.
+
+_Industries._--The agricultural capacities of the soil vary greatly in
+different localities. On the lower lands, especially in the Vale of
+Aylesbury, about the headwaters of the Thame, it is extremely fertile;
+while on the hills it is usually poor and thin. The proportion of
+cultivated land is high, being about 83% of the whole. Of this a large and
+growing portion is in permanent pasture; cattle and sheep being reared in
+great numbers for the London markets, to which also are sent quantities of
+ducks, for which the district round Aylesbury is famous. Wheat and oats are
+the principal grain crops, though both decrease in importance. Turnips and
+swedes for the cattle are the chief green crops; and dairy-farming is
+largely practised. There is no general manufacturing industry, but a
+considerable amount of lace-making and straw-plaiting is carried on
+locally; and at High Wycombe and in its neighbourhood there is a thriving
+trade in various articles of turnery, such as chairs and bowls, from beech
+and other hard woods. The introduction of lace-making in this and
+neighbouring counties is attributed to Flemish, and later to French
+immigrants, but also to Catharine of Aragon during her residence (c. 1532)
+at Ampthill. Down to the later part of the 19th century a general holiday
+celebrated by lace-makers on the 25th of November was known as "Cattarn's
+Day."
+
+_Communications._--The main line of the London & North-Western railway
+crosses the north-east part of the county. Bletchley is an important
+junction on this system, branches diverging east to Fenny Stratford,
+Bedford and Cambridge, and west to Oxford and Banbury, Buckingham being
+served by the western branch. There is also a branch from Cheddington to
+Aylesbury. The Metropolitan-Great Central joint line serves Amersham,
+Chesham (by a branch), and Aylesbury, joining the North-Western Oxford
+branch at Verney Junction; this line is used by the Great Central railway,
+the main line of which continues north-westward from Quainton Road. A light
+railway connects this station with the large village of Brill to the
+south-west. The Great Central and the Great Western companies jointly own a
+line passing through Beaconsfield, High Wycombe, and Prince's Risborough,
+which is connected northward with the Great Central system. Before the
+opening of this line in 1906 the Great Western branch from Maidenhead to
+Oxford was the only line serving High Wycombe and Prince's Risborough, from
+which there are branches to Watlington and Aylesbury. The main line of this
+company crosses the extreme south of the county by Slough and Taplow. The
+Grand Junction Canal, reaching the valley of the Ouse by way of the Ouzel
+valley from the south, has branches to Aylesbury and to Buckingham. Except
+the Thames none of the rivers in the county is continuously navigable.
+
+Bletchley is an important junction on this system, branches diverging east
+to Fenny Stratford, Bedford and Cambridge, and west to Oxford and Banbury,
+Buckingham being served by the western branch. There is also a branch from
+Cheddington to Aylesbury. The Metropolitan-Great Central joint line serves
+Amersham, Chesham (by a branch), and Aylesbury, joining the North-Western
+Oxford branch at Verney Junction; this line is used by the Great Central
+railway, the main line of which continues north-westward from Quainton
+Road. A light railway connects this station with the large village of Brill
+to the south-west. The Great Central and the Great Western companies
+jointly own a line passing through Beaconsfield, High Wycombe. and Prince's
+Risborough, which is connected northward with the Great Central system.
+Before the opening of this line in 1906 the Great Western branch from
+Maidenhead to Oxford was the only line serving High Wycombe and Prince's
+Risborough, from which there are branches to Watlington and Aylesbury. The
+main line of this company crosses the extreme south of the county by Slough
+and Taplow. The Grand Junction Canal, reaching the valley of the Ouse by
+way of the Ouzel valley from the south, has branches to Aylesbury and to
+Buckingham. Except the Thames none of the rivers in the county is
+continuously navigable.
+
+_Population and Administration._--The area of the ancient county is 475,682
+acres, with a population in 1891 of 185,284, and in 1901 of 195,764. The
+area of the administrative county is 479,358 acres. The county contains
+eight hundreds, of which three, namely Stoke, Burnham and Desborough, form
+the "Chiltern Hundreds" (_q.v._). The hundred of Aylesbury retains its
+ancient designation of the "three hundreds of Aylesbury." The municipal
+boroughs are Buckingham, the county town (pop. 3152), and Wycombe,
+officially Chepping Wycombe, also Chipping or High Wycombe (15,542). The
+other urban districts are Aylesbury (9243), Beaconsfield (1570), Chesham
+(7245), Eton (3301), Fenny Stratford (4799), Linslade, on the Ouzel
+opposite to Leighton Buzzard in Bedfordshire (2157), Marlow (4526), Newport
+Pagnell (4028), Slough (11,453). Among the lesser market towns may be
+mentioned Amersham (2674), Ivinghoe (808), Olney (2684), Prince's
+Risborough (2189), Stony Stratford (2353), Wendover (2009) and Winslow
+(1703). At Wolverton (5323) are the carriage works of the London &
+North-Western railway. Several of the villages on and near the banks of the
+Thames have become centres of residence, such as Taplow, Cookham and Bourne
+End, Burnham and Wooburn. Buckinghamshire is in the midland circuit, and
+assizes are held at Aylesbury. It has one court of quarter sessions, and is
+divided into thirteen petty sessional divisions. The boroughs of Buckingham
+and Wycombe have separate commissions of the peace. The administrative
+county contains 230 civil parishes. Buckinghamshire is almost entirely
+within the diocese of Oxford, and 215 ecclesiastical parishes are situated
+wholly or in part within it. There are three parliamentary divisions,
+Northern or Buckingham, Mid or Aylesbury, and Southern or Wycombe, each
+returning one member; and the county contains a small part of the
+parliamentary borough of Windsor (chiefly in Berkshire). The most notable
+institution within the county is Eton College, the famous public school
+founded by Henry VI.
+
+_History._--The district which was to become Buckinghamshire was reached by
+the West Saxons in 571, as by a series of victories they pushed their way
+north along the Thames valley. With the grouping of the settlements into
+kingdoms and the consolidation of Mercia under Offa, Buckinghamshire was
+included in Mercia until, with the submission of that kingdom to the
+Northmen, it became part of the Danelaw. In the 10th century
+Buckinghamshire suffered frequently from the ravages of the Danes, and
+numerous barrows and earthworks mark the scenes [v.04 p.0675] of struggles
+against the invaders. These relics are especially abundant in the vale of
+Aylesbury, probably at this time one of the richest and best protected of
+the Saxon settlements. The Chiltern district, on the other hand, is said to
+have been an impassable forest infested by hordes of robbers and wild
+beasts. In the reign of Edward the Confessor, Leofstan, 12th abbot of St
+Albans, cut down large tracts of wood in this district and granted the
+manor of Hamstead (Herts) to a valiant knight and two fellow-soldiers on
+condition that they should check the depredations of the robbers. The same
+reason led at an early period to the appointment of a steward of the
+Chiltern Hundreds, and this office being continued long after the necessity
+for it had ceased to exist, gradually became the sinecure it is to-day. The
+district was not finally disforested until the reign of James I.
+
+At the time of the Norman invasion Buckinghamshire was probably included in
+the earldom of Leofwine, son of Godwin, and the support which it lent him
+at the battle of Hastings was punished by sweeping confiscations after the
+Conquest. The proximity of Buckinghamshire to London caused it to be
+involved in most of the great national events of the ensuing centuries.
+During the war between King John and his barons William Mauduit held
+Hanslape Castle against the king, until in 1216 it was captured and
+demolished by Falkes de Breaute. The county was visited severely by the
+Black Death, and Winslow was one of many districts which were almost
+entirely depopulated. In the civil war Buckinghamshire was one of the first
+counties to join in an association for mutual defence on the side of the
+parliament, which had important garrisons at Aylesbury, Brill and
+elsewhere. Newport Pagnell was for a short time garrisoned by the royalist
+troops, and in 1644 the king fixed his headquarters at Buckingham.
+
+The shire of Buckingham originated with the division of Mercia in the reign
+of Edward the Elder, and was probably formed by the aggregation of
+pre-existing hundreds round the county town, a fact which explains the
+curious irregularities of the boundary line. The eighteen hundreds of the
+Domesday survey have now been reduced to eight, of which the three Chiltern
+hundreds, Desborough, Burnham and Stoke, are unaltered in extent as well as
+in name. The remainder have been formed each by the union of three of the
+ancient hundreds, and Aylesbury is still designated "the three hundreds of
+Aylesbury." All, except Newport and Buckingham, retain the names of
+Domesday hundreds, and the shire has altered little on its outer lines
+since the survey. Until the time of Queen Elizabeth Buckinghamshire and
+Bedfordshire had a common sheriff. The shire court of the former county was
+held at Aylesbury.
+
+The ecclesiastical history of Buckinghamshire is not easy to trace, as
+there is no local chronicler, but the earliest churches were probably
+subject to the West Saxon see of Dorchester, and when after the Conquest
+the bishop's stool was transferred to Lincoln no change of jurisdiction
+ensued. After the dissolution of the monasteries it was proposed to form a
+new diocese to include Bedfordshire and Buckinghamshire, but the project
+was abandoned, and both remained in the Lincoln diocese until 1837, when
+the latter was transferred to Oxford. The arch-deaconry was probably
+founded towards the close of the 11th century by Bishop Remy, and the
+subdivision into rural deaneries followed shortly after. A dean of
+Thornborough is mentioned in the 12th century, and in the taxation of
+Nicholas IV. eight deaneries are given, comprising 186 parishes. In 1855
+the deaneries were reconstructed and made eighteen in number.
+
+On the redistribution of estates after the Conquest only two Englishmen
+continued to retain estates of any importance, and the chief landowners at
+this date were Walter Giffard, first earl of Buckingham, and Odo, bishop of
+Bayeux. Few of the great Buckinghamshire estates, however, remained with
+the same proprietors for any length of time. Many became annexed by
+religious establishments, while others reverted to the crown and were
+disposed of by various grants. The family of Hampden alone claim to have
+held the estate from which the name is derived in an unbroken line from
+Saxon times.
+
+Buckinghamshire has always ranked as an agricultural rather than a
+manufacturing county, and has long been famed for its corn and cattle.
+Fuller mentions the vale of Aylesbury as producing the biggest bodied sheep
+in England, and "Buckinghamshire bread and beef" is an old proverb.
+Lace-making, first introduced into this county by the Fleming refugees from
+the Alva persecution, became a very profitable industry. The monopolies of
+James I. considerably injured this trade, and in 1623 a petition was
+addressed to the high sheriff of Buckinghamshire representing the distress
+of the people owing to the decay of bone lace-making. Newport Pagnell and
+Olney were especially famous for their lace, and the parish of Hanslape is
+said to have made an annual profit of L8000 to L9000 from lace manufacture.
+The straw-plait industry was introduced in the reign of George I., and
+formerly gave employment to a large number of the population.
+
+The county was first represented in parliament by two members in 1290. The
+representation increased as the towns acquired representative rights, until
+in 1603 the county with its boroughs made a total return of fourteen
+members. By the Reform Act of 1832 this was reduced to eleven, and by the
+Redistribution of Seats Act of 1885 the boroughs were deprived of
+representation and the county returned three members for three divisions.
+
+_Antiquities._--Buckinghamshire contains no ecclesiastical buildings of the
+first rank. Monastic remains are scanty, but two former abbeys may be
+noted. At Medmenham, on the Thames above Marlow, there are fragments,
+incorporated into a residence, of a Cistercian abbey founded in 1201; which
+became notorious in the middle of the 18th century as the meeting-place of
+a convivial club called the "Franciscans" after its founder, Sir Francis
+Dashwood, afterwards Lord le Despencer (1708-1781), and also known as the
+"Hell-Fire Club," of which John Wilkes, Bubb Dodington and other political
+notorieties were members. The motto of the club, _fay ce que voudras_ (do
+what you will), inscribed on a doorway at the abbey, was borrowed from
+Rabelais' description of the abbey of Thelema in _Gargantua_. The remains
+of the Augustinian Notley Abbey (1162), incorporated with a farm-house,
+deserve mention rather for their picturesque situation by the river Thame
+than for their architectural value. Turning to churches, there is
+workmanship considered to be of pre-Norman date in Wing church, in the
+neighbourhood of Leighton Buzzard, including a polygonal apse and crypt.
+Stewkley church, in the same locality, shows the finest Norman work in the
+county; the building is almost wholly of the later part of this period, and
+the ornamentation is very rich. The Early English work of Chetwode and
+Haddenham churches, both in the west of the county, is noteworthy;
+especially in the first, which, as it stands, is the eastern part of a
+priory church of Augustinians (1244). Good specimens of the Decorated style
+are not wanting, though none is of special note; but the county contains
+three fine examples of Perpendicular architecture in Eton College chapel
+and the churches of Maids Moreton to the north, and Hillesden to the south,
+of Buckingham. Ancient domestic architecture is chiefly confined to a few
+country houses, of which Chequers Court, dating from the close of the 16th
+century, is of interest not only from the architectural standpoint but from
+its beautiful situation high among the Chiltern Hills between Prince's
+Risborough and Wendover, and from a remarkable collection of relics of
+Oliver Cromwell, preserved here as a consequence of the marriage, in 1664,
+of John Russell, a grandson of the Protector, into the family to which the
+house then belonged. The manor-house of Hampden, among the hills east of
+Prince's Risborough, was for many generations the abode of the family of
+that name, and is still in the possession of descendants of John Hampden,
+who fell at the battle of Chalgrove in 1643, and is buried in Hampden
+church. Fine county seats are numerous--there may be mentioned Stowe
+(Buckingham), formerly the seat of the dukes of Buckingham; Cliveden and
+Hedsor, two among the many beautifully situated mansions by the bank of the
+Thames; and Claydon House in the west of the county. Among the Chiltern
+Hills, also, there are several [v.04 p.0676] splendid domains. Associations
+with eminent men have given a high fame to several towns or villages of
+Buckinghamshire. Such are the connexion of Beaconsfield with Edmund Waller
+and Edmund Burke, that of Hughenden near Wycombe with Benjamin Disraeli,
+Lord Beaconsfield, whose father's residence was at Bradenham; of Olney and
+Stoke Pogis with the poets Cowper and Gray respectively. At Chalfont St
+Giles a cottage still stands in which Milton completed _Paradise Lost_ and
+began _Paradise Regained_. In earlier life he had lived and worked at
+Horton, near the Thames below Windsor.
+
+AUTHORITIES.--The original standard history is the laborious work of G.
+Lipscomb, _History and Antiquities of the County of Buckingham_ (London,
+1831-1847). Other works are: Browne Willis, _History and Antiquities of the
+Town, Hundred, and Deanery of Buckingham_ (London, 1755); D. and S. Lysons,
+_Magna Britannia_, vol. i.; R. Gibbs, _Buckingham_ (Aylesbury, 1878-1882);
+_Worthies of Buckingham_ (Aylesbury, 1886); and _Buckingham Miscellany_
+(Aylesbury, 1891); G.S. Roscoe, _Buckingham Sketches_ (London, 1891); P.H.
+Ditchfield, _Memorials of Old Buckinghamshire_ (London, 1901); _Victoria
+County History_, "Buckinghamshire."
+
+BUCKLAND, FRANCIS TREVELYAN (1826-1880), English zoologist, son of Dean
+William Buckland the geologist, was born at Oxford on the 17th of December
+1826. He was educated at Winchester and Christ Church, taking his degree in
+1848, and then adopted the medical profession, studying at St George's
+hospital, London, where he became house-surgeon in 1852. The pursuit of
+anatomy led him to a good deal of out-of-the-way research in zoology, and
+in 1856 he became a regular writer on natural history for the newly
+established _Field_, particularly on the subject of fish. In 1866 he
+started _Land and Water_ on similar lines. In 1867 he was appointed
+government inspector of fisheries, and in the course of his work travelled
+constantly about the country, being largely responsible for the increased
+attention paid to the scientific side of pisciculture. Among his
+publications, besides articles and official reports, were _Fish Hatching_
+(1863), _Curiosities of Natural History_ (4 vols., 1857-1872), _Logbook of
+a Fisherman_ (1875), _Natural History of British Fishes_ (1881). He died on
+the 19th of December 1880.
+
+See _Life_ by G.C. Bompas (1885).
+
+BUCKLAND, WILLIAM (1784-1856), English divine and geologist, eldest son of
+the Rev. Charles Buckland, rector of Templeton and Trusham, in Devon, was
+born at Axminster on the 12th of March 1784. He was educated at the grammar
+school of Tiverton, and at Winchester, and in 1801 was elected a scholar of
+Corpus Christi College, Oxford, becoming B.A. in 1804. In 1809 he was
+elected a fellow of his college, and was admitted into holy orders. From
+early boyhood he had exhibited a strong taste for natural science, which
+was subsequently stimulated by the lectures of Dr John Kidd on mineralogy
+and chemistry; and his attention was especially drawn to the then infant
+science of geology. He also attended the lectures of Sir Christopher Pegge
+(1765-1822) on anatomy. He now devoted himself systematically to an
+examination of the geological structure of Great Britain, making
+excursions, and investigating the order of superposition of the strata and
+the characters of the organic remains which they contained. In 1813, on the
+resignation of Dr Kidd, he was appointed reader in mineralogy in Oxford;
+and the interest excited by his lectures was so great that in 1819 a
+readership in geology was founded and especially endowed by the treasury,
+Dr Buckland being the first holder of the new appointment. In 1818 Dr
+Buckland was elected a fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1824 and again
+in 1840 he was chosen president of the Geological Society of London. In
+1825 he was presented by his college to the living of Stoke Charity, near
+Whitchurch, Hants, and in the same year he was appointed by Lord Liverpool
+to a canonry of the cathedral of Christ Church, Oxford, when the degree of
+D.D. was conferred upon him. In 1825, also, he married Mary, the eldest
+daughter of Mr Benjamin Morland of Sheepstead House, near Abingdon, Berks,
+by whose abilities and excellent judgment he was materially assisted in his
+literary labours. In 1832 he presided over the second meeting of the
+British Association, which was then held at Oxford. In 1845 he was
+appointed by Sir Robert Peel to the vacant deanery of Westminster, and was
+soon after inducted to the living of Islip, near Oxford, a preferment
+attached to the deanery. In 1847 he was appointed a trustee in the British
+Museum; and in 1848 he was awarded the Wollaston medal by the Geological
+Society of London. In 1849 his health began to give way under the
+increasing pressure of his multifarious duties; and the later years of his
+life were overshadowed by a serious illness, which compelled him to live in
+retirement. He died on the 24th of August 1856, and was buried in a spot
+which he had himself chosen, in Islip churchyard.
+
+Buckland was a man many-sided in his abilities, and of a singularly wide
+range of attainments. Apart from his published works and memoirs in
+connexion with the special department of geology, and in addition to the
+work entailed upon him by the positions which he at different times held in
+the Church of England, he entered with great enthusiasm into many practical
+questions connected with agricultural and sanitary science, and various
+social and even medical problems. As a teacher he possessed powers of the
+highest order; and the university of Oxford is enriched by the large and
+valuable private collections, illustrative of geology and mineralogy, which
+he amassed in the course of his active life. It is, however, upon his
+published scientific works that Dr Buckland's great reputation is mainly
+based. His first great work was the well-known _Reliquiae Diluvianae, or
+Observations on the Organic Remains contained in caves, fissures, and
+diluvial gravel attesting the Action of a Universal Deluge_, published in
+1823 (2nd ed. 1824), in which he supplemented his former observations on
+the remains of extinct animals discovered in the cavern of Kirkdale in
+Yorkshire, and expounded his views as to the bearing of these and similar
+cases on the Biblical account of the Deluge. Thirteen years after the
+publication of the _Reliquiae_, Dr Buckland w as called upon, in accordance
+with the will of the earl of Bridgewater, to write one of the series of
+works known as the _Bridgewater Treatises_. The design of these treatises
+was to exhibit the "power, wisdom, and goodness of God, as manifested in
+the Creation," and none of them was of greater value, as evinced by its
+vitality, than that on "Geology and Mineralogy." Originally published in
+1836, it has gone through three editions, and though not a "manual" of
+geological science, it still possesses high value as a storehouse of
+geological and palaeontological facts bearing upon the particular argument
+which it was designed to illustrate. The third edition, issued in 1858, was
+edited by his son Francis T. Buckland, and is accompanied by a memoir of
+the author and a list of his publications.
+
+Of Dr Buckland's numerous original contributions to the sciences of Geology
+and Palaeontology, the following may be mentioned:--(1) "On the Structure
+of the Alps and adjoining parts of the Continent, and their relation to the
+Secondary and Transition Rocks of England" (_Annals of Phil._, 1821); (2)
+"Account of an Assemblage of Fossil Teeth and Bones of Elephant,
+Rhinoceros, Hippopotamus, &c., discovered in a cave at Kirkdale in
+Yorkshire in the year 1821" (_Phil. Trans._); (3) "On the Quartz Rock of
+the Lickey Hill in Worcestershire" (_Trans. Geol. Soc._); (4) "On the
+Megalosaurus or Great Fossil Lizard of Stonesfield" (Ibid.); (5) "On the
+Cycadeoideae, a Family of Plants found in the Oolite Quarries of the Isle
+of Portland" (Ibid.); (6) "On the Discovery of a New Species of
+Pterodactyle in the Lias of Lyme Regis" (Ibid.); (7) "On the Discovery of
+Coprolites or Fossil Faeces in the Lias of Lyme Regis, and in other
+Formations" (Ibid.); (8) "On the Evidences of Glaciers in Scotland and the
+North of England" (_Proc. Geol. Soc. Lond._); (9) "On the South-Western
+Coal District of England" (joint paper with the Rev. W.D. Conybeare,
+_Trans. Geol. Soc. Lond._); (10) "On the Geology of the neighbourhood of
+Weymouth, and the adjacent parts of the Coast of Dorset" (joint paper with
+Sir H. De la Beche, _Trans. Geol. Soc. Lond._).
+
+With regard to the Glacial theory propounded by Agassiz, no one welcomed it
+with greater ardour than Buckland, and he zealously sought to trace out
+evidences of former glaciation in Britain. A record of the interesting
+discussion which took place at the Geological Society's meeting in London
+in November 1840, [v.04 p.0677] after the reading of a paper by Buckland,
+was printed in the _Midland Naturalist_, October 1883.
+
+BUCKLE, HENRY THOMAS (1821-1862), English historian, author of the _History
+of Civilization_, the son of Thomas Henry Buckle, a wealthy London
+merchant, was born at Lee, in Kent, on the 24th of November 1821. Owing to
+his delicate health he was only a very short time at school, and never at
+college, but the love of reading having been early awakened in him, he was
+allowed ample means of gratifying it. He gained his first distinctions not
+in literature but in chess, being reputed, before he was twenty, one of the
+first players in the world. After his father's death in January 1840 he
+spent some time with his mother on the continent (1840-1844). He had by
+that time formed the resolution to direct all his reading and to devote all
+his energies to the preparation of some great historical work, and during
+the next seventeen years he bestowed ten hours each day in working out his
+purpose. At first he contemplated a history of the middle ages, but by 1851
+he had decided in favour of a history of civilization. The six years which
+followed were occupied in writing and rewriting, altering and revising the
+first volume, which appeared in June 1857. It at once made its author a
+literary and even social celebrity,--the lion of a London season. On the
+1st of March 1858 he delivered at the Royal Institution a public lecture
+(the only one he ever gave) on the _Influence of Women on the Progress of
+Knowledge_, which was published in _Fraser's Magazine_ for April 1858, and
+reprinted in the first volume of the _Miscellaneous and Posthumous Works_.
+On the 1st of April 1859 a crushing and desolating affliction fell upon him
+in the death of his mother. It was under the immediate impression of his
+loss that he concluded a review he was writing of J.S. Mill's _Essay on
+Liberty_ with an argument for immortality, based on the yearning of the
+affections to regain communion with the beloved dead,--on the impossibility
+of standing up and living, if we believed the separation were final. The
+argument is a strange one to have been used by a man who had maintained so
+strongly that "we have the testimony of all history to prove the extreme
+fallibility of consciousness." The review appeared in _Fraser's Magazine_,
+May 1859, and is to be found also in the _Miscellaneous and Posthumous
+Works_ (1872). The second volume of his history was published in May 1861.
+Soon after he left England for the East, in order to recruit his spirits
+and restore his health. From the end of October 1861 to the beginning of
+March 1862 was spent by him in Egypt, from which he went over the desert of
+Sinai and of Edom to Syria, reaching Jerusalem on the 19th of April 1862.
+After staying there eleven days, he set out for Europe by Beyrout, but at
+Nazareth he was attacked by fever; and he died at Damascus on the 29th of
+May 1862.
+
+Buckle's fame, which must rest wholly on his _History of Civilization in
+England_, is no longer what it was in the decade following his death. His
+_History_ is a gigantic unfinished introduction, of which the plan was,
+first to state the general principles of the author's method and the
+general laws which govern the course of human progress; and secondly, to
+exemplify these principles and laws through the histories of certain
+nations characterized by prominent and peculiar features,--Spain and
+Scotland, the United States and Germany. Its chief ideas are--(1) That,
+owing partly to the want of ability in historians, and partly to the
+complexity of social phenomena, extremely little had as yet been done
+towards discovering the principles which govern the character and destiny
+of nations, or, in other words, towards establishing a science of history;
+(2) That, while the theological dogma of predestination is a barren
+hypothesis beyond the province of knowledge, and the metaphysical dogma of
+free will rests on an erroneous belief in the infallibility of
+consciousness, it is proved by science, and especially by statistics, that
+human actions are governed by laws as fixed and regular as those which rule
+in the physical world; (3) That climate, soil, food, and the aspects of
+nature are the primary causes of intellectual progress,--the first three
+indirectly, through determining the accumulation and distribution of
+wealth, and the last by directly influencing the accumulation and
+distribution of thought, the imagination being stimulated and the
+understanding subdued when the phenomena of the external world are sublime
+and terrible, the understanding being emboldened and the imagination curbed
+when they are small and feeble; (4) That the great division between
+European and non-European civilization turns on the fact that in Europe man
+is stronger than nature, and that elsewhere nature is stronger than man,
+the consequence of which is that in Europe alone has man subdued nature to
+his service; (5) That the advance of European civilization is characterized
+by a continually diminishing influence of physical laws, and a continually
+increasing influence of mental laws; (6) That the mental laws which
+regulate the progress of society cannot be discovered by the metaphysical
+method, that is, by the introspective study of the individual mind, but
+only by such a comprehensive survey of facts as will enable us to eliminate
+disturbances, that is, by the method of averages; (7) That human progress
+has been due, not to moral agencies, which are stationary, and which
+balance one another in such a manner that their influence is unfelt over
+any long period, but to intellectual activity, which has been constantly
+varying and advancing:--"The actions of individuals are greatly affected by
+their moral feelings and passions; but these being antagonistic to the
+passions and feelings of other individuals, are balanced by them, so that
+their effect is, in the great average of human affairs, nowhere to be seen,
+and the total actions of mankind, considered as a whole, are left to be
+regulated by the total knowledge of which mankind is possessed"; (8) That
+individual efforts are insignificant in the great mass of human affairs,
+and that great men, although they exist, and must "at present" be looked
+upon as disturbing forces, are merely the creatures of the age to which
+they belong; (9) That religion, literature and government are, at the best,
+the products and not the causes of civilization; (10) That the progress of
+civilization varies directly as "scepticism," the disposition to doubt and
+to investigate, and inversely as "credulity" or "the protective spirit," a
+disposition to maintain, without examination, established beliefs and
+practices.
+
+Unfortunately Buckle either could not define, or cared not to define, the
+general conceptions with which he worked, such as those denoted by the
+terms "civilization," "history," "science," "law," "scepticism," and
+"protective spirit"; the consequence is that his arguments are often
+fallacies. Moreover, the looseness of his statements and the rashness of
+his inferences regarding statistical averages make him, as a great
+authority has remarked, the _enfant terrible_ of moral statisticians. He
+brought a vast amount of information from the most varied and distant
+sources to confirm his opinions, and the abundance of his materials never
+perplexed or burdened him in his argumentation, but examples of
+well-conducted historical argument are rare in his pages. He sometimes
+altered and contorted the facts; he very often unduly simplified his
+problems; he was very apt when he had proved a favourite opinion true to
+infer it to be the whole truth. On the other hand, many of his ideas have
+passed into the common literary stock, and have been more precisely
+elaborated by later writers on sociology and history; and though his own
+work is now somewhat neglected, its influence was immensely valuable in
+provoking further research and speculation.
+
+See his _Life_ by A.W. Huth (1880).
+
+BUCKNER, SIMON BOLIVAR (1823- ), American soldier and political leader, was
+born in Hart county, Kentucky, on the 1st of April 1823. He graduated at
+West Point in 1844, and was assistant professor of geography, history and
+ethics there in 1845-1846. He fought in several battles of the Mexican War,
+received the brevet of first lieutenant for gallantry at Churubusco, where
+he was wounded, and later, after the storming of Chapultepec, received the
+brevet of captain. In 1848-1850 he was assistant instructor of infantry
+tactics at West Point. During the succeeding five years he was in the
+recruiting service, on frontier duty, and finally in the subsistence
+department. He resigned from the army in March 1855. During the futile
+attempt of Governor Beriah Magoffin to maintain Kentucky in a position of
+neutrality, he was commander of the state [v.04 p.0678] guard; but in
+September 1861, after the entry of Union forces into the state, he openly
+espoused the Confederate cause and was commissioned brigadier-general,
+later becoming lieutenant-general. He was third in command of Fort Donelson
+at the time of General Grant's attack (February 1862), and it fell to him,
+after the escape of Generals Floyd and Pillow, to surrender the post with
+its large garrison and valuable supplies. General Buckner was exchanged in
+August of the same year, and subsequently served under General Bragg in the
+invasion of Kentucky and the campaign of Chickamauga. He was governor of
+Kentucky in 1887-1891, was a member of the Kentucky constitutional
+convention of 1890, and in 1896 was the candidate of the National or "Gold"
+Democrats for vice-president of the United States.
+
+BUCKRAM (a word common, in various early forms, to many European languages,
+as in the Fr. _bouqueran_ or Ital. _bucherame_, the derivation of which is
+unknown), in early usage the name of a fine linen or cotton cloth, but now
+only of a coarse fabric of linen or cotton stiffened with glue or other
+substances, used for linings of clothes and in bookbinding. Falstaff's "men
+in buckram" (Shakespeare, _Henry IV._, pt. i. II. 4) has become a
+proverbial phrase for any imaginary persons.
+
+BUCKSTONE, JOHN BALDWIN (1802-1879), English actor and dramatic writer, was
+born at Hoxton on the 14th of September 1802. He was articled to a
+solicitor, but soon exchanged the law for the stage. After some years as a
+provincial actor he made his first London appearance, on the 30th of
+January 1823, at the Surrey theatre, as Ramsay in the _Fortunes of Nigel_.
+His success led to his engagement in 1827 at the Adelphi, where he remained
+as leading low comedian until 1833. At the Haymarket, which he joined for
+summer seasons in 1833, and of which he was lessee from 1853 to 1878, he
+appeared as Bobby Trot in his own _Luke the Labourer_; and here were
+produced a number of his plays and farces, _Ellen Wareham, Uncle Tom_ and
+others. After his return from a visit to the United States in 1840 he
+played at several London theatres, among them the Lyceum, where he was Box
+at the first representation of _Box and Cox_. As manager of the Haymarket
+he surrounded himself with an admirable company, including Sothern and the
+Kendals. He produced the plays of Gilbert, Planche, Tom Taylor and
+Robertson, as well as his own, and in most of these he acted. He died on
+the 31st of October 1879. He was the author of 150 plays, some of which
+have been very popular. His daughter, Lucy Isabella Buckstone (1858-1893),
+was an actress, who made her first London appearance at the Haymarket
+theatre as Ada Ingot in _David Garrick_ in 1875.
+
+BUCKTHORN, known botanically as _Rhamnus cathartica_ (natural order
+Rhamnaceae), a much-branched shrub reaching 10 ft. in height, with a
+blackish bark, spinous branchlets, and ovate, sharply-serrated leaves, 1 to
+2 in. long, arranged several together at the ends of the shoots. The small
+green flowers are regular and have the parts in fours; male and female
+flowers are borne on different plants. The fruit is succulent, black and
+globose, and contains four stones. The plant is a native of England,
+occurring in woods and thickets chiefly on the chalk; it is rare in Ireland
+and not wild in Scotland. It is native in Europe, north Africa and north
+Asia, and naturalized in some parts of eastern North America. The fruit has
+strong purgative properties, and the bark yields a yellow dye.
+
+An allied species, _Rhamnus Frangula_, is also common in England, and is
+known as berry-bearing or black alder. It is distinguished from buckthorn
+by the absence of spiny branchlets, its non-serrated leaves, and bisexual
+flowers with parts in fives. The fruits are purgative and yield a green dye
+when unripe. The soft porous wood, called black dogwood, is used for
+gunpowder. Dyes are obtained from fruits and bark of other species of
+_Rhamnus_, such as _R. infectoria_, _R. tinctoria_ and _R. davurica_--the
+two latter yielding the China green of commerce. Several varieties of _R.
+Alaternus_, a Mediterranean species, are grown in shrubberies.
+
+Sea-buckthorn is _Hippophae rhamnoides_, a willow-like shrub, 1 to 8 ft. in
+height, with narrow leaves silvery on the underside, and globose
+orange-yellow fruits one-third of an inch in diameter. It occurs on sandy
+seashores from York to Kent and Sussex, but is not common.
+
+American buckthorns are: _Rhamnus purshiana_ or _Cascara sagrada_, of the
+Pacific coast, producing cascara bark, and _R. Caroliniana_, the
+alder-buckthorn. _Bumelia lycioides_ (or _lanuginosa_) is popularly called
+"southern buckthorn."
+
+BUCKWHEAT, the fruit (so-called seeds) of _Fagopyrum esculentum_ (natural
+order Polygonaceae), a herbaceous plant, native of central Asia, but
+cultivated in Europe and North America; also extensively cultivated in the
+Himalaya, as well as an allied species _F. tataricum_. The fruit has a dark
+brown tough rind enclosing the kernel or seed, and is three-sided in form,
+with sharp angles, similar in shape to beech-mast, whence the name from the
+Ger. _Buchweizen_, beechwheat. Buckwheat is grown in Great Britain only to
+supply food for pheasants and to feed poultry, which devour the seeds with
+avidity. In the northern countries of Europe, however, the seeds are
+employed as human food, chiefly in the form of cakes, which when baked thin
+have an agreeable taste, with a darkish somewhat violet colour. The meal of
+buckwheat is also baked into crumpets, as a favourite dainty among Dutch
+children, and in the Russian army buckwheat groats are served out as part
+of the soldiers' rations, which they cook with butter, tallow or hemp-seed
+oil. Buckwheat is also used as food in the United States, where "buckwheat
+cakes" are a national dish; and by the Hindus it is eaten on "bart" or fast
+days, being one of the phalahas, or lawful foods for such occasions. When
+it is used as food for cattle the hard sharp angular rind must first be
+removed. As compared with the principal cereal grains, buckwheat is poor in
+nitrogenous substances and fat; but the rapidity and ease with which it can
+be grown render it a fit crop for very poor, badly tilled land. An immense
+quantity of buckwheat honey is collected in Russia, bees showing a marked
+preference for the flowers of the plant. The plant is also used as a green
+fodder.
+
+In the United States buckwheat is sown at the end of June or beginning of
+July, the amount of seed varying from 3 to 5 pecks to the acre. The crop
+matures rapidly and continues blooming till frosts set in, so that at
+harvest, which is usually set to occur just before this period, the grain
+is in various stages of ripeness. It is cut by hand or with the
+self-delivery reaper, and allowed to lie in the swath for a few days and
+then set up in shocks. The stalks are not tied into bundles as in the case
+of other grain crops, the tops of the shocks being bound round and held
+together by twisting stems round them. The threshing is done on the field
+in most cases.
+
+BUCOLICS (from the Gr. [Greek: boukolikos], "pertaining to a herdsman"), a
+term occasionally used for rural or pastoral poetry. The expression has
+been traced back in English to the beginning of the 14th century, being
+used to describe the "Eclogues" of Virgil. The most celebrated collection
+of bucolics in antiquity is that of Theocritus, of which about thirty, in
+the Doric dialect, and mainly written in hexameter verse, have been
+preserved. This was the name, as is believed, originally given by Virgil to
+his pastoral poems, with the direct object of challenging comparison with
+the writings of Theocritus. In modern times the term "bucolics" has not
+often been specifically given by the poets to their pastorals; the main
+exception being that of Ronsard, who collected his eclogues under the title
+of "Les Bucoliques." In general practice the word is almost a synonym for
+pastoral poetry, but has come to bear a slightly more agricultural than
+shepherd signification, so that the "Georgics" of Virgil has grown to seem
+almost more "bucolic" than his "Eclogues." (See also PASTORAL.)
+
+(E. G.)
+
+BUCYRUS, a city and the county-seat of Crawford county, Ohio, U.S.A., on
+the Sandusky river, 62 m. N. of Columbus. Pop. (1890) 5974; (1900) 6560
+(756 foreign-born); (1910) 8122. It is served by the Pennsylvania, the
+Toledo, Walhonding Valley & Ohio (Pennsylvania system), and the Ohio
+Central railways, and by interurban electric lines. The Ohio Central, of
+which Bucyrus is a division terminal, has shops here. The city lies at an
+elevation of about 1000 ft. above sea-level, and is surrounded [v.04
+p.0679] by a country well adapted to agriculture and stock-raising. Among
+its manufactures are machinery, structural steel, ventilating and heating
+apparatus, furniture, interior woodwork, ploughs, wagons, carriages, copper
+products and clay-working machines. Bucyrus was first settled in 1817; it
+was laid out as a town in 1822, was incorporated as a village in 1830, and
+became a city in 1885. The county-seat was permanently established here in
+1830.
+
+BUDAPEST, the capital and largest town of the kingdom of Hungary, and the
+second town of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, 163 m. S.E. of Vienna by
+rail. Budapest is situated on both banks of the Danube, and is formed of
+the former towns of Buda (Ger. _Ofen_) together with O-Buda (Ger.
+_Alt-Ofen_) on the right bank, and of Pest together with Koebanya (Ger.
+_Steinbruch_) on the left bank, which were all incorporated into one
+municipality in 1872. It lies at a point where the Danube has definitely
+taken its southward course, and just where the outlying spurs of the outer
+ramifications of the Alps, namely, the Bakony Mountains, meet the
+Carpathians. Budapest is situated nearly in the centre of Hungary, and
+dominates by its strategical position the approach from the west to the
+great Hungarian plain. The imposing size of the Danube, 300 to 650 yds.
+broad, and the sharp contrast of the two banks, place Budapest among the
+most finely situated of the larger towns of Europe. On the one side is a
+flat sandy plain, in which lies Pest, modern of aspect regularly laid out,
+and presenting a long frontage of handsome buildings to the river. On the
+other the ancient town of Buda straggles capriciously over a series of
+small and steep hills, commanded by the fortress and the Blocksberg (770
+ft. high, 390 ft. above the Danube), and backed beyond by spurs of
+mountains, which rise in the form of terraces one above the other. The
+hills are generally devoid of forests, while those near the towns were
+formerly covered with vineyards, which produced a good red wine. The
+vineyards have been almost completely destroyed by the phylloxera.
+
+Budapest covers an area of 78 sq. m., and is divided into ten municipal
+districts, namely Var (Festung), Vizivaros (Wasserstadt), O-Buda
+(Alt-Ofen), all on the right bank, belonging to Buda, and Belvaros (Inner
+City), Lipotvaros (Leopoldstadt), Terezvaros (Theresienstadt),
+Erzsebetvaros (Elisabethstadt), Jozsefvaros (Josephstadt), Ferenczvaros
+(Franzstadt), and Koebanya (Steinbruch), all on the left bank, belonging to
+Pest. Buda, with its royal palace, the various ministries, and other
+government offices, is the official centre, while Pest is the commercial
+and industrial part, as well as the centre of the nationalistic and
+intellectual life of the town. The two banks of the Danube are united by
+six bridges, including two fine suspension bridges; the first of them,
+generally known as the Ketten-Bruecke, constructed by the brothers Tiernay
+and Adam Clark in 1842-1849, is one of the largest in Europe. It is 410
+yds. long, 39 ft. broad, 36 ft. high above the mean level of the water, and
+its chains rest on two pillars 160 ft. high; its ends are ornamented with
+four colossal stone lions. At one end is a tunnel, 383 yds. long,
+constructed by Adam Clark in 1854, which pierces the castle hill and
+connects the quarter known as the Christinenstadt with the Danube. The
+other suspension bridge is the Schwurplatz bridge, completed in 1903, 56
+ft. broad, with a span of 317 yds. The other bridges are the Margaret
+bridge, with a junction bridge towards the Margaret island, the Franz
+Joseph bridge, and two railway bridges.
+
+Perhaps the most attractive part of Budapest is the line of broad quays on
+the left bank of the Danube, which extend for a distance of 21/2 m. from the
+Margaret bridge to the custom-house, and are lined with imposing buildings.
+The most important of these is the Franz Joseph Quai, 1 m. long, which
+contains the most fashionable cafes and hotels, and is the favourite
+promenade. The inner town is surrounded by the Innere Ring-Strasse, a
+circle of wide boulevards on the site of the old wall. Wide tree-shaded
+streets, like the Kiraly Utcza, the Kerrepesi Ut, and the Uelloei Ut, also
+form the lines of demarcation between the different districts. The inner
+ring is connected by the Vaczi Koerut (Waitzner-Ring) with the Grosse
+Ring-Strasse, a succession of boulevards, describing a semicircle beginning
+at the Margaret bridge and ending at the Boraros Platz, near the
+custom-house quay, through about the middle of the town. One of the most
+beautiful streets in the town is the Andrassy Ut, 11/2 m. long, connecting
+Vaczi Koerut with Varosliget (_Stadtwaeldchen_), the favourite public park of
+Budapest. It is a busy thoroughfare, lined in its first half with
+magnificent new buildings, and in its second half, where it attains a width
+of 150 ft., with handsome villas standing in their own gardens, which give
+the impression rather of a fashionable summer resort than the centre of a
+great city. Budapest possesses numerous squares, generally ornamented with
+monuments of prominent Hungarians, usually the work of Hungarian artists.
+
+_Buildings._--Though of ancient origin, neither Buda nor Pest has much to
+show in the way of venerable buildings. The oldest church is the Matthias
+church in Buda, begun by King Bela IV. in the 13th century, completed in
+the 15th century, and restored in 1890-1896. It was used as a mosque during
+the Turkish occupation, and here took place the coronation of Franz Joseph
+as king of Hungary in 1867. The garrison church, a Gothic building of the
+13th century, and the Reformed church, finished in 1898, are the other
+ecclesiastical buildings in Buda worth mentioning. The oldest church in
+Pest is the parish church situated in the Eskue-Ter (Schwur-Platz) in the
+inner town; it was built in 1500, in the Gothic style, and restored in
+1890. The most magnificent church in Pest is the Leopoldstadt Basilica, a
+Romanesque building with a dome 315 ft. in height, begun in 1851; next
+comes the Franzstadt church, also a Romanesque building, erected in 1874.
+Besides several modern churches, Budapest possesses a beautiful synagogue,
+in the Moorish style, erected in 1861, and another, in the
+Moorish-Byzantine style, built in 1872, while in 1901 the construction of a
+much larger synagogue was begun. In Buda, near the Kaiserbad, and not far
+from the Margaret bridge, is a small octagonal Turkish mosque, with a dome
+25 ft. high, beneath which is the grave of a Turkish monk. By a special
+article in the treaty of Karlowitz of 1699 the emperor of Austria undertook
+to preserve this monument.
+
+Among the secular buildings the first place is taken by the royal palace in
+Buda, which, together with the old fortress, crowns the summit of a hill,
+and forms the nucleus of the town. The palace erected by Maria Theresa in
+1748-1771 was partly burned in 1849, but has been restored and largely
+extended since 1894. In the court chapel are preserved the regalia of
+Hungary, namely, the crown of St Stephen, the sceptre, orb, sword and the
+coronation robes. It is surrounded by a magnificent garden, which descends
+in steep terraces to the Danube, and which offers a splendid view of the
+town lying on the opposite bank. New and palatial buildings of the various
+ministries, several high and middle schools, a few big hospitals, and the
+residences of several Hungarian magnates, are among the principal edifices
+in this part of the town.
+
+The long range of substantial buildings fronting the left bank of the
+Danube includes the Houses of Parliament (see ARCHITECTURE, Plate IX. fig.
+115), a huge limestone edifice in the late Gothic style, covering an area
+of 33/4 acres, erected in 1883-1902; the Academy, in Renaissance style,
+erected in 1862-1864, containing a lofty reception room, a library, a
+historic picture gallery, and a botanic collection; the Redoute buildings,
+a large structure in a mixed Romanesque and Moorish style, erected for
+balls and other social purposes; the extensive custom-house at the lower
+end of the quays, and several fine hotels and insurance offices. In the
+beautiful Andrassy Ut are the opera-house (1875-1884), in the Italian
+Renaissance style; the academy of music; the old and new exhibition
+building; the national drawing school; and the museum of fine arts
+(1900-1905), in which was installed in 1905 the national gallery, formed by
+Prince Esterhazy, bought by the government in 1865 for L130,000, and
+formerly housed in the academy, and the collection of modern pictures from
+the national museum. At the end of the street is one of the numerous
+monuments erected in various parts of the country to commemorate the
+thousandth anniversary of the foundation of the kingdom of Hungary. Other
+buildings remarkable for their [v.04 p.0680] size and interest are: the
+national museum (1836-1844); the town-hall (1869-1875), in the early
+Renaissance style; the university, with a baroque facade (rebuilt 1900),
+and the university library (opened in 1875), a handsome Renaissance
+building; the palace of justice (1896), a magnificent edifice situated not
+far from the Houses of Parliament. In its neighbourhood also are the
+palatial buildings of the ministries of justice and of agriculture. There
+are also the exchange (1905); the Austro-Hungarian bank (1904); the central
+post and telegraph office; the art-industrial museum (1893-1897), in
+oriental style, with some characteristically Hungarian ornamentations;
+several handsome theatres; large barracks; technical and secondary schools;
+two great railway termini and a central market (1897) to be mentioned. To
+the south-east of the town lies the vast slaughter-house (1870-1872),
+which, with the adjacent cattle-market, covers nearly 30 acres of ground.
+The building activity of Budapest since 1867 has been extraordinary, and
+the town has undergone a thorough transformation. The removal of slums and
+the regulation of the older parts of the town, in connexion with the
+construction of the two new bridges across the Danube and of the railway
+termini, went hand-in-hand with the extension of the town, new quarters
+springing up on both banks of the Danube. This process is still going on,
+and Budapest has become one of the handsomest capitals of Europe.
+
+_Education._--Budapest is the intellectual capital of Hungary. At the head
+of its educational institutions stands the university, which was attended
+in 1900 by 4983 students--only about 2000 in 1880--and has a staff of
+nearly 200 professors and lecturers. It has been completely transformed
+into a national Hungarian seat of learning since 1867, and great efforts
+have been made to keep at home the Hungarian students, who before then
+frequented other universities and specially that of Vienna. It is well
+provided with scientific laboratories, botanic garden, and various
+collections, and possesses a library with nearly a quarter of a million
+volumes. The university of Budapest, the only one in Hungary proper, was
+established at Tyrnau in 1635, removed to Buda in 1777, and transferred to
+Pest in 1783. Next to it comes the polytechnic, attended by 1816 students
+in 1900, which is also thoroughly equipped for a scientific training. Other
+high schools are a veterinary academy, a Roman Catholic seminary, a
+Protestant theological college, a rabbinical institute, a commercial
+academy, to which has been added in 1899 an academy for the study of
+oriental languages, and military academies for the training of Hungarian
+officers. Budapest possesses an adequate number of elementary and secondary
+schools, as well as a great number of special and technical schools. At the
+head of the scientific societies stands the academy of sciences, founded in
+1825, for the encouragement of the study of the Hungarian language and the
+various sciences except theology. Next to it comes the national museum,
+founded in 1807 through the donations of Count Stephan Szechenyi, which
+contains extensive collections of antiquities, natural history and
+ethnology, and a rich library which, in its manuscript department of over
+20,000 MSS., contains the oldest specimens of the Hungarian language.
+Another society which has done great service for the cultivation of the
+Hungarian language is the Kisfaludy society, founded in 1836. It began by
+distributing prizes for the best literary productions of the year, then it
+started the collection and publication of the Hungarian folklore, and
+lastly undertook the translation into the Hungarian language of the
+masterpieces of foreign literatures. The influence exercised by this
+society is very great, and it has attracted within its circle the best
+writers of Hungary. Another society similar in aim with this one is the
+Petoefi society, founded in 1875. Amongst the numerous scientific
+associations are the central statistical department, and the Budapest
+communal bureau of statistics, which under the directorship of Dr Joseph de
+Koeroesy has gained a European reputation.
+
+The artistic life in Budapest is fostered by the academy of music, which
+once had Franz Liszt as its director, a _conservatoire_ of music, a
+dramatic school, and a school for painting and for drawing, all maintained
+by the government. Budapest possesses, besides an opera house, eight
+theatres, of which two are subsidized by the government and one by the
+municipality. The performances are almost exclusively in Hungarian, the
+exceptions being the occasional appearance of French, Italian and other
+foreign artists. Performances in German are under a popular taboo, and they
+are never given in a theatre at Budapest.
+
+_Trade._---In commerce and industry Budapest is by far the most important
+town in Hungary, and in the former, if not also in the latter, it is second
+to Vienna alone in the Austro-Hungarian monarchy. The principal industries
+are steam flour-milling, distilling, and the manufacture of machinery,
+railway plant, carriages, cutlery, gold and silver wares, chemicals,
+bricks, jute, and the usual articles produced in large towns for home
+consumption. The trade of Budapest is mainly in corn, flour, cattle,
+horses, pigs, wines, spirits, wool, wood, hides, and in the articles
+manufactured in the town. The efforts of the Hungarian government to
+establish a great home industry, and the measures taken to that effect,
+have benefited Budapest to a greater degree than any other Hungarian town,
+and the progress made is remarkable. The increase in the number of
+joint-stock companies, and the capital thus invested in industrial
+undertakings, furnish a valuable indication. In 1873 there were 28 such
+companies with a total capital of L2,224,900; in 1890, 75 with a capital of
+L9,352,000; and in 1899 no fewer than 242 with a total capital of
+L31,378,655. Budapest owes its great commercial importance to its situation
+on the Danube, on which the greater part of its trade is carried. The
+introduction of steamboats on the Danube in 1830 was one of the earliest
+material causes of the progress of Budapest, and gave a great stimulus to
+its corn trade. This still continues to operate, having been promoted by
+the flour-milling industry, which was revolutionized by certain local
+inventions. Budapest is actually one of the greatest milling centres in the
+world, possessing a number of magnificent establishments, fitted with
+machinery invented and manufactured in the city. Budapest is, besides,
+connected with all the principal places in Austria and Hungary by a
+well-developed net of railways, which all radiate from here.
+
+_Population._--Few European towns grew so rapidly as Budapest generally,
+and Pest particularly, during the 19th century, and probably none has
+witnessed such a thorough transformation since 1867. In 1799 the joint
+population of Buda and Pest was 54,179, of which 24,306 belonged to Buda,
+and 29,870 belonged to Pest, being the first time that the population of
+Pest exceeded that of Buda. By 1840, however, Buda had added but 14,000 to
+its population while that of Pest had more than doubled; and of the joint
+population of 270,685 in 1869, fully 200,000 fell to the share of Pest. In
+1880 the civil population of Budapest was 360,551, an increase since 1869
+of 32%; and in 1890 it was 491,938, and increase of 36.57% in the decade.
+In the matter of the increase of its population alone, Budapest has only
+been slightly surpassed by one European town, namely, Berlin. Both capitals
+multiplied their population by nine in the first nine decades of the
+century. According to an interesting and instructive comparison of the
+growth of twenty-eight European cities made by Dr Joseph de Koeroesy, Berlin
+in 1890 showed an increase, as compared with the beginning of the century,
+of 818% and Budapest of 809%. Within the same period the increase of Paris
+was 343%, and of London 340%. In 1900 the civil population of Budapest was
+716,476 inhabitants, showing an increase of 44.82% in the decade. To this
+must be added a garrison of 15,846 men, making a total population 732,322.
+Of the total population, civil and military, 578,458 were Magyars, 104,520
+were Germans, 25,168 were Slovaks, and the remainder was composed of
+Croatians, Servians, Rumanians, Russians, Greeks, Armenians, Gypsies, &c.
+According to religion, there were 445,023 Roman Catholics, 5806 Greek
+Catholics, 4422 Greek Orthodox; 67,319 were Protestants of the Helvetic,
+and 38,811 were Protestants of the Augsburg Confessions; 168,985 were Jews,
+and the remainder belonged to various other creeds. A striking feature in
+the progress of Budapest is the decline in the death-rate, which sank from
+43.4 per thousand in 1874 to 20.6 per thousand in 1900. In addition to the
+increased influx of [v.04 p.0681] persons in the prime of life, this is due
+largely to the improved water-supply and better sanitary conditions
+generally, including increased hospital accommodation.
+
+_Social Position._--Budapest is the seat of the government of Hungary, of
+the parliament, and of all the highest official authorities--civil,
+military, judicial and financial. It is the meeting-place, alternately with
+Vienna, of the Austro-Hungarian delegations, and it was elected to an
+equality with Vienna as a royal residence in 1892. It is the see of a Roman
+Catholic archbishop. The town is administered by an elected municipal
+council, which consists of 400 members. As Paris is sometimes said to be
+France, so may Budapest with almost greater truth be said to be Hungary.
+Its composite population is a faithful reflection of the heterogeneous
+elements in the dominions of the Habsburgs, while the trade and industry of
+Hungary are centralized at Budapest in a way that can scarcely be affirmed
+of any other European capital. In virtue of its cultural institutions, it
+is also the intellectual and artistic centre of Hungary. The movement in
+favour of Magyarizing all institutions has found its strongest development
+in Budapest, where the German names have all been removed from the
+buildings and streets. The wonderful progress of Budapest is undoubtedly
+due to the revival of the Hungarian national spirit in the first half of
+the 19th century, and to the energetic and systematic efforts of the
+government and people of Hungary since the restoration of the constitution.
+So far as Hungary was concerned, Budapest in 1867 at once became the
+favoured rival of Vienna, with the important additional advantage that it
+had no such competitors within its own sphere as Vienna had in the Austrian
+provincial capitals. The political, intellectual, and social life of
+Hungary was centred in Budapest, and had largely been so since 1848, when
+it became the seat of the legislature, as it was that of the Austrian
+central administration which followed the revolution. The ideal of a
+prosperous, brilliant and attractive Magyar capital, which would keep the
+nobles and the intellectual flower of the country at home, uniting them in
+the service of the Fatherland, had received a powerful impetus from Count
+Stephan Szechenyi, the great Hungarian reformer of the pre-Revolutionary
+period. His work, continued by patriotic and able successors, was now taken
+up as the common task of the government and the nation. Thus the promotion
+of the interests of the capital and the centralization of the public and
+commercial life of the country have formed an integral part of the policy
+of the state since the restoration of the constitution. Budapest has
+profited largely by the encouragement of agriculture, trade and industry,
+by the nationalization of the railways, by the development of inland
+navigation, and also by the neglect of similar measures in favour of
+Vienna.
+
+From that time to the present day the record of the Hungarian capital has
+been one of uninterrupted advance, not merely in externals, such as the
+removal of slums, the reconstruction of the town, the development of
+communications, industry and trade, and the erection of important public
+buildings, but also in the mental, moral and physical elevation of the
+inhabitants; besides another important gain from the point of view of the
+Hungarian statesman, namely, the progressive increase and improvement of
+status of the Magyar element of the population. When it is remembered that
+the ideal of both the authorities and the people is the ultimate monopoly
+of the home market by Hungarian industry and trade, and the strengthening
+of the Magyar influence by centralization, it is easy to understand the
+progress of Budapest.
+
+Politically, this ambitious and progressive capital is the creation of the
+Magyar upper classes. Commercially and industrially, it may be said to be
+the work of the Jews. The sound judgment of the former led them to welcome
+and appreciate the co-operation of the latter. Indeed, a readiness to
+assimilate foreign elements is characteristic of Magyar patriotism, which
+has, particularly within the last generation, made numerous converts among
+the other nationalities of Hungary, and--for national purposes--may be
+considered to have quite absorbed the Hungarian Jews. It has thus come to
+pass that there is no anti-Semitism in Budapest, although the Hebrew
+element is proportionately much larger (21% as compared with 9%) than it is
+in Vienna, the Mecca of the Jew-baiter.
+
+Budapest has long been celebrated for its mineral springs and baths, some
+of them having been already used during the Roman period. They rise at the
+foot of the Blocksberg, and are powerful chalybeate and sulphureous hot
+springs, with a temperature of 80 deg.-150 deg. Fahr. The principal baths are the
+Bruckbad and the Kaiserbad, both dating from the Turkish period; the St
+Lucasbad; and the Raitzenbad, rebuilt in 1860, one of the most magnificent
+establishments of its kind, which was connected through a gallery with the
+royal palace in the time of Matthias Corvin. There is an artesian well of
+sulphureous water with a temperature of 153 deg. Fahr. in the Stadtwaeldchen;
+and another, yielding sulphureous water with a temperature of 110 deg. Fahr.,
+which is used for both drinking and bathing, in the Margaret island. The
+mineral springs, which yield bitter alkaline waters, are situated in the
+plain south of the Blocksberg, and are over 40 in number. The principal are
+the Hunyadi-Janos spring, of which about 1,000,000 bottles are exported
+annually, the Arpad spring, and the Apenta spring.
+
+The largest and most popular of the parks in Budapest is the Varosliget, on
+the north-east side of the town. It has an area of 286 acres, and contains
+the zoological garden. On an island in its large pond are situated the
+agricultural (1902-1904) and the ethnographical museums. It was in this
+park that the millennium exhibition of 1896 took place. A still more
+delightful resort is the Margaret island, a long narrow island in the
+Danube, the property of the archduke Joseph, which has been laid out in the
+style of an English park, with fine trees, velvety turf and a group of
+villas and bath-houses. The name of the island is derived from St Margaret,
+the daughter of King Bela IV. (13th century), who built here a convent, the
+ruins of which are still in existence. To the west of Buda extends the hill
+(1463 ft.) of Svab-Hegy (_Schwabenberg_), with extensive view and numerous
+villas; it is ascended by a rack-and-pinion railway. A favourite spot is
+the Zugliget (_Auwinkel_), a wooded dale on the northern slope of the hill.
+To the north of O-Buda, about 4 m. from the Margaret island, on the right
+bank of the Danube, are the remains of the Roman colony of Aquincum. They
+include the foundations of an amphitheatre, of a temple, of an aqueduct, of
+baths and of a castrum. The objects found here are preserved in a small
+museum. To the north of Pest lies the historic Rakos field, where the
+Hungarian diets were held in the open air from the 10th to the 14th
+century; and 23 m. to the north lies the royal castle of Goedoelloe, with its
+beautiful park.
+
+_History._--The history of Budapest consists of the separate history of the
+two sister towns, Buda and Pest. The Romans founded, in the 2nd century
+A.D., on the right bank of the Danube, on the site of the actual O-Buda, a
+colony, on the place of a former Celtic settlement. This colony was named
+Aquincum, a transformation from the former Celtic name of _Ak-ink_, meaning
+"rich waters." The Roman occupation lasted till A.D. 376, and then the
+place was invaded by Huns, Ostrogoths, and later by Avars and Slavs. When
+the Magyars came into the country, at the end of the 10th century, they
+preserved the names of Buda and Pest, which they found for these two
+places. The origin of Pest proper is obscure, but the name, apparently
+derived from the old Slavonic _pestj_, a stove (like Ofen, the German name
+of Buda), seems to point to an early Slavonic settlement. The Romans never
+gained a foothold on this side of the river.
+
+When it first appears in history Pest was essentially a German settlement,
+and a chronicler of the 13th century describes it as "Villa Teutonica
+ditissima." Christianity was introduced early in the 11th century. In 1241
+Pest was destroyed by the Tatars, after whose departure in 1244 it was
+created a royal free city by Bela IV., and repeopled with colonists of
+various nationalities. The succeeding period seems to have been one of
+considerable prosperity, though Pest was completely eclipsed by the sister
+town of Buda with its fortress and palace. This fortress and palace were
+built by King Bela IV. in 1247, and were the nucleus round which the town
+of Buda was built, which soon gained [v.04 p.0682] great importance, and
+became in 1361 the capital of Hungary. In 1526 Pest was taken and pillaged
+by the Turks, and from 1541 to 1686 Buda was the seat of a Turkish pasha.
+Pest in the meantime entirely lost its importance, and on the departure of
+the Turks was left little more than a heap of ruins. Its favourable
+situation and the renewal of former privileges helped it to revive, and in
+1723 it became the seat of the highest Hungarian officials. Maria Theresa
+and Joseph II. did much to increase its importance, but the rapid growth
+which enabled it completely to outstrip Buda belongs entirely to the 19th
+century. A signal proof of its vitality was given in 1838 by the speed and
+ease with which it recovered from a disastrous inundation that destroyed
+3000 houses. In 1848 Pest became the seat of the revolutionary diet, but in
+the following year the insurgents had to retire before the Austrians under
+Windischgraetz. A little later the Austrians had to retire in their turn,
+leaving a garrison in the fortress of Buda, and, while the Hungarians
+endeavoured to capture this position, General Hentzi retaliated by
+bombarding Pest, doing great damage to the town. In 1872 both towns were
+united into one municipality. In 1896 took place here the millennium
+exhibition, in celebration of the thousandth anniversary of the foundation
+of the kingdom of Hungary.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The official publications of the Budapest Communal Bureau of
+Statistics have acquired a European repute for their completeness, and
+their fearless exposure of shortcomings has been an element in the progress
+of the town. Reference should also be made to separate works of the
+director of that institution, Dr Joseph de Koeroesy, known in England for his
+discovery of the law of marital fertility, published by the Royal Society,
+and by his labours in the development of comparative international
+statistics. His _Statistique Internationale des grandes villes_ and
+_Bulletin annuel des finances des grandes villes_ give valuable comparative
+data. See also _Die Oesterreichisch-Ungarische Monarchie in Wort und Bild_
+(Wien, 1886-1902, 24 vols.); volume xii., published in 1893, is devoted to
+Budapest.
+
+(O. BR.)
+
+BUDAUN, a town and district of British India, in the Rohilkhand division of
+the United Provinces. The town is near the left bank of the river Sot. Pop.
+(1901) 39,031. There are ruins of an immense fort and a very handsome
+mosque of imposing size, crowned with a dome, and built in 1223 in great
+part from the materials of an ancient Hindu temple. The American Methodist
+mission maintains several girls' schools, and there is a high school for
+boys. According to tradition Budaun was founded about A.D. 905, and an
+inscription, probably of the 12th century, gives a list of twelve Rathor
+kings reigning at Budaun (called Vodamayuta). The first authentic
+historical event connected with it, however, is its capture by Kutb-ud-din
+in 1196, after which it became a very important post on the northern
+frontier of the Delhi empire. In the 13th century two of its governors,
+Shams-ud-din Altamsh, the builder of the great mosque referred to above,
+and his son Rukn-ud-din Firoz, attained the imperial throne. In 1571 the
+town was burnt, and about a hundred years later, under Shah Jahan, the seat
+of the governorship was transferred to Bareilly; after which the importance
+of Budaun declined. It ultimately came into the power of the Rohillas, and
+in 1838 was made the headquarters of a British district. In 1857 the people
+of Budaun sided with the mutineers, and a native government was set up,
+which lasted until General Penny's victory at Kakrala (April 1858) led to
+the restoration of British authority.
+
+The DISTRICT OF BUDAUN has an area of 1987 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 1,025,753.
+The country is low, level, and is generally fertile, and watered by the
+Ganges, the Ramganga, the Sot or Yarwafadar, and the Mahawa. Budaun
+district was ceded to the British government in 1801 by the nawab of Oudh.
+There are several indigo factories. The district is crossed by two lines of
+the Oudh & Rohilkhand railway, and by a narrow-gauge line from Bareilly.
+The chief centre of trade is Bilsi.
+
+BUDDEUS, JOHANN FRANZ (1667-1729), German Lutheran divine, was born at
+Anklam, a town of Pomerania, where his father was pastor. He studied with
+great distinction at Greifswald and at Wittenberg, and having made a
+special study of languages, theology and history, was appointed professor
+of Greek and Latin at Coburg in 1692, professor of moral philosophy in the
+university of Halle in 1693, and in 1705 professor of theology at Jena.
+Here he was held in high esteem, and in 1715 became Primarius of his
+faculty and member of the Consistory. His principal works are: _Leipzig,
+allgemeines historisches Lexikon_ (Leipzig, 1709 ff.); _Historia,
+Ecclesiastica Veteris Testamenti_ (4 vols., Halle, 1709); _Elementa
+Philosophiae Practicae, Instrumentalis, et Theoreticae_ (3 vols., 1697);
+_Selecta Juris Naturae et Gentium_ (Halle, 1704); _Miscellanea Sacra_ (3
+vols., Jena, 1727); and _Isagoge Historico-Theologica ad Theologiam
+Universam, singulasque ejus partes_ (2 vols., 1727).
+
+BUDDHA. According to the Buddhist theory (see BUDDHISM), a "Buddha" appears
+from time to time in the world and preaches the true doctrine. After a
+certain lapse of time this teaching is corrupted and lost, and is not
+restored till a new Buddha appears. In Europe, Buddha is used to designate
+the last historical Buddha, whose family name was Gotama, and who was the
+son of Suddhodana, one of the chiefs of the tribe of the Sakiyas, one of
+the republican clans then still existent in India.
+
+We are accustomed to find the legendary and the miraculous gathering, like
+a halo, around the early history of religious leaders, until the sober
+truth runs the risk of being altogether neglected for the glittering and
+edifying falsehood. The Buddha has not escaped the fate which has befallen
+the founders of other religions; and as late as the year 1854 Professor
+Wilson of Oxford read a paper before the Royal Asiatic Society of London in
+which he maintained that the supposed life of Buddha was a myth, and
+"Buddha himself merely an imaginary being." No one, however, would now
+support this view; and it is admitted that, under the mass of miraculous
+tales which have been handed down regarding him, there is a basis of truth
+already sufficiently clear to render possible an intelligent history.
+
+The circumstances under which the future Buddha was born were somewhat as
+follows.[1] In the 6th century B.C. the Aryan tribes had long been settled
+far down the valley of the Ganges. The old child-like joy in life so
+manifest in the Vedas had died away; the worship of nature had developed or
+degenerated into the worship of new and less pure divinities; and the Vedic
+songs themselves, whose freedom was little compatible with the spirit of
+the age, had faded into an obscurity which did not lessen their value to
+the priests. The country was politically split up into little
+principalities, most of them governed by some petty despot, whose interests
+were not often the same as those of the community. There were still,
+however, about a dozen free republics, most of them with aristocratic
+government, and it was in these that reforming movements met with most
+approval and support. A convenient belief in the doctrine of the
+transmigration of souls satisfied the unfortunate that their woes were the
+natural result of their own deeds in a former birth, and, though
+unavoidable now, might be escaped in a future state of existence by present
+good conduct. While hoping for a better fate in their next birth, the poor
+turned for succour and advice in this to the aid of astrology, witchcraft
+and animism--a belief in which seems to underlie all [v.04 p.0683]
+religions, and still survives even in England.[2] The inspiriting wars
+against the enemies of the Aryan people, the infidel deniers of the Aryan
+gods, had given place to a succession of internecine feuds between the
+chiefs of neighbouring clans. In literature an age of poets had long since
+made way for an age of commentators and grammarians, who thought that the
+old poems must have been the work of gods. But the darkest period was
+succeeded by the dawn of a reformation; travelling logicians were willing
+to maintain these against all the world; whilst here and there ascetics
+strove to raise themselves above the gods, and hermits earnestly sought for
+some satisfactory solution of the mysteries of life. These were the
+teachers whom the people chiefly delighted to honour. Though the ranks of
+the priesthood were for ever firmly closed against intruders, a man of lay
+birth, a Kshatriya or Vaisya, whose mind revolted against the orthodox
+creed, and whose heart was stirred by mingled zeal and ambition, might find
+through these irregular orders an entrance to the career of a religious
+teacher and reformer.
+
+The Sakiya clan was then seated in a tract of country probably two or three
+thousand square miles in extent, the chief town of which was Kapilavastu,
+situate about 27 deg. 37' N. by 83 deg. 11' E., some days' journey north of
+Benares. Their territory stretched up into the lower slopes of the
+mountains, and was mostly in what is now Nepal, but it included territory
+now on the British side of the frontier. It is in this part of the Sakiya
+country that the interesting discovery was made of the monument they
+erected to their famous clansman. From their well-watered rice-fields, the
+main source of their wealth, they could see the giant Himalayas looming up
+against the clear blue of the Indian sky. Their supplies of water were
+drawn from the river Rohini, the modern Kohana; and though the use of the
+river was in times of drought the cause of disputes between the Sakiyas and
+the neighbouring Koliyans, the two clans were then at peace; and two
+daughters of a chieftain of Koli, which was only 11 m. east of Kapilavastu,
+were the principal wives of Suddhodana. Both were childless, and great was
+the rejoicing when, in about the forty-fifth year of her age, the elder
+sister, Maha Maya, promised her husband a son. In due time she started with
+the intention of being confined at her parents' home, but the party halting
+on the way under the shade of some lofty satin-trees, in a pleasant garden
+called Lumbini on the river-side, her son, the future Buddha, was there
+unexpectedly born. The exact site of this garden has been recently
+rediscovered, marked by an inscribed pillar put up by Asoka (see
+_J.R.A.S._, 1898).
+
+He was in after years more generally known by his family name of Gotama,
+but his individual name was Siddhattha. When he was nineteen years old he
+was married to his cousin Yasodhara, daughter of a Koliyan chief, and gave
+himself up to a life of luxury. This is the solitary record of his youth;
+we hear nothing more till, in his twenty-ninth year, it is related that,
+driving to his pleasure-grounds one day, he was struck by the sight of a
+man utterly broken down by age, on another occasion by the sight of a man
+suffering from a loathsome disease, and some months after by the horrible
+sight of a decomposing corpse. Each time his charioteer, whose name was
+Channa, told him that such was the fate of all living beings. Soon after he
+saw an ascetic walking in a calm and dignified manner, and asking who that
+was, was told by his charioteer the character and aims of the Wanderers,
+the travelling teachers, who played so great a part in the intellectual
+life of the time. The different accounts of these visions vary so much as
+to cast great doubts on their accuracy; and the oldest one of all
+(_Anguttara_, i. 145) speaks of ideas only, not of actual visions. It is,
+however, clear from what follows, that about this time the mind of the
+young Raejput must, from some cause or other, have been deeply stirred. Many
+an earnest heart full of disappointment or enthusiasm has gone through a
+similar struggle, has learnt to look upon all earthly gains and hopes as
+worse than vanity, has envied the calm life of the cloister, troubled by
+none of these things, and has longed for an opportunity of entire
+self-surrender to abstinence and meditation.
+
+Subjectively, though not objectively, these visions may be supposed to have
+appeared to Gotama. After seeing the last of them, he is said, in the later
+accounts, to have spent the afternoon in his pleasure-grounds by the
+river-side; and having bathed, to have entered his chariot in order to
+return home. Just then a messenger arrived with the news that his wife
+Yasodhara had given birth to a son, his only child. "This," said Gotama
+quietly, "is a new and strong tie I shall have to break." But the people of
+Kapilavastu were greatly delighted at the birth of the young heir, the
+raja's only grandson. Gotama's return became an ovation; musicians preceded
+and followed his chariot, while shouts of joy and triumph fell on his ear.
+Among these sounds one especially attracted his attention. It was the voice
+of a young girl, his cousin, who sang a stanza, saying, "Happy the father,
+happy the mother, happy the wife of such a son and husband." In the word
+"happy" lay a double meaning; it meant also freed from the chains of
+rebirth, delivered, _saved_. Grateful to one who, at such a time, reminded
+him of his highest hopes, Gotama, to whom such things had no longer any
+value, took off his collar of pearls and sent it to her. She imagined that
+this was the beginning of a courtship, and began to build daydreams about
+becoming his principal wife, but he took no further notice of her and
+passed on. That evening the dancing-girls came to go through the Natch
+dances, then as now so common on festive occasions in many parts of India;
+but he paid them no attention, and gradually fell into an uneasy slumber.
+At midnight he awoke; the dancing-girls were lying in the ante-room; an
+overpowering loathing filled his soul. He arose instantly with a mind fully
+made up--"roused into activity," says the Sinhalese chronicle, "like a man
+who is told that his house is on fire." He called out to know who was on
+guard, and finding it was his charioteer Channa, he told him to saddle his
+horse. While Channa was gone Siddhattha gently opened the door of the room
+where Yasodhara was sleeping, surrounded by flowers, with one hand on the
+head of their child. He had hoped to take the babe in his arms for the last
+time before he went, but now he stood for a few moments irresolute on the
+threshold looking at them. At last the fear of awakening Yasodhara
+prevailed; he tore himself away, promising himself to return to them as
+soon as his mind had become clear, as soon as he had become a
+Buddha,--_i.e._ Enlightened,--and then he could return to them not only as
+husband and father, but as teacher and saviour. It is said to have been
+broad moonlight on the full moon of the month of July, when the young
+chief, with Channa as his sole companion, leaving his father's home, his
+wealth and social position, his wife and child behind him, went out into
+the wilderness to become a penniless and despised student, and a homeless
+wanderer. This is the circumstance which has given its name to a Sanskrit
+work, the Mahabhinishkramana Sutra, or Sutra of the Great Renunciation.
+
+Next is related an event in which we may again see a subjective experience
+given under the form of an objective reality. Mara, the great tempter,
+appears in the sky, and urges Gotama to stop, promising him, in seven days,
+a universal kingdom over the four great continents if he will but give up
+his enterprise.[3] When his words fail to have any effect, the tempter
+consoles himself by the confident hope that he will still overcome his
+enemy, saying, "Sooner or later some lustful or malicious or angry thought
+must arise in his mind; in that moment I shall be his master"; and from
+that hour, adds the legend, "as a shadow always follows the body, so he too
+from that day always followed the Blessed One, striving to throw every
+obstacle in his way towards the Buddhahood." Gotama rides a long distance
+that night, only stopping at the banks of the Anoma beyond the Koliyan
+territory. There, on the sandy bank of the river, at a spot where later
+piety erected a dagaba (a solid dome-shaped relic shrine), he cuts off with
+his sword his long flowing locks, and, taking off his ornaments, sends them
+and the horse back in charge of the unwilling Channa to Kapilavastu. The
+next seven days were spent alone in a grove of mango trees [v.04 p.0684]
+near by, whence the recluse walks on to Rajagriha, the capital of Magadha,
+and residence of Bimbisara, one of the then most powerful rulers in the
+valley of the Ganges. He was favourably received by the raja; but though
+asked to do so, he would not as yet assume the responsibilities of a
+teacher. He attached himself first to a brahmin sophist named Alara, and
+afterwards to another named Udraka, from whom he learnt all that Indian
+philosophy had then to teach. Still unsatisfied, he next retired to the
+jungle of Uruvela, on the most northerly spur of the Vindhya range of
+mountains, and there for six years, attended by five faithful disciples, he
+gave himself up to the severest penance and self-torture, till his fame as
+an ascetic spread in all the country round about "like the sound," says the
+Burmese chronicle, "of a great bell hung in the canopy of the skies."[4] At
+last one day, when he was walking in a much enfeebled state, he felt on a
+sudden an extreme weakness, like that caused by dire starvation, and unable
+to stand any longer he fell to the ground. Some thought he was dead, but he
+recovered, and from that time took regular food and gave up his severe
+penance, so much so that his five disciples soon ceased to respect him, and
+leaving him went to Benares.
+
+There now ensued a second struggle in Gotama's mind, described with all the
+wealth of poetry and imagination of which the Indian mind is master. The
+crisis culminated on a day, each event of which is surrounded in the
+Buddhist accounts with the wildest legends, on which the very thoughts
+passing through the mind of Buddha appear in gorgeous descriptions as
+angels of darkness or of light. To us, now taught by the experiences of
+centuries how weak such exaggerations are compared with the effect of a
+plain unvarnished tale, these legends may appear childish or absurd, but
+they have a depth of meaning to those who strive to read between the lines
+of such rude and inarticulate attempts to describe the indescribable. That
+which (the previous and subsequent career of the teacher being borne in
+mind) seems to be possible and even probable, appears to be somewhat as
+follows.
+
+Disenchanted and dissatisfied, Gotama had given up all that most men value,
+to seek peace in secluded study and self-denial. Failing to attain his
+object by learning the wisdom of others, and living the simple life of a
+student, he had devoted himself to that intense meditation and penance
+which all philosophers then said would raise men above the gods. Still
+unsatisfied, longing always for a certainty that seemed ever just beyond
+his grasp, he had added vigil to vigil, and penance to penance, until at
+last, when to the wondering view of others he had become more than a saint,
+his bodily strength and his indomitable resolution and faith had together
+suddenly and completely broken down. Then, when the sympathy of others
+would have been most welcome, he found his friends falling away from him,
+and his disciples leaving him for other teachers. Soon after, if not on the
+very day when his followers had left him, he wandered out towards the banks
+of the Neranjara, receiving his morning meal from the hands of Sujata, the
+daughter of a neighbouring villager, and set himself down to eat it under
+the shade of a large tree (a _Ficus religiosa_), to be known from that time
+as the sacred Bo tree or tree of wisdom. There he remained through the long
+hours of that day debating with himself what next to do. All his old
+temptations came back upon him with renewed force. For years he had looked
+at all earthly good through the medium of a philosophy which taught him
+that it, without exception, contained within itself the seeds of
+bitterness, and was altogether worthless and impermanent; but now to his
+wavering faith the sweet delights of home and love, the charms of wealth
+and power, began to show themselves in a different light, and glow again
+with attractive colours. He doubted, and agonized in his doubt; but as the
+sun set, the religious side of his nature had won the victory, and seems to
+have come out even purified from the struggle. He had attained to Nirvana,
+had become clear in his mind, a Buddha, an Enlightened One. From that night
+he not only did not claim any merit on account of his self-mortification,
+but took every opportunity of declaring that from such penances no
+advantage at all would be derived. All that night he is said to have
+remained in deep meditation under the Bo tree; and the orthodox Buddhists
+believe that for seven times seven nights and days he continued fasting
+near the spot, when the archangel Brahma came and ministered to him. As for
+himself, his heart was now fixed,--his mind was made up,--but he realized
+more than he had ever done before the power of temptation, and the
+difficulty, the almost impossibility, of understanding and holding to the
+truth. For others subject to the same temptations, but without that
+earnestness and insight which he felt himself to possess, faith might be
+quite impossible, and it would only be waste of time and trouble to try to
+show to them "the only path of peace." To one in his position this thought
+would be so very natural, that we need not hesitate to accept the fact of
+its occurrence as related in the oldest records. It is quite consistent
+with his whole career that it was love and pity for others--otherwise, as
+it seemed to him, helplessly doomed and lost---which at last overcame every
+other consideration, and made Gotama resolve to announce his doctrine to
+the world.
+
+The teacher, now 35 years of age, intended to proclaim his new gospel first
+to his old teachers Alara and Udraka, but finding that they were dead, he
+determined to address himself to his former five disciples, and accordingly
+went to the Deer-forest near Benares where they were then living. An old
+_gathha_, or hymn (translated in _Vinaya Texts_, i. 90) tells us how the
+Buddha, rapt with the idea of his great mission, meets an acquaintance, one
+Upaka, a wandering sophist, on the way. The latter, struck with his
+expression, asks him whose religion it is that makes him so glad, and yet
+so calm. The reply is striking. "I am now on my way," says the Buddha, "to
+the city of Benares, to beat the drum of the Ambrosia (to set up the light
+of the doctrine of Nirvana) in the darkness of the world!" and he proclaims
+himself the Buddha who alone knows, and knows no teacher. Upaka says: "You
+profess yourself, then, friend, to be an Arahat and a conqueror?" The
+Buddha says: "Those indeed are conquerors who, as I have now, have
+conquered the intoxications (the mental intoxication arising from
+ignorance, sensuality or craving after future life). Evil dispositions have
+ceased in me; therefore is it that I am conqueror!" His acquaintance
+rejoins: "In that case, venerable Gotama, your way lies yonder!" and he
+himself, shaking his head, turns in the opposite direction.
+
+Nothing daunted, the new prophet walked on to Benares, and in the cool of
+the evening went on to the Deer-forest where the five ascetics were living.
+Seeing him coming, they resolved not to recognize as a superior one who had
+broken his vows; to address him by his name, and not as "master" or
+"teacher"; only, he being a Kshatriya, to offer him a seat. He understands
+their change of manner, calmly tells them not to mock him by calling him
+"the venerable Gotama"; that he has found the ambrosia of truth and can
+lead them to it. They object, naturally enough, from the ascetic point of
+view, that he had failed before while he was keeping his body under, and
+how can his mind have won the victory now, when he serves and yields to his
+body. Buddha replies by explaining to them the principles of his new
+gospel, in the form of noble truths, and the Noble Eightfold Path (see
+BUDDHISM).
+
+It is nearly certain that Buddha had a commanding presence, and one of
+those deep, rich, thrilling voices which so many of the successful leaders
+of men have possessed. We know his deep earnestness, and his thorough
+conviction of the truth of his new gospel. When we further remember the
+relation which the five students mentioned above had long borne to him, and
+that they had passed through a similar culture, it is not difficult to
+understand that his persuasions were successful, and that his old disciples
+were the first to acknowledge him in his new character. The later books say
+that they were all converted at once; but, according to the most ancient
+Pali record--though their old love and reverence had been so rekindled when
+the Buddha came near that their cold resolutions quite broke down, and they
+vied with each other in such acts of personal attention as an [v.04 p.0685]
+Indian disciple loves to pay to his teacher,--yet it was only after the
+Buddha had for five days talked to them, sometimes separately, sometimes
+together, that they accepted in its entirety his plan of salvation.[5]
+
+The Buddha then remained at the Deer-forest near Benares until the number
+of his personal followers was about threescore, and that of the outside
+believers somewhat greater. The principal among the former was a rich young
+man named Yasa, who had first come to him at night out of fear of his
+relations, and afterwards shaved his head, put on the yellow robe, and
+succeeded in bringing many of his former friends and companions to the
+teacher, his mother and his wife being the first female disciples, and his
+father the first lay devotee. It should be noticed in passing that the idea
+of a priesthood with mystical powers is altogether repugnant to Buddhism;
+every one's salvation is entirely dependent on the modification or growth
+of his own inner nature, resulting from his own exertions. The life of a
+recluse is held to be the most conducive to that state of sweet serenity at
+which the most ardent disciples aim; but that of a layman, of a believing
+householder, is held in high honour; and a believer who does not as yet
+feel himself able or willing to cast off the ties of home or of business,
+may yet "enter the paths," and by a life of rectitude and kindness ensure
+for himself a rebirth under more favourable conditions for his growth in
+holiness.
+
+After the rainy season Gotama called together those of his disciples who
+had devoted themselves to the higher life, and said to them: "I am free
+from the five hindrances which, like an immense net, hold men and angels in
+their power; you too (owing to my teaching) are set free. Go ye now,
+brethren, and wander for the gain and welfare of the many, out of
+compassion for the world, to the benefit of gods and men. Preach the
+doctrine, beauteous in inception, beauteous in continuation, beauteous in
+its end. Proclaim the pure and perfect life. Let no two go together. I also
+go, brethren, to the General's village in the wilds of Uruvela."[6]
+Throughout his career, Gotama yearly adopted the same plan, collecting his
+disciples round him in the rainy season, and after it was over travelling
+about as an itinerant preacher; but in subsequent years he was always
+accompanied by some of his most attached disciples.
+
+In the solitudes of Uruvela there were at this time three brothers,
+fire-worshippers and hermit philosophers, who had gathered round them a
+number of scholars, and enjoyed a considerable reputation as teachers.
+Gotama settled among them, and after a time they became believers in his
+system,--the elder brother, Kassapa, taking henceforth a principal place
+among his followers. His first set sermon to his new disciples is called by
+Bishop Bigandet the Sermon on the Mount. Its subject was a jungle-fire
+which broke out on the opposite hillside. He warned his hearers against the
+fires of concupiscence, anger, ignorance, birth, death, decay and anxiety;
+and taking each of the senses in order he compared all human sensations to
+a burning flame which seems to be something it is not, which produces
+pleasure and pain, but passes rapidly away, and ends only in
+destruction.[7]
+
+Accompanied by his new disciples, the Buddha walked on to Rajagaha, the
+capital of King Bimbisara, who, not unmindful of their former interview,
+came out to welcome him. Seeing Kassapa, who as the chronicle puts it, was
+as well known to them as the banner of the city, the people at first
+doubted who was the teacher and who the disciple, but Kassapa put an end to
+their hesitation by stating that he had now given up his belief in the
+efficacy of sacrifices either great or small; that Nirvana was a state of
+rest to be attained only by a change of heart; and that he had become a
+disciple of the Buddha. Gotama then spoke to the king on the miseries of
+the world which arise from passion, and on the possibility of release by
+following the way of salvation. The raja invited him and his disciples to
+eat their simple mid-day meal at his house on the following morning; and
+then presented the Buddha with a garden called Veluvana or Bamboo-grove,
+afterwards celebrated as the place where the Buddha spent many rainy
+seasons, and preached many of his most complete discourses. There he taught
+for some time, attracting large numbers of hearers, among whom two,
+Sariputta and Moggallana, who afterwards became conspicuous leaders in the
+new crusade, then joined the Sangha or Society, as the Buddha's order of
+mendicants was called.
+
+Meanwhile the prophet's father, Suddhodana, who had anxiously watched his
+son's career, heard that he had given up his asceticism, and had appeared
+as a Wanderer, an itinerant preacher and teacher. He sent therefore to him,
+urging him to come home, that he might see him once more before he died.
+The Buddha accordingly started for Kapilavastu, and stopped according to
+his custom in a grove outside the town. His father and uncles and others
+came to see him there, but the latter were angry, and would pay him no
+reverence. It was the custom to invite such teachers and their disciples
+for the next day's meal, but they all left without doing so. The next day,
+therefore, Gotama set out at the usual hour, carrying his bowl to beg for a
+meal. As he entered the city, he hesitated whether he should not go
+straight to his father's house, but determined to adhere to his custom. It
+soon reached his father's ears that his son was walking through the streets
+begging. Startled at such news he rose up, seizing the end of his outer
+robe, and hastened to the place where Gotama was, exclaiming, "Illustrious
+Buddha, why do you expose us all to such shame? Is it necessary to go from
+door to door begging your food? Do you imagine that I am not able to supply
+the wants of so many mendicants?" "My noble father," was the reply, "this
+is the custom of all our race." "How so?" said his father. "Are you not
+descended from an illustrious line? no single person of our race has ever
+acted so indecorously." "My noble father," said Gotama, "you and your
+family may claim the privileges of Kshatriya descent; my descent is from
+the prophets (Buddhas) of old, and they have always acted so; the customs
+of the law (Dharma) are good both for this world and the world that is to
+come. But, my father, when a man has found a treasure, it is his duty to
+offer the most precious of the jewels to his father first. Do not delay,
+let me share with you the treasure I have found." Suddhodana, abashed, took
+his son's bowl and led him to his house.
+
+Eighteen months had now elapsed since the turning-point of Gotama's
+career--his great struggle under the Bo tree. Thus far all the accounts
+follow chronological order. From this time they simply narrate disconnected
+stories about the Buddha, or the persons with whom he was brought into
+contact,--the same story being usually found in more than one account, but
+not often in the same order. It is not as yet possible, except very
+partially, to arrange chronologically the snatches of biography to be
+gleaned from these stories. They are mostly told to show the occasion on
+which some memorable act of the Buddha took place, or some memorable saying
+was uttered, and are as exact as to place as they are indistinct as to
+time. It would be impossible within the limits of this article to give any
+large number of them, but space may be found for one or two.
+
+A merchant from Sunaparanta having joined the Society was desirous of
+preaching to his relations, and is said to have asked Gotama's permission
+to do so. "The people of Sunaparanta," said the teacher, "are exceedingly
+violent. If they revile you what will you do?" "I will make no reply," said
+the mendicant. "And if they strike you?" "I will not strike in return," was
+the reply. "And if they try to kill you?" "Death is no evil in itself; many
+even desire it, to escape from the vanities of life, but I shall take no
+steps either to hasten or to delay the time of my departure." These answers
+were held satisfactory, and the monk started on his mission.
+
+At another time a rich farmer held a harvest home, and the Buddha, wishing
+to preach to him, is said to have taken his alms-bowl and stood by the side
+of the field and begged. The farmer, a wealthy brahmin, said to him, "Why
+do you come and beg? [v.04 p.0686] I plough and sow and earn my food; you
+should do the same." "I too, O brahmin," said the beggar, "plough and sow;
+and having ploughed and sown I eat." "You profess only to be a farmer; no
+one sees your ploughing, what do you mean?" said the brahmin. "For my
+cultivation," said the beggar, "faith is the seed, self-combat is the
+fertilizing rain, the weeds I destroy are the cleaving to existence, wisdom
+is my plough, and its guiding-shaft is modesty; perseverance draws my
+plough, and I guide it with the rein of my mind; the field I work is in the
+law, and the harvest that I reap is the never-dying nectar of Nirvana,
+Those who reap this harvest destroy all the weeds of sorrow."
+
+On another occasion he is said to have brought back to her right mind a
+young mother whom sorrow had for a time deprived of reason. Her name was
+Kisagotami. She had been married early, as is the custom in the East, and
+had a child when she was still a girl. When the beautiful boy could run
+alone he died. The young girl in her love for it carried the dead child
+clasped to her bosom, and went from house to house of her pitying friends
+asking them to give her medicine for it. But a Buddhist convert thinking
+"she does not understand," said to her, "My good girl, I myself have no
+such medicine as you ask for, but I think I know of one who has." "Oh, tell
+me who that is?" said Kisagotami. "The Buddha can give you medicine; go to
+him," was the answer. She went to Gotama; and doing homage to him said,
+"Lord and master, do you know any medicine that will be good for my child?"
+"Yes, I know of some," said the teacher. Now it was the custom for patients
+or their friends to provide the herbs which the doctors required; so she
+asked what herbs he would want. "I want some mustard-seed," he said; and
+when the poor girl eagerly promised to bring some of so common a drug, he
+added, "you must get it from some house where no son, or husband, or parent
+or slave has died." "Very good," she said; and went to ask for it, still
+carrying her dead child with her. The people said, "Here is mustard-seed,
+take it"; but when she asked, "In my friend's house has any son died, or a
+husband, or a parent or slave?" They answered, "Lady! what is this that you
+say? the living are few, but the dead are many." Then she went to other
+houses, but one said "I have lost a son," another "We have lost our
+parents," another "I have lost my slave." At last, not being able to find a
+single house where no one had died, her mind began to clear, and summoning
+up resolution she left the dead body of her child in a forest, and
+returning to the Buddha paid him homage. He said to her, "Have you the
+mustard-seed?" "My lord," she replied, "I have not; the people tell me that
+the living are few, but the dead are many." Then he talked to her on that
+essential part of his system, the impermanency of all things, till her
+doubts were cleared away, she accepted her lot, became a disciple, and
+entered the "first path."
+
+For forty-five years after entering on his mission Gotama itinerated in the
+valley of the Ganges, not going farther than about 250 m. from Benares, and
+always spending the rainy months at one spot--usually at one of the
+_viharas_,[8] or homes, which had been given to the society. In the
+twentieth year his cousin Ananda became a mendicant, and from that time
+seems to have attended on the Buddha, being constantly near him, and
+delighting to render him all the personal service which love and reverence
+could suggest. Another cousin, Devadatta, the son of the raja of Koli, also
+joined the society, but became envious of the teacher, and stirred up
+Ajatasattu (who, having killed his father Bimbisara, had become king of
+Rajagaha) to persecute Gotama. The account of the manner in which the
+Buddha is said to have overcome the wicked devices of this apostate cousin
+and his parricide protector is quite legendary; but the general fact of
+Ajatasattu's opposition to the new sect and of his subsequent conversion
+may be accepted.
+
+The confused and legendary notices of the journeyings of Gotama are
+succeeded by tolerably clear accounts of the last few days of his life.[9]
+On a journey towards Kusinara, a town about 120 m. north-north-east of
+Benares, and about 80 m. due east of Kapilavastu, the teacher, being then
+eighty years of age, had rested for a short time in a grove at Pawa,
+presented to the society by a goldsmith of that place named Chunda. Chunda
+prepared for the mendicants a mid-day meal, and after the meal the Buddha
+started for Kusinara. He had not gone far when he was obliged to rest, and
+soon afterwards he said, "Ananda, I am thirsty," and they gave him water to
+drink. Half-way between the two towns flows the river Kukushta. There
+Gotama rested again, and bathed for the last time. Feeling that he was
+dying, and careful lest Chunda should be reproached by himself or others,
+he said to Ananda, "After I am gone tell Chunda that he will receive in a
+future birth very great reward; for, having eaten of the food he gave me, I
+am about to die; and if he should still doubt, say that it was from my own
+mouth that you heard this. There are two gifts which will be blest above
+all others, namely, Sujata's gift before I attained wisdom under the Bo
+tree, and this gift of Chunda's before I pass away." After halting again
+and again the party at length reached the river Hiranyavati, close by
+Kusinara, and there for the last time the teacher rested. Lying down under
+some Sal trees, with his face towards the south, he talked long and
+earnestly with Ananda about his burial, and about certain rules which were
+to be observed by the society after his death. Towards the end of this
+conversation, when it was evening, Ananda broke down and went aside to
+weep, but the Buddha missed him, and sending for him comforted him with the
+promise of Nirvana, and repeated what he had so often said before about the
+impermanence of all things,--"O Ananda! do not weep; do not let yourself be
+troubled. You known what I have said; sooner or later we must part from all
+we hold most dear. This body of ours contains within itself the power which
+renews its strength for a time, but also the causes which lead to its
+destruction. Is there anything put together which shall not dissolve? But
+you, too, shall be free from this delusion, this world of sense, this law
+of change. Beloved," added he, speaking to the rest of the disciples,
+"Ananda for long years has served me with devoted affection." And he spoke
+to them at some length on the kindness of Ananda.
+
+About midnight Subhadra, a brahmin philosopher of Kusinara, came to ask
+some questions of the Buddha, but Ananda, fearing that this might lead to a
+longer discussion than the sick teacher could bear, would not admit him.
+Gotama heard the sound of their talk, and asking what it was, told them to
+let Subhadra come. The latter began by asking whether the six great
+teachers knew all laws, or whether there were some that they did not know,
+or knew only partially. "This is not the time," was the answer, "for such
+discussions. To true wisdom there is only one way, the path that is laid
+down in my system. Many have already followed it, and conquering the lust
+and pride and anger of their own hearts, have become free from ignorance
+and doubt and wrong belief, have entered the calm state of universal
+kindliness, and have reached Nirvana even in this life. O Subhadra! I do
+not speak to you of things I have not experienced. Since I was twenty-nine
+years old till now I have striven after pure and perfect wisdom, and
+following the good path, have found Nirvana." A rule had been made that no
+follower of a rival system should be admitted to the society without four
+months' probation. So deeply did the words or the impressive manner of the
+dying teacher work upon Subhadra that he asked to be admitted at once, and
+Gotama granted his request. Then turning to his disciples he said, "When I
+have passed away and am no longer with you, do not think that the Buddha
+has left you, and is not still in your midst. You have my words, my
+explanations of the deep things of truth, the laws I have laid down for the
+society; let them be your guide; the Buddha has not left you." Soon
+afterwards he again spoke to them, urging them to reverence one another,
+and rebuked one of the disciples who spoke [v.04 p.0687] indiscriminately
+all that occurred to him. Towards the morning he asked whether any one had
+any doubt about the Buddha, the law or the society; if so, he would clear
+them up. No one answered, and Ananda expressed his surprise that amongst so
+many none should doubt, and all be firmly attached to the law. But the
+Buddha laid stress on the final perseverance of the saints, saying that
+even the least among the disciples who had entered the first path only,
+still had his heart fixed on the way to perfection, and constantly strove
+after the three higher paths. "No doubt," he said, "can be found in the
+mind of a true disciple." After another pause he said: "Behold now,
+brethren, this is my exhortation to you. Decay is inherent in all component
+things. Work out, therefore, your emancipation with diligence!" These were
+the last words the Buddha spoke; shortly afterwards he became unconscious,
+and in that state passed away.
+
+AUTHORITIES ON THE LIFE OF THE BUDDHA.--Canonical Pali (reached their
+present shape before the 4th century B.C.); episodes only, three of them
+long: (1) _Birth_; text in _Majjhima Nikaya_, ed. Trenckner and Chalmers
+(London, Pali Text Society, 1888-1899), vol. iii. pp. 118-124; also in
+_Anguttara Nikaya_, ed. Morris and Hardy (Pali Text Society, 1888-1900),
+vol. ii. pp. 130-132. (2) _Adoration of the babe_; old ballad; text in
+_Sutta Nipata_, ed. Fausboell (Pali Text Society, 1884), pp. 128-131;
+translation by the same in _Sacred Books of the East_ (Oxford, 1881), vol.
+x. pp. 124-131. (3) _Youth at home_; text in _Anguttara Nikaya_, i. 145.
+(4) _The going forth_; old ballad; text in _Sutta Nipata_, pp. 70-74
+(London, 1896), pp. 99-101; prose account in _Digha Nikaya_, ed. Rhys
+Davids and Carpenter (Pali Text Society, 1890-1893), vol. i. p. 115,
+translated by Rhys Davids in _Dialogues of the Buddha_ (Oxford, 1899), pp.
+147-149. (5) _First long episode_; the going forth, years of study and
+penance, attainment of Nirvana and Buddhahood, and conversion of first five
+converts; text in _Majjhima_, all together at ii. 93; parts repeated at i.
+163-175, 240-249; ii. 212; _Vinaya_, ed. Oldenberg (London, 1879-1883),
+vol. i. pp. 1-13. (6) _Second long episode_; from the conversation of the
+five down to the end of the first year of the teaching; text in _Vinaya_,
+i. 13-44, translated by Oldenberg in _Vinaya Texts_, i. 73-151. (7) _Visit
+to Kapilavastu_; text in _Vinaya_, i. 82; translation by Oldenberg in
+_Vinaya Texts_ (Oxford, 1881-1885), vol. i. pp. 207-210. (8) _Third long
+episode_; the last days; text in _Digha Nikaya_ (the _Mahaparinibbana
+Suttanta_), vol. ii. pp. 72-168, translated by Rhys Davids _in Buddhist
+Suttas_ (Oxford, 1881), pp. 1-136. Buddhist Sanskrit Texts: (i) _Mahavastu_
+(probably 2nd century B.C.); edited by Senart (3 vols., Paris, 1882-1897),
+summary in French prefixed to each volume; down to the end of first year of
+the teaching. (2) _Lalita Vistara_ (probably 1st century B.C.); edited by
+Mitra (Calcutta, 1877); translated into French by Foucaux (Paris, 1884);
+down to the first sermon. (3) _Buddha Carita_, by Asvaghosha, probably 2nd
+century A.D. edited by Cowell (Oxford, 1892); translated by Cowell (Oxford,
+1894, S.B.E. vol. xlix.); an elegant poem; stops just before the attainment
+of Buddhahood. (These three works reproduce and amplify the above episodes
+Nos. 1-6; they retain here and there a very old tradition as to arrangement
+of clauses or turns of expression.) Later Pali: The commentary on the
+_Jataka_, written probably in the 5th century A.D., gives a consecutive
+narrative, from the birth to the end of the second year of the teaching,
+based on the canonical texts, but much altered and amplified; edited by
+Fausboell in _Jataka_, vol. i. (London, 1877), pp. 1-94; translated by Rhys
+Davids in _Buddhist Birth Stories_ (London, 1880), pp. 1-133. Modern Works:
+(i) Tibetan; _Life of the Buddha_; episodes collected and translated by W.
+Woodville Rockhill (London, 1884), from Tibetan texts of the 9th and 10th
+centuries A.D. (2) Sinhalese; episodes collected and translated by Spence
+Hardy from Sinhalese texts of the 12th and later centuries, in _Manual of
+Buddhism_ (London, 1897, 2nd edition), pp. 138-359. (3) Burmese: _The Life
+or Legend of Gaudama_ (3rd edition, London, 1880), by the Right Rev. P.
+Bigandet, translated from a Burmese work of A.D. 1773. (The Burmese is, in
+its turn, a translation from a Pali work of unknown date; it gives the
+whole life, and is the only consecutive biography we have.) (4) Kambojian:
+_Pathama Sambodhian_; translated into French by A. Leclere in _Livres
+sacres du Cambodge_ (Paris, 1906).
+
+(T. W. R. D.)
+
+[1] _Note on the Date of the Buddha._--The now generally accepted date of
+the Buddha is arrived at by adding together two numbers, one being the date
+of the accession of Asoka to the throne, the second being the length of the
+interval between that date and that of the death of the Buddha. The first
+figure, that of the date of Asoka, is arrived at by the mention in one of
+his edicts of certain Greek kings, as then living. The dates of these last
+are approximately known; and arguing from these dates the date of Asoka's
+accession has been fixed by various scholars (at dates varying only by a
+difference of five years more or less) at about 270 B.C. The second figure,
+the total interval between Asoka's accession and the Buddha's death, is
+given in the Ceylon Chronicles as 218 years. Adding these two together, the
+date of the Buddha's death would be 488 B.C., and, as he was eighty years
+old at the time of his death, the date of his birth would be 568 B.C. The
+dates for his death and birth accepted in Burma, Siam and Ceylon are about
+half a century earlier, namely, 543 and 623 B.C., the difference being in
+the date of Asoka's accession. It will be seen that the dates as adopted in
+Europe are approximate only, and liable to correction if better data are
+obtainable. The details of this chronological question are discussed at
+length in Professor Rhys Davids' _Ancient Coins and Measures of Ceylon_
+(London, 1877), where the previous discussions are referred to.
+
+[2] See report of _Rex_. v. _Neuhaus_, Clerkenwell Sessions, September 15,
+1906.
+
+[3] The various legends of Mara are the subject of an exhaustive critical
+analysis in Windsisch's _Mara and Buddha_ (Leipzig, 1895).
+
+[4] Bigandet, p. 49; and compare _Jataka_, p. 67, line 27.
+
+[5] _Vinaya Texts_, i. 97-99; cf. _Jataka_, vol. i. p. 82, lines 11-19.
+
+[6] _Samyutta_, i. 105.
+
+[7] Cf. Big. p. 99, with Hardy, _M.B._ p. 191. The Pali name is
+_aditta-pariyaya_: the sermon on the lessons to be drawn from burning. The
+text is _Vinaya_, i. 34 = _Samyutta_, iv. 19. A literal translation will be
+found in _Vinaya Texts_, i. 134, 135.
+
+[8] These were at first simple huts, built for the mendicants in some grove
+of palm-trees as a retreat during the rainy season; but they gradually
+increased in splendour and magnificence till the decay of Buddhism set in.
+See the authorities quoted in _Buddhist India_, pp. 141, 142.
+
+[9] The text of the account of this last journey is the _Mahaparinibbana
+Suttanta_, vol. ii. of the _Digha_ (ed. Rhys Davids and Carpenter) The
+translation is in Rhys Davids' _Buddhist Suttas_.
+
+BUDDHAGHOSA, a celebrated Buddhist writer. He was a Brahmin by birth and
+was born near the great Bodhi tree at Budh Gaya; in north India about A.D.
+390, his father's name being Kesi. His teacher, Revata, induced him to go
+to Ceylon, where the commentaries on the scriptures had been preserved in
+the Sinhalese language, with the object of translating them into Pali. He
+went accordingly to Anuradhapura, studied there under Sanghapala, and asked
+leave of the fraternity there to translate the commentaries. With their
+consent he then did so, having first shown his ability by writing the work
+_Visuddhi Magga_ (the Path of Purity, a kind of summary of Buddhist
+doctrine). When he had completed his many years' labours he returned to the
+neighbourhood of the Bodhi tree in north India. Before he came to Ceylon he
+had already written a book entitled _Nanodaya_ (the Rise of Knowledge), and
+had commenced a commentary on the principal psychological manual contained
+in the _Pitakas_. This latter work he afterwards rewrote in Ceylon, as the
+present text (now published by the Pali Text Society) shows. One volume of
+the _Sumangala Vilasini_ (a portion of the commentaries mentioned above)
+has been edited, and extracts from his comment on the Buddhist canon law.
+This last work has been discovered in a nearly contemporaneous Chinese
+translation (an edition in Pali is based on a comparison with that
+translation). The works here mentioned form, however, only a small portion
+of what Buddhaghosa wrote. His industry must have been prodigious. He is
+known to have written books that would fill about 20 octavo volumes of
+about 400 pages each; and there are other writings ascribed to him which
+may or may not be really his work. It is too early therefore to attempt a
+criticism of it. But it is already clear that, when made acceptable, it
+will be of the greatest value for the history of Indian literature and of
+Indian ideas. So much is uncertain at present in that history for want of
+definite dates that the voluminous writings of an author whose date is
+approximately certain will afford a standard by which the age of other
+writings can be tested. And as the original commentaries in Sinhalese are
+now lost his works are the only evidence we have of the traditions then
+handed down in the Buddhist community. The main source of our information
+about Buddhaghosa is the _Mahavamsa_, written in Anuradhapura about fifty
+years after he was working there. But there are numerous references to him
+in Pali books on Pali literature; and a Burmese author of unknown date, but
+possibly of the 15th century, has compiled a biography of him, the
+_Buddhaghos' Uppatti_, of little value and no critical judgment.
+
+See _Mahavamsa_, ch. xxxvii. (ed. Turnour, Colombo, 1837); "Gandhavaramsa,"
+p. 59, in _Journal of the Pali Text Society_ (1886); _Buddhghosuppatti_
+(text and translation, ed. by E. Gray, London, 1893); _Sumangala Vilasini_,
+edited by T. W. Rhys Davids and J. E. Carpenter, vol. i. (London, Pali Text
+Society, 1886). (T. W. R. D.)
+
+BUDDHISM, the religion held by the followers of the Buddha (_q.v._), and
+covering a large area in India and east and central Asia.
+
+_Essential Doctrines._--We are fortunate in having preserved for us the
+official report of the Buddha's discourse, in which he expounded what he
+considered the main features of his system to the five men he first tried
+to win over to his new-found faith. There is no reason to doubt its
+substantial accuracy, not as to words, but as to purport. In any case it is
+what the compilers of the oldest extant documents believed their teacher to
+have regarded as the most important points in his teaching. Such a summary
+must be better than any that could now be made. It is incorporated into two
+divisions of their sacred books, first among the _suttas_ containing the
+doctrine, and again in the rules of the society or order he founded
+(_Samyutta_, v. 421 = _Vinaya_, i. 10). The gist of it, omitting a few
+repetitions, is as follows:--
+
+    "There are two aims which he who has given up the world ought not to
+    follow after--devotion, on the one hand, to those things whose
+    attractions depend upon the passions, a low and pagan ideal, fit only
+    for the worldly-minded, ignoble, unprofitable, and the practice on the
+    other hand of asceticism, which is painful, ignoble, unprofitable.
+    There is a Middle Path discovered by the Tathagata[1]--a path which
+    opens the eyes, and bestows understanding, which leads to peace, to
+    insight, to the higher wisdom, to Nirvana. Verily! it is this Noble
+    Eightfold Path; that is to say, Right Views, Right Aspirations, Right
+    Speech, Right Conduct, Right Mode of Livelihood, Right Effort, Right
+    Mindfulness, and Right Rapture.
+
+    "Now this is the Noble Truth as to suffering. Birth is attended with
+    pain, decay is painful, disease is painful, death is painful. Union
+    with the unpleasant is painful, painful is separation from the
+    pleasant; and any craving unsatisfied, that too is painful. In brief,
+    the five aggregates of clinging (that is, the conditions of
+    individuality) are painful.
+
+    "Now this is the Noble Truth as to the origin of suffering. Verily! it
+    is the craving thirst that causes the renewal of becomings, that is
+    accompanied by sensual delights, and seeks satisfaction now here, now
+    there--that is to say, the craving for the gratification of the senses,
+    or the craving for a future life, or the craving for prosperity.
+
+    [v.04 p.0688] "Now this is the Noble Truth as to the passing away of
+    pain. Verily! it is the passing away so that no passion remains, the
+    giving up, the getting rid of, the being emancipated from, the
+    harbouring no longer of this craving thirst.
+
+    "Now this is the Noble Truth as to the way that leads to the passing
+    away of pain. Verily! it is this Noble Eightfold Path, that is to say,
+    Right Views, Right Aspirations, Right speech, conduct and mode of
+    livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness and Right Rapture."
+
+A few words follow as to the threefold way in which the speaker claimed to
+have grasped each of these Four Truths. That is all. There is not a word
+about God or the soul, not a word about the Buddha or Buddhism. It seems
+simple, almost jejune; so thin and weak that one wonders how it can have
+formed the foundation for a system so mighty in its historical results. But
+the simple words are pregnant with meaning. Their implications were clear
+enough to the hearers to whom they were addressed. They were not intended,
+however, to answer the questionings of a 20th-century European questioner,
+and are liable now to be misunderstood. Fortunately each word, each clause,
+each idea in the discourse is repeated, commented on, enlarged upon, almost
+_ad nauseam_, in the _suttas_, and a short comment in the light of those
+explanations may bring out the meaning that was meant.[2]
+
+The passing away of pain or suffering is said to depend on an emancipation.
+And the Buddha is elsewhere (_Vinaya_ ii. 239) made to declare: "Just as
+the great ocean has one taste only, the taste of salt, just so have this
+doctrine and discipline but one flavour only, the flavour of emancipation";
+and again, "When a brother has, by himself, known and realized, and
+continues to abide, here in this visible world, in that emancipation of
+mind, in that emancipation of heart, which is Arahatship; that is a
+condition higher still and sweeter still, for the sake of which the
+brethren lead the religious life under me."[3] The emancipation is found in
+a habit of mind, in the being free from a specified sort of craving that is
+said to be the origin of certain specified sorts of pain. In some European
+books this is completely spoiled by being represented as the doctrine that
+existence is misery, and that desire is to be suppressed. Nothing of the
+kind is said in the text. The description of suffering or pain is, in fact,
+a string of truisms, quite plain and indisputable until the last clause.
+That clause declares that the _Upadana Skandhas_, the five groups of the
+constituent parts of every individual, involve pain. Put into modern
+language this is that the conditions necessary to make an individual are
+also the conditions that necessarily give rise to sorrow. No sooner has an
+individual become separate, become an individual, than disease and decay
+begin to act upon it. Individuality involves limitation, limitation in its
+turn involves ignorance, and ignorance is the source of sorrow. Union with
+the unpleasant, separation from the pleasant, unsatisfied craving, are each
+a result of individuality. This is a deeper generalization than that which
+says, "A man is born to trouble as the sparks fly upward." But it is put
+forward as a mere statement of fact. And the previous history of religious
+belief in India would tend to show that emphasis was laid on the fact, less
+as an explanation of the origin of evil, than as a protest against a then
+current pessimistic idea that salvation could not be reached on earth, and
+must therefore be sought for in a rebirth in heaven, in the _Brahmaloka_.
+For if the fact--the fact that the conditions of individuality are the
+conditions, also, of pain--were admitted, then the individual there would
+still not have escaped from sorrow. If the five ascetics to whom the words
+were addressed once admitted this implication, logic would drive them also
+to admit all that followed.
+
+The threefold division of craving at the end of the second truth might be
+rendered "the lust of the flesh, the lust of life and the love of this
+present world." The two last are said elsewhere to be directed against two
+sets of thinkers called the Eternalists and the Annihilationists, who held
+respectively the everlasting-life-heresy and the
+let-us-eat-and-drink-for-tomorrow-we-die-heresy.[4] This may be so, but in
+any case the division of craving would have appealed to the five hearers as
+correct.
+
+The word translated "noble" in Noble Path, Noble Truth, is _ariya_, which
+also means Aryan.[5] The negative, un-Aryan, is used of each of the two low
+aims. It is possible that this rendering should have been introduced into
+the translation; but the ethical meaning, though still associated with the
+tribal meaning, had probably already become predominant in the language of
+the time.
+
+The details of the Path include several terms whose meaning and implication
+are by no means apparent at first sight. Right Views, for instance, means
+mainly right views as to the Four Truths and the Three Signs. Of the
+latter, one is identical, or nearly so, with the First Truth. The others
+are Impermanence and Non-soul (the absence of a soul)--both declared to be
+"signs" of every individual, whether god, animal or man. Of these two again
+the Impermanence has become an Indian rather than a Buddhist idea, and we
+are to a certain extent familiar with it also in the West. There is no
+Being, there is only a Becoming. The state of every individual is unstable,
+temporary, sure to pass away. Even in the lowest class of things, we find,
+in each individual, form and material qualities. In the higher classes
+there is a continually rising series of mental qualities also. It is the
+union of these that makes the individual. Every person, or thing, or god,
+is therefore a putting together, a compound; and in each individual,
+without any exception, the relation of its component parts is ever
+changing, is never the same for two consecutive moments. It follows that no
+sooner has separateness, individuality, begun, than dissolution,
+disintegration, also begins. There can be no individuality without a
+putting together: there can be no putting together without a becoming:
+there can be no becoming without a becoming different: and there can be no
+becoming different without a dissolution, a passing away, which sooner or
+later will inevitably be complete.
+
+Heracleitus, who was a generation or two later than the Buddha, had very
+similar ideas;[6] and similar ideas are found in post-Buddhistic Indian
+works.[7] But in neither case are they worked out in the same
+uncompromising way. Both in Europe, and in all Indian thought except the
+Buddhist, souls, and the gods who are made in imitation of souls, are
+considered as exceptions. To these spirits is attributed a Being without
+Becoming, an individuality without change, a beginning without an end. To
+hold any such view would, according to the doctrine of the Noble (or Aryan)
+Path, be erroneous, and the error would block the way against the very
+entrance on the Path.
+
+So important is this position in Buddhism that it is put in the forefront
+of Buddhist expositions of Buddhism. The Buddha himself is stated in the
+books to have devoted to it the very first discourse he addressed to the
+first converts.[8] The first in the collection of the _Dialogues of Gotama_
+discusses, and completely, categorically, and systematically rejects, all
+the current theories about "souls." Later books follow these precedents.
+Thus the _Katha Vatthu_, the latest book included in the canon, discusses
+points of disagreement that had arisen in the community. It places this
+question of "soul" at the head of all the points it deals with, and devotes
+to it an amount of space quite overshadowing all the rest.[9] So also in
+the earliest Buddhist book later than the canon--the very interesting and
+suggestive series of conversations between the Greek king Menander and the
+Buddhist teacher Nagasena. It is precisely this question of the "soul" that
+the unknown author takes up first, describing how Nagasena convinces the
+king that there is no such thing as the [v.04 p.0689] "soul" in the
+ordinary sense, and he returns to the subject again and again.[10]
+
+After Right Views come Right Aspirations. It is evil desires, low ideals,
+useless cravings, idle excitements, that are to be suppressed by the
+cultivation of the opposite--of right desires, lofty aspirations. In one of
+the Dialogues[11] instances are given--the desire for emancipation from
+sensuality, aspirations towards the attainment of love to others, the wish
+not to injure any living thing, the desire for the eradication of wrong and
+for the promotion of right dispositions in one's own heart, and so on. This
+portion of the Path is indeed quite simple, and would require no commentary
+were it not for the still constantly repeated blunder that Buddhism teaches
+the suppression of all desire.
+
+Of the remaining stages of the Path it is only necessary to mention two.
+The one is Right Effort. A constant intellectual alertness is required.
+This is not only insisted upon elsewhere in countless passages, but of the
+three cardinal sins in Buddhism (_raga_, _dosa_, _moha_) the last and worst
+is stupidity or dullness, the others being sensuality and ill-will. Right
+Effort is closely connected with the seventh stage, Right Mindfulness. Two
+of the dialogues are devoted to this subject, and it is constantly referred
+to elsewhere.[12] The disciple, whatsoever he does--whether going forth or
+coming back, standing or walking, speaking or silent, eating or
+drinking--is to keep clearly in mind all that it means, the temporary
+character of the act, its ethical significance, and above all that behind
+the act there is no actor (goer, seer, eater, speaker) that is an eternally
+persistent unity. It is the Buddhist analogue to the Christian precept:
+"Whether therefore ye eat or drink, or whatsoever ye do, do all to the
+glory of God."
+
+Under the head of Right Conduct the two most important points are Love and
+Joy. Love is in Pali _Metta_, and the _Metta Sutta_[13] says (no doubt with
+reference to the Right Mindfulness just described): "As a mother, even at
+the risk of her own life, protects her son, her only son, so let him
+cultivate love without measure towards all beings. Let him cultivate
+towards the whole world--above, below, around--a heart of love unstinted,
+unmixed with the sense of differing or opposing interests. Let a man
+maintain this mindfulness all the while he is awake, whether he be
+standing, walking, sitting or lying down. This state of heart is the best
+in the world."
+
+Often elsewhere four such states are described, the Brahma Viharas or
+Sublime Conditions. They are Love, Sorrow at the sorrows of others, Joy in
+the joys of others, and Equanimity as regards one's own joys and
+sorrows.[14] Each of these feelings was to be deliberately practised,
+beginning with a single object, and gradually increasing till the whole
+world was suffused with the feeling. "Our mind shall not waver. No evil
+speech will we utter. Tender and compassionate will we abide, loving in
+heart, void of malice within. And we will be ever suffusing such a one with
+the rays of our loving thought. And with that feeling as a basis we will
+ever be suffusing the whole wide world with thought of love far-reaching,
+grown great, beyond measure, void of anger or ill-will."[15]
+
+The relative importance of love, as compared with other habits, is thus
+described. "All the means that can be used as bases for doing right are not
+worth the sixteenth part of the emancipation of the heart through love.
+That takes all those up into itself, outshining them in radiance and glory.
+Just as whatsoever stars there be, their radiance avails not the sixteenth
+part of the radiance of the moon. That takes all those up into itself,
+outshining them in radiance and glory--just as in the last month of the
+rains, at harvest time, the sun, mounting up on high into the clear and
+cloudless sky, overwhelms all darkness in the realms of space, and shines
+forth in radiance and glory--just as in the night, when the dawn is
+breaking, the morning star shines out in radiance and glory--just so all
+the means that can be used as helps towards doing right avail not the
+sixteenth part of the emancipation of the heart through love."[16]
+
+The above is the positive side; the qualities (_dhamma_) that have to be
+acquired. The negative side, the qualities that have to be suppressed by
+the cultivation of the opposite virtues, are the Ten Bonds (_Samyojanas_),
+the Four Intoxications (_Asava_) and the Five Hindrances (_Nivaranas_).
+
+The Ten Bonds are: (1) Delusion about the soul; (2) Doubt; (3) Dependence
+on good works; (4) Sensuality; (5) Hatred, ill-feeling; (6) Love of life on
+earth; (7) Desire for life in heaven; (8) Pride; (9) Self-righteousness;
+(10) Ignorance. The Four Intoxications are the mental intoxication arising
+respectively from (1) Bodily passions, (2) Becoming, (3) Delusion, (4)
+Ignorance. The Five Hindrances are (1) Hankering after worldly advantages,
+(2) The corruption arising out of the wish to injure, (3) Torpor of mind,
+(4) Fretfulness and worry, (5) Wavering of mind.[17] "When these five
+hindrances have been cut away from within him, he looks upon himself as
+freed from debt, rid of disease, out of jail, a free man and secure. And
+gladness springs up within him on his realizing that, and joy arises to him
+thus gladdened, and so rejoicing all his frame becomes at ease, and being
+thus at ease he is filled with a sense of peace, and in that peace his
+heart is stayed."[18]
+
+To have realized the Truths, and traversed the Path; to have broken the
+Bonds, put an end to the Intoxications, and got rid of the Hindrances, is
+to have attained the ideal, the Fruit, as it is called, of Arahatship. One
+might fill columns with the praises, many of them among the most beautiful
+passages in Pali poetry and prose, lavished on this condition of mind, the
+state of the man made perfect according to the Buddhist faith. Many are the
+pet names, the poetic epithets bestowed upon it--the harbour of refuge, the
+cool cave, the island amidst the floods, the place of bliss, emancipation,
+liberation, safety, the supreme, the transcendent, the uncreated, the
+tranquil, the home of peace, the calm, the end of suffering, the medicine
+for all evil, the unshaken, the ambrosia, the immaterial, the imperishable,
+the abiding, the farther shore, the unending, the bliss of effort, the
+supreme joy, the ineffable, the detachment, the holy city, and many others.
+Perhaps the most frequent in the Buddhist text is Arahatship, "the state of
+him who is worthy"; and the one exclusively used in Europe is Nirvana, the
+"dying out"; that is, the dying out in the heart of the fell fire of the
+three cardinal sins--sensuality, ill-will and stupidity.[19]
+
+The choice of this term by European writers, a choice made long before any
+of the Buddhist canonical texts had been published or translated, has had a
+most unfortunate result. Those writers did not share, could not be expected
+to share, the exuberant optimism of the early Buddhists. Themselves giving
+up this world as hopeless, and looking for salvation in the next, they
+naturally thought the Buddhists must do the same, and in the absence of any
+authentic scriptures, to correct the mistake, they interpreted Nirvana, in
+terms of their own belief, as a state to be reached after death. As such
+they supposed the "dying out" must mean the dying out of a "soul"; and
+endless were the discussions as to whether this meant eternal trance, or
+absolute annihilation, of the "soul." It is now thirty years since the
+right interpretation, founded on the canonical texts, has been given, but
+outside the ranks of Pali scholars the old blunder is still often repeated.
+It should be added that the belief in salvation in this world, in this
+life, has appealed so strongly to Indian sympathies that from the time of
+the rise of Buddhism down to the present day it has been adopted as a part
+of general Indian belief, and _Jivanmukti_, salvation during this life, has
+become a commonplace in the religious language of India.
+
+_Adopted Doctrines._--The above are the essential doctrines of [v.04
+p.0690] the original Buddhism. They are at the same time its distinctive
+doctrines; that is to say, the doctrines that distinguish it from all
+previous teaching in India. But the Buddha, while rejecting the sacrifices
+and the ritualistic magic of the brahmin schools, the animistic
+superstitions of the people, the asceticism and soul-theory of the Jains,
+and the pantheistic speculations of the poets of the pre-Buddhistic
+_Upanishads_, still retained the belief in transmigration. This belief--the
+transmigration of the soul, after the death of the body, into other bodies,
+either of men, beasts or gods--is part of the animistic creed so widely
+found throughout the world that it was probably universal. In India it had
+already, before the rise of Buddhism, been raised into an ethical
+conception by the associated doctrine of _Karma_, according to which a
+man's social position in life and his physical advantages, or the reverse,
+were the result of his actions in a previous birth. The doctrine thus
+afforded an explanation, quite complete to those who believed it, of the
+apparent anomalies and wrongs in the distribution here of happiness or woe.
+A man, for instance, is blind. This is owing to his lust of the eye in a
+previous birth. But he has also unusual powers of hearing. This is because
+he loved, in a previous birth, to listen to the preaching of the law. The
+explanation could always be exact, for it was scarcely more than a
+repetition of the point to be explained. It fits the facts because it is
+derived from them. And it cannot be disproved, for it lies in a sphere
+beyond the reach of human inquiry.
+
+It was because it thus provided a moral cause that it was retained in
+Buddhism. But as the Buddha did not acknowledge a soul, the link of
+connexion between one life and the next had to be found somewhere else. The
+Buddha found it (as Plato also found it)[20] in the influence exercised
+upon one life by a desire felt in the previous life. When two thinkers of
+such eminence (probably the two greatest ethical thinkers of antiquity)
+have arrived independently at this strange conclusion, have agreed in
+ascribing to cravings, felt in this life, so great, and to us so
+inconceivable, a power over the future life, we may well hesitate before we
+condemn the idea as intrinsically absurd, and we may take note of the
+important fact that, given similar conditions, similar stages in the
+development of religious belief, men's thoughts, even in spite of the most
+unquestioned individual originality, tend though they may never produce
+exactly the same results, to work in similar ways.
+
+In India, before Buddhism, conflicting and contradictory views prevailed as
+to the precise mode of action of _Karma_; and we find this confusion
+reflected in Buddhist theory. The prevailing views are tacked on, as it
+were, to the essential doctrines of Buddhism, without being thoroughly
+assimilated to them, or logically incorporated with them. Thus in the story
+of the good layman Citta, it is an aspiration expressed on the
+deathbed;[21] in the dialogue on the subject, it is a thought dwelt on
+during life,[22] in the numerous stories in the _Peta_ and _Vimana Vatthus_
+it is usually some isolated act, in the discussions in the _Dhamma Sangani_
+it is some mental disposition, which is the _Karma_ (doing or action) in
+the one life determining the position of the individual in the next. These
+are really conflicting propositions. They are only alike in the fact that
+in each case a moral cause is given for the position in which the
+individual finds himself now; and the moral cause is his own act.
+
+In the popular belief, followed also in the brahmin theology, the bridge
+between the two lives was a minute and subtle entity called the soul, which
+left the one body at death, through a hole at the top of the head, and
+entered into the new body. The new body happened to be there, ready, with
+no soul in it. The soul did not make the body. In the Buddhist adaptation
+of this theory no soul, no consciousness, no memory, goes over from one
+body to the other. It is the grasping, the craving, still existing at the
+death of the one body that causes the new set of _Skandhas_, that is, the
+new body with its mental tendencies and capacities, to arise. How this
+takes place is nowhere explained.
+
+The Indian theory of _Karma_ has been worked out with many points of great
+beauty and ethical value. And the Buddhist adaptation of it, avoiding some
+of the difficulties common to it and to the allied European theories of
+fate and predestination, tries to explain the weight of the universe in its
+action on the individual, the heavy hand of the immeasurable past we cannot
+escape, the close connexion between all forms of life, and the mysteries of
+inherited character. Incidentally it held out the hope, to those who
+believed in it, of a mode of escape from the miseries of transmigration.
+For as the Arahat had conquered the cravings that were supposed to produce
+the new body, his actions were no longer _Karma_, but only _Kiriya_, that
+led to no rebirth.[23]
+
+Another point of Buddhist teaching adopted from previous belief was the
+practice of ecstatic meditation. In the very earliest times of the most
+remote animism we find the belief that a person, rapt from all sense of the
+outside world, possessed by a spirit, acquired from that state a degree of
+sanctity, was supposed to have a degree of insight, denied to ordinary
+mortals. In India from the soma frenzy in the _Vedas_, through the mystic
+reveries of the _Upanishads_, and the hypnotic trances of the ancient Yoga,
+allied beliefs and practices had never lost their importance and their
+charm. It is clear from the _Dialogues_, and other of the most ancient
+Buddhist records,[24] that the belief was in full force when Buddhism
+arose, and that the practice was followed by the Buddha's teachers. It was
+quite impossible for him to ignore the question; and the practice was
+admitted as a part of the training of the Buddhist Bhikshu. But it was not
+the highest or the most important part, and might be omitted altogether.
+The states of Rapture are called Conditions of Bliss, and they are regarded
+as useful for the help they give towards the removal of the mental
+obstacles to the attainment of Arahatship.[25] Of the thirty-seven
+constituent parts of Arahatship they enter into one group of four. To seek
+for Arahatship in the practice of the ecstasy alone is considered a deadly
+heresy.[26] So these practices are both pleasant in themselves, and useful
+as one of the means to the end proposed. But they are not the end, and the
+end can be reached without them. The most ancient form these exercises took
+is recorded in the often recurring paragraphs translated in Rhys Davids'
+_Dialogues of the Buddha_ (i. 84-92). More modern, and much more elaborate,
+forms are given in the _Yogavacaras Manual of Indian Mysticism as practised
+by Buddhists_, edited by Rhys Davids from a unique MS. for the Pali Text
+Society in 1896. In the Introduction to this last work the various phases
+of the question are discussed at length.
+
+_Buddhist Texts. The Canonical Books._--It is necessary to remember that
+the Buddha, like other Indian teachers of his period, taught by
+conversation only. A highly-educated man (according to the education
+current at the time), speaking constantly to men of similar education, he
+followed the literary habit of his day by embodying his doctrines in set
+phrases (_sutras_), on which he enlarged, on different occasions, in
+different ways. Writing was then widely known. But the lack of suitable
+writing materials made any lengthy books impossible. Such sutras were
+therefore the recognized form of preserving and communicating opinion. They
+were catchwords, as it were, _memoria technica_, which could easily be
+remembered, and would recall the fuller expositions that had been based
+upon them. Shortly after the Buddha's time the Brahmins had their sutras in
+Sanskrit, already a dead language. He purposely put his into the ordinary
+conversational idiom of the day, that is to say, into Pali. When the Buddha
+died these sayings were collected together by his disciples into what they
+call the Four Nikayas, or "collections." These cannot have reached their
+final form till about fifty or sixty years afterwards. Other sayings and
+verses, most of them ascribed, not to the Buddha, but to the disciples
+themselves, were put into a supplementary Nikaya. We know [v.04 p.0691] of
+slight additions made to this Nikaya as late as the time of Asoka, 3rd
+century B.C. And the developed doctrine, found in certain portions of it,
+shows that these are later than the four old Nikayas. For a generation or
+two the books so put together were handed down by memory, though probably
+written memoranda were also used. And they were doubtless accompanied from
+the first, as they were being taught, by a running commentary. About one
+hundred years after the Buddha's death there was a schism in the community.
+Each of the two schools kept an arrangement of the canon--still in Pali, or
+some allied dialect. Sanskrit was not used for any Buddhist works till long
+afterwards, and never used at all, so far as is known, for the canonical
+books. Each of these two schools broke up in the following centuries, into
+others. Several of them had their different arrangements of the canonical
+books, differing also in minor details. These books remained the only
+authorities for about five centuries, but they all, except only our extant
+Pali Nikayas, have been lost in India. These then are our authorities for
+the earliest period of Buddhism. Now what are these books?
+
+We talk necessarily of Pali _books_. They are not books in the modern
+sense. They are memorial sentences or verses intended to be learnt by
+heart. And the whole style and method of arrangement is entirely
+subordinated to this primary necessity. Each sutra (Pali, _sutta_) is very
+short; usually occupying only a page, or perhaps two, and containing a
+single proposition. When several of these, almost always those that contain
+propositions of a similar kind, are collected together in the framework of
+one dialogue, it is called a _sullanta_. The usual length of such a
+suttanta is about a dozen pages; only a few of them are longer, and a
+collection of such suttantas might be called a book. But it is as yet
+neither narrative nor essay. It is at most a string of passages, drawn up
+in similar form to assist the memory, and intended, not to be read, but to
+be learnt by heart. The first of the four Nikayas is a collection of the
+longest of these suttantas, and it is called accordingly the _Digha
+Nikaya_, that is "the Collection of Long Ones" (_sci._ Suttantas). The next
+is the _Majjhima Nikaya_, the "Collection of the suttantas of Medium
+Length"--medium, that is, as being shorter than the suttantas in the Digha,
+and longer than the ordinary suttas preserved in the two following
+collections. Between them these first two collections contain 186
+dialogues, in which the Buddha, or in a few cases one of his leading
+disciples, is represented as engaged in conversation on some one of the
+religious, or philosophic, or ethical points in that system which we now
+call Buddhism. In depth of philosophic insight, in the method of Socratic
+questioning often adopted, in the earnest and elevated tone of the whole,
+in the evidence they afford of the most cultured thought of the day, these
+dialogues constantly remind the reader of the dialogues of Plato. But not
+in style. They have indeed a style of their own; always dignified, and
+occasionally rising into eloquence. But for the reasons already given, it
+is entirely different from the style of Western writings which are always
+intended to be read. Historical scholars will, however, revere this
+collection of dialogues as one of the most priceless of the treasures of
+antiquity still preserved to us. It is to it, above all, that we shall
+always have to go for our knowledge of the most ancient Buddhism. Of the
+186, 175 had by 1907 been edited for the Pali Text Society, and the
+remainder were either in the press or in preparation.
+
+A disadvantage of the arrangement in dialogues, more especially as they
+follow one another according to length and not according to subject, is
+that it is not easy to find the statement of doctrine on any particular
+point which is interesting one at the moment. It is very likely just this
+consideration which led to the compilation of the two following Nikayas. In
+the first of these, called the _Anguttara Nikaya_, all those points of
+Buddhist doctrine capable of expression in classes are set out in order.
+This practically includes most of the psychology and ethics of Buddhism.
+For it is a distinguishing mark of the dialogues themselves that the
+results arrived at are arranged in carefully systematized groups. We are
+familiar enough in the West with similar classifications, summed up in such
+expressions as the Seven Deadly Sins, the Ten Commandments, the Thirty-nine
+Articles, the Four Cardinal Virtues, the Seven Sacraments and a host of
+others. These numbered lists (it is true) are going out of fashion. The aid
+which they afford to memory is no longer required in an age in which books
+of reference abound. It was precisely as a help to memory that they were
+found so useful in the early Buddhist times, when the books were all learnt
+by heart, and had never as yet been written. And in the Anguttara we find
+set out in order first of all the units, then all the pairs, then all the
+trios, and so on. It is the longest book in the Buddhist Bible, and fills
+1840 pages 8vo. The whole of the Pali text has been published by the Pali
+Text Society, but only portions have been translated into English. The
+next, and last, of these four collections contains again the whole, or
+nearly the whole, of the Buddhist doctrine; but arranged this time in order
+of subjects. It consists of 55 _Samyuttas_ or groups. In each of these the
+suttas on the same subject, or in one or two cases the suttas addressed to
+the same sort of people, are grouped together. The whole of it has been
+published in five volumes by the Pali Text Society. Only a few fragments
+have been translated.
+
+Many hundreds of the short suttas and verses in these two collections are
+found, word for word, in the dialogues. And there are numerous instances of
+the introductory story stating how, and when, and to whom the sutta was
+enunciated--a sort of narrative framework in which the sutta is
+set--recurring also. This is very suggestive as to the way in which the
+earliest Buddhist records were gradually built up. The suttas came first
+embodying, in set phrases, the doctrine that had to be handed down. Those
+episodes, found in two or three different places, and always embodying
+several suttas, came next. Then several of these were woven together to
+form a suttanta. And finally the suttantas were grouped together into the
+two Nikayas, and the suttas and episodes separately into the two others.
+Parallel with this evolution, so to say, of the suttas, the short
+statements of doctrine, in prose, ran the treatment of the verses. There
+was a great love of poetry in the communities in which Buddhism arose.
+Verses were helpful to the memory. And they were adopted not only for this
+reason. The adherents of the new view of life found pleasure in putting
+into appropriate verse the feelings of enthusiasm and of ecstasy which the
+reforming doctrines inspired. When particularly happy in literary finish,
+or peculiarly rich in religious feeling, such verses were not lost. These
+were handed on, from mouth to mouth, in the small companies of the brethren
+or sisters. The oldest verses are all lyrics, expressions either of
+emotion, or of some deep saying, some pregnant thought. Very few of them
+have been preserved alone. And even then they are so difficult to
+understand, so much like puzzles, that they were probably accompanied from
+the first by a sort of comment in prose, stating when, and why, and by whom
+they were supposed to have been uttered. As a general rule such a framework
+in prose is actually preserved in the old Buddhist literature. It is only
+in the very latest books included in the canon that the narrative part is
+also regularly in verse, so that a whole work consists of a collection of
+ballads. The last step, that of combining such ballads into one long epic
+poem, was not taken till after the canon was closed. The whole process,
+from the simple anecdote in mixed prose and verse, the so-called _akhyana_,
+to the complete epic, comes out with striking clearness in the history of
+the Buddhist canon. It is typical, one may notice in passing, of the
+evolution of the epic elsewhere; in Iceland, for instance, in Persia and in
+Greece. And we may safely draw the conclusion that if the great Indian
+epics, the Maha-bharata and the Ramayana, had been in existence when the
+formation of the Buddhist canon began, the course of its development would
+have been very different from what it was.
+
+As will easily be understood, the same reasons which led to literary
+activity of this kind, in the earliest period, continued to hold good
+afterwards. A number of such efforts, after the Nikayas had been closed,
+were included in a supplementary Nikaya called the _Khuddaka Nikaya_. It
+will throw very useful light upon the intellectual level in the Buddhist
+community just [v.04 p.0692] after the earliest period, and upon literary
+life in the valley of the Ganges in the 4th or 5th century B.C., if we
+briefly explain what the tractates in this collection contain. The first,
+the _Khuddaka Patha_, is a little tract of only a few pages. After a
+profession of faith in the Buddha, the doctrine and the order, there
+follows a paragraph setting out the thirty-four constituents of the human
+body--bones, blood, nerves and so on--strangely incongruous with what
+follows. For that is simply a few of the most beautiful poems to be found
+in the Buddhist scriptures. There is no apparent reason, except their
+exquisite versification, why these particular pieces should have been here
+brought together. It is most probable that this tiny volume was simply a
+sort of first lesson book for young neophytes when they joined the order.
+In any case that is one of the uses to which it is put at present. The text
+book is the _Dhammapada_. Here are brought together from ten to twenty
+stanzas on each of twenty-six selected points of Buddhist self-training or
+ethics. There are altogether 423 verses, gathered from various older
+sources, and strung together without any other internal connexion than that
+they relate more or less to the same subject. And the collector has not
+thought it necessary to choose stanzas written in the same metre, or in the
+same number of lines. We know that the early Christians were accustomed to
+sing hymns, both in their homes and on the occasions of their meeting
+together. These hymns are now irretrievably lost. Had some one made a
+collection of about twenty isolated stanzas, chosen from these hymns, on
+each of about twenty subjects--such as Faith, Hope, Love, the Converted
+Man, Times of Trouble, Quiet Days, the Saviour, the Tree of Life, the Sweet
+Name, the Dove, the King, the Land of Peace, the Joy Unspeakable--we should
+have a Christian Dhammapada, and very precious such a collection would be.
+The Buddhist Dhammapada has been edited by Professor Fausboell (2nd ed.,
+1900), and has been frequently translated. Where the verses deal with those
+ideas that are common to Christians and Buddhists, the versions are easily
+intelligible, and some of the stanzas appeal very strongly to the Western
+sense of religious beauty. Where the stanzas are full of the technical
+terms of the Buddhist system of self-culture and self-control, it is often
+impossible, without expansions that spoil the poetry, or learned notes that
+distract the attention, to convey the full sense of the original. In all
+these distinctively Buddhist verses the existing translations (of which
+Professor Max Mueller's is the best known, and Dr Karl Neumann's the best)
+are inadequate and sometimes quite erroneous. The connexion in which they
+were spoken is often apparent in the more ancient books from which these
+verses have been taken, and has been preserved in the commentary on the
+work itself.
+
+In the next little work the framework, the whole paraphernalia of the
+ancient akhyana, is included in the work itself, which is called _Udana_,
+or "ecstatic utterances." The Buddha is represented, on various occasions
+during his long career, to have been so much moved by some event, or
+speech, or action, that he gave vent, as it were, to his pent-up feelings
+in a short, ecstatic utterance, couched, for the most part, in one or two
+lines of poetry. These outbursts, very terse and enigmatic, are charged
+with religious emotion, and turn often on some subtle point of Arahatship,
+that is, of the Buddhist ideal of life. The original text has been
+published by the Pali Text Society. The little book, a garland of fifty of
+these gems, has been translated by General Strong. The next work is called
+the _Iti Vuttaka_. This contains 120 short passages, each of them leading
+up to a terse deep saying of the Buddha's, and introduced, in each case,
+with the words _Iti vuttam Bhagavala_--"thus was it spoken by the Exalted
+One." These anecdotes may or may not be historically accurate. It is quite
+possible that the memory of the early disciples, highly trained as it was,
+enabled them to preserve a substantially true record of some of these
+speeches, and of the circumstances in which they were uttered. Some or all
+of them may also have been invented. In either case they are excellent
+evidence of the sort of questions on which discussions among the earliest
+Buddhists must have turned. These ecstatic utterances and deep sayings are
+attributed to the Buddha himself, and accompanied by the prose framework.
+There has also been preserved a collection of stanzas ascribed to his
+leading followers. Of these 107 are brethren, and 73 sisters, in the order.
+The prose framework is in this case preserved only in the commentary, which
+also gives biographies of the authors. This work is called the
+_Thera-theri-gatha_.
+
+Another interesting collection is the _Jataka_ book, a set of verses
+supposed to have been uttered by the Buddha in some of his previous births.
+These are really 550 of the folk-tales current in India when the canon was
+being formed, the only thing Buddhist about them being that the Buddha, in
+a previous birth, is identified in each case with the hero in the little
+story. Here again the prose is preserved only in the commentary. And it is
+a most fortunate chance that this--the oldest, the most complete, and the
+most authentic collection of folklore extant--has thus been preserved
+intact to the present day. Many of these stories and fables have wandered
+to Europe, and are found in medieval homilies, poems and story-books. A
+full account of this curious migration will be found in the introduction to
+the present writer's _Buddhist Birth Stories_. A translation of the whole
+book is now published, under the editorship of Professor Cowell, at the
+Cambridge University Press. The last of these poetical works which it is
+necessary to mention is the _Sutta Nipata_, containing fifty-five poems,
+all except the last merely short lyrics, many of great beauty. A very
+ancient commentary on the bulk of these poems has been included in the
+canon as a separate work. The poems themselves have been translated by
+Professor Fausboell in the _Sacred Books of the East_. The above works are
+our authority for the philosophy and ethics of the earliest Buddhists. We
+have also a complete statement of the rules of the order in the _Vinaya_,
+edited, in five volumes, by Professor Oldenberg. Three volumes of
+translations of these rules, by him and by the present writer, have also
+appeared in the _Sacred Books of the East_.
+
+There have also been added to the canonical books seven works on
+_Abhidhamma_, a more elaborate and more classified exposition of the Dhamma
+or doctrine as set out in the _Nikayas_. All these works are later. Only
+one of them has been translated, the so-called Dhamma Sangani. The
+introduction to this translation, published under the title of _Buddhist
+Psychology_, contains the fullest account that has yet appeared of the
+psychological conceptions on which Buddhist ethics are throughout based.
+The translator, Mrs Caroline Rhys Davids, estimates the date of this
+ancient manual for Buddhist students as the 4th century B.C.
+
+_Later Works._--So far the canon, almost all of which is now accessible to
+readers of Pali. But a good deal of work is still required before the
+harvest of historical data contained in these texts shall have been made
+acceptable to students of philosophy and sociology. These works of the
+oldest period, the two centuries and a half, between the Buddha's time and
+that of Asoka, were followed by a voluminous literature in the following
+Periods--from Asoka to Kanishka, and from Kanishka to Buddhaghosa,--each of
+about three centuries. Many of these works are extant in MS.; but only five
+or six of the more important Have so far been published. Of these the most
+interesting is the Milinda, one of the earliest historical novels preserved
+to us. It is mainly religious and philosophical and purports to give the
+discussion, extending over several days, in which a Buddhist elder named
+Nagasena succeeds in converting Milinda, that is Menander, the famous Greek
+king of Bactria, to Buddhism. The Pali text has been edited and the work
+translated into English. More important historically, though greatly
+inferior in style and ability, is the Mahavastu or Sublime Story, in
+Sanskrit. The story is the one of chief importance to the Buddhists--the
+story, namely, of how the Buddha won, under the Bo Tree, the victory over
+ignorance, and attained to the Sambodhi, "the higher Wisdom," of Nirvana.
+The story begins with his previous births, in which also he was
+accumulating the Buddha qualities. And as the Mahavastu was a standard work
+of a particular sect, or rather school, called the Maha-sanghikas, it has
+thus preserved for us the theory of the Buddha as held outside the
+followers of the cannon, by those whose views developed, in after
+centuries, into the Mahayana or modern form of Buddhism in India. But this
+book, like all the ancient books, was composed, not in the north, in Nepal,
+but in the valley of the Ganges, and it is partly [v.04 p.0693] in prose,
+partly in verse. Two other works, the _Lalita Vistara_ and the _Buddha
+Carita_, give us--but this, of course, is later--Sanskrit poems, epics, on
+the same subject. Of these, the former may be as old as the Christian era;
+the latter belongs to the 2nd century after Christ. Both of them have been
+edited and translated. The older one contains still a good deal of prose,
+the gist of it being often repeated in the verses. The later one is
+entirely in verse, and shows off the author's mastery of the artificial
+rules of prosody and poetics, according to which a poem, a maha-kavya,
+ought, according to the later writers on the _Ars poetica_, to be composed.
+
+These three works deal only quite briefly and incidentally with any point
+of Buddhism outside of the Buddha legend. Of greater importance for the
+history of Buddhism are two later works, the _Netti Pakarana_ and the
+_Saddharma Pundarika_. The former, in Pali, discusses a number of questions
+then of importance in the Buddhist community; and it relies throughout, as
+does the Milinda, on the canonical works, which it quotes largely. The
+latter, in Sanskrit, is the earliest exposition we have of the later
+Mahayana doctrine. Both these books may be dated in the 2nd or 3rd century
+of our era. The latter has been translated into English. We have now also
+the text of the _Prajna Paramita_, a later treatise on the Mahayana system,
+which in time entirely replaced in India the original doctrines. To about
+the same age belongs also the _Divyavadana_, a collection of legends about
+the leading disciples of the Buddha, and important members of the order,
+through the subsequent three centuries. These legends are, however, of
+different dates, and in spite of the comparatively late period at which it
+was put into its present form, it contains some very ancient fragments.
+
+The whole of the above works were composed in the north of India; that is
+to say, either north or a few miles south of the Ganges. The record is at
+present full of gaps. But we can even now obtain a full and accurate idea
+of the earliest Buddhism, and are able to trace the main lines of its
+development through the first eight or nine centuries of its career. The
+Pali Text Society is still publishing two volumes a year; and the Russian
+Academy has inaugurated a series to contain the most important of the
+Sanskrit works still buried in MS. We have also now accessible in Pali
+fourteen volumes of the commentaries of the great 5th-century scholars in
+south India and Ceylon, most of them the works either of Buddhaghosa of
+Budh Gaya, or of Dhammapala of Kancipura (the ancient name of Conjeeveram).
+These are full of important historical data on the social, as well as the
+religious, life of India during the periods of which they treat.
+
+_Modern Research._--The striking archaeological discoveries of recent years
+have both confirmed and added to our knowledge of the earliest period.
+Pre-eminent among these is the discovery, by Mr William Peppe, on the
+Birdpur estate, adjoining the boundary between English and Nepalese
+territory, of the stupa, or cairn, erected by the Sakiya clan over their
+share of the ashes from the cremation pyre of the Buddha. About 12 m. to
+the north-east of this spot has been found an inscribed pillar, put up by
+Asoka as a record of his visit to the Lumbini Garden, as the place where
+the future Buddha had been born. Although more than two centuries later
+than the event to which it refers, this inscription is good evidence of the
+site of the garden. There had been no interruption of the tradition; and it
+is probable that the place was then still occupied by the descendants of
+the possessors in the Buddha's time. North-west of this another Asoka
+pillar has been discovered, recording his visit to the cairn erected by the
+Sakyas over the remains of Konagamana, one of the previous Puddhas or
+teachers, whose follower Gotama the Buddha had claimed to be. These
+discoveries definitely determine the district occupied by the Sakiya
+republic in the 6th and 7th centuries B.C. The boundaries, of course, are
+not known; but the clan must have spread 30 m. or more along the lower
+slopes of the Himalayas and 30 m. or more southwards over the plains. It
+has been abandoned jungle since the 3rd century A.D., or perhaps earlier,
+so that the ruined sites, numerous through the whole district, have
+remained undisturbed, and further discoveries may be confidently expected.
+
+The principal points on which this large number of older and better
+authorities has modified our knowledge are as follows:--
+
+1. We have learnt that the division of Buddhism, originating with Burnouf,
+into northern and southern, is misleading. He found that the Buddhism in
+his Pali MSS., which came from Ceylon, differed from that in his Sanskrit
+MSS., which came from Nepal. Now that the works he used have been made
+accessible in printed editions, we find that, wherever the existing MSS.
+came from, the original works themselves were all composed in the same
+stretch of country, that is, in the valley of the Ganges. The difference of
+the opinions expressed in the MSS. is due, not to the place where they are
+now found, but _to the difference of time_ at which they were originally
+composed. Not one of the books mentioned above is either northern or
+southern. They all claim, and rightly claim, to belong, so far as their
+place of origin is concerned, to the Majjhima Desa, the middle country. It
+is undesirable to base the main division of our subject on an adventitious
+circumstance, and especially so when the nomenclature thus introduced (it
+is not found in the books themselves) cuts right across the true line of
+division. The use of the terms northern and southern as applied, not to the
+existing MSS., but to the original books, or to the Buddhism they teach,
+not only does not help us, it is the source of serious misunderstanding. It
+inevitably leads careless writers to take for granted that we have,
+historically, two Buddhisms--one manufactured in Ceylon, the other in
+Nepal. Now this is admittedly wrong. What we have to consider is Buddhism
+varying through slight degrees, as the centuries pass by, in almost every
+book. We may call it one, or we may call it many. What is quite certain is
+that it is not two. And the most useful distinction to emphasize is, not
+the ambiguous and misleading geographical one--derived from the places
+where the modern copies of the MSS. are found; nor even, though that would
+be better, the linguistic one--but the chronological one. The use,
+therefore, of the inaccurate and misleading terms northern and southern
+ought no longer to be followed in scholarly works on Buddhism.
+
+2. Our ideas as to the social conditions that prevailed, during the
+Buddha's lifetime, in the eastern valley of the Ganges have been modified.
+The people were divided into clans, many of them governed as republics,
+more or less aristocratic. In a few cases several of such republics had
+formed confederations, and in four cases such confederations had already
+become hereditary monarchies. The right historical analogy is not the state
+of Germany in the middle ages, but the state of Greece in the time of
+Socrates. The Sakiyas were still a republic. They had republics for their
+neighbours on the east and south, but on the western boundary was the
+kingdom of Kosala, the modern Oudh, which they acknowledged as a suzerain
+power. The Buddha's father was not a king. There were rajas in the clan,
+but the word meant at most something like consul or archon. All the four
+real kings were called Maha-raja. And Suddhodana, the teacher's father, was
+not even raja. One of his cousins, named Bhaddiya, is styled a raja; but
+Suddhodana is spoken of, like other citizens, as Suddhodana the Sakiyan. As
+the ancient books are very particular on this question of titles, this is
+decisive.
+
+3. There was no caste--no caste, that is, in the modern sense of the term.
+We have long known that the connubium was the cause of a long and
+determined struggle between the patricians and the plebeians in Rome.
+Evidence has been yearly accumulating on the existence of restrictions as
+to intermarriage, and as to the right of eating together (commensality)
+among other Aryan tribes, Greeks, Germans, Russians and so on. Even without
+the fact of the existence now of such restrictions among the modern
+successors of the ancient Aryans in India, it would have been probable that
+they also were addicted to similar customs. It is certain that the notion
+of such usages was familiar enough to some at least of the tribes that
+preceded the Aryans in India. Rules of endogamy and exogamy; privileges,
+restricted to certain classes, of eating together, are not only Indian or
+Aryan, but world-wide phenomena. Both the spirit, and to a large degree the
+actual details, of modern Indian caste-usages are identical [v.04 p.0694]
+with these ancient, and no doubt universal, customs. It is in them that we
+have the key to the origin of caste.
+
+At any moment in the history of a nation such customs seem, to a
+superficial observer, to be fixed and immutable. As a matter of fact they
+are never quite the same in successive centuries, or even generations. The
+numerous and complicated details which we sum up under the convenient, but
+often misleading, single name of caste, are solely dependent for their
+sanction on public opinion. That opinion seems stable. But it is always
+tending to vary as to the degree of importance attached to some particular
+one of the details, as to the size and complexity of the particular groups
+in which each detail ought to be observed.
+
+Owing to the fact that the particular group that in India worked its way to
+the top, based its claims on religious grounds, not on political power, nor
+on wealth, the system has, no doubt, lasted longer in India than in Europe.
+But public opinion still insists, in considerable circles even in Europe,
+on restrictions of a more or less defined kind, both as to marriage and as
+to eating together. And in India the problem still remains to trace, in the
+literature, the gradual growth of the system--the gradual formation of new
+sections among the people, the gradual extension of the institution to the
+families of people engaged in certain trades, belonging to the same group,
+or sect, or tribe, tracing their ancestry, whether rightly or wrongly, to
+the same source. All these factors, and others besides, are real factors.
+But they are phases of the extension and growth, not explanations of the
+origin of the system.
+
+There is no evidence to show that at the time of the rise of Buddhism there
+was any substantial difference, as regards the barriers in question,
+between the peoples dwelling in the valley of the Ganges and their
+contemporaries, Greek or Roman, dwelling on the shores of the Mediterranean
+Sea. The point of greatest weight in the establishment of the subsequent
+development, the supremacy in India of the priests, was still being hotly
+debated. All the new evidence tends to show that the struggle was being
+decided rather against than for the Brahmins. What we find in the Buddha's
+time is caste in the making. The great mass of the people were
+distinguished quite roughly into four classes, social strata, of which the
+boundary lines were vague and uncertain. At one end of the scale were
+certain outlying tribes and certain hereditary crafts of a dirty or
+despised kind. At the other end the nobles claimed the superiority. But
+Brahmins by birth (not necessarily sacrificial priests, for they followed
+all sorts of occupations) were trying to oust the nobles from the highest
+grade. They only succeeded, long afterwards, when the power of Buddhism had
+declined.
+
+4. It had been supposed on the authority of late priestly texts, where
+boasts of persecution are put forth, that the cause of the decline of
+Buddhism in India had been Brahmin persecution. The now accessible older
+authorities, with one doubtful exception,[27] make no mention of
+persecution. On the other hand, the comparison we are now able to make
+between the canonical books of the older Buddhism and the later texts of
+the following centuries, shows a continual decline from the old standpoint,
+a continual approximation of the Buddhist views to those of the other
+philosophies and religions of India. We can see now that the very event
+which seemed, in the eyes of the world, to be the most striking proof of
+the success of the new movement, the conversion and strenuous support, in
+the 3rd century B.C., of Asoka, the most powerful ruler India had had, only
+hastened the decline. The adhesion of large numbers of nominal converts,
+more especially from the newly incorporated and less advanced provinces,
+produced weakness rather than strength in the movement for reform. The day
+of compromise had come. Every relaxation of the old thoroughgoing position
+was welcomed and supported by converts only half converted. And so the
+margin of difference between the Buddhists and their opponents gradually
+faded almost entirely away. The soul theory, step by step, gained again the
+upper hand. The popular gods and the popular superstitions are once more
+favoured by Buddhists themselves. The philosophical basis of the old ethics
+is overshadowed by new speculations. And even the old ideal of life, the
+salvation of the Arahat to be won in this world and in this world only, by
+self-culture and self-mastery, is forgotten, or mentioned only to be
+condemned. The end was inevitable. The need of a separate organization
+became less and less apparent. The whole pantheon of the Vedic gods, with
+the ceremonies and the sacrifices associated with them, passed indeed away.
+But the ancient Buddhism, the party of reform, was overwhelmed also in its
+fall; and modern Hinduism arose on the ruins of both.
+
+AUTHORITIES.--The attention of the few scholars at work on the subject
+being directed to the necessary first step of publishing the ancient
+authorities, the work of exploring them, of analysing and classifying the
+data they contain, has as yet been very imperfectly done. The annexed list
+contains only the most important works.
+
+TEXTS.--_Pali Text Society_, 57 vols.; _Jataka_, 7 vols., ed. Fausboell,
+1877-1897; _Vinaya_, 5 vols., ed. Oldenberg, 1879-1883; _Dhammapada_, ed.
+Fausboell, 2nd ed., 1900; _Divyavadana_, ed. Cowell and Neil, 1882;
+_Mahavastu_, ed. Senart, 3 vols., 1882-1897; _Buddha Carita_, ed. Cowell,
+1892; _Milinda-panho_, ed. Trenckner, 1880.
+
+TRANSLATIONS.--_Vinaya Texts_, by Rhys Davids and Oldenberg, 3 vols.,
+1881-1885; _Dhammapada_, by Max Mueller, and _Sutta Nipata_, by Fausboell,
+1881; _Questions of King Milinda_, by Rhys Davids, 2 vols., 1890-1894;
+_Buddhist Suttas,_ by Rhys Davids, 1881; _Saddharma Pundarika_, by Kern,
+1884; _Buddhist Mahayana Texts_, by Cowell and Max Mueller, 1894--all the
+above in the "Sacred Books of the East"; _Jataka_, vol. i., by Rhys Davids,
+under the title _Buddhist Birth Stories_, 1880; vols. i.-vi., by Chalmers,
+Neil, Francis, and Rouse, 1895-1897; _Buddhism in Translations_, by Warren,
+1896; _Buddhistische Anthologie_, by Neumann, 1892. _Lieder der Moenche und
+Nonnen_, 1899, by the same; _Dialogues of the Buddha_, by Rhys Davids,
+1899; _Die Reden Gotamo Buddhas_, by Neumann, 3 vols., 1899-1903; _Buddhist
+Psychology_, by Mrs Rhys Davids, 1900.
+
+MANUALS, MONOGRAPHS, &C.--_Buddhism_, by Rhys Davids, 12mo, 20th thousand,
+1903; _Buddha, sein Leben, seine Lehre und seine Gemeinde_, by Oldenberg,
+5th edition, 1906; _Der Buddhismus und seine Geschichte in Indien_, by
+Kern, 1882; _Der Buddhismus_, by Edmund Hardy, 1890; _American Lectures,
+Buddhism_, by Rhys Davids, 1896; _Inscriptions de Piyadasi_, by Senart, 2
+vols., 1881-1886; _Mara und Buddha_, by Windisch, 1895; _Buddhist India_,
+by Rhys Davids, 1903.
+
+(T. W. R. D.)
+
+[1] That is by the Arahat, the title the Buddha always uses of himself. He
+does not call himself the Buddha, and his followers never address him as
+such.
+
+[2] One very ancient commentary on the Path has been preserved in three
+places in the canon: _Digha_, ii. 305-307 and 311-313, _Majjhima_, iii.
+251, and _Samyutta_, v. 8.
+
+[3] _Mahali Suttanta_; translated in Rhys Davids' _Dialogues of the
+Buddha_, vol. i. p. 201 (cf. p. 204).
+
+[4] See _Iti-vuttaka_, p. 44; _Samyutta_, iii. 57.
+
+[5] See _Digha_, ii. 28; _Jat_. v. 48, ii. 80.
+
+[6] Burnett, _Early Greek Philosophy_, p. 149.
+
+[7] _Katha Up_. 2, 10; _Bhag. Gita_, 2, 14; 9, 33.
+
+[8] The _Anatta-lakkhana Sutta_ (_Vinaya_, i. 13 = _Samyutta_, iii. 66 and
+iv. 34), translated in _Vinaya Texts_, i. 100-102.
+
+[9] See article on "Buddhist Schools of Thought," by Rhys Davids, in the
+_J.R.A.S._ for 1892.
+
+[10] _Questions of King Milinda_, translated by Rhys Davids (Oxford,
+1890-1894), vol. i. pp. 40, 41, 85-87; vol. ii. pp. 21-25, 86-89.
+
+[11] _Majjhima_, iii. 251, cf. _Samyutta_, v. 8.
+
+[12] _Digha_, ii. 290-315. _Majjhima_, i. 55 et seq. Cf. Rhys Davids'
+_Dialogues of the Buddha_, i. 81.
+
+[13] No. 8 in the _Sutta Nipata_ (p. 26 of Fausboell's edition). It is
+translated by Fausboell in vol. x. of the _S.B.E._, and by Rhys Davids,
+_Buddhism_, p. 109.
+
+[14] _Digha_, ii. 186-187.
+
+[15] _Majjhima_, i. 129.
+
+[16] _Iti-vuttaka_, pp. 19-21.
+
+[17] On the details of these see _Digha_, i. 71-73, translated by Rhys
+Davids in _Dialogues of the Buddha_, i. 82-84.
+
+[18] _Digha_, i. 74.
+
+[19] _Samyutta_, iv. 251, 261.
+
+[20] _Phaedo_, 69 et seq. The idea is there also put forward in connexion
+with a belief in transmigration.
+
+[21] _Samyutta_, iv. 302.
+
+[22] _Majjhima_, iii. 99 et seq.
+
+[23] The history of the Indian doctrine of Karma has yet to be written. On
+the Buddhist side see Rhys Davids' _Hibbert Lectures_, pp. 73-120, and
+Dahlke, _Aufsatze zum Verstandnis des Buddhismus_ (Berlin, 1903), i.
+92-106, and ii. l-11.
+
+[24] For instance, _Majjhima_, i. 163-166
+
+[25] _Anguttara_, iii. 119.
+
+[26] _Digha_, i. 38.
+
+[27] See _Journal of the Pali Text Society_, 1896, pp. 87-92.
+
+BUDE [BUDAEUS], GUILLAUME (1467-1540), French scholar, was born at Paris.
+He went to the university of Orleans to study law, but for several years,
+being possessed of ample means, he led an idle and dissipated life. When
+about twenty-four years of age he was seized with a sudden passion for
+study, and made rapid progress, particularly in the Latin and Greek
+languages. The work which gained him greatest reputation was his _De Asse
+et Partibus_ (1514), a treatise on ancient coins and measures. He was held
+in high esteem by Francis I., who was persuaded by him, and by Jean du
+Bellay, bishop of Narbonne, to found the Collegium Trilingue, afterwards
+the College de France, and the library at Fontainebleau, which was removed
+to Paris and was the origin of the Bibliotheque Nationale. He also induced
+Francis to refrain from prohibiting printing in France, which had been
+advised by the Sorbonne in 1533. He was sent by Louis XII. to Rome as
+ambassador to Leo X., and in 1522 was appointed _maitre des requetes_ and
+was several times _prevot des marchands_. He died in Paris on the 23rd of
+August 1540.
+
+Bude was also the author of _Annotationes in XXIV. libros Pandectarum_
+(1508), which, by the application of philology and history, had a great
+influence on the study of Roman law, and of _Commentarii linguae Graecae_
+(1529), an extensive collection of lexicographical notes, which contributed
+greatly to the study of Greek literature in France. Bude corresponded with
+the most learned men of his time, amongst them Erasmus, who called him the
+marvel of France, and Thomas More. He wrote with equal facility in Greek
+and Latin, although his Latin is inferior to his Greek, being somewhat
+harsh and full of Greek constructions. His request that he should be buried
+at night, and his widow's open profession of Protestantism at Geneva (where
+she retired after his death), caused him to be suspected of leanings
+towards Calvinism. At the time of the massacre of St Bartholomew, the
+members of his family were obliged to flee from France. Some took refuge in
+Switzerland, where they worthily upheld the traditions of their house,
+while others settled in Pomerania under the name Budde or Buddeus.
+
+[v.04 p.0695] See Le Roy, _Vita G. Budaei_ (1540); Rebitte, _G. Bude,
+restaurateur des etudes grecques en France_ (1846); E. de Bude, _Vie de G.
+Bude_ (1884), who refutes the idea of his ancestor's Protestant views;
+D'Hozier, _La Maison de Bude_; L. Delaruelle, _Etudes sur l'humanisme
+francais_ (1907).
+
+BUDE, a small seaport and watering-place in the Launceston parliamentary
+division of Cornwall, England, on the north coast at the mouth of the river
+Bude. With the market town of Stratton, 11/2 m. inland to the east, it forms
+the urban district of Stratton and Bude, with a population (1901) of 2308.
+Bude is served by a branch of the London & South-Western railway. Its only
+notable building is the Early English parish church of St Michael and All
+Angels. The climate is healthy and the coast scenery in the neighbourhood
+fine, especially towards the south. There the gigantic cliffs, with their
+banded strata, have been broken into fantastic forms by the waves. Many
+ships have been wrecked on the jagged reefs which fringe their base. The
+figure-head of one of these, the "Bencellon," lost in 1862, is preserved in
+the churchyard. The harbour, sheltered by a breakwater, will admit vessels
+of 300 tons at high water; and the river has been dammed to form a basin
+for the canal which runs to Launceston. Some fishing is carried on: but the
+staple trade is the export of sand, which, being highly charged with
+carbonate of lime, is much used for manure. There are golf links near the
+town. The currents in the bay make bathing dangerous.
+
+BUDGELL, EUSTACE (1686-1737), English man of letters, the son of Dr Gilbert
+Budgell, was born on the 19th of August 1686 at St Thomas, near Exeter. He
+matriculated in 1705 at Trinity College, Oxford, and afterwards joined the
+Inner Temple, London; but instead of studying law he devoted his whole
+attention to literature. Addison, who was first cousin to his mother,
+befriended him, and, on being appointed secretary to Lord Wharton,
+lord-lieutenant of Ireland in 1710, took Budgell with him as one of the
+clerks of his office. Budgell took part with Steele and Addison in writing
+the _Tatler_. He was also a contributor to the _Spectator_ and the
+_Guardian_,--his papers being marked with an X in the former, and with an
+asterisk in the latter. He was subsequently made under-secretary to
+Addison, chief secretary to the lords justices of Ireland, and deputy-clerk
+of the council, and became a member of the Irish parliament. In 1717, when
+Addison became principal secretary of state in England, he procured for
+Budgell the place of accountant and comptroller-general of the revenue in
+Ireland. But the next year, the duke of Bolton being appointed
+lord-lieutenant, Budgell wrote a lampoon against E. Webster, his secretary.
+This led to his being removed from his post of accountant-general, upon
+which he returned to England, and, contrary to the advice of Addison,
+published his case in a pamphlet. In the year 1720 he lost L20,000 by the
+South Sea scheme, and afterwards spent L5000 more in unsuccessful attempts
+to get into parliament. He began to write pamphlets against the ministry,
+and published many papers in the _Craftsman_. In 1733 he started a weekly
+periodical called the _Bee_, which he continued for more than a hundred
+numbers. By the will of Matthew Tindal, the deist, who died in 1733, a
+legacy of 2000 guineas was left to Budgell; but the bequest (which had, it
+was alleged, been inserted in the will by Budgell himself) was successfully
+disputed by Tindal's nephew and nearest heir, Nicholas Tindal, who
+translated and wrote a _Continuation_ of the _History of England_ of Paul
+de Rapin-Thoyras. Hence Pope's lines--
+
+  "Let Budgell charge low Grub Street on his quill,
+  And write whate'er he pleased--except his will."[1]
+
+Budgell is said to have sold the second volume of Tindal's _Christianity as
+Old as the Creation_ to Bishop Gibson, by whom it was destroyed. The
+scandal caused by these transactions ruined him. On the 4th of May 1737,
+after filling his pockets with stones, he took a boat at Somerset-stairs,
+and while the boat was passing under the bridge threw himself into the
+river. On his desk was found a slip of paper with the words--"What Cato
+did, and Addison approved, cannot be wrong." Besides the works mentioned
+above, he wrote a translation (1714) of the _Characters_ of Theophrastus.
+He never married, but left a natural daughter, Anne Eustace, who became an
+actress at Drury Lane.
+
+See Cibber's _Lives of the Poets_, vol. v.
+
+[1] _Epistle to Dr Arbuthnot_, lines 378-379.
+
+BUDGET (originally from a Gallic word meaning sack, latinized as _bulga_,
+leather wallet or bag, thence in O. Fr. _bougette_, from which the Eng.
+form is derived), the name applied to an account of the ways and means by
+which the income and expenditure for a definite period are to be balanced,
+generally by a finance minister for his state, or by analogy for smaller
+bodies.[1] The term first came into use in England about 1760. In the
+United Kingdom the chancellor of the exchequer, usually in April, lays
+before the House of Commons a statement of the actual results of revenue
+and expenditure in the past finance year (now ending March 31), showing how
+far his estimates have been realized, and what surplus or deficit there has
+been in the income as compared with the expenditure. This is accompanied by
+another statement in which the chancellor gives an estimate of what the
+produce of the revenue may be in the year just entered upon, supposing the
+taxes and duties to remain as they were in the past year, and also an
+estimate of what the expenditure will be in the current year. If the
+estimated revenue, after allowing for normal increase of the principal
+sources of income, be less than the estimated expenditure, this is deemed a
+case for the imposition of some new, or the increase of some existing, tax
+or taxes. On the other hand, if the estimated revenue shows a large surplus
+over the estimated expenditure, there is room for remitting or reducing
+some tax or taxes, and the extent of this relief is generally limited to
+the amount of surplus realized in the previous year. The chancellor of the
+exchequer has to take parliament into confidence on his estimates, both as
+regards revenue and expenditure; and these estimates are prepared by the
+various departments of the administration. They are divided into two parts,
+the consolidated fund services and the supply services, the first
+comprising the civil list, debt charge, pensions and courts of justice,
+while the "supply" includes the remaining expenditure of the country, as
+the army, the navy, the civil service and revenue departments, the
+post-office and telegraph services. The consolidated fund services are an
+annual charge, fixed by statute, and alterable only by statute, but the
+supply services may be gone through in detail, item by item, by the House
+of Commons, which forms itself into a committee of supply for the purpose.
+These items can be criticized, and reduced (but not increased) by
+amendments proposed by private members. The committee of ways and means
+(also a committee of the whole House) votes the supplies when granted and
+originates all taxes. The resolutions of these committees are reported to
+the House, and when the taxation and expenditure obtain the assent of
+parliament, the results as thus adjusted become the final budget estimate
+for the year, and are passed as the Finance Act. This system of annual
+review and adjustment of the public finances obtains not only in the
+British colonies, but in British India. The Indian budget, giving the
+results of income and expenditure in the year ending 31st of December, and
+the prospective estimates, is laid before the imperial parliament in the
+course of the ensuing session.
+
+The budget, though modified by different forms, has also long been
+practised in France, the United States, and other constitutional countries,
+and has in some cases been adopted by autocratic Powers. Russia began the
+publication of annual budgets in 1866; Egypt has followed the example; so
+also has Turkey, by an imperial decree of 1875. All countries agree in
+taking a yearly period, but the actual date of commencement varies
+considerably. The German and Danish financial year, like that of the United
+Kingdom, begins on the 1st of April; in France, Belgium and Austria, it
+begins on the 1st of January; in Italy, Spain, the United States and
+Canada, on the 1st of July. [v.04 p.0696] Previously to 1832, however, the
+English financial year ran from the 1st of January to the 31st of December.
+
+It may be mentioned that Disraeli introduced a budget (on which he was
+defeated) in the autumn of 1852; and in 1860, owing to the ratification of
+the commercial treaty with France, the budget was introduced on the 10th of
+February. In 1859, through a change of administration, the budget was not
+introduced until the 18th of July, while in 1880 there were two budgets,
+one introduced in March under Disraeli's administration, and the other in
+June, under Gladstone's administration.
+
+National budgets are to be discriminated (1) as budgets passing under
+parliamentary scrutiny and debate from year to year, and (2) budgets
+emitted on executive authority. In most constitutional countries the
+procedure is somewhat of a mean between the extremes of the United Kingdom
+and the United States. In the United Kingdom the budget is placed by the
+executive before the whole House, without any previous examination except
+by the cabinet, and it is scrutinized by the House sitting as a committee;
+in the majority of countries, however, the budget undergoes a preliminary
+examination by a specially selected committee, which has the power to make
+drastic changes in the proposals of the executive. In the United States, on
+the other hand, the budget practically emanates from Congress, for there is
+no connexion between the executive and the legislative departments. The
+estimates prepared by the various executive departments are submitted to
+the House of Representatives by the secretary of the treasury. With these
+estimates two separate committees deal. The committee on ways and means
+deals with taxation, and the committee on appropriations with expenditure.
+The latter committee is divided into various sub-committees, each of which
+brings in an appropriation bill for the department or subject with which it
+is charged.
+
+There are also, in all the greater countries, local and municipal taxations
+and expenditures of only less account than the national. In federal
+governments such as the United States, the German empire, or the Argentine
+republic, the budgets of the several states of the federation have to be
+consulted, as well as the federal budgets, for a knowledge of the finances.
+
+AUTHORITIES.--Stourm, _Le Budget, son histoire et son mecanisme_ (1889),
+which gives a comparative study of the budgets of different countries, is
+the best book upon the subject. See also Siedler, _Budget und
+Budgetrecht_(1885); Sendel, _Ueber Budgetrecht_(1890); Besson, _Le Controle
+des budgets en France et a l'etranger_ (1899); Bastable, _Public Finance_
+(3rd ed., 1903); Eugene E. Agger, _The Budget in American Commonwealths_
+(New York, 1907).
+
+BUDINI, an ancient nation in the N.E. of the Scythia (_q.v._) of Herodotus
+(iv, 21, 108, 109), probably on the middle course of the Volga about
+Samara. They are described as light-eyed and red-haired, and lived by
+hunting in their thick forests. They were probably Finns of the branch now
+represented by the Votiaks and Permiaks, forced northwards by later
+immigrants. In their country was a wooden city inhabited by a distinct
+race, the Geloni, who seem to have spoken an Indo-European tongue. Later
+writers add nothing to our knowledge, and are chiefly interested in the
+tarandus, an animal which dwelt in the woods of the Budini and seems to
+have been the reindeer (Aristotle ap. Aelian, _Hist. Anim._ xv. 33).
+
+(E. H. M.)
+
+BUDWEIS (Czech _Budejovice_), a town of Bohemia, Austria, 80 m. S.S.W. of
+Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 39,630. It is situated at the junction of the
+Maltsch with the Moldau, which here becomes navigable, and possesses a
+beautiful square, lined with fine arcaded buildings, the principal one
+being the town-hall, built in 1730 in Renaissance style. Other interesting
+buildings are the cathedral with its detached tower, dating from 1500, and
+the Marien-Kirche with fine cloisters. Budweis has a large, varied and
+growing industry, which comprises the manufacture of chemicals, matches,
+paper, machinery, bricks and tiles, corn and saw mills, boat-building,
+bell-founding and black-lead pencils. It is the principal commercial centre
+of South Bohemia, being an important railway junction, as well as a river
+port, and carries on a large trade in corn, timber, lignite, salt,
+industrial products and beer, the latter mostly exported to America. It is
+the see of a bishop since 1783, and is the centre of a German enclave in
+Czech Bohemia. But the Czech element is steadily increasing, and the
+population of the town was in 1908 60% Czech. The railway from Budweis to
+Linz, laid in 1827 for horse-cars, was the first line constructed in
+Austria. A little to the north, in the Moldau valley, stands the beautiful
+castle of Frauenberg, belonging to Prince Schwarzenberg. It stands on the
+site formerly occupied by a 13th-century castle, and was built in the
+middle of the 19th century, after the model of Windsor Castle.
+
+The old town of Budweis was founded in the 13th century by Budivoj
+Vitkovec, father of Zavis of Falkenstein. In 1265 Ottokar II. founded the
+new town, which was soon afterwards created a royal city. Charles IV. and
+his son Wenceslaus granted the town many privileges. Although mainly
+Catholic, Budweis declared for King George Podebrad, and in 1468 was taken
+by the crusaders under Zdenko of Stenberg. From this time the town remained
+faithful to the royal cause, and in 1547 was granted by the emperor
+Ferdinand the privilege of ranking at the diet next to Prague and Pilsen.
+After the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War Budweis was confirmed in all
+its privileges.
+
+BUELL, DON CARLOS (1818-1898), American soldier, was born near Marietta,
+Ohio, on the 23rd of March 1818. He graduated at West Point in 1841, and as
+a company officer of infantry took part in the Seminole War of 1841-42 and
+the Mexican War, during which he was present at almost all the battles
+fought by Generals Taylor and Scott, winning the brevet of captain at
+Monterey, and that of major at Contreras-Churubusco, where he was wounded.
+From 1848 to 1861 he performed various staff duties, chiefly as
+assistant-adjutant-general. On the outbreak of the Civil War he was
+appointed lieutenant-colonel on the 11th of May 1861, brigadier-general of
+volunteers a few days later, and major-general of volunteers in March 1862.
+He aided efficiently in organizing the Army of the Potomac, and, at the
+instance of General McClellan, was sent, in November 1861, to Kentucky to
+succeed General William T. Sherman in command. Here he employed himself in
+the organization and training of the Army of the Ohio (subsequently of the
+Cumberland), which to the end of its career retained a standard of
+discipline and efficiency only surpassed by that of the Army of the
+Potomac. In the spring of 1862 Buell followed the retiring Confederates
+under Sidney Johnston, and appeared on the field of Shiloh (_q.v._) at the
+end of the first day's fighting. On the following day, aided by Buell's
+fresh and well-trained army, Grant carried all before him. Buell
+subsequently served under Halleck in the advance on Corinth, and in the
+autumn commanded in the campaign in Kentucky against Bragg. After a period
+of manoeuvring in which Buell scarcely held his own, this virtually ended
+in the indecisive battle of Perryville. The alleged tardiness of his
+pursuit, and his objection to a plan of campaign ordered by the Washington
+authorities, brought about Buell's removal from command. With all his gifts
+as an organizer and disciplinarian, he was haughty in his dealings with the
+civil authorities, and, in high command, he showed, on the whole,
+unnecessary tardiness of movement and an utter disregard for the
+requirements of the political situation. Moreover, as McClellan's friend,
+holding similar views, adverse politically to the administration, he
+suffered by McClellan's displacement. The complaints made against him were
+investigated in 1862-1863, but the result of the investigation was not
+published. Subsequently he was offered military employment, which he
+declined. He resigned his volunteer commission in May, and his regular
+commission in June 1864. He was president of Green River ironworks
+(1865-1870), and subsequently engaged in various mining enterprises; he
+served (1885-1889) as pension agent at Louisville. He died near Rockport,
+Kentucky, on the 19th of November 1898.
+
+BUENAVENTURA, a Pacific port of Colombia, in the department of Cauca, about
+210 m. W.S.W. of Bogota. Pop. about 1200. The town is situated on a small
+island, called Cascajal, at the head of a broad estuary or bay projecting
+inland from the Bay of Choco and 10 m. from its mouth. Its geographical
+position is lat. 3 deg. 48' N., long. 77 deg. 12' W. The estuary is deep enough for
+vessels of 24 ft. draught and affords an excellent harbour. Buenaventura is
+a port of call for two lines of steamers (English [v.04 p.0697] and
+German), and is the Colombian landing-place of the West Coast cable. The
+town is mean in appearance, and has a very unhealthy climate, oppressively
+hot and humid. It is the port for the upper basin of the Cauca, an elevated
+and fertile region, with two large commercial centres, Popayan and Cali. In
+1907 a railway was under construction to the latter, and an extension to
+Bogota was also projected.
+
+BUENOS AIRES, a maritime province of Argentina, South America, bounded N.
+by the province of Santa Fe and Entre Rios, E. by the latter, the La Plata
+estuary, and the Atlantic, S. by the Atlantic, and W. by the territories
+(_gobernaciones_) of Rio Negro and Las Pampas, and the provinces of Cordoba
+and Santa Fe. Its area is 117,812 sq. m., making it the largest province of
+the republic. It is also the most populous, even excluding the federal
+district, an official estimate of 1903 giving it a population of 1,251,000.
+Although it has a frontage of over 900 m. on the La Plata and the Atlantic,
+the province has but few good natural ports, the best being Bahia Blanca,
+where the Argentine government has constructed a naval port, and Ensenada
+(La Plata), where extensive artificial basins have been constructed for the
+reception of ocean-going steamers. San Nicolas in the extreme north has a
+fairly good river port, while at Buenos Aires a costly artificial port has
+been constructed.
+
+In its general aspect the province forms a part of the great treeless plain
+extending from the Atlantic and La Plata estuary westward to the Andes. A
+fringe of small tangled wood covers the low river banks and delta region of
+the Parana between San Nicolas and Buenos Aires; thence southward to Bahia
+Blanca the sea-shore is low and sandy, with a zone of lagoons and partially
+submerged lands immediately behind. The south-eastern and central parts of
+the province are low and marshy, and their effective drainage has long been
+an urgent problem. Two ranges of low mountains extend partly across the
+southern part of the province--the first from Mar del Plata, on the coast,
+in a north-east direction, known at different points as the Sierra del
+Volcan (885 ft.), Sierra de Tandil (1476 ft.), and Sierra Baya, and the
+second and shorter range nearer Bahia Blanca, having the same general
+direction, known at different points as the Sierra Pillahuinco and Sierra
+de la Ventana (3543 ft.). The country is well watered with numerous lakes
+and small rivers, the largest river being the Rio Salado del Sud, which
+rises near the north-western boundary and flows entirely across the
+province in a south-easterly direction with a course of about 360 m. The
+Rio Colorado crosses the extreme southern extension of the province, a
+distance of about 80 m., but its mouth is obstructed, and its lower course
+is subject to occasional disastrous inundations.
+
+Cattle-raising naturally became the principal industry of this region soon
+after its settlement by the Spaniards, and sheep-raising on a profitable
+basis was developed about the middle of the 19th century. Toward the end of
+that century the exports of wool, live-stock and dressed meats reached
+enormous proportions. There is a large export of jerked beef (_tasajo_) to
+Brazil and Cuba, and of live-stock to Europe, South Africa and neighbouring
+South American republics. Much attention also has been given to raising
+horses, asses, mules, swine and goats, all of which thrive on these grassy
+plains. Butter and cheese-making have gained considerable prominence in the
+province since 1890, and butter has become an article of export. Little
+attention had been given to cereals up to 1875, but subsequently energetic
+efforts were made to increase the production of wheat, Indian corn,
+linseed, barley, oats and alfalfa, so that by the end of the century the
+exports of wheat and flour had reached a considerable value. In 1895 there
+were 3,400,000 acres under cultivation in the province, and in 1900 the
+area devoted to wheat alone aggregated 1,960,000 acres. Fruit-growing also
+has made good progress, especially on the islands of the Parana delta, and
+Argentine peaches, pears, strawberries, grapes and figs are highly
+appreciated.
+
+The navigation of the Parana is at all times difficult, and is impossible
+for the larger ocean-going steamers. The greater part of the trade of the
+northern and western provinces, therefore, must pass through the ports of
+Buenos Aires and Ensenada, at which an immense volume of business is
+concentrated. All the great trunk railways of the republic pass through the
+province and converge at these ports, and from them a number of
+transatlantic steamship lines carry away the products of its fertile soil.
+The province is also liberally supplied with branch railways. In the far
+south the new port of Bahia Blanca has become prominent in the export of
+wool and wheat.
+
+The principal cities and towns of the province (apart from Buenos Aires and
+its suburbs of Belgrano and Flores) are its capital La Plata; Bahia Blanca,
+San Nicolas, a river port on the Parana 150 m. by rail north-west of Buenos
+Aires, with a population (1901) of 13,000; Campana (pop. 5419 in 1895), the
+former river port of Buenos Aires on one of the channels of the Parana, 51
+m. by rail north-west of that city, and the site of the first factory in
+Argentina (1883) for freezing mutton for export; Chivilcoy, an important
+interior town, with a population (1901) of 15,000; Pergamino (9540 in
+1895), a northern inland railway centre; Mar del Plata, a popular seaside
+resort 250 m. by rail south of Buenos Aires; Azul (9494), Tandil (7088),
+Chascomus (5667), Mercedes (9269), and Barracas al Sud (10,185), once the
+centre of the jerked beef industries.
+
+The early history of the province of Buenos Aires was a struggle for
+supremacy over the other provinces for a period of two generations. Its
+large extent of territory was secured through successive additions by
+conquest of adjoining Indian territories south and west, the last additions
+being as late as 1879. Buenos Aires became a province of the Confederation
+in 1820, and adopted a constitution in 1854, which provides for its
+administration by a governor and legislature of two chambers, both chosen
+by popular vote. An unsuccessful revolt in 1880 against the national
+government led to the federalization of the city of Buenos Aires, and the
+selection of La Plata as the provincial capital, the republic assuming the
+public indebtedness of the provinces at that time as an indemnification.
+Before the new capital was finished, however, the province had incurred
+further liabilities of ten millions sterling, and has since then been
+greatly handicapped in its development in consequence.
+
+(A. J. L.)
+
+BUENOS AIRES, a city and port of Argentina, and capital of the republic, in
+34 deg. 36' 21" S. lat. and 58 deg. 21' 33" W. long., on the west shore of the La
+Plata estuary, about 155 m. above its mouth, and 127 m. W. by N. from
+Montevideo. The estuary at this point is 34 m. wide, and so shallow that
+vessels can enter the docks only through artificial channels kept open by
+constant dredging. Previously to the construction of the new port,
+ocean-going vessels of over 15 ft. draught were compelled to anchor in the
+outer roads some 12 m. from the city, and communication with the shore was
+effected by means of steam tenders and small boats, connecting with long
+landing piers, or with carts driven out from the beach. The city is built
+upon an open grassy plain extending inland from the banks of the estuary,
+and north from the Riachuelo or Matanzas river where the "Boca" port is
+located. Its average elevation is about 65 ft. above sea-level. The federal
+district, which includes the city and its suburbs and covers an area of 72
+sq. m., was detached from the province of Buenos Aires by an act of
+congress in 1880. With the construction of the new port and reclamation of
+considerable areas of the shallow water frontage, the area of the city has
+been greatly extended below the line of the original estuary banks. The
+streets of the old city, which are narrow and laid out to enclose
+rectangular blocks of uniform size, run nearly parallel with the cardinal
+points of the compass, but this plan is not closely followed in the new
+additions and suburbs. This uniformity in plan, combined with the level
+ground and the style of buildings first erected, gave to the city an
+extremely monotonous and uninteresting appearance, but with its growth in
+wealth and population, greater diversity and better taste in architecture
+have resulted.
+
+The prevailing style of domestic architecture is that introduced from Spain
+and used throughout all the Spanish colonies--the grouping of one-storey
+buildings round one or two _patios_, which open on the street through a
+wide doorway. These residences have heavily barred windows on the street,
+and flat roofs with [v.04 p.0698] parapets admirably adapted for defence.
+The domiciliation of wealthy foreigners, and the introduction of foreign
+customs and foreign culture, have gradually modified the style of
+architecture, both public and domestic, and modern Buenos Aires is adorned
+with many costly and attractive public edifices and residences. French
+renaissance, lavishly decorated, has become the prevailing style. The
+Avenida Alvear is particularly noted for the elegance of its private
+residences, and the new Avenida de Mayo for its display of elaborately
+ornamented public and business edifices, while the suburban districts of
+Belgrano and Flores are distinguished for the attractiveness of their
+country-houses and gardens. A part of the population is greatly
+overcrowded, one-fifth living in _conventillos_, or tenement-houses.
+
+Among the city's many _plazas_, or squares, twelve are especially worthy of
+mention, viz.: 25 de Mayo (formerly Victoria) on which face the
+Government-House and Cathedral, San Martin (or Retiro), Lavalle, Libertad,
+Lorea, Belgrano, 6 de Junio, Once de Setiembre, Independencia (formerly
+Conception), Constitucion, Caridad and 29 de Deciembre. These vary in size
+from one to three squares, or 4 to 12 acres each, and are handsomely laid
+out with flowers, shrubbery, walks and shade trees. There are also two
+elaborately laid out _alamedas_, the Recoleta and the Paseo de Julio, the
+latter on the river front and partially absorbed by the new port works, and
+the great park at Palermo, officially called 3 de Febrero, which contains
+840 acres, beautifully laid out in drives, footpaths, lawns, gardens and
+artificial lakes. In all, the _plazas_ and parks of Buenos Aires cover an
+area of 960 acres.
+
+The cathedral, which is one of the largest in South America, dating from
+1752, resembles the Madeleine of Paris in design, and its classical portico
+facing the Plaza 25 de Mayo has twelve stately Corinthian columns
+supporting an elaborately sculptured pediment. The archbishop's palace
+(Buenos Aires became an archiepiscopal see in 1866) adjoins the cathedral.
+There are about twenty-five Roman Catholic churches in the city, one of the
+richest and most popular of which is the Merced on Calle Reconquista, and
+four Protestant churches--English, Scottish Presbyterian, American
+Methodist and German Lutheran. Twenty asylums for orphans and indigent
+persons and one for lunatics are maintained at public expense and by
+private religious associations, while the demand for organized medical and
+surgical treatment is met by fifteen well-appointed hospitals, having an
+aggregate of 2600 beds, and treating 17,000 patients annually. Of these,
+five belong to foreign nationalities. The city has six cemeteries covering
+230 acres.
+
+Among the more noteworthy public buildings are the Casa Rosada
+(government-house), facing the Plaza 25 de Mayo and occupying in part the
+site of the fort built by Garay in 1580; the new congress hall on Calle
+Callao and Avenida de Mayo, finished in 1906 at a cost of about L1,300,000;
+the new municipal hall on Avenida de Mayo; the _bolsa_ or exchange,
+distributing reservoir, mint, and some of the more modern educational
+buildings. Higher education is represented by the university of Buenos
+Aires, with its several faculties, including law and medicine, and 3562
+students (1901), four national colleges, three normal schools and various
+technical schools. There are, also, a national library, a national museum,
+a zoological garden and an aquarium. The people are fond of music, the
+drama and amusements, and devote much time and expense to diversions of a
+widely varied character, from Italian opera to horse-racing and _pelota_.
+They have two or three large public baths, and a large number of social,
+sporting and athletic clubs. The Portenos, as the residents of Buenos Aires
+are called, are accustomed to call their city the "Paris of America," and
+not without reason. Buenos Aires has become the principal manufacturing
+centre of the republic, and its industrial establishments are numbered by
+thousands and their capital by hundreds of millions of dollars.
+
+The growth of Buenos Aires since settled conditions have prevailed, and
+especially since its federalization, has been very rapid, and the city has
+finally outstripped all rivals and become the largest city of South
+America. At the time of its first authentic census in 1869, it had a
+population of 177,767. In 1887, when the suburbs of Belgrano and Flores
+with an aggregate population of 28,000 were annexed, its population without
+this increment was estimated at 404,000. In 1895 the national census gave
+the population as 663,854, and in 1904 a municipal census increased it to
+950,891. At the close of 1905 the national statistical office estimated it
+at 1,025,653. The excess of births over deaths is unusually large (about 14
+per thousand in 1905). The city has about one-fifth of the population of
+the whole republic. The government is vested in an _intendente municipal_
+(mayor) appointed by the national executive with the approval of the
+senate, and a _concejo deliberante_ (legislative council) elected by the
+people and composed of two councillors from each parish. The police force
+is a military organization under the control of the national executive, and
+the higher municipal courts are subject to the same authority. Every
+ratepayer, whether foreigner or native, has the right to vote in municipal
+elections and to serve in the municipal council.
+
+The water-supply is drawn from the estuary at Belgrano and conducted 31/2 m.
+to the Recoleta, where three great settling basins, with an aggregate
+capacity of 12,000,000 gallons, and six acres of covered filters, are
+located. It is then pumped to the great distributing reservoir at Calles
+Cordoba and Viamonte, which covers four acres and has a capacity of
+13,500,000 gallons. These works were begun in 1873. Up to 1873, when the
+water and drainage works were initiated by English engineers and
+contractors, there were no public sewers, and the sanitary state of the
+city was indescribably bad. The cholera epidemic of 1867-1868, with 15,000
+victims, and the yellow fever epidemic of 1871, with 26,000 victims, were
+greatly intensified by these insanitary conditions. The construction of the
+sewers lasted about 19 years, when in 1892 the water and drainage works
+were taken over by the government, and are now administered at public
+expense and at a profit. The main sewer is 16 m. long and extends southward
+beyond Quilmes. The total cost of the two systems exceeded six millions
+sterling. Buenos Aires is now provided with a good water-supply, and its
+sanitary condition compares favourably with that of other great cities, the
+annual death-rate being about 18 per thousand, against 27 per thousand in
+1887. Its mean annual temperature is 64 deg. Fahr., and its annual rainfall 34
+in.
+
+The lighting includes both gas and electricity, the former dating from
+1856. Previously to that time street lighting had been effected at first
+with lamps burning mares' grease, and then with tallow candles. The streets
+were at first paved with cobble-stones, then with dressed granite
+paving-stones (parallelepipedons), and finally with wood and asphalt. The
+tram service is in the hands of nine private companies, operating 313 m. of
+track (31st of December 1905), on almost five-sevenths of which electric
+traction is employed. The city is the principal terminus and port for
+nearly all the trunk railway lines of the republic, which have large
+passenger stations at the Retiro, Once de Setiembre, and Constitucion
+plazas, and are connected with the central produce market and the new
+Madero port. The great central produce market at Barracas al Sud (_Mercado
+Central de Frutos_), whose lands, buildings, railway sidings, machinery and
+mole cost L750,000, is designed to handle the pastoral and agricultural
+products of the country on a large scale, while 20 markets in the city meet
+the needs of local consumers.
+
+The most important feature of the port of Buenos Aires is the "Madero
+docks," constructed to enlarge and improve its shipping facilities.
+Improvements had been, begun in 1872 at the "Boca," as the port on the
+Riachuelo is called, and nearly L1,500,000 was spent there in landing
+facilities and dredging a channel 12 m. in length, to deep water. These
+improvements were found insufficient, and in 1887 work was begun on plans
+executed by Sir John Hawkshaw for a series of four docks and two basins in
+front of the city, occupying 3 m. of reclaimed shore-line, and connected
+with deep water by two dredged channels. The north basin is provided with
+two dry docks, and the new quays are equipped with 24 warehouses, hydraulic
+cranes, and 28 m. of railway sidings and connexions. The total cost of the
+new port works [v.04 p.0699] up to 1908 was about L8,000,000 sterling
+($40,000,000 gold). In September of that year it was decided by congress to
+borrow L5,000,000 for still further extensions which were found to be
+required. The channels to deep water require constant dredging because of
+the great quantity of silt deposited by the river, and on this and allied
+purposes an expenditure of L560,000 was voted in 1908. In 1907 there were
+29,178 shipping entries in the port, with an aggregate of 13,335,737 tons,
+the merchandise movement being 4,360,000 tons imports and 2,900,000 tons of
+produce exports. The revenues for 1907 were $5,452,000 gold, and working
+expenses, $2,213,000 gold, the profit ($3,229,000) being equal to about 8%
+on the cost of construction.
+
+_History._--Three attempts were made to establish a colony where the city
+of Buenos Aires stands. The first was in 1535 by Don Pedro de Mendoza with
+a large and well-equipped expedition from Spain, which, through
+mismanagement and the hostility of the Indians, resulted in complete
+failure. An expedition sent up the river by Mendoza founded Asuncion, and
+thither went the colonists from his "Santa Maria de Buenos Ayres" when that
+settlement was abandoned. The second was in 1542 by a part of the
+expedition from Spain under Cabeza de Vaca, but with as little success. The
+third was in 1580 by Don Juan de Garay, governor of Paraguay, who had
+already established a half-way post at Santa Fe in 1573, and from this
+attempt dates the foundation of the city. The need of a port near the sea,
+where supplies from Spain could be received and ships provisioned, was
+keenly felt by the Spanish colonists at Asuncion, and Garay's expedition
+down the Parana in 1580 had that special object in view. Garay built a fort
+and laid out a town in the prescribed Spanish style above Mendoza's
+abandoned settlement, giving it the name of "Ciudad de la Santissima
+Trinidad," but retaining Mendoza's descriptive name for the port in
+appreciation of the agreeable and invigorating atmosphere of that locality.
+Buenos Aires remained a dependency of Asuncion until 1620, when the Spanish
+settlements of the La Plata region were divided into three provinces,
+Paraguay, Tucuman and Buenos Aires, and Garay's "city" became the capital
+of the latter and also the seat of a new bishopric. The increasing
+population and trade of the La Plata settlements naturally contributed to
+the importance and prosperity of Buenos Aires, but Spain seems to have
+taken very little interest in the town at that time. Peru still dazzled the
+imagination with her stores of gold and silver, and the king and his
+councillors and merchants had no thought for the little trading station on
+the La Plata, for which one small shipment of supplies each year was at
+first thought sufficient. The proximity of the Portuguese settlements of
+Brazil and the unprotected state of the coast, however, made smuggling
+easy, and the colonists soon learned to supply their own needs in that way.
+The heavy seigniorage tax on gold and silver, and the costs of
+transportation by way of Panama, also sent a stream of contraband metal
+from Charcas to Buenos Aires, where it found eager buyers among the
+Portuguese traders from Brazil, who even founded the town of Colonia on the
+opposite bank of the estuary to facilitate their hazardous traffic. In time
+the magnitude of these operations attracted attention at Madrid and efforts
+were made to suppress them, but without complete success until more liberal
+provisions were made to promote trade between Spain and her colonies. In
+1776 the Rio de la Plata provinces were erected into a vice-royalty, and
+Buenos Aires became its capital. Two years later the old commercial
+restrictions were abolished and a new code was promulgated, so liberal in
+character compared with the old that it was called the "free trade
+regulations." Under the old system all intercourse with foreign countries
+had been prohibited, with the exception of Great Britain and Portugal--the
+former having a contract (1715 to 1739) to introduce African slaves, and
+permission to send one shipload of merchandise each year to certain
+colonial ports, and the latter's Brazilian colonies having permission to
+import from Buenos Aires each year 2000 fanegas of wheat, 500 quintals of
+jerked beef and 500 of tallow. The African slaves introduced into Buenos
+Aires in this way were limited to 800 a year, and were the only slaves of
+that character ever received except some from Brazil after 1778, when
+greater commercial activity in the port created a sudden demand for
+labourers. Under the new regulations 9 ports in Spain and 24 in the
+colonies were declared _puertos habilitados_, or ports of entry, and trade
+between them was permitted, though under many restrictions. The effect of
+this change may be seen in the exportation of hides to the mother country,
+which had been only 150,000 a year before 1778, but rose to 700,000 and
+800,000 a year after that date. (For the later history of the city see
+ARGENTINA.)
+
+(A. J. L.)
+
+BUFF (from Fr. _buffle_, a buffalo), a leather originally made from the
+skin of the buffalo, now also from the skins of other animals, of a dull
+pale yellow colour, used for making the buffcoat or jerkin, a leathern
+military coat. The old 3rd Foot regiment of the line in the British army
+(now the East Kent Regiment), and the old 78th Foot (now 2nd battalion
+Seaforth Highlanders), are called the "Buffs" and the "Ross-shire Buffs"
+respectively, from the yellow or buff-colour of their facings. The term is
+commonly used now of the colour alone.
+
+BUFFALO, a city and port of entry, and the county-seat of Erie county, New
+York, U.S.A., the second city in population in the state, and the eighth in
+the United States, at the E. extremity of Lake Erie, and at the upper end
+of the Niagara river; distant by rail from New York City 423 m., from
+Boston 499 m., and from Chicago 540 m.
+
+The site of the city, which has an area of 42 sq. m., is a broad,
+undulating tract, rising gradually from the lake to an elevation of from 50
+to 80 ft., its altitude averaging somewhat less than 600 ft. above
+sea-level. The high land and temperate climate, and the excellent drainage
+and water-supply systems, make Buffalo one of the most healthy cities in
+the United States, its death-rate in 1900 being 14.8 per thousand, and in
+1907 15.58. As originally platted by Joseph Ellicott, the plan of Buffalo
+somewhat resembled that of Washington, but the plan was much altered and
+even then not adhered to. Buffalo to-day has broad and spacious streets,
+most of which are lined by trees, and many small parks and squares. The
+municipal park system is one of unusual beauty, consisting of a chain of
+parks with a total area of about 1030 acres, encircling the city and
+connected by boulevards and driveways. The largest is Delaware Park, about
+365 acres, including a lake of 461/2 acres, in the north part of the city;
+the north part of the park was enclosed in the grounds of the Pan-American
+Exposition of 1901. Adjoining it is the Forest Lawn cemetery, in which are
+monuments to President Millard Fillmore, and to the famous Seneca chief Red
+Jacket (1751-1830), a friend of the whites, who was faithful when
+approached by Tecumseh and the Prophet, and warned the Americans of their
+danger; by many he has been considered the greatest orator of his race.
+Among the other parks are Cazenovia Park, Humboldt Park, South Park on the
+Lake Shore, and "The Front" on a bluff overlooking the source of the
+Niagara river; in the last is Fort Porter (named in honour of Peter B.
+Porter), where the United States government maintains a garrison.
+
+_Principal Buildings._--Buffalo is widely known for the beauty of its
+residential sections, the houses being for the most part detached, set well
+back from the street, and surrounded by attractive lawns. Among the
+principal buildings are the Federal building, erected at a cost of
+$2,000,000; the city and county hall, costing $1,500,000, with a clock
+tower 245 ft. high; the city convention hall, the chamber of commerce, the
+builders' exchange, the Masonic temple, two state armouries, the
+Prudential, Fidelity Trust, White and Mutual Life buildings, the Teck, Star
+and Shea's Park theatres, and the Ellicott Square building, one of the
+largest office structures in the world; and, in Delaware Park, the Albright
+art gallery, and the Buffalo Historical Society building, which was
+originally the New York state building erected for the Pan-American
+Exposition held in 1901. Among the social clubs the Buffalo, the
+University, the Park, the Saturn and the Country clubs, and among the
+hotels the Iroquois, Lafayette, Niagara and Genesee, may be especially
+mentioned. There are many handsome churches, including St Joseph's (Roman
+Catholic) and St Paul's (Protestant Episcopal) cathedrals, [v.04 p.0700]
+and Trinity (Protestant Episcopal), the Westminster Presbyterian, the
+Delaware Avenue Baptist, and the First Presbyterian churches.
+
+_Education._--In addition to the usual high and grammar schools, the city
+itself supports a city training school for teachers, and a system of night
+schools and kindergartens. Here, too, is a state normal school. The
+university of Buffalo (organized in 1845) comprises schools of medicine
+(1845), law (1887), dentistry (1892), and pharmacy (1886). Canisius College
+is a Roman Catholic (Jesuit) institution for men (established in 1870 and
+chartered in 1883), having in 1907 a college department and an academic (or
+high school) department, and a library of about 26,000 volumes. Martin
+Luther Seminary, established in 1854, is a theological seminary of the
+Evangelical Lutheran Church. Among the best-known schools are the Academy
+of the Sacred Heart, Buffalo Seminary, the Franklin and the Heathcote
+schools, Holy Angels and St Mary's academies, St Joseph's Collegiate
+Institute, and St Margaret's school for girls. The Buffalo public library,
+founded in 1837, is housed in a fine building erected in 1887 (valued at
+$1,000,000), and contains about 300,000 books and pamphlets. Other
+important libraries, with the approximate number of their books, are the
+Grosvenor (founded in 1859), for reference (75,000 volumes and 7000
+pamphlets); the John C. Lord, housed in the building of the Historical
+Society (10,620); the Law (8th judicial district) (17,000); the Catholic
+Institute (12,000); and the library of the Buffalo Historical Society
+(founded 1862) (26,600), now in the handsome building in Delaware Park used
+as the New York state building during the Pan-American Exposition of 1901.
+The Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences has a museum in the public library
+building.
+
+_Public Institutions._--The hospitals and the charitable and correctional
+institutions are numerous and are well administered. Many private
+institutions are richly endowed. Among the hospitals are a state hospital
+for the insane, the Erie county, the Buffalo general, the Children's, the
+United States marine (maintained by the Federal government), the German,
+the Homeopathic, the Women's, the German Deaconess and the Riverside
+hospitals, and the Buffalo hospital of the Sisters of Charity. Nurses'
+training schools are connected with most of these. Among the charitable
+institutions are the Home for the Friendless, the Buffalo, St Vincent's and
+St Joseph's orphan asylums, St John's orphan home, St Mary's asylum for
+widows and foundlings, and the Ingleside home for erring women. One of the
+most noteworthy institutions in the city is the Charity Organisation
+Society, with headquarters in Fitch Institute. Founded in 1877, it was the
+first in the United States, and its manifold activities have not only
+contributed much to the amelioration of social conditions in Buffalo, but
+have caused it to be looked to as a model upon which similar institutions
+have been founded elsewhere.
+
+The first newspaper, the _Gazette_ (a weekly), was established in 1811 and
+became the _Commercial_, a daily, in 1835. The first daily was the
+_Courier_, established in 1831. There were in 1908 eleven daily papers
+published, three of which were in German and two in Polish. The weekly
+papers include several in German, three in Polish, and one in Italian.
+
+_Government and Population._--Buffalo is governed under an amended city
+charter of 1896 by which the government is vested in a bicameral city
+council, and a mayor elected for a term of four years. The mayor appoints
+the heads of the principal executive departments (health, civil service,
+parks, police and fire). The city clerk is elected by the city council. The
+municipality maintains several well-equipped public baths, and owns its
+water-supply system, the water being obtained from Lake Erie. The city is
+lighted by electricity generated by the water power of Niagara Falls, and
+by manufactured gas. Gas, obtained by pipe lines from the Ohio-Pennsylvania
+and the Canadian (Welland) natural gas fields, is also used extensively for
+lighting and heating purposes.
+
+From the first census enumeration in 1820 the population has steadily and
+rapidly increased from about 2000 till it reached 352,387 inhabitants in
+1900, and 423,715 (20% increase) in 1910. In 1900 there were 248,135
+native-born and 104,252 foreign-born; 350,586 were white and only 1801
+coloured, of whom 1698 were negroes. Of the native-born whites, 155,716 had
+either one or both parents foreign-born; and of the total population 93,256
+were of unmixed German parentage. Of the foreign-born population 36,720
+were German, the other large elements in their order of importance being
+Polish, Canadian, Irish, the British (other than Irish). Various sections
+of the poorer part of the city are occupied almost exclusively by the
+immigrants from Poland, Hungary and Italy.
+
+_Communications and Commerce._--Situated almost equidistant from Chicago,
+Boston and New York, Buffalo, by reason of its favourable location in
+respect to lake transportation and its position on the principal northern
+trade route between the East and West, has become one of the most important
+commercial and industrial centres in the Union. Some fourteen trunk lines
+have terminals at, or pass through, Buffalo. Tracks of a belt line transfer
+company encircle the city, and altogether there are more than 500 m. of
+track within the limits of Buffalo. Of great importance also is the lake
+commerce. Almost all the great steamship transportation lines of the Great
+Lakes have an eastern terminus at Buffalo, which thus has direct passenger
+and freight connexion with Cleveland, Detroit, Chicago, Milwaukee and the
+"Head of the Lakes" (Duluth-Superior). With the latter port it is connected
+by the Great Northern Steamship Company, a subsidiary line of the Great
+Northern railway, the passenger service of which is carried on by what are
+probably the largest and finest inland passenger steamships in existence.
+The tonnage of the port of Buffalo is considerably more than 5,000,000 tons
+annually. With a water front of approximately 20 m. and with 8 to 10 m. of
+wharfs, the shipping facilities have been greatly increased by the
+extensive harbour improvements undertaken by the Federal government. These
+improvements comprise a series of inner breakwaters and piers and an outer
+breakwater of stone and cement, 4 m. in length, constructed at a cost of
+more than $2,000,000. Another artery of trade of great importance is the
+Erie Canal, which here has its western terminus, and whose completion
+(1825) gave the first impetus to Buffalo's commercial growth. With the
+Canadian shore Buffalo is connected by ferry, and by the International
+bridge (from Squaw Island), which cost $1,500,000 and was completed in
+1873.
+
+It is as a distributing centre for the manufactured products of the East to
+the West, and for the raw products of the West to the East, and for the
+trans-shipment from lake to rail and vice versa, that Buffalo occupies a
+position of greatest importance. It is one of the principal grain and flour
+markets in the world. Here in 1843 Joseph Dart erected the first grain
+elevator ever constructed. In 1906 the grain elevators had a capacity of
+between twenty and thirty millions of bushels, and annual receipts of more
+than 200,000,000 bushels. The receipts of flour approximate 10,000,000
+barrels yearly. More than 10,000,000 head of live stock are handled in a
+year in extensive stock-yards (75 acres) at East Buffalo; and the horse
+market is the largest in America. Other important articles of commerce are
+lumber, the receipts of which average 200,000,000 ft. per annum; fish
+(15,000,000 lb annually); and iron ore and coal, part of which, however, is
+handled at Tonawanda, really a part of the port of Buffalo. Buffalo is the
+port of entry of Buffalo Creek customs district; in 1908 its imports were
+valued at $6,708,919, and its exports at $26,192,563.
+
+_Manufactures._--As a manufacturing centre Buffalo ranks next to New York
+among the cities of the state. The manufactures were valued in 1900 at
+$122,230,061 (of which $105,627,182 was the value of the factory product),
+an increase of 22.2% over 1890; value of factory product in 1905,
+$147,377,873. The value of the principal products in 1900 was as follows:
+slaughtering and meat packing, $9,631,187 (in 1905 slaughtering and
+meat-packing $12,216,433, and slaughtering, not including meat-packing,
+$3,919,940); foundry and machine shop products, $6,816,057 (1905,
+$11,402,855); linseed oil, $6,271,170; cars and shop construction,
+$4,513,333 (1905, $3,609,471); malt liquors, $4,269,973 (1905, $5,187,216);
+soap and candles, $3,818,571 (in 1905, soap [v.04 p.0701] $4,792,915);
+flour and grist mill products, $3,263,697 (1905, $9,807,906); lumber and
+planing mill products, $3,095,760 (1905, $4,186,668); clothing, $3,246,723
+(1905, $4,231,126); iron and steel products, $2,624,547. Other industrial
+establishments of importance include petroleum refineries, ship-yards,
+brick, stone and lime works, saddlery and harness factories, lithographing
+establishments, patent medicine works, chemical works, and copper smelters
+and refineries. Some of the plants are among the largest in existence,
+notably the Union and the Wagner Palace car works, the Union dry docks, the
+steel plants of the Lackawanna Iron and Steel Company, and the Larkin soap
+factory.
+
+_History._--The first white men to visit the site of Buffalo were
+undoubtedly the adventurous French trappers and various Jesuit
+missionaries. Near here, on the east bank of the Niagara river at the mouth
+of Cayuga Creek, La Salle in 1679 built his ship the "Griffin," and at the
+mouth of the river built Fort Conti, which, however, was burned in the same
+year. In 1687 marquis de Denonville built at the mouth of the river a fort
+which was named in his honour and was the predecessor of the fortifications
+on or near the same site successively called Fort Niagara; and the
+neighbourhood was the scene of military operations up to the close of the
+War of Independence. As early as 1784 the present site of the city of
+Buffalo came to be known as "the Buffalo Creek region" either from the
+herds of buffalo or bison which, according to Indian tradition, had
+frequented the salt licks of the creek, or more probably from an Indian
+chief. A little later, possibly in 1788-1789, Cornelius Winney, an Indian
+trader, built a cabin near the mouth of the creek and thus became the first
+permanent white resident. Slowly other settlers gathered. The land was a
+part of the original Phelps-Gorham Purchase, and subsequently (about 1793)
+came into the possession of the Holland Land Company, being part of the
+tract known as the Holland Purchase. Joseph Ellicott, the agent of the
+company, who has been called the "Father of Buffalo," laid out a town in
+1801-1802, calling it New Amsterdam, and by this name it was known on the
+company's books until about 1810. The name of Buffalo Creek or Buffalo,
+however, proved more popular; the village became the county-seat of Niagara
+county in 1808, and two years later the town of Buffalo was erected. Upon
+the outbreak of the second war with Great Britain, Buffalo and the region
+about Niagara Falls became a centre of active military operations; directly
+across the Niagara river was the British Fort Erie. It was from Buffalo
+that Lieutenant Jesse D. Elliott (1782-1845) made his brilliant capture of
+the "Detroit" and "Caledonia" in October 1812; and on the 30th and 31st of
+December 1813 the settlement was attacked, captured, sacked, and almost
+completely destroyed by a force of British, Canadians and Indians under
+General Sir Phineas Riall (c. 1769-1851). After the cessation of
+hostilities, however, Buffalo, which had been incorporated as a village in
+1813, was rapidly rebuilt. Its advantages as a commercial centre were early
+recognized, and its importance was enhanced on the opening up of the middle
+West to settlement, when Buffalo became the principal gateway for the lake
+routes. Here in 1818 was rebuilt the "Walk-in-the-Water," the first
+steamboat upon the Great Lakes, named in honour of a famous Wyandot Indian
+chief. In 1825 the completion of the Erie Canal with its western terminus
+at Buffalo greatly increased the importance of the place, which now rapidly
+outstripped and soon absorbed Black Rock, a village adjoining it on the N.,
+which had at one time threatened to be a dangerous rival. In 1832 Buffalo
+obtained a city charter, and Dr Ebenezer Johnson (1786-1849) was chosen the
+first mayor. In that year, and again in 1834, a cholera epidemic caused
+considerable loss of life. At Buffalo in 1848 met the Free-Soil convention
+that nominated Martin van Buren for the presidency and Charles Francis
+Adams for the vice-presidency. Grover Cleveland lived in Buffalo from 1855
+until 1884, when he was elected president, and was mayor of Buffalo in
+1882, when he was elected governor of New York state. The Pan-American
+Exposition, in celebration of the progress of the Western hemisphere in the
+nineteenth century, was held there (May 1-November 2, 1901). It was during
+a reception in the Temple of Music on the Exposition grounds that President
+McKinley was assassinated (September 6th); he died at the home of John G.
+Milburn, the president of the Exposition. In the house of Ansley Wilcox
+here Vice-President Theodore Roosevelt took the oath of office as
+president. A marble shaft 80 ft. high, in memory of McKinley, has been
+erected in Niagara Square.
+
+See William Ketchum, _History of Buffalo_ (2 vols., Buffalo, 1864-1865);
+H.P. Smith, _History of Buffalo and Erie County_ (Syracuse, 1884);
+_Publications of the Buffalo Historical Society_ (Buffalo, 1879 et seq.);
+O. Turner, _History of the Holland Purchase_ (Buffalo, 1850); T.H.
+Hotchkin, _History of Western New York_ (New York, 1845); and the sketch in
+Lyman P. Powell's _Historic Towns of the Middle States_ (New York, 1901).
+
+BUFFALO, a name properly pertaining to an aberrant species of cattle which
+has been kept in a state of domestication in India and Egypt from time
+immemorial, and had been introduced from the latter country into southern
+Europe. It is now taken, however, to include not only this species, whose
+native home is India, but all more or less nearly related animals.[2]
+Buffaloes are heavily built oxen, with sparsely haired skin, large ears,
+long, tufted tails, broad muzzles and massive angulated horns. In having
+only 13 pairs of ribs they resemble the typical oxen. African buffaloes all
+have the hair of the back directed backwards.
+
+In the Cape buffalo, _Bos (Bubalus) caffer_, the horns do not attain an
+excessive length, but in old bulls are so expanded and thickened at the
+base as to form a helmet-like mass protecting the whole forehead. Several
+more or less nearly allied local races have been named; and in Eastern
+Africa the buffaloes (_B. coffer aequinoctialis_) have smaller horns, which
+do not meet in the middle line. From this animal, which is brown instead of
+black, there seems to be a transition towards the red dwarf buffalo (_B.
+nanus_) of West Africa, an animal scarcely more than two-thirds the size of
+its gigantic southern cousin, with relatively small, much flattened,
+upwardly curved horns. In South Africa buffaloes frequent reedy swamps,
+where they associate in herds of from fifty to a hundred or more
+individuals. Old bulls may be met with either alone or in small parties of
+from two or three to eight or ten. This buffalo formerly roamed in herds
+over the plains of Central and Southern Africa, always in the near vicinity
+of water, but the numbers are greatly diminished. In Cape Colony some herds
+are protected by the government in the eastern forest-districts. This
+species has never been domesticated, nor does there appear to have been any
+attempt to reduce it to service. Like its Indian ally it is fond of water,
+which it visits at regular intervals during the twenty-four hours; it also
+plasters itself with mud, which, when hardened by the sun, protects it from
+the bite of the gadflies which in spite of its thick hide seem to cause it
+considerable annoyance. It is relieved of a portion of the parasitic ticks,
+so common on the hides of thick-skinned animals, by means of the red-beaked
+rhinoceros birds, _Buphaga erythrorhynca_, a dozen or more of which may be
+seen partly perched on its horns and partly moving about on its back, and
+picking up the ticks on which they feed. The hunter is often guided by
+these birds in his search for the buffalo, but oftener still they give
+timely warning to their host of the dangerous proximity of the hunter, and
+have thus earned the title of "the buffalo's guardian birds."
+
+In a wild state the typical Indian buffalo, _Bos (Bubalus) bubalis_, seems
+to be restricted to India and Ceylon, although some of the buffaloes found
+in the Malay Peninsula and Islands probably represent local races. The
+species has been introduced into Asia Minor, Egypt, Italy and elsewhere.
+The large size and wide separation of the horns, as well as the less
+thickly fringed ears, and the more elongated and narrow head, form marked
+points of distinction between the Asiatic and South African species.
+Moreover, all Asiatic buffaloes are distinguished from the African forms by
+having the hair on the fore-part of the back directed forwards; and these
+go far to support the views of those who would make them the types of a
+distinct subgenus, [v.04 p.0702] or genus, _Buffelus_. In Assam there
+formerly existed a local race, _B. bubalis macrocercus_, characterized by
+the horns, which are of immense size, being directed mainly outwards,
+instead of curving upwards in a circular form. Another Assam race (_B.
+bubalis fulvus_) is characterized by the tawny, in place of black, colour
+of its hair and hide. The haunts of the Indian buffalo are the
+grass-jungles near swamps, in which the grass exceeds 20 ft. in height.
+Here the buffaloes--like the Indian rhinoceros--form covered pathways, in
+which they are completely concealed. The herds frequently include fifty or
+more individuals. These animals are fond of passing the day in marshes,
+where they love to wallow in the mud; they are by no means shy, and do much
+harm to the crops. The rutting-season occurs in autumn, when several
+females follow a single male, forming for the time a small herd. The period
+of gestation lasts for ten months, and the female produces one or two
+calves at a birth. The bull is capable, it is said, of overthrowing an
+elephant, and generally more than a match even for the tiger, which usually
+declines the combat when not impelled by hunger. The Indian driver of a
+herd of tame buffaloes does not shrink from entering a tiger-frequented
+jungle, his cattle, with their massive horns, making short work of any
+tiger that may come in their way. Buffalo fights and fights between
+buffaloes and tigers were recognized Indian sports in the old days.
+Domesticated buffaloes differ from their wild brethren merely by their
+inferior size and smaller horns; some of the latter being of the circular
+and others of the straight type. The milk is good and nourishing, but of a
+ropy consistency and a peculiar flavour.
+
+The tamarao, or Philippine buffalo, _Bos (Bubalus) mindorensis_, is a
+smaller animal, in many respects intermediate between the Indian buffalo
+and the dwarf anoa, or Celebes buffalo (_B. depressicornis_).
+
+(R. L.*)
+
+[1] It was a name applied also to a leather-covered case or small coffer.
+Cotgrave translates _bougette_ "a little coffer or trunk ... covered with
+leather." It became a common word for a despatch box in which official
+papers were kept. The chancellor of the exchequer thus was said to "open
+his budget" when he made his annual statement.
+
+[2] In America, it is worth noting, the term "buffalo" is almost
+universally taken, at all events in popular parlance, to designate the
+American bison, for which see BISON.
+
+BUFFET, LOUIS JOSEPH (1818-1898), French statesman, was born at Mirecourt.
+After the revolution of February 1848 he was elected deputy for the
+department of the Vosges, and in the Assembly sat on the right, pronouncing
+for the repression of the insurrection of June 1848 and for Louis Napoleon
+Bonaparte. He was minister of agriculture from August to December 1849 and
+from August to October 1851. Re-elected deputy in 1863, he was one of the
+supporters of the "Liberal Empire" of Emile Ollivier, being finance
+minister in Ollivier's cabinet from January to the 10th of April 1870. He
+was president of the National Assembly from the 4th of April 1872 to the
+10th of March 1875, and minister of the interior in 1875. Then, elected
+senator for life (1876), he pronounced himself in favour of the _coup
+d'etat_ of the 16th of May 1877. Buffet had some oratorical talent, but
+shone most in opposition.
+
+BUFFET, a piece of furniture which may be open or closed, or partly open
+and partly closed, for the reception of dishes, china, glass and plate. The
+word may also signify a long counter at which one stands to eat and drink,
+as at a restaurant, or--which would appear to be the original meaning--the
+room in which the counter stands. The word, like the thing it represents,
+is French. The buffet is the descendant of the credence, and the ancestor
+of the sideboard, and consequently has a close affinity to the dresser. Few
+articles of furniture, while preserving their original purpose, have varied
+more widely in form. In the beginning the buffet was a tiny apartment, or
+recess, little larger than a cupboard, separated from the room which it
+served either by a breast-high balustrade or by pillars. It developed into
+a definite piece of furniture, varying from simplicity to splendour, but
+always provided with one or more flat spaces, or broad shelves, for the
+reception of such necessaries of the dining-room as were not placed upon
+the table. The early buffets were sometimes carved with the utmost
+elaboration; the Renaissance did much to vary their form and refine their
+ornament. Often the lower part contained receptacles as in the
+characteristic English court-cupboard. The rage for collecting china in the
+middle of the 18th century was responsible for a new form--the high glazed
+back, fitted with shelves, for the display of fine pieces of crockery-ware.
+This, however, was hardly a true buffet, and was the very antithesis of the
+primary arrangement, in which the huge goblets and beakers and fantastic
+pieces of plate, of which so extremely few examples are left, were
+displayed upon the open "gradines." The tiers of shelves, with or without a
+glass front, which are still often found in Georgian houses, were sometimes
+called buffets--in short, any dining-room receptacle for articles that were
+not immediately wanted came at last to bear the name. In France the
+variations of type were even more numerous than in England, and it is
+sometimes difficult to distinguish a commode from a buffet. In the latter
+part of the 18th century the buffet occasionally took the form of a console
+table.
+
+BUFFIER, CLAUDE (1661-1737), French philosopher, historian and
+educationalist, was born in Poland, on the 25th of May 1661, of French
+parents, who returned to France, and settled at Rouen, soon after his
+birth. He was educated at the Jesuit college there, and was received into
+the order at the age of nineteen. A dispute with the archbishop compelled
+him to leave Rouen, and after a short stay in Rome he returned to Paris to
+the college of the Jesuits, where he spent the rest of his life. He seems
+to have been an admirable teacher, with a great power of lucid exposition.
+His object in the _Traite des verites premieres_ (1717), his best-known
+work, is to discover the ultimate principle of knowledge. This he finds in
+the sense we have of our own existence and of what we feel within
+ourselves. He thus takes substantially the same ground as Descartes, but he
+rejected the _a priori_ method. In order to know what exists distinct from
+the self, "common sense" is necessary. Common sense he defined as "that
+disposition which nature has placed in all or most men, in order to enable
+them, when they have arrived at the age and use of reason, to form a common
+and uniform judgment with respect to objects different from the internal
+sentiment of their own perception, which judgment is not the consequence of
+any anterior judgment." The truths which this "disposition of nature"
+obliges us to accept can be neither proved nor disproved; they are
+practically followed even by those who reject them speculatively. But
+Buffier does not claim for these truths of "common sense" the absolute
+certainty which characterizes the knowledge we have of our own existence or
+the logical deductions we make from our thoughts; they possess merely the
+highest probability, and the man who rejects them is to be considered a
+fool, though he is not guilty of a contradiction. Buffier's aversion to
+scholastic refinements has given to his writings an appearance of
+shallowness and want of metaphysical insight, and unquestionably he failed
+entirely even to indicate the nature of that universality and necessity
+which he ascribed to his "eternal verities"; he was, however, one of the
+earliest to recognize the psychological as distinguished from the
+metaphysical side of Descartes's principle, and to use it, with no
+inconsiderable skill, as the basis of an analysis of the human mind,
+similar to that enjoined by Locke. In this he has anticipated the spirit
+and method as well as many of the results of Reid and the Scottish school.
+Voltaire described him as "the only Jesuit who has given a reasonable
+system of philosophy."
+
+He wrote also _Elements de metaphysique_ (1724), a "French Grammar on a new
+plan," and a number of historical essays. Most of his works appeared in a
+collected form in 1732, and an English translation of the _Traite_ was
+published in 1780.
+
+BUFFON, GEORGE LOUIS LECLERC, COMTE DE (1707-1788), French naturalist, was
+born on the 7th of September 1707, at Montbard (Cote d'Or), his father,
+Benjamin Francois Leclerc de Buffon (1683-1775), being councillor of the
+Burgundian parlement. He studied law at the college of Jesuits at Dijon;
+but he soon exhibited a marked predilection for the study of the physical
+sciences, and more particularly for mathematics. Whilst at Dijon he made
+the acquaintance of a young Englishman, Lord Kingston, and with him
+travelled through Italy and then went to England. He published a French
+translation of Stephen Hales's _Vegetable Statics_ in 1735, and of Sir I.
+Newton's _Fluxions_ in 1740. At twenty-five years of age he succeeded to a
+considerable property, inherited from his mother, and from this time onward
+his life was devoted to regular scientific labour. At first he directed his
+attention more especially to mathematics, physics, [v.04 p.0703] and
+agriculture, and his chief original papers are connected with these
+subjects. In the spring of 1739 he was elected an associate of the Academy
+of Sciences; and at a later period of the same year he was appointed keeper
+of the Jardin du Roi and of the Royal Museum. This appears to have finally
+determined him to devote himself to the biological sciences in particular,
+and he began to collect materials for his _Natural History_. In the
+preparation of this voluminous work he associated with himself L.J.M.
+Daubenton, to whom the descriptive and anatomical portions of the treaties
+were entrusted, and the first three volumes made their appearance in the
+year 1749. In 1752 (not in 1743 or 1760, as sometimes stated) he married
+Marie Francoise de Saint-Belin. He seems to have been fondly attached to
+her, and felt deeply her death at Montbard in 1769. The remainder of
+Buffon's life as a private individual presents nothing of special interest.
+He belonged to a very long-lived race, his father having attained the age
+of ninety-three, and his grandfather eighty-seven. He himself died at Paris
+on the 15th of April 1788, at the age of eighty-one, of vesical calculus,
+having refused to allow any operation for his relief. He left one son,
+George Louis Marie Leclerc Buffon, who was an officer in the French army,
+and who died by the guillotine, at the age of thirty, on the 10th of July
+1793 (22 Messidor, An II.), having espoused the party of the duke of
+Orleans.
+
+Buffon was a member of the French Academy (his inaugural address being the
+celebrated _Discours sur le style_, 1753), perpetual treasurer of the
+Academy of Sciences, fellow of the Royal Society of London, and member of
+the Academies of Berlin, St Petersburg, Dijon, and of most of the learned
+societies then existing in Europe. Of handsome person and noble presence,
+endowed with many of the external gifts of nature, and rejoicing in the
+social advantages of high rank and large possessions, he is mainly known by
+his published scientific writings. Without being a profound original
+investigator, he possessed the art of expressing his ideas in a clear and
+generally attractive form. His chief defects as a scientific writer are
+that he was given to excessive and hasty generalization, so that his
+hypotheses, however seemingly brilliant, are often destitute of any
+sufficient basis in observed facts, whilst his literary style is not
+unfrequently theatrical and turgid, and a great want of method and order is
+commonly observable in his writings.
+
+His great work is the _Histoire naturelle, generale et particuliere_; and
+it can undoubtedly claim the merit of having been the first work to present
+the previously isolated and apparently disconnected facts of natural
+history in a popular and generally intelligible form. The sensation which
+was made by its appearance in successive parts was very great, and it
+certainly effected much good in its time by generally diffusing a taste for
+the study of nature. For a work so vast, however--aiming, as it did, at
+being little less than a general encyclopaedia of the sciences--Buffon's
+capacities may, without disparagement, be said to have been insufficient,
+as is shown by the great weakness of parts of the work (such as those
+relating to mineralogy). The _Histoire naturelle_ passed through several
+editions, and was translated into various languages. The edition most
+highly prized by collectors, on account of the beauty of its plates, is the
+first, which was published in Paris (1749-1804) in forty-four quarto
+volumes, the publication extending over more than fifty years. In the
+preparation of the first fifteen volumes of this edition (1749-1767) Buffon
+was assisted by Daubenton, and subsequently by P. Gueneau de Montbeliard,
+the abbe G.L.C.A. Bexon, and C.N.S. Sonnini de Manoncourt. The following
+seven volumes form a supplement to the preceding, and appeared in
+1774-1789, the famous _Epoques de la nature_ (1779) being the fifth of
+them. They were succeeded by nine volumes on the birds (1770-1783), and
+these again by five volumes on minerals (1783-1788). The remaining eight
+volumes, which complete this edition, appeared after Buffon's death, and
+comprise reptiles, fishes and cetaceans. They were executed by B.G.E. de
+Lacepede, and were published in successive volumes between 1788 and 1804. A
+second edition begun in 1774 and completed in 1804, in thirty-six volumes
+quarto, is in most respects similar to the first, except that the
+anatomical descriptions are suppressed and the supplement recast.
+
+See Humbert-Bazile, _Buffon, sa famille, &c._ (1863); M.J.P. Flourens,
+_Hist. des travaux et des idees de Buffon_ (1844, 3rd ed., 1870); H.
+Nadault de Buffon, _Correspondance de Buffon_ (1860); A.S. Packard,
+_Lamarck_ (1901).
+
+BUG, the name of two rivers of Europe. (1) A stream of European Russia,
+distinguished sometimes as the Southern Bug, which rises in the S. of the
+government of Volhynia, and flows generally S.E. through the governments of
+Podolia and Kherson, and after picking up the Ingul from the left at
+Nikolayev, enters the _liman_ or lagoon into which the Dnieper also
+discharges. Its length is 470 m. Its upper part is beset with rapids, and
+its lower is of little value for navigation on account of the numerous
+sandbanks and blocks of rock which choke its bed. (2) A river distinguished
+as the Western Don, which rises in the E. of Austrian Galicia between
+Tarnopol and Brody, and flows N.N.W. as far as Brest-Litovsk, separating
+the Polish provinces of Lublin and Siedlce from the Russian governments of
+Volhynia and Grodno; it then swings away almost due W., between the
+provinces of Warsaw and Lomza, and joins the Vistula, 23 m. below the city
+of Warsaw. Length, 470 m. It is navigable from Brest-Litovsk downwards.
+
+BUG, the common name for hemipterous insects of the family _Cimicidae_, of
+which the best-known example is the house bug or bed bug (_Cimex
+lectularius_). This disgusting insect is of an oval shape, of a rusty red
+colour, and, in common with the whole tribe to which it belongs, gives off
+an offensive odour when touched; unlike the others, however, it is
+wingless. The bug is provided with a proboscis, which when at rest lies
+along the inferior side of the thorax, and through which it sucks the blood
+of man, the sole food of this species. It is nocturnal in its habits,
+remaining concealed by day in crevices of bed furniture, among the
+hangings, or behind the wall paper, and shows considerable activity in its
+nightly raids in search of food. The female deposits her eggs at the
+beginning of summer in crevices of wood and other retired situations, and
+in three weeks the young emerge as small, white, and almost transparent
+larvae. These change their skin very frequently during growth, and attain
+full development in about eleven weeks. Two centuries ago the bed bug was a
+rare insect in Britain, and probably owes its name, which is derived from a
+Celtic word signifying "ghost" or "goblin," to the terror which its attacks
+at first inspired. An allied species, the dove-cote bug (_Cimex
+columbaria_), attacks domestic fowls and pigeons.
+
+BUGEAUD DE LA PICONNERIE, THOMAS ROBERT, DUKE OF ISLY (1784-1849), marshal
+of France, was born at Limoges on the 15th of October 1784. He came of a
+noble family of Perigord, and was the youngest of his parents' thirteen
+children. Harsh treatment led to his flight from home, and for some years
+about 1800 he lived in the country, engaged in agriculture, to which he was
+ever afterwards devoted. At the age of twenty he became a private soldier
+in the _Velites_ of the Imperial Guard (1804), with which he took part in
+the Austerlitz campaign of the following year. Early in 1806 he was given a
+commission, and as a sub-lieutenant he served in the Jena and Eylau
+campaigns, winning his promotion to the rank of lieutenant at Pultusk
+(December 1806). In 1808 he was in the first French corps which entered
+Spain, and was stationed in Madrid during the revolt of the _Dos Mayo_. At
+the second siege of Saragossa he won further promotion to the rank of
+captain, and in 1809-1810 found opportunities for winning distinction under
+General (Marshal) Suchet in the eastern theatre of the Peninsular War, in
+which he rose to the rank of major and the command of a full regiment. At
+the first restoration he was made a colonel, but he rejoined Napoleon
+during the Hundred Days, and under his old chief Suchet distinguished
+himself greatly in the war in the Alps. For fifteen years after the fall of
+Napoleon he was not re-employed, and during this time he displayed great
+activity in agriculture and in the general development of his district of
+Perigord. The July revolution of 1830 reopened his military career, and
+after a short tenure of a regimental command he was in 1831 made a
+_marechal de camp_. In the chamber [v.04 p.0704] of deputies, to which he
+was elected in the same year, he showed himself to be an inflexible
+opponent of democracy, and in his military capacity he was noted for his
+severity in police work and the suppression of _emeutes_. His conduct as
+gaoler of the duchesse de Berry led to a duel between Bugeaud and the
+deputy Dulong, in which the latter was killed (1834); this affair and the
+incidents of another _emeute_ exposed Bugeaud to ceaseless attacks in the
+Chamber and in the press, but his opinion was sought by all parties in
+matters connected with agriculture and industrial development. He was
+re-elected in 1834, 1837 and 1839.
+
+About this time Bugeaud became much interested in the question of Algeria.
+At first he appears to have disapproved of the conquest, but his
+undeviating adherence to Louis Philippe brought him into agreement with the
+government, and with his customary decision he proposed to employ at once
+whatever forces were necessary for the swift, complete and lasting
+subjugation of Algeria. Later events proved the soundness of his views; in
+the meantime Bugeaud was sent to Africa in a subordinate capacity, and
+proceeded without delay to initiate his war of flying columns. He won his
+first victory on the 7th of July 1836, made a brilliant campaign of six
+weeks' duration, and returned home with the rank of lieutenant-general. In
+the following year he signed the treaty of Tafna (June 1st, 1837), with
+Abd-el-Kader, an act which, though justified by the military and political
+situation, led to a renewal of the attacks upon him in the chamber, to the
+refutation of which Bugeaud devoted himself in 1839. Finally, in 1840, he
+was nominated governor-general of Algeria, and early in 1841 he put into
+force his system of flying columns. His swiftness and energy drove back the
+forces of Abd-el-Kader from place to place, while the devotion of the rank
+and file to "Pere Bugeaud" enabled him to carry all before him in action.
+In 1842 he secured the French positions by undertaking the construction of
+roads. In 1843 Bugeaud was made marshal of France, and in this and the
+following year he continued his operations with unvarying success. His
+great victory of Isly on the 14th of August 1844 won for him the title of
+duke. In 1845, however, he had to take the field again in consequence of
+the disaster of Sidi Brahim (22nd of September 1845), and up to his final
+retirement from Algeria (July 1846) he was almost constantly employed in
+the field. His resignation was due to differences with the home government
+on the question of the future government of the province. Amidst his other
+activities he had found time to study the agricultural characteristics of
+the conquered country, and under his regime the number of French colonists
+had grown from 17,000 to 100,000. In 1848 the marshal was in Paris during
+the revolution, but his orders prevented him from acting effectually to
+suppress it. He was asked, but eventually refused, to be a candidate for
+the presidency in opposition to Louis Napoleon. His last public service was
+the command of the army of the Alps, formed in 1848-1849 to observe events
+in Italy. He died in Paris on the 10th of June 1849.
+
+Bugeaud's writings were numerous, including his _Oeuvres militaires_,
+collected by Weil (Paris, 1883), many official reports on Algeria and the
+war there, and some works on economics and political science. See Comte
+d'Ideville, _Le Marechal Bugeaud_ (Paris, 1881-1882).
+
+BUGENHAGEN, JOHANN (1485-1558), surnamed POMERANUS, German Protestant
+reformer, was born at Wollin near Stettin on the 24th of June 1485. At the
+university of Greifswald he gained much distinction as a humanist, and in
+1504 was appointed by the abbot of the Praemonstratensian monastery at
+Belbuck rector of the town school at Treptow. In 1509 he was ordained
+priest and became a vicar in the collegiate _Marienkirche_ at Treptow; in
+1517 he was appointed lecturer on the Bible and Church Fathers at the abbey
+school at Belbuck. In 1520 Luther's _De Captivitate Babylonica_ converted
+him into a zealous supporter of the Reformer's views, to which he won over
+the abbot among others. In 1521 he went to Wittenberg, where he formed a
+close friendship with Luther and Melanchthon, and in 1522 he married. He
+preached and lectured in the university, but his zeal and organizing skill
+soon spread his reforming influence far beyond its limits. In 1528 he
+arranged the church affairs of Brunswick and Hamburg; in 1530 those of
+Luebeck and Pomerania. In 1537 he was invited to Denmark by Christian III.,
+and remained five years in that country, organizing the church (though only
+a presbyter, he consecrated the new Danish bishops) and schools. He passed
+the remainder of his life at Wittenberg, braving the perils of war and
+persecution rather than desert the place dear to him as the home of the
+Reformation. He died on the 20th of April 1558. Among his numerous works is
+a history of Pomerania, which remained unpublished till 1728. Perhaps his
+best book is the _Interpretatio in Librum Psalmorum_ (1523), and he is also
+remembered as having helped Luther in his translation of the Bible.
+
+See Life by H. Hering (Halle, 1888); Emil Goerigk, _Bugenhagen und die
+Protestantisierung Pommerns_ (1895). O. Vogt published a collection of
+Bugenhagen's correspondence in 1888, and a supplement in 1890.
+
+BUGGE, SOPHUS (1833-1907), Norwegian philologist, was born at Laurvik,
+Norway, on the 5th of January 1833. He was educated at Christiania,
+Copenhagen and Berlin, and in 1866 he became professor of comparative
+philology and Old Norse at Christiania University. In addition to
+collecting Norwegian folk-songs and traditions, and writing on Runic
+inscriptions, he made considerable contributions to the study of the
+Celtic, Romance, Oscan, Umbrian and Etruscan languages. He was the author
+of a very large number of books on philology and folklore. His principal
+work, a critical edition of the elder Edda (_Norroen Fornkvoedi_), was
+published at Christiania in 1867. He maintained that the songs of the
+_Edda_ and the earlier sagas were largely founded on Christian and Latin
+tradition imported into Scandinavian literature by way of England. His
+writings also include _Gamle Norske Folkeviser_ (1858), a collection of Old
+Norse folk-songs; _Bidrag til den aeldste skaldedigtnings historie_
+(Christiania, 1894); _Helge-digtene i den Aeldre Edda_ (Copenhagen, 1896,
+Eng. trans., _The Home of the Eddic Poems_, 1899); _Norsk Sagafortaelling
+op Sagaskrivning i Island_ (Christiania, 1901), and various books on Runic
+inscriptions. He died on the 8th of July 1907.
+
+For a further list of his works see J.B. Halvorsen, _Norsk
+Forfatter-Lexikon_, vol. i. (Christiania, 1885).
+
+BUGGY, a vehicle with either two (in England and India) or four wheels (in
+America). English buggies are generally hooded and for one horse. American
+buggies are for one horse or two, and either covered with a hood or open;
+among the varieties are the "Goddard" (the name of the inventor), the
+"box," so called from the shape of the body, the "cut under," i.e. cut out
+for the front wheels to cramp beneath and so turn in a narrow space, the
+"end-spring" and "side-bar," names referring to the style of hanging. A
+skeleton buggy, lightly constructed, is used on the American "speedways,"
+built and maintained for fast driving. The word is of unknown origin; it
+may be connected with "bogie" (_q.v._) a truck. The supposed Hindustani
+_baggi_, a gig, often given as the source, appears to be an invention or an
+adaptation into the vernacular of the English word.
+
+BUGIS, or BUGHIS, a people of Malayan stock, originally occupying only the
+kingdom of Boni in the south-western peninsula of the island of Celebes.
+From this district they spread over the whole island, and founded
+settlements throughout the whole Malay Archipelago. They are of middle size
+and robust, of very active, enterprising nature and of a complexion
+slightly lighter than the average Malay. In disposition they are brave,
+haughty and fierce, and are said to be more predisposed towards "running
+amuck" than any other Malayans. They speak a language allied to that of the
+Macassars, and write it with similar characters. It has been studied, and
+its letters reproduced in type by Dr B.F. Mathes of the Netherlands Bible
+Society. The Bugis are industrious and ingenious; they practise agriculture
+more than the neighbouring tribes, and manufacture cotton-cloth not only
+for their own use but for export. They also carry on a considerable trade
+in the mineral and vegetable products of Boni, such as gold-dust,
+tortoise-shell, pearls, nut-megs and camphor. Thair love of the sea has
+given them almost a monopoly of trade around Celebes. Their towns [v.04
+p.0705] are well built and they have schools of their own. The king is
+elected generally for life, and always from their own number, by the chiefs
+of the eight petty states that compose the confederation of Boni, and he
+cannot decide on any public measure without their consent. In some of the
+states the office of chief is hereditary; in others any member of the
+privileged classes may aspire to the dignity, and it not infrequently
+happens that the state is governed by a woman. The Bugis have been
+Mahommedans since the 17th century. Their original form of nature-worship
+had been much affected by Hindu influences, and even now they retain rites
+connected with the worship of Siva. See further BONI; CELEBES.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Modern Service Bugle, British Army (Charles
+Mahillon).]
+
+BUGLE, BUGLE-HORN, KEYED BUGLE, KENT BUGLE OR REGENT'S BUGLE (Fr. _Bugle_,
+_Clairon_, _Cor a clefs_, _Bugle a clefs_; Ger. _Fluegelhorn_, _Signalhorn_,
+_Bugelhorn_, _Klappenhorn_, _Kenthorn_; Ital. _Corna cromatica_), a treble
+brass wind instrument with cup-shaped mouthpiece and conical bore, used as
+a military duty and signal instrument. The bugle was originally, as its
+name denotes, a bull's horn,[1] of which it has preserved the
+characteristic conical bore of rapidly increasing diameter.
+
+Those members of the brass wind such as the horns, bugle, trumpet and
+tubas, which, in their simplest form, consist of tubes without lateral
+openings, depend for their scale on the harmonic series obtained by
+overblowing, i.e. by greater pressure of breath and by the increased
+tension of the lips, acting as reeds, across the mouthpiece. The harmonic
+series thus produced, which depends on the acoustic principles of the tube
+itself, and is absolutely uninfluenced by the manner in which the tube is
+bent, forms a natural subdivision in classifying these instruments:--(1)
+Those in which the lower harmonics from the second to the sixth or eighth
+are employed, such as the bugle, post-horn, the cornet a pistons, the
+trombone. (2) Those in which the higher harmonics from the third or fourth
+to the twelfth or sixteenth are mostly used, such as the French horn and
+trumpet. (3) Those which give out the fundamental tone and harmonics up to
+the eighth, such as the tubas and ophicleide.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+We thus find a fundamental difference between the trumpet and the bugle as
+regards the harmonic series. But although, to the casual beholder, these
+instruments may present a general similarity, there are other important
+structural distinctions. The tube of the trumpet is cylindrical, widening
+only at the bell, whereas that of the bugle, as stated above, is conical.
+Both instruments have cup-shaped mouthpieces outwardly similar. The
+peculiar shape of the basins, however, at the place where they open into
+the tube, angular in the trumpet and bevelled in the bugle, taken in
+conjunction with the bore of the main tube, gives to the trumpet its
+brilliant blaring tone, and to the bugle its more veiled but penetrating
+quality, characteristic of the whole family.[2] Only five notes are
+required for the various bugle-calls, although the actual compass of the
+instrument consists of eight, of which the first or fundamental, however,
+being of poor quality, is never used. There are bugles in C and in E flat,
+but the bugle in B flat is most generally used; the key of C is used in
+notation.
+
+In order to increase the compass and musical possibilities of the bugle,
+two methods have been adopted, the use of (1) keys and (2) valves. The
+application of keys to the bugle produced the Kent bugle, and later the
+ophicleide. The application of valves produced the family of saxhorns. The
+use of keys for wood wind instruments was known early in the 15th
+century,[3] perhaps before. In 1438, the duke of Burgundy paid Hennequin
+Haulx, instrument-maker of Brussels, 4 _ridres_ a piece for three tenor
+bombards with keys. In the 16th century we find a key applied to the bass
+flute-a-bec[4] and later to the large tenor cornetto.[5] In 1770 a
+horn-player named Koelbel, belonging to the imperial Russian band,
+experimented with keys on the trumpet, and in 1795 Weidinger of Vienna
+produced a trumpet with five keys. In 1810 Joseph Halliday, the bandmaster
+of the Cavan militia, patented the keyed bugle, with five keys and a
+compass of twenty-five notes, calling it the "Royal Kent Bugle" out of
+compliment to the duke of Kent, who was at the time commander-in-chief, and
+encouraged the introduction of the instrument into the regimental bands. A
+Royal Kent bugle in C, stamped with Halliday's name as inventor, and made
+by P. Turton, 5 Wormwood Gate, Dublin, was exhibited by Col. Shaw-Hellier
+at the Royal Military Exhibition in 1890.[6] The instrument measures 17
+in., and the total length of the tubing, including the mouthpiece, 501/2 in.
+The diameter at the mouthpiece is 1/2 in. and at the bell 53/4 in. The
+instrument has a chromatic compass of two octaves, [Illustration] the open
+notes being [Illustration].
+
+Mahillon (op. cit. p. 117) points out that the tonality of the key-bugle
+and kindred instruments is determined by the second harmonic given out by
+the open tube, the first key remaining open. To the original instrument
+specified in the patent, Halliday added a sixth key, which became the first
+and was in the normal position open; this key when closed gave B flat, with
+the same series of harmonics as the open tube. The series, however, becomes
+shorter with each successive key. Thus, on being opened, the second key
+gives [Illustration], the third key [Illustration], the fourth key
+[Illustration], the fifth key [Illustration], the sixth key [Illustration].
+The bore of the instrument is just wide enough in proportion to its length
+to make possible the playing of the fundamental tones in the first two
+series, but these notes are never used, and the harmonics above the sixth
+are also avoided, being of doubtful intonation. In the ophicleide, the bass
+of the key-bugle, the bore is sufficiently wide to produce the fundamentals
+of a satisfactory quality.
+
+The keyed bugle was chiefly used in B flat, a crook for B flat being
+frequently added to the bugle in C; the soprano bugle in E flat was also
+much used in military bands.
+
+The origin of the bugle, in common with that of the hunting horn, is of the
+highest antiquity. During the middle ages, the word "bugle" was applied to
+the ox and also to its horns, whether used as musical instruments or for
+drinking. The _New English Dictionary_ quotes a definition of bugle dating
+from c. 1398: "The Bugle ... is lyke to an oxe and is a fyers [v.04 p.0706]
+beest."[7] In 1300 a romance[8] contains the word used in both
+acceptations, "A thousand bugles of Ynde," and "tweye bugle-hornes and a
+bowe." F. Godefroy[9] gives quotations from early French which show that,
+as in England, the word bugle was frequently used as an adjective, and as a
+verb:--"IIII cors buglieres fist soner de randon" (_Quatre fils Aymon_, ed.
+P. Tarbe, p. 32), and "I grant cor buglerenc fit en sa tor soner" (_Aiol_,
+7457, _Societe des anciens textes francais_). Tubas, horns, cornets and
+bugles have as common archetype the horn of ram, bull or other animal,
+whose form was copied and modified in bronze, wood, brass, ivory, silver,
+&c. Of all these instruments, the bugle has in the highest degree retained
+the acoustic properties and the characteristic scale of the prototype, and
+is still put to the original use for giving military signals. The shofar of
+the ancient Hebrews, used at the siege of Jericho, was a cow's horn (Josh.
+vi. 4, 5, 8, 13, &c.), translated in the Vulgate _buccina_, in the
+paraphrase of the Chaldee _buccina ex cornu_. The directions given for
+sounding the trumpets of beaten silver described in Numbers x. form the
+earliest code of signals yet known; the narrative shows that the Israelites
+had metal wind instruments; if, therefore, they retained the more primitive
+cow's horn and ram's horn (shofar), it was from choice, because they
+attached special significance to them in connexion with their ritual. The
+trumpet of silver mentioned above was the _Khatsotsrah_, probably the long
+straight trumpet or tuba which also occurs among the instruments in the
+musical scenes of the ancient Egyptians and Assyrians. Gideon's use of a
+massed band of three hundred shofars to terrify and defeat the Midianites
+(Judges vii. 16), and Saul's call to arms (1 Sam. xiii. 3) show that the
+value of the shofar as a military instrument was well understood by the
+Jews. The cornu was used by the Roman infantry to sound the military calls,
+and Vegetius[10] states that the tuba and buccina were also used for the
+same purpose. Mahillon possesses a facsimile of an ancient Etruscan cornu,
+the length of which is 1.40 m.; he gives its scale,[11] pitched one tone
+below that of the bugle in E flat, as that of D flat, of which the
+harmonics [Illustration] from the second to the sixth are available. The
+same department of the British Museum was enriched in 1904 with a
+terra-cotta model (fig. 2) of a late Roman bugle (c. 4th century A.D.),
+bent completely round upon itself to form a coil between the mouthpiece and
+the bell-end (the latter has been broken off). This precious relic was
+found at Ventoux in France and has been acquired from the collection of M.
+Morel. This is precisely the form of bugle now used as a badge by the first
+battalion of the King's Own Light Infantry.[12] During the middle ages the
+use of the bugle-horn by knights and huntsmen, and perhaps also in naval
+warfare, was general in Europe, as the following additional quotations will
+show: "XXX cors bugleres, fait l'amirax soner" (_Conq. de Jerusalem_, 6811,
+Hippeau); "Two squyers blewe ... with ij grete bugles hornes" (Caxton,
+_Chron. Engl. ccix. 192_). The oliphant was a glorified bugle-horn made of
+rich material, such as ivory, carved and inlaid with designs in gold and
+silver.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Terra Cotta Model of Roman Bugle, 4th cent.
+(British Museum).]
+
+The history of the bugle as a military instrument is in England closely
+connected with the creation of the light infantry, in which it gradually
+superseded the drum[13] as a duty and signal instrument. It was during the
+17th century that the change was inaugurated; improvements in firearms
+brought about the gradual abandonment of armour by the infantry, and the
+formation of the light infantry and the adoption of the bugle followed by
+degrees. One of the oldest light infantry regiments, Prince Albert's 1st
+Somerset Light Infantry, formed in 1685 by the earl of Huntingdon, employed
+a drummer at that date at a shilling per day.[14] At the end of the 18th
+century we find the bugle the recognized signal instrument in the light
+infantry, while the trumpet remained that of the cavalry. The general order
+introducing the bugle as a minor badge for the light infantry is under date
+28th of December 1814. In 1856 the popularity of the keyed or Royal Kent
+bugle in the army had reached its height. A bugle-band was formed in the
+Royal Artillery as a substitute for the drum and fife band.[15] The
+organization and training of this bugle-band were entrusted to
+Trumpet-major James Lawson, who raised it to a very high standard of
+excellence. Major Lawson was a fine cornet player, and finding the scale of
+the service bugle too restricted he obtained permission to add to it a
+valve attachment, which made the bugle a chromatic instrument like the
+cornet, in fact practically a saxhorn. Before long, horns in E flat, tenor
+horns in B flat, euphoniums and bass tubas were added, all made of copper,
+and in 1869 the name of "bugle band" was changed to R.A. Brass Band, and in
+1877 it was merged in the Mounted Band. The bugle with its double
+development by means of keys into Royal Kent bugle and ophicleide, and by
+means of valves into saxhorns and tubas, formed the nucleus of brass bands
+of all countries during the greater part of the 19th century. The
+Fluegelhorn, as its name denotes, became the signal instrument of the
+infantry in Germany as in England, and still holds it own with the keyed
+bugle in the fine military bands of Austro-Hungary.
+
+There is in the department of prehistoric antiquities at the British Museum
+a fine bugle-horn belonging to the Bronze Age in Denmark; the tube, which
+has an accentuated conical bore, is bent in a semi-circle, and has on the
+inner bend a series of little rings from which were probably suspended
+ornaments or cords. An engraved design runs spirally round the whole length
+of the tube, which is in an excellent state of preservation.
+
+Meyerbeer introduced the bugle in B flat in his opera _Robert-le-Diable_ in
+the scene of the resurrection of the nuns, and a bugle in A in the fifth
+act.
+
+See, for further information on the technique of the instrument, Logier's
+_Introduction to the Art of Playing on the Royal Kent Bugle_ (London,
+Clementi, 1820); and for the use of the bugle in the French army, G.
+Kastner, _Le Manuel general de musique militaire_ (with illustrations,
+Paris, 1848).
+
+(K. S.)
+
+[1] The word is derived from Lat. _buculus_, a young bull. "Bugle," meaning
+a long jet or black glass bead, used in trimming ladies' dresses, is
+possibly connected with the Ger. _Bugel_, a bent piece of metal. The
+English name "bugle" is also given to a common labiate plant, the _Ajuga
+reptans_, not to be confused with the "Bugloss" or _Anchusa officinalis_.
+
+[2] For diagrams of these mouthpieces see V.C. Mahillon, _Elements
+d'acoustique_ (Brussels, 1874), p. 96.
+
+[3] See E. van der Straeten, _La Musique aux Pays-bas_, vol. vii. p. 38,
+where the instrument is not mentioned as a novelty; also Leon, comte de
+Laborde, _Les Ducs de Bourgogne_, pt. ii. (_Preuves_), (Paris, 1849), tom.
+i. p. 365, No. 1266.
+
+[4] Martin Agricola, _Musica Instrumentalis deudsch_ (Wittenberg, 1528), f.
+viii^b.
+
+[5] Michael Praetorius, _Syntagma Musicum_ (Wolfenbuettel, 1618), pl. viii.
+No. 5.
+
+[6] See Captain C.R. Day, _Descript. Catalogue_ (London, 1891), pp.
+168-169, and pl. xi. fig. D.
+
+[7] Barthol. Trevisa, _De Propr. Rebus_, xviii., xv., 1495, 774.
+
+[8] _King Alisaunder_, 5112 and 5282.
+
+[9] _Dictionnaire de l'ancienne langue francaise du IXe an XVe siecle._
+
+[10] _De re militari_, bk. iii. ch. v.
+
+[11] See _Catal. descriptif du musee instrumental du conservatoire de
+Bruxelles_, vol. i. (Ghent, 1880), p. 331. There are, in the department of
+Greek and Roman antiquities at the British Museum, two bronze Etruscan
+cornua, No. 2734, resembling the hunting horns of the middle ages and bent
+in a semicircular shape. They measure from end to end respectively 2 ft. 1
+in. and 2 ft. 2 in.
+
+[12] Maj. J.H.L. Archer, _The British Army Records_ (London, 1888), p. 402.
+
+[13] For the use of the drum in the 16th century, see Sir John Smyth,
+_Instructions and Observations for all Chieftaines, Captaines, &c._
+(London, 1595), pp. 158-159.
+
+[14] See Richard Cannon, _Historical Records_ of the regiment (London,
+1848), p. 3.
+
+[15] See H.G. Farmer, _Memoirs of the Royal Artillery Band_ (London, 1904),
+p. 183.
+
+BUGTI, a Baluch tribe of Rind (Arab) origin, numbering about 15,500, who
+occupy the hills to the east of the Sind-Peshin railway, between Jacobabad
+and Sibi, with the Marris (a cognate tribe) to the north of them. Like the
+Marris, the Bugtis are physically a magnificent race of people, fine
+horsemen, good swordsmen and hereditary robbers. An expedition against them
+was organized by Sir C. Napier in 1845, but they were never brought under
+control till Sir Robert Sandeman ruled Baluchistan. Since the construction
+of the railway, which completely outflanks their country, they have been
+fairly orderly.
+
+BUHLE, JOHANN GOTTLIEB (1763-1821), German scholar and philosopher, was
+born at Brunswick, and educated at Goettingen. He became professor of
+philosophy at Goettingen, Moscow (1840) and Brunswick. Of his numerous
+publications, [v.04 p.0707] the most important are the _Handbuch der
+Geschichte der Philosophie_ (8 vols., 1796-1804), and _Geschichte der
+neueren Philosophie_ (6 vols., 1800-1805). The latter, elaborate and well
+written, is lacking in critical appreciation and proportion; there are
+French and Italian translations. He edited Aratus (2 vols., 1793, 1801) and
+part of Aristotle (Bipontine edition, vols. i.-v., 1791-1904).
+
+BUHTURI [al-Walid ibn 'Ubaid Allah] (820-897), Arabian poet, was born at
+Manbij (Hierapolis) in Syria, between Aleppo and the Euphrates. Like Abu
+Tammam, he was of the tribe of Tai. While still young, he went to visit Abu
+Tammam at Horns, and by him was commended to the authorities at Ma'arrat
+un-Nu'man, who gave him a pension of 4000 dirhems (about L90) yearly. Later
+he went to Bagdad, where he wrote verses in praise of the caliph Motawakkil
+and of the members of his court. Although long resident in Bagdad he
+devoted much of his poetry to the praise of Aleppo, and much of his
+love-poetry is dedicated to Alwa, a maiden of that city. He died at Manbij
+Hierapolis in 897. His poetry was collected and edited twice in the 10th
+century, arranged in one edition alphabetically (i.e. according to the last
+consonant in each line); in the other according to subjects. It was
+published in Constantinople (A.D. 1883). Like Abu Tammam he made a
+collection of early poems, known as the Hamasa (index of the poems
+contained in it, in the _Journal of the German Oriental Society_, vol. 47,
+pp. 418 ff., cf. vol. 45, pp. 470 ff.).
+
+Biography in M^cG. de Slane's translation of Ibn Khallikan's _Biographical
+Dictionary_ (Paris and London, 1842), vol. iii. pp. 657 ff.; and in the
+_Book of Songs_ (see ABULFARAJ), vol. xviii. pp. 167-175.
+
+(G. W. T.)
+
+BUILDERS' RITES. Many people familiar with the ceremonies attendant on the
+laying of foundation stones, whether ecclesiastical, masonic or otherwise,
+may be at a loss to account for the actual origin of the custom in placing
+within a cavity beneath the stone, a few coins of the realm, newspapers,
+&c. The ordinary view that by such means particulars may be found of the
+event on the removal of the stone hereafter, may suffice as respects
+latter-day motives, but such memorials are deposited in the hope that they
+will never be disturbed, and so another reason must be found for such an
+ancient survival. Whilst old customs continue, the reasons for them are
+ever changing, and certainly this fact applies to laying foundation stones.
+Originally, it appears that living victims were selected as "a sacrifice to
+the gods," and especially to ensure the stability of the building. Grimm[1]
+remarks "It was often thought necessary to immure live animals and even men
+in the foundation, on which the structure was to be raised, to secure
+immovable stability." There is no lack of evidence as to this gruesome
+practice, both in savage and civilized communities. "The old pagan laid the
+foundation of his house and fortress in blood." [Footnote: Baring-Gould on
+"Foundations," _Murray's Mag._ (1887).] Under the walls of two round towers
+in Ireland (the only ones examined) human skeletons have been discovered.
+In the 15th century, the wall of Holsworthy church was built over a living
+human being, and when this became unlawful, images of living beings were
+substituted (_Folk-Lore Journal_, i. 23-24).
+
+The best succinct account of these rites is to be obtained in G. W. Speth's
+_Builders' Rites and Ceremonies_ (1893).
+
+(W. J. H.*)
+
+[1] _Teutonic Mythology_ (1883-1884), (trans. Stalleybrass).
+
+BUILDING.[1] The art of building comprises the practice of civil
+architecture, or the mechanical operations necessary to [Sidenote: Relation
+of building to architecture.] carry the designs of the architect into
+effect. It is not infrequently called "practical architecture," but the
+adoption of this form would lead only to confusion, by rendering it
+difficult to make the distinction generally understood between architecture
+(_q.v._) as a fine or liberal art, and architecture as a mechanical art.
+The execution of works of architecture necessarily includes building, but
+building is frequently employed when the result is not architectural; a man
+may be a competent builder without being an architect, but no one can be an
+accomplished architect unless he be competent to specify and direct all the
+operations of building. An architect should have a scientific knowledge of
+the various soils he may meet with, such as clay, earth, silt, rock,
+gravel, chalk, &c., so that when the trial holes are dug out on the site,
+he can see the nature of the soil, and at once know what kind of a
+foundation to put to the building, and the depth to which he must go to get
+a good bottom. He should also have a good knowledge of chemistry, so that
+he may understand the effects of the various acids, gases, &c., that are
+contained in the materials he uses, and the objections to their presence.
+He must be acquainted with the principles of timbering in trenches, and
+excavations, shoring, brickwork, fireproof construction, stonework,
+carpentry and joinery, smiths' work, plumbing, heating, ventilation, bells,
+electric and gas lighting, water-supply, drainage, plastering, tiling to
+internal walls or pavings and roofs, slating of roofs, glazing, painting
+and decoration. He should be able to calculate the various strengths and
+strains to be placed on any portion of the structure, and have a general
+knowledge of the building trade, enabling him to deal with any difficulty
+or defects that may arise.
+
+An important feature in the qualification of the architect is that he
+should be thoroughly conversant with the by-laws of the different towns or
+districts, as to the requirements for the various classes of buildings, and
+the special features of portions of the different buildings. The following
+are examples of the various buildings which he may have to design, and the
+erection of which he may have to superintend:--dwelling-houses, domestic
+buildings, shops, dwellings for the working class, public buildings such as
+churches, schools, hospitals, libraries and hotels, factories of all kinds
+for all general trades, studios, electric power stations, cold storage
+buildings, stables and slaughterhouses. With regard to factories, places
+for the storage or making of different patent foods, and for slaughter of
+beasts intended for human consumption, stringent by-laws are in most
+countries laid down and enforced by the public health authorities. In
+England, the Public Health Acts and By-laws are carried out by the various
+borough or district authorities, who appoint inspectors especially to study
+the health of the public with regard to sanitary arrangements. The
+inspectors have special powers to deal with all improper or defective food,
+or with any defects in buildings that may affect its cleanly preparation.
+
+In addition to meeting the requirements of the clients, the various
+buildings have to be constructed and planned on clearly [Sidenote: Reasons
+for special type of plans.] defined lines, according to the rules of the
+various authorities that control their erection; thus the construction and
+planning of public schools are governed in England by the board of
+education, and churches are governed by the various societies that assist
+in financing the erection of these edifices; of these the Incorporated
+Church Building Society exercises the strongest control. Factories both in
+England and France must be planned and erected to meet the separate acts
+that deal with these buildings. The fire insurance companies lay down
+certain requirements according to the size of the building, and the special
+trade for which it is erected, and fix their rate of premium accordingly.
+Dwelling-houses in London must be erected in accordance with the many
+building acts which govern the materials to be used, and the methods by
+which they shall be employed, the thickness of walls, rates of inclination
+of roofs, means of escape from fire, drainage, space at rear, &c. &c.;
+these laws especially forbid the use of timber framed buildings. In sundry
+districts in England where the model by-laws are not in force, notably at
+Letchworth, Herts, it is possible to erect buildings with sound materials
+untrammelled by by-laws. With regard to premises used in a combined way, as
+shop and dwelling-house, if in London, and the building exceeds 10 squares,
+or 1000 sq. ft. super in area, the stairs and a large portion of the
+building must be built of fire-resisting materials. In the erection of
+London flats under certain conditions the stairs and corridors [v.04
+p.0708] must be of fire-resisting materials, while in parts of New York
+timber buildings are allowed; for illustrations of these see the article
+CARPENTRY. In public buildings and theatres in London, Paris and New York
+not only the construction, but also the exits and seating accommodation and
+stage, including the scenery dock and flies, must conform to certain
+regulations.
+
+The conditions necessary for planning a successful building may be
+summarized as follows:--(1) Ease of access; (2) Good [Sidenote: Conditions
+necessary for a successful building.] light (3) Good service; (4) Pleasing
+environment and approaches; (5) Minimum cost with true economy; in the case
+of office buildings, also ease of rearrangement to suit tenants. An
+architect should also be practically acquainted with all the modes of
+operation in all the trades or arts employed in building, and be able
+minutely to estimate beforehand the absolute cost involved in the execution
+of a proposed structure. The power to do this necessarily involves that of
+measuring work (usually done by the quantity surveyor at an advanced stage
+of the work), and of ascertaining the quantities to be done. In ordinary
+practice the architect usually cubes a building at a price per foot cube,
+as will be described hereafter, but an architect should know how to measure
+and prepare quantities, or he cannot be said to be master of his
+profession.
+
+Building includes what is called construction, which is the branch of the
+science of architecture relating to the practical [Sidenote: Construction.]
+execution of the works required to produce any structure; it will therefore
+be necessary to explain the subject in a general manner before entering
+upon building in detail.
+
+Although the styles of architecture have varied at different periods,
+buildings, wherever similar materials are employed, must be constructed on
+much the same principles. Scientific knowledge of the natures and
+properties of materials has, however, given to the modern workman immense
+advantages over his medieval brother-craftsman, and caused many changes in
+the details of the trade, or art of building, although stones, bricks,
+mortar, &c., then as now, formed the element of the more solid parts of all
+edifices.
+
+The object of constructions is to adapt, combine and fit materials in such
+a manner that they shall retain in use the [Sidenote: General principles.]
+forms and dispositions assigned to them. If an upright wall be properly
+constructed upon a sufficient foundation, the combined mass will retain its
+position and bear pressure acting in the direction of gravity to any extent
+that the ground on which it stands, and the compound materials of the wall,
+can sustain. But pressure acting laterally has a necessary tendency to
+overthrow a wall, and therefore it will be the aim of the constructor to
+compel, as far as possible, all forces that can act upon an upright wall,
+to act in the direction of gravity, or else to give it permanent means of
+resistance in the direction opposite to that in which a disturbing force
+may act. Thus when an arch is built to bear against an upright wall, a
+buttress or other counterfort is applied in a direction opposed to the
+pressure of the arch. In like manner the inclined roof of a building
+spanning from wall to wall tends to thrust out the walls, and hence a tie
+is applied to hold the opposite sides of the roof together at its base,
+where alone a tie can be fully efficient, and thus the roof is made to act
+upon the walls wholly in the direction of gravity; or where an efficient
+tie is inapplicable, as in the case of a hammer beam roof, buttresses or
+counterforts are added to the walls, to enable them to resist the pressure
+outwards. A beam laid horizontally from wall to wall, as a girder to carry
+a floor and its load, may sag or bend downwards, and tend thereby to force
+out the walls, or the beam itself may break. Both these contingencies are
+obviated by trussing, which renders the beam stiff enough to place its load
+on the walls in the direction of gravity, and strong enough to carry it
+safely. Or if the beam be rigid in its nature, or uncertain in its
+structure, or both (as cast-iron is), and will break without bending, the
+constructor by the smiths' art will supply a check and ensure it against
+the possible contingency.
+
+Perfect stability, however, is not to be obtained with materials which are
+subject to influences beyond the control of man, and all matter is subject
+to certain influences of that nature. The [Sidenote: Materials.] influences
+mostly to be contended against are heat and humidity, the former of which
+produces movement of some kind or to some extent in all bodies, the latter,
+in many kinds of matter; whilst the two acting together contribute to the
+disintegration or decay of materials available for the purposes of
+construction. These pervading influences the constructor seeks to
+counteract, by proper selection and disposition of his materials.
+
+Stone and brick, the principal materials in general construction, keep
+their places in combination by means of gravity. They may [Sidenote:
+Stone.] be merely packed together, but in general they are compacted by
+means of mortar or cement, so that although the main constituent materials
+are wholly incompressible, masses of either, or of both, combined in
+structures are compressible, until the setting medium has indurated to a
+like condition of hardness. That kind of stone is best fitted for the
+purposes of general construction which is least absorbent of moisture, and
+at the same time free to work. Absorbent stone exposed to the weather
+rapidly disintegrates, and for the most part non-absorbent stone is so hard
+that it cannot always be used with a due regard to economy. When,
+therefore, suitable stone of both qualities can be obtained, the harder
+stone can be exposed to the weather, or to the action which the softer
+stone cannot resist, and made to form the main body of the structure of the
+latter so protected. The hard and the soft should be made to bear alike,
+and should therefore be coursed and bonded together by the mason's art,
+whether the work be of stone wrought into blocks and gauged to thickness,
+or of rough dressed or otherwise unshaped rubble compacted with mortar.
+
+Good bricks are less absorbent of moisture than any stone of the same
+degree of hardness, and are better non-conductors [Sidenote: Bricks.] of
+heat than stone. As the basis of a stable structure, brickwork is more to
+be relied upon than stone in the form of rubble, when the constituents bear
+the relation to one another last above referred to, the setting material
+being the same in both; because the brick by its shaped form seats itself
+truly, and produces by bonding a more perfectly combined mass, whilst the
+imperfectly shaped and variously sized stone as dressed rubble can neither
+bed nor bond truly, the inequalities of the form having to be compensated
+for with mortar, and the irregularity of size of the main constituent
+accounted for by the introduction of larger and smaller stones. The most
+perfect stability is to be obtained, nevertheless, from truly wrought and
+accurately seated and bonded blocks of stone, mortar being used to no
+greater extent than may be necessary to exclude wind and water and prevent
+the disintegrating action of these agents upon even the most durable stone.
+When water alone is to be dealt with, and especially when it is liable to
+act with force, mortar is necessary for securing to every block in the
+structure its own full weight, and the aid of every other collateral and
+superimposed stone, in order to resist the loosening effect which water in
+powerful action is bound to produce.
+
+In the application of construction to any particular object, the nature of
+the object will naturally affect the character of [Sidenote: Particular
+objects of construction.] the constructions and the materials of which they
+are to be formed. Every piece of construction should be complete in itself,
+and independent as such of everything beyond it. A door or a gate serves
+its purpose by an application wholly foreign to itself, but it is a good
+and effective, or a bad and ineffective, piece of construction,
+independently of the posts to which it may be hung, whilst the wheel of a
+wheelbarrow, comprising felloes, spokes and axletree, is a piece of
+construction complete in itself, and independent as such of everything
+beyond it. An arch of masonry, however large it may be, is not necessarily
+a piece of construction complete in itself, for it would fall to pieces
+without abutments. Thus a bridge consisting of a series of arches, however
+extensive, may be but one piece of construction, no arch being complete in
+itself without the collateral arches in the series to serve as its
+abutments, and the whole series being dependent thereby upon [v.04 p.0709]
+the ultimate abutments of the bridge, without which the structure would not
+stand. This illustration is not intended to apply to the older bridges with
+widely distended masses, which render each pier sufficient to abut the
+arches springing from it, but tend, in providing for a way over the river,
+to choke up the way by the river itself, or to compel the river either to
+throw down the structure or else to destroy its own banks.
+
+Some soils are liable to change in form, expanding and contracting under
+meteorological influences; such are clays which [Sidenote: Foundations.]
+swell when wetted and shrink when dried. Concrete foundations are commonly
+interposed upon such soils to protect the building from derangement from
+this cause; or walls of the cheaper material, concrete, instead of the more
+expensive brick or stone structure, are brought up from a level
+sufficiently below the ordinary surface of the ground. When concrete is
+used to obviate the tendency of the soil to yield to pressure, expanse or
+extent of base is required, and the concrete being widely spread should
+therefore be deep or thick as a layer, only with reference to its own power
+of transmitting to the ground the weight of the wall to be built upon it,
+without breaking across or being crushed. But when concrete is used as a
+substitute for a wall, in carrying a wall down to a low level, it is in
+fact a wall in itself, wide only in proportion to its comparative weakness
+in the absence of manipulated bond in its construction, and encased by the
+soil within which it is placed. When a concrete wall is used in place of
+brick the London Building Act requires an extra thickness of one-third; on
+the question of reinforced concrete no regulations as to thickness have at
+present been made.
+
+The foundation of a building of ordinary weight is for the most part
+sufficiently provided for by applying what are technically [Sidenote:
+Footings to walls.] termed "footings" to the walls. The reason for a
+footing is, that the wall obtains thereby a bearing upon a breadth of
+ground so much greater than its own width or thickness above the footing as
+to compensate for the difference between the power of resisting pressure of
+the wall, and of the ground or ultimate foundation upon which the wall is
+to rest. It will be clear from this that if a building is to be erected
+upon rock as hard as the main constituent of the walls theoretically no
+expanded footings will be necessary; if upon chalk, upon strong or upon
+weak gravel, upon sand or upon clay, the footing must be expanded with
+reference to the power of resistance of the structure to be used as a
+foundation; whilst in or upon made ground or other loose and badly combined
+or imperfectly resisting soil, a solid platform bearing evenly over the
+ground, and wide enough not to sink into it, becomes necessary under the
+constructed footing. For this purpose the easiest, the most familiar, and
+for most purposes the most effectual and durable is a layer of concrete.
+
+The English government, when it has legislated upon building matters, has
+generally confined itself to making provision that the enclosing walls of
+buildings should be formed of incombustible materials. In provisions
+regarding the least thicknesses of such walls, these were generally
+determined with reference to the height and length of the building.
+
+In the general and usual practice of developing land at the present day,
+the owner or freeholder of the land first consults an [Sidenote: Procedure
+for an intended building.] architect and states his intentions of building,
+the size of what he requires, what it is to be used for, if for trade how
+many hands he intends to employ, and the sub-buildings and departments,
+&c., that will be wanted. The architect gathers as much information as he
+can as to his client's requirements, and from this information prepares his
+sketches. This first step is usually done with rough sketches or outlines
+only, and when approved by the client as regards the planning and situation
+of rooms, &c., the architect prepares the plans, elevations, and sections
+on the lines of the approved rough sketches; at the same time he strictly
+observes the building acts, and makes every portion of the building comply
+with these acts as regards the thickness of walls, open spaces, light and
+air, distances from surrounding property, frontage lines, and a host of
+other points too numerous to mention, as far as he can interpret the
+meaning of the enactments. (The London and New York Building Acts are very
+extensive, with numerous amendments made as occasion requires.) An
+architect, whilst preparing the working drawings from the rough approved
+sketches, and endeavouring to conform with the Building Act requirements,
+often finds after consultation with the district surveyor, or the London
+County Council, or other local authorities, that the plans have to be
+altered; and when so altered the client may disapprove of them, and thus
+delay often occurs in settling them.
+
+Another important point is that after the architect has obtained the
+consent of the building authorities, and also the approval of the client,
+then he may have to fight the adjoining owners with regard to ancient
+lights, or air space, or party walls. In the city of London these last
+difficulties often mean the suspension of the work for a long time, and a
+great loss to the client.
+
+If the site is a large one, or the nature of the soil uncertain, trial
+holes should be sunk directly the sketch plans are approved. (See
+FOUNDATIONS.)
+
+Where the property is leasehold there are always at this stage negotiations
+as to obtaining the approval of the senior lessors and the freeholders;
+these having been obtained, the architect is then free to serve the various
+notices that may be required _re_ party walls, &c.
+
+The contract plans should be very carefully prepared, and sections, plans
+and elevations of all parts of the buildings and the levels from a datum
+line be given. In addition to the general set of drawings, larger scale
+details of the principal portions of the building should be given.
+
+If there are any existing buildings on the site these should be carefully
+surveyed and accurate detail plans be made for reference; this is
+especially necessary with regard to easements and rights of adjoining
+owners. Also in the preparation of the site plan the various levels of the
+ground should be shown.
+
+The plans having been approved by all parties concerned, the next operation
+is the preparation of the _specification_. This is a document which
+describes the materials to be used in the building, states how they are to
+be mixed, and how the various works are to be executed, and specifies every
+trade, and every portion of work in the building. The specification is
+necessary to enable the builder to erect the structure according to the
+architect's requirements, and is written by the architect; usually two
+copies of this document are made, one for the builder, the other for the
+architect, and the latter is signed as the contract copy in the same manner
+as the drawings.
+
+From the specification and drawings usually an approximate estimate of the
+cost of the proposed building is prepared by the architect, and the most
+general method adopted is to cube the building by a multiplication of the
+length, breadth and height of the building, and to multiply the product or
+cubic contents by a price ranging from fivepence to three shillings per
+cubic foot. In the case of churches, chapels and schools, the cost may be
+roughly computed by taking the number of seats at a price per seat. In the
+case of churches and chapels, taking a minimum area of 8 ft. each, the cost
+varies from L10 upwards, the difference being due to the amount of
+architectural embellishment or the addition of a tower. Schools may be
+estimated as averaging L9 per scholar; we find that, taking schools of
+various sizes erected by the late London School Board, their cost varied
+from L7:12:4 to L10:1:10 per scholar. Hospitals vary from L100 per bed
+upwards, the lowest cost being taken from a cottage hospital type; while in
+the case of St Thomas's hospital, London, the cost per bed, including the
+proportion of the administrative block, was L650, and without this portion
+the wards alone cost L250. The Herbert hospital at Woolwich cost only L320
+per bed.
+
+The bills of quantities are prepared by the quantity surveyor, and are
+generally made to form part of the contract, and so mentioned in "the
+contract." The work of the quantity surveyor is to measure from the
+drawings the whole of the materials required for the structure, and state
+the amounts or quantities of the respective materials in the form of a bill
+usually made out on foolscap paper specially ruled, so that [v.04 p.0710]
+the builders can price each item, together with the labour required to work
+and fix it, thus forming the building. The idea is to be able to arrive at
+a lump sum for which the builders will undertake to erect the building. It
+is of frequent occurrence, in fact it occurs in four-fifths of building
+contracts, that when a building is commenced, the client, or other
+interested person, will alter some portion, thereby causing deviations from
+the bills of quantities. By having the prices of the different materials
+before him, it is easy for the quantity surveyor to remeasure the portion
+altered, adding or deducting as the case may be, and thus to ascertain what
+difference the alteration makes. This method of bills of quantities and
+prices is absolutely necessary to any one about to build, and means a
+considerable saving to the client in the end. For example:--Suppose that
+bills of quantities are not prepared for a certain job by a quantity
+surveyor, and, as is often done, the drawings and specification are sent to
+several builders asking them for a quotation to build the house or factory
+or whatever it may be, according to the drawings and specification. The
+prices are duly sent in to the architect, and probably the lowest price is
+accepted and the successful builder starts the job. During the progress of
+the works certain alterations take place by the owner's instructions, and
+when the day of settlement comes, the builder puts in his claim for
+"extras," then owing to the alterations and to the architect having no
+prices to work upon, litigation often ensues.
+
+Before the work of erecting a structure is entrusted to a builder he has to
+sign a contract in the same manner as the drawings and specification. This
+contract is an important document wherein the builder agrees to carry out
+the work for a stated sum of money, in accordance with the drawings and
+specification, and bills of quantities, and instructions of the architect,
+and to his entire satisfaction; and it also states the description of the
+materials and workmanship, and the manner of carrying out the work,
+responsibilities of the builder, particularly clauses indemnifying the
+employer against accidents to employees, and against numerous other risks,
+the time of completion of works under a penalty for non-completion (the
+usual allowance being made for bad weather, fire or strikes), and also how
+payments will be made to the builder as he proceeds with the building. This
+form of contract is generally prepared by the architect, and varies in part
+as may be necessary to meet the requirements of the case.
+
+When the drawings have been approved by the owner or client, also by the
+district surveyor or local authorities, and by adjoining owners, one copy
+of them, made on linen, is usually deposited (in London) either with the
+district surveyor, or with the London County Council, another is prepared
+for the freeholder if a lease of the land is granted, and a third is given
+to the builder. In addition, in complicated cases such as occur in the city
+of London, when a building is erected on land which has four or five
+distinct owners, an architect may have to prepare a large number of
+complete copies to be deposited with the various parties interested.
+
+The duties of the builder are very similar to those of the architect,
+except that he is not expected to be able to plan [Sidenote: The builder's
+sphere.] and design, but to carry out the plans and designs of the
+architect in the actual work of building. The builder should also know the
+various acts, and in particular the acts specially relating to the erection
+of scaffoldings, hoardings, gantries, shoring and pulling down of old
+buildings. He should have a thorough knowledge of all materials, their
+qualifying marks or brands, and the special features of good and bad in
+each class, their uses and method of use. He should be able to control and
+manage both the men and materials; and briefly, in a builder, as opposed to
+an architect, the constructive knowledge should predominate.
+
+On large or important works it is usual to have a clerk of works or
+delegate from the architect; his duties are to be on the works while they
+are in progress and endeavour by constant attention to secure the use of
+the best materials and construction, and to report to the architect for his
+instruction any difficulties that may arise. He should be a thoroughly
+practical man as opposed to the architectural draughtsman. His salary is
+paid by the client, and is not included in the architect's remuneration.
+
+American building acts agree in a general manner with those enforced in
+London. But whereas New York allows the erection [Sidenote: American
+practice.] of frame or wood structures, while defining a certain portion of
+the city inside which no new frame or wood structures shall be erected, in
+London and the large cities of Great Britain the erection of wood frame
+buildings as dwellings is prohibited. In New York City provision is made
+for a space at the rear of domestic buildings at least 10 ft. deep, but
+such depth is increased when the building is over 60 ft. high, and is
+varied under special circumstances. In London this depth is the same, but
+the height of the building in relation to the space required in the rear
+thereof shall be constructed to keep within an angle of 631/2 degrees,
+inclining from the rear boundary towards the building from the level of
+pavement in front of building; the position from which the angle is taken
+is varied under special circumstances. In the smaller English towns the
+building regulations are framed on the model by-laws, and these increase
+the depth of the yard or garden according to the height of the building.
+
+With regard to the strength and proportion of materials, these are not
+dealt with in the London Building Act to the same extent as in the New
+York; for example, in the New York acts (parts 4 and 5)[2] it is prescribed
+that the bricks used shall be good, hard, well-burned bricks. The sand used
+for mortar shall be clean, sharp, grit sand, free from loam or dirt, and
+shall not be finer than the standard samples kept in the office of the
+department of buildings; also the quality of lime and mortar is fully
+described, and the strengths of steel and cast-iron, and tests of new
+materials. Also it is required that all excavations for buildings shall be
+properly guarded and protected so as to prevent them from becoming
+dangerous to life or limb, and shall be sheath-piled where necessary by the
+person or persons causing the excavations to be made, to prevent the
+adjoining earth from caving in. Plans filed in the department of buildings
+shall be accompanied by a statement of the character of the soil at the
+level of the footings. There are also requirements as to protecting
+adjoining property. The bearing capacity of soils, pressure under footings
+of foundations, and in part 6 the materials of walls and the methods to be
+observed in building them are defined. Part 23 deals with floor loads, and
+the strength of floors constructed of various materials, and requires that
+the temporary support shall be strong enough to carry the load placed upon
+them during the progress of any works to buildings. Part 24 deals with the
+calculations and strength of materials, and wind pressure. Parts 4 and 5 of
+the New York Building Code are not dealt with by the London Building Act,
+but the local by-laws of the various districts deal with these. Part 6 of
+the New York code is dealt with partly by the London Building Act, and
+partly by the local by-laws. Parts 23 and 24 of the New York code are not
+dealt with in the English acts at all. In America the standard quality for
+all materials is set out, but in no English acts do we find the definition
+of the quality of timber, new materials, steel, &c. Iron and steel
+construction is in its infancy in England as compared with America, and
+probably this accounts for no special regulations being in force; but part
+22 of the New York Building Code, section 110 to 129 inclusive, deals very
+fully with iron and steel construction, and this is further supplemented by
+sections 137 to 140 inclusive.
+
+Sanitary work is dealt with in London by section 39 of the Public Health
+(London) Act, and the drainage by-laws of the London County Council, in
+which every detail is very fully gone into with regard to the laying of
+drains, and fitting up of soil pipes, w.c.'s, &c., all of which is to be
+carried out and tested to the satisfaction of the local borough's sanitary
+inspector. The general requirements of New York with regard to sanitary
+work are very similar with a few more restrictions, and are carried out
+under "the rules and regulations for plumbing, drainage, [v.04 p.0711]
+water-supply, and ventilation of buildings." The noticeable feature of the
+New York regulations is that all master plumbers have to be registered,
+which is not so in England. The New York regulations have 183 sections
+relating to sanitary work, and the English regulations have 96 sections.
+Also by part 16 of the Amendments to Plumbing Rules 1903, the New York laws
+require that, before any construction of, or alterations to, any gas piping
+or fittings are commenced, permits must be obtained from the superintendent
+of buildings; these are only issued to a registered plumber. The
+application must be accompanied by plans of the different floors showing
+each outlet, and the number of burners to each outlet; a statement must
+also be made of the quality of the pipes and fittings, all of which are to
+be tested by the inspector. In London there are no such laws; the gas
+companies control a small portion of the work as regards the connexion to
+meters, while the insurance companies require gas jets to be covered with a
+wire guard where liable to come in contact with inflammable goods. As to
+water, the various water companies in England have each their own set of
+regulations as to the kind of fittings and thickness and quality of pipe to
+be used, whether for service, wastes or main.
+
+The importance of fire-resisting construction is being more fully
+recognized now by all countries. In France the regulations [Sidenote:
+Fire-resisting construction.] for factories, shops and workshops relating
+to "exits" require that all doors should open outwardly when they open on
+to courts, vestibules, staircases or interior passages. When they give
+access to the open air, outward opening is not obligatory unless it has
+been judged necessary in the interests of safety. If the doors open on to a
+passage or staircase they must be fixed in such a manner as not to project
+into the passage or staircase when open. The exits must be numerous, and
+signs indicating the quickest way out are to be placed in conspicuous
+positions. The windows are to open outwardly. Staircases in offices or
+other buildings serving as places for work shall be constructed in
+incombustible materials, or shall be walled in fully in plaster. The number
+of staircases shall be in proportion to the number of employees, &c. It is
+prohibited to use any liquid emitting vapours inflammable under 35 deg. C. for
+the purpose of lighting or heating, unless the apparatus containing the
+liquid is solidly closed during work, that part of the apparatus containing
+the liquid being so closed as to avoid any oozing out of the liquid, &c.
+&c. Instructions are added as to precautions to be taken in case of fire.
+
+In London fire-resisting construction is dealt with in the London Building
+Act, and its second schedule, and in London County Council Theatre and
+Factory Acts, &c. In New York the building code (parts 19, 20 and 21) deals
+with fire appliances, escapes, and fire-proof shutters and doors,
+fire-proof buildings and fire-proof floors, and requires that all tenement
+houses shall have an iron ladder for escape. A section somewhat similar to
+the last came into force in London in 1907 under the London Building Act,
+being framed with a view to require all existing projecting one-storey
+shops to have a fire-resisting roof, and all existing buildings over 50 ft.
+in height to have means of escape to and from the roof in case of fire.
+
+There are several patents now in use with which it would be possible to
+erect a fire-proof dwelling at small cost with walls 3 to 5 in. in
+thickness. One of these has been used where the building act does not
+apply, as in the case of the Newgate prison cells, London, where the
+outside walls were from 3 to 4 in. thick only, and were absolutely fire and
+burglar proof. This method consists in using steel dovetailed sheets fixed
+between small steel stanchions and plastered in cement on both sides. This
+form of construction was also used at the British pavilion, Paris
+Exhibition 1900, and has been employed in numerous other buildings in
+England, and also in South Africa, Venezuela, and India (Delhi durbar). The
+use of many of these convenient and sound forms of building construction
+for ordinary buildings in London, and in districts of England where the
+model by-laws are in force, is prohibited because they do not comply with
+some one or other of the various clauses relating to materials, or to the
+thickness of a wall.
+
+The various details of construction are described and illustrated under
+separate headings. See BRICKWORK, CARPENTRY, FOUNDATIONS, GLAZING, JOINERY,
+MASONRY, PAINTER-WORK, PLASTERING, ROOFS, SCAFFOLD, SHORING, STAIRCASE,
+STEEL CONSTRUCTION, STONE, TIMBER, WALL-COVERINGS, &c.
+
+The principal publications for reference in connexion with this subject
+are: _The Building and Health Laws of the City of New York_, Brooklyn Eagle
+Library, No. 85; _Rules and Regulations affecting Building Operations in
+the administrative County of London_, compiled by Ellis Marsland;
+_Annotated By-Laws as to House Drainage, &c._, by Jensen; _Metropolitan
+Sanitation_, by Herbert Daw.
+
+(J. BT.)
+
+[1] The verb "to build" (O.E. _byldan_) is apparently connected with O.E.
+_bold_, a dwelling, of Scandinavian origin; cf. Danish _bol_, a farm,
+Icelandic _bol_, farm, abode. Skeat traces it eventually to Sanskrit _bhu_,
+to be, build meaning "to construct a place in which to be or dwell."
+
+[2] _Building and Health Laws and Regulations affecting the City of New
+York, including the Building Code of New York City as amended to 1st May
+1903._
+
+BUILDING SOCIETIES, the name given to societies "for the purpose of
+raising, by the subscriptions of the members, a stock or fund for making
+advances to members out of the funds of the society upon freehold,
+copyhold, or leasehold estate by way of mortgage," may be "either
+_terminating_ or _permanent_" (Building Societies Act 1874, Sec. 13). A
+"terminating" society is one "which by its rules is to terminate at a fixed
+date, or when a result specified in its rules is attained"; a "permanent"
+society is one "which has not by its rules any such fixed date or specified
+result, at which it shall terminate" (Sec. 5). A more popular description of
+these societies would be--societies by means of which every man may become
+"his own landlord," their main purpose being to collect together the small
+periodical subscriptions of a number of members, until each in his turn has
+been able to receive a sum sufficient to aid him materially in buying his
+dwelling-house. The origin and early history of these societies is not very
+clearly traceable. A mention of "building clubs" in Birmingham occurs in
+1795; one is known to have been established by deed in the year 1809 at
+Greenwich; another is said to have been founded in 1825, under the auspices
+of the earl of Selkirk at Kirkcudbright in Scotland, and we learn
+(Scratchley, _On Building Societies_, p. 5) that similar societies in that
+kingdom adopted the title of "menages."
+
+_United Kingdom._--When the Friendly Societies Act of 1834 gave effect to
+the wise and liberal policy of extending its benefits to societies for
+frugal investment, and generally to all associations having a similar legal
+object, several building societies were certified under it,--so many,
+indeed, that in 1836 a short act was passed confirming to them the
+privileges granted by the Friendly Societies Act, and according to them the
+additional privileges (very valuable at that time) of exemption from the
+usury laws, simplicity in forms of conveyance, power to reconvey by a mere
+endorsement under the hands of the trustees for the time being, and
+exemption from stamp duty. This act remained unaltered until 1874, when an
+act was passed at the instance of the building societies conferring upon
+them several other privileges, and relieving them of some disabilities and
+doubts, which had grown up from the judicial expositions of the act of
+1836. It made future building societies incorporated bodies, and extended
+the privilege of incorporation to existing societies upon application, so
+that members and all who derive title through them were relieved from
+having to trace that title through the successive trustees of a society. It
+also gave a distinct declaration to the members of entire freedom from
+liability to pay anything beyond the arrears due from them at the time of
+winding up, or the amount actually secured by their mortgage deeds. Power
+to borrow money was also expressly given to the societies by the act, but
+upon two conditions: that the limitation of liability must be made known to
+the lender, by being printed on the acknowledgment for the loan, and that
+the borrowed money must not exceed two-thirds of the amount secured by
+mortgage from the members, or, in a terminating society, one year's income
+from subscriptions. Previous to the passing of the act (or rather to the
+judicial decision in _Laing_ v. _Read_, which the clause of the act made
+statutory) there had been, on the one hand, grave doubts on high legal
+authority whether a society could borrow money at all; while, on the other
+hand, many societies in order to raise funds carried on the business of
+deposit banks to an extent far exceeding the amounts used by them for their
+legitimate purpose of investment on mortgage. It enacted, that if a society
+borrowed more than the statute authorizes, the directors accepting the loan
+should be personally [v.04 p.0712] responsible for the excess. By an act
+passed in 1894 all the Benefit Building Societies established under the act
+of 1836 after the year 1856 were required to become incorporated under the
+act of 1874.
+
+There are, therefore, three categories of building societies:--(1) Those
+established before 1856, which have not been incorporated under the act of
+1874 and remain under the act of 1836. (2) Those established before 1874
+under the act of 1836, which have been incorporated under the act of 1874.
+(3) Those which have been established since the act of 1874 was passed. The
+first class still act by means of trustees. Of these societies there are
+only 62 remaining in existence, and their number cannot be increased. The
+second and third classes exceed 2000 in number.
+
+The early societies were all "terminating,"--consisting of a limited number
+of members, and coming to an end as soon as every member had received the
+amount agreed upon as the value of his shares. Take, as a simple typical
+example of the working of such a society, one the shares of which are L120
+each, realizable by subscriptions of 10s. a month during 14 years. Fourteen
+years happens to be nearly the time in which, at 5% compound interest, a
+sum of money becomes doubled. Hence the present value, at the commencement
+of the society, of the L120 to be realized at its conclusion, or (what is
+the same thing) of the subscriptions of 10s. a month by which that L120 is
+to be raised, is L60. If such a society had issued 120 shares, the
+aggregate subscriptions for the first month of its existence would amount
+to exactly the sum required to pay one member the present value of one
+share. One member would accordingly receive a sum down of L60, and in order
+to protect the other members from loss, would execute a mortgage of his
+dwelling-house for ensuring the payment of the future subscription of 10s.
+per month until every member had in like manner obtained an advance upon
+his shares, or accumulated the L120 per share. As L60 is not of itself
+enough to buy a house, even of the most modest kind, every member desirous
+of using the society for its original purpose of obtaining a dwelling-house
+by its means would require to take more than one share. The act of 1836
+limited the amount of each share to L150, and the amount of the monthly
+contributions on each share to L1, but did not limit the number of shares a
+member might hold.
+
+The earlier formed societies (in London at least) did not usually adopt the
+title "Building Society"; or they added to it some further descriptive
+title, as "Accumulating Fund," "Savings Fund," or "Investment Association."
+Several are described as "Societies for obtaining freehold property," or
+simply as "Mutual Associations," or "Societies of Equality." The building
+societies in Scotland are mostly called "Property Investment," or
+"Economic." Although the term "Benefit Building Society" occurs in the
+title to the act of 1836, it was not till 1849 that it became in England
+the sole distinctive name of these societies; and it cannot be said to be a
+happy description of them, for as ordinarily constituted they undertake no
+building operations whatever, and merely advance money to their members to
+enable them to build or to buy dwelling-houses or land.
+
+The name "Building Society," too, leaves wholly out of sight the important
+functions these societies fulfil as means of investment of small savings.
+The act of 1836 defined them as societies to enable every member to receive
+the amount or value of a share or shares to erect or purchase a
+dwelling-house, &c., but a member who did not desire to erect or purchase a
+dwelling-house might still receive out of the funds of the society the
+amount or value of his shares, improved by the payments of interest made by
+those to whom shares had been advanced.
+
+About 1846 an important modification of the system of these societies was
+introduced, by the invention of the "permanent" plan, which was adopted by
+a great number of the societies established after that date. It was seen
+that these societies really consist of two classes of members; that those
+who do not care to have, or have not yet received, an advance upon mortgage
+security are mere investors, and that it matters little when they commence
+investing, or to what amount; while those to whom advances have been made
+are really debtors to the society, and arrangements for enabling them to
+pay off their debt in various terms of years, according to their
+convenience, would be of advantage both to themselves and the society. By
+permitting members to enter at any time without back-payment, and by
+granting advances for any term of years agreed upon, a continuous inflow of
+funds, and a continuous means of profitable investment of them, would be
+secured. The interest of each member in the society would terminate when
+his share was realized, or his advance paid off, but the society would
+continue with the accruing subscriptions of other members employed in
+making other advances.
+
+Under this system building societies largely increased and developed. The
+royal commissioners who inquired into the subject in 1872 estimated the
+total assets of the societies in 1870 at 17 millions, and their annual
+income at 11 millions. The more complete returns, afterwards obtained,
+indicate that this was an under-estimate.
+
+A variety of the terminating class of societies met at one time with
+considerable favour under the name of "Starr Bowkett" or "mutual"
+societies, of which more than a thousand were established. They differed
+from the typical society above described, in the contribution of a member
+who had not received an advance being much smaller, while the amount of the
+advance was much larger, and it was made without any calculation of
+interest. Thus a society issued, say, 500 shares, on which the
+contributions were to be 1s. 3d. per week, and, as soon as a sum of L300
+accumulated allotted it by ballot to one of the shareholders, on condition
+that he was to repay it without interest by instalments in 10 or 121/2 years,
+and at the same time to keep up his share-contributions. The fortunate
+recipient of the appropriation was at liberty to sell it, and frequently
+did so at a profit; but (except from fines) no profit whatever was earned
+by those who did not succeed in getting an appropriation, and as the number
+of members successful in the ballot must necessarily be small in the
+earlier years of the society, the others frequently became discontented and
+retired. These societies could not borrow money, for as they received no
+interest they could not pay any. The plan was afterwards modified by
+granting the appropriations alternately by ballot and sale, so that by the
+premiums paid on the sales (which are the same in effect as payments of
+interest on the amount actually advanced) profits might be earned for the
+investing members. The formation of societies of this class ceased on the
+passing of the act of 1894, by which balloting for advances was prohibited
+in societies thereafter established. A further modification of the "mutual"
+plan was to make all the appropriations by sale. The effect of this was to
+bring the mutual society back to the ordinary form; for it amounts to
+precisely the same thing for a man to pay 10s. a month on a loan of L60 for
+14 years, as for him to borrow a nominal sum of L84 for the same period,
+repayable in the same manner, but to allow L24 off the loan as a "bidding"
+at the sale. The only difference between the two classes of societies is
+that the interest which the member pays who bids for his advance depends on
+the amount of competition at the bidding, and is not fixed by a rule of the
+society.
+
+For several years the progress of building societies in general was steady,
+but there were not wanting signs that their prosperity was unsubstantial. A
+practice of receiving deposits repayable at call had sprung up, which must
+lead to embarrassment where the funds are invested in loans repayable
+during a long term of years. It was surmised, if not actually known, that
+many societies had large amounts of property on their hands, which had been
+reduced into possession in consequence of the default of borrowers in
+paying their instalments. A practice had also grown up of establishing
+mushroom societies, which did little more than pay fees to the promoters.
+The vicious system of trafficking in advances that had been awarded by
+ballot, near akin to gambling, prevailed in many societies. These signs of
+weakness had been observed by the well-informed, and the disastrous failure
+of a large society incorporated under [v.04 p.0713] the act of 1874, the
+Liberator, which had in fact long ceased to do any genuine building society
+business, hastened the crisis.
+
+This society had drawn funds to the amount of more than a million sterling
+from provident people in all classes of the population and all parts of the
+country by specious representations, and had applied those funds not to the
+legitimate purpose of a building society, but to the support of other
+undertakings in which the same persons were concerned who were the active
+managers of the society. The consequence was that the whole group of
+concerns became insolvent (Oct. 1892), and the Liberator depositors and
+shareholders were defrauded of every penny of their investments. Many of
+them suffered great distress from the loss of their savings, and some were
+absolutely ruined. The result was to weaken confidence in building
+societies generally, and this was very marked in the rapid decline of the
+amount of the capital of the incorporated building societies. From its
+highest point (nearly 54 millions) reached in 1887, it fell to below 43
+millions in 1895. On some societies, which had adopted the deposit system,
+a run was made, and several were unable to stand it. The Birkbeck Society
+was for two days besieged by an anxious crowd of depositors clamouring to
+withdraw their money; but luckily for that society, and for the building
+societies generally, a very large portion of its funds was invested in
+easily convertible securities, and it was enabled by that means to get
+sufficient assistance from the Bank of England to pay without a moment's
+hesitation every depositor who asked for his money. Its credit was so
+firmly established by this means that many persons sought to pay money in.
+Had this very large society succumbed, the results would have been
+disastrous to the whole body of building societies. As the case stood, the
+energetic means it adopted to save its own credit reacted in favour of the
+societies generally.
+
+The Liberator disaster convinced everybody that something must be done
+towards avoiding such calamities in the future. The government of the day
+brought in a bill for that purpose, and several private members also
+prepared measures--most of them more stringent than the government bill.
+All the bills were referred to a select committee, of which Mr Herbert
+Gladstone was the chairman. As the result of the deliberations of the
+committee, the Building Societies Act of 1894 was passed. Meanwhile the Rt.
+Hon. W.L. Jackson (afterwards Lord Allerton), a member of the committee,
+moved for an address to the crown for a return of the property held in
+possession by building societies. This was the first time such a return had
+been called for, and the managers of the societies much resented it; there
+were no means of enforcing the return, and the consequence was that many
+large societies failed to make it, notwithstanding frequent applications by
+the registrar. The act provided that henceforth all incorporated societies
+should furnish returns in a prescribed form, including schedules showing
+respectively the mortgages for amounts exceeding L5000; the properties of
+which the societies had taken possession for more than twelve months
+through default of the mortgagors; and the mortgages which were more than
+twelve months in arrear of repayment subscription. The act did not come
+into operation till the 1st of January 1895, and the first complete return
+under it was not due till 1896, when it appeared that the properties in
+possession at the time of Mr Jackson's return must have been counted for at
+least seven and a half millions in the assets of the societies. In a few
+years after the passing of the act the societies reduced their properties
+in possession from 14% of the whole of the mortgages to 5%, or, in other
+words, reduced them to one-third of the original amount, from 71/2 millions
+to 21/2 millions. Though this operation must have been attended with some
+sacrifice in many societies, upon the whole the balance of profit has
+increased rather than diminished. Thus this provision of the act, though it
+greatly alarmed the managers of societies, was really a blessing in
+disguise. The act also gave power to the registrar, upon the application of
+ten members, to order an inspection of the books of a society, but it did
+not confer upon individual members the right to inspect the books, which
+would have been more effective. It empowered the registrar, upon the
+application of one-fifth of the members, to order an inspection upon oath
+into the affairs of a society, or to investigate its affairs with a view to
+dissolution, and even in certain cases to proceed without an application
+from members. It gave him ample powers to deal with a society which upon
+such investigation proved to be insolvent, and these were exercised so as
+to procure the cheap and speedy dissolution of such societies. It also
+prohibited the future establishment of societies making advances by ballot,
+or dependent on any chance or lot, and provided an easy method by which
+existing societies could discontinue the practice of balloting. This method
+has been adopted in a few instances only. The act, or the circumstances
+which led to it, has greatly diminished the number of new societies
+applying for registry.
+
+The statistics of building societies belonging to all the three classes
+mentioned show that there were on the 31st of December 1904, 2118 societies
+in existence in the United Kingdom. Of these, 2075, having 609,785 members,
+made returns. Their gross receipts for the financial year were L38,729,009,
+and the amount advanced on mortgage during the year was L9,589,864. The
+capital belonging to their members was L39,408,430, and the undivided
+balance of profit L4,004,547. Their liabilities to depositors and other
+creditors were L24,838,290. To meet this they had mortgages on which
+L53,196,112 was due, but of this L2,443,255 was on properties which had
+been in possession more than a year, and L222,444 on mortgages which had
+fallen into arrear more than a year. Their other assets were L14,952,485,
+and certain societies showed a deficit balance which in the aggregate was
+L102,670. As compared with 1895, when first returns were obtained from
+unincorporated societies, these figures show an increase in income of 30%,
+in assets of 23%, and in profit balances of 46%, and a diminution of the
+properties in possession and mortgages in arrear of 14% in the nine years.
+The total assets and income are more than three times the amount of the
+conjectural estimate made for 1870 by the royal commission. It is not too
+much to say that a quarter of a million persons have been enabled by means
+of building societies to become the proprietors of their own homes.
+
+In recent years, several rivals to building societies have sprung up.
+Friendly societies have largely taken to investing their surplus funds in
+loans to members on the building society principle. Industrial and
+provident land and building societies have been formed. The legislature has
+authorized local authorities to lend money to the working classes to enable
+them to buy their dwelling-houses. Bond and investment companies have been
+formed under the Companies Acts, and are under no restriction as to
+balloting for appropriation. All these have not yet had any perceptible
+effect in checking the growth of the building society movement, and it is
+not thought that they will permanently do so.
+
+_British Colonies._--In several of the British colonies, legislation
+similar to that of the mother country has been adopted. In Victoria,
+Australia, a crisis occurred, in which many building societies suffered
+severely. In the other Australian colonies the building society movement
+has made progress, but not to a very large extent. In the Dominion of
+Canada these societies are sometimes called "loan companies" and are not
+restricted in their investments to loans on real estates, but about 90% of
+their advances are on that security. At the close of the year 1904 their
+liabilities to stockholders exceeded L13,000,000, and to the public
+L21,000,000. The uncalled capital was L5,000,000. The balance of current
+loans was L28,000,000, and the property owned by the societies exceeded
+L7,000,000.
+
+_Belgium, &c._--In Belgium, the Government Savings Bank has power to make
+advances of money to societies of credit or of construction to enable their
+members to become owners of dwelling-houses. The advance is made to the
+society at 3 or sometimes at 21/2% interest, and the borrower pays 4%. In the
+great majority of cases the borrower effects an insurance with the savings
+bank so that his repayments terminate at his death. On the 31st of December
+1903 nearly 25,000 advances were in course of repayment. In Germany,
+building societies are recognized as a form of societies for self-help, but
+are not many in number, being overshadowed by the great organization of
+credit societies founded by Schulze-Delitzsch. In other countries there has
+been no special legislation for building societies similar to that of the
+United Kingdom, and though societies with the same special object probably
+exist, separate information with regard to them is not available.
+
+(E. W. B.)
+
+_United States._--"Building and loan association" is a general term applied
+in the United States to such institutions as mutual loan associations,
+homestead aid associations, savings fund and loan associations,
+co-operative banks, co-operative savings and loan associations, &c. They
+are private corporations, for the accumulation of savings, and for the
+loaning of money to build homes. The first association of this kind in the
+United States of which there is any record was organized at Frankford, a
+suburb [v.04 p.0714] of Philadelphia, on the 3rd of January 1831, under the
+title of the Oxford Provident Building Association. Their permanent
+inception took place between 1840 and 1850. The receipts or capital of the
+building and loan association consists of periodical payments by the
+members, interest and premiums paid by borrowing members or others, fixed
+periodical instalments by borrowing members, fines for failures to pay such
+fixed instalments, forfeitures, fees for transferring stock, entrance fees,
+and any other revenues or payments,--all of which go into the common
+treasury. When the instalment payments and profits of all kinds equal the
+face value of all the shares issued, the assets, over and above expenses
+and losses, are apportioned among members, and this apportionment cancels
+the borrower's debt, while the non-borrower is given the amount of his
+stock. A man who wishes to borrow, let us say, $1000 for the erection of a
+house ordinarily takes five shares in an association, each of which, when
+he has paid all the successive instalments on it, will be worth $200, and
+he must offer suitable security for his loan, usually the lot on which he
+is to build. The money is not lent to him at regular rates of interest, as
+in the case of a savings bank or other financial institution, but is put up
+at auction usually in open meeting at the time of the payment of dues, and
+is awarded to the member bidding the highest premium. To secure the $1000
+borrowed, the member gives the association a mortgage on his property and
+pledges his five shares of stock. Some associations, when the demand for
+money from the shareholders does not exhaust the surplus, lend their funds
+to persons not shareholders, upon such terms and conditions as may be
+approved by their directors. Herein lies a danger, for such loans are
+sometimes made in a speculative way, or on insufficient land value. Some
+associations make stock loans, or loans on the shares held by a stockholder
+without real estate security; these vary in different associations, some
+applying the same rules as to real estate loans. To cancel his debt the
+stockholder is constantly paying his monthly or semi-monthly dues, until
+such time as these payments, plus the accumulation of profits through
+compound interest, mature the shares at $200 each, when he surrenders his
+shares, and the debt upon his property is cancelled.
+
+Every member of a building and loan association must be a stockholder, and
+the amount of interest which a member has in a [Sidenote: Shares.] building
+and loan association is indicated by the number of shares he holds, the age
+of the shares, and their maturing value. The difference between a
+stockholder in such an association and one in an ordinary corporation for
+usual business purposes lies in the fact that in the latter the member or
+stockholder buys his stock and pays for it at once, and as a rule is not
+called upon for further payment; all profits on such stocks are received
+through dividends, the value of shares depending upon the successful
+operation of the business. In the former the stockholder or member pays a
+stipulated minimum sum, say $1, when he takes his membership and buys a
+share of stock. He continues to pay a like sum each month until the
+aggregate of sums paid, increased by the profits and all other sources of
+income, amounts to the maturing value of the stock, usually $200, when the
+stockholder is entitled to the full maturing value of the share and
+surrenders the same. Shares are usually issued in series. When a second
+series is issued the issue of the stock of the first series ceases. Profits
+are distributed and losses apportioned before a new series can be issued.
+The term during which a series is open for subscription differs, but it
+usually extends over three or six months, and sometimes a year. Some
+associations, usually known as perpetual associations, issue a new series
+of stock without regard to the time of maturity of previous issues. It is
+the practice in such associations to issue a new series of stock every
+year. Instead of shares that are paid in instalments, some associations
+issue prepaid shares and paid-up shares. _Prepaid shares_, known also as
+partly paid-up shares, are issued at a fixed price per share in advance.
+They usually participate as fully in the profits as the regular instalment
+shares, and when the amount originally paid for such shares, together with
+the dividends accrued thereon, reaches the maturing or par value, they are
+disposed of in the same manner as regular instalment shares. Some
+associations, instead of crediting all the profits made on this class of
+shares, allow a fixed rate of interest on the amount paid therefor at each
+dividend period, which is paid in cash to the holder thereof. This interest
+is then deducted from the profits to which the shares are entitled, and the
+remainder is credited to the shares until such unpaid portion of the
+profits, added to the amount originally paid, equals the maturing or par
+value. _Paid-up shares_ are issued upon the payment of the full maturity or
+par value, when a certificate of paid-up stock is issued, the owners being
+entitled to receive in cash the amount of all dividends declared thereon,
+subject to such conditions or limitations as may be agreed upon. These
+shares sometimes participate as fully in the profits as the regular
+instalment shares, but in most cases a fixed rate of interest only is
+allowed, the holders of the shares usually assigning to the association all
+right to profits above that amount. Certificates of matured shares are also
+issued to holders of regular instalment shares, who prefer to leave their
+money with the association as an investment.
+
+Prior to the maturing of a share it has two values, the holding or book
+value and the withdrawal value. The book value is ascertained by adding all
+the dues that have been paid to the profits that have accrued; that is to
+say, it is the actual value of a share at any particular time. The
+withdrawal value is that amount of the book value which the association is
+willing to pay to a shareholder who desires to sever his connexion with the
+association before his share is matured. Some associations do not permit
+their members to withdraw prior to the maturing of their shares. Then the
+only way a shareholder can realize upon his shares is by selling them to
+some other person at whatever price he can obtain. There are twelve or more
+plans for the withdrawal of funds. Every association has full regulations
+on all such matters.
+
+The purchase of a share binds the shareholder to the necessity of keeping
+up his dues, and thus secures to him not only the benefits [Sidenote:
+Variations in methods.] of a savings bank, but the benefit of constantly
+accruing compound interest. This accomplishes the first feature of the
+motive of a building and loan association. The second is accomplished by
+enabling a man to borrow money for building purposes. It is a moot question
+whether this method of obtaining money for the building of homes is more or
+less economical than that of obtaining it from the ordinary savings banks
+or from other sources. Sometimes the premium which must be paid to secure a
+loan increases the regular interest to such an amount as to make the
+building and loan method more expensive than the ordinary method of
+borrowing money, but a building and loan association has a moral influence
+upon its members, in that it encourages a regular payment of instalments.
+Some associations have a fixed or established premium rate, and under such
+circumstances loans are awarded to the members in the order of their
+applications or by lot. The premium may consist of the amount which the
+borrower pays in excess of the legal interest, or it may consist of a
+certain number of payments of dues or of interest to be made in advance.
+There are very many plans for the payment of premiums, nearly seventy
+relating to real estate loans being in vogue in different associations in
+different parts of the United States; but in nearly all cases the borrower
+makes his regular payments of dues and interest until the shares pledged
+have reached maturing value. There is also a great variety of plans for the
+distribution of profits, something like twenty-five such plans being in
+existence. The methods of calculating interest and profits are somewhat
+complicated, but they are all found in the books to which reference will be
+made. The various plans for the payment of premiums, distribution of
+profits, and withdrawals, and the calculations under each, are given in
+full in the ninth annual report of the U.S. commissioner of labour.
+
+Most building and loan associations confine their operations to a small
+community, usually to the county in which they are situated; but some of
+them operate on a large scale, extending their business enterprises even
+beyond the borders of their own state. These national associations are
+ready to make loans on property anywhere, and sell their shares to any
+person without reference to his residence. In local associations the total
+amount of dues paid in by the shareholders forms the basis for the
+distribution of profits, while in most national associations only a portion
+of the dues paid in by the shareholders is considered in the distribution.
+For instance, in a national association the dues are generally 60 cents a
+share per month, out of which either 8 or 10 cents are carried to an
+expense fund, the remainder being credited on the loan fund. The expense
+fund thus created is lost to the shareholders, except in the case of a few
+associations which carry the unexpended balances to the profit and loss
+account, and whatever profits are made are apportioned on the amount of
+dues credited to the loan fund only. The creation of an expense fund in the
+nationals has sometimes been the source of disaster. Safety or security in
+both local and national associations depends principally upon the integrity
+with which their affairs are conducted, and not so much upon the form of
+organization or the method of distribution. Some of the states--New York,
+Massachusetts, New Jersey, Ohio, Illinois, California and others--bring
+building and loan associations under the same general supervision of law
+thrown around savings banks. In some states nothing is officially known of
+them beyond the formalities of their incorporation. Though the business of
+the associations is conducted by men not trained as bankers, it yet meets
+with rare success. Associations disband when not successful, but when they
+disband great loss does not occur because the whole business of the
+association consists of its loans, and these loans are to its own
+shareholders, as a rule, who hold the securities in their associated forms.
+The amount of money on hand is always small, because it is sold or lent as
+fast as paid in. A disbanded association, therefore, simply returns to its
+own members their own property, and but few real losses occur. Investment
+in a building and loan association is as nearly absolutely [v.04 p.0715]
+safe as it can be, for the monthly dues and the accumulated profits, which
+give the actual capital of the association, are lent or sold, as it is
+termed, by the association as fast as they accumulate, and upon real estate
+or upon the stock of the association itself. The opportunities for
+embezzlement, therefore, or for shrinkage of securities, are reduced to the
+minimum, and an almost absolute safety of the investment is secured.
+
+The growth of these associations has been very rapid since 1840, and at the
+opening of the 20th century they numbered nearly 6000. The Federal
+government, through the department of labour, made an investigation of
+building and loan associations, and published its report in 1893. The total
+dues paid in on instalment shares amounted then to $450,667,594. The
+business represented by this great sum, conducted quietly, with little or
+no advertising, and without the experienced banker in charge, shows that
+the common people, in their own ways, are quite competent to take care of
+their savings, especially when it was shown that but thirty-five of the
+associations then in existence met with a net loss at the end of their
+latest fiscal year, and that this loss amounted to only a little over
+$23,000. Bulletin No. 10 (May 1897) of the U.S. department of labour
+contained a calculation of the business at that date, based upon such
+states' reports as were available. That calculation showed a growth in
+almost every item. During the years of depression ending with 1899 the
+growth of building and loan associations was naturally slower than in
+prosperous periods.
+
+See _Ninth Annual Report of U.S.A. Commissioner of Labour_ (1893);
+_Bulletin_, No. 10 (May 1897), of the Department of Labour; Edmund Rigley,
+_How to manage Building Associations_ (1873); Seymour Dexter, _A Treatise
+on Co-operation Savings and Loan Associations_ (New York, 1891); Charles N.
+Thompson, _A Treatise on Building Associations_ (Chicago, 1892).
+
+(C. D. W.)
+
+BUILTH, or BUILTH WELLS, a market town of Brecknockshire, Wales. Pop. of
+urban district (1901), 1805. It has a station on the Cambrian line between
+Moat Lane and Brecon, and two others (high and low levels) at Builth Road
+about 13/4 m. distant where the London & North-Western and the Cambrian cross
+one another. It is pleasantly situated in the upper valley of the Wye, in a
+bend of the river on its right bank below the confluence of its tributary
+the Irfon. During the summer it is a place of considerable resort for the
+sake of its waters--saline, chalybeate and sulphur--and it possesses the
+usual accessories of pump-rooms, baths and a recreation ground. The scenery
+of the Wye valley, including a succession of rapids just above the town,
+also attracts many tourists. The town is an important agricultural centre,
+its fairs for sheep and ponies in particular being well attended.
+
+The town, called in Welsh Llanfair (yn) Muallt, i.e. St Mary's in Builth,
+took its name from the ancient territorial division of Buallt in which it
+is situated, which was, according to Nennius, an independent principality
+in the beginning of the 9th century, and later a cantrev, corresponding to
+the modern hundred of Builth. Towards the end of the 11th century, when the
+tide of Norman invasion swept upwards along the Wye valley, the district
+became a lordship marcher annexed to that of Brecknock, but was again
+severed from it on the death of William de Breos, when his daughter Matilda
+brought it to her husband, Roger Mortimer of Wigmore. Its castle, built
+probably in Newmarch's time, or shortly after, was the most advanced
+outpost of the invaders in a wild part of Wales where the tendency to
+revolt was always strong. It was destroyed in 1260 by Llewellyn ab
+Gruffydd, prince of Wales, with the supposed connivance of Mortimer, but
+its site was reoccupied by the earl of Lincoln in 1277, and a new castle at
+once erected. It was with the expectation that he might, with local aid,
+seize the castle, that Llewellyn invaded this district in December 1282,
+when he was surprised and killed by Stephen de Frankton in a ravine called
+Cwm Llewellyn on the left bank of the Irfon, 21/2 m. from the town. According
+to local tradition he was buried at Cefn-y-bedd ("the ridge of the grave")
+close by, but it is more likely that his headless trunk was taken to Abbey
+Cwmhir. No other important event was associated with the castle, of which
+not a stone is now standing. The lordship remained in the marches till the
+Act of Union 1536, when it was grouped with a number of others so as to
+form the shire of Brecknock. The town was governed by a local board from
+1866 until the establishment of an urban district council in 1894; the
+urban district was then made conterminous with the civil parish, and in
+1898 it was re-named Builth Wells.
+
+BUISSON, FERDINAND (1841- ), French educationalist, was born at Paris on
+the 20th of December 1841. In 1868, when attached to the teaching staff of
+the Academy of Geneva, he obtained a philosophical fellowship. In 1870 he
+settled in Paris, and in the following year was nominated an inspector of
+primary education. His appointment was, however, strongly opposed by the
+bishop of Orleans (who saw danger to clerical influence over the schools),
+and the nomination was cancelled. But the bishop's action only served to
+draw attention to Buisson's abilities. He was appointed secretary of the
+statistical commission on primary education, and sent as a delegate to the
+Vienna exhibition of 1873, and the Philadelphia exhibition of 1876. In 1878
+he was instructed to report on the educational section of the Paris
+exhibition, and in the same year was appointed inspector-general of primary
+education. In 1879 he was promoted to the directorship of primary
+education, a post which he occupied until 1896, when he became professor of
+education at the Sorbonne. At the general election of 1902 he was returned
+to the chamber of deputies as a radical socialist by the XIII^{me}
+arrondissement of Paris. He supported the policy of M. Combes, and presided
+over the commission for the separation of church and state.
+
+BUITENZORG, a hill station in the residency of Batavia, island of Java,
+Dutch East Indies. It is beautifully situated among the hills at the foot
+of the Salak volcano, about 860 ft. above sea-level, and has a cool and
+healthy climate. Buitenzorg is the usual residence of the governor-general
+of the Dutch East Indies, and is further remarkable on account of its
+splendid botanical garden and for its popularity as a health resort. The
+botanic gardens are among the finest in the world; they originally formed a
+part of the park attached to the palace of the governor-general, and were
+established in 1817. Under J.S. Teysmann, who became _hortulanus_ in 1830,
+the collection was extended, and in 1868 was recognized as a government
+institution with a director. Between this and 1880 a museum, a school of
+agriculture, and a culture garden were added, and since then library,
+botanical, chemical, and pharmacological laboratories, and a herbarium have
+been established. The palace of the governor-general was founded by
+Governor-General van Imhoff in 1744, and rebuilt after being destroyed by
+an earthquake in 1834. Buitenzorg is also the seat of the general secretary
+of the state railway and of the department of mines. Buitenzorg, which is
+called Bogor by the natives, was once the capital of the princess of
+Pajajaram. Close by, at _Bata Tulis_ ("inscribed stone"), are some Hindu
+remains. The district of Buitenzorg (till 1866 an assistant residency)
+forms the southern part of the residency of Batavia, with an area of 1447
+sq. m. It occupies the northern slopes of a range of hills separating it
+from Preanger, and has a fertile soil. Tea, coffee, cinchona, sugar-cane,
+rice, nutmegs, cloves and pepper are cultivated.
+
+BUJNURD, a town of Persia, in the province of Khorasan, in a fertile plain
+encompassed by hills, in 37 deg. 29' N., 57 deg. 21' E., at an elevation of 3600
+ft. Pop. about 8000. Its old name was Buzinjird, and thus it still appears
+in official registers. It is the chief place of the district of same name,
+which extends in the west to the borders of Shahrud and Astarabad; in the
+north it is bounded by Russian Transcaspia, in the east by Kuchan, and in
+the south by Jovain. The greater part of the population consists of
+Shadillu Kurds, the remainder being Zafranlu Kurds, Garaili Turks, Goklan
+Turkomans and Persians.
+
+BUKHARI [Mahommed ibn Isma'il al-Bukhari] (810-872), Arabic author of the
+most generally accepted collection of traditions (_hadith_) from Mahomet,
+was born at Bokhara (_Bukhara_), of an Iranian family, in A.H. 194 (A.D.
+810). He early distinguished himself in the learning of traditions by
+heart, and when, in his sixteenth year, his family made the pilgrimage to
+Mecca, he gathered additions to his store from the authorities along the
+route. Already, in his eighteenth year, he had devoted himself to the
+collecting, sifting, testing and arranging of traditions. For that purpose
+he travelled over the Moslem world, from Egypt to Samarkand, and learned
+(as the story goes) from over a thousand men three hundred thousand
+traditions, true and false. He certainly became the acknowledged authority
+on the subject, and developed a power and speed of memory [v.04 p.0716]
+which seemed miraculous, even to his contemporaries. His theological
+position was conservative and anti-rationalistic; he enjoyed the friendship
+and respect of Ahmad Ibn Hanbal. In law, he appears to have been a
+Shafi'ite. After sixteen years' absence he returned to Bokhara, and there
+drew up his _Sahih_, a collection of 7275 tested traditions, arranged in
+chapters so as to afford bases for a complete system of jurisprudence
+without the use of speculative law, the first book of its kind (see
+MAHOMMEDAN LAW). He died in A.H. 256, in banishment at Kartank, a suburb of
+Samarkand. His book has attained a quasi-canonicity in Islam, being treated
+almost like the Koran, and to his grave solemn pilgrimages are made, and
+prayers are believed to be heard there.
+
+See F. Wuestenfeld, _Schafi'iten_, 78 ff.; M^cG. de Slane's transl. of Ibn
+Khallikan, i. 594 ff.; I. Goldziher, _Mohammedanische Studien_, ii. 157
+ff.; Nawawi, _Biogr. Dict._ 86 ff.
+
+(D. B. MA.)
+
+BUKOVINA, a duchy and crownland of Austria, bounded E. by Russia and
+Rumania, S. by Rumania, W. by Transylvania and Hungary, and N. by Galicia.
+Area, 4035 sq. m. The country, especially in its southern parts, is
+occupied by the offshoots of the Carpathians, which attain in the Giumaleu
+an altitude of 6100 ft. The principal passes are the Radna Pass and the
+Borgo Pass. With the exception of the Dniester, which skirts its northern
+border, Bukovina belongs to the watershed of the Danube. The principal
+rivers are the Pruth, and the Sereth with its affluents the Suczawa, the
+Moldava and the Bistritza. The climate of Bukovina is healthy but severe,
+especially in winter; but it is generally milder than that of Galicia, the
+mean annual temperature at Czernowitz being 46.9 deg. F. No less than 43.17% of
+the total area is occupied by woodland, and the very name of the country is
+derived from the abundance of beech trees. Of the remainder 27.59% is
+occupied by arable land, 12.68% by meadows, 10.09% by pastures and O.78% by
+gardens. The soil of Bukovina is fertile, and agriculture has made great
+progress, the principal products being wheat, maize, rye, oats, barley,
+potatoes, flax and hemp. Cattle-rearing constitutes another important
+source of revenue. The principal mineral is salt, which is extracted at the
+mine of Kaczyka, belonging to the government. Brewing, distilling and
+milling are the chief industries. Commerce is mostly in the hands of the
+Jews and Armenians, and chiefly confined to raw products, such as
+agricultural produce, cattle, wool and wood. Bukovina had in 1900 a
+population of 729,921, which is equivalent to 181 inhabitants per sq. m.
+According to nationality, over 40% were Ruthenians, 35% Rumanians, 13%
+Jews, and the remainder was composed of Germans, Poles, Hungarians,
+Russians and Armenians. The official language of the administration, of the
+law-courts, and of instruction in the university is German. Nearly 70% of
+the population belong to the Greek Orthodox Church, and stand under the
+ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the archbishop or metropolitan of
+Czernowitz. To the Roman Catholic Church belong 11%, to the Greek United
+Church 3.25%, while 2.5% are Protestants. Elementary education is
+improving, but, after Dalmatia, Bukovina still shows the largest number of
+illiterates in Austria. The local diet, of which the archbishop of
+Czernowitz and the rector of the university are members _ex officio_, is
+composed of 31 members, and Bukovina sends 14 deputies to the Reichsrat at
+Vienna. For administrative purposes, the country is divided into 9
+districts and an autonomous municipality, Czernowitz (pop. 69,619), the
+capital. Other towns are Radautz (14,343), Suczawa (10,946), Kuczurmare
+(9417), Kimpolung(8024) and Sereth (7610).
+
+Bukovina was originally a part of the principality of Moldavia, whose
+ancient capital Suczawa was situated in this province. It was occupied by
+the Russians in 1769, and by the Austrians in 1774. In 1777 the Porte,
+under whose suzerainty Moldavia was, ceded this province to Austria. It was
+incorporated with Galicia in a single province in 1786, but was separated
+from it in 1849, and made a separate crownland.
+
+See Bidermann, _Die Bukowina unter der osterreichischen Verwaltung,
+1775-1875_ (Lemberg, 1876).
+
+BULACAN, a town of the province of Bulacan, Luzon, Philippine Islands, on
+an arm of the Pampanga delta, 22 m. N.N.W. of Manila. Pop. (1903) 11,589;
+after the census enumeration, the town of Guiguinto (pop. 3948) was
+annexed. Bulacan is served by the Manila-Dagupan railway. Sugar, rice,
+indigo and tropical fruits are the chief products of the fertile district
+in which the town lies; it is widely known for its fish-ponds and its
+excellent fish, and its principal manufactures are jusi, pina, ilang ilang
+perfume and sugar. With the exception of the churches and a few stone
+buildings, Bulacan was completely destroyed by fire in 1898.
+
+BULANDSHAHR, a town and district of British India in the Meerut division of
+the United Provinces. The town is situated on a height on the right bank of
+the Kali-Nadi, whence the substitution of the names Unchanagar and
+Bulandshahr (high town) for its earlier name of Baran, by which it is still
+sometimes called. The population in 1901 was 18,959. Its present handsome
+appearance is due to several successive collectors, notably F.S. Growse,
+who was active in erecting public buildings, and in encouraging the local
+gentry to beautify their own houses. In particular, it boasts a fine
+bathing-ghat, a town-hall, a market-place, a tank to supply water, and a
+public garden.
+
+The DISTRICT OF BULANDSHAHR has an area of 1899 sq. m. The district
+stretches out in a level plain, with a gentle slope from N.W. to S.E., and
+a gradual but very slight elevation about midway between the Ganges and
+Jumna. Principal rivers are the Ganges and Jumna--the former navigable all
+the year round, the latter only during the rains. The Ganges canal
+intersects the district, and serves both for irrigation and navigation. The
+Lower Ganges canal has its headworks at Narora. The climate of the district
+is liable to extremes, being very cold in the winter and excessively hot in
+the summer. In 1901 the population was 1,138,101, showing an increase of
+20% in the decade. The district is very highly cultivated and thickly
+populated. There are several indigo factories, and mills for pressing and
+cleaning cotton, but the former have greatly suffered by the decline in
+indigo of recent years. The main line of the East Indian railway and the
+Oudh and Rohilkhand railway cross the district. The chief centre of trade
+is Khurja.
+
+Nothing certain is known of the history of the district before A.D. 1018,
+when Mahmud of Ghazni appeared before Baran and received the submission of
+the Hindu raja and his followers to Islam. In 1193 the city was captured by
+Kutb-ud-din. In the 14th century the district was subject to invasions of
+Rajput and Mongol clans who left permanent settlements in the country. With
+the firm establishment of the Mogul empire peace was restored, the most
+permanent effect of this period being the large proportion of Mussulmans
+among the population, due to the zeal of Aurangzeb. The decline of the
+Mogul empire gave free play to the turbulent spirit of the Jats and Gujars,
+many of whose chieftains succeeded in carving out petty principalities for
+themselves at the expense of their neighbours. During this period, however,
+Baran had properly no separate history, being a dependency of Koil, whence
+it continued to be administered under the Mahratta domination. After Koil
+and the fort of Aligarh had been captured by the British in 1803,
+Bulandshahr and the surrounding country were at first incorporated in the
+newly created district of Aligarh (1805). Bulandshahr enjoyed an evil
+reputation in the Mutiny of 1857, when the Gujar peasantry plundered the
+towns. The Jats took the side of the government, while the Gujars and
+Mussulman Rajputs were most actively hostile.
+
+See _Imperial Gazetteer of India_ (Oxford, ed. 1908); F.S. Growse,
+_Bulandshahr_ (Benares, 1884).
+
+BULAWAYO, the capital of Matabeleland, the western province of southern
+Rhodesia, South Africa. White population (1904) 3840. It occupies a central
+position on the tableland between the Limpopo and Zambezi rivers, is 4469
+ft. above the sea and 1362 m. north-east of Cape Town by rail. Beira, the
+nearest port, is 398 m. east in a direct line, but distant 675 m. by
+railway. Another railway, part of the Cape to Cairo connexion, runs
+north-west from Bulawayo, crossing the Zambezi just below the Victoria
+Falls. In the centre of the town is a large market square to which roads
+lead in regular lines north, south, east and [v.04 p.0717] west. Those
+going east and west are called avenues and are numbered, those running
+north and south are called streets and are named. Through the centre of
+Market Square runs Rhodes Street. There are many handsome public and
+private buildings. In front of the stock exchange is a monument in memory
+of the 257 settlers killed in the Matabele rebellion of 1896, and at the
+junction of two of the principal streets is a colossal bronze statue of
+Cecil Rhodes. East of the town is a large park and botanical gardens,
+beyond which is a residential suburb. The railway station and water and
+electric supply works are in the south-west quarter. An avenue 130 ft.
+broad and nearly 11/2 m. long, planted throughout its length with trees,
+leads from the town to Government House, which is built on the site of
+Lobengula's royal kraal. The tree under which that chieftain sat when
+giving judgment has been preserved. A number of gold reefs intersect the
+surrounding district and in some of the reefs gold is mined.
+South-south-east of the town are the Matoppo Hills. In a grave in one of
+these hills, 33 m. from Bulawayo, Rhodes is buried.
+
+The "Place of Slaughter," as the Zulu word Bulawayo is interpreted, was
+founded about 1838 by Lobengula's father, Mosilikatze, some distance south
+of the present town, and continued to be the royal residence till its
+occupation by the British South Africa Company's forces in November 1893,
+when a new town was founded. Four years later the railway connecting it
+with Cape Town was completed (see RHODESIA).
+
+BULDANA, a town and district of India, in Berar. The town had a population
+in 1901 of 4137. The district has an area of 3662 sq. m. The southern part
+forms a portion of Berar Balaghat or Berar--above the Ghats. Here the
+general contour of the country may be described as a succession of small
+plateaus decreasing in elevation to the extreme south. Towards the eastern
+side of the district the country assumes more the character of undulating
+high lands, favoured with soil of a good quality. A succession of plateaus
+descends from the highest ridges on the north to the south, where a series
+of small ghats march with the nizam's territory. The small fertile valleys
+between the plateaus are watered by streams during the greater portion of
+the year, while wells of particularly good and pure water are numerous.
+These valleys are favourite village sites. The north portion of the
+district occupies the rich valley of the Purna. The district is rich in
+agricultural produce; in a seasonable year a many-coloured sheet of
+cultivation, almost without a break, covers the valley of the Purna. In the
+Balaghat also the crops are very fine. Situated as the district is in the
+neighbourhood of the great cotton market of Khamgaon, and nearer to Bombay
+than the other Berar districts, markets for its agricultural produce on
+favourable terms are easily found. In 1901 the population was 423,616,
+showing a decrease of 12% in the decade due to the effects of famine. The
+district was reconstituted, and given an additional area of 853 sq. m. in
+1905; the population on the enlarged area in 1901 was 613,756. The only
+manufacture is cotton cloth. Cotton, wheat and oil-seeds are largely
+exported. The Nagpur line of the Great Indian Peninsula railway runs
+through the north of the district. The most important place of trade is
+Malkapur--pop. (1901) 13,112--with several factories for ginning and
+pressing cotton.
+
+BULDUR, or BURDUR, chief town of a sanjak of the Konia vilayet in Asia
+Minor. It is called by the Christians _Polydorion_. Its altitude is 3150
+ft. and it is situated in the midst of gardens, about 2 m. from the
+brackish lake, Buldur Geul (anc. _Ascania Limne_). Linen-weaving and
+leather-tanning are the principal industries. There is a good carriage road
+to Dineir, by which much grain is sent from the Buldur plain, and a railway
+connects it with Dineir and Egirdir. Pop. 12,000.
+
+BULFINCH, CHARLES (1763-1844), American architect, was born in Boston,
+Massachusetts, on the 8th of August 1763, the son of Thomas Bulfinch, a
+prominent and wealthy physician. He was educated at the Boston Latin school
+and at Harvard, where he graduated in 1781, and after several years of
+travel and study in Europe, settled in 1787 in Boston, where he was the
+first to practise as a professional architect. Among his early works were
+the old Federal Street theatre (1793), the first play-house in New England,
+and the "new" State House (1798). For more than twenty-five years he was
+the most active architect in Boston, and at the same time took a leading
+part in the public life of the city. As chairman of the board of selectmen
+for twenty-one years (1797-1818), an important position which made him
+practically chief magistrate, he exerted a strong influence in modernizing
+Boston, in providing for new systems of drainage and street-lighting, in
+reorganizing the police and fire departments, and in straightening and
+widening the streets. He was one of the promoters in 1787 of the voyage of
+the ship "Columbia," which under command of Captain Robert Gray (1755-1806)
+was the first to carry the American flag round the world. In 1818 Bulfinch
+succeeded B.H. Latrobe (1764-1820) as architect of the National Capitol at
+Washington. He completed the unfinished wings and central portion,
+constructing the rotunda from plans of his own after suggestions of his
+predecessor, and designed the new western approach and portico. In 1830 he
+returned to Boston, where he died on the 15th of April 1844. Bulfinch's
+work was marked by sincerity, simplicity, refinement of taste and an entire
+freedom from affectation, and it greatly influenced American architecture
+in the early formative period. His son, Stephen Greenleaf Bulfinch
+(1809-1870), was a well-known Unitarian clergyman and author.
+
+See _The Life and Letters of Charles Bulfinch_ (Boston, 1896), edited by
+his grand-daughter, and "The Architects of the American Capitol," by James
+Q. Howard, in _The International Review_, vol. i. (New York, 1874).
+
+BULGARIA, a kingdom of south-eastern Europe, situated in the north-east of
+the Balkan Peninsula, and on the Black Sea. From 1878 until the 5th of
+October 1908, Bulgaria was an autonomous and tributary principality, under
+the suzerainty of the sultan of Turkey. The area of the kingdom amounts to
+37,240 sq. m., and comprises the territories between the Balkan chain and
+the river Danube; the province of Eastern Rumelia, lying south of the
+Balkans; and the western highlands of Kiustendil, Samakov, Sofia and Trn.
+Bulgaria is bounded on the N. by the Danube, from its confluence with the
+Timok to the eastern suburbs of Silistria whence a line, forming the
+Rumanian frontier, is drawn to a point on the Black Sea coast 10 m. S. of
+Mangalia. On the E. it is washed by the Black Sea; on the S. the Turkish
+frontier, starting from a point on the coast about 12 m. S. of Sozopolis,
+runs in a south-westerly direction, crossing the river Maritza at Mustafa
+Pasha, and reaching the Arda at Adakali. The line laid down by the Berlin
+Treaty (1878) ascended the Arda to Ishiklar, thence following the crest of
+Rhodope to the westwards, but the cantons of Krjali and Rupchus included in
+this boundary were restored to Turkey in 1886. The present frontier,
+passing to the north of these districts, reaches the watershed of Rhodope a
+little north of the Dospat valley, and then follows the crest of the Rilska
+Planina to the summit of Tchrni Vrkh, where the Servian, Turkish and
+Bulgarian territories meet. From this point the western or Servian frontier
+passes northwards, leaving Trn to the east and Pirot to the west, reaching
+the Timok near Kula, and following the course of that river to its junction
+with the Danube. The Berlin Treaty boundary was far from corresponding with
+the ethnological limits of the Bulgarian race, which were more accurately
+defined by the abrogated treaty of San Stefano (see below, under
+_History_). A considerable portion of Macedonia, the districts of Pirot and
+Vranya belonging to Servia, the northern half of the vilayet of Adrianople,
+and large tracts of the Dobrudja, are, according to the best and most
+impartial authorities, mainly inhabited by a Bulgarian population.
+
+_Physical Features._--The most striking physical features are two
+mountain-chains; the Balkans, which run east and west through the heart of
+the country; and Rhodope, which, for a considerable distance, forms its
+southern boundary. The Balkans constitute the southern half of the great
+semicircular range known as the anti-Dacian system, of which the
+Carpathians form the northern portion. This great chain is sundered at the
+Iron Gates by the passage of the Danube; its two component parts present
+many points of resemblance in their aspect and outline, geological
+formation and flora. The Balkans (ancient _Haemus_) run almost parallel to
+the Danube,
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+Corrections made to printed original.
+
+p. 499, History: "It was, however, recovered": 'recoverd' in original
+
+p. 506, 1st para: "the yarrow (Achillea millefolium).": 'Achilloea' in
+original
+
+p. 506, 2nd para: "owing partly to licensing legislation": 'lincensing' in
+original
+
+p. 507, 2nd para: "The worts of each brewing must be collected": 'much be
+collected' in original
+
+p. 541, Lansdowne Bridge: "main members at end of cantilevers":
+'centilevers' in original
+
+p. 602, Climate, Flora and Fauna: "constant breeze from the Indian Ocean":
+'beeeze' in original
+
+P. 625, Brockville: "situated 119 m. S.W. of Montreal": 'situtated' in
+original
+
+p. 635, 5th para: "the embarrassment of breathing": 'embarassment' in
+original
+
+p. 671, 1st para: "he conceived an enthusiastic admiration": 'enthusiatic'
+in original
+
+P. 703, Marchantiales: "Marchantia polymorpha and Lunularia": 'Marchantia,
+polymorpha' in original
+
+p. 707, Fig. 14: "Andreaea petrophila": 'pelrophila' in original
+
+P. 742, Buddhaghosa: "a nearly contemporaneous Chinese translation":
+'comtemporaneous' in original
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 4, Part 3, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
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