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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 4, Part 3 + "Brescia" to "Bulgaria" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: April 13, 2007 [EBook #19699] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + + + + +Produced by Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, Keith Edkins and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + +<p><!-- Page 498 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page498"></a>[v.04 p.0498]</span></p> + + <p><b>BRÉQUIGNY, LOUIS GEORGE OUDARD FEUDRIX DE</b> (<i>continued from + part 2</i>)</p> + + <p>... volumes x.-xiv., the preface to vol. xi. containing important + researches into the French communes. To the <i>Table chronologique des + diplômes, chartes, lettres, et actes imprimés concernant l'histoire de + France</i> he contributed three volumes in collaboration with Mouchet + (1769-1783). Charged with the supervision of a large collection of + documents bearing on French history, analogous to Rymer's <i>Foedera</i>, + he published the first volume (<i>Diplomatat. Chartae</i>, &c., + 1791). The Revolution interrupted him in his collection of <i>Mémoires + concernant l'histoire, les sciences, les lettres, et les arts des + Chinois</i>, begun in 1776 at the instance of the minister Bertin, when + fifteen volumes had appeared.</p> + + <p>See the note on Bréquigny at the end of vol. i. of the <i>Mémoires de + l'Académie des Inscriptions</i> (1808); the Introduction to vol. iv. of + the <i>Table chronologique des diplômes</i> (1836); Champollion-Figeac's + preface to the <i>Lettres des rois et reines</i>; the <i>Comité des + travaux historiques</i>, by X. Charmes, vol. i. <i>passim</i>; N. Oursel, + <i>Nouvelle biographie normande</i> (1886); and the <i>Catalogue des + manuscrits des collections Duchesne et Bréquigny</i> (in the Bibliothèque + Nationale), by René Poupardin (1905).</p> + + <p>(C. B.*)</p> + + <p><b>BRESCIA</b> (anc. <i>Brixia</i>), a city and episcopal see of + Lombardy, Italy, the capital of the province of Brescia, finely situated + at the foot of the Alps, 52 m. E. of Milan and 40 m. W. of Verona by + rail. Pop. (1901) town, 42,495; commune, 72,731. The plan of the city is + rectangular, and the streets intersect at right angles, a peculiarity + handed down from Roman times, though the area enclosed by the medieval + walls is larger than that of the Roman town, which occupied the eastern + portion of the present one. The Piazza del Museo marks the site of the + forum, and the museum on its north side is ensconced in a Corinthian + temple with three <i>cellae</i>, by some attributed to Hercules, but more + probably the Capitolium of the city, erected by Vespasian in <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 73 (if the inscription really belongs to the + building; cf. Th. Mommsen in <i>Corp. Inscrip. Lat.</i> v. No. 4312, + Berlin, 1872), and excavated in 1823. It contains a famous bronze statue + of Victory, found in 1826. Scanty remains of a building on the south side + of the forum, called the <i>curia</i>, but which may be a basilica, and + of the theatre, on the east of the temple, still exist.</p> + + <p>Brescia contains many interesting medieval buildings. The castle, at + the north-east angle of the town, commands a fine view. It is now a + military prison. The old cathedral is a round domed structure of the 10th + (?) century erected over an early Christian basilica, which has forty-two + ancient columns; and the Broletto, adjoining the new cathedral (a + building of 1604) on the north, is a massive building of the 12th and + 13th centuries (the original town hall, now the prefecture and law + courts), with a lofty tower. There are also remains of the convent of S. + Salvatore, founded by Desiderius, king of Lombardy, including three + churches, two of which now contain the fine medieval museum, which + possesses good ivories. The church of S. Francesco has a Gothic façade + and cloisters. There are also some good Renaissance palaces and other + buildings, including the Municipio, begun in 1492 and completed by Jacopo + Sansovino in 1554-1574. This is a magnificent structure, with fine + ornamentation. The church of S. Maria dei Miracoli (1488-1523) is also + noteworthy for its general effect and for the richness of its details, + especially of the reliefs on the façade. Many other churches, and the + picture gallery (Galleria Martinengo), contain fine works of the painters + of the Brescian school, Alessandro Bonvicino (generally known as + Moretto), Girolamo Romanino and Moretto's pupil, Giovanni Battista + Moroni. The Biblioteca Queriniana contains early MSS., a 14th-century MS. + of Dante, &c., and some rare incunabula. The city is well supplied + with water, and has no less than seventy-two public fountains. Brescia + has considerable factories of iron ware, particularly fire-arms and + weapons (one of the government small arms factories being situated here), + also of woollens, linens and silks, matches, candles, &c. The stone + quarries of Mazzano, 8 m. east of Brescia, supplied material for the + monument to Victor Emmanuel II. and other buildings in Rome. Brescia is + situated on the main railway line between Milan and Verona, and has + branch railways to Iseo, Parma, Cremona and (via Rovato) to Bergamo, and + steam tramways to Mantua, Soncino, Ponte Toscolano and Cardone + Valtrompia.</p> + + <p>The ancient Celtic Brixia, a town of the Cenomani, became Roman in 225 + <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, when the Cenomani submitted to Rome. + Augustus founded a civil (not a military) colony here in 27 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>, and he and Tiberius constructed an aqueduct to + supply it. In 452 it was plundered by Attila, but was the seat of a duchy + in the Lombard period. From 1167 it was one of the most active members of + the Lombard League. In 1258 it fell into the hands of Eccelino of Verona, + and belonged to the Scaligers (della Scala) until 1421, when it came + under the Visconti of Milan, and in 1426 under Venice. Early in the 16th + century it was one of the wealthiest cities of Lombardy, but has never + recovered from its sack by the French under Gaston de Foix in 1512. It + belonged to Venice until 1797, when it came under Austrian dominion; it + revolted in 1848, and again in 1849, being the only Lombard town to rally + to Charles Albert in the latter year, but was taken after ten days' + obstinate street fighting by the Austrians under Haynau.</p> + + <p>See <i>Museo Bresciano Illustrato</i> (Brescia, 1838).</p> + + <p>(<span class="sc">T. As.</span>)</p> + + <p><b>BRESLAU</b> (Polish <i>Wraclaw</i>), a city of Germany, capital of + the Prussian province of Silesia, and an episcopal see, situated in a + wide and fertile plain on both banks of the navigable Oder, 350 m. from + its mouth, at the influx of the Ohle, and 202 m. from Berlin on the + railway to Vienna. Pop. (1867) 171,926; (1880) 272,912; (1885) 299,640; + (1890) 335,186; (1905) 470,751, about 60% being Protestants, 35% Roman + Catholics and nearly 5% Jews. The Oder, which here breaks into several + arms, divides the city into two unequal halves, crossed by numerous + bridges. The larger portion, on the left bank, includes the old or inner + town, surrounded by beautiful promenades, on the site of the ramparts, + dismantled after 1813, from an eminence within which, the Liebichs Höhe, + a fine view is obtained of the surrounding country. Outside, as well as + across the Oder, lies the new town with extensive suburbs, containing, + especially in the Schweidnitz quarter in the south, and the Oder quarter + in the north, many handsome streets and spacious squares. The inner town, + in contrast to the suburbs, still retains with its narrow streets much of + its ancient characters, and contains several medieval buildings, both + religious and secular, of great beauty and interest. The cathedral, + dedicated to St John the Baptist, was begun in 1148 and completed at the + close of the 15th century, enlarged in the 17th and 18th centuries, and + restored between 1873 and 1875; it is rich in notable treasures, + especially the high altar of beaten silver, and in beautiful paintings + and sculptures. The Kreuzkirche (church of the Holy Cross), dating from + the 13th and 14th centuries, is an interesting brick building, remarkable + for its stained glass and its historical monuments, among which is the + tomb of Henry IV., duke of Silesia. The Sandkirche, so called from its + dedication to Our Lady on the Sand, dates from the 14th century, and was + until 1810 the church of the Augustinian canons. The Dorotheenor + Minoritenkirche, remarkable for its high-pitched roof, was founded by the + emperor Charles IV. in 1351. These are the most notable of the Roman + Catholic churches. Of the Evangelical churches the most important is that + of St Elizabeth, founded about 1250, rebuilt in the 14th and 15th + centuries, and restored in 1857. Its lofty tower contains the largest + bell in Silesia, and the church possesses a celebrated organ, fine + stained glass, a magnificent stone pyx (erected in 1455) over 52 ft. + high, and portraits of Luther and Melanchthon by Lucas Cranach. The + church of St Mary Magdalen, built in the 14th century on the model of the + cathedral, has two lofty Gothic towers connected by a bridge, and is + interesting as having been the church in which, in 1523, the reformation + in Silesia was first proclaimed. Other noteworthy ecclesiastical + buildings are the graceful Gothic church of St Michael built in 1871, the + bishop's palace and the Jewish synagogue, the finest in Germany after + that in Berlin.</p> + + <p>The business streets of the city converge upon the Ring, the market + square, in which is the town-hall, a fine Gothic building, begun in the + middle of the 14th and completed in the 16th century. Within is the + Fürstensaal, in which the diets of Silesia were formerly held, while + beneath is the famous Schweidnitzer Keller, used continuously since 1355 + as a beer and wine house. <!-- Page 499 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page499"></a>[v.04 p.0499]</span>The university, a spacious Gothic + building facing the Oder, is a striking edifice. It was built (1728-1736) + as a college by the Jesuits, on the site of the former imperial castle + presented to them by the emperor Leopold I., and contains a magnificent + hall (Aula Leopoldina), richly ornamented with frescoes and capable of + holding 1200 persons. Breslau possesses a large number of other important + public buildings: the Stadthaus (civic hall), the royal palace, the + government offices (a handsome pile erected in 1887), the provincial + House of Assembly, the municipal archives, the courts of law, the + Silesian museum of arts and crafts and antiquities, stored in the former + assembly hall of the estates (Ständehaus), which was rebuilt for the + purpose, the museum of fine arts, the exchange, the Stadt and Lobe + theatres, the post office and central railway station. There are also + numerous hospitals and schools. Breslau is exceedingly rich in fine + monuments; the most noteworthy being the equestrian statues of Frederick + the Great and Frederick William III., both by Kiss; the statue of Blücher + by Rauch; a marble statue of General Tauentzien by Langhans and Schadow; + a bronze statue of Karl Gottlieb Svarez (1746-1798), the Prussian jurist, + a monument to Schleiermacher, born here in 1768, and statues of the + emperor William I., Bismarck and Moltke. There are also several handsome + fountains. Foremost among the educational establishments stands the + university, founded in 1702 by the emperor Leopold I. as a Jesuit + college, and greatly extended by the incorporation of the university of + Frankfort-on-Oder in 1811. Its library contains 306,000 volumes and 4000 + MSS., and has in the so-called <i>Bibliotheca Habichtiana</i> a valuable + collection of oriental literature. Among its auxiliary establishments are + botanical gardens, an observatory, and anatomical, physiological and + kindred institutions. There are eight classical and four modern schools, + two higher girls' schools, a Roman Catholic normal school, a Jewish + theological seminary, a school of arts and crafts, and numerous literary + and charitable foundations. It is, however, as a commercial and + industrial city that Breslau is most widely known. Its situation, close + to the extensive coal and iron fields of Upper Silesia, in proximity to + the Austrian and Russian frontiers, at the centre of a network of + railways directly communicating both with these countries and with the + chief towns of northern and central Germany, and on a deep waterway + connecting with the Elbe and the Vistula, facilitates its very + considerable transit and export trade in the products of the province and + of the neighbouring countries. These embrace coal, sugar, cereals, + spirits, petroleum and timber. The local industries comprise machinery + and tools, railway and tramway carriages, furniture, cast-iron goods, + gold and silver work, carpets, furs, cloth and cottons, paper, musical + instruments, glass and china. Breslau is the headquarters of the VI. + German army corps and contains a large garrison of troops of all + arms.</p> + + <p><i>History.</i>—Breslau (Lat. <i>Vratislavia</i>) is first + mentioned by the chronicler Thietmar, bishop of Merseburg, in <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 1000, and was probably founded some years before + this date. Early in the 11th century it was made the seat of a bishop, + and after having formed part of Poland, became the capital of an + independent duchy in 1163. Destroyed by the Mongols in 1241, it soon + recovered its former prosperity and received a large influx of German + colonists. The bishop obtained the title of a prince of the Empire in + 1290.<a name="FnAnchor_011" href="#Footnote_011"><sup>[1]</sup></a> When + Henry VI., the last duke of Breslau, died in 1335, the city came by + purchase to John, king of Bohemia, whose successors retained it until + about 1460. The Bohemian kings bestowed various privileges on Breslau, + which soon began to extend its commerce in all directions, while owing to + increasing wealth the citizens took up a more independent attitude. + Disliking the Hussites, Breslau placed itself under the protection of + Pope Pius II. in 1463, and a few years afterwards came under the rule of + the Hungarian king, Matthias Corvinus. After his death in 1490 it again + became subject to Bohemia, passing with the rest of Silesia to the + Habsburgs when in 1526 Ferdinand, afterwards emperor, was chosen king of + Bohemia. Having passed almost undisturbed through the periods of the + Reformation and the Thirty Years' War, Breslau was compelled to own the + authority of Frederick the Great in 1741. It was, however, <span + class="correction" title="'recoverd' in original">recovered</span> by the + Austrians in 1757, but was regained by Frederick after his victory at + Leuthen in the same year, and has since belonged to Prussia, although it + was held for a few days by the French in 1807 after the battle of Jena, + and again in 1813 after the battle of Bautzen. The sites of the + fortifications, dismantled by the French in 1807, were given to the civic + authorities by King Frederick William III., and converted into + promenades. In March 1813 this monarch issued from Breslau his stirring + appeals to the Prussians, <i>An mein Volk</i> and <i>An mein + Kriegesheer</i>, and the city was the centre of the Prussian preparations + for the campaign which ended at Leipzig. After the Prussian victory at + Sadowa in 1866, William I. made a triumphant and complimentary entry into + the city, which since the days of Frederick the Great has been only less + loyal to the royal house than Berlin itself.</p> + + <p>See Bürkner and Stein, <i>Geschichte der Stadt Breslau</i> (Bresl. + 1851-1853); J-Stein, <i>Geschichte der Stadt Breslau im 19ten + Jahrhundert</i> (1884); O Frenzel, <i>Breslauer Stadtbuch</i> ("Codex + dipl. Silisiae," vol. ii. 1882); Luchs, <i>Breslau, ein Führer durch die + Stadt</i> (12th ed., Bresl. 1904).</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_011" href="#FnAnchor_011">[1]</a> In 1195 Jaroslaw, + son of Boleslaus I. of Lower Silesia, who became bishop of Breslau in + 1198, inherited the duchy of Neisse, which at his death (1201) he + bequeathed to his successors in the see. The Austrian part of Neisse + still belongs to the bishop of Breslau, who also still bears the title of + prince bishop.</p> + +</div> + <p><b>BRESSANT, JEAN BAPTISTE PROSPER</b> (1815-1886), French actor, was + born at Chalon-sur-Saône on the 23rd of October 1815, and began his stage + career at the Variétés in Paris in 1833. In 1838 he went to the French + theatre at St Petersburg, where for eight years he played important parts + with ever-increasing reputation. His success was confirmed at the Gymnase + when he returned to Paris in 1846, and he made his <i>début</i> at the + Comédie Française as a full-fledged <i>sociétaire</i> in 1854. From + playing the ardent young lover, he turned to leading rôles both in modern + plays and in the classical répertoire. His Richelieu in <i>Mlle de + Belle-Isle</i>, his Octave in Alfred de Musset's <i>Les Caprices de + Marianne</i>, and his appearance in de Musset's <i>Il faut qu'une porte + soit ouverte ou fermée</i> and <i>Un caprice</i> were followed by + <i>Tartuffe</i>, <i>Le Misanthrope</i> and <i>Don Juan</i>. Bressant + retired in 1875, and died on the 23rd of January 1886. During his + professorship at the Conservatoire, Mounet-Sully was one of his + pupils.</p> + + <p><b>BRESSE,</b> a district of eastern France embracing portions of the + departments of Ain, Saône-et-Loire and Jura. The Bresse extends from the + Dombes on the south to the river Doubs on the north, and from the Saône + eastwards to the Jura, measuring some 60 m. in the former, and 20 m. in + the latter direction. It is a plain varying from 600 to 800 ft. above the + sea, with few eminences and a slight inclination westwards. Heaths and + coppice alternate with pastures and arable land; pools and marshes are + numerous, especially in the north. Its chief rivers are the Veyle, the + Reyssouze and the Seille, all tributaries of the Saône. The soil is a + gravelly clay but moderately fertile, and cattle-raising is largely + carried on. The region is, however, more especially celebrated for its + table poultry. The inhabitants preserve a distinctive but almost obsolete + costume, with a curious head-dress. The Bresse proper, called the + <i>Bresse Bressane</i>, comprises the northern portion of the department + of Ain. The greater part of the district belonged in the middle ages to + the lords of Bâgé, from whom it passed in 1272 to the house of Savoy. It + was not till the first half of the 15th century that the province, with + Bourg as its capital, was founded as such. In 1601 it was ceded to France + by the treaty of Lyons, after which it formed (together with the province + of Bugey) first a separate government and afterwards part of the + government of Burgundy.</p> + + <p><b>BRESSUIRE,</b> a town of western France, capital of an + arrondissement in the department of Deux-Sèvres, 48 m. N. of Niort by + rail. Pop. (1906) 4561. The town is situated on an eminence overlooking + the Dolo, a tributary of the Argenton. It is the centre of a + cattle-rearing and agricultural region, and has important markets; the + manufacture of wooden type and woollen goods is carried on. Bressuire has + two buildings of interest: the church of Notre-Dame, which, dating + chiefly from the 12th and 15th centuries, has an imposing tower of the + Renaissance period; and the castle, built by the lords of <!-- Page 500 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page500"></a>[v.04 + p.0500]</span>Beaumont, vassals of the viscount of Thouars. The latter is + now in ruins, and a portion of the site is occupied by a modern château, + but an inner and outer line of fortifications are still to be seen. The + whole forms the finest assemblage of feudal ruins in Poitou. Bressuire is + the seat of a sub-prefect and has a tribunal of first instance. Among the + disasters suffered at various times by the town, its capture from the + English and subsequent pillage by French troops under du Guesclin in 1370 + is the most memorable.</p> + + <p><b>BREST,</b> a fortified seaport of western France, capital of an + arrondissement in the department of Finistère, 155 m. W.N.W. of Rennes by + rail. Population (1906) town, 71,163; commune, 85,294. It is situated to + the north of a magnificent landlocked bay, and occupies the slopes of two + hills divided by the river Penfeld,—the part of the town on the + left bank being regarded as Brest proper, while the part on the right is + known as Recouvrance. There are also extensive suburbs to the east of the + town. The hill-sides are in some places so steep that the ascent from the + lower to the upper town has to be effected by flights of steps and the + second or third storey of one house is often on a level with the ground + storey of the next. The chief street of Brest bears the name of rue de + Siam, in honour of the Siamese embassy sent to Louis XIV., and terminates + at the remarkable swing-bridge, constructed in 1861, which crosses the + mouth of the Penfeld. Running along the shore to the south of the town is + the Cours d'Ajot, one of the finest promenades of its kind in France, + named after the engineer who constructed it. It is planted with trees and + adorned with marble statues of Neptune and Abundance by Antoine Coysevox. + The castle with its donjon and seven towers (12th to the 16th centuries), + commanding the entrance to the river, is the only interesting building in + the town. Brest is the capital of one of the five naval arrondissements + of France. The naval port, which is in great part excavated in the rock, + extends along both banks of the Penfeld; it comprises gun-foundries and + workshops, magazines, shipbuilding yards and repairing docks, and employs + about 7000 workmen. There are also large naval barracks, training ships + and naval schools of various kinds, and an important naval hospital. + Brest is the seat of a sub-prefect and has tribunals of first instance + and of commerce, a chamber of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, two + naval tribunals, and a tribunal of maritime commerce. There are also + lycées for boys and girls and a school of commerce and industry. The + commercial port, which is separated from the town itself by the Cours + d'Ajot, comprises a tidal port with docks and an outer harbour; it is + protected by jetties to the east and west and by a breakwater on the + south. In 1905 the number of vessels entered was 202 with a tonnage of + 67,755, and cleared 160 with a tonnage of 61,012. The total value of the + imports in 1905 was £244,000. The chief were wine, coal, timber, mineral + tar, fertilizers and lobsters and crayfish. Exports, of which the chief + were wheat-flour, fruit and superphosphates, were valued at £40,000. + Besides its sardine and mackerel fishing industry, the town has + flour-mills, breweries, foundries, forges, engineering works, and + manufactures of blocks, candles, chemicals (from sea-weed), boots, shoes + and linen. Brest communicates by submarine cable with America and French + West Africa. The roadstead consists of a deep indentation with a maximum + length of 14 m. and an average width of 4 m., the mouth being barred by + the peninsula of Quélern, leaving a passage from 1 to 2 m. broad, known + as the Goulet. The outline of the bay is broken by numerous smaller bays + or arms, formed by the embouchures of streams, the most important being + the Anse de Quélern, the Anse de Poulmie, and the mouths of the + Châteaulin and the Landerneau. Brest is a fortress of the first class. + The fortifications of the town and the harbour fall into four groups: (1) + the very numerous forts and batteries guarding the approaches to and the + channel of the Goulet; (2) the batteries and forts directed upon the + roads; (3) a group of works preventing access to the peninsula of Quélern + and commanding the ground to the south of the peninsula from which many + of the works of group (2) could be taken in reverse; (4) the defences of + Brest itself, consisting of an old-fashioned <i>enceinte</i> possessing + little military value and a chain of detached forts to the west of the + town.</p> + + <p>Nothing definite is known of Brest till about 1240, when it was ceded + by a count of Léon to John I., duke of Brittany. In 1342 John of Montfort + gave it up to the English, and it did not finally leave their hands till + 1397. Its medieval importance was great enough to give rise to the + saying, "He is not duke of Brittany who is not lord of Brest." By the + marriage of Francis I. with Claude, daughter of Anne of Brittany, Brest + with the rest of the duchy definitely passed to the French crown. The + advantages of the situation for a seaport town were first recognized by + Richelieu, who in 1631 constructed a harbour with wooden wharves, which + soon became a station of the French navy. Colbert changed the wooden + wharves for masonry and otherwise improved the post, and Vauban's + fortifications followed in 1680-1688. During the 18th century the + fortifications and the naval importance of the town continued to develop. + In 1694 an English squadron under John, 3rd Lord Berkeley, was miserably + defeated in attempting a landing; but in 1794, during the revolutionary + war, the French fleet, under Villaret de Joyeuse, was as thoroughly + beaten in the same place by the English admiral Howe.</p> + + <p><b>BREST-LITOVSK</b> (Polish <i>Brzesc-Litevski</i>; and in the Chron. + <i>Berestie</i> and <i>Berestov</i>), a strongly fortified town of + Russia, in the government of Grodno, 137 m. by rail S. from the city of + Grodno, in 52° 5′ N. lat. and 23° 39′ E. long., at the + junction of the navigable river Mukhovets with the Bug, and at the + intersection of railways from Warsaw, Kiev, Moscow and East Prussia. Pop. + (1867) 22,493; (1901) 42,812, of whom more than one-half were Jews. It + contains a Jewish synagogue, which was regarded in the 16th century as + the first in Europe, and is the seat of an Armenian and of a Greek + Catholic bishop; the former has authority over the Armenians throughout + the whole country. The town carries on an extensive trade in grain, flax, + hemp, wood, tar and leather. First mentioned in the beginning of the 11th + century, Brest-Litovsk was in 1241 laid waste by the Mongols and was not + rebuilt till 1275; its suburbs were burned by the Teutonic Knights in + 1379; and in the end of the 15th century the whole town met a similar + fate at the hands of the khan of the Crimea. In the reign of the Polish + king Sigismund III. diets were held there; and in 1594 and 1596 it was + the meeting-place of two remarkable councils of the bishops of western + Russia. In 1657, and again in 1706, the town was captured by the Swedes; + in 1794 it was the scene of Suvarov's victory over the Polish general + Sierakowski; in 1795 it was added to the Russian empire. The + Brest-Litovsk or King's canal (50 m. long), utilizing the Mukhovets-Bug + rivers, forms a link in the waterways that connect the Dnieper with the + Vistula.</p> + + <p><b>BRETEUIL, LOUIS CHARLES AUGUSTE LE TONNELIER,</b> <span + class="sc">Baron de</span> (1730-1807), French diplomatist, was born at + the chateau of Azay-le-Féron (Indre) on the 7th of March 1730. He was + only twenty-eight when he was appointed by Louis XV. ambassador to the + elector of Cologne, and two years later he was sent to St Petersburg. He + arranged to be temporarily absent from his post at the time of the palace + revolution by which Catherine II. was placed on the throne. In 1769 he + was sent to Stockholm, and subsequently represented his government at + Vienna, Naples, and again at Vienna until 1783, when he was recalled to + become minister of the king's household. In this capacity he introduced + considerable reforms in prison administration. A close friend of Marie + Antoinette, he presently came into collision with Calonne, who demanded + his dismissal in 1787. His influence with the king and queen, especially + with the latter, remained unshaken, and on Necker's dismissal on the 11th + of July 1789, Breteuil succeeded him as chief minister. The fall of the + Bastille three days later put an end to the new ministry, and Breteuil + made his way to Switzerland with the first party of <i>émigrés</i>. At + Soleure, in November 1790, he received from Louis XVI. exclusive powers + to negotiate with the European courts, and in his efforts to check the + ill-advised diplomacy of the <i>émigré</i> princes, he soon brought + himself into opposition with his old rival Calonne, who held a chief + place in their councils. <!-- Page 501 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page501"></a>[v.04 p.0501]</span>After the failure of the flight to + Varennes, in the arrangement of which he had a share, Breteuil received + instructions from Louis XVI., designed to restore amicable relations with + the princes. His distrust of the king's brothers and his defence of Louis + XVI.'s prerogative were to some extent justified, but his intransigeant + attitude towards these princes emphasized the dissensions of the royal + family in the eyes of foreign sovereigns, who looked on the comte de + Provence as the natural representative of his brother and found a pretext + for non-interference on Louis's behalf in the contradictory statements of + the negotiators. Breteuil himself was the object of violent attacks from + the party of the princes, who asserted that he persisted in exercising + powers which had been revoked by Louis XVI. After the execution of Marie + Antoinette he retired into private life near Hamburg, only returning to + France in 1802. He died in Paris on the 2nd of November 1807.</p> + + <p>See the memoirs of Bertrand de Molleville (2 vols., Paris, 1816) and + of the marquis de Bouillé (2 vols., Paris, 1884); and E. Daudet, + <i>Coblentz, 1789-1793</i> (1889), forming part of his <i>Hist. de + l'émigration.</i></p> + + <p><b>BRÉTIGNY,</b> a French town (dept. Eure-et-Loir, arrondissement and + canton of Chartres, commune of Sours), which gave its name to a + celebrated treaty concluded there on the 8th of May 1360, between Edward + III. of England and John II., surnamed the Good, of France. The exactions + of the English, who wished to yield as few as possible of the advantages + claimed by them in the treaty of London, made negotiations difficult, and + the discussion of terms begun early in April lasted more than a month. By + virtue of this treaty Edward III. obtained, besides Guienne and Gascony, + Poitou, Saintonge and Aunis, Agenais, Périgord, Limousin, Quercy, + Bigorre, the countship of Gaure, Angoumois, Rouergue, Montreuil-sur-mer, + Ponthieu, Calais, Sangatte, Ham and the countship of Guines. John II. + had, moreover, to pay three millions of gold crowns for his ransom. On + his side the king of England gave up the duchies of Normandy and + Touraine, the countships of Anjou and Maine, and the suzerainty of + Brittany and of Flanders. As a guarantee for the payment of his ransom, + John the Good gave as hostages two of his sons, several princes and + nobles, four inhabitants of Paris, and two citizens from each of the + nineteen principal towns of France. This treaty was ratified and sworn to + by the two kings and by their eldest sons on the 24th of October 1360, at + Calais. At the same time were signed the special conditions relating to + each important article of the treaty, and the renunciatory clauses in + which the kings abandoned their rights over the territory they had + yielded to one another.</p> + + <p>See Rymer's <i>Foedera</i>, vol. iii; Dumont, <i>Corps + diplomatique</i>, vol. ii.; Froissart, ed. Luce, vol. vi.; <i>Les Grandes + Chroniques de France</i>, ed. P. Paris, vol. vi.; E. Cosneau, <i>Les + Grands Traités de la guerre de cent ans</i> (1889).</p> + + <p><b>BRETON, JULES ADOLPHE AIMÉ LOUIS</b> (1827- ), French painter, was + born on the 1st of May 1827, at Courrières, Pas de Calais, France. His + artistic gifts being manifest at an early age, he was sent in 1843 to + Ghent, to study under the historical painter de Vigne, and in 1846 to + Baron Wappers at Antwerp. Finally he worked in Paris under Drolling. His + first efforts were in historical subjects: "Saint Piat preaching in + Gaul"; then, under the influence of the revolution of 1848, he + represented "Misery and Despair." But Breton soon discovered that he was + not born to be a historical painter, and he returned to the memories of + nature and of the country which were impressed on him in early youth. In + 1853 he exhibited the "Return of the Harvesters" at the Paris Salon, and + the "Little Gleaner" at Brussels. Thenceforward he was essentially a + painter of rustic life, especially in the province of Artois, which he + quitted only three times for short excursions: in 1864 to Provence, and + in 1865 and 1873 to Brittany, whence he derived some of his happiest + studies of religious scenes. His numerous subjects may be divided + generally into four classes: labour, rest, rural festivals and religious + festivals. Among his more important works may be named "Women Gleaning," + and "The Day after St Sebastian's Day" (1855), which gained him a + third-class medal; "Blessing the Fields" (1857), a second-class medal; + "Erecting a Calvary" (1859), now in the Lille gallery; "The Return of the + Gleaners" (1859), now in the Luxembourg; "Evening" and "Women Weeding" + (1861), a first-class medal; "Grandfather's Birthday" (1862); "The Close + of Day" (1865); "Harvest" (1867); "Potato Gatherers" (1868); "A Pardon, + Brittany" (1869); "The Fountain" (1872), medal of honour; "The Bonfires + of St John" (1875); "Women mending Nets" (1876), in the Douai museum; "A + Gleaner" (1877), Luxembourg; "Evening, Finistère" (1881); "The Song of + the Lark" (1884); "The Last Sunbeam" (1885); "The Shepherd's Star" + (1888); "The Call Home" (1889); "The Last Gleanings" (1895); "Gathering + Poppies" (1897); "The Alarm Cry" (1899); "Twilight Glory" (1900). Breton + was elected to the Institut in 1886 on the death of Baudry. In 1889 he + was made commander of the Legion of Honour, and in 1899 foreign member of + the Royal Academy of London. He also wrote several books, among them + <i>Les Champs et la mer</i> (1876), <i>Nos peintres du siècle</i> (1900), + "Jeanne," a poem, <i>Delphine Bernard</i> (1902), and <i>La Peinture</i> + (1904).</p> + + <p>See Jules Breton, <i>Vie d'un artiste, art et nature</i> + (autobiographical), (Paris, 1890); Marius Vachon, <i>Jules Breton</i> + (1899).</p> + + <p><b>BRETON, BRITTON or BRITTAINE, NICHOLAS</b> (1545?-1626), English + poet, belonged to an old family settled at Layer-Breton, Essex. His + father, William Breton, who had made a considerable fortune by trade, + died in 1559, and the widow (née Elizabeth Bacon) married the poet George + Gascoigne before her sons had attained their majority. Nicholas Breton + was probably born at the "capitall mansion house" in Red Cross Street, in + the parish of St Giles without Cripplegate, mentioned in his father's + will. There is no official record of his residence at the university, but + the diary of the Rev. Richard Madox tells us that he was at Antwerp in + 1583 and was "once of Oriel College." He married Ann Sutton in 1593, and + had a family. He is supposed to have died shortly after the publication + of his last work, <i>Fantastickes</i> (1626). Breton found a patron in + Mary, countess of Pembroke, and wrote much in her honour until 1601, when + she seems to have withdrawn her favour. It is probably safe to supplement + the meagre record of his life by accepting as autobiographical some of + the letters signed N.B. in <i>A Poste with a Packet of Mad Letters</i> + (1603, enlarged 1637); the 19th letter of the second part contains a + general complaint of many griefs, and proceeds as follows: "hath another + been wounded in the warres, fared hard, lain in a cold bed many a bitter + storme, and beene at many a hard banquet? all these have I; another + imprisoned? so have I; another long been sicke? so have I; another + plagued with an unquiet life? so have I; another indebted to his hearts + griefe, and fame would pay and cannot? so am I." Breton was a facile + writer, popular with his contemporaries, and forgotten by the next + generation. His work consists of religious and pastoral poems, satires, + and a number of miscellaneous prose tracts. His religious poems are + sometimes wearisome by their excess of fluency and sweetness, but they + are evidently the expression of a devout and earnest mind. His praise of + the Virgin and his references to Mary Magdalene have suggested that he + was a Catholic, but his prose writings abundantly prove that he was an + ardent Protestant. Breton had little gift for satire, and his best work + is to be found in his pastoral poetry. His <i>Passionate Shepheard</i> + (1604) is full of sunshine and fresh air, and of unaffected gaiety. The + third pastoral in this book—"Who can live in heart so glad As the + merrie country lad"—is well known; with some other of Breton's + daintiest poems, among them the lullaby, "Come little babe, come silly + soule,"<a name="FnAnchor_021" + href="#Footnote_021"><sup>[1]</sup></a>—it is incorporated in A.H. + Bullen's <i>Lyrics from Elizabethan Romances</i> (1890). His keen + observation of country life appears also in his prose idyll, <i>Wits + Trenchmour</i>, "a conference betwixt a scholler and an angler," and in + his <i>Fantastickes</i>, a series of short prose pictures of the months, + the Christian festivals and the hours, which throw much light on the + customs of the times. Most of Breton's books are very rare and have great + bibliographical value. His works, with the exception of some belonging to + private owners, were collected by Dr A.B. Grosart in the <!-- Page 502 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page502"></a>[v.04 + p.0502]</span><i>Chertsey Worthies Library</i> in 1879, with an elaborate + introduction quoting the documents for the poet's history.</p> + + <p>Breton's poetical works, the titles of which are here somewhat + abbreviated, include <i>The Workes of a Young Wit</i> (1577); <i>A + Floorish upon Fancie</i> (1577); <i>The Pilgrimage to Paradise</i> + (1592); <i>The Countess of Penbrook's Passion</i> (MS.), first printed by + J.O. Halliwell Phillipps in 1853; <i>Pasquil's Fooles cappe</i>, entered + at Stationers' Hall in 1600; <i>Pasquil's Mistresse</i> (1600); + <i>Pasquil's Passe and Passeth Not</i> (1600); <i>Melancholike + Humours</i> (1600); <i>Marie Magdalen's Love: a Solemne Passion of the + Soules Love</i> (1595), the first part of which, a prose treatise, is + probably by another hand; the second part, a poem in six-lined stanza, is + certainly by Breton; <i>A Divine Poem</i>, including "The Ravisht Soul" + and "The Blessed Weeper" (1601); <i>An Excellent Poem, upon the Longing + of a Blessed Heart</i> (1601); <i>The Soules Heavenly Exercise</i> + (1601); <i>The Soules Harmony</i> (1602); <i>Olde Madcappe newe Gaily + mawfrey</i> (1602); <i>The Mother's Blessing</i> (1602); <i>A True + Description of Unthankfulnesse</i> (1602); <i>The Passionate + Shepheard</i> (1604); <i>The Soules Immortall Crowne</i> (1605); <i>The + Honour of Valour</i> (1605); <i>An Invective against Treason; I would and + I would not</i> (1614); <i>Bryton's Bowre of Delights</i> (1591), edited + by Dr Grosart in 1893, an unauthorized publication which contained some + poems disclaimed by Breton; <i>The Arbor of Amorous Devises</i> (entered + at Stationers' Hall, 1594), only in part Breton's; and contributions to + <i>England's Helicon</i> and other miscellanies of verse. Of his + twenty-two prose tracts may be mentioned <i>Wit's Trenchmour</i> (1597), + <i>The Wil of Wit</i> (1599), <i>A Poste with a Packet of Mad Letters</i> + (1603). <i>Sir Philip Sidney's Ourania by N.B.</i> (1606); <i>Mary + Magdalen's Lamentations</i> (1604), and <i>The Passion of a Discontented + Mind</i> (1601), are sometimes, but erroneously, ascribed to Breton.</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_021" href="#FnAnchor_021">[1]</a> This poem, + however, comes from <i>The Arbor of Amorous Devises</i>, which is only in + part Breton's work.</p> + +</div> + <p><b>BRETÓN DE LOS HERREROS, MANUEL</b> (1796-1873), Spanish dramatist, + was born at Quel (Logroño) on the 19th of December 1796 and was educated + at Madrid. Enlisting on the 24th of May 1812, he served against the + French in Valencia and Catalonia, and retired with the rank of corporal + on the 8th of March 1822. He obtained a minor post in the civil service + under the liberal government, and on his discharge determined to earn his + living by writing for the stage. His first piece, <i>Á la vejez + viruelas</i>, was produced on the 14th of October 1824, and proved the + writer to be the legitimate successor of the younger Moratin. His + industry was astonishing: between October 1824 and November 1828, he + composed thirty-nine plays, six of them original, the rest being + translations or recasts of classic masterpieces. In 1831 he published a + translation of Tibullus, and acquired by it an unmerited reputation for + scholarship which secured for him an appointment as sub-librarian at the + national library. But the theatre claimed him for its own, and with the + exception of <i>Elena</i> and a few other pieces in the fashionable + romantic vein, his plays were a long series of successes. His only + serious check occurred in 1840; the former liberal had grown conservative + with age, and in <i>La Ponchada</i> he ridiculed the National Guard. He + was dismissed from the national library, and for a short time was so + unpopular that he seriously thought of emigrating to America; but the + storm blew over, and within two years Bretón de los Herreros had regained + his supremacy on the stage. He became secretary to the Spanish Academy, + quarrelled with his fellow-members, and died at Madrid on the 8th of + November 1873. He is the author of some three hundred and sixty original + plays, twenty-three of which are in prose. No Spanish dramatist of the + nineteenth century approaches him in comic power, in festive invention, + and in the humorous presentation of character, while his metrical + dexterity is unique. <i>Marcela o a cual de los trés?</i> (1831), + <i>Muérete; y verás!</i> (1837) and <i>La Escuela del matrimonio</i> + (1852) still hold the stage, and are likely to hold it so long as Spanish + is spoken.</p> + + <p>See Marqués de Molíns, <i>Bretón de los Herreros, recuerdos de su vida + y de sus obras</i> (Madrid, 1883); <i>Obras de Bretón de Herreros</i> (5 + vols., Madrid, 1883); E. Piñeyro, <i>El Romanticismo en España</i> + (Paris, 1904).</p> + + <p>(J. F.-K.)</p> + + <p><b>BRETSCHNEIDER, KARL GOTTLIEB</b> (1776-1848), German scholar and + theologian, was born at Gersdorf in Saxony. In 1794 he entered the + university of Leipzig, where he studied theology for four years. After + some years of hesitation he resolved to be ordained, and in 1802 he + passed with great distinction the examination for <i>candidatus + theologiae</i>, and attracted the regard of F.V. Reinhard, author of the + <i>System der christlichen Moral</i> (1788-1815), then court-preacher at + Dresden, who became his warm friend and patron during the remainder of + his life. In 1804-1806 Bretschneider was <i>Privat-docent</i> at the + university of Wittenberg, where he lectured on philosophy and theology. + During this time he wrote his work on the development of dogma, + <i>Systematische Entwickelung aller in der Dogmatik vorkommenden Begriffe + nach den symbolischen Schriften der evangelisch-lutherischen und + reformirten Kirche</i> (1805, 4th ed. 1841), which was followed by + others, including an edition of Ecclesiasticus with a Latin commentary. + On the advance of the French army under Napoleon into Prussia, he + determined to leave Wittenberg and abandon his university career. Through + the good offices of Reinhard, he became pastor of Schneeberg in Saxony + (1807). In 1808 he was promoted to the office of superintendent of the + church of Annaberg, in which capacity he had to decide, in accordance + with the canon law of Saxony, many matters belonging to the department of + ecclesiastical law. But the climate did not agree with him, and his + official duties interfered with his theological studies. With a view to a + change he took the degree of doctor of theology in Wittenberg in August + 1812. In 1816 he was appointed general superintendent at Gotha, where he + remained until his death in 1848. This was the great period of his + literary activity.</p> + + <p>In 1820 was published his treatise on the gospel of St John, entitled + <i>Probabilia de Evangelii el Epistolarum Joannis Apostoli indole et + origine</i>, which attracted much attention. In it he collected with + great fulness and discussed with marked moderation the arguments against + Johannine authorship. This called forth a number of replies. To the + astonishment of every one, Bretschneider announced in the preface to the + second edition of his <i>Dogmatik</i> in 1822, that he had never doubted + the authenticity of the gospel, and had published his <i>Probabilia</i> + only to draw attention to the subject, and to call forth a more complete + defence of its genuineness. Bretschneider remarks in his autobiography + that the publication of this work had the effect of preventing his + appointment as successor to Karl C. Tittmann in Dresden, the minister + Detlev von Einsiedel (1773-1861) denouncing him as the "slanderer of + John" (<i>Johannisschänder</i>). His greatest contribution to the science + of exegesis was his <i>Lexicon Manuale Graeco-Latinum in libros Novi + Testamenti</i> (1824, 3rd ed. 1840). This work was valuable for the use + which its author made of the Greek of the Septuagint, of the Old and New + Testament Apocrypha, of Josephus, and of the apostolic fathers, in + illustration of the language of the New Testament. In 1826 he published + <i>Apologie der neuern Theologie des evangelischen Deutschlands</i>. Hugh + James Rose had published in England (1825) a volume of sermons on the + rationalist movement (<i>The State of the Protestant Religion in + Germany</i>), in which he classed Bretschneider with the rationalists; + and Bretschneider contended that he himself was not a rationalist in the + ordinary sense of the term, but a "rational supernaturalist." Some of his + numerous dogmatic writings passed through several editions. An English + translation of his <i>Manual of the Religion and History of the Christian + Church</i> appeared in 1857. His dogmatic position seems to be + intermediate between the extreme school of naturalists, such as Heinrich + Paulus, J.F. Röhr and Julius Wegscheider on the one hand, and D.F. + Strauss and F.C. Baur on the other. Recognizing a supernatural element in + the Bible, he nevertheless allowed to the full the critical exercise of + reason in the interpretation of its dogmas (cp. Otto Pfleiderer, + <i>Development of Theology</i>, pp. 89 ff.).</p> + + <p>See his autobiography, <i>Aus meinem Leben: Selbstbiographie von K.G. + Bretschneider</i> (Gotha, 1851), of which a translation, with notes, by + Professor George E. Day, appeared in the <i>Bibliotheca Sacra and + American Biblical Repository</i>, Nos. 36 and 38 (1852, 1853); Neudecker + in <i>Die allgemeine Kirchenzeitung</i> (1848), No. 38; Wüstemann, + <i>Bretschneideri Memoria</i> (1848); A.G. Farrar, <i>Critical History of + Free Thought</i> (Bampton Lectures, 1862); Herzog-Hauck, + <i>Realencyklopädie</i> (ed. 1897).</p> + + <p><b>BRETTEN,</b> a town of Germany, in the grand duchy of Baden, on the + Saalbach, 9 m. S.E. of Bruchsal by rail. Pop. (1900) 4781. It has some + manufactories of machinery and japanned goods, and a considerable trade + in timber and livestock. Bretten was the birthplace of Melanchthon + (1497), and in addition to a <!-- Page 503 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page503"></a>[v.04 p.0503]</span>statue of him by Drake, a memorial + hall, containing a collection of his writings and busts and pictures of + his famous contemporaries, has been erected.</p> + + <p><b>BRETWALDA,</b> a word used in the <i>Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</i> + under the date 827, and also in a charter of Æthelstan, king of the + English. It appears in several variant forms (<i>brytenwalda</i>, + <i>bretenanwealda</i>, &c.), and means most probably "lord of the + Britons" or "lord of Britain"; for although the derivation of the word is + uncertain, its earlier syllable seems to be cognate with the words Briton + and Britannia. In the <i>Chronicle</i> the title is given to Ecgbert, + king of the English, "the eighth king that was Bretwalda," and + retrospectively to seven kings who ruled over one or other of the English + kingdoms. The seven names are copied from Bede's <i>Historia + Ecclesiastica</i>, and it is interesting to note that the last king + named, Oswiu of Northumbria, lived 150 years before Ecgbert. It has been + assumed that these seven kings exercised a certain superiority over a + large part of England, but if such superiority existed it is certain that + it was extremely vague and was unaccompanied by any unity of + organization. Another theory is that Bretwalda refers to a + war-leadership, or <i>imperium</i>, over the English south of the Humber, + and has nothing to do with Britons or Britannia. In support of this + explanation it is urged that the title is given in the <i>Chronicle</i> + to Ecgbert in the year in which he "conquered the kingdom of the Mercians + and all that was south of the Humber." Less likely is the theory of + Palgrave that the Bretwaldas were the successors of the pseudo-emperors, + Maximus and Carausius, and claimed to share the imperial dignity of Rome; + or that of Kemble, who derives Bretwalda from the British word + <i>breotan</i>, to distribute, and translates it "widely ruling." With + regard to Ecgbert the word is doubtless given as a title in imitation of + its earlier use, and the same remark applies to its use in Æthelstan's + charter.</p> + + <p>See E.A. Freeman, <i>History of the Norman Conquest</i>, vol. i. + (Oxford, 1877); W. Stubbs, <i>Constitutional History</i>, vol. i. + (Oxford, 1897); J.R. Green, <i>The Making of England</i>, vol. ii. + (London, 1897); F. Palgrave, <i>The Rise and Progress of the English + Commonwealth</i> (London, 1832); J. M. Kemble, <i>The Saxons in + England</i> (London, 1876); J. Rhys, <i>Celtic Britain</i> (London, + 1884).</p> + + <p><b>BREUGHEL</b> (or <span class="sc">Brueghel</span>), <b>PIETER,</b> + Flemish painter, was the son of a peasant residing in the village of + Breughel near Breda. After receiving instruction in painting from Koek, + whose daughter he married, he spent some time in France and Italy, and + then went to Antwerp, where he was elected into the Academy in 1551. He + finally settled at Brussels and died there. The subjects of his pictures + are chiefly humorous figures, like those of D. Teniers; and if he wants + the delicate touch and silvery clearness of that master, he has abundant + spirit and comic power. He is said to have died about the year 1570 at + the age of sixty; other accounts give 1590 as the date of his death.</p> + + <p>His son <span class="sc">Pieter</span>, the younger (1564-1637), known + as "Hell" Breughel, was born in Brussels and died at Antwerp, where his + "Christ bearing the Cross" is in the museum.</p> + + <p>Another son <span class="sc">Jan</span> (<i>c.</i> 1569-1642), known + as "Velvet" Breughel, was born at Brussels. He first applied himself to + painting flowers and fruits, and afterwards acquired considerable + reputation by his landscapes and sea-pieces. After residing long at + Cologne he travelled into Italy, where his landscapes, adorned with small + figures, were greatly admired. He left a large number of pictures, + chiefly landscapes, which are executed with great skill. Rubens made use + of Breughel's hand in the landscape part of several of his small + pictures—such as his "Vertumnus and Pomona," the "Satyr viewing the + Sleeping Nymph," and the "Terrestrial Paradise."</p> + + <p><b>BREVET</b> (a diminutive of the Fr. <i>bref</i>), a short writing, + originally an official writing or letter, with the particular meaning of + a papal indulgence. The use of the word is mainly confined to a + commission, or official document, giving to an officer in the army a + permanent, as opposed to a local and temporary, rank in the service + higher than that he holds substantively in his corps. In the British army + "brevet rank" exists only above the rank of captain, but in the United + States army it is possible to obtain a brevet as first lieutenant. In + France the term <i>breveté</i> is particularly used with respect to the + General Staff, to express the equivalent of the English "passed Staff + College" (p.s.c.).</p> + + <p><b>BREVIARY</b> (Lat. <i>breviarium</i>, abridgment, epitome), the + book which contains the offices for the canonical hours, <i>i.e.</i> the + daily service of the Roman Catholic Church. As compared with the Anglican + Book of Common Prayer it is both more and less comprehensive; more, in + that it includes lessons and hymns for every day in the year; less, + because it excludes the Eucharistic office (contained in the Missal), and + the special offices connected with baptism, marriage, burial, ordination, + &c., which are found in the Ritual or the Pontifical. In the early + days of Christian worship, when Jewish custom was followed, the Bible + furnished all that was thought necessary, containing as it did the books + from which the lessons were read and the psalms that were recited. The + first step in the evolution of the Breviary was the separation of the + Psalter into a choir-book. At first the president of the local church + (bishop) or the leader of the choir chose a particular psalm as he + thought appropriate. From about the 4th century certain psalms began to + be grouped together, a process that was furthered by the monastic + practice of daily reciting the 150 psalms. This took so much time that + the monks began to spread it over a week, dividing each day into hours, + and allotting to each hour its portion of the Psalter. St Benedict in the + 6th century drew up such an arrangement, probably, though not certainly, + on the basis of an older Roman division which, though not so skilful, is + the one in general use. Gradually there were added to these psalter + choir-books additions in the form of antiphons, responses, collects or + short prayers, for the use of those not skilful at improvisation and + metrical compositions. Jean Beleth, a 12th-century liturgical author, + gives the following list of books necessary for the right conduct of the + canonical office:—the <i>Antiphonarium</i>, the Old and New + Testaments, the <i>Passionarius</i> (<i>liber</i>) and the + <i>Legendarius</i> (dealing respectively with martyrs and saints), the + <i>Homiliarius</i> (homilies on the Gospels), the <i>Sermologus</i> + (collection of sermons) and the works of the Fathers, besides, of course, + the <i>Psalterium</i> and the <i>Collectarium</i>. To overcome the + inconvenience of using such a library the Breviary came into existence + and use. Already in the 8th century Prudentius, bishop of Troyes, had in + a <i>Breviarium Psalterii</i> made an abridgment of the Psalter for the + laity, giving a few psalms for each day, and Alcuin had rendered a + similar service by including a prayer for each day and some other + prayers, but no lessons or homilies. The Breviary rightly so called, + however, only dates from the 11th century; the earliest MS. containing + the whole canonical office is of the year 1099 and is in the Mazarin + library. Gregory VII. (pope 1073-1085), too, simplified the liturgy as + performed at the Roman court, and gave his abridgment the name of + Breviary, which thus came to denote a work which from another point of + view might be called a Plenary, involving as it did the collection of + several works into one. There are several extant specimens of + 12th-century Breviaries, all Benedictine, but under Innocent III. (pope + 1198-1216) their use was extended, especially by the newly founded and + active Franciscan order. These preaching friars, with the authorization + of Gregory IX., adopted (with some modifications, <i>e.g.</i> the + substitution of the "Gallican" for the "Roman" version of the Psalter) + the Breviary hitherto used exclusively by the Roman court, and with it + gradually swept out of Europe all the earlier partial books (Legendaries, + Responsories), &c., and to some extent the local Breviaries, like + that of Sarum. Finally, Nicholas III. (pope 1277-1280) adopted this + version both for the curia and for the basilicas of Rome, and thus made + its position secure. The Benedictines and Dominicans have Breviaries of + their own. The only other types that merit notice are:—(1) the + Mozarabic Breviary, once in use throughout all Spain, but now confined to + a single foundation at Toledo; it is remarkable for the number and length + of its hymns, and for the fact that the majority of its collects are + addressed to God the Son; (2) the Ambrosian, now confined to Milan, where + it owes its retention to the attachment of the clergy and people to their + traditionary rites, which they derive from St Ambrose (see <span + class="sc">Liturgy</span>).</p> + +<p><!-- Page 504 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page504"></a>[v.04 p.0504]</span></p> + + <p>Till the council of Trent every bishop had full power to regulate the + Breviary of his own diocese; and this was acted upon almost everywhere. + Each monastic community, also, had one of its own. Pius V. (pope + 1566-1572), however, while sanctioning those which could show at least + 200 years of existence, made the Roman obligatory in all other places. + But the influence of the court of Rome has gradually gone much beyond + this, and has superseded almost all the local "uses." The Roman has thus + become nearly universal, with the allowance only of additional offices + for saints specially venerated in each particular diocese. The Roman + Breviary has undergone several revisions: The most remarkable of these is + that by Francis Quignonez, cardinal of Santa Croce in Gerusalemme (1536), + which, though not accepted by Rome,<a name="FnAnchor_031" + href="#Footnote_031"><sup>[1]</sup></a> formed the model for the still + more thorough reform made in 1549 by the Church of England, whose daily + morning and evening services are but a condensation and simplification of + the Breviary offices. Some parts of the prefaces at the beginning of the + English Prayer-Book are free translations of those of Quignonez. The Pian + Breviary was again altered by Sixtus V. in 1588, who introduced the + revised Vulgate text; by Clement VIII. in 1602 (through Baronius and + Bellarmine), especially as concerns the rubrics; and by Urban VIII. + (1623-1644), a purist who unfortunately tampered with the text of the + hymns, injuring both their literary charm and their historic worth.</p> + + <p>In the 17th and 18th centuries a movement of revision took place in + France, and succeeded in modifying about half the Breviaries of that + country. Historically, this proceeded from the labours of Jean de Launoy + (1603-1678), "le dénicheur des saints," and Louis Sébastien le Nain de + Tillemont, who had shown the falsity of numerous lives of the saints; + while theologically it was produced by the Port Royal school, which led + men to dwell more on communion with God as contrasted with the invocation + of the saints. This was mainly carried out by the adoption of a rule that + all antiphons and responses should be in the exact words of Scripture, + which, of course, cut out the whole class of appeals to created beings. + The services were at the same time simplified and shortened, and the use + of the whole Psalter every week (which had become a mere theory in the + Roman Breviary, owing to its frequent supersession by saints' day + services) was made a reality. These reformed French + Breviaries—<i>e.g.</i> the Paris Breviary of 1680 by Archbishop + François de Harlay (1625-1695) and that of 1736 by Archbishop Charles + Gaspard Guillaume de Vintimille (1655-1746)—show a deep knowledge + of Holy Scripture, and much careful adaptation of different texts; but + during the pontificate of Pius IX. a strong Ultramontane movement arose + against them. This was inaugurated by Montalembert, but its literary + advocates were chiefly Dom Gueranger, a learned Benedictine monk, abbot + of Solesmes, and Louis François Veuillot (1813-1883) of the + <i>Univers</i>; and it succeeded in suppressing them everywhere, the last + diocese to surrender being Orleans in 1875. The Jansenist and Gallican + influence was also strongly felt in Italy and in Germany, where + Breviaries based on the French models were published at Cologne, Münster, + Mainz and other towns. Meanwhile, under the direction of Benedict XIV. + (pope 1740-1758), a special congregation collected many materials for an + official revision, but nothing was published. Subsequent changes have + been very few and minute. In 1902, under Leo XIII., a commission under + the presidency of Monsignor Louis Duchesne was appointed to consider the + Breviary, the Missal, the Pontifical and the Ritual.</p> + + <p>The beauty and value of many of the Latin Breviaries were brought to + the notice of English churchmen by one of the numbers of the Oxford + <i>Tracts for the Times</i>, since which time they have been much more + studied, both for their own sake and for the light they throw upon the + English Prayer-Book.</p> + + <p>From a bibliographical point of view some of the early printed + Breviaries are among the rarest of literary curiosities, being merely + local. The copies were not spread far, and were soon worn out by the + daily use made of them. Doubtless many editions have perished without + leaving a trace of their existence, while others are known by unique + copies. In Scotland the only one which has survived the convulsions of + the 16th century is that of Aberdeen, a Scottish form of the Sarum + Office,<a name="FnAnchor_032" href="#Footnote_032"><sup>[2]</sup></a> + revised by William Elphinstone (bishop 1483-1514), and printed at + Edinburgh by Walter Chapman and Andrew Myllar in 1509-1510. Four copies + have been preserved of it, of which only one is complete; but it was + reprinted in facsimile in 1854 for the Bannatyne Club by the munificence + of the duke of Buccleuch. It is particularly valuable for the trustworthy + notices of the early history of Scotland which are embedded in the lives + of the national saints. Though enjoined by royal mandate in 1501 for + general use within the realm of Scotland, it was probably never widely + adopted. The new Scottish <i>Proprium</i> sanctioned for the Roman + Catholic province of St Andrews in 1903 contains many of the old Aberdeen + collects and antiphons.</p> + + <p>The Sarum or Salisbury Breviary itself was very widely used. The first + edition was printed at Venice in 1483 by Raynald de Novimagio in folio; + the latest at Paris, 1556, 1557. While modern Breviaries are nearly + always printed in four volumes, one for each season of the year, the + editions of the Sarum never exceeded two parts.</p> + + <p><i>Contents of the Roman Breviary</i>.—At the beginning stands + the usual introductory matter, such as the tables for determining the + date of Easter, the calendar, and the general rubrics. The Breviary + itself is divided into four seasonal parts—winter, spring, summer, + autumn—and comprises under each part (1) the Psalter; (2) + <i>Proprium de Tempore</i> (the special office of the season); (3) + <i>Proprium Sanctorum</i> (special offices of saints); (4) <i>Commune + Sanctorum</i> (general offices for saints); (5) Extra Services. These + parts are often published separately.</p> + + <p>1. <i>The Psalter</i>.—This is the very backbone of the + Breviary, the groundwork of the Catholic prayer-book; out of it have + grown the antiphons, responsories and versicles. In the Breviary the + psalms are arranged according to a disposition dating from the 8th + century, as follows. Psalms i.-cviii., with some omissions, are recited + at Matins, twelve each day from Monday to Saturday, and eighteen on + Sunday. The omissions are said at Lauds, Prime and Compline. Psalms + cix.-cxlvii. (except cxvii., cxviii. and cxlii.) are said at Vespers, + five each day. Psalms cxlviii.-cl. are always used at Lauds, and give + that hour its name. The text of this Psalter is that commonly known as + the Gallican. The name is misleading, for it is simply the second + revision (<span class="scac">A.D.</span> 392) made by Jerome of the old + <i>Itala</i> version originally used in Rome. Jerome's first revision of + the <i>Itala</i> (<span class="scac">A.D.</span> 383), known as the + Roman, is still used at St Peter's in Rome, but the "Gallican," thanks + especially to St Gregory of Tours, who introduced it into Gaul in the 6th + century, has ousted it everywhere else. The Antiphonary of Bangor proves + that Ireland accepted the Gallican version in the 7th century, and the + English Church did so in the 10th.</p> + + <p>2. The <i>Proprium de Tempore</i> contains the office of the seasons + of the Christian year (Advent to Trinity), a conception that only + gradually grew up. There is here given the whole service for every Sunday + and week-day, the proper antiphons, responsories, hymns, and especially + the course of daily Scripture-reading, averaging about twenty verses a + day, and (roughly) arranged thus: for Advent, Isaiah; Epiphany to + Septuagesima, Pauline Epistles; Lent, patristic homilies (Genesis on + Sundays); Passion-tide, Jeremiah; Easter to Whitsun, Acts, Catholic + epistles and Apocalypse; Whitsun to August, Samuel and Kings; August to + Advent, Wisdom books, Maccabees, Prophets. The extracts are often scrappy + and torn out of their context.</p> + + <p>3. The <i>Proprium Sanctorum</i> contains the lessons, psalms and + liturgical formularies for saints' festivals, and depends on the days of + the secular month. Most of the material here is hagiological biography, + occasionally revised as by Leo XIII. in view of archaeological and other + discoveries, but still largely uncritical. Covering a great stretch of + time and space, they do for the worshipper in the field of church history + what the Scripture readings do in that of biblical history. As something + like 90% of the days in the year have, during the course of centuries, + been allotted to some saint or other, it is easy to see how this section + of the Breviary has encroached upon the <i>Proprium de Tempore</i>, and + this is the chief problem that confronts any who are concerned for a + revision of the Breviary.</p> + + <p>4. The <i>Commune Sanctorum</i> comprises psalms, antiphons, lessons, + &c., for feasts of various groups or classes (twelve in all); + <i>e.g.</i> apostles, martyrs, confessors, virgins, and the Blessed + Virgin Mary. These offices are of very ancient date, and many of them + were probably <!-- Page 505 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page505"></a>[v.04 p.0505]</span>in origin proper to individual + saints. They contain passages of great literary beauty. The lessons read + at the third nocturn are patristic homilies on the Gospels, and together + form a rough summary of theological instruction.</p> + + <p>5. <i>Extra Services</i>.—Here are found the Little Office of + the Blessed Virgin Mary, the Office of the Dead (obligatory on All Souls' + Day), and offices peculiar to each diocese.</p> + + <p>It has already been indicated, by reference to Matins, Lauds, &c., + that not only each day, but each part of the day, has its own office, the + day being divided into liturgical "hours." A detailed account of these + will be found in the article <span class="sc">Hours, Canonical</span>. + Each of the hours of the office is composed of the same elements, and + something must be said now of the nature of these constituent parts, of + which mention has here and there been already made. They are: psalms + (including canticles), antiphons, responsories, hymns, lessons, little + chapters, versicles and collects.</p> + + <p>The <i>psalms</i> have already been dealt with, but it may be noted + again how the multiplication of saints' festivals, with practically the + same special psalms, tends in practice to constant repetition of about + one-third of the Psalter, and correspondingly rare recital of the + remaining two-thirds, whereas the <i>Proprium de Tempore</i>, could it be + adhered to, would provide equal opportunities for every psalm. As in the + Greek usage and in the Benedictine, certain canticles like the Song of + Moses (Exodus xv.), the Song of Hannah (1 Sam. ii.), the prayer of + Habakkuk (iii.), the prayer of Hezekiah (Isaiah xxxviii.) and other + similar Old Testament passages, and, from the New Testament, the + Magnificat, the Benedictus and the Nunc dimittis, are admitted as + psalms.</p> + + <p>The <i>antiphons</i> are short liturgical forms, sometimes of + biblical, sometimes of patristic origin, used to introduce a psalm. The + term originally signified a chant by alternate choirs, but has quite lost + this meaning in the Breviary.</p> + + <p>The <i>responsories</i> are similar in form to the antiphons, but come + at the end of the psalm, being originally the reply of the choir or + congregation to the precentor who recited the psalm.</p> + + <p>The <i>hymns</i> are short poems going back in part to the days of + Prudentius, Synesius, Gregory of Nazianzus and Ambrose (4th and 5th + centuries), but mainly the work of medieval authors. Together they make a + fine collection, and it is a pity that Urban VIII. in his mistaken + humanistic zeal tried to improve them.</p> + + <p>The <i>lessons</i>, as has been seen, are drawn variously from the + Bible, the Acts of the Saints and the Fathers of the Church. In the + primitive church, books afterwards excluded from the canon were often + read, <i>e.g.</i> the letters of Clement of Rome and the <i>Shepherd of + Hermas</i>. In later days the churches of Africa, having rich memorials + of martyrdom, used them to supplement the reading of Scripture. Monastic + influence accounts for the practice of adding to the reading of a + biblical passage some patristic commentary or exposition. Books of + homilies were compiled from the writings of SS. Augustine, Hilary, + Athanasius, Isidore, Gregory the Great and others, and formed part of the + library of which the Breviary was the ultimate compendium. In the + lessons, as in the psalms, the order for special days breaks in upon the + normal order of ferial offices and dislocates the scheme for consecutive + reading. The lessons are read at Matins (which is subdivided into three + nocturns).</p> + + <p>The <i>little chapters</i> are very short lessons read at the other + "hours."</p> + + <p>The <i>versicles</i> are short responsories used after the little + chapters.</p> + + <p>The <i>collects</i> come at the close of the office and are short + prayers summing up the supplications of the congregation. They arise out + of a primitive practice on the part of the bishop (local president), + examples of which are found in the <i>Didachē</i> (Teaching of the + Apostles) and in the letters of Clement of Rome and Cyprian. With the + crystallization of church order improvisation in prayer largely gave + place to set forms, and collections of prayers were made which later + developed into Sacramentaries and Orationals. The collects of the + Breviary are largely drawn from the Gelasian and other Sacramentaries, + and they are used to sum up the dominant idea of the festival in + connexion with which they happen to be used.</p> + + <p>The difficulty of harmonizing the <i>Proprium de Tempore</i> and the + <i>Proprium Sanctorum</i>, to which reference has been made, is only + partly met in the thirty-seven chapters of general rubrics. Additional + help is given by a kind of Catholic Churchman's Almanack, called the + <i>Ordo Recitandi Divini Officii</i>, published in different countries + and dioceses, and giving, under every day, minute directions for proper + reading.</p> + + <p>Every clerk in orders and every member of a religious order must + publicly join in or privately read aloud (<i>i.e.</i> using the lips as + well as the eyes—it takes about two hours in this way) the whole of + the Breviary services allotted for each day. In large churches the + services are usually grouped; <i>e.g.</i> Matins and Lauds (about 7.30 + <span class="scac">A.M.</span>); Prime, Terce (High Mass), Sext, and None + (about 10 <span class="scac">A.M.</span>); Vespers and Compline (4 <span + class="scac">P.M.</span>); and from four to eight hours (depending on the + amount of music and the number of high masses) are thus spent in choir. + Laymen do not use the Breviary as a manual of devotion to any great + extent.</p> + + <p>The Roman Breviary has been translated into English (by the marquess + of Bute in 1879; new ed. with a trans, of the Martyrology, 1908), French + and German. The English version is noteworthy for its inclusion of the + skilful renderings of the ancient hymns by J.H. Newman, J.M. Neale and + others.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—F. Cabrol, <i>Introduction + aux études liturgiques</i>; Probst, <i>Kirchenlex</i>. ii., <i>s.v.</i> + "Brevier"; Bäumer, <i>Geschichte des Breviers</i> (Freiburg, 1895); P. + Batiffol, <i>L'Histoire du bréviaire romain</i> (Paris, 1893; Eng. tr.); + Baudot, <i>Le Bréviaire romain</i> (1907). A complete bibliography is + appended to the article by F. Cabrol in the <i>Catholic + Encyclopaedia</i>, vol. ii. (1908).</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_031" href="#FnAnchor_031">[1]</a> It was approved by + Clement VII. and Paul III., and permitted as a substitute for the + unrevised Breviary, until Pius V. in 1568 excluded it as too short and + too modern, and issued a reformed edition (<i>Breviarium Pianum</i>, Pian + Breviary) of the old Breviary.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_032" href="#FnAnchor_032">[2]</a> The Sarum Rite was + much favoured in Scotland as a kind of protest against the jurisdiction + claimed by the church of York.</p> + +</div> + <p><b>BREVIARY OF ALARIC</b> (<i>Breviarium Alaricanum</i>), a collection + of Roman law, compiled by order of Alaric II., king of the Visigoths, + with the advice of his bishops and nobles, in the twenty-second year of + his reign (<span class="scac">A.D.</span> 506). It comprises sixteen + books of the Theodosian code; the Novels of Theodosius II., Valentinian + III., Marcian, Majorianus and Severus; the Institutes of Gaius; five + books of the <i>Sententiae Receptae</i> of Julius Paulus; thirteen titles + of the Gregorian code; two titles of the Hermogenian code; and a fragment + of the first book of the <i>Responsa Papiniani</i>. It is termed a code + (codex), in the certificate of Anianus, the king's referendary, but + unlike the code of Justinian, from which the writings of jurists were + excluded, it comprises both imperial constitutions (<i>leges</i>) and + juridical treatises (<i>jura</i>). From the circumstance that the + Breviarium has prefixed to it a royal rescript (<i>commonitorium</i>) + directing that copies of it, certified under the hand of Anianus, should + be received exclusively as law throughout the kingdom of the Visigoths, + the compilation of the code has been attributed to Anianus by many + writers, and it is frequently designated the Breviary of Anianus + (Breviarium Aniani). The code, however, appears to have been known + amongst the Visigoths by the title of "Lex Romana," or "Lex Theodosii," + and it was not until the 16th century that the title of "Breviarium" was + introduced to distinguish it from a recast of the code, which was + introduced into northern Italy in the 9th century for the use of the + Romans in Lombardy. This recast of the Visigothic code has been preserved + in a MS. known as the Codex Utinensis, which was formerly kept in the + archives of the cathedral of Udine, but is now lost; and it was published + in the 18th century for the first time by P. Canciani in his collection + of ancient laws entitled <i>Barbarorum Leges Antiquae</i>. Another MS. of + this Lombard recast of the Visigothic code was discovered by Hänel in the + library of St Gall. The chief value of the Visigothic code consists in + the fact that it is the only collection of Roman Law in which the five + first books of the Theodosian code and five books of the <i>Sententiae + Receptae</i> of Julius Paulus have been preserved, and until the + discovery of a MS. in the chapter library in Verona, which contained the + greater part of the Institutes of Gaius, it was the only work in which + any portion of the institutional writings of that great jurist had come + down to us.</p> + + <p>The most complete edition of the Breviarium will be found in the + collection of Roman law published under the title of <i>Jus Civile + Ante-Justinianum</i> (Berlin, 1815). See also G. Hänel's <i>Lex Romana + Visigothorum</i> (Berlin, 1847-1849).</p> + + <p><b>BREWER, JOHN SHERREN</b> (1810-1879), English historian, was born + in Norwich in 1810, the son of a Baptist schoolmaster. He was educated at + Queen's College, Oxford, was ordained in the Church of England in 1837, + and became chaplain to a central London workhouse. In 1839 he was + appointed lecturer in classical literature at King's College, London, and + in 1855 he became professor of English language and literature and + lecturer in modern history, succeeding F.D. Maurice. Meanwhile from 1854 + onwards he was also engaged in journalistic work on the <i>Morning + Herald</i>, <i>Morning Post</i> and <i>Standard</i>. In 1856 he was + commissioned by the master of the rolls to prepare a calendar of the + state papers of Henry VIII., a work demanding a vast amount of research. + He was also made reader at the Rolls, and subsequently preacher. In 1877 + Disraeli secured for him the crown living of Toppesfield, Essex. There he + had time to continue his task of preparing his <i>Letters and Papers of + the Reign of King Henry VIII</i>., the Introductions to which (published + separately, under the title <i>The Reign of Henry VIII</i>., in 1884) + form a scholarly and authoritative history of Henry VIII.'s reign. New + editions of several standard historical works were also produced under + Brewer's direction. He died at Toppesfield in February 1879.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 506 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page506"></a>[v.04 p.0506]</span></p> + + <p><b>BREWING,</b> in the modern acceptation of the term, a series of + operations the object of which is to prepare an alcoholic beverage of a + certain kind—to wit, beer—mainly from cereals (chiefly malted + barley), hops and water. Although the art of preparing beer (<i>q.v.</i>) + or ale is a very ancient one, there is very little information in the + literature of the subject as to the apparatus and methods employed in + early times. It seems fairly certain, however, that up to the 18th + century these were of the most primitive kind. With regard to + <i>materials</i>, we know that prior to the general introduction of the + hop (see <span class="sc">Ale</span>) as a preservative and astringent, a + number of other bitter and aromatic plants had been employed with this + end in view. Thus J.L. Baker (<i>The Brewing Industry</i>) points out + that the Cimbri used the <i>Tamarix germanica</i>, the Scandinavians the + fruit of the sweet gale (<i>Myrica gale</i>), the Cauchi the fruit and + the twigs of the chaste tree (<i>Vitex agrius castus</i>), and the + Icelanders the yarrow (<i><span class="correction" title="'Achilloea' in original" + >Achillea</span> millefolium</i>).</p> + + <p>The preparation of beer on anything approaching to a manufacturing + scale appears, until about the 12th or 13th century, to have been carried + on in England chiefly in the monasteries; but as the brewers of London + combined to form an association in the reign of Henry IV., and were + granted a charter in 1445, it is evident that brewing as a special trade + or industry must have developed with some rapidity. After the Reformation + the ranks of the trade brewers were swelled by numbers of monks from the + expropriated monasteries. Until the 18th century the professional + brewers, or brewers for sale, as they are now called, brewed chiefly for + the masses, the wealthier classes preparing their own beer, but it then + became gradually apparent to the latter (owing no doubt to improved + methods of brewing, and for others reasons) that it was more economical + and less troublesome to have their beer brewed for them at a regular + brewery. The usual charge was 30s. per barrel for bitter ale, and 8s. or + so for small beer. This tendency to centralize brewing operations became + more and more marked with each succeeding decade. Thus during 1895-1905 + the number of private brewers declined from 17,041 to 9930. Of the + private brewers still existing, about four-fifths were in the class + exempted from beer duty, <i>i.e.</i> farmers occupying houses not + exceeding £10 annual value who brew for their labourers, and other + persons occupying houses not exceeding £15 annual value. The private + houses subject to both beer and licence duty produced less than 20,000 + barrels annually. There are no official figures as to the number of + "cottage brewers," that is, occupiers of dwellings not exceeding £8 + annual value; but taking everything into consideration it is probable + that more than 99% of the beer produced in the United Kingdom is brewed + by public brewers (brewers for sale). The disappearance of the smaller + public brewers or their absorption by the larger concerns has gone + hand-in-hand with the gradual extinction of the private brewer. In the + year 1894-1895 8863 licences were issued to brewers for sale, and by + 1904-1905 this number had been reduced to 5164. There are numerous + reasons for these changes in the constitution of the brewing industry, + chief among them being (<i>a</i>) the increasing difficulty, owing partly + to <span class="correction" title="'lincensing' in original" + >licensing</span> legislation and its administration, and partly to the + competition of the great breweries, of obtaining an adequate outlet for + retail sale in the shape of licensed houses; and (<i>b</i>) the fact that + brewing has continuously become a more scientific and specialized + industry, requiring costly and complicated plant and expert manipulation. + It is only by employing the most up-to-date machinery and expert + knowledge that the modern brewer can hope to produce good beer in the + short time which competition and high taxation, &c., have forced upon + him. Under these conditions the small brewer tends to extinction, and the + public are ultimately the gainers. The relatively non-alcoholic, lightly + hopped and bright modern beers, which the small brewer has not the means + of producing, are a great advance on the muddy, highly hopped and + alcoholized beverages to which our ancestors were accustomed.</p> + + <p>The brewing trade has reached vast proportions in the United Kingdom. + The maximum production was 37,090,986 barrels in 1900, and while there + has been a steady decline since that year, the figures for + 1905-1906—34,109,263 barrels—were in excess of those for any + year preceding 1897. It is interesting in this connexion to note that the + writer of the article on Brewing in the 9th edition of the + <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i> was of the opinion that the brewing + industry—which was then (1875) producing, roughly, 25,000,000 + barrels—had attained its maximum development. In the year ending + 30th September 1905 the beer duty received by the exchequer amounted to + £13,156,053. The number of brewers for sale was 5180. Of these one firm, + namely, Messrs Guinness, owning the largest brewery in the world, brewed + upwards of two million barrels, paying a sum of, roughly, one million + sterling to the revenue. Three other firms brewed close on a million + barrels or upwards. The quantity of malt used was 51,818,697 bushels; of + unmalted corn, 125,671 bushels; of rice, flaked maize and similar + materials, 1,348,558 cwt.; of sugar, 2,746,615 cwt.; of hops, 62,360,817 + lb; and of hop substitutes, 49,202 lb. The average specific gravity of + the beer produced in 1905-1906 was 1053.24. The quantity of beer exported + was 520,826; of beer imported, 57,194 barrels. It is curious to note that + the figures for exports and imports had remained almost stationary for + the last thirty years. By far the greater part of the beer brewed is + consumed in England. Thus of the total quantity retained for consumption + in 1905-1906, 28,590,563 barrels were consumed in England, 1,648,463 in + Scotland, and 3,265,084 in Ireland. In 1871 it was calculated by + Professor Leone Levi that the capital invested in the liquor trade in the + United Kingdom was £117,000,000. In 1908 this figure might be safely + doubled. A writer in the <i>Brewers' Almanack</i> for 1906 placed the + capital invested in limited liability breweries alone at £185,000,000. If + we allow for over-capitalization, it seems fairly safe to say that, prior + to the introduction of the Licensing Bill of 1908, the market value of + the breweries in the United Kingdom, together with their licensed + property, was in the neighbourhood of £120,000,000, to which might be + added another £20,000,000 for the value of licences not included in the + above calculation; the total capital actually sunk in the whole liquor + trade (including the wine and spirit industries and trades) being + probably not far short of £250,000,000, and the number of persons + directly engaged in or dependent on the liquor trade being + under-estimated at 2,000,000. (For comparative production and consumption + see <span class="sc">Beer</span>.)</p> + + <p><i>Taxation and Regulations</i>.—The development of the brewing + industry in England is intimately interwoven with the history of its + taxation, and the regulations which have from time to time been formed + for the safeguarding of the revenue. The first duty on beer in the United + Kingdom was imposed in the reign of Charles II. (1660), namely 2s. 6d. + per barrel on strong and 6d. per barrel on weak beer. This was gradually + increased, amounting to 4s. 9d. on strong and 1s. 3d. on weak beer in the + last decade of the 17th century, and to 8s. to 10s. in the year 1800, at + which rate it continued until the repeal of the beer duty in 1830. A duty + on malt was first imposed in the reign of William III. (1697), and from + that date until 1830 both beer duty and malt tax were charged. The rate + at first was under 7d. per bushel, but this was increased up to 2s. 7d. + prior to the first repeal of the beer duty (1830), and to 4s. 6d. after + the repeal. In 1829 the joint beer and malt taxes amounted to no less + than 13s. 8d. per barrel, or 4½d. per gallon, as against 2½d. at the + present day. From 1856 until the abolition of the malt tax, the latter + remained constant at a fraction under 2s. 8½d. A <i>hop duty</i> varying + from 1d. to 2½d. per pound was in existence between 1711 and 1862. One of + the main reasons for the abolition of the hop duty was the fact that, + owing to the uncertainty of the crop, the amount paid to the revenue was + subject to wide fluctuations. Thus in 1855 the revenue from this source + amounted to £728,183, in 1861 to only £149,700.</p> + + <p>It was not until 1847 that the use of sugar in brewing was permitted, + and in 1850 the first sugar tax, amounting to 1s. 4d. per cwt., was + imposed. It varied from this figure up to 6s. 6d. in 1854, and in 1874, + when the general duty on sugar was repealed, it was raised to 11s. 6d., + at which rate it remained until 1880, when it was repealed simultaneously + with the malt duty. In 1901 a general sugar tax of 4s. 2d. and under + (according to the percentage of actual sugar contained) was imposed, but + no drawback was allowed to brewers using sugar, and therefore—and + this obtains at the present day—sugar used in brewing pays the + general tax and also the beer duty.</p> + + <p>By the Free Mash-Tun Act of 1880, the duty was taken off the malt and + placed on the beer, or, more properly speaking, on the wort; maltsters' + and brewers' licences were repealed, and in lieu thereof an annual + licence duty of £1 payable by every brewer for sale was <!-- Page 507 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page507"></a>[v.04 + p.0507]</span>imposed. The chief feature of this act was that, on and + after the 1st of October 1880, a beer duty was imposed in lieu of the old + malt tax, at the rate of 6s. 3d. per barrel of 36 gallons, at a specific + gravity of 1.057, and the regulations for charging the duty were so + framed as to leave the brewer practically unrestricted as to the + description of malt or corn and sugar, or other description of saccharine + substitutes (other than deleterious articles or drugs), which he might + use in the manufacture or colouring of beer. This freedom in the choice + of materials has continued down to the present time, except that the use + of "saccharin" (a product derived from coal-tar) was prohibited in 1888, + the reason being that this substance gives an apparent palate-fulness to + beer equal to roughly 4° in excess of its real gravity, the revenue + suffering thereby. In 1889 the duty on beer was increased by a reduction + in the standard of gravity from 1.057 to 1.055, and in 1894 a further 6d. + per barrel was added. The duty thus became 6s. 9d. per barrel, at a + gravity of 1.055, which was further increased to 7s. 9d. per barrel by + the war budget of 1900, at which figure it stood in 1909. (See also <span + class="sc">Liquor Laws</span>.)</p> + + <p>Prior to 1896, rice, flaked maize (see below), and other similar + preparations had been classed as malt or corn in reference to their + wort-producing powers, but after that date they were deemed sugar<a + name="FnAnchor_041" href="#Footnote_041"><sup>[1]</sup></a> in that + regard. By the new act (1880) 42 lb weight of corn, or 28 lb weight of + sugar, were to be deemed the equivalent of a bushel of malt, and a brewer + was expected by one of the modes of charge to have brewed at least a + barrel (36 gallons) of worts (less 4% allowed for wastage) at the + standard gravity for every two bushels of malt (or its equivalents) used + by him in brewing; but where, owing to lack of skill or inferior + machinery, a brewer cannot obtain the standard quantity of wort from the + standard equivalent of material, the charge is made not on the wort, but + directly on the material. By the new act, licences at the annual duty of + £1 on brewers for sale, and of 6s. (subsequently modified by 44 Vict. c. + 12, and 48 and 49 Vict. c. 5, &c., to 4s.) or 9s., as the case might + be, on any other brewers, were required. The regulations dealing with the + mashing operations are very stringent. Twenty-four hours at least before + mashing the brewer must enter in his brewing book (provided by the Inland + Revenue) the day and hour for commencing to mash malt, corn, &c., or + to dissolve sugar; and the date of making such entry; and also, two hours + at least before the notice hour for mashing, the quantity of malt, corn, + &c., and sugar to be used, and the day and hour when all the worts + will be drawn off the grains in the mash-tun. The worts of each brewing + <span class="correction" title="'much' in original">must</span> be + collected within twelve hours of the commencement of the collection, and + the brewer must within a given time enter in his book the quantity and + gravity of the worts before fermentation, the number and name of the + vessel, and the date of the entry. The worts must remain in the same + vessel undisturbed for twelve hours after being collected, unless + previously taken account of by the officer. There are other regulations, + <i>e.g.</i> those prohibiting the mixing of worts of different brewings + unless account has been taken of each separately, the alteration of the + size or shape of any gauged vessel without notice, and so on.</p> + + <p><i>Taxation of Beer in Foreign Countries</i>.—The following + table shows the nature of the tax and the amount of the same calculated + to English barrels.</p> + + +<table width="75%" class="allb" summary="Taxation of Beer" title="Taxation of Beer"> + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; width:41%"> + <p>Country.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; width:25%"> + <p>Nature of Tax.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; width:33%"> + <p>Amount per English Barrel (round numbers)</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>United States</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>Beer tax</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>5s. 9d.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Germany —</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>—— N. German Customs Union</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>Malt tax</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1s. 6d</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>—— Bavaria</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>Malt tax</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>3s. 5d. to 4s. 8d., according to quantity produced</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Belgium</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>Malt tax</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>2s. 9d.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>France</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>On Wort</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>4s. 1d.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Holland</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>On cubic contents of Mash-Tun or on Malt</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>About 1s. 9d. to 3s. 3d., according to quality</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Austro-Hungarian Empire</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>On Wort</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>6s. 8d.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Russia</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>Malt tax</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>5s. to 6s. 8d.</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + + <p><span class="sc">Materials used in Brewing</span>.—These are + water, malt (<i>q.v.</i>), hops (<i>q.v.</i>), various substitutes for + the two latter, and preservatives.</p> + + <p><i>Water</i>.—A satisfactory supply of water—which, it may + here be mentioned, is always called <i>liquor</i> in the brewery—is + a matter of great importance to the brewer. Certain waters, for instance, + those contaminated to any extent with organic matter, cannot be used at + all in brewing, as they give rise to unsatisfactory fermentation, + cloudiness and abnormal flavour. Others again, although suited to the + production of one type of beer, are quite unfit for the brewing of + another. For black beers a soft water is a desideratum, for ales of the + Burton type a hard water is a necessity. For the brewing of mild ales, + again, a water containing a certain proportion of chlorides is required. + The presence or absence of certain mineral substances as such in the + finished beer is not, apparently, a matter of any moment as regards + flavour or appearance, but the importance of the rôle played by these + substances in the brewing process is due to the influence which they + exert on the solvent action of the water on the various constituents of + the malt, and possibly of the hops. The excellent quality of the Burton + ales was long ago surmised to be due mainly to the well water obtainable + in that town. On analysing Burton water it was found to contain a + considerable quantity of calcium sulphate—gypsum—and of other + calcium and magnesium salts, and it is now a well-known fact that good + bitter ales cannot be brewed except with waters containing these + substances in sufficient quantities. Similarly, good mild ale waters + should contain a certain quantity of sodium chloride, and waters for + stout very little mineral matter, excepting perhaps the carbonates of the + alkaline earths, which are precipitated on boiling.</p> + + <p>The following analyses (from W.J. Sykes, <i>The Principles and + Practice of Brewing</i>) are fairly illustrative of typical brewing + waters.</p> + + +<table width="43%" class="nob" summary="Analysis of brewing waters" title="Analysis of brewing waters"> + <tr> + <td class="single" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center" colspan="2"> + <p><i>Burton Water</i> (Pale Ale)</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="single" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:right" colspan="2"> + <p>Grains per Gallon</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="single" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left; width:57%"> + <p>Sodium Chloride</p> + </td> + <td class="single" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:right; width:42%"> + <p>3.90</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="single" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Potassium Sulphate</p> + </td> + <td class="single" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:right"> + <p>1.59</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="single" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Sodium Nitrate</p> + </td> + <td class="single" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:right"> + <p>1.97</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="single" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Calcium Sulphate</p> + </td> + <td class="single" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:right"> + <p>77.87</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="single" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Calcium Carbonate</p> + </td> + <td class="single" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:right"> + <p>7.62</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="single" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Magnesium Carbonate</p> + </td> + <td class="single" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:right"> + <p>21.31</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="single" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Silica and Alumina</p> + </td> + <td class="single" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:right"> + <p>0.98</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="single" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center" colspan="2"> + <p><i>Dublin Water</i> (Stout).</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="single" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Sodium Chloride</p> + </td> + <td class="single" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:right"> + <p>1.83</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="single" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Calcium Sulphate</p> + </td> + <td class="single" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:right"> + <p>4.45</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="single" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Calcium Carbonate</p> + </td> + <td class="single" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:right"> + <p>14.21</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="single" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Magnesium Carbonate</p> + </td> + <td class="single" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:right"> + <p>0.90</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="single" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Iron Oxide and Alumina</p> + </td> + <td class="single" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:right"> + <p>0.24</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="single" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Silica</p> + </td> + <td class="single" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:right"> + <p>0.26</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="single" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center" colspan="2"> + <p><i>Mild Ale Water</i>.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="single" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Sodium Chloride</p> + </td> + <td class="single" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:right"> + <p>35.14</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="single" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Calcium Chloride</p> + </td> + <td class="single" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:right"> + <p>3.88</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="single" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Calcium Sulphate</p> + </td> + <td class="single" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:right"> + <p>6.23</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="single" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Calcium Carbonate</p> + </td> + <td class="single" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:right"> + <p>4.01</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="single" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Iron Oxide and Alumina</p> + </td> + <td class="single" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:right"> + <p>0.24</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="single" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Silica</p> + </td> + <td class="single" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:right"> + <p>0.22</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + + <p>Our knowledge of the essential chemical constituents of brewing waters + enables brewers in many cases to treat an unsatisfactory supply + artificially in such a manner as to modify its character in a favourable + sense. Thus, if a soft water only is to hand, and it is desired to brew a + bitter ale, all that is necessary is to add a sufficiency of gypsum, + magnesium sulphate and calcium chloride. If it is desired to convert a + soft water lacking in chlorides into a satisfactory mild ale liquor, the + addition of 30-40 grains of sodium chloride will be necessary. On the + other hand, to convert a hard water into a soft supply is scarcely + feasible for brewing purposes. To the substances used for treating + brewing liquors already mentioned we may add kainite, a naturally + deposited composite salt containing potassium and magnesium sulphates and + magnesium chloride.</p> + + <p><i>Malt Substitutes.</i>—Prior to the repeal of the Malt Acts, + the only substitute for malt allowed in the United Kingdom was sugar. The + quantity of the latter employed was 295,865 cwt. in 1870, 1,136,434 cwt. + in 1880, and 2,746,615 cwt. in 1905; that is to say, that the quantity + used had been practically trebled during the last twenty-five years, + although the quantity of malt employed had not materially increased. At + the same time other substitutes, such as unmalted corn and preparations + of rice and maize, had come into favour, the quantity of these substances + used being in 1905 125,671 bushels of unmalted corn and 1,348,558 cwt. of + rice, maize, &c.</p> + + <p>The following statistics with regard to the use of malt substitutes in + the United Kingdom are not without interest.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 508 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page508"></a>[v.04 p.0508]</span></p> + + +<table width="57%" class="allb" summary="Use of malt substitutes in the United Kingdom" title="Use of malt substitutes in the United Kingdom"> + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; width:13%"> + <p>Year.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; width:32%"> + <p>Quantities of Malt and Corn used in Brewing.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; width:32%"> + <p>Quantities of Sugar, Rice, Maize, &c. used in Brewing.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; width:21%"> + <p>Percentage of Substitutes to Total Material.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>Bushels.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>Bushels.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1878</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:right"> + <p>59,388,905</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:right"> + <p>3,825,148</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:right"> + <p>6.05</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1883</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:right"> + <p><a name="FnAnchor_042" + href="#Footnote_042"><sup>[2]</sup></a>51,331,451</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:right"> + <p><a name="FnAnchor_043" + href="#Footnote_043"><sup>[3]</sup></a>4,503,680</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:right"> + <p>8.06</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1890</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:right"> + <p><a href="#Footnote_042"><sup>[2]</sup></a>55,359,964</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:right"> + <p><a href="#Footnote_043"><sup>[3]</sup></a>7,904,708</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:right"> + <p>12.48</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1895</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:right"> + <p>53,731,177</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:right"> + <p>10,754,510</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:right"> + <p>16.66</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1905</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:right"> + <p>51,942,368</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:right"> + <p>15,706,413</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:right"> + <p>23.22</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + + <p>The causes which have led to the largely increased use of substitutes + in the United Kingdom are of a somewhat complex nature. In the first + place, it was not until the malt tax was repealed that the brewer was + able to avail himself of the surplus diastatic energy present in malt, + for the purpose of transforming starch (other than that in malted grain) + into sugar. The diastatic enzyme or ferment (see below, under + <i>Mashing</i>) of malted barley is present in that material in great + excess, and a part of this surplus energy may be usefully employed in + converting the starch of unmalted grain into sugar. The brewer has found + also that brewing operations are simplified and accelerated by the use of + a certain proportion of substitutes, and that he is thereby enabled + appreciably to increase his turn-over, <i>i.e.</i> he can make more beer + in a given time from the same plant. Certain classes of substitutes, too, + are somewhat cheaper than malt, and in view of the keenness of modern + competition it is not to be wondered at that the brewer should resort to + every legitimate means at his disposal to keep down costs. It has been + contended, and apparently with much reason, that if the use of + substitutes were prohibited this would not lead to an increased use of + domestic barley, inasmuch as the supply of home barley suitable for + malting purposes is of a limited nature. A return to the policy of "malt + and hops only" would therefore lead to an increased use of foreign + barley, and to a diminution in the demand for home barley, inasmuch as + sugar and prepared cereals, containing as they do less nitrogen, &c. + than even the well-cured, sun-dried foreign barleys, are better diluents + than the latter. At the same time, it is an undoubted fact that an + excessive use of substitutes leads to the production of beer of poor + quality. The better class of brewer rarely uses more than 15-20%, knowing + that beyond that point the loss of flavour and quality will in the long + run become a more serious item than any increased profits which he might + temporarily gain.</p> + + <p>With regard to the nature of the substitutes or adjuncts for barley + malt more generally employed, raw grain (unmalted barley, wheat, rice, + maize, &c.) is not used extensively in Great Britain, but in America + brewers employ as much as 50%, and even more, of maize, rice or similar + materials. The maize and rice preparations mostly used in England are + practically starch pure and simple, substantially the whole of the oil, + water, and other subsidiary constituents of the grain being removed. The + germ of maize contains a considerable proportion of an oil of somewhat + unpleasant flavour, which has to be eliminated before the material is fit + for use in the mash-tun. After degerming, the maize is unhusked, wetted, + submitted to a temperature sufficient to rupture the starch cells, dried, + and finally rolled out in a flaky condition. Rice is similarly + treated.</p> + + <p>The <i>sugars</i> used are chiefly cane sugar, glucose and invert + sugar—the latter commonly known as "saccharum." Cane sugar is + mostly used for the preparation of heavy mild ales and stouts, as it + gives a peculiarly sweet and full flavour to the beer, to which, no + doubt, the popularity of this class of beverage is largely due. <i>Invert + sugar</i> is prepared by the action either of acid or of yeast on cane + sugar. The chemical equation representing the conversion (or inversion) + of cane sugar is:—</p> + + +<table width="8%" class="nob" summary="Inversion of cane sugar" title="Inversion of cane sugar"> + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; width:14%"> + <p>C<sub>12</sub>H<sub>22</sub>O<sub>11</sub><br /> cane + sugar</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; width:14%"> + <p>+</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; width:14%"> + <p>H<sub>2</sub>O<br /> + water</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; width:14%"> + <p>=</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; width:14%"> + <p>C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>12</sub>O<sub>6</sub><br /> + glucose</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; width:14%"> + <p>+</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; width:14%"> + <p>C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>12</sub>O<sub>6</sub>.<br /> + fructose</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center" colspan="4"> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center" colspan="3"> + <p>——invert sugar——</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + + <p>Invert sugar is so called because the mixture of glucose and fructose + which forms the "invert" is laevo-rotatory, whereas cane sugar is + dextro-rotatory to the plane of polarized light. The preparation of + invert sugar by the acid process consists in treating the cane sugar in + solution with a little mineral acid, removing the excess of the latter by + means of chalk, and concentrating to a thick syrup. The yeast process + (Tompson's), which makes use of the inverting power of one of the enzymes + (invertase) contained in ordinary yeast, is interesting. The cane sugar + solution is pitched with yeast at about 55° C., and at this comparatively + high temperature the inversion proceeds rapidly, and fermentation is + practically impossible. When this operation is completed, the whole + liquid (including the yeast) is run into the boiling contents of the + copper. This method is more suited to the preparation of invert in the + brewery itself than the acid process, which is almost exclusively used in + special sugar works. Glucose, which is one of the constituents of invert + sugar, is largely used by itself in brewing. It is, however, never + prepared from invert sugar for this purpose, but directly from starch by + means of acid. By the action of dilute boiling acid on starch the latter + is rapidly converted first into a mixture of dextrine and maltose and + then into glucose. The proportions of glucose, dextrine and maltose + present in a commercial glucose depend very much on the duration of the + boiling, the strength of the acid, and the extent of the pressure at + which the starch is converted. In England the materials from which + glucose is manufactured are generally sago, rice and purified maize. In + Germany potatoes form the most common raw material, and in America + purified Indian corn is ordinarily employed.</p> + + <p><i>Hop substitutes</i>, as a rule, are very little used. They mostly + consist of quassia, gentian and camomile, and these substitutes are quite + harmless <i>per se</i>, but impart an unpleasantly rough and bitter taste + to the beer.</p> + + <p><i>Preservatives</i>.—These are generally, in fact almost + universally, employed nowadays for draught ales; to a smaller extent for + stock ales. The light beers in vogue to-day are less alcoholic, more + lightly hopped, and more quickly brewed than the beers of the last + generation, and in this respect are somewhat less stable and more likely + to deteriorate than the latter were. The preservative in part replaces + the alcohol and the hop extract, and shortens the brewing time. The + preservatives mostly used are the bisulphites of lime and potash, and + these, when employed in small quantities, are generally held to be + harmless.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Brewing Operations</span>.—The general scheme + of operations in an English brewery will be readily understood if + reference be made to fig. 1, which represents an 8-quarter brewery on the + <i>gravitation system</i>, the principle of which is that all materials + to be employed are pumped or hoisted to the highest point required, to + start with, and that subsequently no further pumping or hoisting is + required, the materials (in the shape of water, malt, wort or hops, + &c.) being conveyed from one point to another by the force of + gravity.</p> + + <p>The malt, which is hoisted to the top floor, after cleaning and + grading is conveyed to the <i>Malt Mill</i>, where it is crushed. Thence + the ground malt, or "grist" as it is now called, passes to the <i>Grist + Hopper</i>, and from the latter to the <i>Mashing Machine</i>, in which + it is intimately mixed with hot water from the <i>Hot Liquor Vessel</i>. + From the mashing machine the mixed grist and "liquor" pass to the + <i>Mash-Tun</i>, where the starch of the malt is rendered soluble. From + the mash-tun the clear wort passes to the <i>Copper</i>, where it is + boiled with hops. From the copper the boiled wort passes to the <i>Hop + Back</i>, where the insoluble hop constituents are separated from the + wort. From the hop back the wort passes to the <i>Cooler</i>, from the + latter to the <i>Refrigerator</i>, thence (for the purpose of enabling + the revenue officers to assess the duty) to the <i>Collecting + Vessel</i>,<a name="FnAnchor_044" href="#Footnote_044"><sup>[4]</sup></a> + and finally to the <i>Fermenting Vessels</i>, in which the wort is + transformed into "green" beer. The latter is then cleansed, and finally + racked and stored.</p> + + <p>It will be seen from the above that brewing consists of seven distinct + main processes, which may be classed as follows: (1) Grinding; (2) + Mashing; (3) Boiling; (4) Cooling; (5) Fermenting; (6) Cleansing; (7) + Racking and Storing.</p> + + <p><i>Grinding</i>.—In most modern breweries the malt passes, on + its way <!-- Page 509 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page509"></a>[v.04 p.0509]</span>from the bins to the mill, through + a cleaning and grading apparatus, and then through an automatic measuring + machine. The mills, which exist in a variety of designs, are of the + smooth roller type, and are so arranged that the malt is <i>crushed</i> + rather than ground. If the malt is ground too fine, difficulties arise in + regard to efficient drainage in the mash-tun and subsequent + clarification. On the other hand, if the crushing is too coarse the + subsequent extraction of soluble matter in the mash-tun is incomplete, + and an inadequate yield results.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:66%;"> + <a href="images/brewing_1.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/brewing_1.png" + alt="An 8-quarter Brewery." title="An 8-quarter Brewery." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.—An 8-quarter Brewery (Messrs. L. + Lumley & Co., Ltd.). + </div> + <div class="figleft" style="width:40%;"> + <a href="images/brewing_2.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/brewing_2.png" + alt="Mash-tun with mashing machine." title="Mash-tun with mashing machine." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.—Mash-tun with mashing machine. + </div> + <p><i>Mashing</i> is a process which consists mainly in extracting, by + means of water at an adequate temperature, the soluble matters + pre-existent in the malt, and in converting the insoluble starch and a + great part of the insoluble nitrogenous compounds into soluble and partly + fermentable products. Mashing is, without a doubt, the most important of + the brewing processes, for it is largely in the mash-tun that the + character of the beer to be brewed is determined. In modern practice the + malt and the mashing "liquor" (<i>i.e.</i> water) are introduced into the + mash-tun simultaneously, by means of the mashing machine (fig. 2, A). + This is generally a cylindrical metal vessel, commanding the mash-tun and + provided with a central shaft and screw. The grist (as the crushed malt + is called) enters the mashing machine from the grist case above, and the + liquor is introduced at the back. The screw is rotated rapidly, and so a + thorough mixture of the grist and liquor takes place as they travel along + the mashing machine. The mash-tun (fig. 2) is a large metal or wooden + vessel, fitted with a false bottom composed of plates perforated with + numerous small holes or slits (C). This arrangement is necessary in order + to obtain a proper separation of the "wort" (as the liquid portion of the + finished mash is called) from the spent grains. The mash-tun is also + provided with a stirring apparatus (the <i>rakes</i>) so that the grist + and liquor may be intimately mixed (D), and an automatic sprinkler, the + <i>sparger</i> (fig. 2, B, and fig. 3), which is employed in order to + wash out the wort remaining in the grains. The sparger consists of a + number of hollow arms radiating from a common centre and pierced by a + number of small perforations. The common central vessel from which the + sparge-arms radiate is mounted in such a manner that it rotates + automatically when a stream of water is admitted, so that a constant fine + spray covers the whole tun when the sparger is in operation. There are + also pipes for admitting "liquor" to the bottom of the tun, and for + carrying the wort from the latter to the "underback" or "copper."</p> + + <p>The grist and liquor having been introduced into the tun (either by + means of the mashing machine or separately), the rakes are set going, so + that the mash may become thoroughly homogeneous, and after a short time + the rakes are stopped and the mash allowed to rest, usually for a period + of about two hours. After this, "taps are set"—<i>i.e.</i> + communication is established between the mash-tun and the vessel into + which the wort runs—and the sparger is started. In this manner the + whole of the wort or extract is separated from the grains. The quantity + of water employed is, in all, from two to three barrels to the quarter + (336 lb) of malt.</p> + + <p>In considering the process of mashing, one might almost say the + process of brewing, it is essential to remember that the type and quality + of the beer to be produced (see <span class="sc">Malt</span>) depends + almost entirely (<i>a</i>) on the kind of malt employed, and (<i>b</i>) + on the mashing temperature. In other words, quality may be controlled on + the kiln or in the mash-tun, or both. Viewed in this light, the following + theoretical methods for preparing different types of beer are + possible:—(1) high kiln heats and high mashing temperatures; (2) + high kiln heats and low mashing temperatures; (3) low kiln heats and high + mashing temperatures; and (4) low kiln heats and low mashing + temperatures. In practice all these combinations, together with many + intermediate ones, are met with, and it is not too much to say that the + whole science of modern brewing is based upon them. It is plain, then, + that the mashing temperature will depend on the kind of beer that is to + be produced, and on the kind of malt employed. For stouts and black beers + generally, a mashing temperature of 148° to 150° F. is most usual; for + pale or stock ales, 150° to 154° F.; and for mild running beers, 154° to + 149° F. The range of temperatures employed in brewing English beers is a + very limited one as compared with foreign mashing methods, and does not + range further, practically speaking, than from 140° to 160° F. The effect + of higher temperatures is chiefly to cripple the enzyme or "ferment" + diastase, which, as already said, is the agent which converts the + insoluble starch into soluble dextrin, sugar and intermediate products. + The higher the mashing temperature, the more the diastase will be + crippled in its action, and the more dextrinous (non-fermentable) matter + as compared with maltose (fermentable sugar) will be formed. A pale or + stock ale, which is a type of beer that must be "dry" and that will keep, + requires to contain a relatively high proportion of dextrin and little + maltose, and, in its preparation, therefore, a high mashing temperature + will be employed. On the other hand, a mild running ale, which is a full, + sweet beer, intended for rapid consumption, will be obtained by means of + low mashing temperatures, which produce relatively little dextrin, but a + good deal of maltose, <i>i.e.</i> sweet and readily fermentable + matter.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:40%;"> + <a href="images/brewing_3.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/brewing_3.png" + alt="Sparger." title="Sparger." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.—Sparger. + </div> + <p>Diastase is not the only enzyme present in malt. There is also a + ferment which renders a part of the nitrogenous matter soluble. This + again is affected by temperature in much the same way as diastase. Low + heats tend to produce much non-coagulable <!-- Page 510 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page510"></a>[v.04 p.0510]</span>nitrogenous + matter, which is undesirable in a stock beer, as it tends to produce fret + and side fermentations. With regard to the kind of malt and other + materials employed in producing various types of beer, pale ales are made + either from pale malt (generally a mixture of English and fine foreign, + such as Smyrna, California) only, or from pale malt and a little flaked + maize, rice, invert sugar or glucose. Running beers (mild ale) are made + from a mixture of pale and amber malts, sugar and flaked goods; stout, + from a mixture of pale, amber and roasted (black) malts only, or with the + addition of a little sugar or flaked maize.</p> + + <p>When raw grain is employed, the process of mashing is slightly + modified. The maize, rice or other grain is usually gelatinized in a + vessel (called a <i>converter</i> or <i>cooker</i>) entirely separated + from the mash-tun, by means of steam at a relatively high temperature, + mostly with, but occasionally without, the addition of some malt meal. + After about half an hour the gelatinized mass is mixed with the main + mash, and this takes place shortly before taps are set. This is possible + inasmuch as the starch, being already in a highly disintegrated + condition, is very rapidly converted. By working on the limited-decoction + system (see below), it is possible to make use of a fair percentage of + raw grain in the mash-tun proper, thus doing away with the "converter" + entirely.</p> + + <p><i>The Filter Press Process.</i>—The ordinary mash-tun process, + as described above, possesses the disadvantage that only coarse grists + can be employed. This entails loss of extract in several ways. To begin + with, the sparging process is at best a somewhat inefficient method for + washing out the last portions of the wort, and again, when the malt is at + all hard or "steely," starch conversion is by no means complete. These + disadvantages are overcome by the filter press process, which was first + introduced into Great Britain by the Belgian engineer P. Meura. The malt, + in this method of brewing, is ground quite fine, and although an ordinary + mash-tun may be used for mashing, the separation of the clear wort from + the solid matter takes place in the filter press, which retains the very + finest particles with ease. It is also a simple matter to wash out the + wort from the filter cake in the presses, and experience has shown that + markedly increased yields are thus obtained. In the writer's opinion, + there is little doubt that in the future this, or a similar process, will + find a very wide application.</p> + + <p><i>Boiling</i>.—From the mash-tun the wort passes to the + <i>copper</i>. If it is not possible to arrange the plant so that the + coppers are situated beneath the mash-tuns (as is the case in breweries + arranged on the <i>gravitation system</i>), an intermediate collecting + vessel (the underback) is interposed, and from this the wort is pumped + into the copper. The latter is a large copper vessel heated by direct + fire or steam. Modern coppers are generally closed in with a dome-shaped + head, but many old-fashioned open coppers are still to be met with, in + fact pale-ale brewers prefer open coppers. In the closed type the wort is + frequently boiled under slight pressure. When the wort has been raised to + the boil, the hops or a part thereof are added, and the boiling is + continued generally from an hour to three hours, according to the type of + beer. The objects of boiling, briefly put, are: (1) sterilization of the + wort; (2) extraction from the hops of substances that give flavour and + aroma to the beer; (3) the coagulation and precipitation of a part of the + nitrogenous matter (the coagulable albuminoids), which, if left in, would + cause cloudiness and fret, &c., in the finished beer; (4) the + concentration of the wort. At least three distinct substances are + extracted from the hops in boiling. First, the <i>hop tannin</i>, which, + combining with a part of the proteids derived from the malt, precipitates + them; second, the <i>hop resin</i>, which acts as a preservative and + bitter; third, the <i>hop oil</i>, to which much of the fine aroma of + beer is due. The latter is volatile, and it is customary, therefore, not + to add the whole of the hops to the wort when it commences to boil, but + to reserve about a third until near the end of the copper stage. The + quantity of hops employed varies according to the type of beer, from + about 3 lb to 15 lb per quarter (336 lb) of malt. For mild ales and + porters about 3 to 4 lb, for light pale ales and light stouts 6 to 10 lb, + and for strong ales and stouts 9 to 15 lb of hops are employed.</p> + + <p><i>Cooling</i>.—When the wort has boiled the necessary time, it + is turned into the <i>hop back</i> to settle. A hop back is a wooden or + metal vessel, fitted with a false bottom of perforated plates; the latter + retain the spent hops, the wort being drawn off into the coolers. After + resting for a brief period in the hop back, the bright wort is run into + the <i>coolers</i>. The cooler is a very shallow vessel of great area, + and the result of the exposure of the hot wort to a comparatively large + volume of air is that a part of the hop constituents and other substances + contained in the wort are rendered insoluble and are precipitated. It was + formerly considered absolutely essential that this hot aeration should + take place, but in many breweries nowadays coolers are not used, the wort + being run direct from the hop back to the refrigerator. There is much to + be said for this procedure, as the exposure of hot wort in the cooler is + attended with much danger of bacterial and wild yeast infection, but it + is still a moot point whether the cooler or its equivalent can be + entirely dispensed with for all classes of beers. A rational alteration + would appear to be to place the cooler in an air-tight chamber supplied + with purified and sterilized air. This principle has already been applied + to the refrigerator, and apparently with success. In America the cooler + is frequently replaced by a cooling tank, an enclosed vessel of some + depth, capable of artificial aeration. It is not practicable, in any + case, to cool the wort sufficiently on the cooler to bring it to the + proper temperature for the fermentation stage, and for this purpose, + therefore, the <i>refrigerator</i> is employed. There are several kinds + of refrigerators, the main distinction being that some are vertical, + others horizontal; but the principle in each case is much the same, and + consists in allowing a thin film or stream of wort to trickle over a + series of pipes through which cold water circulates. Fig. 5, Plate I., + shows refrigerators, employed in Messrs Allsopp's lager beer brewery, at + work.</p> + + <p><i>Fermenting</i>.—By the process of fermentation the wort is + converted into beer. By the action of living yeast cells (see <span + class="sc">Fermentation</span>) the sugar contained in the wort is split + up into alcohol and carbonic acid, and a number of subsidiary reactions + occur. There are two main systems of fermentation, the <i>top + fermentation</i> system, which is that employed in the United Kingdom, + and the <i>bottom fermentation</i> system, which is that used for the + production of beers of the continental ("lager") type. The wort, + generally at a temperature of about 60° F. (this applies to all the + systems excepting B [see below], in which the temperature is higher), is + "pitched" with liquid yeast (or "barm," as it is often called) at the + rate of, according to the type and strength of the beer to be made, 1 to + 4 lb to the barrel. After a few hours a slight froth or scum makes its + appearance on the surface of the liquid. At the end of a further short + period this develops into a light curly mass (<i>cauliflower</i> or + <i>curly head</i>), which gradually becomes lighter and more solid in + appearance, and is then known as <i>rocky head</i>. This in its turn + shrinks to a compact mass—the <i>yeasty head</i>—which emits + great bubbles of gas with a hissing sound. At this point the + <i>cleansing</i> of the beer—<i>i.e.</i> the separation of the + yeast from the liquid—has fairly commenced, and it is let down + (except in the skimming and Yorkshire systems [see below]) into the + pontos or unions, as the case may be. During fermentation the temperature + rises considerably, and in order to prevent an excessive temperature + being obtained (70-75° F. should be the maximum) the fermenting vessels + are fitted with "attemperators," <i>i.e.</i> a system of pipes through + which cold water may be run.</p> + + <p><i>Cleansing</i>.—In England the methods of applying the top + fermentation system may be classified as follows: (A) <i>The Cleansing + System</i>: (<i>a</i>) Skimming System, (<i>b</i>) Dropping System + (pontos or ordinary dropping system), (<i>c</i>) Burton Union System. (B) + <i>The Yorkshire Stone Square System</i>.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:40%;"> + <a href="images/brewing_4.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/brewing_4.png" + alt="Sparger." title="Sparger." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>—Fermenting Round.<br /> A, + Skimmer; B, Parachute; C, Attemperator. + </div> + <p>(A) In (<i>a</i>) the <i>Skimming System</i> the fermentation from + start to finish takes place in wooden vessels (termed "squares" or + "rounds"), fitted with an attemperator and a parachute or other similar + skimming device for removing or "skimming" the yeast at the end of the + fermentation (fig. 4). The principle of (<i>b</i>) the <i>Dropping + System</i> is that the beer undergoes only the main fermentation in the + "round" or "square," and is then dropped down into a second vessel or + vessels, in which fermentation and cleansing are completed. The + <i>ponto</i> system of dropping, which is now somewhat old-fashioned, + consists in discharging the beer into a series of vat-like vessels, + fitted with a peculiarly-shaped overflow lip. The yeast works its way out + of the vessel over the lip, and then flows into a gutter and is + collected. The pontos are kept filled with beer by means of a vessel + placed at a higher level. In the <i>ordinary</i> dropping system the + partly fermented beer is let down from the "squares" and "rounds" into + large vessels, termed dropping or skimming "backs." These are fitted with + attemperators, and parachutes for the removal of yeast, in much the same + way as in the skimming system. As a rule the parachute covers the whole + width of the back. (<i>c</i>) The <i>Burton Union System</i> is really an + improved ponto system. A series of casks, supplied with beer at the + cleansing stage from a feed vessel, are mounted so that they may rotate + axially. Each cask is fitted with an attemperator, a pipe and cock at the + base for the removal of the finished beer and "bottoms," and lastly with + a swan neck fitting through a bung-hole and commanding a common gutter. + This system yields excellent results for certain classes of beers, and + many Burton brewers think it is essential for obtaining <!-- Page 511 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page511"></a>[v.04 p.0511]</span>the + Burton character. Fig. 6 (Plate II.) shows the process in operation in + Messrs Allsopp's brewery.</p> + + <p>(B) <i>The Stone Square System</i>, which is only used to a certain + extent (exclusively in the north of England), practically consists in + pumping the fermenting wort from one to the other of two superimposed + square vessels, connected with one another by means of a man-hole and a + valve. These squares are built of stone and kept very cool. At the end of + the fermentation the yeast (after closing the man-hole) is removed from + the top square.</p> + + <p><i>Racking, &c.</i>—After the fermentation and cleansing + operations are completed, the beer is racked off (sometimes after passing + a few hours in a settling tank) into storage vessels or trade casks. The + finest "stock" and "pale" ales are stored from six weeks to three months + prior to going out, but "running" beers (mild ales, &c.) are + frequently sent out of the brewery within a week or ten days of mashing. + It is usual to add some hops in cask (this is called <i>dry hopping</i>) + in the case of many of the better beers. Running beers, which must be put + into condition rapidly, or beers that have become flat, are generally + <i>primed</i>. Priming consists in adding a small quantity of sugar + solution to the beer in cask. This rapidly ferments and so produces + "condition."</p> + + <p><i>Fining</i>.—As a very light article is desired nowadays, and + this has to be provided in a short time, artificial means must be + resorted to, in order to replace the natural fining or brightening which + storage brings about. <i>Finings</i> generally consist of a solution or + semi-solution of isinglass in sour beer, or in a solution of tartaric + acid or of sulphurous acid. After the finings are added to the beer and + the barrels have been well rolled, the finings slowly precipitate (or + work out through the bung-hole) and carry with them the matter which + would otherwise render the beer turbid.</p> + + <p><i>Bottling</i>.—Formerly it was the general custom to brew a + special beer for bottling, and this practice is still continued by some + brewers. It is generally admitted that the special brew, matured by + storage and an adequate secondary fermentation, produces the best beer + for bottling, but the modern taste for a very light and bright bottled + beer at a low cost has necessitated the introduction of new methods. The + most interesting among these is the "chilling" and "carbonating" system. + In this the beer, when it is ripe for racking, is first "chilled," that + is, cooled to a very low temperature. As a result, there is an immediate + deposition of much matter which otherwise would require prolonged time to + settle. The beer is then filtered and so rendered quite bright, and + finally, in order to produce immediate "condition," is "carbonated," + <i>i.e.</i> impregnated under pressure with carbon dioxide (carbonic acid + gas).</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Foreign Brewing and Beers.</span>—The system of + brewing which differs most widely from the English <i>infusion</i> and + <i>top fermentation</i> method is the <i>decoction</i> and <i>bottom + fermentation</i> system, so widely employed, chiefly on the continent of + Europe, for the production of beers of the "lager" type.</p> + + <p>The method pursued in the decoction system is broadly as + follows:—After the grist has been mashed with cold water until a + homogeneous mixture ensues, sufficient hot water is introduced into the + mash-tun to raise the temperature to 85-100° F., according to + circumstances. Thereupon, about one-third of the mash (including the + "goods") is transferred to the <i>Maisch Kessel</i> (mash copper), in + which it is gradually brought to a temperature of (about) 165° F., and + this heat is maintained until the mash becomes transparent. The + <i>Dickmaische</i>, as this portion is called, is then raised to the + boil, and the ebullition sustained between a quarter and three-quarters + of an hour. Just sufficient of the <i>Dickmaische</i> is returned to the + mash-tun proper to raise the temperature of the whole to 111-125° F., and + after a few minutes a third is again withdrawn and treated as before, to + form the second "thick mash." When the latter has been returned to the + mash-tun the whole is thoroughly worked up, allowed to stand in order + that the solids may deposit, and then another third (called the + <i>Läutermaische</i> or "clear mash") is withdrawn, boiled until the + coagulable albuminoids are precipitated, and finally reconveyed to the + mash-tun, where the mashing is continued for some time, the final heat + being rather over 160° F. The wort, after boiling with hops and cooling, + much as in the English system, is subjected to the peculiar system of + fermentation called <i>bottom fermentation</i>. In this system the + "pitching" and fermentation take place at a very low temperature and, + compared with the English system, in very small vessels. The fermenting + cellars are maintained at a temperature of about 37-38° F., and the + temperature of the fermenting wort does not rise above 50° F. The yeast, + which is of a different type from that employed in the English system, + remains at the bottom of the fermenting tun, and hence is derived the + name of "bottom fermentation" (see <span class="sc">Fermentation</span>). + The primary fermentation lasts about eleven to twelve days (as compared + with three days on the English system), and the beer is then run into + store (lager) casks where it remains at a temperature approaching the + freezing-point of water for six weeks to six months, according to the + time of the year and the class of the beer. As to the relative character + and stability of decoction and infusion beers, the latter are, as a rule, + more alcoholic; but the former contain more unfermented malt extract, and + are therefore, broadly speaking, more nutritive. Beers of the German type + are less heavily hopped and more peptonized than English beers, and more + highly charged with carbonic acid, which, owing to the low fermentation + and storing temperatures, is retained for a comparatively long time and + keeps the beer in condition. On the other hand, infusion beers are of a + more stable and stimulating character. It is impossible to keep "lager" + beer on draught in the ordinary sense of the term in England. It will not + keep unless placed on ice, and, as a matter of fact, the "condition" of + lager is dependent to a far greater extent on the methods of distribution + and storage than is the case with infusion beers. If a cask is opened it + must be rapidly consumed; indeed it becomes undrinkable within a very few + hours. The gas escapes rapidly when the pressure is released, the + temperature rises, and the beer becomes flat and mawkish. In Germany + every publican is bound to have an efficient supply of ice, the latter + frequently being delivered by the brewery together with the beer.</p> + + <p>In America the common system of brewing is one of infusion mashing + combined with bottom fermentation. The method of mashing, however, though + on infusion lines, differs appreciably from the English process. A very + low initial heat—about 100° F.—at which the mash remains for + about an hour, is employed. After this the temperature is rapidly raised + to 153-156° F. by running in the boiling "cooker mash," <i>i.e.</i> raw + grain wort from the converter. After a period the temperature is + gradually increased to about 165° F. The very low initial heat, and the + employment of relatively large quantities of readily transformable malt + adjuncts, enable the American brewer to make use of a class of malt which + would be considered quite unfit for brewing in an English brewery. The + system of fermentation is very similar to the continental "lager" system, + and the beer obtained bears some resemblance to the German product. To + the English palate it is somewhat flavourless, but it is always retailed + in exceedingly brilliant condition and at a proper temperature. There can + be little doubt that every nation evolves a type of beer most suited to + its climate and the temperament of the people, and in this respect the + modern American beer is no exception. In regard to plant and mechanical + arrangements generally, the modern American breweries may serve as an + object-lesson to the European brewer, although there are certainly a + number of breweries in the United Kingdom which need not fear comparison + with the best American plants.</p> + + <p>It is a sign of the times and further evidence as to the growing taste + for a lighter type of beer, that lager brewing in its most modern form + has now fairly taken root in Great Britain, and in this connexion the + process introduced by Messrs Allsopp exhibits many features of interest. + The following is a brief description of the plant and the methods + employed:—The wort is prepared on infusion lines, and is then + cooled by means of refrigerated brine before passing to a temporary store + tank, which serves as a gauging vessel. From the latter the wort passes + directly to the fermenting tuns, huge closed cylindrical vessels made of + sheet-steel and coated with glass enamel. There the wort ferments under + reduced pressure, the carbonic acid generated being removed by means of a + vacuum pump, and the gas thus withdrawn is replaced by the introduction + of cool sterilized air. The fermenting cellars are kept at 40° F. The + yeast employed is a pure culture (see <span + class="sc">Fermentation</span>) bottom yeast, but the withdrawal of the + products of yeast metabolism and the constant supply of pure fresh air + cause the fermentation to proceed far more rapidly than is the case with + lager beer brewed on ordinary lines. It is, in fact, finished in about + six days. Thereupon the air-supply is cut off, the green beer again + cooled to 40° F. and <!-- Page 512 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page512"></a>[v.04 p.0512]</span>then conveyed by means of filtered + air pressure to the store tanks, where secondary fermentation, lasting + three weeks, takes place. The gases evolved are allowed to collect under + pressure, so that the beer is thoroughly charged with the carbonic acid + necessary to give it condition. Finally the beer is again cooled, + filtered, racked and bottled, the whole of these operations taking place + under counter pressure, so that no gas can escape; indeed, from the time + the wort leaves the copper to the moment when it is bottled in the shape + of beer, it does not come into contact with the outer air.</p> + + <p>The preparation of the Japanese beer <i>saké</i> (<i>q.v.</i>) is of + interest. The first stage consists in the preparation of <i>Koji</i>, + which is obtained by treating steamed rice with a culture of + <i>Aspergillus oryzae</i>. This micro-organism converts the starch into + sugar. The <i>Koji</i> is converted into <i>moto</i> by adding it to a + thin paste of fresh-boiled starch in a vat. Fermentation is set up and + lasts for 30 to 40 days. The third stage consists in adding more rice and + <i>Koji</i> to the <i>moto</i>, together with some water. A secondary + fermentation, lasting from 8 to 10 days, ensues. Subsequently the whole + is filtered, heated and run into casks, and is then known as <i>saké</i>. + The interest of this process consists in the fact that a single + micro-organism—a mould—is able to exercise the combined + functions of saccharification and fermentation. It replaces the diastase + of malted grain and also the yeast of a European brewery. Another liquid + of interest is <i>Weissbier</i>. This, which is largely produced in + Berlin (and in some respects resembles the <i>wheat-beer</i> produced in + parts of England), is generally prepared from a mash of three parts of + wheat malt and one part of barley malt. The fermentation is of a + symbiotic nature, two organisms, namely a yeast and a fission fungus (the + <i>lactic acid bacillus</i>) taking part in it. The preparation of this + peculiar double ferment is assisted by the addition of a certain quantity + of white wine to the yeast prior to fermentation.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Brewing Chemistry</span>.—The principles of + brewing technology belong for the most part to physiological chemistry, + whilst those of the cognate industry, malting, are governed exclusively + by that branch of knowledge. Alike in following the growth of barley in + field, its harvesting, maturing and conversion into malt, as well as the + operations of mashing malt, fermenting wort, and conditioning beer, + physiological chemistry is needed. On the other hand, the consideration + of the saline matter in waters, the composition of the extract of worts + and beers, and the analysis of brewing materials and products generally, + belong to the domain of pure chemistry. Since the extractive matters + contained in wort and beer consist for the most part of the + transformation products of starch, it is only natural that these should + have received special attention at the hands of scientific men associated + with the brewing industry. It was formerly believed that by the action of + diastase on starch the latter is first converted into a gummy substance + termed dextrin, which is then subsequently transformed into a + sugar—glucose. F.A. Musculus, however, in 1860, showed that sugar + and dextrin are simultaneously produced, and between the years 1872 and + 1876 Cornelius O'Sullivan definitely proved that the sugar produced was + maltose. When starch-paste, the jelly formed by treating starch with + boiling water, is mixed with iodine solution, a deep blue coloration + results. The first product of starch degradation by either acids or + diastase, namely soluble starch, also exhibits the same coloration when + treated with iodine. As degradation proceeds, and the products become + more and more soluble and diffusible, the blue reaction with iodine gives + place first to a purple, then to a reddish colour, and finally the + coloration ceases altogether. In the same way, the optical rotating power + decreases, and the cupric reducing power (towards Fehling's solution) + increases, as the process of hydrolysis proceeds. C. O'Sullivan was the + first to point out definitely the influence of the temperature of the + mash on the character of the products. The work of Horace T. Brown (with + J. Heron) extended that of O'Sullivan, and (with G.H. Morris) established + the presence of an intermediate product between the higher dextrins and + maltose. This product was termed maltodextrin, and Brown and Morris were + led to believe that a large number of these substances existed in malt + wort. They proposed for these substances the generic name "amyloins." + Although according to their view they were compounds of maltose and + dextrin, they had the properties of mixtures of these two substances. On + the assumption of the existence of these compounds, Brown and his + colleagues formulated what is known as the maltodextrin or amyloin + hypothesis of starch degradation. C.J. Lintner, in 1891, claimed to have + separated a sugar, isomeric with maltose, which is termed isomaltose, + from the products of starch hydrolysis. A.R. Ling and J.L. Baker, as well + as Brown and Morris, in 1895, proved that this isomaltose was not a + homogeneous substance, and evidence tending to the same conclusion was + subsequently brought forward by continental workers. Ling and Baker, in + 1897, isolated the following compounds from the products of starch + hydrolysis—maltodextrin-<span class="grk">α</span>, + C<sub>36</sub>H<sub>62</sub>O<sub>31</sub>, and maltodextrin-<span + class="grk">β</span>, C<sub>24</sub>H<sub>42</sub>O<sub>21</sub> + (previously named by Prior, achroodextrin III.). They also separated a + substance, C<sub>12</sub>H<sub>22</sub>O<sub>11</sub>, isomeric with + maltose, which had, however, the characteristics of a dextrin. This is + probably identical with the so-called dextrinose isolated by V. Syniewski + in 1902, which yields a phenylosazone melting at 82-83° C. It has been + proved by H. Ost that the so-called isomaltose of Lintner is a mixture of + maltose and another substance, maltodextrin, isomeric with Ling and + Baker's maltodextrin-<span class="grk">β</span>.</p> + + <p>The theory of Brown and Morris of the degradation of starch, although + based on experimental evidence of some weight, is by no means universally + accepted. Nevertheless it is of considerable interest, as it offers a + rational and consistent explanation of the phenomena known to accompany + the transformation of starch by diastase, and even if not strictly + correct it has, at any rate, proved itself to be a practical working + hypothesis, by which the mashing and fermenting operations may be + regulated and controlled. According to Brown and Morris, the starch + molecule consists of five amylin groups, each of which corresponds to the + molecular formula + (C<sub>12</sub>H<sub>20</sub>O<sub>10</sub>)<sub>20</sub>. Four of these + amylin radicles are grouped centrally round the fifth, thus:—</p> + + +<table class="nob" summary="starch molecule" title="starch molecule"> + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:right"> + <p>(C<sub>12</sub>H<sub>20</sub>O<sub>10</sub>)<sub>20</sub><br /> + \<br /> <br /> /<br /> + (C<sub>12</sub>H<sub>20</sub>O<sub>10</sub>)<sub>20</sub></p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:left"> + <p>(C<sub>12</sub>H<sub>20</sub>O<sub>10</sub>)<sub>20</sub></p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:left"> + <p>(C<sub>12</sub>H<sub>20</sub>O<sub>10</sub>)<sub>20</sub><br /> + /<br /> <br /> \<br /> + (C<sub>12</sub>H<sub>20</sub>O<sub>10</sub>)<sub>20</sub></p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + + <p>By the action of diastase, this complex molecule is split up, + undergoing hydrolysis into four groups of amyloins, the fifth or central + group remaining unchanged (and under brewing conditions unchangeable), + forming the substance known as stable dextrin. When diastase acts on + starch-paste, hydrolysis proceeds as far as the reaction represented by + the following equation:—</p> + + +<table class="nob" summary="hydrolysis of starch-paste" title="hydrolysis of starch-paste"> + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>5(C<sub>12</sub>H<sub>20</sub>O<sub>10</sub>)<sub>20</sub><br /> + starch.</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>+</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>80 H<sub>2</sub>O<br /> + water.</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>=</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>80 C<sub>12</sub>H<sub>22</sub>O<sub>11</sub><br /> + maltose.</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>+</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>(C<sub>12</sub>H<sub>20</sub>O<sub>10</sub>)<sub>20</sub><br /> + stable dextrin.</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + + <p>The amyloins are substances containing varying numbers of amylin + (original starch or dextrin) groups in conjunction with a proportional + number of maltose groups. They are not separable into maltose and dextrin + by any of the ordinary means, but exhibit the properties of mixtures of + these substances. As the process of hydrolysis proceeds, the amyloins + become gradually poorer in amylin and relatively richer in + maltose-groups. The final products of transformation, according to Brown + and J.H. Millar, are maltose and glucose, which latter is derived from + the hydrolysis of the stable dextrin. This theory may be applied in + practical brewing in the following manner. If it is desired to obtain a + beer of a stable character—that is to say, one containing a + considerable proportion of high-type amyloins—it is necessary to + restrict the action of the diastase in the mash-tun accordingly. On the + other hand, for mild running ales, which are to "condition" rapidly, it + is necessary to provide for the presence of sufficient maltodextrin of a + low type. Investigation has shown that the type of maltodextrin can be + regulated, not only in the mash-tun but also on the malt-kiln. A higher + type is obtained by low kiln and high mashing temperatures than by high + kiln and low mashing heats, and it is possible therefore to regulate, on + scientific lines, not only the quality but also the type of amyloins + which are suitable for a particular beer.</p> + + <p>The chemistry of the nitrogenous constituents of malt is equally + important with that of starch and its transformations. Without + nitrogenous compounds of the proper type, vigorous fermentations are not + possible. It may be remembered that yeast assimilates nitrogenous + compounds in some of their simpler forms—amides and the like. One + of the aims of the maltster is, therefore, to break down the protein + substances present in barley to such a degree that the wort has a maximum + nutritive value for the yeast. Further, it is necessary for the + production of stable beer to eliminate a large proportion of nitrogenous + matter, and this is only done by the yeast when the proteins are + degraded. There is also some evidence that the presence of albumoses + assists in producing the foaming properties of beer. It has now been + established definitely, by the work of A. Fernbach, W. Windisch, F.Weiss + and P. Schidrowitz, that finished malt contains at least two proteolytic + enzymes (a peptic and a pancreatic enzyme).</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:52%;"> + <a href="images/zbrewing_6.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/brewing_6.jpg" + alt="Burton-Union System of Cleansing" title="Burton-Union System of Cleansing" /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 6.—BURTON-UNION SYSTEM OF CLEANSING. + (MESSRS. ALLSOPP'S BREWERY.) + + <p class="poem">The green beer is filled into the casks, and the excess + of yeast, &c., then works out through the swan necks into the long + common gutter shown.</p> + </div> + <div class="figleft" style="width:38%;"> + <a href="images/zbrewing_5.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/brewing_5.jpg" + alt="Refrigerators in Lager Brewery" title="Refrigerators in Lager Brewery" /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5.—REFRIGERATORS IN "LAGER" BREWERY + OF MESSRS. ALLSOPP. + + <p class="poem">The hot wort trickles over the outside of the series of + pipes, and is cooled by the cold water which circulates in them. From + the shallow collecting trays the cooled wort is conducted to the + fermenting backs.</p> + </div> + <p><br style="clear : both" /></p> +<p><!-- Page 513 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page513"></a>[v.04 p.0513]</span></p> + + <p>The presence of different types of phosphates in malt, and the + important influence which, according to their nature, they exercise in + the brewing process by way of the enzymes affected by them, have been + made the subject of research mainly by Fernbach and A. Hubert, and by + P.E. Petit and G. Labourasse. The number of enzymes which are now known + to take part in the brewing process is very large. They may with utility + be grouped as follows:—</p> + + +<table class="nob" summary="starch molecule" title="starch molecule"> + <tr> + <td class="spac" style="text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="spac" style="text-align:center" colspan="2"> + <p>Name.</p> + </td> + <td class="spac" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Rôle or Nature.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="spac" style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:left" rowspan="5"> + <p>In the malt or mash-tun.</p> + </td> + <td class="spac" style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:left" rowspan="5"> + <p><img src="images/$lbrace.png" style="height:16ex; width:0.8em" + alt="left brace" /></p> + </td> + <td class="spac" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Cytase</p> + </td> + <td class="spac" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Dissolves cell walls of of starch granules.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="spac" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Diastase A</p> + </td> + <td class="spac" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Liquefies starch</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="spac" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Diastase B</p> + </td> + <td class="spac" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Saccharifies starch.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="spac" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Proteolytic Enzymes<br /></p> + </td> + <td class="spac" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>(1) Peptic.<br /> (2) + Pancreatic.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="spac" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Catalase</p> + </td> + <td class="spac" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Splits peroxides.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="spac" style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:left" rowspan="5"> + <p>In fermenting wort and yeast.</p> + </td> + <td class="spac" style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:left" rowspan="5"> + <p><img src="images/$lbrace.png" style="height:8ex; width:0.8em" + alt="left brace" /></p> + </td> + <td class="spac" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Invertase</p> + </td> + <td class="spac" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Inverts cane sugar.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="spac" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Glucase</p> + </td> + <td class="spac" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Splits maltose into glucose.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="spac" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Zymase</p> + </td> + <td class="spac" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Splits sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid.</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + + <p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—W.J. Sykes, <i>Principles + and Practice of Brewing</i> (London, 1897); Moritz and Morris, <i>A + Text-book of the Science of Brewing</i> (London, 1891); H.E. Wright, <i>A + Handy Book for Brewers</i> (London, 1897); Frank Thatcher, <i>Brewing and + Malting</i> (London, 1898); Julian L. Baker, <i>The Brewing Industry</i> + (London, 1905); E.J. Lintner, <i>Grundriss der Bierbrauerei</i> (Berlin, + 1904); J.E. Thausing, <i>Die Theorie und Praxis der Malzbereitung und + Bierfabrikation</i> (Leipzig, 1898); E. Michel, <i>Lehrbuch der + Bierbrauerei</i> (Augsburg, 1900); E. Prior, <i>Chemie u. Physiologie des + Malzes und des Bieres</i> (Leipzig, 1896). Technical journals: <i>The + Journal of the Institute of Brewing</i> (London); <i>The Brewing Trade + Review</i> (London); <i>The Brewers' Journal</i> (London); <i>The + Brewers' Journal</i> (New York); <i>Wochenschrift für Brauerei</i> + (Berlin); <i>Zeitschrift für das gesammte Brauwesen</i> (Munich).</p> + + <p>(P. S.)</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_041" href="#FnAnchor_041">[1]</a> They were + classified at 28 lb in 1896, but since 1897 the standard has been at the + rate of 32 lb to the bushel.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_042" href="#FnAnchor_042">[2]</a> Inclusive of rice + and maize.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_043" href="#FnAnchor_043">[3]</a> Exclusive of rice + and maize.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_044" href="#FnAnchor_044">[4]</a> As a rule there is + no separate "collecting vessel," duty being assessed in the fermenting + vessels.</p> + +</div> + <p><b>BREWSTER, SIR DAVID</b> (1781-1868), Scottish natural philosopher, + was born on the 11th of December 1781 at Jedburgh, where his father, a + teacher of high reputation, was rector of the grammar school. At the + early age of twelve he was sent to the university of Edinburgh, being + intended for the clerical profession. Even before this, however, he had + shown a strong inclination for natural science, and this had been + fostered by his intimacy with a "self-taught philosopher, astronomer and + mathematician," as Sir Walter Scott called him, of great local + fame—James Veitch of Inchbonny, who was particularly skilful in + making telescopes. Though he duly finished his theological course and was + licensed to preach, Brewster's preference for other pursuits prevented + him from engaging in the active duties of his profession. In 1799 he was + induced by his fellow-student, Henry Brougham, to study the diffraction + of light. The results of his investigations were communicated from time + to time in papers to the <i>Philosophical Transactions</i> of London and + other scientific journals, and were admirably and impartially summarized + by James D. Forbes in his preliminary dissertation to the eighth edition + of the <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i>. The fact that other philosophers, + notably Etienne Louis Malus and Augustin Fresnel, were pursuing the same + investigations contemporaneously in France does not invalidate Brewster's + claim to independent discovery, even though in one or two cases the + priority must be assigned to others.</p> + + <p>The most important subjects of his inquiries are enumerated by Forbes + under the following five heads:—(1) The laws of polarization by + reflection and refraction, and other quantitative laws of phenomena; (2) + The discovery of the polarizing structure induced by heat and pressure; + (3) The discovery of crystals with two axes of double refraction, and + many of the laws of their phenomena, including the connexion of optical + structure and crystalline forms; (4) The laws of metallic reflection; (5) + Experiments on the absorption of light. In this line of investigation the + prime importance belongs to the discovery (1) of the connexion between + the refractive index and the polarizing angle, (2) of biaxial crystals, + and (3) of the production of double refraction by irregular heating. + These discoveries were promptly recognized. So early as the year 1807 the + degree of LL.D. was conferred upon Brewster by Marischal College, + Aberdeen; in 1815 he was made a member of the Royal Society of London, + and received the Copley medal; in 1818 he received the Rumford medal of + the society; and in 1816 the French Institute awarded him one-half of the + prize of three thousand francs for the two most important discoveries in + physical science made in Europe during the two preceding years. Among the + non-scientific public his fame was spread more effectually by his + rediscovery about 1815 of the kaleidoscope, for which there was a great + demand in both England and America. An instrument of higher interest, the + stereoscope, which, though of much later date (1849-1850), may be + mentioned here, since along with the kaleidoscope it did more than + anything else to popularize his name, was not, as has often been + asserted, the invention of Brewster. Sir Charles Wheatstone discovered + its principle and applied it as early as 1838 to the construction of a + cumbrous but effective instrument, in which the binocular pictures were + made to combine by means of mirrors. To Brewster is due the merit of + suggesting the use of lenses for the purpose of uniting the dissimilar + pictures; and accordingly the lenticular stereoscope may fairly be said + to be his invention. A much more valuable practical result of Brewster's + optical researches was the improvement of the British lighthouse system. + It is true that the dioptric apparatus was perfected independently by + Fresnel, who had also the satisfaction of being the first to put it into + operation. But it is indisputable that Brewster was earlier in the field + than Fresnel; that he described the dioptric apparatus in 1812; that he + pressed its adoption on those in authority at least as early as 1820, two + years before Fresnel suggested it; and that it was finally introduced + into British lighthouses mainly by his persistent efforts.</p> + + <p>Brewster's own discoveries, important though they were, were not his + only, perhaps not even his chief, service to science. He began literary + work in 1799 as a regular contributor to the <i>Edinburgh Magazine</i>, + of which he acted as editor at the age of twenty. In 1807 he undertook + the editorship of the newly projected <i>Edinburgh Encyclopaedia</i>, of + which the first part appeared in 1808, and the last not until 1830. The + work was strongest in the scientific department, and many of its most + valuable articles were from the pen of the editor. At a later period he + was one of the leading contributors to the <i>Encyclopaedia + Britannica</i> (seventh and eighth editions), the articles on + Electricity, Hydrodynamics, Magnetism, Microscope, Optics, Stereoscope, + Voltaic Electricity, &c., being from his pen. In 1819 Brewster + undertook further editorial work by establishing, in conjunction with + Robert Jameson (1774-1854), the <i>Edinburgh Philosophical Journal</i>, + which took the place of the <i>Edinburgh Magazine</i>. The first ten + volumes (1819-1824) were published under the joint editorship of Brewster + and Jameson, the remaining four volumes (1825-1826) being edited by + Jameson alone. After parting company with Jameson, Brewster started the + <i>Edinburgh Journal of Science</i> in 1824, sixteen volumes of which + appeared under his editorship during the years 1824-1832, with very many + articles from his own pen. To the transactions of various learned + societies he contributed from first to last between three and four + hundred papers, and few of his contemporaries wrote so much for the + various reviews. In the <i>North British Review</i> alone seventy-five + articles of his appeared. A list of his larger separate works will be + found below. Special mention, however, must be made of the most important + of them all—his biography of Sir Isaac Newton. In 1831 he published + a short popular account of the philosopher's life in Murray's <i>Family + Library</i>; but it was not until 1855 that he was able to issue the much + fuller <i>Memoirs of the Life, Writings and Discoveries of Sir Isaac + Newton</i>, a work which embodied the results of more than twenty years' + patient investigation of original manuscripts and all other available + sources.</p> + + <p>Brewster's relations as editor brought him into frequent communication + with the most eminent scientific men, and he was naturally among the + first to recognize the benefit that would accrue from regular intercourse + among workers in the field of science. In an article in the <i>Quarterly + Review</i> he threw out a suggestion for "an association of our nobility, + clergy, gentry and philosophers," which was taken up by others and found + speedy realization in the British Association for the Advancement of <!-- + Page 514 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page514"></a>[v.04 + p.0514]</span>Science. Its first meeting was held at York in 1831; and + Brewster, along with Charles Babbage and Sir John F. W. Herschel, had the + chief part in shaping its constitution. In the same year in which the + British Association held its first meeting, Brewster received the honour + of knighthood and the decoration of the Guelphic order of Hanover. In + 1838 he was appointed principal of the united colleges of St Salvator and + St Leonard, St Andrews. In 1849 he acted as president of the British + Association and was elected one of the eight foreign associates of the + Institute of France in succession to J.J. Berzelius; and ten years later + he accepted the office of principal of the university of Edinburgh, the + duties of which he discharged until within a few months of his death, + which took place at Allerly, Melrose, on the 10th of February 1868.</p> + + <p>In estimating Brewster's place among scientific discoverers the chief + thing to be borne in mind is that the bent of his genius was not + characteristically mathematical. His method was empirical, and the laws + which he established were generally the result of repeated experiment. To + the ultimate explanation of the phenomena with which he dealt he + contributed nothing, and it is noteworthy in this connexion that if he + did not maintain to the end of his life the corpuscular theory he never + explicitly adopted the undulatory theory of light. Few will be inclined + to dispute the verdict of Forbes:—"His scientific glory is + different in kind from that of Young and Fresnel; but the discoverer of + the law of polarization of biaxial crystals, of optical mineralogy, and + of double refraction by compression, will always occupy a foremost rank + in the intellectual history of the age." In addition to the various works + of Brewster already noticed, the following may be mentioned:—Notes + and Introduction to Carlyle's translation of Legendre's <i>Elements of + Geometry</i> (1824); <i>Treatise on Optics</i> (1831); <i>Letters on + Natural Magic,</i> addressed to Sir Walter Scott (1831); <i>The Martyrs + of Science, or the Lives of Galileo, Tycho Brahe, and Kepler</i> (1841); + <i>More Worlds than One</i> (1854).</p> + + <p>See <i>The Home Life of Sir David Brewster,</i> by his daughter Mrs + Gordon.</p> + + <p><b>BREWSTER, WILLIAM</b> (c. 1566-1644), American colonist, one of the + leaders of the "Pilgrims," was born at Scrooby, in Nottinghamshire, + England, about 1566. After studying for a short time at Cambridge, he was + from 1584 to 1587 in the service of William Davison (? 1541-1608), who in + 1585 went to the Low Countries to negotiate an alliance with the + states-general and in 1586 became assistant to Walsingham, Queen + Elizabeth's secretary of state. Upon the disgrace of Davison, Brewster + removed to Scrooby, where from 1590 until September 1607 he held the + position of "Post," or postmaster responsible for the relays of horses on + the post road, having previously, for a short time, assisted his father + in that office. About 1602 his neighbours began to assemble for worship + at his home, the Scrooby manor house, and in 1606 he joined them in + organizing the Separatist church of Scrooby. After an unsuccessful + attempt in 1607 (for which he was imprisoned for a short time), he, with + other Separatists, removed to Holland in 1608 to obtain greater freedom + of worship. At Leiden in 1609 he was chosen ruling elder of the + Congregation. In Holland he supported himself first by teaching English + and afterwards in 1616-1619, as the partner of one Thomas Brewer, by + secretly printing, for sale in England, books proscribed by the English + government, thus, says Bradford, having "imploymente inough." In 1619 + their types were seized and Brewer was arrested by the authorities of the + university of Leiden, acting on the instance of the British ambassador, + Sir Dudley Carleton. Brewster, however, escaped, and in the same year, + with Robert Cushman (c. 1580-1625), obtained in London, on behalf of his + associates, a land patent from the Virginia Company. In 1620 he emigrated + to America on the "Mayflower," and was one of the founders of the + Plymouth Colony. Here besides continuing until his death to act as ruling + elder, he was also—regularly until the arrival of the first pastor, + Ralph Smith (d. 1661), in 1629 and irregularly afterward—a + "teacher," preaching "both powerfully and profitably to ye great + contentment of ye hearers and their comfortable edification." By many he + is regarded as pre-eminently the leader of the "Pilgrims." He died, + probably on the 10th of April 1644.</p> + + <p>See Ashbel Steele's <i>Chief of the Pilgrims; or the Life and Time of + William Brewster</i> (Philadelphia, 1857); and a sketch in William + Bradford's <i>History of the Plimouth Plantation</i> (new ed., Boston, + 1898).</p> + + <p><b>BRÉZÉ</b> the name of a noble Angevin family, the most famous + member of which was <span class="sc">Pierre de Brézé</span> (<i>c.</i> + 1410-1465), one of the trusted soldiers and statesmen of Charles VII. He + had made his name as a soldier in the English wars when in 1433 he joined + with Yolande, queen of Sicily, the constable Richmond and others, in + chasing from power Charles VII.'s minister La Trémoille. He was knighted + by Charles of Anjou in 1434, and presently entered the royal council. In + 1437 he became seneschal of Anjou, and in 1440 of Poitou. During the + Praguerie he rendered great service to the royal cause against the + dauphin Louis and the revolted nobles, a service which was remembered + against him after Louis's accession to the throne. He fought against the + English in Normandy in 1440-1441, and in Guienne in 1442. In the next + year he became chamberlain to Charles VII., and gained the chief power in + the state through the influence of Agnes Sorel, superseding his early + allies Richmond and Charles of Anjou. The six years (1444-1450) of his + ascendancy were the most prosperous period of the reign of Charles VII. + His most dangerous opponent was the dauphin Louis, who in 1448 brought + against him accusations which led to a formal trial resulting in a + complete exoneration of Brézé and his restoration to favour. He fought in + Normandy in 1450-1451, and became seneschal of the province after the + death of Agnes Sorel and the consequent decline of his influence at + court. He made an ineffective descent on the English coast at Sandwich in + 1457, and was preparing an expedition in favour of Margaret of Anjou when + the accession of Louis XI. brought him disgrace and a short imprisonment. + In 1462, however, his son Jacques married Louis's half-sister, Charlotte + de Valois, daughter of Agnes Sorel. In 1462 he accompanied Margaret to + Scotland with a force of 2000 men, and after the battle of Hexham he + brought her back to Flanders. On his return he was reappointed seneschal + of Normandy, and fell in the battle of Montlhéry on the 16th of July + 1465. He was succeeded as seneschal of Normandy by his eldest son Jacques + de Brézé (<i>c.</i> 1440-1490), count of Maulevrier; and by his grandson, + husband of the famous Diane de Poitiers, Louis de Brézé (d. 1531), whose + tomb in Rouen cathedral, attributed to Jean Goujon and Jean Cousin, is a + splendid example of French Renaissance work.</p> + + <p>The lordship of Brézé passed eventually to Claire Clémence de Maillé, + princess of Condé, by whom it was sold to Thomas Dreux, who took the name + of Dreux Brézé, when it was erected into a marquisate. <span + class="sc">Henri Evrard</span>, marquis de Dreux-Brézé (1762-1829), + succeeded his father as master of the ceremonies to Louis XVI. in 1781. + On the meeting of the states-general in 1789 it fell to him to regulate + the questions of etiquette and precedence between the three estates. That + as the immediate representative of the crown he should wound the + susceptibilities of the deputies was perhaps inevitable, but little + attempt was made to adapt traditional etiquette to changed circumstances. + Brézé did not formally intimate to President Bailly the proclamation of + the royal séance until the 20th of June, when the carpenters were about + to enter the hall to prepare for the event, thus provoking the session in + the tennis court. After the royal séance Brézé was sent to reiterate + Louis's orders that the estates should meet separately, when Mirabeau + replied that the hall could not be cleared except by force. After the + fall of the Tuileries Brézé emigrated for a short time, but though he + returned to France he was spared during the Terror. At the Restoration he + was made a peer of France, and resumed his functions as guardian of an + antiquated ceremonial. He died on the 27th of January 1829, when he was + succeeded in the peerage and at court by his son Scipion (1793-1845).</p> + + <p>The best contemporary account of Pierre de Brézé is given in the + <i>Chroniques</i> of the Burgundian chronicler, Georges Chastellain, who + had been his secretary. Chastellain addressed a <i>Déprécation</i> to + Louis XI. on his behalf at the time of his disgrace.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 515 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page515"></a>[v.04 p.0515]</span></p> + + <p><b>BRIALMONT, HENRI ALEXIS</b> (1821-1903), Belgian general and + military engineer, son of General Laurent Mathieu Brialmont (d. 1885), + was born at Venlo in Limburg on the 25th of May 1821. Educated at the + Brussels military school, he entered the army as sub-lieutenant of + engineers in 1843, and became lieutenant in 1847. From 1847 to 1850 he + was private secretary to the war minister, General Baron Chazal. In 1855 + he entered the staff corps, became major in 1861, lieutenant-colonel + 1864, colonel in 1868 and major-general 1874. In this rank he held at + first the position of director of fortifications in the Antwerp district + (December 1874), and nine months later he became inspector-general of + fortifications and of the corps of engineers. In 1877 he became + lieutenant-general. His far-reaching schemes for the fortification of the + Belgian places met with no little opposition, and Brialmont seems to have + felt much disappointment in this; at any rate he went in 1883 to Rumania + to advise as to the fortification works required for the defence of the + country, and presided over the elaboration of the scheme by which + Bucharest was to be made a first-class fortress. He was thereupon placed + <i>en disponibilité</i> in his own service, as having undertaken the + Bucharest works without the authorization of his sovereign. This was due + in part to the suggestion of Austria, which power regarded the Bucharest + works as a menace to herself. His services were, however, too valuable to + be lost, and on his return to Belgium in 1884 he resumed his command of + the Antwerp military district. He had, further, while in eastern Europe, + prepared at the request of the Hellenic government, a scheme for the + defence of Greece. He retired in 1886, but continued to supervise the + Rumanian defences. He died on the 21st of September 1903.</p> + + <p>In the first stage of his career as an engineer Brialmont's plans + followed with but slight modification the ideas of Vauban; and his + original scheme for fortifying Antwerp provided for both enceinte and + forts being on a bastioned trace. But in 1859, when the great entrenched + camp at Antwerp was finally taken in hand, he had already gone over to + the school of polygonal fortification and the ideas of Montalembert. + About twenty years later Brialmont's own types and plans began to stand + out amidst the general confusion of ideas on fortification which + naturally resulted from the introduction of long-range guns, and from the + events of 1870-71. The extreme detached forts of the Antwerp region and + the fortifications on the Meuse at Liége and Namur were constructed in + accordance with Brialmont's final principles, viz. the lavish use of + armour to protect the artillery inside the forts, the suppression of all + artillery positions open to overhead fire, and the multiplication of + intermediate batteries (see <span class="sc">Fortification and + Siegecraft</span>). In his capacity of inspector-general Brialmont + drafted and carried out the whole scheme for the defences of Belgium. He + was an indefatigable writer, and produced, besides essays, reviews and + other papers in the journals, twenty-three important works and forty-nine + pamphlets. In 1850 he originated the <i>Journal de l'armée Belge</i>. His + most important publications were <i>La Fortification du temps présent</i> + (Brussels, 1885); <i>Influence du tir plongeant et des obus-torpilles sur + la fortification</i> (Brussels, 1888); <i>Les Régions fortifiées</i> + (Brussels, 1890); <i>La Défense des états et la fortification à la fin du + XIX<sup>e</sup> siècle</i> (Brussels, 1895); <i>Progrès de la défense des + états et de la fortification permanente depuis Vauban</i> (Brussels, + 1898).</p> + + <p><b>BRIAN</b> (926-1014), king of Ireland, known as <span + class="sc">Brian Boru</span>, <span class="sc">Boroma</span>, or <span + class="sc">Boroimhe</span> (from <i>boroma</i>, an Irish word for + tribute), was a son of a certain Kennedy or Cenneide (d. 951). He passed + his youth in fighting against the Danes, who were constantly ravaging + Munster, the northern part of which district was the home of Brian's + tribe, and won much fame in these encounters. In 976 his brother, + Mathgamhain or Mahon, who had become king of Thomond about 951 and + afterwards king of Munster, was murdered; Brian avenged this deed, became + himself king of Munster in 978, and set out upon his career of conquest. + He forced the tribes of Munster and then those of Leinster to own his + sovereignty, defeated the Danes, who were established around Dublin, in + Wicklow, and marched into Dublin, and after several reverses compelled + Malachy (Maelsechlainn), the chief king of Ireland, who ruled in Meath, + to bow before him in 1002. Connaught was his next objective. Here and + also in Ulster he was successful, everywhere he received hostages and + tribute, and he was generally recognized as the <i>ardri</i>, or chief + king of Ireland. After a period of comparative quiet Brian was again at + war with the Danes of Dublin, and on the 23rd of April 1014 his forces + gained a great victory over them at Clontarf. After this battle, however, + the old king was slain in his tent, and was buried at Armagh. Brian has + enjoyed a great and not undeserved reputation. One of his charters is + still preserved in Trinity College, Dublin.</p> + + <p>See E.A. D'Alton, <i>History of Ireland</i>, vol. i. (1903).</p> + + <p><b>BRIANÇON,</b> a strongly fortified town in the department of + Hautes-Alpes in S.E. France. It is built at a height of 4334 ft. on a + plateau which dominates the junction of the Durance with the Guisane. The + town itself is formed of very steep and narrow, though picturesque + streets. As it lies at the foot of the descent from the Mont Genèvre + Pass, giving access to Turin, a great number of fortifications have been + constructed on the heights around Briançon, especially towards the east. + The Fort Janus is no less than 4000 ft. above the town. The parish + church, with its two towers, was built 1703-1726, and occupies a very + conspicuous position. The Pont d'Asfeld, E. of the town, was built in + 1734, and forms an arch of 131 ft. span, thrown at a height of 184 ft. + across the Durance. The modern town extends in the plain at the S.W. foot + of the plateau on which the old town is built and forms the suburb of Ste + Catherine, with the railway station, and an important silk-weaving + factory. Briançon is 51½ m. by rail from Gap. The commune had a civil + population in 1906 of 4883 (urban population 3130), while the permanent + garrison was 2641—in all 7524 inhabitants.</p> + + <p>Briançon was the <i>Brigantium</i> of the Romans and formed part of + the kingdom of King Cottius. About 1040 it came into the hands of the + counts of Albon (later dauphins of the Viennois) and thenceforth shared + the fate of the Dauphiné. The Briançonnais included not merely the upper + valley of the Durance (with those of its affluents, the Gyronde and the + Guil), but also the valley of the Dora Riparia (Césanne, Oulx, + Bardonnèche and Exilles), and that of the Chisone (Fénestrelles, Pérouse, + Pragelas)—these glens all lying on the eastern slope of the chain + of the Alps. But by the treaty of Utrecht (1713) all these valleys were + handed over to Savoy in exchange for that of Barcelonnette, on the west + slope of the Alps. In 1815 Briançon successfully withstood a siege of + three months at the hands of the Allies, a feat which is commemorated by + an inscription on one of its gates, <i>Le passé répond de + l'avenir</i>.</p> + + <p>(W. A. B. C.)</p> + + <p><b>BRIAND, ARISTIDE</b> (1862- ), French statesman, was born at + Nantes, of a bourgeois family. He studied law, and while still young took + to politics, associating himself with the most advanced movements, + writing articles for the anarchist journal <i>Le Peuple</i>, and + directing the <i>Lanterne</i> for some time. From this he passed to the + <i>Petite République</i>, leaving it to found, with Jean Jaurès, + <i>L'Humanité</i>. At the same time he was prominent in the movement for + the formation of labour unions, and at the congress of working men at + Nantes in 1894 he secured the adoption of the labour union idea against + the adherents of Jules Guesde. From that time, Briand became one of the + leaders of the French Socialist party. In 1902, after several + unsuccessful attempts, he was elected deputy. He declared himself a + strong partisan of the union of the Left in what is known as the + <i>Bloc</i>, in order to check the reactionary deputies of the Right. + From the beginning of his career in the chamber of deputies, Briand was + occupied with the question of the separation of church and state. He was + appointed reporter of the commission charged with the preparation of the + law, and his masterly report at once marked him out as one of the coming + leaders. He succeeded in carrying his project through with but slight + modifications, and without dividing the parties upon whose support he + relied. He was the principal author of the law of separation, but, not + content with preparing it, he wished to apply it as well, especially as + the existing Rouvier <!-- Page 516 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page516"></a>[v.04 p.0516]</span>ministry allowed disturbances to + occur during the taking of inventories of church property, a clause of + the law for which Briand was not responsible. Consequently he accepted + the portfolio of public instruction and worship in the Sarrien ministry + (1906). So far as the chamber was concerned his success was complete. But + the acceptance of a portfolio in a bourgeois ministry led to his + exclusion from the Unified Socialist party (March 1906). As opposed to + Jaurès, he contended that the Socialists should co-operate actively with + the Radicals in all matters of reform, and not stand aloof to await the + complete fulfilment of their ideals.</p> + + <p><b>BRIANZA,</b> a district of Lombardy, Italy, forming the south part + of the province of Como, between the two southern arms of the lake of + that name. It is thickly populated and remarkable for its fertility; and + being hilly is a favourite summer resort of the Milanese.</p> + + <p><b>BRIARE,</b> a town of north-central France in the department of + Loiret on the right bank of the Loire, 45½ m. S.E. of Orléans on the + railway to Nevers. Pop. (1906) 4613. Briare, the <i>Brivodorum</i> of the + Romans, is situated at the extremity of the Canal of Briare, which unites + the Loire and its lateral canal with the Loing and so with the Seine. The + canal of Briare was constructed from 1605 to 1642 and is about 36 m. + long. The industries include the manufacture of fine pottery, and of + so-called porcelain buttons made of felspar and milk by a special + process; its inventor, Bapterosses, has a bust in the town. The canal + traffic is in wood, iron, coal, building materials, &c. A modern + hospital and church, and the hôtel de ville installed in an old moated + château, are the chief buildings. The lateral canal of the Loire crosses + the Loire near Briare by a fine canal-bridge 720 yds. in length.</p> + + <p><b>BRIAREUS,</b> or <span class="sc">Aegaeon</span>, in Greek + mythology, one of the three hundred-armed, fifty-headed Hecatoncheires, + brother of Cottus and Gyges (or Gyes). According to Homer (<i>Iliad</i> + i. 403) he was called Aegaeon by men, and Briareus by the gods. He was + the son of Poseidon (or Uranus) and Gaea. The legends regarding him and + his brothers are various and somewhat contradictory. According to the + most widely spread myth, Briareus and his brothers were called by Zeus to + his assistance when the Titans were making war upon Olympus. The gigantic + enemies were defeated and consigned to Tartarus, at the gates of which + the three brothers were placed (Hesiod, <i>Theog.</i> 624, 639, 714). + Other accounts make Briareus one of the assailants of Olympus, who, after + his defeat, was buried under Mount Aetna (Callimachus, <i>Hymn to + Delos</i>, 141). Homer mentions him as assisting Zeus when the other + Olympian deities were plotting against the king of gods and men + (<i>Iliad</i> i. 398). Another tradition makes him a giant of the sea, + ruler of the fabulous Aegaea in Euboea, an enemy of Poseidon and the + inventor of warships (Schol. on Apoll. Rhod. i. 1165). It would be + difficult to determine exactly what natural phenomena are symbolized by + the Hecatoncheires. They may represent the gigantic forces of nature + which appear in earthquakes and other convulsions, or the multitudinous + motion of the sea waves (Mayer, <i>Die Giganten und Titanen</i>, + 1887).</p> + + <p><b>BRIBERY</b> (from the O. Fr. <i>briberie</i>, begging or vagrancy, + <i>bribe</i>, Mid. Lat. <i>briba</i>, signifying a piece of bread given + to beggars; the Eng. "bribe" has passed through the meanings of alms, + blackmail and extortion, to gifts received or given in order to influence + corruptly). The public offence of bribery may be defined as the offering + or giving of payment in some shape or form that it may be a motive in the + performance of functions for which the proper motive ought to be a + conscientious sense of duty. When this is superseded by the sordid + impulses created by the bribe, a person is said to be corrupted, and thus + corruption is a term sometimes held equivalent to bribery. The offence + may be divided into two great classes—the one where a person + invested with power is induced by payment to use it unjustly; the other, + where power is obtained by purchasing the suffrages of those who can + impart it. It is a natural propensity, removable only by civilization or + some powerful counteracting influence, to feel that every element of + power is to be employed as much as possible for the owner's own behoof, + and that its benefits should be conferred not on those who best deserve + them, but on those who will pay most for them. Hence judicial corruption + is an inveterate vice of imperfect civilization. There is, perhaps no + other crime on which the force of law, if unaided by public opinion and + morals, can have so little influence; for in other crimes, such as + violence or fraud, there is generally some person immediately injured by + the act, who can give his aid in the detection of the offender, but in + the perpetration of the offence of bribery all the immediate parties + obtain what they desire, and are satisfied.</p> + + <p>The purification of the bench from judicial bribery has been gradual + in most of the European countries. In France it received an impulse in + the 16th century from the high-minded chancellor, Michel de L'Hôpital. In + England judicial corruption has been a crime of remarkable rarity. + Indeed, with the exception of a statute of 1384 (repealed by the Statute + Law Revision Act 1881) there has been no legislation relating to judicial + bribery. The earliest recorded case was that of Sir William Thorpe, who + in 1351 was fined and removed from office for accepting bribes. Other + celebrated cases were those of Michael de la Pole, chancellor of England, + in 1387; Lord Chancellor Bacon in 1621; Lionel Cranfield, earl of + Middlesex, in 1624; and Sir Thomas Parker, 1st earl of Macclesfield, in + 1725. In Scotland for some years after the Revolution the bench was not + without a suspicion of interested partiality; but since the beginning of + the 19th century, at least, there has been in all parts of the empire a + perfect reliance on its purity. The same may be said of the higher class + of ministerial officers. There is no doubt that in the period from the + Revolution to the end of Queen Anne's reign, when a speaker of the House + of Commons was expelled for bribery, and the great Marlborough could not + clear his character from pecuniary dishonesty, there was much corruption + in the highest official quarters. The level of the offence of official + bribery has gradually descended, until it has become an extremely rare + thing for the humbler officers connected with the revenue to be charged + with it. It has had a more lingering existence with those who, because + their power is more of a constitutional than an official character, have + been deemed less responsible to the public. During Walpole's + administration there is no doubt that members of parliament were paid in + cash for votes; and the memorable saying, that every man has his price, + has been preserved as a characteristic indication of his method of + government. One of the forms in which administrative corruption is most + difficult of eradication is the appointment to office. It is sometimes + maintained that the purity which characterizes the administration of + justice is here unattainable, because in giving a judgment there is but + one form in which it can be justly given, but when an office has to be + filled many people may be equally fitted for it, and personal motives + must influence a choice. It very rarely happens, however, that direct + bribery is supposed to influence such appointments. It does not appear + that bribery was conspicuous in England until, in the early part of the + 18th century, constituencies had thrown off the feudal dependence which + lingered among them; and, indeed, it is often said, that bribery is + essentially the defect of a free people, since it is the sale of that + which is taken from others without payment.</p> + + <p>In English law bribery of a privy councillor or a juryman (see <span + class="sc">Embracery</span>) is punishable as a misdemeanour, as is the + taking of a bribe by any judicial or ministerial officer. The buying and + selling of public offices is also regarded at common law as a form of + bribery. By the Customs Consolidation Act 1876, any officer in the + customs service is liable to instant dismissal and a penalty of £500 for + taking a bribe, and any person offering or promising a bribe or reward to + an officer to neglect his duty or conceal or connive at any act by which + the customs may be evaded shall forfeit the sum of £200. Under the Inland + Revenue Regulations Act 1890, the bribery of commissioners, collectors, + officers or other persons employed in relation to the Inland Revenue + involves a fine of £500. The Merchant Shipping Act 1894, ss. 112 and 398, + makes provision for certain offences in the nature of bribery. Bribery + is, by the Extradition Act 1906, <!-- Page 517 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page517"></a>[v.04 p.0517]</span>an extraditable + offence. Administrative corruption was dealt with in the Public Bodies' + Corrupt Practices Act 1889. The public bodies concerned are county + councils, town or borough councils, boards, commissioners, select + vestries and other bodies having local government, public health or poor + law powers, and having for those purposes to administer rates raised + under public general acts. The giving or receiving, promising, offering, + soliciting or agreeing to receive any gift, fee, loan or advantage by any + person as an inducement for any act or forbearance by a member, officer + or servant of a public body in regard to the affairs of that body is made + a misdemeanour in England and Ireland and a crime and offence in + Scotland. Prosecution under the act requires the consent of the attorney + or solicitor-general in England or Ireland and of the lord advocate in + Scotland. Conviction renders liable to imprisonment with or without hard + labour for a term not exceeding two years, and to a fine not exceeding + £500, in addition to or in lieu of imprisonment. The offender may also be + ordered to pay to the public body concerned any bribe received by him; he + may be adjudged incapable for seven years of holding public office, + <i>i.e.</i> the position of member, officer or servant of a public body; + and if already an officer or servant, besides forfeiting his place, he is + liable at the discretion of the court to forfeit his right to + compensation or pension. On a second conviction he may be adjudged + forever incapable of holding public office, and for seven years incapable + of being registered or of voting as a parliamentary elector, or as an + elector of members of a public body. An offence under the act may be + prosecuted and punished under any other act applicable thereto, or at + common law; but no person is to be punished twice for the same offence. + Bribery at political elections was at common law punishable by indictment + or information, but numerous statutes have been passed dealing with it as + a "corrupt practice." In this sense, the word is elastic in meaning and + may embrace any method of corruptly influencing another for the purpose + of securing his vote (see <span class="sc">Corrupt Practices</span>). + Bribery at elections of fellows, scholars, officers and other persons in + colleges, cathedral and collegiate churches, hospitals and other + societies was prohibited in 1588-1589 by statute (31 Eliz. c. 6). If a + member receives any money, fee, reward or other profit for giving his + vote in favour of any candidate, he forfeits his own place; if for any + such consideration he resigns to make room for a candidate, he forfeits + double the amount of the bribe, and the candidate by or on whose behalf a + bribe is given or promised is incapable of being elected on that + occasion. The act is to be read at every election of fellows, &c., + under a penalty of £40 in case of default. By the same act any person for + corrupt consideration presenting, instituting or inducting to an + ecclesiastical benefice or dignity forfeits two years' value of the + benefice or dignity; the corrupt presentation is void, and the right to + present lapses for that turn to the crown, and the corrupt presentee is + disabled from thereafter holding the same benefice or dignity; a corrupt + institution or induction is void, and the patron may present. For a + corrupt resignation or exchange of a benefice the giver and taker of a + bribe forfeit each double the amount of the bribe. Any person corruptly + procuring the ordaining of ministers or granting of licenses to preach + forfeits £40, and the person so ordained forfeits £10 and for seven years + is incapacitated from holding any ecclesiastical benefice or + promotion.</p> + + <p>In the United States the offence of bribery is very severely dealt + with. In many states, bribery or the attempt to bribe is made a felony, + and is punishable with varying terms of imprisonment, in some + jurisdictions it may be with a period not exceeding ten years. The + offence of bribery at elections is dealt with on much the same lines as + in England, voiding the election and disqualifying the offender from + holding any office.</p> + + <p>Bribery may also take the form of a secret commission (<i>q.v.</i>), a + profit made by an agent, in the course of his employment, without the + knowledge of his principal.</p> + + <p><b>BRIC À BRAC</b> (a French word, formed by a kind of onomatopoeia, + meaning a heterogeneous collection of odds and ends; cf. <i>de bric et de + broc</i>, corresponding to our "by hook or by crook"; or by reduplication + from <i>brack</i>, refuse), objects of "virtu," a collection of old + furniture, china, plate and curiosities.</p> + + <p><b>BRICK</b> (derived according to some etymologists from the Teutonic + <i>bricke</i>, a disk or plate; but more authoritatively, through the + French <i>brique</i>, originally a "broken piece," applied especially to + bread, and so to clay, from the Teutonic <i>brikan</i>, to break), a kind + of artificial stone generally made of burnt clay, and largely used as a + building material.</p> + + <p><i>History</i>.—The art of making bricks dates from very early + times, and was practised by all the civilized nations of antiquity. The + earliest burnt bricks known are those found on the sites of the ancient + cities of Babylonia, and it seems probable that the method of making + strong and durable bricks, by burning blocks of dried clay, was + discovered in this corner of Asia. We know at least that well-burnt + bricks were made by the Babylonians more than 6000 years ago, and that + they were extensively used in the time of Sargon of Akkad (<i>c.</i> 3800 + <span class="scac">B.C.</span>). The site of the ancient city of Babylon + is still marked by huge mounds of bricks, the ruins of its great walls, + towers and palaces, although it has been the custom for centuries to + carry away from these heaps the bricks required for the building of the + modern towns in the surrounding country. The Babylonians and Assyrians + attained to a high degree of proficiency in brickmaking, notably in the + manufacture of bricks having a coating of coloured glaze or enamel, which + they largely used for wall decoration. The Chinese claim great antiquity + for their clay industries, but it is not improbable that the knowledge of + brickmaking travelled eastwards from Babylonia across the whole of Asia. + It is believed that the art of making glazed bricks, so highly developed + afterwards by the Chinese, found its way across Asia from the west, + through Persia and northern India, to China. The great wall of China was + constructed partly of brick, both burnt and unburnt; but this was built + at a comparatively late period (<i>c.</i> 210 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>), and there is nothing to show that the Chinese + had any knowledge of burnt bricks when the art flourished in + Babylonia.</p> + + <p>Brickmaking formed the chief occupation of the Israelites during their + bondage in Egypt, but in this case the bricks were probably sun-dried + only, and not burnt. These bricks were made of a mixture of clay and + chopped straw or reeds, worked into a stiff paste with water. The clay + was the river mud from the banks of the Nile, and as this had not + sufficient cohesion in itself, the chopped straw (or reeds) was added as + a binding material. The addition of such substances increases the + plasticity of wet clay, especially if the mixture is allowed to stand for + some days before use; so that the action of the chopped straw was + twofold; a fact possibly known to the Egyptians. These sun-dried bricks, + or "adobes," are still made, as of old, on the banks of the Nile by the + following method:—A shallow pit or bed is prepared, into which are + thrown the mud, chopped straw and water in suitable proportions, and the + whole mass is tramped on until it is thoroughly mixed and of the proper + consistence. This mixture is removed in lumps and shaped into bricks, in + moulds or by hand, the bricks being simply sun-dried.</p> + + <p>Pliny mentions that three kinds of bricks were made by the Greeks, but + there is no indication that they were used to any great extent, and + probably the walls of Athens on the side towards Mount Hymettus were the + most important brick-structures in ancient Greece. The Romans became + masters of the brickmaker's art, though they probably acquired much of + their knowledge in the East, during their occupation of Egypt and Greece. + In any case they revived and extended the manufacture of bricks about the + beginning of the Christian era; exercising great care in the selection + and preparation of their clay, and introducing the method of burning + bricks in kilns. They carried their knowledge and their methods + throughout western Europe, and there is abundant evidence that they made + bricks extensively in Germany and in Britain.</p> + + <p>Although brickmaking was thus introduced into Britain nearly 2000 + years ago, the art seems to have been lost when the Romans withdrew from + the country, and it is doubtful whether any burnt bricks were made in + England from that time until the 13th century. Such bricks as were used + during this long <!-- Page 518 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page518"></a>[v.04 p.0518]</span>period were generally taken from + the remains of Roman buildings, as at Colchester and St Albans Abbey. One + of the earliest existing brick buildings, erected after the revival of + brickmaking in England, is Little Wenham Hall, in Suffolk, built about + <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 1210; but it was not until the 15th + century that bricks came into general use again, and then only for + important edifices. During the reign of Henry VIII. brickmaking was + brought to great perfection, probably by workmen brought from Flanders, + and the older portions of St James's Palace and Hampton Court Palace + remain to testify to the skill then attained. In the 16th century bricks + were increasingly used, but down to the Great Fire of London, in 1666, + the smaller buildings, shops and dwelling-houses, were constructed of + timber framework filled in with lath and plaster. In the rebuilding of + London after the fire, bricks were largely used, and from the end of the + 17th century to the present day they have been almost exclusively used in + all ordinary buildings throughout the country, except in those districts + where building stone is plentiful and good brick-clay is not readily + procurable. The bricks made in England before 1625 were of many sizes, + there being no recognized standard; but in that year the sizes were + regulated by statute, and the present standard size was adopted, viz. 9 x + 4½ x 3 in. In 1784 a tax was levied on bricks, which was not repealed + until 1850. The tax averaged about 4s. 7d. per thousand on ordinary + bricks, and special bricks were still more heavily taxed.</p> + + <p>The first brick buildings in America were erected on Manhattan Island + in the year 1633 by a governor of the Dutch West India Company. These + bricks were made in Holland, where the industry had long reached great + excellence; and for many years bricks were imported into America from + Holland and from England. In America burnt bricks were first made at New + Haven about 1650, and the manufacture slowly spread through the New + England states; but for many years the home-made article was inferior to + that imported from Europe.</p> + + <p>The Dutch and the Germans were the great brickmakers of Europe during + the middle ages, although the Italians, from the 14th to the 15th + century, revived and developed the art of decorative brick-work or + terra-cotta, and discovered the method of applying coloured enamels to + these materials. Under the Della Robbias, in the 15th century, some of + the finest work of this class that the world has seen was executed, but + it can scarcely be included under brickwork.</p> + + <p><i>Brick Clays</i>.—All clays are the result of the denudation + and decomposition of felspathic and siliceous rocks, and consist of the + fine insoluble particles which have been carried in suspension in water + and deposited in geologic basins according to their specific gravity and + degree of fineness (see <span class="sc">Clay</span>). These deposits + have been formed in all geologic epochs from the "Recent" to the + "Cambrian," and they vary in hardness from the soft and plastic + "alluvial" clays to the hard and rock-like shales and slates of the older + formations. The alluvial and drift clays (which were alone used for + brickmaking until modern times) are found near the surface, are readily + worked and require little preparation, whereas the older sedimentary + deposits are often difficult to work and necessitate the use of heavy + machinery. These older shales, or rocky clays, may be brought into + plastic condition by long weathering (<i>i.e.</i> by exposure to rain, + frost and sun) or by crushing and grinding in water, and they then + resemble ordinary alluvial clays in every respect.</p> + + <p>The clays or earths from which burnt bricks are made may be divided + into two principal types, according to chemical composition: (1) Clays or + shales containing only a small percentage of carbonate of lime and + consisting chiefly of hydrated aluminium silicates (the "true clay + substance") with more or less sand, undecomposed grains of felspar, and + oxide or carbonate of iron; these clays usually burn to a buff, salmon or + red colour; (2) Clays containing a considerable percentage of carbonate + of lime in addition to the substances above mentioned. These latter clay + deposits are known as "marls,"<a name="FnAnchor_051" + href="#Footnote_051"><sup>[1]</sup></a> and may contain as much as 40% of + chalk. They burn to a sulphur-yellow colour which is quite + distinctive.</p> + + <p>Brick clays of class (1) are very widely distributed, and have a more + extensive geological range than the marls, which are found in connexion + with chalk or limestone formations only. These ordinary brick clays vary + considerably in composition, and many clays, as they are found in nature, + are unsuitable for brickmaking without the addition of some other kind of + clay or sand. The strongest brick clays, <i>i.e.</i> those possessing the + greatest plasticity and tensile strength, are usually those which contain + the highest percentage of the hydrated aluminium silicates, although the + exact relation of plasticity to chemical composition has not yet been + determined. This statement cannot be applied indiscriminately to all + clays, but may be taken as fairly applicable to clays of one general type + (see <span class="sc">Clay</span>). All clays contain more or less free + silica in the form of sand, and usually a small percentage of + undecomposed felspar. The most important ingredient, after the + clay-substance and the sand, is oxide of iron; for the colour, and, to a + less extent, the hardness and durability of the burnt bricks depend on + its presence. The amount of oxide of iron in these clays varies from + about 2 to 10%, and the colour of the bricks varies accordingly from + light buff to chocolate; although the colour developed by a given + percentage of oxide of iron is influenced by the other substances present + and also by the method of firing. A clay containing from 5 to 8% of oxide + of iron will, under ordinary conditions of firing, produce a red brick; + but if the clay contains 3 to 4% of alkalis, or the brick is fired too + hard, the colour will be darker and more purple. The actions of the + alkalis and of increased temperature are probably closely related, for in + either case the clay is brought nearer to its fusion point, and + ferruginous clays generally become darker in colour as they approach to + fusion. Alumina acts in the opposite direction, an excess of this + compound tending to make the colour lighter and brighter. It is + impossible to give a typical composition for such clays, as the + percentages of the different constituents vary through such wide ranges. + The clay substance may vary from 15 to 80%, the free silica or sand from + 5 to 80%, the oxide of iron from 1 to 10%, the carbonates of lime and + magnesia together, from 1 to 5%, and the alkalis from 1 to 4%. Organic + matter is always present, and other impurities which frequently occur are + the sulphates of lime and magnesia, the chlorides and nitrates of soda + and potash, and iron-pyrites. The presence of organic matter gives the + wet clay a greater plasticity, probably because it forms a kind of + mucilage which adds a certain viscosity and adhesiveness to the natural + plasticity of the clay. In some of the coal-measure shales the amount of + organic matter is very considerable, and may render the clay useless for + brickmaking. The other impurities, all of which, except the pyrites, are + soluble in water, are undesirable, as they give rise to "scum," which + produces patchy colour and pitted faces on the bricks. The commonest + soluble impurity is calcium sulphate, which produces a whitish scum on + the face of the brick in drying, and as the scum becomes permanently + fixed in burning, such bricks are of little use except for common work. + This question of "scumming" is very important to the maker of high-class + facing and moulded bricks, and where a clay containing calcium sulphate + must be used, a certain percentage of barium carbonate is nowadays added + to the wet clay. By this means the calcium sulphate is converted into + calcium carbonate which is insoluble in water, so that it remains + distributed throughout the mass of the brick instead of being deposited + on the surface. The presence of magnesium salts is also very + objectionable, as these generally remain in the burnt brick as magnesium + sulphate, which gives rise to an efflorescence of fine white crystals + after the bricks are built into position. Clays which are strong or + plastic are known as "fat" clays, and they always contain a high + percentage of true "clay substance," and, consequently, a low percentage + of sand. Such clays take up a considerable amount of water in + "tempering"; they dry slowly, shrink greatly, and so become liable to + lose their shape and develop cracks in drying and firing. "Fat" clays are + greatly improved by the addition of coarse sharp sand, <!-- Page 519 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page519"></a>[v.04 p.0519]</span>which + reduces the time of drying and the shrinkage, and makes the brick more + rigid during the firing. Coarse sand, unlike clay-substance, is + practically unaffected during the drying and firing, and is a desirable + if not a necessary ingredient of all brick clays. The best brick-clays + feel gritty between the fingers; they should, of course, be free from + pebbles, sufficiently plastic to be moulded into shape and strong enough + when dry to be safely handled. All clays are greatly improved by being + turned over and exposed to the weather, or by standing for some months in + a wet condition. This "weathering" and "ageing" of clay is particularly + important where bricks are made from tempered clay, <i>i.e.</i> clay in + the wet or plastic state; where bricks are made from shale, in the + semi-plastic condition, weathering is still of importance.</p> + + <p>The lime clays or "marls" of class (2), which contain essentially a + high percentage of chalk or limestone, are not so widely distributed as + the ordinary brick-clays, and in England the natural deposits of these + clays have been largely exhausted. A very fine chalk-clay, or "malm" as + it was locally called, was formerly obtained from the alluvium in the + vicinity of London; but the available supply of this has been used up, + and at the present time an artificial "malm" is prepared by mixing an + ordinary brick-clay with ground chalk. For the best London facing-bricks + the clay and chalk are mixed in water. The chalk is ground on + grinding-pans, and the clay is mixed with water and worked about until + the mixture has the consistence of cream. The mixture of these "pulps" is + run through a grating or coarse sieve on to a drying-kiln or "bed," where + it is allowed to stand until stiff enough to walk on. A layer of fine + ashes is then spread over the clay, and the mass is turned over and mixed + by spade, and tempered by the addition of water. In other districts, + where clays containing limestone are used, the marl is mixed with water + on a wash-pan and the resulting creamy fluid passed through coarse sieves + on to a drying-bed. If necessary, coarse sand is added to the clay in the + wash-pan, and such addition is often advisable because the washed clays + are generally very fine in grain. Another method of treating these marls, + when they are in the plastic condition, is to squeeze them by machinery + through iron gratings, which arrest and remove the pebbles. In other + cases the marl is passed through a grinding-mill having a solid bottom + and heavy iron rollers, by which means the limestone pebbles are crushed + sufficiently and mixed through the whole mass. The removal of limestone + pebbles from the clay is of great importance, as during the firing they + would be converted into quicklime, which has a tendency to shatter the + brick on exposure to the weather. As before stated, these marls (which + usually contain from 15 to 30% of calcium carbonate) burn to a yellow + colour which is quite distinctive, although in some cases, where the + percentage of limestone is very high, over 40%, the colour is grey or a + very pale buff. The action of lime in bleaching the ferric oxide and + producing a yellow instead of a red brick, has not been thoroughly + investigated, but it seems probable that some compound is produced, + between the lime and the oxide of iron, or between these two oxides and + the free silica, entirely different from that produced by oxide of iron + in the absence of lime. Such marls require a harder fire than the + ordinary brick-clays in order to bring about the reaction between the + lime and the other ingredients. Magnesia may replace lime to some extent + in such marls, but the firing temperature must be higher when magnesia is + present. Marls usually contract very little, if at all, in the burning, + and generally produce a strong, square brick of fine texture and good + colour. When under-fired, marl bricks are very liable to disintegrate + under the action of the weather, and great care must be exercised in + burning them at a sufficiently high temperature.</p> + + <p><i>Brickmaking</i>.—Bricks made of tempered clay may be made by + hand or by machine, and the machines may be worked by hand or by + mechanical power. Bricks made of semi-plastic clay (<i>i.e.</i> ground + clay or shale sufficiently damp to adhere under pressure) are generally + machine-made throughout. The method of making bricks by hand is the same, + with slight variation, the world over. The tempered clay is pressed by + hand into a wooden or metal mould or four-sided case (without top or + bottom) which is of the desired shape and size, allowance being made for + the shrinkage of the brick in drying and firing. The moulder stands at + the bench or table, dips the mould in water, or water and then sand, to + prevent the clay from sticking, takes a rudely shaped piece of clay from + an assistant, and dashes this into the mould which rests on the moulding + bench. He then presses the clay into the corners of the mould with his + fingers, scrapes off any surplus clay and levels the top by means of a + strip of wood called a "strike," and then turns the brick out of the + mould on to a board, to be carried away by another assistant to the + drying-ground. The mould may be placed on a special piece of wood, called + the stock-board, provided with an elevated tongue of wood in the centre, + which produces the hollow or "frog" in the bottom of the brick.</p> + + <p>Machine-made bricks may be divided into two kinds, plastic and + semi-plastic, although the same type of machine is often used for both + kinds.</p> + + <p>The machine-made plastic bricks are made of tempered clay, but + generally the tempering and working of the clay are effected by the use + of machinery, especially when the harder clays and shales are used. The + machines used in the preparation of such clays are grinding-mills and + pug-mills. The grinding-mills are either a series of rollers with + graduated spaces between, through which the clay or shale is passed, or + are of the ordinary "mortar pan" type, having a solid or perforated iron + bottom on which the clay or shale is crushed by heavy rollers. Shales are + sometimes passed through a grinding-mill before they are exposed to the + action of the weather, as the disintegration of the hard lumps of shale + greatly accelerates the "weathering." In the case of ordinary brick-clay, + in the plastic condition, grinding-mills are only used when pebbles more + than a quarter of an inch in diameter are present, as otherwise the clay + may be passed directly through the pug-mill, a process which may be + repeated if necessary. The pug-mill consists of a box or trough having a + feed hole at one end and a delivery hole or nose at the other end, and + provided with a central shaft which carries knives and cutters so + arranged that when the shaft revolves they cut and knead the clay, and at + the same time force it towards and through the delivery nose. The cross + section of this nose of the pug-mill is approximately the same as that of + the required brick (9 in. × 4½ in. plus contraction, for ordinary + bricks), so that the pug delivers a solid or continuous mass of clay from + which bricks may be made by merely making a series of square cuts at the + proper distances apart. In practice, the clay is pushed from the pug + along a smooth iron plate, which is provided with a wire cutting frame + having a number of tightly stretched wires placed at certain distances + apart, arranged so that they can be brought down upon, and through, the + clay, and so many bricks cut off at intervals. The frame is sometimes in + the form of a skeleton cylinder, the wires being arranged radially (or + the wires may be replaced by metal disks); but in all cases bricks thus + made are known as "wire-cuts." In order to obtain a better-shaped and + more compact brick, these wire-cuts may be placed under a brick press and + there squeezed into iron moulds under great pressure. These two processes + are now generally performed by one machine, consisting of pug-mill and + brick press combined. The pug delivers the clay, downwards, into the + mould; the proper amount of clay is cut off; and the mould is made to + travel into position under the ram of the press, which squeezes the clay + into a solid mass.</p> + + <p>There are many forms of brick press, a few for hand power, but the + most adapted for belt-driving; although in recent years hydraulic presses + have come more and more into use, especially in Germany and America. The + essential parts of a brick press are: (1) a box or frame in which the + clay is moulded; (2) a plunger or die carried on the end of a ram, which + gives the necessary pressure; (3) an arrangement for pushing the pressed + brick out of the moulding box. Such presses are generally made of iron + throughout, although other metals are used, occasionally, for the moulds + and dies. The greatest variations found in brick presses are in the means + adopted for actuating the ram; and many ingenious mechanical devices have + been applied to this end, each claiming some particular advantage over + its predecessors. In many recent presses, especially where semi-plastic + clay is used, the brick is pressed simultaneously from top and bottom, a + second ram, working upwards from beneath, giving the additional + pressure.</p> + + <p>Although the best bricks are still pressed from tempered or plastic + clay, there has recently been a great development in the manufacture of + semi-plastic or dust-made bricks, especially in those districts where + shales are used for brickmaking. These semi-plastic bricks are stamped + out of ground shale that has been sufficiently moistened with water to + enable it to bind together. The hard-clay, or shale, is crushed under + heavy rollers in an iron grinding-pan having a perforated bottom through + which the crushed clay passes, when sufficiently fine, into a small + compartment underneath. This clay powder is then delivered, by an + elevator, into a sieve or screen, which retains the coarser particles for + regrinding. Sets of rollers may also be used for crushing shales that are + only moderately hard, the ground material being sifted as before. The + material, as fed <!-- Page 520 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page520"></a>[v.04 p.0520]</span>into the mould of the press, is a + coarse, damp powder which becomes adhesive under pressure, producing a + so-called "semi-plastic" brick. The presses used are similar to those + employed for plastic clay, but they are generally more strongly and + heavily built, and are capable of applying a greater pressure.</p> + + <p>The semi-plastic method has many advantages where shales are used, + although the bricks are not as strong nor as perfect as the best + "plastic" bricks. The method, however, enables the brickmaker to make use + of certain kinds of clay-rock, or shale, that would be impracticable for + plastic bricks; and the weathering, tempering and "ageing" may be largely + or entirely dispensed with. The plant required is heavier and more + costly, but the brickyard becomes more compact, and the processes are + simpler than with the "plastic" method.</p> + + <p>The drying of bricks, which was formerly done in the open, is now, in + most cases, conducted in a special shed heated by flues along which the + heated gases from the kilns pass on their way to the chimney. It is + important that the atmosphere of the drying-shed should be fairly dry, to + which end suitable means of ventilation must be arranged (by fans or + otherwise). If the atmosphere is too moist the surface of the brick + remains damp for a considerable time, and the moisture from the interior + passes to the surface as water, carrying with it the soluble salts, which + are deposited on the surface as the water slowly evaporates. This deposit + produces the "scum" already referred to. When the drying is done in a dry + atmosphere the surface quickly dries and hardens, and the moisture from + the interior passes to the surface as vapour, the soluble salts being + left distributed through the whole mass, and consequently no "scum" is + produced. Plastic bricks take much longer to dry than semi-plastic; they + shrink more and have a greater tendency to warp or twist.</p> + + <p>The burning or firing of bricks is the most important factor in their + production; for their strength and durability depend very largely on the + character and degree of the firing to which they have been subjected. The + action of the heat brings about certain chemical decompositions and + re-combinations which entirely alter the physical character of the dry + clay. It is important, therefore, that the firing should be carefully + conducted and that it should be under proper control. For ordinary bricks + the firing atmosphere should be oxidizing, and the finishing temperature + should be adjusted to the nature of the clay, the object being to produce + a hard strong brick, of good shape, that will not be too porous and will + withstand the action of frost. The finishing temperature ranges from 900° + C. to 1250° C., the usual temperature being about 1050° C. for ordinary + bricks. As before mentioned, lime-clays require a higher firing + temperature (usually about 1150° C. to 1200° C.) in order to bring the + lime into chemical combination with the other substances present.</p> + + <p>It is evident that the best method of firing bricks is to place them + in permanent kilns, but although such kilns were used by the Romans some + 2000 years ago, the older method of firing in "clamps" is still employed + in the smaller brickfields, in every country where bricks are made. These + clamps are formed by arranging the unfired bricks in a series of rows or + walls, placed fairly closely together, so as to form a rectangular stack. + A certain number of channels, or firemouths, are formed in the bottom of + the clamp; and fine coal is spread in horizontal layers between the + bricks during the building up of the stack. Fires are kindled in the + fire-mouths, and the clamp is allowed to go on burning until the fuel is + consumed throughout. The clamp is then allowed to cool, after which it is + taken down, and the bricks sorted; those that are under-fired being built + up again in the next clamp for refiring. Sometimes the clamp takes the + form of a temporary kiln, the outside being built of burnt bricks which + are plastered over with clay, and the fire-mouths being larger and more + carefully formed. There are many other local modifications in the manner + of building up the clamps, all with the object of producing a large + percentage of well-fired bricks. Clamp-firing is slow, and also + uneconomical, because irregular and not sufficiently under control; and + it is now only employed where bricks are made on a small scale.</p> + + <p>Brick-kilns are of many forms, but they can all be grouped under two + main types—Intermittent kilns and Continuous kilns. The + intermittent kiln is usually circular in plan, being in the form of a + vertical cylinder with a domed top. It consists of a single + firing-chamber in which the unfired bricks are placed, and in the walls + of which are contrived a number of fire-mouths where wood or coal is + burned. In the older forms known as <i>up-draught</i> kilns, the products + of combustion pass from the fire-mouth, through flues, into the bottom of + the firing-chamber, and thence directly upwards and out at the top. The + modern plan is to introduce the products of combustion near the top, or + crown, of the kiln, and to draw them downwards through holes in the + bottom which lead to flues connected with an independent chimney. These + <i>down-draught</i> kilns have short chimneys or "bags" built round the + inside wall in connexion with the fire-mouths, which conduct the flames + to the upper part of the firing-chamber, where they are reverberated and + passed down through the bricks in obedience to the pull of the chimney. + The "bags" may be joined together, forming an inner circular wall + entirely round the firing-chamber, except at the doorway; and a number of + kilns may be built in a row or group having their bottom flues connected + with the same tall chimney. Down-draught kilns usually give a more + regular fire and a higher percentage of well-fired bricks; and they are + more economical in fuel consumption than up-draught kilns, while the hot + gases, as they pass from the kiln, may be utilized for drying purposes, + being conducted through flues under the floor of the drying-shed, on + their way to the chimney. The method of using one tall chimney to work a + group of down-draught kilns naturally led to the invention of the + "continuous" kiln, which is really made up of a number of separate kilns + or firing-chambers, built in series and connected up to the main flue of + the chimney in such a manner that the products of combustion from one + kiln may be made to pass through a number of other kilns before entering + the flue. The earliest form of continuous kiln was invented by Friedrich + Hoffman, and all kilns of this type are built on the Hoffman principle, + although there are a great number of modifications of the original + Hoffman construction. The great principle of "continuous" firing is the + utilization of the waste heat from one kiln or section of a kiln in + heating up another kiln or section, direct firing being applied only to + finish the burning. In practice a number of kilns or firing-chambers, + usually rectangular in plan, are built side by side in two parallel + lines, which are connected at the ends by other kilns so as to make a + complete circuit. The original form of the complete series was elliptical + in plan, but the tendency in recent years has been to flatten the sides + of the ellipse and bring them together, thus giving two parallel rows + joined at the ends by a chamber or passage at right angles. Coal or gas + is burnt in the chamber or section that is being fired-up, the air + necessary for the combustion being heated on its passage through the + kilns that are cooling down, and the products of combustion, before + entering the chimney flue, are drawn through a number of other kilns or + chambers containing unfired bricks, which are thus gradually heated up by + the otherwise waste-heat from the sections being fired. Continuous kilns + produce a more evenly fired product than the intermittent kilns usually + do, and, of course, at much less cost for fuel. Gas firing is now being + extensively applied to continuous kilns, natural gas in some instances + being used in the United States of America; and the methods of + construction and of firing are carried out with greater care and + intelligence, the prime objects being economy of fuel and perfect control + of firing. Pyrometers are coming into use for the control of the firing + temperature, with the result that a constant and trustworthy product is + turned put. The introduction of machinery greatly helped the brickmaking + industry in opening up new sources of supply of raw material in the + shales and hardened clays of the sedimentary deposits of the older + geologic formations, and, with the extended use of continuous firing + plants, it has led to the establishment of large concerns where + everything is co-ordinated for the production of enormous quantities of + bricks at a minimum cost. In the United Kingdom, and still more in + Germany and the United States of America, great improvements have been + made in machinery, firing-plant and organization, so that the whole + manufacture is now being conducted on more scientific lines, to the great + advantage of the industry.</p> + + <p><i>Blue Brick</i> is a very strong vitreous brick of dark, slaty-blue + colour, used in engineering works where great strength or impermeability + is desirable. These bricks are made of clay containing front 7 to 10% of + oxide of iron, and their manufacture is carried out in the ordinary way + until the later stages of the firing process, when they are subjected to + the strongly reducing action of a smoky atmosphere, which is produced by + throwing small bituminous coal upon the fire-mouths and damping down the + admission of air. The smoke thus produced reduces the red ferric oxide to + blue-green ferrous oxide, or to metallic iron, which combines with the + silica present to form a fusible ferrous silicate. This fusible "slag" + partly combines with the other silicates present, and partly fills up the + pores, and so produces a vitreous impermeable layer varying in thickness + according to the duration and character of the smoking, the finishing + temperature of the kiln and the texture of the brick. Particles of carbon + penetrate the surface during the early stages of the smoking, and a small + quantity of carbon probably enters into combination, tending to produce a + harder surface and darker colour.</p> + + <p><i>Floating Bricks</i> were first mentioned by Strabo, the Greek + geographer, and afterwards by Pliny as being made at Pitane in the Troad. + The secret of their manufacture was lost for many centuries, but was + rediscovered in 1791 by Fabroni, an Italian, who made them from the + fossil meal (diatomaceous earth) found in Tuscany. These bricks are very + light, fairly strong, and being poor conductors of heat, have been + employed for the construction of powder-magazines on board ship, + &c.</p> + + <p><i>Mortar Bricks</i> belong to the class of unburnt bricks, and are, + strictly speaking, blocks of artificial stone made in brick moulds. These + bricks have been made for many years by moulding a mixture of sand and + slaked lime and allowing the blocks thus made to harden in the air. This + hardening is brought about partly by evaporation of the water, but + chiefly by the conversion of the calcium hydrate, or slaked lime, into + calcium carbonate by the action of the carbonic acid in the atmosphere. A + small proportion of the lime enters into combination with the silica and + water present to form hydrated calcium silicate, and probably a little + hydrated basic carbonate of lime is also formed, both of which substances + are in the nature of cement. This process of natural hardening by + exposure to the air was a very long one, occupying from six to eighteen + months, and many improvements were introduced during the latter half of + the 19th century to improve the strength of the bricks and to hasten the + hardening. <!-- Page 521 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page521"></a>[v.04 p.0521]</span>Mixtures of sand, lime and cement + (and of certain ground blast-furnace slags and lime) were introduced; the + moulding was done under hydraulic presses and the bricks afterwards + treated with carbon dioxide under pressure, with or without the + application of mild heat. Some of these mixtures and methods are still in + use, but a new type of mortar brick has come into use during recent years + which has practically superseded the old mortar brick.</p> + + <p><i>Sand-lime Bricks</i>.—In the early 'eighties of the 19th + century, Dr Michaelis of Berlin patented a new process for hardening + blocks made of a mixture of sand and lime by treating them with + high-pressure steam for a few hours, and the so-called <i>sand-lime</i> + bricks are now made on a very extensive scale in many countries. There + are many differences of detail in the manufacture, but the general method + is in all cases the same. Dry sand is intimately mixed with about + one-tenth of its weight of powdered slaked lime, the mixture is then + slightly moistened with water and afterwards moulded into bricks under + powerful presses, capable of exerting a pressure of about 60 tons per sq. + in. After removal from the press the bricks are immediately placed in + huge steel cylinders usually 60 to 80 ft. long and about 7 ft. in + diameter, and are there subjected to the action of high-pressure steam + (120 lb to 150 lb per sq. in.) for from ten to fifteen hours. The + proportion of slaked lime to sand varies according to the nature of the + lime and the purity and character of the sand, one of lime to ten of sand + being a fair average. The following is an analysis of a typical German + sand-lime brick: silica (SiO<sub>2</sub>), 84%; lime (CaO), 7%; alumina + and oxide of iron, 2%; water, magnesia and alkalis, 7%. Under the action + of the high-pressure steam the lime attacks the particles of sand, and a + chemical compound of water, lime and silica is produced which forms a + strong bond between the larger particles of sand. This bond of hydrated + calcium silicate is evidently different from, and of better type than, + the filling of calcium carbonate produced in the mortar-brick, and the + sand-lime brick is consequently much stronger than the ordinary + mortar-brick, however the latter may be made. The sand-lime brick is + simple in manufacture, and with reasonable care is of constant quality. + It is usually of a light-grey colour, but may be stained by the addition + of suitable colouring oxides or pigments unaffected by lime and the + conditions of manufacture.</p> + + <p><i>Strength of Brick.</i>—The following figures indicate the + crushing load for bricks of various types in tons per sq. in.:—</p> + + +<table width="30%" class="nob" summary="Crushing load for bricks" title="Crushing load for bricks"> + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left; width:83%"> + <p>Common hand-made</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:center; width:4%"> + <p>from</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:center; width:4%"> + <p>0.4</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:center; width:4%"> + <p>to</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:center; width:4%"> + <p>0.9</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left"> + <p> " machine-made</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:center"> + <p>"</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.9</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:center"> + <p>"</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:center"> + <p>1.2</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left"> + <p>London stock</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:center"> + <p>"</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.7</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:center"> + <p>"</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:center"> + <p>1.3</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left"> + <p>Staffordshire blue</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:center"> + <p>"</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:center"> + <p>2.8</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:center"> + <p>"</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:center"> + <p>3.3</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sand-lime</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:center"> + <p>"</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:center"> + <p>2.9</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:center"> + <p>"</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:center"> + <p>3.4</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + + <p>See also <span class="sc">Brickwork</span>.</p> + + <p>(J. B.*; W. B.*)</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_051" href="#FnAnchor_051">[1]</a> The term "marl" + has been wrongly applied to many fire-clays. It should be restricted to + natural mixtures of clay and chalk such as those of the Paris and London + basins.</p> + +</div> + <p><b>BRICKFIELDER,</b> a term used in Australia for a hot scorching wind + blowing from the interior, where the sandy wastes, bare of vegetation in + summer, are intensely heated by the sun. This hot wind blows strongly, + often for several days at a time, defying all attempts to keep the dust + down, and parching all vegetation. It is in one sense a healthy wind, as, + being exceedingly dry and hot, it destroys many injurious germs of + disease. The northern brickfielder is almost invariably followed by a + strong "southerly buster," cloudy and cool from the ocean. The two winds + are due to the same cause, viz. a cyclonic system over the Australian + Bight. These systems frequently extend inland as a narrow V-shaped + depression (the apex northward), bringing the winds from the north on + their eastern sides and from the south on their western. Hence as the + narrow system passes eastward the wind suddenly changes from north to + south, and the thermometer has been known to fall fifteen degrees in + twenty minutes.</p> + + <p><b>BRICKWORK,</b> in building, the term applied to constructions made + of bricks. The tools and implements employed by the bricklayer + are:—the trowel for spreading the mortar; the plumb-rule to keep + the work perpendicular, or in the case of an inclined or battering wall, + to a regular batter, for the plumb-rule may be made to suit any required + inclination; the spirit-level to keep the work horizontal, often used in + conjunction with a straight-edge in order to test a greater length; and + the gauge-rod with the brick-courses marked on it. The quoins or angles + are first built up with the aid of the gauge-rod, and the intermediate + work is kept regular by means of the line and line pins fixed in the + joints. The raker, jointer, pointing rule and Frenchman are used in + pointing joints, the pointing staff being held on a small board called + the hawk. For roughly cutting bricks the large trowel is used; for neater + work such as facings, the bolster and club-hammer; the cold chisel is for + general cutting away, and for chases and holes. When bricks require to be + cut, the work is set out with the square, bevel and compasses. If the + brick to be shaped is a hard one it is placed on a V-shaped cutting + block, an incision made where desired with the tin saw, and after the + bolster and club-hammer have removed the portion of the brick, the + scutch, really a small axe, is used to hack off the rough parts. For + cutting soft bricks, such as rubbers and malms, a frame saw with a blade + of soft iron wire is used, and the face is brought to a true surface on + the rubbing stone, a slab of Yorkshire stone.</p> + + <p>In ordinary practice a scaffold is carried up with the walls and made + to rest on them. Having built up as high as he can reach from the ground, + the scaffolder erects a scaffold with standards, ledgers and putlogs to + carry the scaffold boards (see <span class="sc">Scaffold</span>, <span + class="sc">Scaffolding</span>). Bricks are carried to the scaffold on a + hod which holds twenty bricks, or they may be hoisted in baskets or boxes + by means of a pulley and fall, or may be raised in larger numbers by a + crane. The mortar is taken up in a hod or hoisted in pails and deposited + on ledged boards about 3 ft. square, placed on the scaffold at convenient + distances apart along the line of work. The bricks are piled on the + scaffold between the mortar boards, leaving a clear way against the wall + for the bricklayers to move along. The workman, beginning at the extreme + left of his section, or at a quoin, advances to the right, carefully + keeping to his line and frequently testing his work with the plumb-rule, + spirit-level and straight-edge, until he reaches another angle, or the + end of his section. The pointing is sometimes finished off as the work + proceeds, but in other cases the joints are left open until the + completion, when the work is pointed down, perhaps in a different mortar. + When the wall has reached a height from the scaffold beyond which the + workman cannot conveniently reach, the scaffolding is raised and the work + continued in this manner from the new level.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:40%;"> + <a href="images/brickwork_1.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/brickwork_1.png" + alt="Brickwork, Fig. 1." title="Brickwork, Fig. 1." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1. + </div> + <p>It is most important that the brickwork be kept perfectly plumb, and + that every course be perfectly horizontal or level, both longitudinally + and transversely. Strictest attention should be paid to the levelling of + the lowest course of footings of a wall, for any irregularity will + necessitate the inequality being made up with mortar in the courses + above, thus inducing a liability for the wall to settle unequally, and so + perpetuate the infirmity. To save the trouble of keeping the plumb-rule + and level constantly in his hands and yet ensure correct work, the + bricklayer, on clearing the footings of a wall, builds up six or eight + courses of bricks at the external angles (see fig. 1), which he carefully + plumbs and levels across. These form a gauge for the intervening work, a + line being tightly strained between and fixed with steel pins to each + angle at a level with the top of the next course to be laid, and with + this he makes his work range. If, however, the length between the quoins + be great, the line will of course sag, and it must, therefore, be + carefully supported at intervals to the proper level. Care must be taken + to keep the "perpends," or vertical joints, one immediately over the + other. Having been carried up three or four courses to a level with the + guidance of the line which is raised course by course, the work should be + proved with the level and plumb-rule, particularly with the latter at the + quoins and reveals, as well as over the face. A smart tap with the end of + the handle of the trowel will suffice to make a brick yield what little + it may be out of truth, while the work is green, and not injure it. The + work of an efficient craftsman, however, will need but little + adjustment.</p> + + <p>For every wall of more than one brick (9 in) thick, two men should be + employed at the same time, one on the outside and the <!-- Page 522 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page522"></a>[v.04 p.0522]</span>other + inside; one man cannot do justice from one side to even a 14-in. wall. + When the wall can be approached from one side only, the work is said to + be executed "overhand." In work circular on plan, besides the level and + plumb-rule, a gauge mould or template, or a ranging trammel—a rod + working on a pivot at the centre of the curve, and in length equalling + the radius—must be used for every course, as it is evident that the + line and pins cannot be applied to this in the manner just described.</p> + + <p>Bricks should not be merely <i>laid</i>, but each should be placed + frog upwards, and rubbed and pressed firmly down in such a manner as to + secure absolute adhesion, and force the mortar into joints. Every brick + should be well wetted before it is laid, especially in hot dry weather, + in order to wash off the dust from its surface, and to obtain more + complete adhesion, and prevent it from absorbing water from the mortar in + which it is bedded. The bricks are wetted either by the bricklayer + dipping them in water as he uses them, or by water being thrown or + sprinkled on them as they lie piled on the scaffold. In bricklaying with + quick-setting cements an ample use of water is of even more + importance.</p> + + <p>All the walls of a building that are to sustain the same floors and + the same roof, should be carried up simultaneously; in no circumstances + should more be done in one part than can be reached from the same + scaffold, until all the walls are brought up to the same height. Where it + is necessary for any reason to leave a portion of the wall at a certain + level while carrying up the adjoining work the latter should be racked + back, i.e. left in steps as shown in fig. 7, and not carried up + vertically with merely the toothing necessary for the bond.</p> + + <div class="figleft" style="width:22%;"> + <a href="images/brickwork_2.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/brickwork_2.png" + alt="Fig. 2.--Section of a Hollow Wall." title="Fig. 2.--Section of a Hollow Wall." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.—Section of a Hollow Wall. + </div> + <p>Buildings in exposed situations are frequently built with + cavity-walls, consisting of the inside or main walls with an outer skin + <span class="sidenote">Hollow walls.</span> usually half a brick thick, + separated from the former by a cavity of 2 or 3 in. (fig. 2). The two + walls are tied together at frequent intervals by iron or stoneware ties, + each having a bend or twist in the centre, which prevents the + transmission of water to the inner wall. All water, therefore, which + penetrates the outer wall drops to the base of the cavity, and trickles + out through gratings provided for the purpose a few inches above the + ground level. The base of the cavity should be taken down a course or two + below the level of the damp-proof course. The ties are placed about 3 ft. + apart horizontally, with 12 or 18 in. vertical intervals; they are about + 8 in. long and ¾ in. wide. It is considered preferable by some architects + and builders to place the thicker wall on the outside. This course, + however, allows the main wall to be attacked by the weather, whereas the + former method provides for its protection by a screen of brickwork. Where + door and window frames occur in hollow walls, it is of the utmost + importance that a proper lead or other flashing be built in, shaped so as + to throw off on each side, clear of the frames and main wall, the water + which may penetrate the outer shell. While building the wall it is very + essential to ensure that the cavity and ties be kept clean and free from + rubbish or mortar, and for this purpose a wisp of straw or a narrow + board, is laid on the ties where the bricklayer is working, to catch any + material that may be inadvertently dropped, this protection being raised + as the work proceeds. A hollow wall tends to keep the building dry + internally and the temperature equable, but it has the disadvantage of + harbouring vermin, unless care be taken to ensure their exclusion. The + top of the wall is usually sealed with brickwork to prevent vermin or + rubbish finding its way into the cavity. Air gratings should be + introduced here to allow of air circulating through the cavity; they also + facilitate drying out after rain.</p> + + <p>Hollow walls are not much used in London for two reasons, the first + being that, owing to the protection from the weather afforded by + surrounding buildings, one of the main reasons for their use is gone, and + the other that the expense is greatly increased, owing to the authorities + ignoring the outer shell and requiring the main wall to be of the full + thickness stipulated in schedule I. of London Building Act 1894. Many + English provincial authorities in determining the thickness of a + cavity-wall, take the outer portion into consideration.</p> + + <p>In London and the surrounding counties, brickwork is measured by the + <i>rod</i> of 16½ ft. square, 1½ bricks in thickness. A rod of brickwork + <span class="sidenote">Materials and labour.</span> gauged four courses + to a foot with bricks 8¾ in. long, 4¼ in. wide, and 2¾ in thick, and + joints ¼ in. in thickness, will require 4356 bricks, and the number will + vary as the bricks are above or below the average size, and as the joints + are made thinner or thicker. The quantity of mortar, also, will evidently + be affected by the latter consideration, but in London it is generally + reckoned at 50 cub. ft. for a ¼-in. joint, to 72 cub. ft. for a joint + ⅜ in. thick. To these figures must be added an allowance of about + 11 cub. ft. if the bricks are formed with frogs or hollows. Bricks weigh + about 7 lb each; they are bought and sold by the thousand, which quantity + weighs about 62 cwt. The weight of a rod of brickwork is 13½-15 tons, + work in cement mortar being heavier than that executed in lime. Seven + bricks are required to face a sq. ft.; 1 ft. of reduced + brickwork—1½ bricks thick—will require 16 bricks. The number + of bricks laid by a workman in a day of eight hours varies considerably + with the description of work, but on straight walling a man will lay an + average of 500 in a day.</p> + + <p>The absorbent properties of bricks vary considerably with the kind of + brick. The ordinary London stock of good quality should <span + class="sidenote">Varieties of bricks.</span> not have absorbed, after + twenty-four hours' soaking, more than one-fifth of its bulk. Inferior + bricks will absorb as much as a third. The Romans were great users of + bricks, both burnt and sun-dried. At the decline of the Roman empire, the + art of brickmaking fell into disuse, but after the lapse of some + centuries it was revived, and the ancient architecture of Italy shows + many fine examples of brick and terra-cotta work. The scarcity of stone + in the Netherlands led to the development of a brick architecture, and + fine examples of brickwork abound in the Low Countries. The Romans seem + to have introduced brickmaking into England, and specimens of the large + thin bricks, which they used chiefly as a bond for rubble masonry, may be + seen in the many remains of Roman buildings scattered about that country. + During the reigns of the early Tudor kings the art of brickmaking arrived + at great perfection, and some of the finest known specimens of ornamental + brickwork are to be found among the work of this period. The rebuilding + of London after the Great Fire of 1666 gave considerable impetus to + brickmaking, most of the new buildings being of brick, and a statute was + passed regulating the number of bricks in the thickness of the walls of + the several rates of dwelling-houses.</p> + + <p>The many names given to the different qualities of bricks in various + parts of Great Britain are most confusing, but the following are those + generally in use:—</p> + + <p><i>Stocks</i>, hard, sound, well-burnt bricks, used for all ordinary + purposes.</p> + + <p><i>Hard Stocks,</i> sound but over-burnt, used in footings to walls + and other positions where good appearance is not required.</p> + + <p><i>Shippers</i>, sound, hard-burnt bricks of imperfect shape. Obtain + their name from being much used as ballast for ships.</p> + + <p><i>Rubbers</i> or <i>Cutters</i>, sandy in composition and suitable + for cutting with a wire saw and rubbing to shape on the stone slab.</p> + + <p><i>Grizzles</i>, sound and of fair shape, but under-burnt; used for + inferior work, and in cases where they are not liable to be heavily + loaded.</p> + + <p><i>Place-bricks</i>, under-burnt and defective; used for temporary + work.</p> + + <p><i>Chuffs</i>, cracked and defective in shape and badly burnt. <!-- + Page 523 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page523"></a>[v.04 + p.0523]</span><i>Burrs</i>, lumps which have vitrified or run together in + the burning; used for rough walling, garden work, &c.</p> + + <p><i>Pressed bricks</i>, moulded under hydraulic pressure, and much used + for facing work. They usually have a deep frog or hollow on one or both + horizontal faces, which reduces the weight of the brick and forms an + excellent key for the mortar.</p> + + <p><i>Blue bricks</i>, chiefly made in South Staffordshire and North + Wales. They are used in engineering work, and where great compressional + resistance is needed, as they are vitrified throughout, hard, heavy, + impervious and very durable. Blue bricks of special shape may be had for + paving, channelling and coping.</p> + + <p><i>Fire-bricks</i>, withstanding great heat, used in connexion with + furnaces. They should always be laid with fire-clay in place of lime or + cement mortar.</p> + + <p><i>Glazed bricks</i>, either salt-glazed or enamelled. The former, + brown in colour, are glazed by throwing salt on the bricks in the kiln. + The latter are dipped into a slip of the required colour before being + burnt, and are used for decorative and sanitary purposes, and where + reflected light is required.</p> + + <p><i>Moulded bricks</i>, for cornices, string courses, plinths, labels + and copings. They are made in the different classes to many patterns; and + on account of their greater durability, and the saving of the labour of + cutting, are preferable in many cases to rubbers. For sewer work and + arches, bricks shaped as voussoirs are supplied.</p> + + <p>The strength of brickwork varies very considerably according to the + kind of brick used, the position in which it is used, the kind and <span + class="sidenote">Strength of brickwork.</span> quality of the lime or + cement mortar, and above all the quality of the workmanship. The results + of experiments with short walls carried out in 1896-1897 by the Royal + Institute of British Architects to determine the average loads per sq. + ft. at which crushing took place, may be briefly summarized as follows: + Stock brickwork in lime mortar crushed under a pressure of 18.63 tons per + sq. ft., and in cement mortar under 39.29 tons per sq. ft. Gault + brickwork in lime mortar crushed at 31.14 tons, and in cement mortar at + 51.34 tons. Fletton brickwork in lime crushed under a load of 30.68 tons, + in cement under 56.25 tons. Leicester red brickwork in lime mortar + crushed at 45.36 tons per sq. ft., in cement mortar at 83.36 tons. + Staffordshire blue brick work in lime mortar crushed at 114.34 tons, and + in cement mortar at 135.43 tons.</p> + + <p>The height of a brick pier should not exceed twelve times its least + width. The London Building Act in the first schedule prescribes that in + buildings not public, or of the warehouse class, in no storey shall any + external or party walls exceed in height sixteen times the thickness. In + buildings of the warehouse class, the height of these walls shall not + exceed fourteen times the thickness.</p> + + <p>In exposed situations it is necessary to strengthen the buildings by + increasing the thickness of walls and parapets, and to provide heavier + copings and flashings. Special precautions, too, must be observed in the + fixing of copings, chimney pots, ridges and hips. The greatest wind + pressure experienced in England may be taken at 56 lb on a sq. ft., but + this is only in the most exposed positions in the country or on a sea + front. Forty pounds is a sufficient allowance in most cases, and where + there is protection by surrounding trees or buildings 28 lb per sq. ft. + is all that needs to be provided against.</p> + + <p>In mixing mortar, particular attention must be paid to the sand with + which the lime or cement is mixed. The best sand is that <span + class="sidenote">Mortar.</span> obtained from the pit, being sharp and + angular. It is, however, liable to be mixed with clay or earth, which + must be washed away before the sand is used. Gravel found mixed with it + must be removed by screening or sifting. River sand is frequently used, + but is not so good as pit sand on account of the particles being rubbed + smooth by attrition. Sea sand is objectionable for two reasons; it cannot + be altogether freed from a saline taint, and if it is used the salt + attracts moisture and is liable to keep the brickwork permanently damp. + The particles, moreover, are generally rounded by attrition, caused by + the movement of the sea, which makes it less efficient for mortar than if + they retained their original angular forms. Blue or black mortar, often + used for pointing the joints of external brickwork on account of its + greater durability, is made by using foundry sand or smith's ashes + instead of ordinary sand. There are many other substitutes for the + ordinary sand. As an example, fine stone grit may be used with advantage. + Thoroughly burnt clay or ballast, old bricks, clinkers and cinders, + ground to a uniform size and screened from dust, also make excellent + substitutes.</p> + + <p>Fat limes (that is, limes which are pure, as opposed to "hydraulic" + limes which are burnt from limestone containing some clay) should not be + used for mortar; they are slow-setting, and there is a liability for some + of the mortar, where there is not a free access of air to assist the + setting, remaining soft for some considerable period, often months, thus + causing unequal settlement and possibly failure. Grey stone lime is + feebly hydraulic, and makes a good mortar for ordinary work. It, however, + decays under the influence of the weather, and it is, therefore, + advisable to point the external face of the work in blue ash or cement + mortar, in order to obtain greater durability. It should never be used in + foundation work, or where exposed to wet. Lias lime is hydraulic, that + is, it will set firm under water. It should be used in all good class + work, where Portland cement is not desired.</p> + + <p>Of the various cements used in building, it is necessary only to + mention three as being applicable to use for mortar. The first of these + is Portland cement, which has sprung into very general use, not only for + work where extra strength and durability are required, and for + underground work, but also in general building where a small extra cost + is not objected to. Ordinary lime mortar may have its strength + considerably enhanced by the addition of a small proportion of Portland + cement. Roman cement is rarely used for mortar, but is useful in some + cases on account of the rapidity with which it sets, usually becoming + hard about fifteen minutes after mixing. It is useful in tidal work and + embankments, and constructions under water. It has about one-third of the + strength of Portland cement, by which it is now almost entirely + supplanted. Selenitic cement or lime, invented by Major-General H. Y. D. + Scott (1822-1883), is lias lime, to which a small proportion of plaster + of Paris has been added with the object of suppressing the action of + slaking and inducing quicker setting. If carefully mixed in accordance + with the instructions issued by the manufacturers, it will take a much + larger proportion of sand than ordinary lime.</p> + + <p>Lime should be slaked before being made into mortar. The lime is + measured out, deposited in a heap on a wooden "bank" or platform, and + after being well watered is covered with the correct proportion of sand. + This retains the heat and moisture necessary to thorough slaking; the + time required for this operation depends on the variety of the lime, but + usually it is from a few hours to one and a half days. If the mixing is + to be done by hand the materials must be screened to remove any unslaked + lumps of lime. The occurrence of these may be prevented by grinding the + lime shortly before use. The mass should then be well "larried," + <i>i.e.</i> mixed together with the aid of a long-handled rake called the + "larry." Lime mortar should be tempered for at least two days, roughly + covered up with sacks or other material. Before being used it must be + again turned over and well mixed together. Portland and Roman cement + mortars must be mixed as required on account of their quick-setting + properties. In the case of Portland cement mortar, a quantity sufficient + only for the day's use should be "knocked up," but with Roman cement + fresh mixtures must be made several times a day, as near as possible to + the place of using. Cement mortars should never be worked up after + setting has taken place. Care should be taken to obtain the proper + consistency, which is a stiff paste. If the mortar be too thick, extra + labour is involved in its use, and much time wasted. If it be so thin as + to run easily from the trowel, a longer time is taken in setting, and the + wall is liable to settle; also there is danger that the lime or cement + will be killed by the excess of water, or at least have its binding power + affected. It is not advisable to carry out work when the temperature is + below freezing point, but in urgent cases bricklaying may be successfully + done by using unslaked lime mortar. The mortar must be prepared in small + quantities immediately before being used, so that binding action takes + place before it cools. When the wall is left at night time the top course + should be covered up to prevent the penetration of rain into the work, + which would then be destroyed by the action of frost. Bricks used during + frosty weather should be quite dry, and those that have been exposed to + rain or frost should never be employed. The question whether there is any + limit to bricklayers' work in frost is still an open one. Among the + members of the Norwegian Society of Engineers and Architects, at whose + meetings the subject has been frequently discussed, that limit is + variously estimated at between -6° to -8° Réaumur (18½° to 14° Fahr.) and + -12° to -15° Réaumur (5° above to 1¾° below zero Fahr.). It has been + proved by hydraulic tests that good bricklayers' work can be executed at + the latter minimum. The conviction is held that the variations in the + opinions held on this subject are attributable to the degree of care + bestowed on the preparation of the mortar. It is generally agreed, + however, that from a practical point of view, bricklaying should not be + carried on at temperatures lower than -8° to -10° Réaumur (14° to 9½° + Fahr.), for as the thermometer falls the expense of building is greatly + increased, owing to a larger proportion of lime being required.</p> + + <p>For grey lime mortar the usual proportion is one part of lime to two + or three parts of sand; lias lime mortar is mixed in similar proportions, + except for work below ground, when equal quantities of lime and sand + should be used. Portland cement mortar is usually in the proportions of + one to three, or five, of sand; good results are obtained with lime + mortar fortified with cement as follows:—one part slaked lime, one + part Portland cement, and seven parts sand. Roman cement mortar should + consist of one or one and a half parts of cement to one part of sand. + Selenitic lime mortar is usually in the proportions of one to four or + five, and must be mixed in a particular manner, the lime being first + ground in water in the mortar mill, and the sand gradually added. Blue or + black mortar contains equal parts of foundry ashes and lime; but is + improved by the addition of a proportion of cement. For setting + fire-bricks fire-clay is always used. Pargetting for rendering inside + chimney flues is made of one part of lime with three parts of cow dung + free from straw or litter. No efficient substitute has been found for + this mixture, which should be used fresh. A mortar that has found + approval for tall chimney shafts is composed by grinding in a mortar-mill + one part of blue lias lime with one part each of sand and foundry ashes. + In the external walls of the Albert Hall the mortar used was one part + Portland cement, one part grey Burham lime and six parts pit sand. The + lime was slaked twenty-four hours, and after being mixed <!-- Page 524 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page524"></a>[v.04 p.0524]</span>with + the sand for ten minutes the cement was added and the whole ground for + one minute; the stuff was prepared in quantities only sufficient for + immediate use. The by-laws dated 1891, made by the London County Council + under section 16 of the Metropolis Management and Building Acts Amendment + Act 1878, require the proportions of lime mortar to be one to three of + sand or grit, and for cement mortar one to four. Clean soft water only + should be used for the purpose of making mortar.</p> + + <p><i>Grout</i> is thin liquid mortar, and is legitimately used in gauged + arches and other work when fine joints are desired. In ordinary work it + is sometimes used every four or five courses to fill up any spaces that + may have been inadvertently left between the bricks. This at the best is + but doing with grout what should be done with mortar in the operation of + laying the bricks; and filling or flushing up every course with mortar + requires but little additional exertion and is far preferable. The use of + grout is, therefore, a sign of inefficient workmanship, and should not be + countenanced in good work. It is liable, moreover, to ooze out and stain + the face of the brickwork.</p> + + <p><i>Lime putty</i> is pure slaked lime. It is prepared or "run," as it + is termed, in a wooden tub or bin, and should be made as long a time as + possible before being used; at least three weeks should elapse between + preparation and use.</p> + + <div class="figleft" style="width:28%;"> + <a href="images/brickwork_3.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/brickwork_3.png" + alt="Fig. 3.--Forms of Joints." title="Fig. 3.--Forms of Joints." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.—Forms of Joints. + </div> + <p>The pointing of a wall, as previously mentioned, is done either with + the bricklaying or at the completion of the work. If the <span + class="sidenote">Pointing.</span> pointing is to be of the same mortar as + the rest of the work, it would probably greatly facilitate matters to + finish off the work at one operation with the bricklaying, but where, as + in many cases, the pointing is required to be executed in a more durable + mortar, this would be done as the scaffold is taken down at the + completion of the building, the joints being raked out by the bricklayer + to a depth of ½ or ¾ in. By the latter method the whole face of the work + is kept uniform in appearance. The different forms of joints in general + use are clearly shown in fig. 3. Flat or flush joints (A) are formed by + pressing the protruding mortar back flush with the face of the brickwork. + This joint is commonly used for walls intended to be coated with + distemper or limewhite. The flat joint jointed (two forms, B and C) is a + development of the flush joint. In order to increase the density and + thereby enhance the durability of the mortar, a semicircular groove is + formed along the centre, or one on each side of the joint, with an iron + jointer and straight-edge. Another form, rarely used, is the keyed joint + shown at D, the whole width of the joint in this case being treated with + the curved key. Struck or bevelled, or weathered, joints have the upper + portion pressed back with the trowel to form a sloping surface, which + throws off the wet. The lower edge is cut off with the trowel to a + straight edge. This joint is in very common use for new work. Ignorant + workmen frequently make the slope in the opposite direction (F), thus + forming a ledge on the brick; this catches the water, which on being + frozen rapidly causes the disintegration of the upper portion of the + brick and of the joint itself. With recessed jointing, not much used, a + deep shadow may be obtained. This form of joint, illustrated in G, is + open to very serious objections, for it encourages the soaking of the + brick with rain instead of throwing off the wet, as it seems the natural + function of good pointing, and this, besides causing undue dampness in + the wall, renders it liable to damage by frost. It also leaves the + arrises of the bricks unprotected and liable to be damaged, and from its + deep recessed form does not make for stability in the work. Gauged work + has very thin joints, as shown at H, formed by dipping the side of the + brick in white lime putty. The sketch I shows a joint raked out and + filled in with pointing mortar to form a flush joint, or it may be + finished in any of the preceding forms. Where the wall is to be plastered + the joints are either left open or raked out, or the superfluous mortar + may be left protruding as shown at J. By either method an excellent key + is obtained, to which the rendering firmly adheres. In tuck pointing (K) + the joints are raked out and stopped, i.e. filled in flush with mortar + coloured to match the brickwork. The face of the wall is then rubbed over + with a soft brick of the same colour, or the work may be coloured with + pigment. A narrow groove is then cut in the joints, and the mortar + allowed to set. White lime putty is next filled into the groove, being + pressed on with a jointing tool, leaving a white joint ⅛ to ¼ in. + wide, and with a projection of about 1/16 in. beyond the face of the + work. This method is not a good or a durable one, and should only be + adopted in old work when the edges of the bricks are broken or irregular. + In bastard tuck pointing (L), the ridge, instead of being in white lime + putty, is formed of the stopping mortar itself.</p> + + <p>Footings, as will be seen on reference to fig. 1, are the wide courses + of brickwork at the base or foot of a wall. They serve to spread <span + class="sidenote">Footings.</span> the pressure over a larger area of + ground, offsets 2¼ in. wide being made on each side of the wall until a + width equal to double the thickness of the wall is reached. Thus in a + wall 13½ in. (1½ bricks) thick, this bottom course would be 2 ft. 3 in. + (3 bricks) wide. It is preferable for greater strength to double the + lowest course. The foundation bed of concrete then spreading out an + additional 6 in. on each side brings the width of the surface bearing on + the ground to 3 ft. 3 in. The London Building Act requires the projection + of concrete on each side of the brickwork to be only 4 in., but a + projection of 6 in. is generally made to allow for easy working. Footings + should be built with hard bricks laid principally as headers; stretchers, + if necessary, should be placed in the middle of the wall.</p> + + <div class="figleft" style="width:43%;"> + <a href="images/brickwork_4.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/brickwork_4.png" + alt="Fig. 4.--Diagram of Bonding." title="Fig. 4.--Diagram of Bonding." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4.—Diagram of Bonding. + </div> + <p>Bond in brickwork is the arrangement by which the bricks of every + course cover the joints of those in the course below it, and so <span + class="sidenote">Bonding.</span> tend to make the whole mass or + combination of bricks act as much together, or as dependently one upon + another, as possible. The workmen should be strictly supervised as they + proceed with the work, for many failures are due to their ignorance or + carelessness in this particular. The object of bonding will be understood + by reference to fig. 4. Here it is evident from the arrangement of the + bricks that any weight placed on the topmost brick (<i>a</i>) is carried + down and borne alike in every course; in this way the weight on each + brick is distributed over an area increasing with every course. But this + forms a longitudinal bond only, which cannot extend its influence beyond + the width of the brick; and a wall of one brick and a half, or two + bricks, thick, built in this manner, would in effect consist of three or + four half brick thick walls acting independently of each other. If the + bricks were turned so as to show their short sides or ends in front + instead of their long ones, certainly a compact wall of a whole brick + thick, instead of half a brick, would be produced, and while the + thickness of the wall would be double, the longitudinal bond would be + shortened by one-half: a wall of any great thickness built in this manner + would necessarily be composed of so many independent one-brick walls. To + produce a transverse and yet preserve a true longitudinal bond, the + bricks are laid in a definite arrangement of stretchers and headers.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:25%;"> + <a href="images/brickwork_5.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/brickwork_5.png" + alt="Fig. 5.--English Bond." title="Fig. 5.--English Bond." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5.—English Bond. + + <p class="poem">In this and following illustration of bond in brickwork + the position of bricks in the second course is indicated by dotted + lines.</p> + </div> + <p>In "English bond" (fig. 5), rightly considered the most perfect in + use, the bricks are laid in alternate courses of headers and stretchers, + thus combining the advantages of the two previous modes of arrangement. A + reference to fig. 5 will show how the process of bonding is pursued in a + wall one and a half bricks in thickness, and how the quoins are formed. + In walls which are a multiple of a whole brick, the appearance of the + same course is similar on the elevations of the front and back faces, but + in walls where an odd half brick must be used to make up the thickness, + as is the case in the illustration, the appearance of the opposite sides + of a course is inverted. The example illustrates the principle of English + bond; thicker walls are constructed in the same manner by an extension of + the same methods. It will be observed that portions of a brick have to be + inserted near a vertical end or a quoin, in order to start the regular + bond. These portions equal a half header in width, and are called queen + closers; they are placed next to the first header. A three-quarter brick + is obviously as available for this purpose as a header and closer + combined, but the latter method is preferred because by the use of it + uniformity of appearance is preserved, and whole bricks are retained on + the returns. King closers are used at rebated openings formed in walls in + Flemish bond, and by reason of the greater width of the back or "tail," + add strength to the work. They are cut on the splay so that the front end + is half the width of a header and one side half the length of the brick. + An example of their use will be seen in fig. 15. In walls of almost all + thicknesses above 9 in., except in the <!-- Page 525 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page525"></a>[v.04 p.0525]</span>English bond, + to preserve the transverse and yet not destroy the longitudinal bond, it + is frequently necessary to use half bricks. It may be taken as a general + rule that a brick should never be cut if it can be worked in whole, for a + new joint is thereby created in a construction, the difficulty of which + consists in obviating the debility arising from the constant recurrence + of joints. Great insistence must be laid on this point, especially at the + junctions of walls, where the admission of closers already constitutes a + weakness which would only be increased by the use of other bats or + fragments of bricks.</p> + + <div class="figleft" style="width:32%;"> + <a href="images/brickwork_6.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/brickwork_6.png" + alt="Fig. 6.--Flemish Bond." title="Fig. 6.--Flemish Bond." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 6.—Flemish Bond. + </div> + <p>Another method of bonding brickwork, instead of placing the bricks in + alternate courses of headers and stretchers, places them alternately as + headers and stretchers in the same course, the appearance of the course + being the same on each face. This is called "Flemish bond." Closers are + necessary to this variety of bond. From fig. 6 it will be seen that, + owing to the comparative weakness of the transverse tie, and the numbers + of half bricks required to be used and the thereby increased number of + joints, this bond is not so perfect nor so strong as English. The + arrangements of the face joints, however, presenting in Flemish bond a + neater appearance than in English bond, it is generally selected for the + external walls of domestic and other buildings where good effect is + desirable. In buildings erected for manufacturing and similar purposes, + and in engineering works where the greatest degree of strength and + compactness is considered of the highest importance, English bond should + have the preference.</p> + + <p>A compromise is sometimes made between the two above-mentioned bonds. + For the sake of appearance the bricks are laid to form Flemish bond on + the face, while the backing is of English bond, the object being to + combine the best features of the two bonds. Undoubtedly the result is an + improvement on Flemish bond, obviating as it does the use of bats in the + interior of the wall. This method of bonding is termed "single Flemish + bond," and is shown in fig. 7.</p> + + <p>In stretching bond, which should only be used for walls half a brick + in thickness, all the bricks are laid as stretchers, a half brick being + used in alternate courses to start the bond. In work curved too sharply + on plan to admit of the use of stretchers, and for footings, projecting + mouldings and corbels, the bricks are all laid as headers, i.e. with + their ends to the front, and their length across the thickness of the + wall. This is termed "heading bond."</p> + + <div class="figleft" style="width:48%;"> + <a href="images/brickwork_7.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/brickwork_7.png" + alt="Fig. 7.--Single Flemish Bond." title="Fig. 7.--Single Flemish Bond." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 7.—Single Flemish Bond. + </div> + <p>In thick walls, three bricks thick and upwards, a saving of labour is + effected without loss of strength, by the adoption of "herring bone" or + "diagonal bond" in the interior of the wall, the outer faces of the wall + being built in English and Flemish bond. This mode should not be had + recourse to for walls of a less thickness than 27 in., even that being + almost too thin to admit of any great advantage from it.</p> + + <p>Hoop-iron, about 1½ in. wide and 1/16 in. thick, either galvanized or + well tarred and sanded to retard rusting, is used in order to obtain + additional longitudinal tie. The customary practice is to use one strip + of iron for each half-brick in thickness of the wall. Joints at the + angles, and where necessary in the length, are formed by bending the ends + of the strips so as to hook together. A patent stabbed iron now on the + market is perforated to provide a key for the mortar.</p> + + <p>A difficulty often arises in bonding when facing work with bricks of a + slightly different size from those used in "backing," as it is + technically termed. As it is, of course, necessary to keep all brickwork + in properly levelled courses, a difference has to be made in the + thickness of the mortar joints. Apart from the extra labour involved, + this obviously is detrimental to the stability of the wall, and is apt to + produce unequal settlement and cracking. Too much care cannot be taken to + obtain both facing and backing bricks of equal size.</p> + + <div class="figleft" style="width:28%;"> + <a href="images/brickwork_8.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/brickwork_8.png" + alt="Fig. 8.--Slate damp-proof course." title="Fig. 8.--Slate damp-proof course." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 8. + </div> + <p>Dishonest bricklayers do not hesitate, when using for the face of a + wall bricks of a quality superior to those used for the interior, to use + "snapped headers," that is cutting the heading bricks in halves, one + brick thus serving the purposes of two as regards outward appearance. + This is a most pernicious practice, unworthy of adoption by any craftsman + of repute, for a skin of brickwork 4½ in. thick is thus carried up with a + straight mortar joint behind it, the proper bonding with the back of the + wall by means of headers being destroyed.</p> + + <p>American building acts describe the kind of bond to be used for + ordinary walls, and the kind for faced walls. Tie courses also require an + extra thickness where walls are perforated with over 30% of flues.</p> + + <p>The importance for sanitary and other reasons of keeping walls dry is + admitted by all who have observed the deleterious action of damp upon a + building.</p> + + <p>Walls are liable to become damp, (1) by wet rising up the wall from + the earth; (2) by water soaking down from the top of the <span + class="sidenote">Prevention of damp.</span> wall; (3) by rain being + driven on to the face by wind. Dampness from the first cause may be + prevented by the introduction of damp-proof courses or the construction + of dry areas; from the second by means of a coping of stone, cement or + other non-porous material; and from the third by covering the exterior + with impervious materials or by the adoption of hollow walls.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:32%;"> + <a href="images/brickwork_9.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/brickwork_9.png" + alt="Fig. 9.--Asphalt damp-proof course." title="Fig. 9.--Asphalt damp-proof course." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 9. + </div> + <p>After the footings have been laid and the wall has been brought up to + not less than 6 in. above the finished surface of the ground, and + previous to fixing the plate carrying the ground floor, there should + always be introduced a course of some damp-proof material to prevent the + rise of moisture from the soil. There are several forms of damp-proof + course. A very usual one is a double layer of roofing slates laid in neat + Portland cement (fig. 8), the joints being well lapped. A course or two + of Staffordshire blue bricks in cement is excellent where heavy weights + have to be considered. Glazed stoneware perforated slabs about 2 in. + thick are specially made for use as damp-proof courses. Asphalt (fig. 9) + recently has come into great favour with architects; a layer ½ or ¾ in. + thick is a good protection against damp, and not likely to crack should a + settlement occur, but in hot weather it is liable to squeeze out at the + joints under heavy weights. Felt covered with bitumen is an excellent + substitute for asphalt, and is not liable to crack or squeeze out. Sheet + lead is efficient, but very costly and also somewhat liable to squeezing. + A damp-proof course has been introduced consisting of a thin sheet of + lead sandwiched between layers of asphalt. Basement storeys to be kept + dry require, besides the damp-proof course horizontally in the wall, a + horizontal course, usually of asphalt, in the thickness of the floor, and + also a vertical damp-proof course from a level below that of the floor to + about 6 in. above the level of the ground, either built in the thickness + of the wall or rendered on the outside between the wall and the + surrounding earth (fig. 10).</p> + + <p>By means of dry areas or air drains (figs. 11 and 12), a hollow <!-- + Page 526 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page526"></a>[v.04 + p.0526]</span>space 9 in. or more in width is formed around those + portions of the walls situated below the ground, the object being to + prevent them from coming into contact with the brickwork of the main + walls and so imparting its moisture to the building. Arrangements should + be made for keeping the area clear of vermin and for ventilating and + draining it. Dry areas, being far from sanitary, are seldom adopted now, + and are being superseded by asphalt or cement applied to the face of the + wall.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:32%;"> + <a href="images/brickwork_12.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/brickwork_12.png" + alt="Fig. 12.--Air drains." title="Fig. 12.--Air drains." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 12. + </div> + <div class="figright" style="width:29%;"> + <a href="images/brickwork_11.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/brickwork_11.png" + alt="Fig. 11.--Air drains." title="Fig. 11.--Air drains." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 11. + </div> + <div class="figright" style="width:28%;"> + <a href="images/brickwork_10.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/brickwork_10.png" + alt="Fig. 10.--Damp-proof courses for basements." title="Fig. 10.--Damp-proof courses for basements." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 10. + </div> + <p><br style="clear : both" /></p> + <p>Moisture is prevented from soaking down from the top of the wall by + using a covering of some impervious material in the form of a coping. + This may consist of ordinary bricks set on edge in cement with a double + course of tiles immediately below, called a "creasing," or of specially + made non-porous coping bricks, or of stone, cast-iron, or cement sloped + or "weathered" in order to throw the rain off.</p> + + <div class="figleft" style="width:38%;"> + <a href="images/brickwork_13.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/brickwork_13.png" + alt="Fig. 13.--Slates or tiles fixed on battens." title="Fig. 13.--Slates or tiles fixed on battens." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 13. + </div> + <p>The exterior of walls above the ground line may be protected by + coating the surface with cement or rough cast; or covering with slates or + tiles fixed on battens in a similar manner to those on a roof + (fig.13).</p> + + <p>The use of hollow walls in exposed positions has already been referred + to.</p> + + <p>The by-laws dated 1891, made by the London County Council under + section 16 of the Metropolis Management and Buildings Acts Amendment Act + 1878, require that "every wall of a house or building shall have a damp + course composed of materials impervious to moisture approved by the + district surveyor, extending throughout its whole thickness at the level + of not less than 6 in. below the level of the lowest floor. Every + external wall or enclosing wall of habitable rooms or their appurtenances + or cellars which abuts against the earth shall be protected by materials + impervious to moisture to the satisfaction of the district surveyor..." + "The top of every party-wall and parapet-wall shall be finished with one + course of hard, well-burnt bricks set on edge, in cement, or by a coping + of any other waterproof and fire-resisting material, properly + secured."</p> + + <p>Arches are constructions built of wedge-shaped blocks, which by reason + of their shape give support one to another, and to the <span + class="sidenote">Arches.</span> super-imposed weight, the resulting load + being transmitted through the blocks to the abutments upon which the ends + of the arch rest. An arch should be composed of such materials and + designed of such dimensions as to enable it to retain its proper shape + and resist the crushing strain imposed upon it. The abutments also must + be strong enough to take safely the thrust of the weighted arch, as the + slightest movement in these supports will cause deflection and failure. + The outward thrust of an arch decreases as it approaches the semicircular + form, but the somewhat prevalent idea that in the latter form no + thrusting takes place is at variance with fact.</p> + + <div class="figleft" style="width:36%;"> + <a href="images/brickwork_14.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/brickwork_14.png" + alt="Fig. 14.--The shape of a voussoir, showing the use of lacing courses." title="Fig. 14.--The shape of a voussoir, showing the use of lacing courses." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 14. + </div> + <p>Arches in brickwork may be classed under three heads: plain arches, + rough-cut and gauged. Plain arches are built of uncut bricks, and since + the difference between the outer and inner periphery of the arch requires + the parts of which an arch is made up to be wedge-formed, which an + ordinary brick is not, the difference must be made in mortar, with the + result that the joints become wedge-shaped. This obviously gives an + objectionable inconsistency of material in the arch, and for this reason + to obtain greatest strength it is advisable to build these arches in + independent rings of half-brick thickness. The undermost rings should + have thin joints, those of each succeeding ring being slightly thickened. + This prevents the lowest ring from settling while those above remain in + position, which would cause an ugly fissure. In work of large span + bonding blocks or "lacing courses" should be built into the arch, set in + cement and running through its thickness at intervals, care being taken + to introduce the lacing course at a place where the joints of the various + rings coincide. Stone blocks in the shape of a voussoir (fig. 14) may be + used instead. Except for these lacing courses hydraulic lime mortar + should be used for large arches, on account of its slightly accommodating + nature.</p> + + <p>Rough-cut arches are those in which the bricks are roughly cut with an + axe to a wedge form; they are used over openings, such as doors and + windows, where a strong arch of neat appearance is desired. The joints + are usually made equal in width to those of the ordinary brickwork. + Gauged arches are composed of specially made soft bricks, which are cut + and rubbed to gauges or templates so as to form perfectly fitting + voussoirs. Gauging is, of course, equally applicable to arches and + walling, as it means no more than bringing every brick exactly to a + certain form by cutting and rubbing. Gauged brickwork is set in lime + putty instead of common mortar; the finished joints should not be more + than 1/32 in. wide. To give stability the sides of the voussoirs are + gauged out hollow and grouted in Portland cement, thus connecting each + brick with the next by a joggle joint. Gauged arches, being for the most + part but a half-brick in thickness on the soffit and not being tied by a + bond to anything behind them—for behind them is the lintel with + rough discharging arch over, supporting the remaining width of the + wall—require to be executed with great care and nicety. It is a + common fault with workmen to rub the bricks thinner behind than before to + lessen the labour required to obtain a very fine face joint. This + practice tends to make the work bulge outwards; it should rather be + inverted if it be done at all, though the best work is that in which the + bricks are gauged to exactly the same thickness at the back as at the + front. The same fault occurs when a gauged arch is inserted in an old + wall, on account of the difficulty of filling up with cement the space + behind the bricks.</p> + + <p>The bond of an arch obtains its name from the arrangement of headers + and stretchers on its soffit. The under side of an arch built in English + bond, therefore, will show the same arrangement as the face of a wall + built in English bond. If the arch is in Flemish the soffit presents the + same appearance as the elevation of a wall built in that bond.</p> + + <p>It is generally held that the building of wood into brickwork <span + class="sidenote">Plates.</span> should as far as is possible be avoided. + Wall plates of wood are, however, necessary where wood joists are used, + and where these plates may not be supported on corbels of projecting + brickwork or iron they must be let flush into the wall, taking the place + of a course of bricks. They form a uniform bed for the joists, to which + easy fixing is obtained. The various modes adopted for resting and fixing + the ends of joists on walls are treated in the article <span + class="sc">Carpentry</span>.</p> + + <div class="figleft" style="width:50%;"> + <a href="images/brickwork_15.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/brickwork_15.png" + alt="Fig. 15.--Relieving arches." title="Fig. 15.--Relieving arches." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 15. + </div> + <p>Lintels, which may be of iron, steel, plain or reinforced concrete, or + stone, are used over square-headed openings instead of or in conjunction + with arches. They are useful to preserve the square form and receive the + joiners' fittings, but except when made of steel or of concrete + reinforced with steel bars, they should have relieving arches turned + immediately over them (Fig.15).</p> + + <p>"Fixing bricks" were formerly of wood of the same size as the ordinary + brick, and built into the wall as required for fixing joinery. Owing to + their liability to shrinkage and decay, their use is now practically + abandoned, their place being taken by bricks of coke-breeze concrete, + which do not shrink or rot and hold fast nails or screws driven into + them. Another method often adopted for <!-- Page 527 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page527"></a>[v.04 p.0527]</span>providing a + fixing for joinery is to build in wood slips the thickness of a joint and + 4½ in. wide. When suitable provision for fixing has not been made, wood + plugs are driven into the joints of the bricks. Great care must be taken + in driving these in the joints of reveals or at the corners of walls, or + damage may be done.</p> + + <p>The name "brick-ashlar" is given to walls faced with ashlar stonework + backed in with brickwork. Such constructions are liable in an aggravated + degree to the unequal settling and its attendant evils pointed out as + existing in walls built with different qualities of bricks. The outer + face is composed of unyielding stone with few and very thin joints, which + perhaps do not occupy more than a hundredth part of its height, while the + back is built up of bricks with about one-eighth its height composed of + mortar joints, that is, of a material that by its nature and manner of + application must both shrink in drying and yield to pressure. To obviate + this tendency to settle and thus cause the bulging of the face or failure + of the wall, the mortar used should be composed of Portland cement and + sand with a large proportion of the former, and worked as stiff as it + conveniently can be. In building such work the stones should be in height + equal to an exact number of brick courses. It is a common practice in + erecting buildings with a facing of Kentish rag rubble to back up the + stonework with bricks. Owing to the great irregularity of the stones, + great difficulty is experienced in obtaining proper bond between the two + materials. Through bonding stones or headers should be frequently built + in, and the whole of the work executed in cement mortar to ensure + stability.</p> + + <p>Not the least important part of the bricklayer's art is the formation + of chimney and other flues. Considerable skill is required in <span + class="sidenote">Chimneys and flues.</span> gathering-over properly above + the fireplace so as to conduct the smoke into the smaller flue, which + itself requires to be built with precision, so that its capacity may not + vary in different parts. Bends must be made in gradual curves so as to + offer the least possible resistance to the up-draught, and at least one + bend of not less than 60° should be formed in each flue to intercept + down-draughts. Every fireplace must have a separate flue. The collection + of a number of flues into a "stack" is economical, and tends to increase + the efficiency of the flues, the heat from one flue assisting the + up-draught in those adjoining it. It is also desirable from an aesthetic + point of view, for a number of single flue chimneys sticking up from + various parts of the roof would appear most unsightly. The architects of + the Elizabethan and later periods were masters of this difficult art of + treating a stack or stacks as an architectural feature. The shaft should + be carried well above the roof, higher, if possible, than adjacent + buildings, which are apt to cause down-draught and make the chimney + smoke. When this is found impossible, one of the many forms of patent + chimney-pots or revolving cowls must be adopted. Each flue must be + separated by smoke-proof "withes" or divisions, usually half a brick in + thickness; connexion between them causes smoky chimneys. The size of the + flue for an ordinary grate is 14×9 in.; for a kitchen stove 14×14 in. The + outer wall of a chimney stack may with advantage be made 9 in. thick. + Fireclay tubes, rectangular or circular in transverse section, are + largely used in place of the pargetting; although more expensive than the + latter they have the advantage in point of cleanliness and durability. + Fireplaces generally require more depth than can be provided in the + thickness of the wall, and therefore necessitate a projection to contain + the fireplace and flues, called the "chimney breast." Sometimes, + especially when the wall is an external one, the projection may be made + on the back, thus allowing a flush wall in the room and giving more space + and a more conveniently-shaped room. The projection on the outside face + of the wall may be treated as an ornamental feature. The fireplace + opening is covered by a brick relieving arch, which is fortified by + wrought-iron bar from ½ to ¾ in. thick and 2 to 3 in. wide. It is usually + bent to a "camber," and the brick arch built upon it naturally takes the + same curve. Each end is "caulked," that is, split longitudinally and + turned up and down. The interior of a chimney breast behind the stove + should always be filled in solid with concrete or brickwork. The flooring + in the chimney opening is called the "hearth"; the back hearth covers the + space between the jambs of the chimney breast, and the front hearth rests + upon the brick "trimmer arch" designed to support it. The hearth is now + often formed in solid concrete, supported on the brick wall and fillets + fixed to the floor joists, without any trimmer arch and finished in neat + cement or glazed tiles instead of stone slabs.</p> + + <p>Tall furnace chimneys should stand as separate constructions, + unconnected with other buildings. If it is necessary to bring other work + close up, a straight joint should be used. The shaft of the chimney will + be built "overhand," the men working from the inside. Lime mortar is + used, cement being too rigid to allow the chimney to rock in the wind. + Not more than 3 ft. in height should be erected in one day, the work of + necessity being done in small portions to allow the mortar to set before + it is required to sustain much weight. The bond usually adopted is one + course of headers to four of stretchers. Scaffolding is sometimes erected + outside for a height of 25 or 30 ft., to facilitate better pointing, + especially where the chimney is in a prominent position. The brickwork at + the top must, according to the London Building Act, be 9 in. thick (it is + better 14 in. in shafts over 100 ft. high), increasing half a brick in + thickness for every additional 20 ft. measured downwards. "The shaft + shall taper gradually from the base to the top at the rate of at least 2½ + in. in 10 ft. of height. The width of the base of the shaft if square + shall be at least one-tenth of the proposed height of the shaft, or if + round or any other shape, then one-twelfth of the height. Firebricks + built inside the lower portion of the shaft shall be provided, as + additional to and independent of the prescribed thickness of brickwork, + and shall not be bonded therewith." The firebrick lining should be + carried up from about 25 ft. for ordinary temperatures to double that + height for very great ones, a space of 1½ to 3 in. being kept between the + lining and the main wall. The lining itself is usually 4½ in. thick. The + cap is usually of cast iron or terra-cotta strengthened with iron bolts + and straps, and sometimes of stone, but the difficulty of properly fixing + this latter material causes it to be neglected in favour of one of the + former. (See a paper by F.J. Bancroft on "Chimney Construction," which + contains a tabulated description of nearly sixty shafts, <i>Proc. Civ. + and Mech. Eng. Soc.</i>, December 1883.)</p> + + <p>The work of laying bricks or tiles as paving falls to the lot of the + bricklayer. Paving formed of ordinary bricks laid flat or on their <span + class="sidenote">Brick paving.</span> edges was once in general use, but + is now almost abandoned in favour of floors of special tiles or cement + paving, the latter being practically non-porous and therefore more + sanitary and cleaner. Special bricks of extremely hard texture are made + for stable and similar paving, having grooves worked on the face to + assist drainage and afford good foothold. A bed of concrete 6 in. thick + is usually provided under paving, or when the bricks are placed on edge + the concrete for external paving may be omitted and the bricks bedded in + sand, the ground being previously well rammed. The side joints of the + bricks are grouted in with lime or cement. Dutch clinkers are small, hard + paving bricks burned at a high temperature and of a light yellow colour; + they are 6 in. long, 3 in. wide, 1½ in. thick. A variety of paving tile + called "oven tiles" is of similar material to the ordinary red brick, and + in size is 10 or 12 in. square and 1 to 2 in. thick. An immense variety + of ornamental paving and walling tiles is now manufactured of different + colours, sizes and shapes, and the use of these for lining sculleries, + lavatories, bathrooms, provision shops, &c., makes for cleanliness + and improved sanitary conditions. Besides, however, being put to these + uses, tiles are often used in the ornamentation of buildings, externally + as well as internally.</p> + + <p>Mosaic work is composed of small pieces of marble, stone, glass or + pottery, laid as paving or wall lining, usually in some ornamental + pattern or design. A firm bed of concrete is required, the pieces of <!-- + Page 528 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page528"></a>[v.04 + p.0528]</span>material being fixed in a float of cement about half or + three-quarters of an inch thick. Roman mosaic is formed with cubes of + marble of various colours pressed into the float. A less costly paving + may be obtained by strewing irregularly-shaped marble chips over the + floated surface: these are pressed into the cement with a plasterer's + hand float, and the whole is then rolled with an iron roller. This is + called "terazzo mosaic." In either the Roman or terazzo method any + patterns or designs that are introduced are first worked in position, the + ground-work being filled in afterwards. For the use of cement for paving + see <span class="sc">Plaster</span>.</p> + + <p>The principal publications on brickwork are as + follows:—Rivington, <i>Notes on Building Construction</i>, vols. i. + ii. iii.; Col. H.E. Seddon, <i>Aide Memoir</i>, vol. ii.; + <i>Specification</i>; J.P. Allen, <i>Building Construction</i>; F.E. + Kidder, <i>Building Construction and Superintendence</i>, part i. (1903); + Longmans & Green, <i>Building Construction</i>; E. Dobson, <i>Bricks + and Tiles</i>; Henry Adams, <i>Building Construction</i>; C.F. Mitchell, + <i>Building Construction</i>, vols. i. ii.; E. Street, <i>Brick and + Marble Architecture in Italy</i>.</p> + + <p>(<span class="sc">J. Bt.</span>)</p> + + <p><b>BRICOLE</b> (a French word of unknown origin), a military engine + for casting heavy stones; also a term in tennis for a sidestroke + rebounding off the wall of the court, corrupted into "brickwall" from a + supposed reference to the wall, and in billiards for a stroke off the + cushion to make a cannon or hazard.</p> + + <p><b>BRIDAINE</b> (or <span class="sc">Brydayne</span>), <b>JACQUES</b> + (1701-1767), French Roman Catholic preacher, was born at Chuslan in the + department of Gard on the 21st of March 1701. He was educated at Avignon, + first in the Jesuit college and afterwards at the Sulpician seminary of + St Charles. Soon after his ordination to the priesthood in 1725, he + joined the <i>Missions Royales</i>, organized to bring back to the + Catholíc faith the Protestants of France. He gained their good-will and + made many converts; and for over forty years he visited as a missionary + preacher almost every town of central and southern France. In Paris, in + 1744, his sermons created a deep impression by their eloquence and + sincerity. He died at Roquemaure, near Avignon, on the 22nd of December + 1767. He was the author of <i>Cantiques spirituels</i> (Montpelier, 1748, + frequently reprinted, in use in most French churches); his sermons were + published in 5 vols. at Avignon in 1823 (ed. Paris, 1861).</p> + + <p>See Abbé G. Carron, <i>Le Modèle des prêtres</i> (1803).</p> + + <p><b>BRIDE</b> (a common Teutonic word, e.g. Goth. <i>bruths</i>, O.Eng. + <i>bryd</i>, O.H.Ger. <i>prût</i>, Mod. Ger. <i>Braut</i>, Dut. + <i>bruid</i>, possibly derived from the root <i>bru-</i>, cook, brew; + from the med. latinized form <i>bruta</i>, in the sense of + daughter-in-law, is derived the Fr. <i>bru</i>), the term used of a woman + on her wedding-day, and applicable during the first year of wifehood. It + appears in combination with many words, some of them obsolete. Thus + "bridegroom" is the newly married man, and "bride-bell," "bride-banquet" + are old equivalents of wedding-bells, wedding-breakfast. "Bridal" (from + <i>Bride-ale</i>), originally the wedding-feast itself, has grown into a + general descriptive adjective, e.g. the <i>bridal</i> party, the + <i>bridal</i> ceremony. The <i>bride-cake</i> had its origin in the Roman + <i>confarreatio</i>, a form of marriage, the essential features of which + were the eating by the couple of a cake made of salt, water and flour, + and the holding by the bride of three wheat-ears, symbolical of plenty. + Under Tiberius the cake-eating fell into disuse, but the wheat ears + survived. In the middle ages they were either worn or carried by the + bride. Eventually it became the custom for the young girls to assemble + outside the church porch and throw grains of wheat over the bride, and + afterwards a scramble for the grains took place. In time the wheat-grains + came to be cooked into thin dry biscuits, which were broken over the + bride's head, as is the custom in Scotland to-day, an oatmeal cake being + used. In Elizabeth's reign these biscuits began to take the form of small + rectangular cakes made of eggs, milk, sugar, currants and spices. Every + wedding guest had one at least, and the whole collection were thrown at + the bride the instant she crossed the threshold. Those which lighted on + her head or shoulders were most prized by the scramblers. At last these + cakes became amalgamated into a large one which took on its full glories + of almond paste and ornaments during Charles II.'s time. But even to-day + in rural parishes, e.g. north Notts, wheat is thrown over the bridal + couple with the cry "Bread for life and pudding for ever," expressive of + a wish that the newly wed may be always affluent. The throwing of rice, a + very ancient custom but one later than the wheat, is symbolical of the + wish that the bridal may be fruitful. The <i>bride-cup</i> was the bowl + or loving-cup in which the bridegroom pledged the bride, and she him. The + custom of breaking this wine-cup, after the bridal couple had drained its + contents, is common to both the Jews and the members of the Greek Church. + The former dash it against the wall or on the ground, the latter tread it + under foot. The phrase "bride-cup" was also sometimes used of the bowl of + spiced wine prepared at night for the bridal couple. + <i>Bride-favours</i>, anciently called bride-lace, were at first pieces + of gold, silk or other lace, used to bind up the sprigs of rosemary + formerly worn at weddings. These took later the form of bunches of + ribbons, which were at last metamorphosed into rosettes. + <i>Bridegroom-men</i> and <i>bridesmaids</i> had formerly important + duties. The men were called bride-knights, and represented a survival of + the primitive days of marriage by capture, when a man called his friends + in to assist to "lift" the bride. Bridesmaids were usual in Saxon + England. The senior of them had personally to attend the bride for some + days before the wedding. The making of the bridal wreath, the decoration + of the tables for the wedding feast, the dressing of the bride, were + among her special tasks. In the same way the senior groomsman (the + <i>best man</i>) was the personal attendant of the husband. The + <i>bride-wain</i>, the wagon in which the bride was driven to her new + home, gave its name to the weddings of any poor deserving couple, who + drove a "wain" round the village, collecting small sums of money or + articles of furniture towards their housekeeping. These were called + bidding-weddings, or bid-ales, which were in the nature of "benefit" + feasts. So general is still the custom of "bidding-weddings" in Wales, + that printers usually keep the form of invitation in type. Sometimes as + many as six hundred couples will walk in the bridal procession. The + <i>bride's wreath</i> is a Christian substitute for the gilt coronet all + Jewish brides wore. The crowning of the bride is still observed by the + Russians, and the Calvinists of Holland and Switzerland. The wearing of + orange blossoms is said to have started with the Saracens, who regarded + them as emblems of fecundity. It was introduced into Europe by the + Crusaders. The <i>bride's veil</i> is the modern form of the + <i>flammeum</i> or large yellow veil which completely enveloped the Greek + and Roman brides during the ceremony. Such a covering is still in use + among the Jews and the Persians.</p> + + <p>See Brand, <i>Antiquities of Great Britain</i> (Hazlitt's ed., 1905); + Rev J. Edward Vaux, <i>Church Folklore</i> (1894).</p> + + <p><b>BRIDEWELL,</b> a district of London between Fleet Street and the + Thames, so called from the well of St Bride or St Bridget close by. From + William the Conqueror's time, a castle or Norman tower, long the + occasional residence of the kings of England, stood there by the Fleet + ditch. Henry VIII., Stow says, built there "a stately and beautiful + house," specially for the housing of the emperor Charles V. and his suite + in 1525. During the hearing of the divorce suit by the Cardinals at + Blackfriars, Henry and Catharine of Aragon lived there. In 1553 Edward + VI. made it over to the city as a penitentiary, a house of correction for + vagabonds and loose women; and it was formally taken possession of by the + lord mayor and corporation in 1555. The greater part of the building was + destroyed in the Great Fire of 1666. New Bridewell, built in 1829, was + pulled down in 1864. The term has become a synonym for any + reformatory.</p> + + <p><b>BRIDGE,</b> a game of cards, developed out of the game of whist. + The country of its origin is unknown. A similar game is said to have been + played in Denmark in the middle of the 19th century. A game in all + respects the same as bridge, except that in "no trumps" each trick + counted ten instead of twelve, was played in England about 1884 under the + name of Dutch whist. Some connect it with Turkey and Egypt under the name + of "Khedive," or with a Russian game called "Yeralash." It was in Turkey + that it first won a share of popular favour. Under the synonyms of + "Biritch," "Bridge," or "Russian whist," it found its way to the London + clubs about 1894, from which date its popularity rapidly increased.</p> + + <p><i>Ordinary Bridge.</i>—Bridge, in its ordinary form, differs + from <!-- Page 529 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page529"></a>[v.04 + p.0529]</span>whist in the following respects:—Although there are + four players, yet in each hand the partner of the dealer takes no part in + the play of that particular hand. After the first lead his cards are + placed on the table exposed, and are played by the dealer as at dummy + whist; nevertheless the dealer's partner is interested in the result of + the hand equally with the dealer. The trump suit is not determined by the + last card dealt, but is selected by the dealer or his partner without + consultation, the former having the first option. It is further open to + them to play without a trump suit. The value of tricks and honours varies + with the suit declared as trumps. Honours are reckoned differently from + whist, and on a scale which is somewhat involved. The score for honours + does not count towards winning or losing the rubber, but is added + afterwards to the trick score in order to determine the value of the + rubber. There are also scores for holding no trumps ("chicane"), and for + winning all the tricks or all but one ("slam").</p> + + <p>The score has to be kept on paper. It is usual for the scoring block + to have two vertical columns divided halfway by a horizontal line. The + left column is for the scorers' side, and the right for the opponents'. + Honours are scored above the horizontal line, and tricks below. The + drawback to this arrangement is that, since the scores for each hand are + not kept separately, it is generally impossible to trace an error in the + score without going through the whole series of hands. A better plan, it + seems, is to have four columns ruled, the inner two being assigned to + tricks, the outer ones to honours. By this method a line can be reserved + for each hand, and any discrepancy in the scores at once rectified.</p> + + <p>The Portland Club, London, drew up a code of laws in 1895, and this + code, with a few amendments, was in July 1895 adopted by a joint + committee of the Turf and Portland Clubs. A revised code came into force + in January 1905, the provisions of which are here summarized.</p> + + <p>Each trick above 6 counts 2 points in a spade declaration, 4 in a + club, 6 in a diamond, 8 in a heart, 12 in a no-trump declaration. The + game consists of 30 points made by tricks alone. When one side has won + two games the rubber is ended. The winners are entitled to add 100 points + to their score. Honours consist of ace, king, queen, knave, ten, in a + suit declaration. If a player and his partner conjointly hold 3 (or + "simple") honours they score twice the value of a trick; if 4 honours, 4 + times; if 5 honours, 5 times. If a player in his own hand hold 4 honours + he is entitled to score 4 honours in addition to the score for conjoint + honours; thus, if one player hold 4 honours and his partner the other + their total score is 9 by honours. Similarly if a player hold 5 honours + in his own hand he is entitled to score 10 by honours. If in a no-trump + hand the partners conjointly hold 3 aces, they score 30 for honours; if 4 + aces, 40 for honours. 4 aces in 1 hand count 100. On the same footing as + the score for honours are the following: <i>chicane</i>, if a player hold + no trump, in amount equal to simple honours; <i>grand slam</i>, if one + side win all the tricks, 40 points; <i>little slam</i>, if they win 12 + tricks, 20 points. At the end of the rubber the total scores, whether + made by tricks, honours, chicane, slam, or rubber points, are added + together, and the difference between the two totals is the number of + points won.</p> + + <p>At the opening of play, partners are arranged and the cards are + shuffled, cut and dealt (the last card not being turned) as at whist; but + the dealer cannot lose the deal by misdealing. After the deal is + completed, the dealer makes the trump or no-trump (<i>sans atout</i>) + declaration, or passes the choice to his partner without remark. If the + dealer's partner make the declaration out of his turn, the adversary on + the dealer's left may, without consultation, claim a fresh deal. If an + adversary make a declaration, the dealer may claim a fresh deal or + disregard the declaration. Then after the declaration, either adversary + may double, the leader having first option. The effect of doubling is + that each trick is worth twice as many points as before; but the scores + for honours, chicane and slam are unaltered. If a declaration is doubled, + the dealer and his partner have the right of redoubling, thus making each + trick worth four times as much as at first. The declarer has the first + option. The other side can again redouble, and so on; but the value of a + trick is limited to 100 points. In the play of the hand the laws are + nearly the same as the laws of whist, except that the dealer may expose + his cards and lead out of turn without penalty; after the second hand has + played, however, he can only correct this lead out of turn with the + permission of the adversaries. Dummy cannot revoke. The dealer's partner + may take no part in the play of the hand beyond guarding the dealer + against revoking.</p> + + <p><i>Advice to Players.</i>—In the choice of a suit two objects + are to be aimed at: first, to select the suit in which the combined + forces have the best chance of making tricks; secondly, to select the + trump so that the value of the suit agrees with the character of the + hand, <i>i.e.</i> a suit of high value when the hands are strong and of + low value when very weak. As the deal is a great advantage it generally + happens that a high value is to be aimed at, but occasionally a low value + is desirable. The task of selection should fall to the hand which has the + most distinctive features, that is, either the longest suit or unusual + strength or weakness. No consultation being allowed, the dealer must + assume only an average amount of variation from the normal in his + partner's hand. If his own hand has distinctive features beyond the + average, he should name the trump suit himself, otherwise pass it to his + partner. It may here be stated what is the average in these respects.</p> + + <p>As regards the length of a suit, a player's long suit is rather more + likely to be fewer than five than over five. If the dealer has in his + hand a suit of five cards including two honours, it is probable that he + has a better suit to make trumps than dummy; if the suit is in hearts, + and the dealer has a fair hand, he ought to name the trump. As regards + strength, the average hand would contain ace, king, queen, knave and ten, + or equivalent strength. Hands stronger or weaker than this by the value + of a king or less may be described as featureless. If the dealer's hand + is a king over the average, it is more likely than not that his partner + will either hold a stronger hand, or will hold such a weak hand as will + counteract the player's strength. The dealer would not generally with + such a hand declare no trump, especially as by making a no-trump + declaration the dealer forfeits the advantage of holding the long + trumps.</p> + + <p><i>Declarations by Dealer.</i>—In calculating the strength of a + hand a knave is worth two tens, a queen is worth two knaves, a king is + worth a queen and knave together, and an ace is worth a king and queen + together. A king unguarded is worth less than a queen guarded; a queen is + not fully guarded unless accompanied by three more cards; if guarded by + one small card it is worth a knave guarded. An ace also loses in value by + being sole.</p> + + <p>A hand to be strong enough for a no-trump declaration should be a king + and ten above the average with all the honours guarded and all the suits + protected. It must be a king and knave or two queens above the average if + there is protection in three suits. It must be an ace or a king and queen + above the average if only two suits are protected. An established black + suit of six or more cards with a guarded king as card of entry is good + enough for no trumps. With three aces no trumps can be declared. Without + an ace, four kings, two queens and a knave are required in order to + justify the declaration. When the dealer has a choice of declarations, a + sound heart make is to be preferred to a doubtful no-trump. Four honours + in hearts are to be preferred to any but a very strong no-trump + declaration; but four aces counting 100 points constitute a no-trump + declaration without exception.</p> + + <p>Six hearts should be made trumps and five with two honours unless the + hand is very weak; five hearts with one honour or four hearts with three + honours should be declared if the hand is nearly strong enough for no + trumps, also if the hand is very irregular with one suit missing or five + of a black suit. Six diamonds with one honour, five with three honours or + four all honours should be declared; weaker diamonds should be declared + if the suits are irregular, especially if blank in hearts. Six clubs with + three honours or five with four honours should be declared. Spades are + practically only declared with a weak hand; with only a king in the hand + a suit of five spades should be declared as a defensive measure. With + nothing above a ten a suit of two or three spades can be declared, though + even with the weakest hands a suit of five clubs or of six red cards will + probably prove less expensive.</p> + + <p><i>Declarations by Dummy.</i>—From the fact that the call has + been passed, the dealer's partner must credit the dealer with less than + average strength as regards the rank of his cards, and probably a + slightly increased number of black cards; he must therefore be more + backward in making a high declaration whenever he can make a sound + declaration of less value. On the other hand, he has not the option of + passing the declaration, and may be driven to declare on less strength + because the only alternative is a short suit of spades. For example, with + the hand: Hearts, ace, kv. 2; diamonds, qn. 9, 7, 6, 3; clubs, kg. 10, 4; + spades, 9, 2, the chances are in the dealer's favour with five trumps, + but decidedly against with only two, and the diamond declaration is to be + preferred to the spade. Still, a hand may be so weak that spades should + be declared with two or less, but five clubs or six diamonds would be + preferable with the weakest of hands.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 530 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page530"></a>[v.04 p.0530]</span></p> + + <p><i>Declarations to the Score.</i>—When one's score is over + twenty, club declarations should be made more frequently by the dealer. + Spades should be declared with six at the score of twenty-six and with + five at twenty-eight. When much behind in the score a risky no-trumper + such as one with an established suit of seven or eight cards without a + card of entry, may be declared.</p> + + <p>Declaring to the score is often overdone; an ordinary weak no-trump + declaration carries with it small chances of three by tricks unless dummy + holds a no-trump hand.</p> + + <p><i>Doubling.</i>—Practically the leader only doubles a no-trump + declaration when he holds what is probably an established suit of seven + cards or a suit which can be established with the loss of one trick and + he has good cards of re-entry. Seven cards of a suit including the ace, + king and queen make sound double without any other card of value in the + hand, or six cards including king, queen and knave with two aces in other + suits.</p> + + <p>Doubling by the third hand is universally understood to mean that the + player has a very strong suit which he can establish. In response to the + double his partner, according to different conventions, leads either a + heart or his own shortest suit as the one most likely to be the third + player's strongest. Under the short suit convention, if the doubler holds + six of a suit headed by the ace, king and queen, it is about an even + chance that his suit will be selected; he should not double with less + strength. Under the heart convention it is not necessary to have such + great strength; with a strong suit of six hearts and good cards of + re-entry, enough tricks will be saved to compensate for the doubled + value. A player should ascertain the convention followed before beginning + to play.</p> + + <p>Before doubling a suit declaration a player should feel almost certain + that he is as strong as the declarer. The minimum strength to justify the + declaration is generally five trumps, but it may have been made on six. + If, then, a player holds six trumps with an average hand as regards the + rank of his cards, or five trumps with a hand of no-trump strength, it is + highly probable that he is as strong as the declarer. It must be further + taken into account that the act of doubling gives much valuable + information to the dealer, who would otherwise play with the expectation + of finding the trumps evenly distributed; this is counterbalanced when + the doubler is on the left of the declaring hand by the intimation given + to his partner to lead trumps through the strong hand. In this position, + then, the player should double with the strength stated above. When on + the declarer's right, the player should hold much greater strength unless + his hand is free from tenaces. When a spade declaration has been made by + dummy, one trump less is necessary and the doubler need not be on the + declarer's left. A spade declaration by the dealer can be doubled with + even less strength. A declaration can be rather more freely doubled when + a single trick undoubled will take the dealer out, but even in this + position the player must be cautious of informing the dealer that there + is a strong hand against him.</p> + + <p><i>Redoubling.</i>—When a declaration has been doubled, the + declarer knows the minimum that he will find against him; he must be + prepared to find occasionally strength against him considerably exceeding + this minimum. Except in the case of a spade declaration, cases in which + redoubling is justifiable are very rare.</p> + + <p><i>The Play of the Hand.</i>—In a no-trump declaration the main + object is to bring in a long suit. In selecting the suit to establish, + the following are favourable conditions:—One hand should hold at + least five cards of the suit. The two hands, unless with a sequence of + high cards, should hold between them eight cards of the suit, so as to + render it probable that the suit will be established in three rounds. The + hand which contains the strong suit should be sufficiently strong in + cards of re-entry. The suit should not be so full of possible tenaces as + to make it disadvantageous to open it. As regards the play of the cards + in a suit, it is not the object to make tricks early, but to make all + possible tricks. Deep finesses should be made when there is no other way + of stealing a trick. Tricks may be given away, if by so doing a + favourable opening can be made for a finesse. When, however, it is + doubtful with which hand the finesse should be made, it is better to + leave it as late as possible, since the card to be finessed against may + fall, or an adversary may fail, thus disclosing the suit. It is in + general unsound to finesse against a card that must be unguarded. From a + hand short in cards of re-entry, winning cards should not be led out so + as to exhaust the suit from the partner's hand. Even a trick should + sometimes be given away. For instance, if one hand holds seven cards + headed by ace, king, and the other hand hold's only two of the suit, + although there is a fair chance of making seven tricks in the suit, it + would often be right to give the first trick to the adversaries. When one + of the adversaries has shown a long suit, it is frequently possible to + prevent its being brought in by a device, such as holding up a winning + card, until the suit is exhausted from his partner's hand, or playing in + other suits so as to give the player the lead whilst his partner his a + card of his suit to return, and to give the latter the lead when he has + no card to return. The dealer should give as little information as + possible as to what he holds in his own hand, playing frequent false + cards. Usually he should play the higher or highest of a sequence; still, + there are positions in which playing the higher gives more information + than the lower; a strict adherence to a rule in itself assists the + adversaries.</p> + + <p>With a suit declaration, if there is no chance of letting the weak + hand make a trump by ruffing, it will generally be the dealer's aim to + discard the losing cards in the declaring hand either to high cards or to + the cards of an established suit in the other hand, sometimes after the + adverse trumps have been taken out, but often before, there being no time + for drawing trumps. With no card of any value in a suit in one hand, the + lead should come from that hand, but it is better, if possible, to let + the adversaries open the suit. It is generally useless to lead a + moderately high card from the weaker hand in order to finesse it, when + holding no cards in sequence with it in either hand. Sometimes + (especially in no-trumps) it is the better play to make the weak hand + third player. For instance, with king, 8, 7, 5, 2 in one hand, knave, 4 + in the other, the best way of opening is from the hand that holds five + cards.</p> + + <p>In a no-trump declaration the opponents of the dealer should endeavour + to find the longest suit in the two hands, or the one most easily + established. With this object the leader should open his best suit. If + his partner next obtains the lead he ought to return the suit, unless he + himself has a suit which he considers better, having due regard to the + fact that the first suit is already partially established. The opponents + should employ the same tactics as the dealer to prevent the latter from + bringing in a long suit; they can use them with special effect when the + long suit is in the exposed hand.</p> + + <p>Against no-trumps the leader should not play his winning cards unless + he has a good chance of clearing the suit without help from his partner; + in most cases it is advisable to give away the first trick, especially if + he has no card of re-entry, in order that his partner on gaining the lead + may have a card of the suit to return; but holding ace, king and queen, + or ace, king with seven in the suit, or ace, king, knave, ten with six, + the player may lead out his best. With three honours any two of which are + in sequence (not to the ace) the player should lead the higher of the + sequence. He should lead his highest card from queen, knave, ten; from + queen, knave, nine; from knave, ten, nine; knave, ten, eight, and ten, + nine, eight. In other cases the player should lead a small card; + according to the usual convention, the fourth best. His partner, and also + the dealer, can credit him with three cards higher than the card led, and + can often place the cards of the suit: for instance, the seven is led, + dummy holds queen and eight, playing the queen, the third player holds + the nine and smaller cards; the unseen cards higher than the seven are + ace, king, knave and ten of which the leader must hold three; he cannot + hold both knave and ten or he would have led the knave; he must therefore + hold the ace, king and either knave or ten. The "eleven" rule is as + follows: the number of pips in the card led subtracted from eleven + (11-7=4 in the case stated) gives the number of cards higher than the one + led not in the leader's hand; the three cards seen (queen, nine and + eight) leave one for the dealer to hold. The mental process is no shorter + than assigning three out of the unseen cards to the leader, and by not + noting the unseen cards much valuable information may be missed, as in + the illustrative case given.</p> + + <p>With a suit declared the best opening lead is a singleton, failing + which a lead from a strong sequence. A lead from a tenace or a guarded + king or queen is to be avoided. Two small cards may be led from, though + the lead is objected to by some. A suit of three small cards of no great + strength should not be opened. In cases of doubt preference should be + given to hearts and to a less extent to diamonds.</p> + + <p>To lead up to dummy's weak suits is a valuable rule. The converse, to + lead through strength, must be used with caution, and does not apply to + no-trump declarations. It is not advisable to adopt any of the recent + whist methods of giving information. It is clear that, if the adversaries + signal, the dealer's hand alone is a secret, and he, in addition to his + natural advantage, has the further advantage of better information than + either of the adversaries. The following signals are however, used, and + are of great trick-making value: playing an unnecessarily high card, + whether to one's partner's suit or in discarding in a no-trump + declaration, indicates strength in the suit; in a suit declaration a + similar method of play indicates two only of the suit and a desire to + ruff,—it is best used in the case of a king led by one's + partner.</p> + + <p>The highest of a sequence led through dummy will frequently tell the + third player that he has a good finesse. The lowest of a sequence led + through the dealer will sometimes explain the position to the third + player, at the same time keeping the dealer in the dark.</p> + + <p>When on dummy's left it is futile to finesse against a card not in + dummy's hand. But with ace and knave, if dummy has either king or queen, + the knave should usually be played, partly because the other high card + may be in the leader's hand, partly because, if the finesse fails, the + player may still hold a tenace over dummy. When a player is with any + chance of success trying to establish his long suit, he should keep every + card of it if possible, whether it is a suit already opened or a suit + which he wishes his partner to lead; when, however, the main object of + the hand is to establish one's partner's suit, it is not necessary for a + player to keep his own long suit, and he should pay attention to guarding + the other suits. In some circles a discard from a suit is always + understood to indicate strength in the suit; this convention, while it + makes the game easier for inferior players, frequently causes the player + to throw away one of his most valuable cards.</p> + + <p><i>Playing to the Score.</i>—At the beginning of the hand the + chances are so great against any particular result, that at the score of + love-all the advantage of getting to any particular score has no + appreciable <!-- Page 531 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page531"></a>[v.04 p.0531]</span>effect in determining the choice + of suit. In the play of the hand, the advantage of getting to certain + points should be borne in mind. The principal points to be aimed at are + 6, 18, and, in a less degree, 22. The reason is that the scores 24, 12 + and 8, which will just take the dealer out from the respective points, + can each be made in a variety of ways, and are the most common for the + dealer to make. The 2 points that take the score from 4 to 6 are worth 4, + or perhaps 5, average points; and the 2 points that take the score from 6 + to 8 are worth 1 point. When approaching game it is an advantage to make + a declaration that may just take the player out, and, in a smaller + degree, one that will not exactly take the adversaries out. When the + score is 24 to 22 against the dealer, hearts and clubs are half a trick + better relatively to diamonds than at the score of love-all. In the first + and second games of the rubber the value of each point scored for honours + is probably about a half of a point scored for tricks—in a close + game rather less, in a one-sided game rather more. In the deciding game + of the rubber, on account of the importance of winning the game, the + value of each point scored for honours sinks to one-third of a point + scored for tricks.</p> + + <p><i>Other Forms of Bridge.</i>—The following varieties of the + game are also played:—</p> + + <p><i>Three-handed Bridge.</i>—The three players cut; the one that + cuts the lowest card deals, and takes dummy for one deal: each takes + dummy in turn. Dummy's cards are dealt face downwards, and the dealer + declares without seeing them. If the dealer declares trumps, both + adversaries may look at their hands; doubling and redoubling proceeds as + at ordinary bridge, but dummy's hand is not exposed till the first card + has been led. If the dealer passes the declaration to dummy, his + right-hand adversary, who must not have looked at his own hand, examines + dummy's, and declares trumps, not, however, exposing the hand. The + declaration is forced: with three or four aces <i>sans atout</i> (no + trumps) must be declared: in other cases the longest suit: if suits are + equal in length, the strongest, <i>i.e.</i> the suit containing most + pips, ace counting eleven, king, queen and knave counting ten each. If + suits are equal in both length and strength, the one in which the trick + has the higher value must be trumps. On the dummy's declaration the third + player can only double before seeing his own cards. When the first card + has been led, dummy's hand is exposed, never before the lead. The game is + 30: the player wins the rubber who is the first to win two games. Fifty + points are scored for each game won, and fifty more for the rubber. + Sometimes three games are played without reference to a rubber, fifty + points being scored for a game won. No tricks score towards game except + those which a player wins in his own deal; the value of tricks won in + other deals is scored above the line with honours, slam and chicane. At + the end of the rubber the totals are added up, and the points won or lost + are adjusted thus. Suppose A is credited with 212, B with 290, and C with + 312, then A owes 78 to B and 100 to C; B owes 22 to C.</p> + + <p><i>Dummy Bridge.</i>—The player who cuts the lowest card takes + dummy. Dummy deals the first hand of all. The player who takes dummy + always looks at his own hand first, when he deals for himself or for + dummy; he can either declare trumps or "leave it" to dummy. Dummy's + declaration is compulsory, as in three-handed bridge. When the dealer + deals for dummy, the player on the dealer's <i>left</i> must not look at + his cards till either the dealer has declared trumps or, the declaration + having been left to dummy, his own partner has led a card. The latter can + double, but his partner can only double without seeing his hand. The + dealer can only redouble on his own hand. When the player of dummy deals + for himself, the player on his <i>right</i> hand looks at dummy's hand if + the declaration is passed, the positions and restrictions of his partner + and himself being reversed. If the player of dummy declares from his own + hand, the game proceeds as in ordinary bridge, except that dummy's hand + is not looked at till permission to play has been given. When the player + on dummy's right deals, dummy's partner may look at dummy's hand to + decide if he will double, but he may not look at his own till a card has + been led by dummy. In another form of dummy bridge two hands are exposed + whenever dummy's adversaries deal, but the game is unsuited for many + players, as in every other hand the game is one of double-dummy.</p> + + <p><i>Misery Bridge.</i>—This is a form of bridge adapted for two + players. The non-dealer has the dummy, whilst the dealer is allowed to + strengthen his hand by discarding four or fewer cards and taking an equal + number from the fourth packet dealt; the rest of the cards in that packet + are unused and remain unseen. A novel and interesting addition to the + game is that the three of clubs (called "Cato") does not rank as a club + but can be played to any trick and win it. The dealer, in addition to his + other calls, may declare "misery" when he has to make less than two + tricks.</p> + + <p><i>Draw- or Two-handed Bridge.</i>—This is the best form of + bridge for two players. Each player has a dummy, which is placed opposite + to him; but the cards are so arranged that they cannot be seen by his + opponent, a special stand being required for the purpose. The dealer + makes the declaration or passes it to his dummy to make by the same rules + as in three-handed or dummy bridge. The objection to this is that, since + the opponent does not see the dealer's dummy, he has no chance of + checking an erroneous declaration. This could be avoided by not allowing + the dealer the option of passing.</p> + + <p><i>Auction Bridge.</i>—This variety of the game for four + players, which adds an element characteristic of poker, appears to have + been suggested about 1904, but was really introduced at the Bath Club, + London, in 1907, and then was gradually taken up by a wider circle. The + laws were settled in August 1908 by a joint committee of the Bath and + Portland clubs. The scoring (except as below), value of suits, and play + are as at ordinary bridge, but the variety consists in the method of + declaration, the declaration not being confined in auction bridge to the + dealer or his partner, and the deal being a disadvantage rather than + otherwise. The dealer, having examined his hand, <i>must</i> declare to + win at least one "odd" trick, and then each player in turn, beginning + with the one on the dealer's left, has the right to pass the previous + declaration, or double, or redouble, or overcall by making a declaration + of higher value any number of times till all are satisfied, the actual + play of the combined hands (or what in ordinary bridge would be dealer + and dummy) resting eventually with the partners making the final + declaration; the partner who made the first call (however small) in the + suit finally constituting the trump (or no-trump) plays the hands, the + other being dummy. A declaration of a greater number of tricks in a suit + of lower value, which equals a previous call in value of points + (<i>e.g.</i> two in spades as against one in clubs) is "of higher value"; + but doubling and redoubling only affect the score and not the + declaration, so that a call of two diamonds overcalls one no-trump even + though this has been doubled. The scoring in auction bridge has the + additional element that when the eventual player of the two hands wins + what was ultimately declared or more, his side score the full value below + the line (as tricks), but if he fails the opponents score 50 points above + the line (as honours) for each under-trick (<i>i.e.</i> trick short of + the declaration), or 100 or 200 if doubled or redoubled, nothing being + scored by either side below the line; the loss on a declaration of one + spade is limited, however, to a maximum of 100 points. A player whose + declaration has been doubled and who fulfils his contract, scores a bonus + of 50 points above the line and a further 50 points for each additional + trick beyond his declaration; if there was a redouble and he wins, he + scores double the bonus. The penalty for a revoke (unaffected by a + double) is (1) in the case of the declarer, that his adversaries add 150 + above the line; (2) in the case of one of his adversaries, that the + declarer may either add 150 points above the line or may take three + tricks from his opponents and add them to his own; in the latter case + such tricks may assist him to fulfil his contract, but shall not entitle + him to any bonus for a double or redouble. A revoking side may score + nothing either above or below the line except for honours or chicane. As + regards the essential feature of auction bridge, the competitive + declaration, it is impossible here to discuss the intricacies involved. + It entails, clearly, much reliance on a good partner, since the various + rounds of bidding enable good players to draw inferences as to where the + cards lie. The game opens the door to much larger scores than ordinary + bridge, and since the end only comes from scores made below the line, + there are obvious ways of prolonging it at the cost of scores above the + line which involve much more of the gambling element. It by no means + follows that the winner of the rubber is the winner by points, and many + players prefer to go for points (<i>i.e.</i> above the line) extorted + from their opponents rather than for fulfilling a declaration made by + themselves.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—"Hellespont," <i>Laws and + Principles of Bridge</i>; W. Dalton, <i>Saturday Bridge</i>, containing + full bibliography (London, 1906); J. B. Elwell, <i>Advanced Bridge</i>; + R. F. Foster, <i>Bridge Tactics</i>; "Badsworth," <i>Laws and Principles + of Bridge</i>; E. Bergholt, <i>Double-Dummy Bridge: Biritch, or Russian + Whist</i>, pamphlet in Brit. Mus.; W. Dalton, <i>Auction Bridge</i> + (1908).</p> + + <p>(W. H. W.*)</p> + + <p><b>BRIDGEBUILDING BROTHERHOOD</b>, a confraternity (<i>Fratres + Pontifices</i>) that arose in the south of France during the latter part + of the 12th century, and maintained hospices at the chief fords of the + principal rivers, besides building bridges and looking after ferries. The + brotherhood was recognized by Pope Clement III. in 1189.</p> + + <p><b>BRIDGE-HEAD</b> (Fr. <i>tête-du-pont</i>), in fortification, a work + designed to cover the passage of a river by means of fortifications <!-- + Page 532 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page532"></a>[v.04 + p.0532]</span>on one or both banks. As the process of moving an army over + bridges is slow and complicated, it is usually necessary to secure it + from hostile interruption, and the works constituting the bridge-head + must therefore be sufficiently far advanced to keep the enemy's artillery + out of range of the bridges. In addition, room is required for the troops + to form up on the farther bank. In former days, with short-range weapons, + a bridge-head was often little more than a screen for the bridge itself, + but modern conditions have rendered necessary far greater extension of + bridge defences.</p> + + <p><b>BRIDGEND</b>, a market town in the southern parliamentary division + of Glamorganshire, Wales, on both sides of the river Ogwr (whence its + Welsh name Penybont-ar-Ogwr). Pop. of urban district (1901) 6062. It has + a station 165 m. from London on the South Wales trunk line of the Great + Western railway, and is the junction of the Barry Company's railway to + Barry via Llantwit Major. Bridgend has a good market for agricultural + produce, and is an important centre owing to its being the natural outlet + for the mining valleys of the Llynvi, Garw and the two Ogwr rivers, which + converge about 3 m. north of the town and are connected with it by branch + lines of the Great Western railway. Though without large manufacturing + industries, the town has joinery works, a brass and iron foundry, a + tannery and brewery. There are brick-works and stone quarries, and much + lime is burnt in the neighbourhood. Just outside the town at Angelton and + Parc Gwyllt are the Glamorgan county lunatic asylums.</p> + + <p>There was no civil parish of Bridgend previous to 1905, when one was + formed out of portions of the parishes of Newcastle and Coity. Of the + castle of Newcastle, built on the edge of a cliff above the church of + that parish, there remain a courtyard with flanking towers and a fine + Norman gateway. At Coity, about 2 m. distant, there are more extensive + ruins of its castle, originally the seat of the Turbervilles, lords of + Coity, but now belonging to the earls of Dunraven. Coity church, dating + from the 14th century, is a fine cruciform building with central + embattled tower in Early Decorated style.</p> + + <p><b>BRIDGE OF ALLAN</b>, a police burgh of Stirlingshire, Scotland. + Pop. (1901) 3240. It lies on the Allan, a left-hand tributary of the + Forth, 3 m. N. of Stirling by the Caledonian railway and by tramway. + Built largely on the well-wooded slopes of Westerton and Airthrey Hill, + sheltered by the Ochils from the north and east winds, and environed by + charming scenery, it has a great reputation as a health resort and + watering-place, especially in winter and spring. There is a pump-room. + The chief buildings are the hydropathic and the Macfarlane museum of fine + art and natural history. The industries include bleaching, dyeing and + paper-making. The Strathallan Gathering, usually held in the + neighbourhood, is the most popular athletic meeting in mid-Scotland. + Airthrey Castle, standing in a fine park with a lake, adjoins the town on + the south-east, and just beyond it are the old church and burying-ground + of Logie, beautifully situated at the foot of a granite spur of the Ochil + range.</p> + + <p><b>BRIDGEPORT</b>, a city, a port of entry, and one of the + county-seats of Fairfield county, Connecticut, U.S.A., co-extensive with + the town of Bridgeport, in the S.W. part of the state, on Long Island + Sound, at the mouth of the Pequonnock river; about 18 m. S.W. of New + Haven. Pop. (1880) 27,643; (1890) 48,866; (1900) 70,996, of whom 22,281 + were foreign-born, including 5974 from Ireland, 3172 from Hungary, 2854 + from Germany, 2755 from England, and 1436 from Italy; (1910) 102,054. + Bridgeport is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway, + by lines of coast steamers, and by steamers to New York City and to Port + Jefferson, directly across Long Island Sound. The harbour, formed by the + estuary of the river and Yellow Mill Pond, an inlet, is excellent. + Between the estuary and the pond is a peninsula, East Bridgeport, in + which are some of the largest manufacturing establishments, and west of + the harbour and the river is the main portion of the city, the wholesale + section extending along the bank, the retail section farther back, and + numerous factories along the line of the railway far to the westward. + There are two large parks, Beardsley, in the extreme north part of the + city, and Seaside, west of the harbour entrance and along the Sound; in + the latter are statues of Elias Howe, who built a large sewing-machine + factory here in 1863, and of P.T. Barnum, the showman, who lived in + Bridgeport after 1846 and did much for the city, especially for East + Bridgeport. In Seaside Park there is also a soldiers' and sailors' + monument, and in the vicinity are many fine residences. The principal + buildings are the St Vincent's and Bridgeport hospitals, the Protestant + orphan asylum, the Barnum Institute, occupied by the Bridgeport + Scientific and Historical Society and the Bridgeport Medical Society; and + the United States government building, which contains the post-office and + the customs house.</p> + + <p>In 1905 Bridgeport was the principal manufacturing centre in + Connecticut, the capital invested in manufacturing being $49,381,348, and + the products being valued at $44,586,519. The largest industries were the + manufacture of corsets—the product of Bridgeport was 19.9% of the + total for the United States in 1905, Bridgeport being the leading city in + this industry—sewing machines (one of the factories of the Singer + Manufacturing Co. is here), steam-fitting and heating apparatus, + cartridges (the factory of the Union Metallic Cartridge Co. is here), + automobiles, brass goods, phonographs and gramophones, and typewriters. + There are also large foundry and machine shops. Here, too, are the winter + headquarters of "Barnum and Bailey's circus" and of "Buffalo Bill's Wild + West Show." Bridgeport is a port of entry; its imports in 1908 were + valued at $656,271. Bridgeport was originally a part of the township of + Stratford. The first settlement here was made in 1659. It was called + Pequonnock until 1695, when its name was changed to Stratfield. During + the War of Independence it was a centre of privateering. In 1800 the + borough of Bridgeport was chartered, and in 1821 the township was + incorporated. The city was not chartered until 1836.</p> + + <p>See S. Orcutt's <i>History of the Township of Stratford and the City + of Bridgeport</i> (New Haven, 1886).</p> + + <p><b>BRIDGES, ROBERT</b> (1844- ), English poet, born on the 23rd of + October 1844, was educated at Eton and at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, + and studied medicine in London at St Bartholomew's hospital. He was + afterwards assistant physician at the Children's hospital, Great Ormond + Street, and physician at the Great Northern hospital, retiring in 1882. + Two years later he married Mary, daughter of Alfred Waterhouse, R.A. As a + poet Robert Bridges stands rather apart from the current of modern + English verse, but his work has had great influence in a select circle, + by its restraint, purity, precision, and delicacy yet strength of + expression; and it embodies a distinct theory of prosody. His chief + critical works are <i>Milton's Prosody</i> (1893), a volume made up of + two earlier essays (1887 and 1889), and <i>John Keats, a Critical + Essay</i> (1895). He maintained that English prosody depended on the + number of "stresses" in a line, not on the number of syllables, and that + poetry should follow the rules of natural speech. His poetry was + privately printed in the first instance, and was slow in making its way + beyond a comparatively small circle of his admirers. His best work is to + be found in his <i>Shorter Poems</i> (1890), and a complete edition of + his <i>Poetical Works</i> (6 vols.) was published in 1898-1905. His chief + volumes are <i>Prometheus</i> (Oxford, 1883, privately printed), a "mask + in the Greek Manner"; <i>Eros and Psyche</i> (1885), a version of + Apuleius; <i>The Growth of Love</i>, a series of sixty-nine sonnets + printed for private circulation in 1876 and 1889; <i>Shorter Poems</i> + (1890); <i>Nero</i> (1885), a historical tragedy, the second part of + which appeared in 1894; <i>Achilles in Scyros</i> (1890), a drama; + <i>Palicio</i> (1890), a romantic drama in the Elizabethan manner; <i>The + Return of Ulysses</i> (1890), a drama in five acts; <i>The Christian + Captives</i> (1890), a tragedy on the same subject as Calderon's <i>El + Principe Constante</i>; <i>The Humours of the Court</i> (1893), a comedy + founded on the same dramatist's <i>El secreto á voces</i> and on Lope de + Vega's <i>El Perro del hortelano</i>; <i>The Feast of Bacchus</i> (1889), + partly translated from the <i>Heauton-Timoroumenos</i> of Terence; + <i>Hymns from the Yattendon Hymnal</i> (Oxford, 1899); and <i>Demeter, a + Mask</i> (Oxford, 1905).</p> + +<p><!-- Page 533 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page533"></a>[v.04 p.0533]</span></p> + + <p><b>BRIDGES.</b> 1. <i>Definitions and General + Considerations.</i>—Bridges (old forms, <i>brig</i>, <i>brygge</i>, + <i>brudge</i>; Dutch, <i>brug</i>; German, <i>Brücke</i>; a common + Teutonic word) are structures carrying roadways, waterways or railways + across streams, valleys or other roads or railways, leaving a passage way + below. Long bridges of several spans are often termed "viaducts," and + bridges carrying canals are termed "aqueducts," though this term is + sometimes used for waterways which have no bridge structure. A "culvert" + is a bridge of small span giving passage to drainage. In railway work an + "overbridge" is a bridge over the railway, and an "underbridge" is a + bridge carrying the railway. In all countries there are legal regulations + fixing the minimum span and height of such bridges and the width of + roadway to be provided. Ordinarily bridges are fixed bridges, but there + are also movable bridges with machinery for opening a clear and + unobstructed passage way for navigation. Most commonly these are "swing" + or "turning" bridges. "Floating" bridges are roadways carried on pontoons + moored in a stream.</p> + + <p>In classical and medieval times bridges were constructed of timber or + masonry, and later of brick or concrete. Then late in the 18th century + wrought iron began to be used, at first in combination with timber or + cast iron. Cast iron was about the same time used for arches, and some of + the early railway bridges were built with cast iron girders. Cast iron is + now only used for arched bridges of moderate span. Wrought iron was used + on a large scale in the suspension road bridges of the early part of the + 19th century. The great girder bridges over the Menai Strait and at + Saltash near Plymouth, erected in the middle of the 19th century, were + entirely of wrought iron, and subsequently wrought iron girder bridges + were extensively used on railways. Since the introduction of mild steel + of greater tenacity and toughness than wrought iron (<i>i.e.</i> from + 1880 onwards) it has wholly superseded the latter except for girders of + less than 100 ft. span. The latest change in the material of bridges has + been the introduction of ferro-concrete, armoured concrete, or concrete + strengthened with steel bars for arched bridges. The present article + relates chiefly to metallic bridges. It is only since metal has been used + that the great spans of 500 to 1800 ft. now accomplished have been made + possible.</p> + + <p>2. In a bridge there may be distinguished the <i>superstructure</i> + and the <i>substructure</i>. In the former the main supporting member or + members may be an arch ring or arched ribs, suspension chains or ropes, + or a pair of girders, beams or trusses. The bridge flooring rests on the + supporting members, and is of very various types according to the purpose + of the bridge. There is also in large bridges wind-bracing to stiffen the + structure against horizontal forces. The <i>substructure</i> consists of + (<i>a</i>) the piers and end piers or abutments, the former sustaining a + vertical load, and the latter having to resist, in addition, the oblique + thrust of an arch, the pull of a suspension chain, or the thrust of an + embankment; and (<i>b</i>) the foundations below the ground level, which + are often difficult and costly parts of the structure, because the + position of a bridge may be fixed by considerations which preclude the + selection of a site naturally adapted for carrying a heavy structure.</p> + + <p>3. <i>Types of Bridges</i>.—Bridges may be classed as <i>arched + bridges</i>, in which the principal members are in compression; + <i>suspension bridges</i>, in which the principal members are in tension; + and <i>girder bridges</i>, in which half the components of the principal + members are in compression and half in tension. But there are cases of + bridges of mixed type. The choice of the type to be adopted depends on + many and complex considerations:—(1) The cost, having regard to the + materials available. For moderate spans brick, masonry or concrete can be + used without excessive cost, but for longer spans steel is more + economical, and for very long spans its use is imperative. (2) The + importance of securing permanence and small cost of maintenance and + repairs has to be considered. Masonry and concrete are more durable than + metal, and metal than timber. (3) Aesthetic considerations sometimes have + great weight, especially in towns. Masonry bridges are preferable in + appearance to any others, and metal arch bridges are less objectionable + than most forms of girder.</p> + + <p>Most commonly the engineer has to attach great importance to the + question of cost, and to design his structure to secure the greatest + economy consistent with the provision of adequate strength. So long as + bridge building was an empirical art, great waste of material was + unavoidable. The development of the theory of structures has been largely + directed to determining the arrangements of material which are most + economical, especially in the superstructure. In the case of bridges of + large span the cost and difficulty of erection are serious, and in such + cases facility of erection becomes a governing consideration in the + choice of the type to be adopted. In many cases the span is fixed by + local conditions, such as the convenient sites for piers, or the + requirements of waterway or navigation. But here also the question of + economy must be taken into the reckoning. The cost of the superstructure + increases very much as the span increases, but the greater the cost of + the substructure, the larger the span which is economical. Broadly, the + least costly arrangement is that in which the cost of the superstructure + of a span is equal to that of a pier and foundation.</p> + + <p>For masonry, brick or concrete the arch subjected throughout to + compression is the most natural form. The arch ring can be treated as a + blockwork structure composed of rigid voussoirs. The stability of such + structures depends on the position of the line of pressure in relation to + the extrados and intrados of the arch ring. Generally the line of + pressure lies within the middle half of the depth of the arch ring. In + finding the line of pressure some principle such as the principle of + least action must be used in determining the reactions at the crown and + springings, and some assumptions must be made of not certain validity. + Hence to give a margin of safety to cover contingencies not calculable, + an excess of material must be provided. By the introduction of hinges the + position of the line of resistance can be fixed and the stress in the + arch ring determined with less uncertainty. In some recent masonry arched + bridges of spans up to 150 ft. built with hinges considerable economy has + been obtained.</p> + + <p>For an elastic arch of metal there is a more complete theory, but it + is difficult of application, and there remains some uncertainty unless + (as is now commonly done) hinges are introduced at the crown and + springings.</p> + + <p>In suspension bridges the principal members are in tension, and the + introduction of iron link chains about the end of the 18th century, and + later of wire ropes of still greater tenacity, permitted the construction + of road bridges of this type with spans at that time impossible with any + other system of construction. The suspension bridge dispenses with the + compression member required in girders and with a good deal of the + stiffening required in metal arches. On the other hand, suspension + bridges require lofty towers and massive anchorages. The defect of the + suspension bridge is its flexibility. It can be stiffened by girders and + bracing and is then of mixed type, when it loses much of its advantage in + economy. Nevertheless, the stiffened suspension bridge will probably be + the type adopted in future for very great spans. A bridge on this system + has been projected at New York of 3200 ft. span.</p> + + <p>The immense extension of railways since 1830 has involved the + construction of an enormous number of bridges, and most of these are + girder bridges, in which about half the superstructure is in tension and + half in compression. The use of wrought iron and later of mild steel has + made the construction of such bridges very convenient and economical. So + far as superstructure is concerned, more material must be used than for + an arch or chain, for the girder is in a sense a combination of arch and + chain. On the other hand, a girder imposes only a vertical load on its + piers and abutments, and not a horizontal thrust, as in the case of an + arch or suspension chain. It is also easier to erect.</p> + + <p>A fundamental difference in girder bridges arises from the mode of + support. In the simplest case the main girders are supported at the ends + only, and if there are several spans they are <i>discontinuous</i> or + <i>independent</i>. But a main girder may be supported at two or more + points so as to be <i>continuous</i> over two <!-- Page 534 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page534"></a>[v.04 p.0534]</span>or more spans. + The continuity permits economy of weight. In a three-span bridge the + theoretical advantage of continuity is about 49% for a dead load and 16% + for a live load. The objection to continuity is that very small + alterations of level of the supports due to settlement of the piers may + very greatly alter the distribution of stress, and render the bridge + unsafe. Hence many multiple-span bridges such as the Hawkesbury, Benares + and Chittravatti bridges have been built with independent spans.</p> + + <p>Lastly, some bridges are composed of cantilevers and suspended + girders. The main girder is then virtually a continuous girder hinged at + the points of contrary flexure, so that no ambiguity can arise as to the + stresses.</p> + + <div class="figleft" style="width:40%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_1.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_1.png" + alt="Fig. 1.--Trajan's Bridge." title="Fig. 1.--Trajan's Bridge." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig</span>. 1.—Trajan's Bridge. + </div> + <p>Whatever type of bridge is adopted, the engineer has to ascertain the + loads to be carried, and to proportion the parts so that the stresses due + to the loads do not exceed limits found by experience to be safe. In many + countries the limits of working stress in public and railway bridges are + prescribed by law. The development of theory has advanced <i>pari + passu</i> with the demand for bridges of greater strength and span and of + more complex design, and there is now little uncertainty in calculating + the stresses in any of the types of structure now adopted. In the modern + metal bridge every member has a definite function and is subjected to a + calculated straining action. Theory has been the guide in the development + of bridge design, and its trustworthiness is completely recognized. The + margin of uncertainty which must be met by empirical allowances on the + side of safety has been steadily diminished.</p> + + <p>The larger the bridge, the more important is economy of material, not + only because the total expenditure is more serious, but because as the + span increases the dead weight of the structure becomes a greater + fraction of the whole load to be supported. In fact, as the span + increases a point is reached at which the dead weight of the + superstructure becomes so large that a limit is imposed to any further + increase of span.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:100%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_2.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_2.png" + alt="Fig. 2.--Bridge of Alcantara." title="Fig. 2.--Bridge of Alcantara." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.—Bridge of Alcantara. + </div> +<h4><span class="sc">History of Bridge Building</span></h4> + + <div class="figright" style="width:40%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_3.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_3.png" + alt="Fig. 3.--Ponte Salario." title="Fig. 3.--Ponte Salario." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.—Ponte Salario. + </div> + <p>4. <i>Roman Bridges</i>.—The first bridge known to have been + constructed at Rome over the Tiber was the timber Pons Sublicius, the + bridge defended by Horatius. The Pons Milvius, now Ponte Molle, was + reconstructed in stone by M. Aemilius Scaurus in 109 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>, and some portions of the old bridge are + believed to exist in the present structure. The arches vary from 51 to 79 + ft. span. The Pons Fabricius (mod. Ponte dei Quattro Capi), of about 62 + <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, is practically intact; and the Pons + Cestius, built probably in 46 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, retains + much of the original masonry. The Pons Aelius, built by Hadrian <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 134 and repaired by Pope Nicholas II. and + Clement IX., is now the bridge of St Angelo. It had eight arches, the + greatest span being 62 ft.<a name="FnAnchor_061" + href="#Footnote_061"><sup>[1]</sup></a> Dio Cassius mentions a bridge, + possibly 3000 to 4000 ft. in length, built by Trajan over the Danube in + <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 104. Some piers are said still to exist. A + bas-relief on the Trajan column shows this bridge with masonry piers and + timber arches, but the representation is probably conventional (fig. 1). + Trajan also constructed the bridge of Alcantara in Spain (fig. 2), of a + total length of 670 ft., at 210 ft. above the stream. This had six arches + and was built of stone blocks without cement. The bridge of Narses, built + in the 6th century (fig. 3), carried the Via Salaria over the Anio. It + was destroyed in 1867, during the approach of Garibaldi to Rome. It had a + fortification such as became usual in later bridges for defence or for + the enforcement of tolls. The great lines of aqueducts built by Roman + engineers, and dating from 300 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> onwards, + where they are carried above ground, are arched bridge structures of + remarkable magnitude (see <span class="sc">Aqueducts</span>, § + <i>Roman</i>). They are generally of brick and concrete.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:40%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_4.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_4.png" + alt="Fig. 4.--First Span of Schaffhausen Bridge." title="Fig. 4.--First Span of Schaffhausen Bridge." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4.—First Span of Schaffhausen + Bridge. + </div> + <p>5. <i>Medieval and other Early Bridges</i>.—Bridges with stone + piers and timber superstructures were no doubt constructed from Roman + times onward, but they have perished. Fig. 4 shows a timber bridge + erected by the brothers Grubenmann at Schaffhausen about the middle of + the 18th century. It had spans of 172 and 193 ft., and may be taken as a + representative type of bridges of this kind. The Wittingen bridge by the + same engineers had a span of 390 ft., probably the longest timber <!-- + Page 535 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page535"></a>[v.04 + p.0535]</span>span ever constructed. Of stone bridges in Great Britain, + the earliest were the cyclopean bridges still existing on Dartmoor, + consisting of stone piers bridged by stone slabs. The bridge over the + East Dart near Tavistock had three piers, with slabs 15 ft. by 6 ft. + (Smiles, <i>Lives of the Engineers,</i> ii. 43). It is reputed to have + lasted for 2000 years.</p> + + <div class="figleft" style="width:50%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_5.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_5.png" + alt="Fig. 5.--Crowland Bridge." title="Fig. 5.--Crowland Bridge." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5.—Crowland Bridge. + </div> + <p>The curious bridge at Crowland near Peterborough (fig. 5) which now + spans roadways, the streams which formerly flowed under it having been + diverted, is one of the earliest known stone bridges in England. It is + referred to in a charter of the year 943. It was probably built by the + abbots. The first bridges over the Thames at London were no doubt of + timber. William of Malmesbury mentions the existence of a bridge in 994. + J. Stow (<i>Survey of the Cities of London and Westminster</i>) describes + the building of the first stone bridge commonly called Old London Bridge: + "About the year 1176, the stone bridge was begun to be founded by Peter + of Colechurch, near unto the bridge of timber, but more towards the + west." It carried timber houses (fig. 6) which were frequently burned + down, yet the main structure existed till the beginning of the 19th + century. The span of the arches ranged from 10 to 33 ft., and the total + waterway was only 337 ft. The waterway of the present London Bridge is + 690 ft., and the removal of the obstruction caused by the old bridge + caused a lowering of the low-water level by 5 ft., and a considerable + deepening of the river-bed. (See Smiles, <i>Lives of the Engineers</i>, + "Rennie.")</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_6.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_6.png" + alt="Fig. 6.--Old London Bridge, A.D. 1600." title="Fig. 6.--Old London Bridge, A.D. 1600." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 6.—Old London Bridge, <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 1600. From a Drawing in the Pepysian Library + Magdalene College, Cambridge. + + <p class="poem">From J. R Green's <i>A Short History of the English + People</i>, by permission of Macmillan & Co., Ltd.</p> + </div> + <p>The architects of the Renaissance showed great boldness in their + designs. A granite arch built in 1377 over the Adda at Trezzo had a span + at low water of 251 ft. This noble bridge was destroyed for military + reasons by Carmagnola in 1416. The Rialto bridge at Venice, with a span + of 91 ft., was built in 1588 by Antonio da Ponte. Fig. 7 shows the + beautiful Ponte dellà Trinità erected at Florence in 1566 from the design + of B. Ammanati.</p> + + <p>6. <i>Modern Bridges.</i>—(<i>a</i>) <i>Timber.</i>—In + England timber bridges of considerable span, either braced trusses or + laminated arches (<i>i.e.</i> arches of planks bolted together), were + built for some of the earlier railways, particularly the Great Western + and the Manchester, Sheffield & Lincolnshire. They have mostly been + replaced, decay having taken place at the joints. Timber bridges of large + span were constructed in America between the end of the 18th and the + middle of the 19th century. The Amoskeag bridge over the Merrimac at + Manchester, N.H., U.S.A., built in 1792, had 6 spans of 92 ft. The + Bellows Falls bridge over the Connecticut (built 1785-1792) had 2 spans + of 184 ft. The singular Colossus bridge, built in 1812 over the + Schuylkill, a kind of flat arched truss, had a span of 340 ft. Some of + these timber bridges are said to have lasted ninety years with ordinary + repairs, but they were road bridges not heavily loaded. From 1840, + trusses, chiefly of timber but with wrought-iron tension-rods and + cast-iron shoes, were adopted in America. The Howe truss of 1830 and the + Pratt truss of 1844 are examples. The Howe truss had timber chords and a + lattice of timber struts, with vertical iron ties. In the Pratt truss the + struts were vertical and the ties inclined. Down to 1850 such bridges + were generally limited to 150 ft. span. The timber was white pine. As + railway loads increased and greater spans were demanded, the Howe truss + was stiffened by timber arches on each side of each girder. Such a + composite structure is, however, fundamentally defective, the + distribution of loading to the two independent systems being + indeterminate. Remarkably high timber piers were built. The Genesee + viaduct, 800 ft. in length, built in 1851-1852 in 10 spans, had timber + trestle piers 190 ft. in height. (See Mosse, "American Timber Bridges," + <i>Proc. Inst. C.E.</i> xxii. p. 305, and for more modern examples, + cxlii. p. 409; and clv. p. 382; Cooper, "American Railroad Bridges," + <i>Trans. Am. Soc. C.E.</i> vol. xxi pp. 1-28.) These timber framed + structures served as models for the earlier metal trusses which began to + be used soon after 1850, and which, except in a few localities where iron + is costly, have quite superseded them.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:85%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_7.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_7.png" + alt="Fig. 7.--Ponte della Trinità, Florence." title="Fig. 7.--Ponte della Trinità, Florence." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 7.—Ponte della Trinità, Florence. + </div> + <p>7. (<i>b</i>) <i>Masonry.</i>—The present London Bridge, begun + in 1824 and completed in 1831, is as fine an example of a masonry arch + structure as can be found (figs. 8 and 9). The design was made by John + Rennie the elder, and the acting engineer was his son, Sir John Rennie. + The semi-elliptical shape of the arches the variation of span, the slight + curvature of the roadway, and the simple yet bold architectural details, + combine to make it a singularly beautiful bridge. The centre arch has a + span of 152 ft., and rises 29 ft. 6 in above Trinity high-water mark; the + arches on each side of the centre have a span of 140 ft. and the abutment + arches 130 ft. The total length of the bridge is 1005 ft., its width from + outside to outside 56 ft., and height above low <!-- Page 536 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page536"></a>[v.04 p.0536]</span>water 60 ft. + The two centre piers are 24 ft. thick, the exterior stones are granite, + the interior, half Bramley Fall and half from Painshaw, Derbyshire. The + voussoirs of the centre arch (all of granite) are 4 ft. 9 in. deep at the + crown, and increase to not less than 9 ft. at the springing. The general + depth at which the foundations are laid is about 29 ft. 6 in. below low + water. The total cost was £1,458,311, but the contractor's tender for the + bridge alone was £425,081.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_8.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_8.png" + alt="Fig. 8.--London New Bridge." title="Fig. 8.--London New Bridge." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 8.—London New Bridge. + </div> + <p>Since 1867 it had been recognized that London Bridge was inadequate to + carry the traffic passing over it, and a scheme for widening it was + adopted in 1900. This was carried out in 1902-1904, the footways being + carried on granite corbels, on which are mounted cornices and open + parapets. The width between parapets is now 65 ft., giving a roadway of + 35 ft. and two footways of 15 ft. each. The architect was Andrew Murray + and the engineer, G. E. W. Cruttwell. (Cole, <i>Proc. Inst. C.E.</i> + clxi. p. 290.)</p> + + <p>The largest masonry arch is the Adolphe bridge in Luxemburg, erected + in 1900-1903. This has a span of 278 ft., 138 ft. rise above the river, + and 102 ft. from foundation to crown. The thickness of the arch is 4 ft. + 8 in. at the crown and 7 ft. 2 in. where it joins the spandrel masonry. + The roadway is 52 ft. 6 in. wide. The bridge is not continuous in width, + there are arch rings on each face, each 16.4 ft. wide with a space + between of 19.7 ft. This space is filled with a flooring of reinforced + concrete, resting on the two arches, and carrying the central roadway. By + the method adopted the total masonry has been reduced one-third. One + centering was used for the two arch rings, supported on dwarf walls which + formed a slipway, along which it was moved after the first was built.</p> + + <div class="figleft" style="width:50%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_9.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_9.png" + alt="Fig. 9.--Half Elevation and Half Section of Arch of London Bridge." title="Fig. 9.--Half Elevation and Half Section of Arch of London Bridge." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 9.—Half Elevation and Half Section + of Arch of London Bridge. + </div> + <p>Till near the end of the 19th century bridges of masonry or brickwork + were so constructed that they had to be treated as rigid blockwork + structures. The stability of such structures depends on the position of + the line of pressure relatively to the intrados and extrados of the arch + ring. Generally, so far as could be ascertained, the line of pressure + lies within the middle half of the depth of the voussoirs. In finding the + abutment reactions some principle such as the principle of least action + must be used, and some assumptions of doubtful validity made. But if + hinges are introduced at crown and springings, the calculation of the + stresses in the arch ring becomes simple, as the line of pressures must + pass through the hinges. Such hinges have been used not only for metal + arches, but in a modified form for masonry and concrete arches. Three + cases therefore arise: (<i>a</i>) The arch is rigid at crown and + springings; (<i>b</i>) the arch is two-hinged (hinges at springings); + (<i>c</i>) the arch is three-hinged (hinges at crown and springings). For + an elementary account of the theory of arches, hinged or not, reference + may be made to a paper by H. M. Martin (<i>Proc. Inst. C. E.</i> vol. + xciii. p. 462); and for that of the elastic arch, to a paper by A.E.Young + (<i>Proc. Inst. C.E.</i> vol. cxxxi. p. 323).</p> + + <p>In Germany and America two- and three-hinged arches of masonry and + concrete have been built, up to 150 ft. span, with much economy, and the + calculations being simple, an engineer can venture to work closely to the + dimensions required by theory. For hinges, Leibbrand, of Stuttgart, uses + sheets of lead about 1 in. thick extending over the middle third of the + depth of the voussoir joints, the rest of the joints being left open. As + the lead is plastic this construction is virtually an articulation. If + the pressure on the lead is uniformly varying, the centre of pressure + must be within the middle third of the width of the lead; that is, it + cannot deviate from the centre of the voussoir joint by more than + one-eighteenth of its depth. In any case the position of the line of + pressures is confined at the lead articulations within very narrow + limits, and ambiguity as to the stresses is greatly diminished. The + restricted area on which the pressure acts at the lead joints involves + greater intensity of stress than has been usual in arched bridges. In the + Württemberg hinged arches a limit of stress of 110 tons per sq. ft. was + allowed, while in the unhinged arches at Cologne and Coblentz the limit + was 50 to 60 tons per sq. ft. (<i>Annales des Fonts et Chaussées</i>, + 1891). At Rechtenstein a bridge of two concrete arches has been + constructed, span 75½ ft., with lead articulations: width of arch 11 ft.; + depth of arch at crown and springing 2.1 and 2.96 ft. respectively. The + stresses were calculated to be 15, 17 and 12 tons per sq. ft. at crown, + joint of rupture, and springing respectively. At Cincinnati a concrete + arch of 70 ft. span has been built, with a rise of 10 ft. The concrete is + reinforced by eleven 9-in. steel-rolled joists, spaced 3 ft. apart and + supported by a cross-channel joist at each springing. The arch is 15 in. + thick at the crown and 4 ft. at the abutments. The concrete consisted of + 1 cement, 2 sand and 3 to 4 broken stone. An important series of + experiments on the strength of masonry, brick and concrete structures + will be found in the <i>Zeitschr. des österreichen Ing. und Arch. + Vereines</i> (1895).</p> + + <p>The thermal coefficient of expansion of steel and concrete is nearly + the same, otherwise changes of temperature would cause shearing stress at + the junction of the two materials. If the two materials are disposed + symmetrically, the amount of load carried by each would be in direct + proportion to the coefficient of elasticity and inversely as the moment + of inertia of the cross section. But it is usual in many cases to provide + a sufficient section of steel to carry all the tension. For concrete the + coefficient of elasticity E varies with the amount of stress and + diminishes as the ratio of sand and stone to cement increases. Its value + is generally taken at 1,500,000 to 3,000,000 lb per sq. in. For steel E = + 28,000,000 to 30,000,000, or on the average about twelve times its value + for concrete. The maximum compressive working stress on the concrete may + be 500 lb per sq. in., the tensile working stress 50 lb per sq. in., and + the working shearing stress 75 lb per sq. in. The tensile stress on the + steel may be 16,000 lb per sq. in. The amount of steel in the structure + may vary from 0.75 to 1.5%. The concrete not only affords much of the + strength to resist compression, but effectively protects the steel from + corrosion.</p> + + <p>8. (<i>c</i>) <i>Suspension Bridges.</i>—A suspension bridge + consists of two or more chains, constructed of links connected by pins, + or of twisted wire strands, or of wires laid parallel. The chains pass + over lofty piers on which they usually rest on saddles carried by + rollers, and are led down on either side to anchorages in rock chambers. + A level platform is hung from the chains by suspension rods. In the + suspension bridge iron or steel can be used in its strongest form, namely + hard-drawn wire. Iron suspension bridges began to be used at the end of + the 18th century for road bridges with spans unattainable at that time in + any other system. In 1819 T. Telford began the construction of the Menai + bridge (fig. 10), the span being 570 ft. and the dip 43 ft. This bridge + suffered some injury in a storm, but it is still in good condition and + one of the most graceful of bridges. Other bridges built soon after were + the Fribourg bridge of 870 ft. span, the Hammersmith bridge of 422 ft. + span, and the Pest bridge of 666 ft. span. The merit of the simple + suspension bridge is its cheapness, and its defect is its flexibility. + This last becomes less <!-- Page 537 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page537"></a>[v.04 p.0537]</span>serious as the dead weight of the + structure becomes large in proportion to the live or temporary load. It + is, therefore, a type specially suited for great spans. Some suspension + bridges have broken down in consequence of the oscillations produced by + bodies of men marching in step. In 1850 a suspension bridge at Angers + gave way when 487 soldiers were marching over it, and 226 were + killed.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_10.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_10.png" + alt="Fig. 10.--Menai Suspension Bridge." title="Fig. 10.--Menai Suspension Bridge." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 10.—Menai Suspension Bridge. + </div> + <p>To obtain greater stiffness various plans have been adopted. In the + Ordish system a certain number of intermediate points in the span are + supported by oblique chains, on which girders rest. The Ordish bridge + built at Prague in 1868 had oblique chains supporting the stiffening + girders at intermediate points of the span. A curved chain supported the + oblique chains and kept them straight. In 1860 a bridge was erected over + the Danube canal at Vienna, of 264 ft. span which had two parallel chains + one above the other and 4 ft. apart on each side of the bridge. The + chains of each pair were connected by bracing so that they formed a stiff + inverted arch resisting deformation under unequal loading. The bridge + carried a railway, but it proved weak owing to errors of calculation, and + it was taken down in 1884. The principle was sound and has been proposed + at various times. About 1850 it was perceived that a bridge stiff enough + to carry railway trains could be constructed by combining supporting + chains with stiffening girders suspended from them. W. J. M. Rankine + proved (<i>Applied Mechanics</i>, p. 370) that the necessary strength of + a stiffening girder would be only one-seventh part of that of an + independent girder of the same span as the bridge, suited to carry the + same moving load (not including the dead weight of the girder which is + supported by the chain). (See "Suspension Bridge with Stiffened Roadway," + by Sir G. Airy, and the discussion, <i>Proc. Inst, C.E.</i>, 1867, xxvi. + p. 258; also "Suspension Bridges with Stiffening Girders," by Max am + Ende, <i>Proc. Inst. C.E.</i> cxxxvii. p. 306.)</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_11.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_11.png" + alt="Fig. 11.--Niagara Suspension Bridge." title="Fig. 11.--Niagara Suspension Bridge." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 11.—Niagara Suspension Bridge. + </div> + <p>The most remarkable bridge constructed on this system was the Niagara + bridge built by J. A. Roebling in 1852-1855 (fig. 11). The span was 821 + ft., much the largest of any railway bridge at that time, and the height + above the river 245 ft. There were four suspension cables, each 10 in. in + diameter; each was composed of seven strands, containing 520 parallel + wires, or 3640 wires in each cable. Each cable was carried on a separate + saddle on rollers on each pier. The stiffening girder, constructed + chiefly of timber, was a box-shaped braced girder 18 ft. deep and 25 ft. + wide, carrying the railway on top and a roadway within. After various + repairs and strengthenings, including the replacement of the timber + girder by an iron one in 1880, this bridge in 1896-1897 was taken down + and a steel arch built in its place. It was not strong enough to deal + with the increasing weight of railway traffic. In 1836 I. K. Brunei + constructed the towers and abutments for a suspension bridge of 702 ft. + span at Clifton over the Avon, but the project was not then carried + further; in 1860, however, the link chains of the Hungerford suspension + bridge which was being taken down were available at small cost, and these + were used to complete the bridge. There are three chains on each side, of + one and two links alternately, and these support wrought iron stiffening + girders. There are wrought iron saddles and steel rollers on the piers. + At 196 ft. on either side from the towers the chains are carried over + similar saddles without rollers, and thence at 45° with the horizontal + down to the anchorages. Each chain has an anchor plate 5 ft. by 6 ft. The + links are 24 ft. long at the centre of the bridge, and longer as they are + more inclined, so that their horizontal projection is 24 ft. The chains + are so arranged that there is a suspending rod at each 8 ft., attached at + the joint of one of the three chains. For erection a suspended platform + was constructed on eight wire ropes, on which the chains were laid out + and connected. Another wire rope with a travelling carriage took out the + links. The sectional area of the chains is 481 sq. in. at the piers and + 440 sq. in. at the centre. The two stiffening girders are plate girders 3 + ft. deep with flanges of 11 sq. in. area. In addition, the hand railing + on each side forms a girder 4 ft. 9 in. deep, with flanges 4½ sq. in. + area.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_12.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_12.png" + alt="Fig. 12.--Williamsburg Suspension Bridge." title="Fig. 12.--Williamsburg Suspension Bridge." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 12.—Williamsburg Suspension Bridge. + </div> + <p>Of later bridges of great span, perhaps the bridges over the East + river at New York are the most remarkable. The Brooklyn bridge, begun in + 1872, has a centre span of 1595½ and side spans of 930 ft. The Brooklyn + approach being 971 ft., and the New York approach 1562½ ft., the total + length of the bridge is 5989 ft. There are four cables which carry a + promenade, a roadway and an electric railway. The stiffening girders of + the main span are 40 ft. deep and 67 ft. apart. The saddles for the + chains are 329 ft. above high water. The cables are 15¾ in. in diameter. + Each cable has 19 strands of 278 parallel steel wires, 7 B.W.G. Each wire + is taken separately across the river and its length adjusted. Roebling + preferred parallel wires as 10 % stronger than twisted wires. Each strand + when made up and clamped was lowered to its position. The Williamsburg + bridge (fig. 12), begun in 1897 and opened for traffic in 1903, has a + span of 1600 ft., a versed sine of 176 ft., and a width of 118 ft. It has + two decks, and carries two elevated railway tracks, four electric tramcar + lines, two carriageways, two footways and two <!-- Page 538 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page538"></a>[v.04 p.0538]</span>bicycle paths. + There are four cables, one on each side of the two main trusses or + stiffening girders. These girders are supported by the cables over the + centre span but not in the side spans. Intermediate piers support the + trusses in the side spans. The cables are 18¾ in. in diameter; each + weighs about 1116 tons, and has a nominal breaking strength of 22,320 + tons, the actual breaking strength being probably greater. The saddles + are 332 ft. above the water. The four cables support a dead load of 7140 + tons and a live load of 4017 tons. Each cable is composed of 37 strands + of 208 wires, or 7696 parallel steel wires, No. 8 B.W.G., or about 3/16 + in. in diameter. The wire was required to have a tensile strength of 89 + tons per sq. in., and 2½% elongation in 5 ft. and 5% in 8 in. Cast steel + clamps hold the cable together, and to these the suspending rods are + attached. The cables are wrapped in cotton duck soaked in oxidized oil + and varnish, and are sheathed in sheet iron. A later bridge, the + Manhattan, is designed to carry four railway tracks and four tramway + lines, with a wide roadway and footpaths, supported by cables 21¼ in. in + diameter, each composed of 9472 galvanized steel wires 3/16 in. in + diameter.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_13.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_13.png" + alt="Fig. 13.--Tower Bridge, London." title="Fig. 13.--Tower Bridge, London." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 13.—Tower Bridge, London. + </div> + <p>The Tower Bridge, London (fig. 13), is a suspension bridge with a + secondary bascule bridge in the centre span to permit the passage of + ships. Two main towers in the river and two towers on the shore abutments + carry the suspension chains. The opening bridge between the river towers + consists of two leaves or bascules, pivoted near the faces of the piers + and rotating in a vertical plane. When raised, the width of 200 ft. + between the main river piers is unobstructed up to the high-level + foot-bridge, which is 141 ft. above Trinity H.W. The clear width of the + two shore spans is 270 ft. The total length of the bridge is 940 ft., and + that of the approaches 1260 ft. on the north and 780 ft. on the south. + The width of the bridge between parapets is 60 ft., except across the + centre span, where it is 49 ft. The main towers consist of a skeleton of + steel, enclosed in a facing of granite and Portland stone, backed with + brickwork. There are two high-level footways for use when the bascules + are raised, the main girders of which are of the cantilever and suspended + girder type. The cantilevers are fixed to the shore side of the towers. + The middle girders are 120 ft. in length and attached to the cantilevers + by links. The main suspension chains are carried across the centre span + in the form of horizontal ties resting on the high-level footway girders. + These ties are jointed to the hanging chains by pins 20 in. in diameter + with a ring in halves surrounding it 5 in. thick. One half ring is + rigidly attached to the tie and one to the hanging chain, so that the + wear due to any movement is distributed over the length of the pin. A + rocker bearing under these pins transmits the load at the joint to the + steel columns of the towers. The abutment towers are similar to the river + towers. On the abutment towers the chains are connected by horizontal + links, carried on rockers, to anchor ties. The suspension chains are + constructed in the form of braced girders, so that they are stiff against + unsymmetrical loading. Each chain over a shore span consists of two + segments, the longer attached to the tie at the top of the river tower, + the shorter to the link at the top of the abutment tower, and the two + jointed together at the lowest point. Transverse girders are hung from + the chains at distances of 18 ft. There are fifteen main transverse + girders to each shore span, with nine longitudinal girders between each + pair. The trough flooring, ⅜ in. thick and 6 in. deep, is riveted + to the longitudinals. The anchor ties are connected to girders embedded + in large concrete blocks in the foundations of the approach viaducts.</p> + + <p>The two bascules are each constructed with four main girders. Over the + river these are lattice girders, with transverse girders 12 ft. apart, + and longitudinal and subsidiary transverse girders dividing the floor + into rectangles 3 ft. by 3½ ft. covered with buckled plates. The roadway + is of pine blocks dowelled. The bascules rotate through an angle of 82°, + and their rear ends in the bascule chambers of the piers carry 365 tons + of counterweight, the total weight of each being 1070 tons. They rotate + on steel shafts 21 in. in diameter and 48 ft. long, and the bascules can + be lifted or lowered in one minute, but usually the time taken is one and + a half minutes. They are worked by hydraulic machinery.</p> + + <p>9. (<i>d</i>) <i>Iron and Steel Girder Bridges.</i>—The main + supporting members are two or more horizontal beams, girders or trusses. + The girders carry a floor or platform either on top (<i>deck</i> bridges) + or near the bottom (<i>through</i> bridges). The platform is variously + constructed. For railway bridges it commonly consists of cross girders, + attached to or resting on the main girders, and longitudinal rail girders + or stringers carried by the cross girders and directly supporting the + sleepers and rails. For spans over 75 ft., expansion due to change of + temperature is provided for by carrying one end of each chain girder on + rollers placed between the bearing-plate on the girder and the bed-plate + on the pier or abutment.</p> + + <p>Fig. 14 shows the roller bed of a girder of the Kuilenburg bridge of + 490 ft. span. It will be seen that the girder directly rests on a + cylindrical pin or rocker so placed as to distribute the load uniformly + to all the rollers. The pressure on the rollers is limited to about + <i>p</i> = 600 <i>d</i> in lb per in. length of roller, where <i>d</i> is + the diameter of the roller in inches.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:50%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_14.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_14.png" + alt="Fig. 14.--Roller Bed of a Girder." title="Fig. 14.--Roller Bed of a Girder." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 14.—Roller Bed of a Girder. + </div> + <p>In the girders of bridges the horizontal girder is almost exclusively + subjected to vertical loading forces. Investigation of the internal + stresses, which balance the external forces, shows that most of the + material should be arranged in a top flange, boom or chord, subjected to + compression, and a bottom flange or chord, subjected to tension. (See + <span class="sc">Strength of Materials</span>.) Connecting the flanges is + a vertical web which may be a solid plate or a system of bracing bars. In + any case, though the exact form of cross section of girders varies very + much, it is virtually an I section (fig. 15). The function of the flanges + is to resist a horizontal tension and compression distributed practically + uniformly on their cross sections. The web resists forces equivalent <!-- + Page 539 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page539"></a>[v.04 + p.0539]</span>to a shear on vertical and horizontal planes. The inclined + tensions and compressions in the bars of a braced web are equivalent to + this shear. The horizontal stresses in the flanges are greatest at the + centre of a span. The stresses in the web are greatest at the ends of the + span. In the most numerous cases the flanges or chords are parallel. But + girders may have curved chords and then the stresses in the web are + diminished.</p> + + <div class="figleft" style="width:28%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_15.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_15.png" + alt="Fig. 15.--Flanged Girder." title="Fig. 15.--Flanged Girder." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 15.—Flanged Girder. + </div> + <p>At first girders had solid or plate webs, but for spans over 100 ft. + the web always now consists of bracing bars. In some girder bridges the + members are connected entirely by riveting, in others the principal + members are connected by pin joints. The pin system of connexion used in + the Chepstow, Saltash, Newark Dyke and other early English bridges is now + rarely used in Europe. But it is so commonly used in America as to be + regarded as a distinctive American feature. With pin connexions some + weight is saved in the girders, and erection is a little easier. In early + pin bridges insufficient bearing area was allowed between the pins and + parts connected, and they worked loose. In some cases riveted covers had + to be substituted for the pins. The proportions are now better + understood. Nevertheless the tendency is to use riveted connexions in + preference to pins, and in any case to use pins for tension members + only.</p> + + <p>On the first English railways cast iron girder bridges for spans of 20 + to 66 ft. were used, and in some cases these were trussed with wrought + iron. When in 1845 the plans for carrying the Chester and Holyhead + railway over the Menai Straits were considered, the conditions imposed by + the admiralty in the interests of navigation involved the adoption of a + new type of bridge. There was an idea of using suspension chains combined + with a girder, and in fact the tower piers were built so as to + accommodate chains. But the theory of such a combined structure could not + be formulated at that time, and it was proved, partly by experiment, that + a simple tubular girder of wrought iron was strong enough to carry the + railway. The Britannia bridge (fig. 16) has two spans of 460 and two of + 230 ft. at 104 ft. above high water. It consists of a pair of tubular + girders with solid or plate sides stiffened by angle irons, one line of + rails passing through each tube. Each girder is 1511 ft. long and weighs + 4680 tons. In cross section (fig. 17), it is 15 ft. wide and varies in + depth from 23 ft. at the ends to 30 ft. at the centre. Partly to + counteract any tendency to buckling under compression and partly for + convenience in assembling a great mass of plates, the top and bottom were + made cellular, the cells being just large enough to permit passage for + painting. The total area of the cellular top flange of the large-span + girders is 648 sq. in., and of the bottom 585 sq. in. As no scaffolding + could be used for the centre spans, the girders were built on shore, + floated out and raised by hydraulic presses. The credit for the success + of the Conway and Britannia bridges must be divided between the + engineers. Robert Stephenson and William Fairbairn, and Eaton Hodgkinson, + who assisted in the experimental tests and in formulating the imperfect + theory then available. The Conway bridge was first completed, and the + first train passed through the Britannia bridge in 1850. Though each + girder has been made continuous over the four spans it has not quite the + proportions over the piers which a continuous girder should have, and + must be regarded as an imperfectly continuous girder. The spans were in + fact designed as independent girders, the advantage of continuity being + at that time imperfectly known. The vertical sides of the girders are + stiffened so that they amount to 40% of the whole weight. This was partly + necessary to meet the uncertain conditions in floating when the + distribution of supporting forces was unknown and there were chances of + distortion.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_16.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_16.png" + alt="Fig. 16.--Britannia Bridge." title="Fig. 16.--Britannia Bridge." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 16.—Britannia Bridge. + </div> + <div class="figright" style="width:30%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_17.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_17.png" + alt="Fig. 17.--Britannia Bridge (Cross Section of Tubular Girder)." title="Fig. 17.--Britannia Bridge (Cross Section of Tubular Girder)." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 17.—Britannia Bridge (Cross Section + of Tubular Girder). + </div> + <p>Wrought iron and, later, steel plate web girders were largely used for + railway bridges in England after the construction of the Conway and Menai + bridges, and it was in the discussions arising during their design that + the proper function of the vertical web between the top and bottom + flanges of a girder first came to be understood. The proportion of depth + to span in the Britannia bridge was 1/16. But so far as the flanges are + concerned the stress <!-- Page 540 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page540"></a>[v.04 p.0540]</span>to be resisted varies inversely as + the depth of the girder. It would be economical, therefore, to make the + girder very deep. This, however, involves a much heavier web, and + therefore for any type of girder there must be a ratio of depth to span + which is most economical. In the case of the plate web there must be a + considerable excess of material, partly to stiffen it against buckling + and partly because an excess of thickness must be provided to reduce the + effect of corrosion. It was soon found that with plate webs the ratio of + depth to span could not be economically increased beyond 1/15 to 1/12. On + the other hand a framed or braced web afforded opportunity for much + better arrangement of material, and it very soon became apparent that + open web or lattice or braced girders were more economical of material + than solid web girders, except for small spans. In America such girders + were used from the first and naturally followed the general design of the + earlier timber bridges. Now plate web girders are only used for spans of + less than 100 ft.</p> + + <p>Three types of bracing for the web very early developed—the + Warren type in which the bracing bars form equilateral triangles, the + Whipple Murphy in which the struts are vertical and the ties inclined, + and the lattice in which both struts and ties are inclined at equal + angles, usually 45° with the horizontal. The earliest published + theoretical investigations of the stresses in bracing bars were perhaps + those in the paper by W.T. Doyne and W.B. Blood (<i>Proc. Inst. C.E.</i>, + 1851, xi. p. 1), and the paper by J. Barton, "On the economic + distribution of material in the sides of wrought iron beams" (<i>Proc. + Inst. C.E.</i>, 1855, xiv. p. 443).</p> + + <div class="figleft" style="width:50%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_18.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_18.png" + alt="Fig. 18.--Span of Saltash Bridge." title="Fig. 18.--Span of Saltash Bridge." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 18.—Span of Saltash Bridge. + </div> + <p>The Boyne bridge, constructed by Barton in Ireland, in 1854-1855, was + a remarkable example of the confidence with which engineers began to + apply theory in design. It was a bridge for two lines of railway with + lattice girders continuous over three spans. The centre span was 264 ft., + and the side spans 138 ft. 8 in.; depth 22 ft. 6 in. Not only were the + bracing bars designed to calculated stresses, and the continuity of the + girders taken into account, but the validity of the calculations was + tested by a verification on the actual bridge of the position of the + points of contrary flexure of the centre span. At the calculated position + of one of the points of contrary flexure all the rivets of the top boom + were cut out, and by lowering the end of the girder over the side span + one inch, the joint was opened 1/32 in. Then the rivets were cut out + similarly at the other point of contrary flexure and the joint opened. + The girder held its position with both joints severed, proving that, as + should be the case, there was no stress in the boom where the bending + moment changes sign.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_19.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_19.png" + alt="Fig. 19.--Newark Dyke Bridge." title="Fig. 19.--Newark Dyke Bridge." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 19.—Newark Dyke Bridge and Section + of Newark Dyke Bridge. + </div> + <p>By curving the top boom of a girder to form an arch and the bottom + boom to form a suspension chain, the need of web except for non-uniform + loading is obviated. I.K. Brunel adopted this principle for the Saltash + bridge near Plymouth, built soon after the Britannia bridge. It has two + spans of 455 ft. and seventeen smaller spans, the roadway being 100 ft. + above high water. The top boom of each girder is an elliptical wrought + iron tube 17 ft. wide by 12 ft. deep. The lower boom is a pair of chains, + of wrought-iron links, 14 in each chain, of 7 in. by 1 in. section, the + links being connected by pins. The suspending rods and cross bracing are + very light. The depth of the girder at the centre is about one-eighth of + the span.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_20.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_20.png" + alt="Fig. 20.--Fink Truss." title="Fig. 20.--Fink Truss." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 20.—Fink Truss. + </div> + <p>In both England and America in early braced bridges cast iron, + generally in the form of tubes circular or octagonal in section, was used + for compression members, and wrought iron for the tension members. Fig. + 19 shows the Newark Dyke bridge on the Great Northern railway over the + Trent. It was a pin-jointed Warren girder bridge erected from designs by + C.M. Wild in 1851-1853. The span between supports was 259 ft., the clear + span 240½ ft.; depth between joint pins 16 ft. There were four girders, + two to each line of way. The top flange consisted of cast iron hollow + castings butted end to end, and the struts were of cast iron. The lower + flange and ties were flat wrought iron links. This bridge has now been + replaced by a stronger bridge to carry the greater loads imposed by + modern traffic. Fig. 20 shows a Fink truss, a characteristic early + American type, with cast iron compression and wrought iron tension + members. The bridge is a deck bridge, the railway being carried on top. + The transfer of the loads to the ends of the bridge by <!-- Page 541 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page541"></a>[v.04 p.0541]</span>long + ties is uneconomical, and this type has disappeared. The Warren type, + either with two sets of bracing bars or with intermediate verticals, + affords convenient means of supporting the floor girders. In 1869 a + bridge of 390 ft. span was built on this system at Louisville.</p> + + <p>Amongst remarkable American girder bridges may be mentioned the Ohio + bridge on the Cincinnati & Covington railway, which is probably the + largest girder span constructed. The centre span is 550 ft. and the side + spans 490 ft.—centre to centre of piers. The girders are + independent polygonal girders. The centre girder has a length of 545 ft. + and a depth of 84 ft. between pin centres. It is 67 ft. between parapets, + and carries two lines of railway, two carriageways, and two footways. The + cross girders, stringers and wind-bracing are wrought iron, the rest of + mild steel. The bridge was constructed in 1888 by the Phoenix Bridge + Company, and was erected on staging. The total weight of iron and steel + in three spans was about 5000 tons.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_21.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_21.png" + alt="Fig. 21.--Typical Cantilever Bridge." title="Fig. 21.--Typical Cantilever Bridge." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 21.—Typical Cantilever Bridge. + </div> + <div class="figleft" style="width:48%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_22.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_22.png" + alt="Fig. 22.--Cantilever Bridge converted to independent spans." title="Fig. 22.--Cantilever Bridge converted to independent spans." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 22. + </div> + <p>10. (<i>e</i>) <i>Cantilever Bridges.</i>—It has been stated + that if in a girder bridge of three or more spans, the girders were made + continuous there would be an important economy of material, but that the + danger of settlement of the supports, which would seriously alter the + points of contrary flexure or points where the bending moment changes + sign, and therefore the magnitude and distribution of the stresses, + generally prevents the adoption of continuity. If, however, hinges or + joints are introduced at the points of contrary flexure, they become + necessarily points where the bending moment is zero and ambiguity as to + the stresses vanishes. The exceptional local conditions at the site of + the Forth bridge led to the adoption there of the cantilever system, till + then little considered. Now it is well understood that in many positions + this system is the simplest and most economical method of bridging. It is + available for spans greater than those practicable with independent + girders; in fact, on this system the spans are virtually reduced to + smaller spans so far as the stresses are concerned. There is another + advantage which in many cases is of the highest importance. The + cantilevers can be built out from the piers, member by member, without + any temporary scaffolding below, so that navigation is not interrupted, + the cost of scaffolding is saved, and the difficulty of building in deep + water is obviated. The centre girder may be built on the cantilevers and + rolled into place or lifted from the water-level. Fig. 21 shows a typical + cantilever bridge of American design. In this case the shore ends of the + cantilevers are anchored to the abutments. J.A.L. Waddell has shown that, + in some cases, it is convenient to erect simple independent spans, by + building them out as cantilevers and converting them into independent + girders after erection. Fig. 22 shows girders erected in this way, the + dotted lines being temporary members during erection, which are removed + afterwards. The side spans are erected first on staging and anchored to + the piers. From these, by the aid of the temporary members, the centre + span is built out from both sides. The most important cantilever bridges + so far erected or projected are as follows:—</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_23.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_23.png" + alt="Fig. 23.--Forth Bridge." title="Fig. 23.--Forth Bridge." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig. 23.</span>—Forth Bridge. + </div> + <p>(1) The Forth bridge (fig. 23). The original design was for a + stiffened suspension bridge, but after the fall of the Tay bridge in 1879 + this was abandoned. The bridge, which was begun in 1882 and completed in + 1889, is at the only narrowing of the Forth in a distance of 50 m., at a + point where the channel, about a mile in width, is divided by the island + of Inchgarvie. The length of the cantilever bridge is 5330 ft., made up + thus: central tower on Inchgarvie 260 ft.; Fife and Queensferry piers + each 145 ft.; two central girders between cantilevers each 350 ft.; and + six cantilevers each 680 ft. The two main spans are each 1710 ft. The + clear headway is 157 ft., and the extreme height of the towers above high + water 361 ft. The outer ends of the shore cantilevers are loaded to + balance half the weight of the central girder, the rolling load, and 200 + tons in addition. An internal viaduct of lattice girders carries a double + line of rails. Provision is made for longitudinal expansion due to change + of temperature, for distortion due to the sun acting on one side of the + structure, and for the wind acting on one side of the bridge. The amount + of steel used was 38,000 tons exclusive of approach viaducts. (See <i>The + Forth Bridge</i>, by W. Westhofen; <i>Reports of the British + Association</i> (1884 and 1885); <i>Die Forth Brücke</i>, von G. + Barkhausen (Berlin, 1889); <i>The Forth Bridge</i>, by Philip Phillips + (1890); Vernon Harcourt, <i>Proc. Inst. C.E.</i> cxxi. p. 309.)</p> + + <p>(2) The Niagara bridge of a total length of 910 ft., for two lines of + railway. Clear span between towers 495 ft. Completed in 1883, and more + recently strengthened (<i>Proc. Inst. C.E.</i> cvii. p. 18, and cxliv. p. + 331).</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_24.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_24.png" + alt="Fig. 24.--Lansdowne Bridge." title="Fig. 24.--Lansdowne Bridge." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 24.—Lansdowne Bridge. + </div> + <p>(3) The Lansdowne bridge (completed 1889) at Sukkur, over the Indus. + The clear span is 790 ft., and the suspended girder 200 ft. in length. + The span to the centres of the end uprights is 820 ft.; width between + centres of main uprights at bed-plate 100 ft., and between centres of + main members at end of <span class="correction" title="'centilevers' in original" + >cantilevers</span> 20 ft. The bridge is for a single line of railway of + 5 ft. 6 in. gauge. The back guys are the most heavily strained part of + the structure, the stress provided for being 1200 tons. This is due to + the half weight of centre girder, the weight of the cantilever itself, + the rolling load on half the bridge, and the wind pressure. The anchors + are built up of steel plates and angle, bars, and are buried in a large + mass of concrete. The area of each anchor plate, normal to the line of + stress, is 32 ft. by 12 ft. The bridge was designed by Sir A. Rendel, the + consulting engineer to the Indian government (<i>Proc. Inst. C.E.</i> + ciii. p. 123).</p> + + <p>(4) The Red Rock cantilever bridge over the Colorado river, with a + centre span of 660 ft.</p> + + <p>(5) The Poughkeepsie bridge over the Hudson, built 1886-1887. There + are five river and two shore spans. The girders over the second and + fourth spans are extended as cantilevers over the adjoining spans. The + shore piers carry cantilevers projecting one way over the river openings + and the other way over a shore span where it is secured to an anchorage. + The girder spans are 525 ft., the cantilever spans 547 ft., and the shore + spans 201 ft.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_25.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_25.png" + alt="Fig. 25.--Quebec Bridge." title="Fig. 25.--Quebec Bridge." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 25.—Quebec Bridge (original design) + </div> + <p>(6) The Quebec bridge (fig. 25) over the St Lawrence, which collapsed + while in course of construction in 1907. This bridge, connecting very + important railway systems, was designed to carry two lines of rails, a + highway and electric railway on each side, all between the main trusses. + Length between abutments 3240 ft.; <!-- Page 542 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page542"></a>[v.04 p.0542]</span>channel span + 1800 ft.; suspended span 675 ft.; shore spans 562½ ft. Total weight of + metal about 32,000 tons.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_26.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_26.png" + alt="Fig. 26.--Jubilee Bridge over the Hugli." title="Fig. 26.--Jubilee Bridge over the Hugli." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 26.—Jubilee Bridge over the Hugli. + </div> + <p>(7) The Jubilee bridge over the Hugli, designed by Sir Bradford + Leslie, is a cantilever bridge of another type (fig. 26). The girders are + of the Whipple Murphy type, but with curved top booms. The bridge carries + a double line of railway, between the main girders. The central double + cantilever is 360 ft. long. The two side span girders are 420 ft long. + The cantilever rests on two river piers 120 ft. apart, centre to centre. + The side girders rest on the cantilevers on 15 in. pins, in pendulum + links suspended from similar pins in saddles 9 ft. high.</p> + + <div class="figleft" style="width:47%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_27.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_27.png" + alt="Fig. 27.--Coalbrookdale Bridge." title="Fig. 27.--Coalbrookdale Bridge." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 27.—Coalbrookdale Bridge. + </div> + <p>11. (<i>f</i>) <i>Metal Arch Bridges.</i>—The first iron bridge + erected was constructed by John Wilkinson (1728-1808) and Abraham Darby + (1750-1791) in 1773-1779 at Coalbrookdale over the Severn (fig. 27). It + had five cast iron arched ribs with a centre span of 100 ft. This curious + bridge is still in use. Sir B. Baker stated that it had required patching + for ninety years, because the arch and the high side arches would not + work together. Expansion and contraction broke the high arch and the + connexions between the arches. When it broke they fished it. Then the + bolts sheared or the ironwork broke in a new place. He advised that there + was nothing unsafe; it was perfectly strong and the stress in vital parts + moderate. All that needed to be done was to fish the fractured ribs of + the high arches, put oval holes in the fishes, and not screw up the bolts + too tight.</p> + + <p>Cast iron arches of considerable span were constructed late in the + 18th and early in the 19th century. The difficulty of casting heavy arch + ribs led to the construction of cast iron arches of cast voussoirs, + somewhat like the voussoirs of masonry bridges. Such a bridge was the + Wearmouth bridge, designed by Rowland Burdon and erected in 1793-1796, + with a span of 235 ft. Southwark bridge over the Thames, designed by John + Rennie with cast iron ribs and erected in 1814-1819, has a centre span of + 240 ft. and a rise of 24 ft. In Paris the Austerlitz (1800-1806) and + Carrousel (1834-1836) bridges had cast iron arches. In 1858 an aqueduct + bridge was erected at Washington by M.C. Meigs (1816-1892). This had two + arched ribs formed by the cast iron pipes through which the water passed. + The pipes were 4 ft. in diameter inside, 1½ in. thick, and were lined + with staves of pine 3 in. thick to prevent freezing. The span was 200 + ft.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_28.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_28.png" + alt="Fig. 28.--Arch of Bridge at Coblenz." title="Fig. 28.--Arch of Bridge at Coblenz." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 28.—Arch of Bridge at Coblenz + </div> + <p>Fig. 28 shows one of the wrought iron arches of a bridge over the + Rhine at Coblenz. The bridge consists of three spans of about 315 ft. + each.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_29.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_29.png" + alt="Fig. 29.--St Louis Bridge." title="Fig. 29.--St Louis Bridge." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 29.—St Louis Bridge. + </div> + <p>Of large-span bridges with steel arches, one of the most important is + the St Louis bridge over the Mississippi, completed in 1874 (fig. 29). + The river at St Louis is confined to a single channel, 1600 ft. wide, and + in a freshet in 1870 the scour reached a depth of 51 ft. Captain J.B. + Eads, the engineer, determined to establish the piers and abutments on + rock at a depth for the east pier and east abutment of 136 ft. below high + water. This was effected by caissons with air chambers and air locks, a + feat unprecedented in the annals of engineering. The bridge has three + spans, each formed of arches of cast steel. The centre span is 520 ft. + and the side spans 502 ft. in the clear. The rise of the centre arch is + 47½ ft., and that of the side arches 46 ft. Each span has four steel + double ribs of steel tubes butted and clasped by wrought iron couplings. + The vertical bracing between the upper and lower members of each rib, + which are 12 ft. apart, centre to centre, consolidates them into a single + arch. The arches carry a double railway track and above this a roadway 54 + ft. wide.</p> + + <p>The St Louis bridge is not hinged, but later bridges have been + constructed with hinges at the springings and sometimes with hinges at + the crown also.</p> + + <p>The Alexander III. bridge over the Seine has fifteen steel ribs hinged + at crown and springings with a span of 353 ft. between centres of hinges + and 358 ft. between abutments. The rise from side to centre hinges is 20 + ft. 7 in. The roadway is 65½ ft. wide and footways 33 ft. (<i>Proc. Inst. + C.E.</i> cxxx. p. 335).</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_30.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_30.png" + alt="Fig. 30.--Viaur Viaduct." title="Fig. 30.--Viaur Viaduct." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 30.—Viaur Viaduct. + </div> + <p>The largest three-hinged-arch bridge constructed is the Viaur viaduct + in the south of France (fig. 30). The central span is 721 ft. 9 in. and + the height of the rails above the valley 380 ft. It has a very fine + appearance, especially when seen in perspective and not merely in + elevation.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_31.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_31.png" + alt="Fig. 31.--Douro Viaduct." title="Fig. 31.--Douro Viaduct." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 31.—Douro Viaduct. + </div> + <p>Fig. 31 shows the Douro viaduct of a total length of 1158 ft. carrying + a railway 200 ft. above the water. The span of the central opening is 525 + ft. The principal rib is crescent-shaped 32.8 ft. deep <!-- Page 543 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page543"></a>[v.04 p.0543]</span>at the + crown. Rolling load taken at 1.2 ton per ft. Weight of centre span 727 + tons. The Luiz I. bridge is another arched bridge over the Douro, also + designed by T. Seyrig. This has a span of 566 ft. There are an upper and + lower roadway, 164 ft. apart vertically. The arch rests on rollers and is + narrowest at the crown. The reason given for this change of form was that + it more conveniently allowed the lower road to pass between the + springings and ensured the transmission of the wind stresses to the + abutments without interrupting the cross-bracing. Wire cables were used + in the erection, by which the members were lifted from barges and + assembled, the operations being conducted from the side piers.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_32.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_32.png" + alt="Fig. 32.--Niagara Falls and Clifton Bridge." title="Fig. 32.--Niagara Falls and Clifton Bridge." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 32.—Niagara Falls and Clifton + Bridge. + </div> + <p>The Niagara Falls and Clifton steel arch (fig. 32) replaces the older + Roebling suspension bridge. The centre span is a two-hinged parabolic + braced rib arch, and there are side spans of 190 and 210 ft. The bridge + carries two electric-car tracks, two roadways and two footways. The main + span weighed 1629 tons, the side spans 154 and 166 tons (Buck, <i>Proc. + Inst. C.E.</i> cxliv. p. 70). Prof. Claxton Fidler, speaking of the + arrangement adopted for putting initial stress on the top chord, stated + that this bridge marked the furthest advance yet made in this type of + construction. When such a rib is erected on centering without initial + stress, the subsequent compression of the arch under its weight inflicts + a bending stress and excess of compression in the upper member at the + crown. But the bold expedients adopted by the engineer annulled the + bending action.</p> + + <p>The Garabit viaduct carries the railway near St Flour, in the Cantal + department, France, at 420 ft. above low water. The deepest part of the + valley is crossed by an arch of 541 ft. span, and 213 ft. rise. The + bridge is similar to that at Oporto, also designed by Seyrig. It is + formed by a crescent-shaped arch, continued on one side by four, on the + other side by two lattice girder spans, on iron piers. The arch is formed + by two lattice ribs hinged at the abutments. Its depth at the crown is 33 + ft., and its centre line follows nearly the parabolic line of pressures. + The two arch ribs are 65½ ft. apart at the springings and 20½ ft. at the + crown. The roadway girders are lattice, 17 ft. deep, supported from the + arch ribs at four points. The total length of the viaduct is 1715 ft. The + lattice girders of the side spans were first rolled into place, so as to + project some distance beyond the piers, and then the arch ribs were built + out, being partly supported by wire-rope cables from the lattice girders + above. The total weight of ironwork was 3200 tons and the cost £124,000 + (<i>Annales des travaux publiques</i>, 1884).</p> + + <p>The Victoria Falls bridge over the Zambezi, designed by Sir Douglas + Fox, and completed in 1905, is a combination of girder and arch having a + total length of 650 ft. The centre arch is 500 ft. span, the rise of the + crown 90 ft., and depth at crown 15 ft. The width between centres of ribs + of main arch is 27½ ft. at crown and 53 ft. 9 in at springings. The curve + of the main arch is a parabola. The bridge has a roadway of 30 ft. for + two lines of rails. Each half arch was supported by cables till joined at + the centre. An electric cableway of 900 ft. span capable of carrying 10 + tons was used in erection.</p> + + <p>12. (g) <i>Movable Bridges</i> can be closed to carry a road or + railway or in some cases an aqueduct, but can be opened to give free + passage to navigation. They are of several types:—</p> + + <div class="figleft" style="width:32%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_33.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_33.png" + alt="Fig. 33.--Moving bridges." title="Fig. 33.--Moving bridges." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 33. + </div> + <p>(1) <i>Lifting Bridges.</i>—The bridge with its platform is + suspended from girders above by chains and counterweights at the four + corners (fig. 33 a). It is lifted vertically to the required height when + opened. Bridges of this type are not very numerous or important.</p> + + <p>(2) <i>Rolling Bridges.</i>—The girders are longer than the span + and the part overhanging the abutment is counter-weighted so that the + centre of gravity is over the abutment when the bridge is rolled forward + (fig. 33 b). To fill the gap in the approaches when the bridge is rolled + forward a frame carrying that part of the road is moved into place + sideways. At Sunderland, the bridge is first lifted by a hydraulic press + so as to clear the roadway behind, and is then rolled back.</p> + + <p>(3) <i>Draw or Bascule Bridges.</i>—The fortress draw-bridge is + the original type, in which a single leaf, or bascule, turns round a + horizontal hinge at one abutment. The bridge when closed is supported on + abutments at each end. It is raised by chains and counterweights. A more + common type is a bridge with two leaves or bascules, one hinged at each + abutment. When closed <!-- Page 544 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page544"></a>[v.04 p.0544]</span>the bascules are locked at the + centre (see fig. 13). In these bridges each bascule is prolonged + backwards beyond the hinge so as to balance at the hinge, the + prolongation sinking into the piers when the bridge is opened.</p> + + <p>(4) <i>Swing or Turning Bridges.</i>—The largest movable bridges + revolve about a vertical axis. The bridge is carried on a circular base + plate with a central pivot and a circular track for a live ring and + conical rollers. A circular revolving platform rests on the pivot and + rollers. A toothed arc fixed to the revolving platform or to the live + ring serves to give motion to the bridge. The main girders rest on the + revolving platform, and the ends of the bridge are circular arcs fitting + the fixed roadway. Three arrangements are found: (a) the axis of rotation + is on a pier at the centre of the river and the bridge is equal armed + (fig. 33 c), so that two navigation passages are opened simultaneously. + (b) The axis of rotation is on one abutment, and the bridge is then + usually unequal armed (fig. 33 d), the shorter arm being over the land. + (c) In some small bridges the shorter arm is vertical and the bridge + turns on a kind of vertical crane post at the abutment (fig. 33 e).</p> + + <p>(5) <i>Floating Bridges</i>, the roadway being carried on pontoons + moored in the stream.</p> + + <p>The movable bridge in its closed position must be proportioned like a + fixed bridge, but it has also other conditions to fulfil. If it revolves + about a vertical axis its centre of gravity must always lie in that axis; + if it rolls the centre of gravity must always lie over the abutment. It + must have strength to support safely its own overhanging weight when + moving.</p> + + <p>At Konigsberg there is a road bridge of two fixed spans of 39 ft., and + a central span of 60 ft. between bearings, or 41 ft. clear, with balanced + bascules over the centre span. Each bascule consists of two main girders + with cross girders and stringers. The main girders are hung at each side + on a horizontal shaft 8⅝ in. in diameter, and are 6 ft. deep at + the hinge, diminishing to 1 ft. 7 in. at the centre of the span. The + counterweight is a depressed cantilever arm 12 ft. long, overlapped by + the fixed platform which sinks into a recess in the masonry when the + bridge opens. In closed position the main girders rest on a bed plate on + the face of the pier 4 ft. 3 in. beyond the shaft bearings. The bridge is + worked by hydraulic power, an accumulator with a load of 34 tons + supplying pressure water at 630 lb per sq. in. The bridge opens in 15 + seconds and closes in 25 seconds.</p> + + <p>At the opening span of the Tower bridge (fig. 13) there are four main + girders in each bascule. They project 100 ft. beyond and 62 ft. 6 in. + within the face of the piers. Transverse girders and bracings are + inserted between the main girders at 12 ft. intervals. The floor is of + buckled plates paved with wood blocks. The arc of rotation is 82°, and + the axis of rotation is 13 ft. 3 in. inside the face of the piers, and 5 + ft. 7 in. below the roadway. The weight of ballast in the short arms of + the bascules is 365 tons. The weight of each leaf including ballast is + about 1070 tons. The axis is of forged steel 21 in. in diameter and 48 + ft. long. The axis has eight bearings, consisting of rings of live + rollers 4-7/16 in. in diameter and 22 in. long. The bascules are rotated + by pinions driven by hydraulic engines working in steel sectors 42 ft. + radius (<i>Proc. Inst. C.E.</i> cxxvii. p. 35).</p> + + <p>As an example of a swing bridge, that between Duluth and Superior at + the head of Lake Superior over the St Louis river may be described. The + centre opening is 500 ft., spanned by a turning bridge, 58 ft. wide. The + girders weighing 2000 tons carry a double track for trains between the + girders and on each side on cantilevers a trolley track, roadway and + footway. The bridge can be opened in 2 minutes, and is operated by two + large electric motors. These have a speed reduction from armature shaft + to bridge column of 1500 to 1, through four intermediate spur gears and a + worm gear. The end lifts which transfer the weight of the bridge to the + piers when the span is closed consist of massive eccentrics having a + throw of 4 in. The clearance is 2 in., so that the ends are lifted 2 in. + This gives a load of 50 tons per eccentric. One motor is placed at each + end of the span to operate the eccentrics and also to release the latches + and raise the rails of the steam track.</p> + + <p>At Riga there is a floating pontoon bridge over the Duna. It consists + of fourteen rafts, 105 ft. in length, each supported by two pontoons + placed 64 ft. apart. The pairs of rafts are joined by three baulks 15 ft. + long laid in parallel grooves in the framing. Two spans are arranged for + opening easily. The total length is 1720 ft. and the width 46 ft. The + pontoons are of iron, 85½ ft. in length, and their section is elliptical, + 10½ ft. horizontal and 12 ft. vertical. The displacement of each pontoon + is 180 tons and its weight 22 tons. The mooring chains, weighing 22 lb + per ft., are taken from the upstream end of each pontoon to a downstream + screw pile mooring and from the downstream end to an upstream screw + pile.</p> + + <p>13. <i>Transporter Bridges.</i>—This new type of bridge consists + of a high level bridge from which is suspended a car at a low level. The + car receives the traffic and conveys it across the river, being caused to + travel by electric machinery on the high level bridge. Bridges of this + type have been erected at Portugalete, Bizerta, Rouen, Rochefort and more + recently across the Mersey between the towns of Widnes and Runcorn.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_34.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_34.png" + alt="Fig. 34.--Widnes and Runcorn Transporter Bridge." title="Fig. 34.--Widnes and Runcorn Transporter Bridge." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 34.—Widnes and Runcorn Transporter + Bridge. + </div> + <p>The Runcorn bridge crosses the Manchester Ship Canal and the Mersey in + one span of 1000 ft., and four approach spans of 55½ ft. on one side and + one span on the other. The low-level approach roadways are 35 ft. wide + with footpaths 6 ft. wide on each side. The supporting structure is a + cable suspension bridge with stiffening girders. A car is suspended from + the bridge, carried by a trolley running on the underside of the + stiffening girders, the car being <!-- Page 545 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page545"></a>[v.04 p.0545]</span>propelled + electrically from one side to the other. The underside of the stiffening + girder is 82 ft. above the river. The car is 55 ft. long by 24½ ft. wide. + The electric motors are under the control of the driver in a cabin on the + car. The trolley is an articulated frame 77 ft. long in five sections + coupled together with pins. To this are fixed the bearings of the running + wheels, fourteen on each side. There are two steel-clad series-wound + motors of 36 B.H.P. For a test load of 120 tons the tractive force is 70 + lb per ton, which is sufficient for acceleration, and maintaining speed + against wind pressure. The brakes are magnetic, with auxiliary + handbrakes. Electricity is obtained by two gas engines (one spare) each + of 75 B.H.P.</p> + + <p>On the opening day passengers were taken across at the rate of more + than 2000 per hour in addition to a number of vehicles. The time of + crossing is 3 or 4 minutes. The total cost of the structure was + £133,000.</p> + + <p>14. In the United States few railway companies design or build their + own bridges. General specifications as to span, loading, &c., are + furnished to bridge-building companies, which make the design under the + direction of engineers who are experts in this kind of work. The design, + with strain sheets and detail drawings, is submitted to the railway + engineer with estimates. The result is that American bridges are + generally of well-settled types and their members of uniform design, + carefully considered with reference to convenient and accurate + manufacture. Standard patterns of details are largely adopted, and more + system is introduced in the workshop than is possible where the designs + are more varied. Riveted plate girders are used up to 50 ft. span, + riveted braced girders for spans of 50 ft. to 75 ft., and pin-connected + girders for longer spans. Since the erection of the Forth bridge, + cantilever bridges have been extensively used, and some remarkable steel + arch and suspension bridges have also been constructed. Overhead railways + are virtually continuous bridge constructions, and much attention has + been given to a study of the special conditions appertaining to that + case.</p> + +<h4><i>Substructure.</i></h4> + + <p>15. The substructure of a bridge comprises the piers, abutments and + foundations. These portions usually consist of masonry in some form, + including under that general head stone masonry, brickwork and concrete. + Occasionally metal work or woodwork is used for intermediate piers.</p> + + <p>When girders form the superstructure, the resultant pressure on the + piers or abutments is vertical, and the dimensions of these are simply + regulated by the sufficiency to bear this vertical load.</p> + + <p>When arches form the superstructure, the abutment must be so designed + as to transmit the resultant thrust to the foundation in a safe + direction, and so distributed that no part may be unduly compressed. The + intermediate piers should also have considerable stability, so as to + counterbalance the thrust arising when one arch is loaded while the other + is free from load.</p> + + <p>For suspension bridges the abutment forming the anchorage must be so + designed as to be thoroughly stable under the greatest pull which the + chains can exert. The piers require to be carried above the platform, and + their design must be modified according to the type of suspension bridge + adopted. When the resultant pressure is not vertical on the piers these + must be constructed to meet the inclined pressure. In any stiffened + suspension bridge the action of the pier will be analogous to that of a + pier between two arches.</p> + + <p><i>Concrete in a shell</i> is a name which might be applied to all the + methods of founding a pier which depend on the very valuable property + which strong hydraulic concrete possesses of setting into a solid mass + under water. The required space is enclosed by a wooden or iron shell; + the soil inside the shell is removed by dredging, or some form of + mechanical excavator, until the formation is reached which is to support + the pier; the concrete is then shot into the enclosed space from a height + of about 10 ft., and rammed down in layers about 1 ft. thick; it soon + consolidates into a permanent artificial stone.</p> + + <p><i>Piles</i> are used as foundations in compressible or loose soil. + The heads of the piles are sawn off, and a platform of timber or concrete + rests on them. Cast iron and concrete reinforced piles are now used. + <i>Screw piles</i> are cast iron piles which are screwed into the soil + instead of being driven in. At their end is fixed a blade of cast iron + from two to eight times the diameter of the shaft of the pile; the pitch + of the screw varies from one-half to one-fourth of the external diameter + of the blade.</p> + + <p><i>Disk piles</i> have been used in sand. These piles have a flat + flange at the bottom, and water is pumped in at the top of the pile, + which is weighted to prevent it from rising. Sand is thus blown or pumped + from below the piles, which are thus easily lowered in ground which + baffles all attempts to drive in piles by blows. In ground which is of + the nature of quicksand, piles will often slowly rise to their original + position after each blow.</p> + + <p><i>Wells.</i>—In some soils foundations may be obtained by the + device of building a masonry casing like that of a well and excavating + the soil inside; the casing gradually sinks and the masonry is continued + at the surface. This method is applicable in running sands. The interior + of the well is generally filled up with concrete or brick when the + required depth has been reached.</p> + + <p><i>Piers and Abutments.</i>—Piers and abutments are of masonry, + brickwork, or cast or wrought iron. In the last case they consist of any + number of hollow cylindrical pillars, vertical or raking, turned and + planed at the ends and united by a projection or socket and by flanges + and bolts. The pillars are strengthened against lateral yielding by + horizontal and diagonal bracing. In some cases the piers are cast iron + cylinders 10 ft. or more in diameter filled with concrete.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:25%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_35.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_35.png" + alt="Fig. 35.--Cylinder, Charing Cross Bridge." title="Fig. 35.--Cylinder, Charing Cross Bridge." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 35.—Cylinder, Charing Cross Bridge. + </div> + <p><i>Cylinder Foundations.</i>—Formerly when bridge piers had to + be placed where a firm bearing stratum could only be reached at a + considerable depth, a timber cofferdam was used in which piles were + driven down to the firm stratum. On the piles the masonry piers were + built. Many bridges so constructed have stood for centuries. A great + change of method arose when iron cylinders and in some cases brick + cylinders or wells were adopted for foundations. These can be sunk to + almost any depth or brought up to any height, and are filled with + Portland cement concrete. They are sometimes excavated by grabs. + Sometimes they are closed in and kept free of water by compressed air so + that excavation work can be carried on inside them (fig. 35). Sometimes + in silty river beds they are sunk 100 ft. or more, for <!-- Page 546 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page546"></a>[v.04 + p.0546]</span>security against deep scouring of the river-bed in floods. + In the case of the Empress bridge over the Sutlej each pier consisted of + three brick wells, 19 ft. in diameter, sunk 110 ft. The piers of the + Benares bridge were single iron caissons, 65 ft. by 28 ft., sunk about + 100 ft., lined with brick and filled with concrete. At the Forth bridge + iron caissons 70 ft. in diameter were sunk about 40 ft. into the bed of + the Forth. In this case the compressed air process was used.</p> + + <p>16. <i>Erection.</i>—Consideration of the local conditions + affecting the erection of bridges is always important, and sometimes + becomes a controlling factor in the determination of the design. The + methods of erection may be classed as—(1) erection on staging or + falsework; (2) floating to the site and raising; (3) rolling out from one + abutment; (4) building out member by member, the completed part forming + the stage from which additions are handled.</p> + + <p>(1) In erection on staging, the materials available determine the + character of the staging; stacks of timber, earth banks, or built-up + staging of piles and trestles have all been employed, also iron staging, + which can be rapidly erected and moved from site to site. The most + ordinary type of staging consists of timber piles at nearly equal + distances of 20 ft. to 30 ft., carrying a timber platform, on which the + bridge is erected. Sometimes a wide space is left for navigation, and the + platform at this part is carried by a timber and iron truss. When the + headway is great or the river deep, timber-braced piers or clusters of + piles at distances of 50 ft. to 100 ft. may be used. These carry + temporary trusses of timber or steel. The Kuilenburg bridge in Holland, + which has a span of 492 ft., was erected on a timber staging of this + kind, containing 81,000 cub. ft. of timber and 5 tons of bolts. The + bridge superstructure weighed 2150 tons, so that 38 cub. ft. of timber + were used per ton of superstructure.</p> + + <p>(2) The Britannia and Conway bridges were built on staging on shore, + lifted by pontoons, floated out to their position between the piers, and + lastly lifted into place by hydraulic presses. The Moerdyk bridge in + Holland, with 14 spans of 328 ft., was erected in a similar way. The + convenience of erecting girders on shore is very great, but there is some + risk in the floating operations and a good deal of hauling plant is + required.</p> + + <p>(3) If a bridge consists of girders continuous over two or more spans, + it may be put together on the embankment at one end and rolled over the + piers. In some cases hauling tackle is used, in others power is applied + by levers and ratchets to the rollers on which the girders travel. In + such rolling operations the girder is subjected to straining actions + different from those which it is intended to resist, and parts intended + for tension may be in compression; hence it may need to be stiffened by + timber during rolling. The bending action on the bottom boom in passing + over the rollers is also severe. Modifications of the system have been + adopted for bridges with discontinuous spans. In narrow ravines a bridge + of one span may be rolled out, if the projecting end is supported on a + temporary suspension cable anchored on each side. The free end is slung + to a block running on the cable. If the bridge is erected when the river + is nearly dry a travelling stage may be constructed to carry the + projecting end of the girder while it is hauled across, the other end + resting on one abutment. Sometimes a girder is rolled out about one-third + of its length, and then supported on a floating pontoon.</p> + + <p>(4) Some types of bridge can be built out from the abutments, the + completed part forming an erecting stage on which lifting appliances are + fixed. Generally, in addition, wire cables are stretched across the span, + from which lifting tackle is suspended. In bridges so erected the + straining action during erection must be studied, and material must be + added to resist erecting stresses. In the case of the St Louis bridge, + half arches were built out on either side of each pier, so that the load + balanced. Skeleton towers on the piers supported chains attached to the + arched ribs at suitable points. In spite of careful provision, much + difficulty was experienced in making the connexion at the crown, from the + expansion due to temperature changes. The Douro bridge was similarly + erected. The girders of the side spans were rolled out so as to overhang + the great span by 105 ft., and formed a platform from which parts of the + arch could be suspended. Dwarf towers, built on the arch ring at the + fifth panel from either side, helped to support the girder above, in + erecting the centre part of the arch (Seyrig, <i>Proc. Inst. C.E.</i> + lxiii. p. 177). The great cantilever bridges have been erected in the + same way, and they are specially adapted for erection by building + out.</p> + +<h4><i>Straining Actions and Working Stresses.</i></h4> + + <p>17. In metal bridges wrought iron has been replaced by mild + steel—a stronger, tougher and better material. Ingot metal or mild + steel was sometimes treacherous when first introduced, and accidents + occurred, the causes of which were obscure. In fact, small differences of + composition or variations in thermal treatment during manufacture involve + relatively large differences of quality. Now it is understood that care + must be taken in specifying the exact quality and in testing the material + supplied. Structural wrought iron has a tenacity of 20 to 22½ tons per + sq. in. in the direction of rolling, and an ultimate elongation of 8 or + 10% in 8 in. Across the direction of rolling the tenacity is about 18 + tons per sq. in., and the elongation 3% in 8 in. Steel has only a small + difference of quality in different directions. There is still controversy + as to what degree of hardness, or (which is nearly the same thing) what + percentage of carbon, can be permitted with safety in steel for + structures.</p> + + <p>The qualities of steel used may be classified as + follows:—(<i>a</i>) Soft steel, having a tenacity of 22½ to 26 tons + per sq. in., and an elongation of 32 to 24% in 8 in. (<i>b</i>) Medium + steel, having a tenacity of 26 to 34 tons per sq. in., and 28 to 25% + elongation. (<i>c</i>) Moderately hard steel, having a tenacity of 34 to + 37 tons per sq. in., and 17% elongation, (<i>d</i>) Hard steel, having a + tenacity of 37 to 40 tons per sq. in., and 10% elongation. Soft steel is + used for rivets always, and sometimes for the whole superstructure of a + bridge, but medium steel more generally for the plates, angle bars, + &c., the weight of the bridge being then reduced by about 7% for a + given factor of safety. Moderately hard steel has been used for the + larger members of long-span bridges. Hard steel, if used at all, is used + only for compression members, in which there is less risk of flaws + extending than in tension members. With medium or moderately hard steel + all rivet holes should be drilled, or punched ⅛ in. less in + diameter than the rivet and reamed out, so as to remove the ring of + material strained by the punch.</p> + + <p>In the specification for bridge material, drawn up by the British + Engineering Standards Committee, it is provided that the steel shall be + acid or basic open-hearth steel, containing not more than 0.06% of + sulphur or phosphorus. Plates, angles and bars, other than rivet bars, + must have a tensile strength of 28 to 32 tons per sq. in., with an + elevation of 20% in 8 in. Rivet bars tested on a gauge length eight times + the diameter must have a tensile strength of 26 to 30 tons per sq. in. + and an elongation of 25%.</p> + + <p>18. <i>Straining Actions.</i>—The external forces acting on a + bridge may be classified as follows:—</p> + + <p>(1) The <i>live</i> or <i>temporary load</i>, for road bridges the + weight of a dense crowd uniformly distributed, or the weight of a heavy + wagon or traction engine; for railway bridges the weight of the heaviest + train likely to come on the bridge. (2) An allowance is sometimes made + for <i>impact</i>, that is the dynamical action of the live load due to + want of vertical balance in the moving parts of locomotives, to + irregularities of the permanent way, or to yielding of the structure. (3) + The <i>dead load</i> comprises the weight of the main girders, flooring + and wind bracing, or the total weight of the superstructure exclusive of + any part directly carried by the piers. This is usually treated as + uniformly distributed over the span. (4) The <i>horizontal pressure</i> + due to a wind blowing transversely to the span, which becomes of + importance in long and high bridges. (5) The <i>longitudinal drag</i> due + to the friction of a train when braked, about one-seventh of the weight + of the train. (6) On a curved bridge the <i>centrifugal load</i> due to + the radical acceleration of the train. If <i>w</i> is the weight of a + locomotive in tons, <i>r</i> the radius of curvature of the track, + <i>v</i> the velocity in feet per sec.; then the horizontal force exerted + on the bridge is <i>wv</i><sup>2</sup>/<i>gr</i> tons. (7) In some cases, + especially in arch and suspension bridges, changes of temperature set up + stresses equivalent to those produced by an external load. In Europe a + variation of temperature of 70° C. or 126° F. is commonly assumed. For + this the expansion is about 1 in. in 100 ft. Generally a structure should + be anchored at one point and free to move if possible in other + directions. Roughly, if expansion is prevented, a stress of one ton per + sq. in. is set up in steel structures for each 12° change of + temperature.</p> + + <p>i. <i>Live Load on Road Bridges.</i>—A dense crowd of people may + be taken as a uniform load of 80 to 120 lb per sq. ft. But in recent + times the weight of traction engines and wagons which pass over bridges + has increased, and this kind of load generally produces greater straining + action than a crowd of people. In manufacturing districts and near large + towns loads of 30 tons may come on road bridges, and county and borough + authorities insist on provision being made for such loads. In Switzerland + roads are divided into three classes according to their importance, and + the following loads are prescribed, the designer having to provide + sufficient strength either for a uniformly distributed crowd, or for a + heavy wagon anywhere on the roadway:— <!-- Page 547 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page547"></a>[v.04 p.0547]</span></p> + + +<table width="56%" class="allb" summary="Loading factors (Switzerland)" title="Loading factors (Switzerland)"> + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:left; width:33%"> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center; width:22%"> + <p>Crowd, lb per sq. ft.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center; width:44%"> + <p>Wagon, tons per axle.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Main Roads</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>92</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>10 with 13 ft. wheel base</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Secondary Roads</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>72</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>6 with 10 ft. wheel base</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Other Roads</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>51</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>3 with 8 ft. wheel base</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + + <p>In England still larger loads are now provided for. J.C. Inglis + (<i>Proc. Inst. C.E.</i> cxli. p. 35) has considered two + cases—(<i>a</i>) a traction engine and boiler trolley, and + (<i>b</i>) a traction engine and trucks loaded with granite. He has + calculated the equivalent load per foot of span which would produce the + same maximum bending moments. The following are some of the + results:—</p> + + +<table width="68%" class="allb" summary="Loading for traction engines" title="Loading for traction engines"> + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center; width:90%"> + <p>Span Ft.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:left; width:1%"> + <p>10.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:left; width:1%"> + <p>20.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:left; width:1%"> + <p>30.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:left; width:1%"> + <p>40.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:left; width:1%"> + <p>50.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Equivalent load in tons per ft. run, Case <i>a</i></p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1.75</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>0.95</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>0.70</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>0.73</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>0.72</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Do. Case <i>b</i></p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>3.25</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1.7</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1.3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1.2</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1.15</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + + <p>Large as these loads are on short spans, they are not more than must + often be provided for.</p> + + <p><i>Live Load on Railway Bridges.</i>—The live load is the weight + of the heaviest train which can come on the bridge. In the earlier girder + bridges the live load was taken to be equivalent to a uniform load of 1 + ton per foot run for each line of way. At that time locomotives on + railways of 4 ft. 8½ in. gauge weighed at most 35 to 45 tons, and their + length between buffers was such that the average load did not exceed 1 + ton per foot run. Trains of wagons did not weigh more than three-quarters + of a ton per foot run when most heavily loaded. The weights of engines + and wagons are now greater, and in addition it is recognized that the + concentration of the loading at the axles gives rise to greater straining + action, especially in short bridges, than the same load uniformly + distributed along the span. Hence many of the earlier bridges have had to + be strengthened to carry modern traffic. The following examples of some + of the heaviest locomotives on English railways is given by W.B. Farr + (<i>Proc. Inst. C.E.</i> cxli. p. 12):—</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Passenger Engines.</i></p> + + +<table width="70%" class="allb" summary="Weights of Passenger Engines" title="Weights of Passenger Engines"> + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left; width:71%"> + <p>Total weights, tons</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right; width:7%"> + <p>84.35</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right; width:7%"> + <p>98.90</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right; width:7%"> + <p>91.90</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right; width:7%"> + <p>85.48</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tons per ft. over all</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>1.58</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>1.71</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>1.62</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>1.61</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tons per ft. of wheel base</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>1.92</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>2.04</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>1.97</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>1.95</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Maximum axle load, tons</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>19.00</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>16.00</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>18.70</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>18.50</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Goods Engines.</i></p> + + +<table width="70%" class="allb" summary="Weights of Goods Engines" title="Weights of Goods Engines"> + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left; width:71%"> + <p>Total weight, tons</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right; width:7%"> + <p>77.90</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right; width:7%"> + <p>78.80</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right; width:7%"> + <p>76.46</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right; width:7%"> + <p>75.65</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tons per ft. over all</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>1.54</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>1.50</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>1.54</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>1.51</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tons per ft. of wheel base</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>2.02</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p> 2.02</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p> 2.03</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>2.00</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Maximum axle load, tons</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>15.90</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>16.00</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>13.65</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>15.50</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Tank Engines.</i></p> + + +<table width="70%" class="allb" summary="Weights of Tank Engines" title="Weights of Tank Engines"> + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left; width:71%"> + <p>Total weight, tons</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right; width:7%"> + <p>53.80</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right; width:7%"> + <p>58.61</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right; width:7%"> + <p> 60.80</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right; width:7%"> + <p>47.00</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tons per ft. over all</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>1.60</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>1.68</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>1.70</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>1.55</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tons per ft. of wheel base</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>2.45</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>2.52</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>2.23</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>3.03</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Maximum axle load, tons</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>17.54</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>15.29</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>17.10</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>15.77</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + + <p>Farr has drawn diagrams of bending moment for forty different very + heavy locomotives on different spans, and has determined for each case a + uniform load which at every point would produce as great a bending moment + as the actual wheel loads. The following short abstract gives the + equivalent uniform load which produces bending moments as great as those + of any of the engines calculated:—</p> + + +<table width="43%" class="allb" summary="Uniform load equivalent to engine" title="Uniform load equivalent to engine"> + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; width:42%"> + <p>Span in Ft.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center; width:57%"> + <p>Load per ft. run equivalent to actual Wheel Loads in Tons, for + each Track.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5.0</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>7.6</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>10.0</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4.85</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>20.0</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3.20</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>30.0</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2.63</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>50.0</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2.24</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>100.0</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1.97</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + + <p>Fig. 36 gives the loads per axle and the distribution of loads in some + exceptionally heavy modern British locomotives.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:88%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_36a.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_36a.png" + alt="Express Passenger Engine, G.N. Ry." title="Express Passenger Engine, G.N. Ry." /></a> + Express Passenger Engine, G.N. Ry. + </div> + <div class="figcenter" style="width:92%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_36b.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_36b.png" + alt="Goods Engine, L. & Y. Ry." title="Goods Engine, L. & Y. Ry." /></a> + Goods Engine, L. & Y. Ry. + </div> + <div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_36c.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_36c.png" + alt="Passenger Engine, Cal. Ry." title="Passenger Engine, Cal. Ry." /></a> + Passenger Engine, Cal. Ry.<br /> <span class="sc">Fig.</span> + 36. + </div> +<p><!-- Page 548 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page548"></a>[v.04 p.0548]</span></p> + + <p>In Austria the official regulations require that railway bridges shall + be designed for at least the following live loads per foot run and per + track:—</p> + + +<table width="57%" class="allb" summary="Regulated design loads (Austria)" title="Regulated design loads (Austria)"> + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center" colspan="2"> + <p>Span.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center" colspan="2"> + <p>Live Load in Tons.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; width:17%"> + <p>Metres.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; width:17%"> + <p>Ft.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; width:32%"> + <p>Per metre run.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; width:32%"> + <p>Per ft. run.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3.3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>20</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>6.1</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>6.6</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4.6</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>16.4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3.1</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>20</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>65.6</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1.5</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>30</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>98.4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1.2</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + + <p>It would be simpler and more convenient in designing short bridges if, + instead of assuming an equivalent uniform rolling load, agreement could + be come to as to a typical heavy locomotive which would produce stresses + as great as any existing locomotive on each class of railway. Bridges + would then be designed for these selected loads, and the process would be + safer in dealing with flooring girders and shearing forces than the + assumption of a uniform load.</p> + + <p>Some American locomotives are very heavy. Thus a consolidation engine + may weigh 126 tons with a length over buffers of 57 ft., corresponding to + an average load of 2.55 tons per ft. run. Also long ore wagons are used + which weigh loaded two tons per ft. run. J.A.L. Waddell (<i>De + Pontibus</i>, New York, 1898) proposes to arrange railways in seven + classes, according to the live loads which may be expected from the + character of their traffic, and to construct bridges in accordance with + this classification. For the lightest class, he takes a locomotive and + tender of 93.5 tons, 52 ft. between buffers (average load 1.8 tons per + ft. run), and for the heaviest a locomotive and tender weighing 144.5 + tons, 52 ft. between buffers (average load 2.77 tons per ft. run). Wagons + he assumes to weigh for the lightest class 1.3 tons per ft. run and for + the heaviest 1.9 tons. He takes as the live load for a bridge two such + engines, followed by a train of wagons covering the span. Waddell's tons + are short tons of 2000 lb.</p> + + <p>ii. <i>Impact.</i>—If a vertical load is imposed suddenly, but + without velocity, work is done during deflection, and the deformation and + stress are momentarily double those due to the same load at rest on the + structure. No load of exactly this kind is ever applied to a bridge. But + if a load is so applied that the deflection increases with speed, the + stress is greater than that due to a very gradually applied load, and + vibrations about a mean position are set up. The rails not being + absolutely straight and smooth, centrifugal and lurching actions occur + which alter the distribution of the loading. Again, rapidly changing + forces, due to the moving parts of the engine which are unbalanced + vertically, act on the bridge; and, lastly, inequalities of level at the + rail ends give rise to shocks. For all these reasons the stresses due to + the live load are greater than those due to the same load resting quietly + on the bridge. This increment is larger on the flooring girders than on + the main ones, and on short main girders than on long ones. The impact + stresses depend so much on local conditions that it is difficult to fix + what allowance should be made. E.H. Stone (<i>Trans. Am. Soc. of C.E.</i> + xli. p. 467) collated some measurements of deflection taken during + official trials of Indian bridges, and found the increment of deflection + due to impact to depend on the ratio of dead to live load. By plotting + and averaging he obtained the following results:—</p> + + <p><i>Excess of Deflection and straining Action of a moving Load over + that due to a resting Load.</i></p> + + +<table width="73%" class="allb" summary="Moving load versus resting load" title="Moving load versus resting load"> + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left; width:76%"> + <p>Dead load in per cent of total load</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:bottom; text-align:center; width:3%"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:bottom; text-align:center; width:3%"> + <p>20</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:bottom; text-align:center; width:3%"> + <p>30</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:bottom; text-align:center; width:3%"> + <p>40</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:bottom; text-align:center; width:3%"> + <p>50</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:bottom; text-align:center; width:3%"> + <p>70</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:bottom; text-align:center; width:3%"> + <p>90</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Live load in per cent of total load</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:bottom; text-align:center"> + <p>90</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:bottom; text-align:center"> + <p>80</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:bottom; text-align:center"> + <p>70</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:bottom; text-align:center"> + <p>60</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:bottom; text-align:center"> + <p>50</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:bottom; text-align:center"> + <p>30</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:bottom; text-align:center"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Ratio of live to dead load</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:bottom; text-align:center"> + <p>9</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:bottom; text-align:center"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:bottom; text-align:center"> + <p>2.3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:bottom; text-align:center"> + <p>1.5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:bottom; text-align:center"> + <p>1.0</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:bottom; text-align:center"> + <p>0.43</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:bottom; text-align:center"> + <p>0.10</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Excess of deflection and stress due to moving load per cent</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:bottom; text-align:center"> + <p> 23</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:bottom; text-align:center"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:bottom; text-align:center"> + <p> 8</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:bottom; text-align:center"> + <p>5.5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:bottom; text-align:center"> + <p>4.0</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:bottom; text-align:center"> + <p>1.6</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="vertical-align:bottom; text-align:center"> + <p>0.3</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + + <p>These results are for the centre deflections of main girders, but + Stone infers that the augmentation of stress for any member, due to + causes included in impact allowance, will be the same percentage for the + same ratios of live to dead load stresses. Valuable measurements of the + deformations of girders and tension members due to moving trains have + been made by S.W. Robinson (<i>Trans. Am. Soc. C.E.</i> xvi.) and by F.E. + Turneaure (<i>Trans. Am. Soc. C.E.</i> xli.). The latter used a recording + deflectometer and two recording extensometers. The observations are + difficult, and the inertia of the instrument is liable to cause error, + but much care was taken. The most striking conclusions from the results + are that the locomotive balance weights have a large effect in causing + vibration, and next, that in certain cases the vibrations are cumulative, + reaching a value greater than that due to any single impact action. + Generally: (1) At speeds less than 25 m. an hour there is not much + vibration. (2) The increase of deflection due to impact at 40 or 50 m. an + hour is likely to reach 40 to 50% for girder spans of less than 50 ft. + (3) This percentage decreases rapidly for longer spans, becoming about + 25% for 75-ft. spans. (4) The increase per cent of boom stresses due to + impact is about the same as that of deflection; that in web bracing bars + is rather greater. (5) Speed of train produces no effect on the mean + deflection, but only on the magnitude of the vibrations.</p> + + <p>A purely empirical allowance for impact stresses has been proposed, + amounting to 20% of the live load stresses for floor stringers; 15% for + floor cross girders; and for main girders, 10% for 40-ft. spans, and 5% + for 100-ft. spans. These percentages are added to the live load + stresses.</p> + + <p>iii. <i>Dead Load.</i>—The dead load consists of the weight of + main girders, flooring and wind-bracing. It is generally reckoned to be + uniformly distributed, but in large spans the distribution of weight in + the main girders should be calculated and taken into account. The weight + of the bridge flooring depends on the type adopted. Road bridges vary so + much in the character of the flooring that no general rule can be given. + In railway bridges the weight of sleepers, rails, &c., is 0.2 to 0.25 + tons per ft. run for each line of way, while the rail girders, cross + girders, &c., weigh 0.15 to 0.2 tons. If a footway is added about 0.4 + ton per ft. run may be allowed for this. The weight of main girders + increases with the span, and there is for any type of bridge a limiting + span beyond which the dead load stresses exceed the assigned limit of + working stress.</p> + + <p>Let W<sub><i>l</i></sub> be the total live load, W<sub><i>f</i></sub> + the total flooring load on a bridge of span <i>l</i>, both being + considered for the present purpose to be uniform per ft. run. Let + <i>k</i>(W<sub><i>l</i></sub>+W<sub><i>f</i></sub>) be the weight of main + girders designed to carry W<sub><i>l</i></sub>+W<sub><i>f</i></sub>, but + not their own weight in addition. Then</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>W<sub><i>g</i></sub> = (W<sub><i>l</i></sub>+W<sub><i>f</i></sub>)(<i>k</i>+<i>k</i><sup>2</sup>+<i>k</i><sup>3</sup> ...)</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>will be the weight of main girders to carry + W<sub><i>l</i></sub>+W<sub><i>f</i></sub> and their own weight (Buck, + <i>Proc. Inst. C.E.</i> lxvii. p. 331). Hence,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>W<sub><i>g</i></sub> = (W<sub><i>l</i></sub>+W<sub><i>f</i></sub>)<i>k</i>/(1-<i>k</i>).</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>Since in designing a bridge W<sub><i>l</i></sub>+W<sub><i>f</i></sub> + is known, <i>k</i>(W<sub><i>l</i></sub>+W<sub><i>f</i></sub>) can be + found from a provisional design in which the weight W<sub><i>g</i></sub> + is neglected. The actual bridge must have the section of all members + greater than those in the provisional design in the ratio + <i>k</i>/(1-<i>k</i>).</p> + + <p>Waddell (<i>De Pontibus</i>) gives the following convenient empirical + relations. Let <i>w</i><sub>1</sub>, <i>w</i><sub>2</sub> be the weights + of main girders per ft. run for a live load <i>p</i> per ft. run and + spans <i>l</i><sub>1</sub>, <i>l</i><sub>2</sub>. Then</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>w</i><sub>2</sub>/<i>w</i><sub>1</sub> = ½ [<i>l</i><sub>2</sub>/<i>l</i><sub>1</sub>+(<i>l</i><sub>2</sub>/<i>l</i><sub>1</sub>)<sup>2</sup>].</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>Now let <i>w</i><sub>1</sub>′, <i>w</i><sub>2</sub>′ be + the girder weights per ft. run for spans <i>l</i><sub>1</sub>, + <i>l</i><sub>2</sub>, and live loads <i>p</i>′ per ft. run. + Then</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>w</i><sub>2</sub>′/<i>w</i><sub>2</sub> = 1/5(1+4<i>p</i>′/<i>p</i>)</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>w</i><sub>2</sub>′/<i>w</i><sub>1</sub> = 1/10[<i>l</i><sub>2</sub>/<i>l</i><sub>1</sub>+(<i>l</i><sub>2</sub>/<i>l</i><sub>1</sub>)<sup>2</sup>](1+4<i>p</i>′/<i>p</i>)</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>A partially rational approximate formula for the weight of main + girders is the following (Unwin, <i>Wrought Iron Bridges and Roofs</i>, + 1869, p. 40):—</p> + + <p>Let <i>w</i> = total live load per ft. run of girder; + <i>w</i><sub>2</sub> the weight of platform per ft. run; + <i>w</i><sub>3</sub> the weight of main girders per ft. run, all in tons; + <i>l</i> = span in ft.; <i>s</i> = average stress in tons per sq. in. on + gross section of metal; <i>d</i> = depth of girder at centre in ft.; + <i>r</i> = ratio of span to depth of girder so that <i>r</i> = + <i>l</i>/<i>d</i>. Then</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>w</i><sub>3</sub> = (<i>w</i><sub>1</sub>+<i>w</i><sub>2</sub>)<i>l</i><sup>2</sup>/(C<i>ds</i>-<i>l</i><sub>2</sub>) = (<i>w</i><sub>1</sub>+<i>w</i><sub>2</sub>)<i>lr</i>/(C<i>s</i>-<i>lr</i>),</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>where C is a constant for any type of girder. It is not easy to fix + the average stress <i>s</i> per sq. in. of gross section. Hence the + formula is more useful in the form</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>w</i> = (<i>w</i><sub>1</sub>+<i>w</i><sub>2</sub>)<i>l</i><sup>2</sup>/(K<i>d</i>-<i>l</i><sup>2</sup>) = (<i>w</i><sub>1</sub>+<i>w</i><sub>2</sub>)<i>lr</i>/(K-<i>lr</i>)</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>where K = + (<i>w</i><sub>1</sub>+<i>w</i><sub>2</sub>+<i>w</i><sub>3</sub>)<i>lr</i>/<i>w</i><sub>3</sub> + is to be deduced from the data of some bridge previously designed with + the same working stresses. From some known examples, C varies from 1500 + to 1800 for iron braced parallel or bowstring girders, and from 1200 to + 1500 for similar girders of steel. K = 6000 to 7200 for iron and = 7200 + to 9000 for steel bridges.</p> + + <p>iv. <i>Wind Pressure.</i>—Much attention has been given to wind + action since the disaster to the Tay bridge in 1879. As to the maximum + wind pressure on small plates normal to the wind, there is not much + doubt. Anemometer observations show that pressures of 30 lb per sq. ft. + occur in storms annually in many localities, and that occasionally higher + pressures are recorded in exposed positions. Thus at Bidstone, Liverpool, + where the gauge has an exceptional exposure, a pressure of 80 lb per sq. + ft. has been observed. In tornadoes, such as that at St Louis in 1896, it + has been calculated, from the stability of structures overturned, that + pressures of 45 to 90 lb per sq. ft. must have been reached. As to + anemometer pressures, it should be observed that the recorded pressure is + made up of a positive front and negative (vacuum) back pressure, but in + structures the latter must be absent or only partially developed. Great + difference of opinion exists as to whether on large surfaces the average + pressure per sq. ft. is as great as on small surfaces, such as anemometer + plates. The experiments of Sir B. Baker at the Forth bridge showed that + on a surface 30 ft. × 15 ft. the intensity of pressure was less than on a + similarly exposed anemometer plate. In the case of bridges there is the + further difficulty that some surfaces partially <!-- Page 549 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page549"></a>[v.04 p.0549]</span>shield other + surfaces; one girder, for instance, shields the girder behind it (see + <i>Brit. Assoc. Report</i>, 1884). In 1881 a committee of the Board of + Trade decided that the maximum wind pressure on a vertical surface in + Great Britain should be assumed in designing structures to be 56 lb per + sq. ft. For a plate girder bridge of less height than the train, the wind + is to be taken to act on a surface equal to the projected area of one + girder and the exposed part of a train covering the bridge. In the case + of braced girder bridges, the wind pressure is taken as acting on a + continuous surface extending from the rails to the top of the carriages, + plus the vertical projected area of so much of one girder as is exposed + above the train or below the rails. In addition, an allowance is made for + pressure on the leeward girder according to a scale. The committee + recommended that a factor of safety of 4 should be taken for wind + stresses. For safety against overturning they considered a factor of 2 + sufficient. In the case of bridges not subject to Board of Trade + inspection, the allowance for wind pressure varies in different cases. C. + Shaler Smith allows 300 lb per ft. run for the pressure on the side of a + train, and in addition 30 lb per sq. ft. on twice the vertical projected + area of one girder, treating the pressure on the train as a travelling + load. In the case of bridges of less than 50 ft. span he also provides + strength to resist a pressure of 50 lb per sq. ft. on twice the vertical + projection of one truss, no train being supposed to be on the bridge.</p> + + <p>19. <i>Stresses Permitted.</i>—For a long time engineers held + the convenient opinion that, if the total dead and live load stress on + any section of a structure (of iron) did not exceed 5 tons per sq. in., + ample safety was secured. It is no longer possible to design by so simple + a rule. In an interesting address to the British Association in 1885, Sir + B. Baker described the condition of opinion as to the safe limits of + stress as chaotic. "The old foundations," he said, "are shaken, and + engineers have not come to an agreement respecting the rebuilding of the + structure. The variance in the strength of existing bridges is such as to + be apparent to the educated eye without any calculation. In the present + day engineers are in accord as to the principles of estimating the + magnitude of the stresses on the members of a structure, but not so in + proportioning the members to resist those stresses. The practical result + is that a bridge which would be passed by the English Board of Trade + would require to be strengthened 5% in some parts and 60% in others, + before it would be accepted by the German government, or by any of the + leading railway companies in America." Sir B. Baker then described the + results of experiments on repetition of stress, and added that "hundreds + of existing bridges which carry twenty trains a day with perfect safety + would break down quickly under twenty trains an hour. This fact was + forced on my attention nearly twenty-five years ago by the fracture of a + number of girders of ordinary strength under a five-minutes' train + service."</p> + + <p>Practical experience taught engineers that though 5 tons per sq. in. + for iron, or 6½ tons per sq. in. for steel, was safe or more than safe + for long bridges with large ratio of dead to live load, it was not safe + for short ones in which the stresses are mainly due to live load, the + weight of the bridge being small. The experiments of A. Wöhler, repeated + by Johann Bauschinger, Sir B. Baker and others, show that the breaking + stress of a bar is not a fixed quantity, but depends on the range of + variation of stress to which it is subjected, if that variation is + repeated a very large number of times. Let K be the breaking strength of + a bar per unit of section, when it is loaded once gradually to breaking. + This may be termed the statical breaking strength. Let + <i>k</i><sub><i>max.</i></sub> be the breaking strength of the same bar + when subjected to stresses varying from <i>k</i><sub><i>max.</i></sub> to + <i>k</i><sub><i>min.</i></sub> alternately and repeated an indefinitely + great number of times; <i>k</i><sub><i>min.</i></sub> is to be reckoned + + if of the same kind as <i>k</i><sub><i>max.</i></sub> and - if of the + opposite kind (tension or thrust). The range of stress is therefore + <i>k</i><sub><i>max.</i></sub>-<i>k</i><sub><i>min.</i></sub>, if the + stresses are both of the same kind, and + <i>k</i><sub><i>max.</i></sub>+<i>k</i><sub><i>min.</i></sub>, if they + are of opposite kinds. Let <span class="grk">Δ</span> = + <i>k</i><sub><i>max.</i></sub> ± <i>k</i><sub><i>min.</i></sub> = the + range of stress, where <span class="grk">Δ</span> is always + positive. Then Wöhler's results agree closely with the rule,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>k</i><sub><i>max.</i></sub> = ½<span class="grk">Δ</span>+√(K²-<i>n</i><span class="grk">Δ</span>K),</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>where n is a constant which varies from 1.3 to 2 in various qualities + of iron and steel. For ductile iron or mild steel it may be taken as 1.5. + For a statical load, range of stress nil, <span + class="grk">Δ</span> = 0, <i>k</i><sub><i>max.</i></sub> = K, the + statical breaking stress. For a bar so placed that it is alternately + loaded and the load removed, <span class="grk">Δ</span> = + <i>k</i><sub><i>max.</i></sub> and <i>k</i><sub><i>max.</i></sub> = 0.6 + K. For a bar subjected to alternate tension and compression of equal + amount, <span class="grk">Δ</span> = 2 + <i>f</i><sub><i>max.</i></sub> and <i>k</i><sub><i>max.</i></sub> = 0.33 + K. The safe working stress in these different cases is + <i>k</i><sub><i>max.</i></sub> divided by the factor of safety. It is + sometimes said that a bar is "fatigued" by repeated straining. The real + nature of the action is not well understood, but the word fatigue may be + used, if it is not considered to imply more than that the breaking stress + under repetition of loading diminishes as the range of variation + increases.</p> + + <p>It was pointed out as early as 1869 (Unwin, <i>Wrought Iron Bridges + and Roofs</i>) that a rational method of fixing the working stress, so + far as knowledge went at that time, would be to make it depend on the + ratio of live to dead load, and in such a way that the factor of safety + for the live load stresses was double that for the dead load stresses. + Let A be the dead load and B the live load, producing stress in a bar; + <span class="grk">ρ</span> = B/A the ratio of live to dead load; + <i>f</i><sub>1</sub> the safe working limit of stress for a bar subjected + to a dead load only and <i>f</i> the safe working stress in any other + case. Then</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>f</i><sub>1</sub> (A+B)/(A+2B) = <i>f</i><sub>1</sub>(1+<span class="grk">ρ</span>)/(1+2<span class="grk">ρ</span>).</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>The following table gives values of <i>f</i> so computed on the + assumption that <i>f</i><sub>1</sub> = 7½ tons per sq. in. for iron and 9 + tons per sq. in. for steel.</p> + + <p><i>Working Stress for combined Dead and Live Load. Factor of Safety + twice as great for Live Load as for Dead Load.</i></p> + + +<table width="67%" class="allb" summary="Working Stress for combined Dead and Live Load" title="Working Stress for combined Dead and Live Load"> + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:left; width:55%" rowspan="2"> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center; width:7%" rowspan="2"> + <p>Ratio<br /> <span + class="grk">ρ</span></p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center; width:7%" rowspan="2"> + <p>1+<span class="grk">ρ</span><br /> ——<br /> + 1+2<span class="grk">ρ</span></p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:left" colspan="2"> + <p>Values of <i>f</i>, tons per sq. in.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Iron.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Mild Steel.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>All dead load</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1.00</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center; width:14%"> + <p>7.5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center; width:14%"> + <p>9.0</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>.25</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.83</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>6.2</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>7.5</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>.50</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.75</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5.6</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>6.8</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p> .66</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.71</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5.3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>6.4</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Live load = Dead load</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1.00</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.66</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4.9</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5.9</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2.00</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.60</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4.5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5.4</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4.00</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.56</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4.2</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5.0</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>All live load</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>∞</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.50</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3.7</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4.5</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + + <p>Bridge sections designed by this rule differ little from those + designed by formulae based directly on Wöhler's experiments. This rule + has been revived in America, and appears to be increasingly relied on in + bridge-designing. (See <i>Trans. Am. Soc. C.E.</i> xli. p. 156.)</p> + + <p>The method of J.J. Weyrauch and W. Launhardt, based on an empirical + expression for Wöhler's law, has been much used in bridge designing (see + <i>Proc. Inst. C.E.</i> lxiii. p. 275). Let <i>t</i> be the <i>statical + breaking strength</i> of a bar, loaded once gradually up to fracture + (<i>t</i> = breaking load divided by original area of section); <i>u</i> + the breaking strength of a bar loaded and unloaded an indefinitely great + number of times, the stress varying from <i>u</i> to 0 alternately (this + is termed the <i>primitive strength</i>); and, lastly, let <i>s</i> be + the breaking strength of a bar subjected to an indefinitely great number + of repetitions of stresses equal and opposite in sign (tension and + thrust), so that the stress ranges alternately from <i>s</i> to + -<i>s</i>. This is termed the <i>vibration strength</i>. Wöhler's and + Bauschinger's experiments give values of <i>t</i>, <i>u</i>, and + <i>s</i>, for some materials. If a bar is subjected to alternations of + stress having the range <span class="grk">Δ</span> = + <i>f</i><sub><i>max.</i></sub>-<i>f</i><sub><i>min.</i></sub>, then, by + Wöhler's law, the bar will ultimately break, if</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>f</i><sub><i>max.</i></sub> = F<span class="grk">Δ</span>, . . . (1)</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>where F is some unknown function. Launhardt found that, for stresses + always of the same kind, F = + (<i>t</i>-<i>u</i>)/(<i>t</i>-<i>f</i><sub><i>max.</i></sub>) + approximately agreed with experiment. For stresses of different kinds + Weyrauch found F = + (<i>u</i>-<i>s</i>)/(2<i>u</i>-<i>s</i>-<i>f</i><sub><i>max.</i></sub>) + to be similarly approximate. Now let + <i>f</i><sub><i>max.</i></sub>/<i>f</i><sub><i>min.</i></sub> = <span + class="grk">φ</span>, where <span class="grk">φ</span> is + or - + according as the stresses are of the same or opposite signs. Putting the + values of F in (1) and solving for <i>f</i><sub><i>max.</i></sub>, we get + for the breaking stress of a bar subjected to repetition of varying + stress,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>f</i><sub><i>max.</i></sub> = <i>u</i>(1+(<i>t</i>-<i>u</i>)<span class="grk">φ</span>/<i>u</i>) [Stresses of same sign.]</p> + <p><i>f</i><sub><i>max.</i></sub> = <i>u</i>(1+(<i>u</i>-<i>s</i>)<span class="grk">φ</span>/<i>u</i>) [Stresses of opposite sign.]</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>The working stress in any case is <i>f</i><sub><i>max.</i></sub> + divided by a factor of safety. Let that factor be 3. Then Wöhler's + results for iron and Bauschinger's for steel give the following equations + for tension or thrust:—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Iron, working stress, <i>f</i> = 4.4 (1+½<span class="grk">φ</span>)</p> + <p>Steel, working stress, <i>f</i> = 5.87 (1+½<span class="grk">φ</span>).</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>In these equations <span class="grk">φ</span> is to have its + or + - value according to the case considered. For shearing stresses the + working stress may have 0.8 of its value for tension. The following table + gives values of the working stress calculated by these + equations:—</p> + + <p><i>Working Stress for Tension or Thrust by Launhardt and Weyrauch + Formula.</i></p> + + +<table width="70%" class="allb" summary="Working Stress for Tension or Thrust" title="Working Stress for Tension or Thrust"> + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:left; width:35%" rowspan="2"> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center; width:14%" rowspan="2"> + <p><span class="grk">φ</span></p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center; width:21%" rowspan="2"> + <p>1+<span class="grk">φ</span>/2</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center" colspan="2"> + <p>Working Stress <i>f</i>, tons per sq. in.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Iron.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Steel.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>All dead load</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1.0</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1.5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center; width:14%"> + <p>6.60</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center; width:14%"> + <p>8.80</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.75</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1.375</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 6.05</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 8.07</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.50</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1.25</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5.50</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>7.34</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.25</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1.125</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4.95</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>6.60</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>All live load</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.00</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1.00</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4.40</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5.87</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>-0.25</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.875</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3.85</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5.14</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>-0.50</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 0.75</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3.30</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4.40</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>-0.75</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.625</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2.75</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3.67</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Equal stresses + and -</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>-1.00</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.500</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2.20</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2.93</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p><!-- Page 550 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page550"></a>[v.04 p.0550]</span></p> + + <p>To compare this with the previous table, <span + class="grk">φ</span> = (A+B)/A = 1+<span class="grk">ρ</span>. + Except when the limiting stresses are of opposite sign, the two tables + agree very well. In bridge work this occurs only in some of the bracing + bars.</p> + + <p>It is a matter of discussion whether, if fatigue is allowed for by the + Weyrauch method, an additional allowance should be made for impact. There + was no impact in Wöhler's experiments, and therefore it would seem + rational to add the impact allowance to that for fatigue; but in that + case the bridge sections become larger than experience shows to be + necessary. Some engineers escape this difficulty by asserting that + Wöhler's results are not applicable to bridge work. They reject the + allowance for fatigue (that is, the effect of repetition) and design + bridge members for the total dead and live load, plus a large allowance + for impact varied according to some purely empirical rule. (See Waddell, + <i>De Pontibus</i>, p.7.) Now in applying Wöhler's law, + <i>f</i><sub><i>max.</i></sub> for any bridge member is found for the + maximum possible live load, a live load which though it may sometimes + come on the bridge and must therefore be provided for, is not the usual + live load to which the bridge is subjected. Hence the range of stress, + <i>f</i><sub><i>max.</i></sub>-<i>f</i><sub><i>min.</i></sub>, from which + the working stress is deduced, is not the ordinary range of stress which + is repeated a practically infinite number of times, but is a range of + stress to which the bridge is subjected only at comparatively long + intervals. Hence practically it appears probable that the allowance for + fatigue made in either of the tables above is sufficient to cover the + ordinary effects of impact also.</p> + + <p>English bridge-builders are somewhat hampered in adopting rational + limits of working stress by the rules of the Board of Trade. Nor do they + all accept the guidance of Wöhler's law. The following are some examples + of limits adopted. For the Dufferin bridge (steel) the working stress was + taken at 6.5 tons per sq. in. in bottom booms and diagonals, 6.0 tons in + top booms, 5.0 tons in verticals and long compression members. For the + Stanley bridge at Brisbane the limits were 6.5 tons per sq. in. in + compression boom, 7.0 tons in tension boom, 5.0 tons in vertical struts, + 6.5 tons in diagonal ties, 8.0 tons in wind bracing, and 6.5 tons in + cross and rail girders. In the new Tay bridge the limit of stress is + generally 5 tons per sq. in., but in members in which the stress changes + sign 4 tons per sq. in. In the Forth bridge for members in which the + stress varied from 0 to a maximum frequently, the limit was 5.0 tons per + sq. in., or if the stress varied rarely 5.6 tons per sq. in.; for members + subjected to alternations of tension and thrust frequently 3.3 tons per + sq. in. or 5 tons per sq. in. if the alternations were infrequent. The + shearing area of rivets in tension members was made 1½ times the useful + section of plate in tension. For compression members the shearing area of + rivets in butt-joints was made half the useful section of plate in + compression.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:50%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_37.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_37.png" + alt="Fig. 37.--Beam loading." title="Fig. 37.--Beam loading." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 37. + </div> + <p>20. <i>Determination of Stresses in the Members of + Bridges.</i>—It is convenient to consider beam girder or truss + bridges, and it is the stresses in the main girders which primarily + require to be determined. A main girder consists of an upper and lower + flange, boom or chord and a vertical web. The loading forces to be + considered are vertical, the horizontal forces due to wind pressure are + treated separately and provided for by a horizontal system of bracing. + For practical purposes it is accurate enough to consider the booms or + chords as carrying exclusively the horizontal tension and compression and + the web as resisting the whole of the vertical and, in a plate web, the + equal horizontal shearing forces. Let fig. 37 represent a beam with any + system of loads W<sub>1</sub>, W<sub>2</sub>, ... + W<sub><i>n</i></sub>.</p> + + <p>The reaction at the right abutment is</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>R<sub>2</sub> = W<sub>1</sub><i>x</i><sub>1</sub>/<i>l</i>+W<sub>2</sub><i>x</i><sub>2</sub>/<i>l</i>+...</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>That at the left abutment is</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>R<sub>1</sub> = W<sub>1</sub>+W<sub>2</sub>+...-R<sub>2</sub>.</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>Consider any section <i>a b</i>. The total shear at <i>a b</i> is</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>S = R-∑(W<sub>1</sub>+W<sub>2</sub> ...)</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>where the summation extends to all the loads to the left of the + section. Let <i>p</i><sub>1</sub>, <i>p</i><sub>2</sub> ... be the + distances of the loads from <i>a b</i>, and <i>p</i> the distance of + R<sub>1</sub> from <i>a b</i>; then the bending moment at <i>a b</i> + is</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>M = R<sub>1</sub><i>p</i>-∑(W<sub>1</sub><i>p</i><sub>1</sub>+W<sub>2</sub><i>p</i><sub>2</sub> ...)</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>where the summation extends to all the loads to the left of <i>a + b</i>. If the loads on the right of the section are considered the + expressions are similar and give the same results.</p> + + <p>If A<sub><i>t</i></sub> A<sub><i>c</i></sub> are the cross sections of + the tension and compression flanges or chords, and <i>h</i> the distance + between their mass centres, then on the assumption that they resist all + the direct horizontal forces the total stress on each flange is</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>H<sub><i>t</i></sub> = H<sub><i>c</i></sub> = M/<i>h</i></p> + </div> + </div> + <p>and the intensity of stress of tension or compression is</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>f</i><sub><i>t</i></sub> = M/A<sub><i>t</i></sub><i>h</i>,</p> + <p><i>f</i><sub><i>c</i></sub> = M/A<sub><i>c</i></sub><i>h</i>.</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>If A is the area of the plate web in a vertical section, the intensity + of shearing stress is</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>f</i><sub><i>x</i></sub> = S/A</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>and the intensity on horizontal sections is the same. If the web is a + braced web, then the vertical component of the stress in the web bars cut + by the section must be equal to S.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:50%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_38.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_38.png" + alt="Fig. 38.--Ritter's Method." title="Fig. 38.--Ritter's Method." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 38. + </div> + <p>21. <i>Method of Sections. A. Ritter's Method.</i>—In the case + of braced structures the following method is convenient: When a section + of a girder can be taken cutting only three bars, the stresses in the + bars can be found by taking moments. In fig. 38 <i>m n</i> cuts three + bars, and the forces in the three bars cut by the section are C, S and T. + There are to the left of the section the external forces, R, + W<sub>1</sub>, W<sub>2</sub>. Let <i>s</i> be the perpendicular from O, + the join of C and T on the direction of S; <i>t</i> the perpendicular + from A, the join of C and S on the direction of T; and <i>c</i> the + perpendicular from B, the join of S and T on the direction of C. Taking + moments about O,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>R<sub><i>x</i></sub>-W<sub>1</sub>(<i>x</i>+<i>a</i>)-W<sub>2</sub>(<i>x</i>+2<i>a</i>) = S<i>s</i>;</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>taking moments about A,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>R3<i>a</i>-W<sub>1</sub>2<i>a</i>-W<sub>2</sub><i>a</i> = T<i>t</i>;</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>and taking moments about B,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>R2<i>a</i>-W<sub>1</sub><i>a</i> = C<i>c</i></p> + </div> + </div> + <p>Or generally, if M<sub>1</sub> M<sub>2</sub> M<sub>3</sub> are the + moments of the external forces to the left of O, A, and B respectively, + and <i>s</i>, <i>t</i> and <i>c</i> the perpendiculars from O, A and B on + the directions of the forces cut by the section, then</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>S<i>s</i> = M<sub>1</sub>; T<i>t</i> = M<sub>2</sub> and C<i>c</i> = M<sub>3</sub>.</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>Still more generally if H is the stress on any bar, <i>h</i> the + perpendicular distance from the join of the other two bars cut by the + section, and M is the moment of the forces on one side of that join,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>H<i>h</i> = M.</p> + </div> + </div> + <div class="figright" style="width:25%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_40.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_40.png" + alt="Fig. 40.--Uniform load on girder." title="Fig. 40.--Uniform load on girder." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 40. + </div> + <div class="figright" style="width:24%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_39.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_39.png" + alt="Fig. 39.--Single load on girder." title="Fig. 39.--Single load on girder." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 39. + </div> + <p>22. <i>Distribution of Bending Moment and Shearing + Force.</i>—Let a girder of span <i>l</i>, fig. 39, supported at the + ends, carry a fixed load W at m from the right abutment. The reactions at + the abutments are R<sub>1</sub> = W<i>m</i>/<i>l</i> and R<sub>2</sub> = + W(<i>l</i>-<i>m</i>)/<i>l</i>. The shears on vertical sections to the + left and right of the load are R<sub>1</sub> and -R<sub>2</sub>, and the + distribution of shearing force is given by two rectangles. Bending moment + increases uniformly from either abutment to the load, at which the + bending moment is M = R<sub>2</sub><i>m</i> = + R<sub>1</sub>(<i>l</i>-<i>m</i>). The distribution of bending moment is + given by the ordinates of a triangle. Next let the girder carry a uniform + load <i>w</i> per ft. run (fig. 40). The total load <!-- Page 551 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page551"></a>[v.04 p.0551]</span>is + <i>wl</i>; the reactions at abutments, R<sub>1</sub> = R<sub>2</sub> = + ½<i>wl</i>. The distribution of shear on vertical sections is given by + the ordinates of a sloping line. The greatest bending moment is at the + centre and = M<sub><i>c</i></sub> = ⅛<i>wl</i><sup>2</sup>. At any + point <i>x</i> from the abutment, the bending moment is M = + ½<i>wx</i>(<i>l</i>-<i>x</i>), an equation to a parabola.</p> + + <p>23. <i>Shear due to Travelling Loads.</i>—Let a uniform train + weighing <i>w</i> per ft. run advance over a girder of span 2<i>c</i>, + from the left abutment. When it covers the girder to a distance <i>x</i> + from the centre (fig. 41) the total load is <i>w</i>(<i>c</i>+<i>x</i>); + the reaction at B is</p> + +<table class="math"><tr><td>R<sub>2</sub> = <i>w</i>(<i>c</i>+<i>x</i>)×</td><td><i>c</i>+<i>x</i><br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />4<i>c</i></td><td> = </td><td><i>w</i><br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />4<i>c</i></td><td>(<i>c</i>+<i>x</i>)²,</td></tr></table> + + <div class="figright" style="width:40%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_42.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_42.png" + alt="Fig. 42.--Shear from dead load and travelling load." title="Fig. 42.--Shear from dead load and travelling load." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 42. + </div> + <div class="figright" style="width:23%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_41.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_41.png" + alt="Fig. 41.--Load caused by train advancing over girder." title="Fig. 41.--Load caused by train advancing over girder." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 41. + </div> + <p>which is also the shearing force at C for that position of the load. + As the load travels, the shear at the head of the train will be given by + the ordinates of a parabola having its vertex at A, and a maximum + F<sub><i>max.</i></sub> = -½<i>wl</i> at B. If the load travels the + reverse way, the shearing force at the head of the train is given by the + ordinates of the dotted parabola. The greatest shear at C for any + position of the load occurs when the head of the train is at C. For any + load <i>p</i> between C and B will increase the reaction at B and + therefore the shear at C by part of <i>p</i>, but at the same time will + diminish the shear at C by the whole of <i>p</i>. The web of a girder + must resist the maximum shear, and, with a travelling load like a railway + train, this is greater for partial than for complete loading. Generally a + girder supports both a dead and a live load. The distribution of total + shear, due to a dead load <i>w</i><sub><i>l</i></sub> per ft. run and a + travelling load <i>w</i><sub><i>l</i></sub> per ft. run, is shown in fig. + 42, arranged so that the dead load shear is added to the maximum + travelling load shear of the same sign.</p> + + <div class="figleft" style="width:22%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_43.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_43.png" + alt="Fig. 43.--Maximum shear at vertical sections due to dead and travelling load." title="Fig. 43.--Maximum shear at vertical sections due to dead and travelling load." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 43. + </div> + <p>24. <i>Counterbracing.</i>—In the case of girders with braced + webs, the tension bars of which are not adapted to resist a thrust, + another circumstance due to the position of the live load must be + considered. For a train advancing from the left, the travelling load + shear in the left half of the span is of a different sign from that due + to the dead load. Fig. 43 shows the maximum shear at vertical sections + due to a dead and travelling load, the latter advancing (fig. 43, + <i>a</i>) from the left and (fig. 43, <i>b</i>) from the right abutment. + Comparing the figures it will be seen that over a distance x near the + middle of the girder the shear changes sign, according as the load + advances from the left or the right. The bracing bars, therefore, for + this part of the girder must be adapted to resist either tension or + thrust. Further, the range of stress to which they are subjected is the + sum of the stresses due to the load advancing from the left or the + right.</p> + + <p><br style="clear : both" /></p> + <div class="figright" style="width:40%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_46.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_46.png" + alt="Fig. 46.--Advancing loads." title="Fig. 46.--Advancing loads." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 46. + </div> + <div class="figright" style="width:20%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_45.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_45.png" + alt="Fig. 45.--Action distributed by flooring." title="Fig. 45.--Action distributed by flooring." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 45. + </div> + <div class="figright" style="width:25%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_44.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_44.png" + alt="Fig. 44.--Shear when concentrated loads travel over the Bridge." title="Fig. 44.--Shear when concentrated loads travel over the Bridge." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 44. + </div> + <p><br style="clear : both" /></p> + <p>25. <i>Greatest Shear when concentrated Loads travel over the + Bridge.</i>—To find the greatest shear with a set of concentrated + loads at fixed distances, let the loads advance from the left abutment, + and let C be the section at which the shear is required (fig. 44). The + greatest shear at C may occur with W<sub>1</sub> at C. If W<sub>1</sub> + passes beyond C, the shear at C will probably be greatest when + W<sub>2</sub> is at C. Let R be the resultant of the loads on the bridge + when W<sub>1</sub> is at C. Then the reaction at B and shear at C is + R<i>n</i>/<i>l</i>. Next let the loads advance a distance a so that + W<sub>2</sub> comes to C. Then the shear at C is + R(<i>n</i>+<i>a</i>)/<i>l</i>-W<sub>1</sub>, plus any reaction <i>d</i> + at B, due to any additional load which has come on the girder during the + movement. The shear will therefore be increased by bringing W<sub>2</sub> + to C, if R<i>a</i>/<i>l</i>+<i>d</i> > W<sub>1</sub> and <i>d</i> is + generally small and negligible. This result is modified if the action of + the load near the section is distributed to the bracing intersections by + rail and cross girders. In fig. 45 the action of W is distributed to A + and B by the flooring. Then the loads at A and B are + W(<i>p</i>-<i>x</i>)/<i>p</i> and W<i>x</i>/<i>p</i>. Now let C (fig. 46) + be the section at which the greatest shear is required, and let the loads + advance from the left till W<sub>1</sub> is at C. If R is the resultant + of the loads then on the girder, the reaction at B and shear at C is + R<i>n</i>/<i>l</i>. But the shear may be greater when W<sub>2</sub> is at + C. In that case the shear at C becomes + R(<i>n</i>+<i>a</i>)/<i>l</i>+<i>d</i>-W<sub>1</sub>, if <i>a</i> > + <i>p</i>, and + R(<i>n</i>+<i>a</i>)/<i>l</i>+<i>d</i>-W<sub>1</sub><i>a</i>/<i>p</i>, if + <i>a</i> < <i>p</i>. If we neglect <i>d</i>, then the shear increases + by moving W<sub>2</sub> to C, if R<i>a</i>/<i>l</i> > W<sub>1</sub> in + the first case, and if R<i>a</i>/<i>l</i> > + W<sub>1</sub><i>a</i>/<i>p</i> in the second case.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:45%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_48.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_48.png" + alt="Fig. 48.--Series of travelling loads." title="Fig. 48.--Series of travelling loads." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 48. + </div> + <div class="figleft" style="width:45%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_47.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_47.png" + alt="Fig. 47.--Travelling live load." title="Fig. 47.--Travelling live load." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 47. + </div> + <p><br style="clear : both" /></p> + <p>26. <i>Greatest Bending Moment due to travelling concentrated + Loads.</i>—For the greatest bending moment due to a travelling live + load, let a load of <i>w</i> per ft. run advance from the left abutment + (fig. 47), and let its centre be at <i>x</i> from the left abutment. The + reaction at B is 2<i>wx</i>²/<i>l</i> and the bending moment at any + section C, at <i>m</i> from the left abutment, is + 2<i>wx</i>²/(<i>l</i>-<i>m</i>)/<i>l</i>, which increases as <i>x</i> + increases till the span is covered. Hence, for uniform travelling loads, + the bending moments are greatest when the loading is complete. In that + case the loads on either side of C are proportional to <i>m</i> and + <i>l</i>-<i>m</i>. In the case of a series of travelling loads at fixed + distances apart passing over the girder from the left, let W<sub>1</sub>, + W<sub>2</sub> (fig. 48), at distances <i>x</i> and <i>x</i>+<i>a</i> from + the left abutment, be their resultants on either side of C. Then the + reaction at B is + W<sub>1</sub><i>x</i>/<i>l</i>+W<sub>2</sub>(<i>x</i>+<i>a</i>)/<i>l</i>. + The bending moment at C is</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>M = W<sub>1</sub><i>x</i>(<i>l</i>-<i>m</i>)/<i>l</i>+W<sub>2</sub><i>m</i>{1-(<i>x</i>+<i>a</i>)/<i>l</i>}.</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>If the loads are moved a distance ∆<i>x</i> to the right, the + bending moment becomes</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>M+∆M = W<sub>1</sub>(<i>x</i>+∆<i>x</i>)(<i>l</i>-<i>m</i>)/<i>l</i>+W<sub>2</sub><i>m</i>{1-(<i>x</i>+∆<i>x</i>+<i>a</i>)/<i>l</i>}</p> + <p class="i8">∆<i>m</i> = W<sub>1</sub>∆<i>x</i>(<i>l</i>-<i>m</i>)/<i>l</i>-W<sub>2</sub>∆<i>xm</i>/<i>l</i>,</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>and this is positive or the bending moment increases, if + W<sub>1</sub>(<i>l</i>-<i>m</i>) > W<sub>2</sub><i>m</i>, or if + W<sub>1</sub>/<i>m</i> > W<sub>2</sub>/(<i>l</i>-<i>m</i>). But these are + the average loads per ft. run to the left and right of C. Hence, if the + average load to the left of a section is greater than that to the right, + the bending moment at the section will be increased by moving the loads + to the right, and vice versa. Hence the maximum bending moment at C for a + series of travelling loads will occur when the average load is the same + on either side of C. If one of the loads is at C, spread over a very + small distance in the neighbourhood of C, then a very small displacement + of the loads will permit the fulfilment of the condition. Hence the + criterion for the position of the loads which makes the moment at C + greatest is this: one load must be at C, and the other loads must be + distributed, so that the average loads per ft. on either side of C (the + load at C being neglected) are nearly equal. If the loads are very + unequal in magnitude or distance this condition may be satisfied for more + than one position of the loads, but it is not difficult to ascertain + which position gives the maximum moment. Generally one of the largest of + the loads must be at C with as many others to right and left as is + consistent with that condition.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:39%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_49.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_49.png" + alt="Fig. 49.--Beam with series of travelling loads." title="Fig. 49.--Beam with series of travelling loads." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 49. + </div> + <p>This criterion may be stated in another way. The greatest bending + moment will occur with one of the greatest loads at the section, and when + this further condition is satisfied. Let fig. 49 represent a beam with + the series of loads travelling from the right. Let <i>a b</i> be <!-- + Page 552 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page552"></a>[v.04 + p.0552]</span>the section considered, and let W<sub><i>x</i></sub> be the + load at <i>a b</i> when the bending moment there is greatest, and + W<sub><i>n</i></sub> the last load to the right then on the bridge. Then + the position of the loads must be that which satisfies the condition</p> + +<table class="math"><tr><td><i>x</i><br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br /><i>l</i></td><td>greater than</td><td>W<sub>1</sub>+W<sub>2</sub>+... W<sub><i>x</i>-1</sub><br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />W<sub>1</sub>+W<sub>2</sub>+... W<sub><i>n</i></sub></td></tr></table> + +<table class="math"><tr><td><i>x</i><br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br /><i>l</i></td><td>less than</td><td>W<sub>1</sub>+W<sub>2</sub>+... W<sub><i>x</i></sub><br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />W<sub>1</sub>+W<sub>2</sub>+... W<sub><i>n</i></sub></td></tr></table> + + <div class="figleft" style="width:45%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_50.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_50.png" + alt="Fig. 50.--Curve of bending moment." title="Fig. 50.--Curve of bending moment." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 50. + </div> + <p>Fig. 50 shows the curve of bending moment under one of a series of + travelling loads at fixed distances. Let W<sub>1</sub>, W<sub>2</sub>, + W<sub>3</sub> traverse the girder from the left at fixed distances + <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>. For the position shown the distribution of bending + moment due to W<sub>1</sub> is given by ordinates of the triangle + A′CB′; that due to W<sub>2</sub> by ordinates of + A′DB′; and that due to W<sub>3</sub> by ordinates + A′EB′. The total moment at W<sub>1</sub>, due to three loads, + is the sum <i>m</i>C+<i>mn</i>+<i>mo</i> of the intercepts which the + triangle sides cut off from the vertical under W<sub>1</sub>. As the + loads move over the girder, the points C, D, E describe the parabolas + M<sub>1</sub>, M<sub>2</sub>, M<sub>3</sub>, the middle ordinates of + which are ¼W<sub>1</sub><i>l</i>, ¼W<sub>2</sub><i>l</i>, and + ¼W<sub>3</sub><i>l</i>. If these are first drawn it is easy, for any + position of the loads, to draw the lines B′C, B′D, B′E, + and to find the sum of the intercepts which is the total bending moment + under a load. The lower portion of the figure is the curve of bending + moments under the leading load. Till W<sub>1</sub> has advanced a + distance a only one load is on the girder, and the curve A″F gives + bending moments due to W<sub>1</sub> only; as W<sub>1</sub> advances to a + distance <i>a</i>+<i>b</i>, two loads are on the girder, and the curve FG + gives moments due to W<sub>1</sub> and W<sub>2</sub>. GB″ is the + curve of moments for all three loads + W<sub>1</sub>+W<sub>2</sub>+W<sub>3</sub>.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:50%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_51.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_51.png" + alt="Fig. 51.--Short bridge with very unequal loads." title="Fig. 51.--Short bridge with very unequal loads." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 51. + </div> + <p>Fig. 51 shows maximum bending moment curves for an extreme case of a + short bridge with very unequal loads. The three lightly dotted parabolas + are the curves of maximum moment for each of the loads taken separately. + The three heavily dotted curves are curves of maximum moment under each + of the loads, for the three loads passing over the bridge, at the given + distances, from left to right. As might be expected, the moments are + greatest in this case at the sections under the 15-ton load. The heavy + continuous line gives the last-mentioned curve for the reverse direction + of passage of the loads.</p> + + <p>With short bridges it is best to draw the curve of maximum bending + moments for some assumed typical set of loads in the way just described, + and to design the girder accordingly. For longer bridges the funicular + polygon affords a method of determining maximum bending moments which is + perhaps more convenient. But very great accuracy in drawing this curve is + unnecessary, because the rolling stock of railways varies so much that + the precise magnitude and distribution of the loads which will pass over + a bridge cannot be known. All that can be done is to assume a set of + loads likely to produce somewhat severer straining than any probable + actual rolling loads. Now, except for very short bridges and very unequal + loads, a parabola can be found which includes the curve of maximum + moments. This parabola is the curve of maximum moments for a travelling + load uniform per ft. run. Let <i>w</i><sub><i>e</i></sub> be the load per + ft. run which would produce the maximum moments represented by this + parabola. Then <i>w</i><sub><i>e</i></sub> may be termed the uniform load + per ft. equivalent to any assumed set of concentrated loads. Waddell has + calculated tables of such equivalent uniform loads. But it is not + difficult to find <i>w</i><sub><i>e</i></sub>, approximately enough for + practical purposes, very simply. Experience shows that (<i>a</i>) a + parabola having the same ordinate at the centre of the span, or + (<i>b</i>) a parabola having the same ordinate at one-quarter span as the + curve of maximum moments, agrees with it closely enough for practical + designing. A criterion already given shows the position of any set of + loads which will produce the greatest bending moment at the centre of the + bridge, or at one-quarter span. Let M<sub><i>c</i></sub> and + M<sub><i>a</i></sub> be those moments. At a section distant <i>x</i> from + the centre of a girder of span 2<i>c</i>, the bending moment due to a + uniform load <i>w</i><sub><i>e</i></sub> per ft run is</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>M = ½<i>w</i><sub><i>e</i></sub>(<i>c</i>-<i>x</i>)(<i>c</i>+<i>x</i>).</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>Putting x = 0, for the centre section</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>M<sub><i>c</i></sub> = ½<i>w</i><sub><i>e</i></sub><i>c</i><sup>2</sup>;</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>and putting x = ½c, for section at quarter span</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>M<sub><i>a</i></sub> = ⅜<i>w</i><sub><i>e</i></sub><i>c</i><sup>2</sup>.</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>From these equations a value of <i>w</i><sub><i>e</i></sub> can be + obtained. Then the bridge is designed, so far as the direct stresses are + concerned, for bending moments due to a uniform dead load and the uniform + equivalent load <i>w</i><sub><i>e</i></sub>.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:47%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_52.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_52.png" + alt="Fig. 52.--Influence Lines." title="Fig. 52.--Influence Lines." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 52. + </div> + <p>27. <i>Influence Lines.</i>—In dealing with the action of + travelling loads much assistance may be obtained by using a line termed + an <i>influence line</i>. Such a line has for abscissa the distance of a + load from one end of a girder, and for ordinate the bending moment or + shear at any given section, or on any member, due to that load. Generally + the influence line is drawn for unit load. In fig. 52 let + A′B′ be a girder supported at the ends and let it be required + to investigate the bending moment at C′ due to unit load in any + position on the girder. When the load is at F′, the reaction at + B′ is <i>m</i>/<i>l</i> and the moment at C′ is + <i>m</i>(<i>l</i>-<i>x</i>)/<i>l</i>, which will be reckoned positive, + when it resists a tendency of the right-hand part of the girder to turn + counter-clockwise. Projecting A′F′C′B′ on to the + horizontal AB, take F<i>f</i> = <i>m</i>(<i>l</i>-<i>x</i>)/<i>l</i>, the + moment at C of unit load at F. If this process is repeated for all + positions of the load, we get the influence line AGB for the bending + moment at C. The area AGB is termed the influence area. The greatest + moment CG at C is <i>x</i>(<i>l</i>-<i>x</i>)/<i>l</i>. To use this line + to investigate the maximum moment at C due to a series of travelling + loads at fixed distances, let P<sub>1</sub>, P<sub>2</sub>, + P<sub>3</sub>, ... be the loads which at the moment considered are at + distances <i>m</i><sub>1</sub>, <i>m</i><sub>2</sub>, ... from the left + abutment. Set off these distances along AB and let <i>y</i><sub>1</sub>, + <i>y</i><sub>2</sub>, ... be the corresponding ordinates of the influence + curve (<i>y</i> = F<i>f</i>) on the verticals under the loads. Then the + moment at C due to all the loads is</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>M = P<sub>1</sub><i>y</i><sub>1</sub>+P<sub>2</sub><i>y</i><sub>2</sub>+...</p> + </div> + </div> +<p><!-- Page 553 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page553"></a>[v.04 p.0553]</span></p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:32%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_53.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_53.png" + alt="Fig. 53.--Cross girders." title="Fig. 53.--Cross girders." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 53. + </div> + <p>The position of the loads which gives the greatest moment at C may be + settled by the criterion given above. For a uniform travelling load + <i>w</i> per ft. of span, consider a small interval F<i>k</i> = + ∆<i>m</i> on which the load is <i>w</i>∆m. The moment due + to this, at C, is <i>wm</i>(<i>l</i>-<i>x</i>)∆<i>m</i>/<i>l</i>. + But <i>m</i>(<i>l</i>-<i>x</i>)∆<i>m</i>/<i>l</i> is the area of + the strip F<i>fhk</i>, that is <i>y</i>∆<i>m</i>. Hence the moment + of the load on ∆<i>m</i> at C is <i>wy</i>∆<i>m</i>, and + the moment of a uniform load over any portion of the girder is <i>w</i> × + the area of the influence curve under that portion. If the scales are so + chosen that <i>a</i> inch represents 1 in. ton of moment, and <i>b</i> + inch represents 1 ft. of span, and <i>w</i> is in tons per ft. run, then + <i>ab</i> is the unit of area in measuring the influence curve.</p> + + <p>If the load is carried by a rail girder (stringer) with cross girders + at the intersections of bracing and boom, its effect is distributed to + the bracing intersections D′E′ (fig. 53), and the part of the + influence line for that bay (panel) is altered. With unit load in the + position shown, the load at D′ is (<i>p</i>-<i>n</i>)/<i>p</i>, and + that at E′ is <i>n</i>/<i>p</i>. The moment of the load at C is + <i>m</i>(<i>l</i>-<i>x</i>)/<i>l</i>-<i>n</i>(<i>p</i>-<i>n</i>)/<i>p</i>. + This is the equation to the dotted line RS (fig. 52).</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:32%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_55.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_55.png" + alt="Fig. 55." title="Fig. 55." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 55 + </div> + <div class="figleft" style="width:49%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_54.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_54.png" + alt="Fig. 54." title="Fig. 54." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 54. + </div> + <p><br style="clear : both" /></p> + <p>If the unit load is at F′, the reaction at B′ and the + shear at C′ is <i>m</i>/<i>l</i>, positive if the shearing stress + resists a tendency of the part of the girder on the right to move + upwards; set up F<i>f</i> = <i>m</i>/<i>l</i> (fig. 54) on the vertical + under the load. Repeating the process for other positions, we get the + influence line AGHB, for the shear at C due to unit load anywhere on the + girder. GC = <i>x</i>/<i>l</i> and CH = -(<i>l</i>-<i>x</i>)/<i>l</i>. + The lines AG, HB are parallel. If the load is in the bay D′E′ + and is carried by a rail girder which distributes it to cross girders at + D′E′, the part of the influence line under this bay is + altered. Let <i>n</i> (Fig. 55) be the distance of the load from + D′, <i>x</i><sub>1</sub> the distance of D′ from the left + abutment, and <i>p</i> the length of a bay. The loads at D′, E, due + to unit weight on the rail girder are (<i>p</i>-<i>n</i>)/<i>p</i> and + <i>n</i>/<i>p</i>. The reaction at B′ is + {(<i>p</i>-<i>n</i>)<i>x</i><sub>1</sub>+<i>n</i>(<i>x</i><sub>1</sub>+<i>p</i>)}/<i>pl</i>. + The shear at C′ is the reaction at B′ less the load at + E′, that is, + {<i>p</i>(<i>x</i><sub>1</sub>+<i>n</i>)-<i>nl</i>}/<i>pl</i>, which is + the equation to the line DH (fig. 54). Clearly, the distribution of the + load by the rail girder considerably alters the distribution of shear due + to a load in the bay in which the section considered lies. The total + shear due to a series of loads P<sub>1</sub>, P<sub>2</sub>, ... at + distances <i>m</i><sub>1</sub>, <i>m</i><sub>2</sub>, ... from the left + abutment, <i>y</i><sub>1</sub>, <i>y</i><sub>2</sub>, ... being the + ordinates of the influence curve under the loads, is S = + P<sub>1</sub><i>y</i><sub>1</sub>+P<sub>2</sub><i>y</i><sub>2</sub>+.... + Generally, the greatest shear S at C will occur when the longer of the + segments into which C divides the girder is fully loaded and the other is + unloaded, the leading load being at C. If the loads are very unequal or + unequally spaced, a trial or two will determine which position gives the + greatest value of S. The greatest shear at C′ of the opposite sign + to that due to the loading of the longer segment occurs with the shorter + segment loaded. For a uniformly distributed load <i>w</i> per ft. run the + shear at C is <i>w</i> × the area of the influence curve under the + segment covered by the load, attention being paid to the sign of the area + of the curve. If the load rests directly on the main girder, the greatest + + and - shears at C will be <i>w</i> × AGC and -<i>w</i> × CHB. But if + the load is distributed to the bracing intersections by rail and cross + girders, then the shear at C′ will be greatest when the load + extends to N, and will have the values <i>w</i> × ADN and -<i>w</i> × + NEB. An interesting paper by F.C. Lea, dealing with the determination of + stress due to concentrated loads, by the method of influence lines will + be found in <i>Proc. Inst. C.E.</i> clxi. p.261.</p> + + <p>Influence lines were described by Fränkel, <i>Der Civilingenieur</i>, + 1876. See also <i>Handbuch der Ingenieur-wissenschaften</i>, vol. ii. ch. + x. (1882), and Levy, <i>La Statique graphique</i> (1886). There is a + useful paper by Prof. G.F. Swain (<i>Trans. Am. Soc. C.E.</i> xvii., + 1887), and another by L.M. Hoskins (<i>Proc. Am. Soc. C.E.</i> xxv., + 1899).</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:47%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_56.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_56.png" + alt="Fig. 56.--Eddy's Method." title="Fig. 56.--Eddy's Method." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 56. + </div> + <p>28. <i>Eddy's Method.</i>—Another method of investigating the + maximum shear at a section due to any distribution of a travelling load + has been given by Prof. H.T. Eddy (<i>Trans. Am. Soc. C.E.</i> xxii., + 1890). Let <i>hk</i> (fig. 56) represent in magnitude and position a load + W, at <i>x</i> from the left abutment, on a girder AB of span <i>l</i>. + Lay off <i>kf</i>, <i>hg</i>, horizontal and equal to <i>l</i>. Join + <i>f</i> and <i>g</i> to <i>h</i> and <i>k</i>. Draw verticals at A, B, + and join <i>no</i>. Obviously <i>no</i> is horizontal and equal to + <i>l</i>. Also <i>mn</i>/<i>mf</i> = <i>hk</i>/<i>kf</i> or + <i>mn</i>-W(<i>l</i>-<i>x</i>)/<i>l</i>, which is the reaction at A due + to the load at C, and is the shear at any point of AC. Similarly, + <i>po</i> is the reaction at B and shear at any point of CB. The shaded + rectangles represent the distribution of shear due to the load at C, + while <i>no</i> may be termed the datum line of shear. Let the load move + to D, so that its distance from the left abutment is <i>x</i>+<i>a</i>. + Draw a vertical at D, intersecting <i>fh</i>, <i>kg</i>, in <i>s</i> and + <i>q</i>. Then <i>qr</i>/<i>ro</i> = <i>hk</i>/<i>hg</i> or <i>ro</i> = + W(<i>l</i>-<i>x</i>-<i>a</i>)/<i>l</i>, which is the reaction at A and + shear at any point of AD, for the new position of the load. Similarly, + <i>rs</i> = W(<i>x</i>+<i>a</i>)/<i>l</i> is the shear on DB. The + distribution of shear is given by the partially shaded rectangles. For + the application of this method to a series of loads Prof. Eddy's paper + must be referred to.</p> + + <p>29. <i>Economic Span.</i>—In the case of a bridge of many spans, + there is a length of span which makes the cost of the bridge least. The + cost of abutments and bridge flooring is practically independent of the + length of span adopted. Let P be the cost of one pier; C the cost of the + main girders for one span, erected; <i>n</i> the number of spans; + <i>l</i> the length of one span, and L the length of the bridge between + abutments. Then, <i>n</i> = L/<i>l</i> nearly. Cost of piers + (<i>n</i>-1)P. Cost of main girders <i>n</i>G. The cost of a pier will + not vary materially with the span adopted. It depends mainly on the + character of the foundations and height at which the bridge is carried. + The cost of the main girders for one span will vary nearly as the square + of the span for any given type of girder and intensity of live load. That + is, G = <i>al</i>², where <i>a</i> is a constant. Hence the total cost of + that part of the bridge which varies with the span adopted is—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>C = (<i>n</i>-<i>i</i>)P+<i>nal</i>²</p> + <p class="i2">= LP/<i>l</i>-P+L<i>al</i>.</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>Differentiating and equating to zero, the cost is least when</p> + +<table class="math"><tr><td><i>d</i>C<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br /><i>dl</i></td><td>=</td><td>-LP<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br /><i>l</i>²</td><td>+L<i>a</i> = 0,</td></tr></table> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i4">P = <i>al</i>² = G;</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>that is, when the cost of one pier is equal to the cost erected of the + main girders of one span. Sir Guilford Molesworth puts this in a + convenient but less exact form. Let G be the cost of superstructure of a + 100-ft. span erected, and P the cost of one pier with its protection. + Then the economic span is <i>l</i> = 100√P/√G.</p> + + <p>30. <i>Limiting Span.</i>—If the weight of the main girders of a + bridge, per ft. run in tons, is—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>w</i><sub>3</sub> = (<i>w</i><sub>1</sub>+<i>w</i><sub>2</sub>)<i>lr</i>/(K-<i>lr</i>)</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>according to a formula already given, then <i>w</i><sub>3</sub> + becomes infinite if <i>k</i>-<i>lr</i> = 0, or if</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>l</i> = K/<i>r</i>,</p> + </div> + </div> +<p><!-- Page 554 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page554"></a>[v.04 p.0554]</span></p> + + <p>where <i>l</i> is the span in feet and <i>r</i> is the ratio of span + to depth of girder at centre. Taking K for steel girders as 7200 to + 9000,</p> + + +<table width="37%" class="nob" summary="Limiting Spans" title="Limiting Spans"> + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left; width:50%"> + </td> + <td style="text-align:center; width:50%"> + <p>Limiting Span in Ft.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:center"> + <p><i>r</i> = 12</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:center"> + <p><i>l</i> = 600 to 750</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:center"> + <p><i>r</i> = 10</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:center"> + <p><i>l</i> = 720 to 900</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:center"> + <p><i>r</i> = 8</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:center"> + <p><i>l</i> = 900 to 1120</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + + <p>The practical limit of span would be less than this. Professor Claxton + Fidier (<i>Treatise on Bridge Construction</i>, 1887) has made a very + careful theoretical analysis of the weights of bridges of different + types, and has obtained the following values for the limiting spans. For + parallel girders when <i>r</i> = 10, the limiting span is 1070 ft. For + parabolic or bowstring girders, when <i>r</i> = 8, the limiting span is + 1280 ft. For flexible suspension bridges with wrought iron link chains, + and dip = 1/10th of the span, the limiting span is 2800 ft. For stiffened + suspension bridges with wire cables, if the dip is 1/10th of the span the + limiting span is 2700 to 3600 ft., and if the dip is 1/8th of the span, + 3250 to 4250 ft., according to the factor of safety allowed.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:20%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_57.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_57.png" + alt="Fig. 57.--Braced frame." title="Fig. 57.--Braced frame." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 57. + </div> + <p>31. <i>Braced Girders.</i>—A frame is a rigid structure composed + of straight struts and ties. The struts and ties are called bracing bars. + The frame as a whole may be subject to a bending moment, but each member + is simply extended or compressed so that the total stress on a given + member is the same at all its cross sections, while the intensity of + stress is uniform for all the parts of any one cross section. This result + must follow in any frame, the members of which are so connected that the + joints offer little or no resistance to change in the relative angular + position of the members. Thus if the members are pinned together, the + joint consisting of a single circular pin, the centre of which lies in + the axis of the piece, it is clear that the direction of the only stress + which can be transmitted from pin to pin will coincide with this axis. + The axis becomes, therefore, a line of resistance, and in reasoning of + the stresses on frames we may treat the frame as consisting of simple + straight lines from joint to joint. It is found in practice that the + stresses on the several members do not differ sensibly whether these + members are pinned together with a single pin or more rigidly jointed by + several bolts or rivets. Frames are much used as girders, and they also + give useful designs for suspension and arched bridges. A frame used to + support a weight is often called a <i>truss</i>; the stresses on the + various members of a truss can be computed for any given load with + greater accuracy than the intensity of stress on the various parts of a + continuous structure such as a tubular girder, or the rib of an arch. + Many assumptions are made in treating of the flexure of a continuous + structure which are not strictly true; no assumption is made in + determining the stresses on a frame except that the joints are flexible, + and that the frame shall be so stiff as not sensibly to alter in form + under the load. Frames used as bridge trusses should never be designed so + that the elongation or compression of one member can elongate or compress + any other member. An example will serve to make the meaning of this + limitation clearer. Let a frame consist of the five members AB, BD, DC, + CA, CB (fig. 57), jointed at the points A, B, C and D, and all capable of + resisting tension and compression. This frame will be <i>rigid</i>, i.e. + it cannot be distorted without causing an alteration in the length of one + or more of the members; but if from a change of temperature or any other + cause one or all of the members change their length, this will not + produce a stress on any member, but will merely cause a change in the + form of the frame. Such a frame as this cannot be <i>self-strained</i>. A + workman, for instance, cannot produce a stress on one member by making + some other member of a wrong length. Any error of this kind will merely + affect the form of the frame; if, however, another member be introduced + between A and D, then if BC be shortened AD will be strained so as to + extend it, and the four other members will be compressed; if CB is + lengthened AD will thereby be compressed, and the four other members + extended; if the workman does not make CB and AD of exactly the right + length they and all the members will be permanently strained. These + stresses will be unknown quantities, which the designer cannot take into + account, and such a combination should if possible be avoided. A frame of + this second type is said to have one <i>redundant member</i>.</p> + + <p>32. <i>Types of Braced Girder Bridges.</i>—Figs. 58, 59 and 60 + show an independent girder, a cantilever, and a cantilever and suspended + girder bridge.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:50%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_59.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_59.png" + alt="Fig. 59.--Cantilever girder bridge." title="Fig. 59.--Cantilever girder bridge." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 59. + </div> + <div class="figleft" style="width:33%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_58.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_58.png" + alt="Fig. 58.--Independent girder bridge." title="Fig. 58.--Independent girder bridge." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 58. + </div> + <p><br style="clear : both" /></p> + <div class="figright" style="width:47%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_60.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_60.png" + alt="Fig. 60.--Cantilever and suspended girder bridge." title="Fig. 60.--Cantilever and suspended girder bridge." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 60. + </div> + <p>In a three-span bridge continuous girders are lighter than + discontinuous ones by about 45% for the dead load and 15% for the live + load, if no allowance is made for ambiguity due to uncertainty as to the + level of the supports. The cantilever and suspended girder types are as + economical and free from uncertainty as to the stresses. In long-span + bridges the cantilever system permits erection by building out, which is + economical and sometimes necessary. It is, however, unstable unless + rigidly fixed at the piers. In the Forth bridge stability is obtained + partly by the great excess of dead over live load, partly by the great + width of the river piers. The majority of bridges not of great span have + girders with parallel booms. This involves the fewest difficulties of + workmanship and perhaps permits the closest approximation of actual to + theoretical dimensions of the parts. In spans over 200 ft. it is + economical to have one horizontal boom and one polygonal (approximately + parabolic) boom. The hog-backed girder is a compromise between the two + types, avoiding some difficulties of construction near the ends of the + girder.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:46%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_61.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_61.png" + alt="Fig. 61.--Trusses." title="Fig. 61.--Trusses." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 61. + </div> + <p><br style="clear : both" /></p> + <div class="figright" style="width:49%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_62.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_62.png" + alt="Fig. 62.--Queen-post trusses in the upright position." title="Fig. 62.--Queen-post trusses in the upright position." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 62. + </div> + <p>Most braced girders may be considered as built up of two simple forms + of truss, the king-post truss (fig. 61, <i>a</i>), or the queen-post + truss (fig. 61, <i>b</i>). These may be used in either the upright or the + inverted position. A <i>multiple truss</i> consists of a number of simple + trusses, e.g. Bollman truss. Some timber bridges consist of queen-post + trusses in the upright position, as shown diagrammatically in fig. 62, + where the circles indicate points at which the flooring girders transmit + load to the main girders. <i>Compound</i> trusses consist of simple + trusses used as primary, secondary and tertiary trusses, the secondary + supported on the primary, and the tertiary on the secondary. Thus, the + Fink truss consists of king-post trusses; the Pratt truss (fig. 63) and + the Whipple truss (fig. 64) of queen-post trusses alternately upright and + inverted.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:45%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_64.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_64.png" + alt="Fig. 64.--Whipple truss." title="Fig. 64.--Whipple truss." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 64. + </div> + <div class="figleft" style="width:45%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_63.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_63.png" + alt="Fig. 63.--Pratt truss." title="Fig. 63.--Pratt truss." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 63. + </div> + <p><br style="clear : both" /></p> + <p>A combination bridge is built partly of timber, partly of steel, the + compression members being generally of timber and the tension members of + steel. On the Pacific coast, where excellent timber is obtainable and + steel works are distant, combination bridges are still largely used + (Ottewell, <i>Trans. Am. Soc. C.E.</i> xxvii. p. 467). The combination + bridge at Roseburgh, Oregon, is a cantilever bridge, <!-- Page 555 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page555"></a>[v.04 p.0555]</span>The + shore arms are 147 ft. span, the river arms 105 ft., and the suspended + girder 80 ft., the total distance between anchor piers being 584 ft. The + floor beams, floor and railing are of timber. The compression members are + of timber, except the struts and bottom chord panels next the river + piers, which are of steel. The tension members are of iron and the pins + of steel. The chord blocks and post shoes are of cast-iron.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:42%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_65.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_65.png" + alt="Fig. 65.--Warren girder." title="Fig. 65.--Warren girder." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 65. + </div> + <p>33. <i>Graphic Method of finding the Stresses in Braced + Structures.</i>—Fig. 65 shows a common form of bridge truss known + as a <i>Warren girder</i>, with lines indicating external forces applied + to the joints; half the load carried between the two lower joints next + the piers on either side is directly carried by the abutments. The sum of + the two upward vertical reactions must clearly be equal to the sum of the + loads. The lines in the diagram represent the directions of a series of + forces which must all be in equilibrium; these lines may, for an object + to be explained in the next paragraph, be conveniently named by the + letters in the spaces which they separate instead of by the method + usually employed in geometry. Thus we shall call the first inclined line + on the left hand the line AG, the line representing the first force on + the top left-hand joint AB, the first horizontal member at the top left + hand the line BH, &c; similarly each point requires at least three + letters to denote it; the top first left-hand joint may be called ABHG, + being the point where these four spaces meet. In this method of + lettering, every enclosed space must be designated by a letter; all + external forces must be represented by lines <i>outside</i> the frame, + and each space between any two forces must receive a distinctive letter; + this method of lettering was first proposed by O. Henrici and R. H. Bow + (<i>Economics of Construction</i>), and is convenient in applying the + theory of reciprocal figures to the computation of stresses on + frames.</p> + + <p>34. <i>Reciprocal Figures.</i>—J. Clerk Maxwell gave (<i>Phil. + Mag. 1864</i>) the following definition of reciprocal figures:—"Two + plane figures are reciprocal when they consist of an equal number of + lines so that corresponding lines in the two figures are parallel, and + corresponding lines which converge to a point in one figure form a closed + polygon in the other."</p> + + <p>Let a frame (without redundant members), and the external forces which + keep it in equilibrium, be represented by a diagram constituting one of + these two plane figures, then the lines in the other plane figure or the + reciprocal will represent in direction and magnitude the forces between + the joints of the frame, and, consequently, the stress on each member, as + will now be explained.</p> + + <p>Reciprocal figures are easily drawn by following definite rules, and + afford therefore a simple method of computing the stresses on members of + a frame.</p> + + <p>The external forces on a frame or bridge in equilibrium under those + forces may, by a well-known proposition in statics, be represented by a + closed polygon, each side of which is parallel to one force, and + represents the force in magnitude as well as in direction. The sides of + the polygon may be arranged in any order, provided care is taken so to + draw them that in passing round the polygon in one direction this + direction may for each side correspond to the direction of the force + which it represents.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:60%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_66.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_66.png" + alt="Fig. 66.--Frame supported at the two end joints." title="Fig. 66.--Frame supported at the two end joints." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 66. + </div> + <p>This polygon of forces may, by a slight extension of the above + definition, be called the <i>reciprocal figure</i> of the external + forces, if the sides are arranged in the same order as that of the joints + on which they act, so that if the joints and forces be numbered 1, 2, 3, + 4, &c., passing round the outside of the frame in one direction, and + returning at last to joint 1, then in the polygon the side representing + the force 2 will be next the side representing the force 1, and will be + followed by the side representing the force 3, and so forth. This polygon + falls under the definition of a reciprocal figure given by Clerk Maxwell, + if we consider the frame as a point in equilibrium under the external + forces.</p> + + <p>Fig. 66 shows a frame supported at the two end joints, and loaded at + each top joint. The loads and the supporting forces are indicated by + arrows. Fig. 67a shows the reciprocal figure or polygon for the external + forces on the assumption that the reactions are slightly inclined. The + lines in fig. 67 <i>a</i>, lettered in the usual manner, correspond to + the forces indicated by arrows in fig. 66, and lettered according to + Bow's method. When all the forces are vertical, as will be the case in + girders, the polygon of external forces will be reduced to two straight + lines, fig. 67 <i>b</i>, superimposed and divided so that the length AX + represents the load AX, the length AB the load AB, the length YX the + reaction YX, and so forth. The line XZ consists of a series of lengths, + as XA, AB ... DZ, representing the loads taken in their order. In + subsequent diagrams the two reaction lines will, for the sake of + clearness, be drawn as if slightly inclined to the vertical.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:60%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_67.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_67.png" + alt="Fig. 67.--Reciprocal figure or polygon." title="Fig. 67.--Reciprocal figure or polygon." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 67. + </div> + <p>If there are no redundant members in the frame there will be only two + members abutting at the point of support, for these two members will be + sufficient to balance the reaction, whatever its direction may be; we can + therefore draw two triangles, each having as one side the reaction YX, + and having the two other sides parallel to these two members; each of + these triangles will represent a polygon of forces in equilibrium at the + point of support. Of these two triangles, shown in fig. 67 <i>c</i>, + select that in which the letters X and Y are so placed that (naming the + apex of the triangle E) the lines XE and YE are the lines parallel to the + two members of the same name in the frame (fig. 66). Then the triangle + YXE is the reciprocal figure of the three lines YX, XE, EY in the frame, + and represents the three forces in equilibrium at the point YXE of the + frame. The direction of YX, being a thrust upwards, shows the direction + in which we must go round the triangle YXE to find the direction of the + two other forces; doing this we find that the force XE must act down + towards the point YXE, and the force EY away from the same point. Putting + arrows on the frame diagram to indicate the direction of the forces, we + see that the member EY must pull and therefore act as a tie, and that the + member XE must push and act as a strut. Passing to the point XEFA we find + two known forces, the load XA acting downwards, and a push from the strut + XE, which, being in compression, must push at both ends, as indicated by + the arrow, fig. 66. The directions and magnitudes of these two forces are + already drawn (fig. 67 <i>a</i>) in a fitting position to represent part + of the polygon of forces at XEFA; beginning with the upward thrust EX, + continuing down XA, and drawing AF parallel to AF in the frame we + complete the polygon by drawing EF parallel to EF in the frame. The point + F is determined by the intersection of the two lines, one beginning at A, + and the other at E. We then have the polygon of forces EXAF, the + reciprocal figure of the lines meeting at that point in the frame, and + representing the forces at the point EXAF; the direction of the forces on + EH and XA being known determines the direction of the forces due to the + elastic reaction of the members AF and EF, showing AF to push as a strut, + while EF is a tie. We have been guided in the selection of the particular + quadrilateral adopted by the rule of arranging the order of the sides so + that the same letters indicate corresponding sides in the diagram of the + frame and its reciprocal. Continuing the construction of the diagram in + the same way, we arrive at fig. 67 <i>d</i> as the complete reciprocal + figure of the frame and forces upon it, and we see that each line in the + reciprocal figure measures the stress on the corresponding member in the + frame, and that the polygon of forces acting at any point, as IJKY, in + the frame is represented by a polygon of the same name in the reciprocal + <!-- Page 556 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page556"></a>[v.04 + p.0556]</span>figure. The direction of the force in each member is easily + ascertained by proceeding in the manner above described. A single known + force in a polygon determines the direction of all the others, as these + must all correspond with arrows pointing the same way round the polygon. + Let the arrows be placed on the frame round each joint, and so as to + indicate the direction of each force on that joint; then when two arrows + point to one another on the same piece, that piece is a tie; when they + point from one another the piece is a strut. It is hardly necessary to + say that the forces exerted by the two ends of any one member must be + equal and opposite. This method is universally applicable where there are + no redundant members. The reciprocal figure for any loaded frame is a + complete formula for the stress on every member of a frame of that + particular class with loads on given joints.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_68.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_68.png" + alt="Fig. 68.--Warren girder." title="Fig. 68.--Warren girder." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 68 + </div> + <div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_69.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_69.png" + alt="Fig. 69.--Reciprocal figures for Warren girder." title="Fig. 69.--Reciprocal figures for Warren girder." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 69 + </div> + <p>Consider a Warren girder (fig. 68), loaded at the top and bottom + joints. Fig. 69 <i>b</i> is the polygon of external forces, and 69 + <i>c</i> is half the reciprocal figure. The complete reciprocal figure is + shown in fig. 69 <i>a</i>.</p> + + <p>The method of sections already described is often more convenient than + the method of reciprocal figures, and the method of influence lines is + also often the readiest way of dealing with braced girders.</p> + + <p>35. <i>Chain Loaded uniformly along a Horizontal Line.</i>—If + the lengths of the links be assumed indefinitely short, the chain under + given simple distributions of load will take the form of comparatively + simple mathematical curves known as catenaries. The true catenary is that + assumed by a chain of uniform weight per unit of length, but the form + generally adopted for suspension bridges is that assumed by a chain under + a weight uniformly distributed relatively to a horizontal line. This + curve is a parabola.</p> + + <p>Remembering that in this case the centre bending moment ∑<i>wl</i> + will be equal to <i>w</i>L²/8, we see that the horizontal tension H at + the vertex for a span L (the points of support being at equal heights) is + given by the expression</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>1 . . . H = <i>w</i>L²/8<i>y</i>,</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>or, calling x the distance from the vertex to the point of + support,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>H = <i>wx</i>²/2<i>y</i>,</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>The value of H is equal to the maximum tension on the bottom flange, + or compression on the top flange, of a girder of equal span, equally and + similarly loaded, and having a depth equal to the dip of the suspension + bridge.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:38%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_70.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_70.png" + alt="Fig. 70.--Chain Loaded uniformly along a Horizontal Line." title="Fig. 70.--Chain Loaded uniformly along a Horizontal Line." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 70. + </div> + <p>Consider any other point F of the curve, fig. 70, at a distance + <i>x</i> from the vertex, the horizontal component of the resultant + (tangent to the curve) will be unaltered; the vertical component V will + be simply the sum of the loads between O and F, or <i>wx</i>. In the + triangle FDC, let FD be tangent to the curve, FC vertical, and DC + horizontal; these three sides will necessarily be proportional + respectively to the resultant tension along the chain at F, the vertical + force V passing through the point D, and the horizontal tension at O; + hence</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>H : V = DC : FC = <i>wx</i>²/2<i>y</i> : <i>wx</i> = <i>x</i>/2 : <i>y</i>,</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>hence DC is the half of OC, proving the curve to be a parabola.</p> + + <p>The value of R, the tension at any point at a distance x from the + vertex, is obtained from the equation</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>R² = H²+V² = <i>w</i>²<i>x</i><sup>4</sup>/4<i>y</i>²+<i>w</i>²<i>x</i>²,</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>or,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>2 . . . R = <i>wx</i>√(1+<i>x</i>²/4<i>y</i>²).</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>Let <i>i</i> be the angle between the tangent at any point having the + co-ordinates <i>x</i> and <i>y</i> measured from the vertex, then</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>3 . . . tan <i>i</i> = 2<i>y</i>/<i>x</i>.</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>Let the length of half the parabolic chain be called <i>s</i>, + then</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>4 . . . <i>s</i> = <i>x</i>+2<i>y</i>²/3<i>x</i>.</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>The following is the approximate expression for the relation between a + change ∆s in the length of the half chain and the corresponding + change ∆y in the dip:—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>s</i>+∆<i>s</i> = <i>x</i>+(2/3<i>x</i>) {<i>y</i>²+2<i>y</i><span class="grk">Δ</span><i>y</i>+(∆<i>y</i>)²} = <i>x</i>+2<i>y</i>²/3<i>x</i>+4<i>y</i><span class="grk">Δ</span><i>y</i>/3<i>x</i>+2∆<i>y</i>²/3<i>x</i>,</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>or, neglecting the last term,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>5 . . . ∆<i>s</i> = 4<i>y</i>∆<i>y</i>/3<i>x</i>,</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>and</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>6 . . . ∆<i>y</i> = 3<i>x</i>∆<i>s</i>/4<i>y</i>.</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>From these equations the deflection produced by any given stress on + the chains or by a change of temperature can be calculated.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:32%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_71.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_71.png" + alt="Fig. 71.--Beam bent by external loads." title="Fig. 71.--Beam bent by external loads." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 71. + </div> + <p>36. <i>Deflection of Girders.</i>— Let fig. 71 represent a beam + bent by external loads. Let the origin O be taken at the lowest point of + the bent beam. Then the deviation y = DE of the neutral axis of the bent + beam at any point D from the axis OX is given by the relation</p> + +<table class="math"><tr><td><i>d²y</i><br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br /><i>dx</i>²</td><td>=</td><td>M<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />EI</td></tr></table> + + <p>where M is the bending moment and I the amount of inertia of the beam + at D, and E is the coefficient of elasticity. It is usually accurate + enough in deflection calculations to take for I the moment of inertia at + the centre of the beam and to consider it constant for the length of the + beam. Then</p> + +<table class="math"><tr><td><i>dy</i><br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br /><i>dx</i></td><td>=</td><td>1<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />EI</td><td>∫M<i>dx</i></td></tr></table> + +<table class="math"><tr><td><i>y</i> =</td><td>1<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />EI</td><td>∫∫M<i>dx</i>².</td></tr></table> + + <p>The integration can be performed when M is expressed in terms of + <i>x</i>. Thus for a beam supported at the ends and loaded with <i>w</i> + per inch length M = <i>w</i>(<i>a</i>²-<i>x</i>²), where <i>a</i> is the + half span. Then the deflection at the centre is the value of <i>y</i> for + <i>x</i> = <i>a</i>, and is</p> + +<table class="math"><tr><td><span class="grk">δ</span> =</td><td>5<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />24</td><td><i>wa</i><sup>4</sup><br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />EI</td><td>.</td></tr></table> + + <p>The radius of curvature of the beam at D is given by the relation</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>R = EI/M.</p> + </div> + </div> + <div class="figright" style="width:40%;"> + <a href="images/bridges_72.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bridges_72.png" + alt="Fig. 72.--Graphic Method of finding Deflection" title="Fig. 72.--Graphic Method of finding Deflection" /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 72. + </div> + <p>37. <i>Graphic Method of finding Deflection.</i>—Divide the span + L into any convenient number <i>n</i> of equal parts of length <i>l</i>, + so that <i>nl</i> = L; compute the radii of curvature R<sub>1</sub>, + R<sub>2</sub>, R<sub>3</sub> for the several sections. Let measurements + along the beam be represented according to any convenient scale, so that + calling L<sub>1</sub> and <i>l</i><sub>1</sub> the lengths to be drawn on + paper, we have L = <i>a</i>L<sub>1</sub>; now let <i>r</i><sub>1</sub>, + <i>r</i><sub>2</sub>, <i>r</i><sub>3</sub> be a series of radii such that + <i>r</i><sub>1</sub> = R<sub>1</sub>/<i>ab</i>, <i>r</i><sub>2</sub> = + R<sub>2</sub>/<i>ab</i>, &c., where <i>b</i> is any convenient + constant chosen of such magnitude as will allow arcs with the radii, + <i>r</i><sub>1</sub>, <i>r</i><sub>2</sub>, &c., to be drawn with the + means at the draughtsman's disposal. Draw a curve <!-- Page 557 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page557"></a>[v.04 p.0557]</span>as shown in + fig. 72 with arcs of the length <i>l</i><sub>1</sub>, + <i>l</i><sub>2</sub>, <i>l</i><sub>3</sub>, &c., and with the radii + <i>r</i><sub>1</sub>, <i>r</i><sub>2</sub>, &c. (note, for a length + ½<i>l</i><sub>1</sub> at each end the radius will be infinite, and the + curve must end with a straight line tangent to the last arc), then let + <i>v</i> be the measured deflection of this curve from the straight line, + and V the actual deflection of the bridge; we have V = + <i>av</i>/<i>b</i>, approximately. This method distorts the curve, so + that vertical ordinates of the curve are drawn to a scale <i>b</i> times + greater than that of the horizontal ordinates. Thus if the horizontal + scale be one-tenth of an inch to the foot, <i>a</i> = 120, and a beam 100 + ft. in length would be drawn equal to 10 in.; then if the true radius at + the centre were 10,000 ft., this radius, if the curve were undistorted, + would be on paper 1000 in., but making <i>b</i> = 50 we can draw the + curve with a radius of 20 in. The vertical distortion of the curve must + not be so great that there is a very sensible difference between the + length of the arc and its chord. This can be regulated by altering the + value of <i>b</i>. In fig. 72 distortion is carried too far; this figure + is merely used as an illustration.</p> + + <p>38. <i>Camber.</i>—In order that a girder may become straight + under its working load it should be constructed with a camber or upward + convexity equal to the calculated deflection. Owing to the yielding of + joints when a beam is first loaded a smaller modulus of elasticity should + be taken than for a solid bar. For riveted girders E is about 17,500,000 + lb per sq. in. for first loading. W.J.M. Rankine gives the approximate + rule</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Working deflection = <span class="grk">δ</span> = <i>l</i>²/10,000<i>h</i>,</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>where <i>l</i> is the span and <i>h</i> the depth of the beam, the + stresses being those usual in bridgework, due to the total dead and live + load.</p> + + <p>(W. C. U.)</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_061" href="#FnAnchor_061">[1]</a> For the ancient + bridges in Rome see further <span class="sc">Rome</span>: + <i>Archaeology</i>, and such works as R. Lanciani, <i>Ruins and + Excavations of Ancient Rome</i> (Eng. trans., 1897), pp. 16 foll.</p> + +</div> + <p><b>BRIDGET, SAINT,</b> more properly <span class="sc">Brigid</span> + (c. 452-523), one of the patron saints of Ireland, was born at Faughart + in county Louth, her father being a prince of Ulster. Refusing to marry, + she chose a life of seclusion, making her cell, the first in Ireland, + under a large oak tree, whence the place was called Kil-dara, "the church + of the oak." The city of Kildare is supposed to derive its name from St + Brigid's cell. The year of her death is generally placed in 523. She was + buried at Kildare, but her remains were afterwards translated to + Downpatrick, where they were laid beside the bodies of St Patrick and St + Columba. Her feast is celebrated on the 1st of February. A large + collection of miraculous stories clustered round her name, and her + reputation was not confined to Ireland, for, under the name of St Bride, + she became a favourite saint in England, and numerous churches were + dedicated to her in Scotland.</p> + + <p>See the five lives given in the Bollandist <i>Acta Sanctorum</i>, Feb. + 1, i. 99, 119, 950. Cf. Whitley-Stokes, <i>Three Middle-Irish Homilies on + the Lives of Saint Patrick, Brigit and Columba</i> (Calcutta, 1874); + Colgan, <i>Acta SS. Hiberniae</i>; D. O'Hanlon, <i>Lives of Irish + Saints</i>, vol. ii.; Knowles, <i>Life of St Brigid</i> (1907); further + bibliography in Ulysse Chevalier, <i>Répertoire des sources hist. + Bio.-Bibl.</i> (2nd ed., Paris, 1905), s.v.</p> + + <p><b>BRIDGET,</b> <span class="sc">Brigitta, Birgitta,</span> <b>OF + SWEDEN, SAINT</b> (c. 1302-1373), the most celebrated saint of the + northern kingdoms, was the daughter of Birger Persson, governor and + <i>lagman</i> (provincial judge) of Uppland, and one of the richest + landowners of the country. In 1316 she was married to Ulf Gudmarson, lord + of Nericia, to whom she bore eight children, one of whom was afterwards + honoured as St Catherine of Sweden. Bridget's saintly and charitable life + soon made her known far and wide; she gained, too, great religious + influence over her husband, with whom (1341-1343) she went on pilgrimage + to St James of Compostella. In 1344, shortly after their return, Ulf died + in the Cistercian monastery of Alvastra in East Gothland, and Bridget now + devoted herself wholly to religion. As a child she had already believed + herself to have visions; these now became more frequent, and her records + of these "revelations," which were translated into Latin by Matthias, + canon of Linköping, and by her confessor, Peter, prior of Alvastra, + obtained a great vogue during the middle ages. It was about this time + that she founded the order of St Saviour, or Bridgittines (<i>q.v.</i>), + of which the principal house, at Vadstena, was richly endowed by King + Magnus II. and his queen. About 1350 she went to Rome, partly to obtain + from the pope the authorization of the new order, partly in pursuance of + her self-imposed mission to elevate the moral tone of the age. It was not + till 1370 that Pope Urban V. confirmed the rule of her order; but + meanwhile Bridget had made herself universally beloved in Rome by her + kindness and good works. Save for occasional pilgrimages, including one + to Jerusalem in 1373, she remained in Rome till her death on the 23rd of + July 1373. She was canonized in 1391 by Pope Boniface IX., and her feast + is celebrated on the 9th of October.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Cf. the Bollandist <i>Acta + Sanctorum</i>, Oct. 8, iv. 368-560; the <i>Vita Sanctae Brigittae</i>, + edited by C. Annerstedt in <i>Scriptores rerum Suedicarum medii aevi</i>, + iii. 185-244 (Upsala, 1871). The best modern work on the subject is by + the comtesse Catherine de Flavigny, entitled <i>Sainte Brigitte de Suède, + sa vie, ses révélations et son œuvre</i> (Paris, 1892), which + contains an exhaustive bibliography. The Revelations are contained in the + critical edition of St Bridget's works published by the Swedish + Historical Society and edited by G.E. Klemming (Stockholm, 1857-1884, II + vols.). For full bibliography (to 1904) see Ulysse Chevalier, + <i>Répertoire des sources hist. Bio.-Bibl.</i>, <i>s.v.</i> + "Brigitte."</p> + + <p><b>BRIDGETON,</b> a city, port of entry, and the county-seat of + Cumberland county, New Jersey, U.S.A., in the south part of the state, on + Cohansey creek, 38 m. S. of Philadelphia. Pop. (1890) 11,424; (1900) + 13,913, of whom 653 were foreign-born and 701 were negroes; (1905) + 13,624; (1910) 14,209. It is served by the West Jersey & Sea Shore + and the Central of New Jersey railways, by electric railways connecting + with adjacent towns, and by Delaware river steamboats on Cohansey creek, + which is navigable to this point. It is an attractive residential city, + has a park of 650 acres and a fine public library, and is the seat of + West Jersey academy and of Ivy Hall, a school for girls. It is an + important market town and distributing centre for a rich agricultural + region; among its manufactures are glass (the product, chiefly glass + bottles, being valued in 1905 at $1,252,795—42.3% of the value of + all the city's factory products—and Bridgeton ranking eighth among + the cities of the United States in this industry), machinery, clothing, + and canned fruits and vegetables; it also has dyeing and finishing works. + Though Bridgeton is a port of entry, its foreign commerce is relatively + unimportant. The first settlement in what is now Bridgeton was made + toward the close of the 18th century. A pioneer iron-works was + established here in 1814. The city of Bridgeton, formed by the union of + the township of Bridgeton and the township of Cohansey (incorporated in + 1845 and 1848 respectively), was chartered in 1864.</p> + + <p><b>BRIDGETT, THOMAS EDWARD</b> (1829-1899), Roman Catholic priest and + historical writer, was born at Derby on the 20th of January 1829. He was + brought up a Baptist, but in his sixteenth year joined the Church of + England. In 1847 he entered St John's College, Cambridge, with the + intention of taking orders. Being unable to subscribe to the Thirty-Nine + Articles he could not take his degree, and in 1850 became a Roman + Catholic, soon afterwards joining the Congregation of the Redemptorists. + He went through his novitiate at St Trond in Belgium, and after a course + of five years of theological study at Wittem, in Holland, was ordained + priest. He returned to England in 1856, and for over forty years led an + active life as a missioner in England and Ireland, preaching in over 80 + missions and 140 retreats to the <!-- Page 558 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page558"></a>[v.04 p.0558]</span>clergy and to + nuns. His stay in Limerick was particularly successful, and he founded a + religious confraternity of laymen which numbered 5000 members. Despite + his arduous life as a priest, Bridgett found time to produce literary + works of value, chiefly dealing with the history of the Reformation in + England; among these are <i>The Life of Blessed John Fisher, Bishop of + Rochester</i> (1888); <i>The Life and Writings of Sir Thomas More</i> + (1890); <i>History of the Eucharist in Great Britain</i> (2 vols., 1881); + <i>Our Lady's Dowry</i> (1875, 3rd ed. 1890). He died at Clapham on the + 17th of February 1899.</p> + + <p>For a complete list of Bridgett's works see <i>The Life of Father + Bridgett</i>, by C. Ryder (London, 1906).</p> + + <p><b>BRIDGEWATER, FRANCIS EGERTON</b>, <span class="sc">3rd Duke + of</span> (1736-1803), the originator of British inland navigation, + younger son of the 1st duke, was born on the 21st of May 1736. Scroop, + 1st duke of Bridgewater (1681-1745), was the son of the 3rd earl of + Bridgewater, and was created a duke in 1720; he was the great-grandson of + John Egerton, 1st earl of Bridgewater (d. 1649; cr. 1617), whose name is + associated with the production of Milton's <i>Comus</i>; and the latter + was the son of Sir Thomas Egerton (1540-1617), Queen Elizabeth's lord + keeper and James I.'s lord chancellor, who was created baron of Ellesmere + in 1603, and in 1616 Viscount Brackley (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + + <p>Francis Egerton succeeded to the dukedom at the age of twelve on the + death of his brother, the 2nd duke. As a child he was sickly and of such + unpromising intellectual capacity that at one time the idea of cutting + the entail was seriously entertained. Shortly after attaining his + majority he became engaged to the beautiful duchess of Hamilton, but her + refusal to give up the acquaintance of her sister, Lady Coventry, led to + the breaking off of the match. Thereupon the duke broke up his London + establishment, and retiring to his estate at Worsley, devoted himself to + the making of canals. The navigable canal from Worsley to Manchester + which he projected for the transport of the coal obtained on his estates + was (with the exception of the Sankey canal) the first great undertaking + of the kind executed in Great Britain in modern times. The construction + of this remarkable work, with its famous aqueduct across the Irwell, was + carried out by James Brindley, the celebrated engineer. The completion of + this canal led the duke to undertake a still more ambitious work. In 1762 + he obtained parliamentary powers to provide an improved waterway between + Liverpool and Manchester by means of a canal. The difficulties + encountered in the execution of the latter work were still more + formidable than those of the Worsley canal, involving, as they did, the + carrying of the canal over Sale Moor Moss. But the genius of Brindley, + his engineer, proved superior to all obstacles, and though at one period + of the undertaking the financial resources of the duke were almost + exhausted, the work was carried to a triumphant conclusion. The untiring + perseverance displayed by the duke in surmounting the various + difficulties that retarded the accomplishment of his projects, together + with the pecuniary restrictions he imposed on himself in order to supply + the necessary capital (at one time he reduced his personal expenses to + £400 a year), affords an instructive example of that energy and + self-denial on which the success of great undertakings so much depends. + Both these canals were completed when the duke was only thirty-six years + of age, and the remainder of his life was spent in extending them and in + improving his estates; and during the latter years of his life he derived + a princely income from the success of his enterprise. Though a steady + supporter of Pitt's administration, he never took any prominent part in + politics.</p> + + <p>He died unmarried on the 8th of March 1803, when the ducal title + became extinct, but the earldom of Bridgewater passed to a cousin, John + William Egerton, who became 7th earl. By his will he devised his canals + and estates on trust, under which his nephew, the marquess of Stafford + (afterwards first duke of Sutherland), became the first beneficiary, and + next his son Francis Leveson Gower (afterwards first earl of Ellesmere) + and his issue. In order that the trust should last as long as possible, + an extraordinary use was made of the legal rule that property may be + settled for the duration of lives in being and twenty-one years after, by + choosing a great number of persons connected with the duke and their + living issue and adding to them the peers who had taken their seats in + the House of Lords on or before the duke's decease. Though the last of + the peers died in 1857, one of the commoners survived till the 19th of + October 1883, and consequently the trust did not expire till the 19th of + October 1903, when the whole property passed under the undivided control + of the earl of Ellesmere. The canals, however, had in 1872 been + transferred to the Bridgewater Navigation Company, by whom they were sold + in 1887 to the Manchester Ship Canal Company.</p> + + <p><b>BRIDGEWATER, FRANCIS HENRY EGERTON,</b> <span class="sc">8th Earl + of</span> (1756-1829), was educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, + and became fellow of All Souls in 1780, and F.R.S. in 1781. He held the + rectories of Middle and Whitchurch in Shropshire, but the duties were + performed by a proxy. He succeeded his brother (see above) in the earldom + in 1823, and spent the latter part of his life in Paris. He was a fair + scholar, and a zealous naturalist and antiquarian. When he died in + February 1829 the earldom became extinct. He bequeathed to the British + Museum the valuable Egerton MSS. dealing with the literature of France + and Italy, and also £12,000. He also left £8000 at the disposal of the + president of the Royal Society, to be paid to the author or authors who + might be selected to write and publish 1000 copies of a treatise "On the + Power, Wisdom and Goodness of God, as manifested in the Creation." Mr + Davies Gilbert, who then filled the office, selected eight persons, each + to undertake a branch of this subject, and each to receive £1000 as his + reward, together with any benefit that might accrue from the sale of his + work, according to the will of the testator.</p> + + <p>The Bridgewater treatises were published as follows:—1. <i>The + Adaptation of External Nature to the Moral and Intellectual Condition of + Man</i>, by Thomas Chalmers, D.D. 2. <i>The Adaptation of External Nature + to the Physical Condition of Man</i>, by John Kidd, M.D. 3. <i>Astronomy + and General Physics considered with reference to Natural Theology</i>, by + William Whewell, D.D. 4. <i>The Hand, its Mechanism and Vital Endowments + as evincing Design</i>, by Sir Charles Bell. 5. <i>Animal and Vegetable + Physiology considered with reference to Natural Theology</i>, by Peter + Mark Roget. 6. <i>Geology and Mineralogy considered with reference to + Natural Theology</i>, by William Buckland, D.D. 7. <i>The Habits and + Instincts of Animals with reference to Natural Theology</i>, by William + Kirby. 8. <i>Chemistry, Meteorology, and the Function of Digestion, + considered with reference to Natural Theology</i>, by William Prout, M.D. + The works are of unequal merit; several of them took a high rank in + apologetic literature. They first appeared during the years 1833 to 1840, + and afterwards in Bohn's Scientific Library.</p> + + <p><b>BRIDGITTINES,</b> an order of Augustinian canonesses founded by St + Bridget of Sweden (<i>q.v.</i>) <i>c.</i> 1350, and approved by Urban V. + in 1370. It was a "double order," each convent having attached to it a + small community of canons to act as chaplains, but under the government + of the abbess. The order spread widely in Sweden and Norway, and played a + remarkable part in promoting culture and literature in Scandinavia; to + this is to be attributed the fact that the head house at Vastein, by Lake + Vetter, was not suppressed till 1595. There were houses also in other + lands, so that the total number amounted to 80. In England, the famous + Bridgittine convent of Syon at Isleworth, Middlesex, was founded and + royally endowed by Henry V. in 1415, and became one of the richest and + most fashionable and influential nunneries in the country. It was among + the few religious houses restored in Mary's reign, when nearly twenty of + the old community were re-established at Syon. On Elizabeth's accession + they migrated to the Low Countries, and thence, after many vicissitudes, + to Rouen, and finally in 1594 to Lisbon. Here they remained, always + recruiting their numbers from England, till 1861, when they returned to + England. Syon House is now established at Chudleigh in Devon, the only + English community that can boast an unbroken conventual existence since + pre-Reformation times. Some six other Bridgittine convents exist on the + Continent, but the order is now composed only of women.</p> + + <p>See Helyot, <i>Histoire des ordres religieux</i> (1715), iv. c. 4; Max + Heimbucher, <i>Orden u. Kongregationen</i> (1907), ii. § 83; + Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i> (ed. 3), art. "Birgitta"; A. + Hamilton in <i>Dublin Review</i>, 1888, "The Nuns of Syon."</p> + + <p>(E. C. B.)</p> + +<p><!-- Page 559 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page559"></a>[v.04 p.0559]</span></p> + + <p><b>BRIDGMAN, FREDERICK ARTHUR</b> (1847- ), American artist, was born + at Tuskegee, Alabama, on the 10th of November 1847. He began as a + draughtsman in New York for the American Bank Note Company in 1864-1865, + and studied art in the same years at the Brooklyn Art School and at the + National Academy of Design; but he went to Paris in 1866 and became a + pupil of J.L. Gérôme. Paris then became his headquarters. A trip to Egypt + in 1873-1874 resulted in pictures of the East that attracted immediate + attention, and his large and important composition, "The Funeral + Procession of a Mummy on the Nile," in the Paris Salon (1877), bought by + James Gordon Bennett, brought him the cross of the Legion of Honour. + Other paintings by him were "An American Circus in Normandy," "Procession + of the Bull Apis" (now in the Corcoran Art Gallery, Washington), and a + "Rumanian Lady" (in the Temple collection, Philadelphia).</p> + + <p><b>BRIDGMAN, LAURA DEWEY</b> (1829-1889), American blind deaf-mute, + was born on the 21st of December 1829 at Hanover, New Hampshire, U.S.A., + being the third daughter of Daniel Bridgman (d. 1868), a substantial + Baptist farmer, and his wife Harmony, daughter of Cushman Downer, and + grand-daughter of Joseph Downer, one of the five first settlers (1761) of + Thetford, Vermont. Laura was a delicate infant, puny and rickety, and was + subject to fits up to twenty months old, but otherwise seemed to have + normal senses; at two years, however, she had a very bad attack of + scarlet fever, which destroyed sight and hearing, blunted the sense of + smell, and left her system a wreck. Though she gradually recovered health + she remained a blind deaf-mute, but was kindly treated and was in + particular made a sort of playmate by an eccentric bachelor friend of the + Bridgmans, Mr Asa Tenney, who as soon as she could walk used to take her + for rambles a-field. In 1837 Mr James Barrett, of Dartmouth College, saw + her and mentioned her case to Dr Mussey, the head of the medical + department, who wrote an account which attracted the attention of Dr S.G. + Howe (<i>q.v.</i>), the head of the Perkins Institution for the Blind at + Boston. He determined to try to get the child into the Institution and to + attempt to educate her; her parents assented, and in October 1837 Laura + entered the school. Though the loss of her eye-balls occasioned some + deformity, she was otherwise a comely child and of a sensitive and + affectionate nature; she had become familiar with the world about her, + and was imitative in so far as she could follow the actions of others; + but she was limited in her communication with others to the narrower uses + of touch—patting her head meant approval, rubbing her hand + disapproval, pushing one way meant to go, drawing another to come. Her + mother, preoccupied with house-work, had already ceased to be able to + control her, and her father's authority was due to fear of superior + force, not to reason. Dr Howe at once set himself to teach her the + alphabet by touch. It is impossible, for reasons of space, to describe + his efforts in detail. He taught words before the individual letters, and + his first experiment consisting in pasting upon several common articles + such as keys, spoons, knives, &c., little paper labels with the names + of the articles printed in raised letters, which he got her to feel and + differentiate; then he gave her the same labels by themselves, which she + learnt to associate with the articles they referred to, until, with the + spoon or knife alone before her she could find the right label for each + from a mixed heap. The next stage was to give her the component letters + and teach her to combine them in the words she knew, and gradually in + this way she learnt all the alphabet and the ten digits, &c. The + whole process depended, of course, on her having a human intelligence, + which only required stimulation, and her own interest in learning became + keener as she progressed. On the 24th of July 1839 she first wrote her + own name legibly. Dr Howe devoted himself with the utmost patience and + assiduity to her education and was rewarded by increasing success. On the + 20th of June 1840 she had her first arithmetic lesson, by the aid of a + metallic case perforated with square holes, square types being used; and + in nineteen days she could add a column of figures amounting to thirty. + She was in good health and happy, and was treated by Dr Howe as his + daughter. Her case already began to interest the public, and others were + brought to Dr Howe for treatment. In 1841 Laura began to keep a journal, + in which she recorded her own day's work and thoughts. In January 1842 + Charles Dickens visited the Institution, and afterwards wrote + enthusiastically in <i>American Notes</i> of Dr Howe's success with + Laura. In 1843 funds were obtained for devoting a special teacher to her, + and first Miss Swift, then Miss Wight, and then Miss Paddock, were + appointed; Laura by this time was learning geography and elementary + astronomy. By degrees she was given religious instruction, but Dr Howe + was intent upon not inculcating dogma before she had grasped the + essential moral truths of Christianity and the story of the Bible. She + grew up a gay, cheerful girl, loving, optimistic, but with a nervous + system inclining to irritability, and requiring careful education in + self-control. In 1860 her eldest sister Mary's death helped to bring on a + religious crisis, and through the influence of some of her family she was + received into the Baptist church; she became for some years after this + more self-conscious and rather pietistic. In 1867 she began writing + compositions which she called poems; the best-known is called "Holy + Home." In 1872, Dr Howe having been enabled to build some separate + cottages (each under a matron) for the blind girls, Laura was moved from + the larger house of the Institution into one of them, and there she + continued her quiet life. The death of Dr Howe in 1876 was a great grief + to her; but before he died he had made arrangements by which she would be + financially provided for in her home at the Institution for the rest of + her life. In 1887 her jubilee was celebrated there, but in 1889 she was + taken ill, and she died on the 24th of May. She was buried at Hanover. + Her name has become familiar everywhere as an example of the education of + a blind deaf-mute, leading to even greater results in Helen Keller.</p> + + <p>See <i>Laura Bridgman</i>, by Maud Howe and Florence Howe Hall (1903), + which contains a bibliography; and <i>Life and Education of Laura Dewey + Bridgman</i> (1878), by Mary S. Lamson.</p> + + <p>(<span class="sc">H. Ch.</span>)</p> + + <p><b>BRIDGNORTH,</b> a market town and municipal borough in the Ludlow + parliamentary division of Shropshire, England, 150 m. N.W. by W. from + London by the Great Western railway, on the Worcester-Shrewsbury line. + Pop. (1901) 6052. The river Severn separates the upper town on the right + bank from the lower on the left. A steep line of rail connects them. The + upper town is built on the acclivities and summit of a rock which rises + abruptly from the river to the height of 180 ft., and gives the town a + very picturesque appearance. The railway passes under by a long tunnel. + On the summit is the tower of the old castle, leaning about 17° from the + perpendicular. There are also two parish churches. That of St Leonard, + formerly collegiate, was practically rebuilt in 1862. This parish was + held by Richard Baxter, the famous divine, in 1640. St Mary's church is + in classic style of the late 18th century. The picturesque half-timbered + style of domestic building is frequently seen in the streets. In this + style are the town hall (1652), and a house dated 1580, in which was born + in 1729 Thomas Percy, bishop of Dromore, the editor of the <i>Reliques of + Ancient English Poetry</i>. The grammar school, founded in 1503, occupies + an Elizabethan building; there are also a college of divinity, a + blue-coat school, and a literary institute with library and school of + art. There are large charities. Near the town is a curious ancient + hermitage cave, in the sandstone. At Quatford, 1 m. south-east, the site + of a castle dating from 1085 may be traced. This dominated the ancient + Forest of Morf. Here Robert de Belesme originally founded the college + which was afterwards moved to Bridgnorth. Bridgnorth manufactures + carpets; brewing is carried on, and there is trade in agricultural + produce. The town is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. + Area, 3018 acres.</p> + + <p>The early history of Bridgnorth is connected with Æthelfleda, lady of + the Mercians, who raised a mound there in 912 as part of her offensive + policy against the Danes of the five boroughs. After the Conquest William + I. granted the manor of Bridgnorth to Earl Roger of Shrewsbury, whose son + Robert de Belesme transferred his castle and borough from Quatford to + Bridgnorth, but on Robert's attainder in 1102 the town became a royal + borough. It is probable that Henry I. granted the burgesses certain + privileges, for Henry II. confirmed to them all the franchises and + customs which they had in the time of Henry I. King John in 1215 granted + them freedom from toll throughout England except the city of London, and + in <!-- Page 560 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page560"></a>[v.04 + p.0560]</span>1227 Henry III. conferred several new rights and liberties, + among which were a gild merchant with a hanse. These early charters were + confirmed by several succeeding kings, Henry VI. granting in addition + assize of bread and ale and other privileges. Bridgnorth was incorporated + by James I. in 1546. The burgesses returned two members to parliament in + 1295, and continued to do so until 1867, when they were assigned only one + member. The town was disfranchised in 1885. A yearly fair on the feast of + the Translation of St Leonard and three following days was granted to the + burgesses in 1359, and in 1630 Charles I. granted them licence to hold + another fair on the Thursday before the first week in Lent and two + following days.</p> + + <p><b>BRIDGWATER,</b> a market town, port and municipal borough in the + Bridgwater parliamentary division of Somerset, England, on the river + Parret, 10 m. from its mouth, and 151¾ m. by the Great Western railway W. + by S. of London. Pop. (1901) 15,209. It is pleasantly situated in a level + and well-wooded country, having on the east the Mendip range and on the + west the Quantock hills. The town lies along both sides of the river, + here crossed by a handsome iron bridge. Among several places of worship + the chief is St Mary Magdalene's church; this has a north porch and + windows dating from the 14th century, besides a lofty and slender spire; + but it has been much altered by restoration. It possesses a fine painted + reredos. A house in Blake Street, largely restored, was the birthplace of + Admiral Blake in 1598. Near the town are the three fine old churches of + Weston Zoyland, Chedzoy and Middlezoy, containing some good brasses and + carved woodwork. The battlefield of Sedgemoor, where the Monmouth + rebellion was finally crushed in 1685, is within 3 m.; while not far off + is Charlinch, the home of the Agapemonites (<i>q.v.</i>). Bridgwater has + a considerable coasting trade, importing grain, coal, wine, hemp, tallow + and timber, and exporting Bath brick, farm produce, earthenware, cement + and plaster of Paris. The river is navigable by vessels of 700 tons, + though liable, when spring-tides are flowing, to a bore which rises, in + rough weather, to a height of 9 ft. Bath brick, manufactured only here, + and made of the mingled sand and clay deposited by every tide, is the + staple article of commerce; iron-founding is also carried on. The town is + governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 926 acres.</p> + + <p>A settlement probably grew up in Saxon times at Bridgwater + (<i>Briges</i>, <i>Briggewalteri</i>, <i>Brigewauter</i>), owing its + origin as a trade centre to its position at the mouth of the chief river + in Somerset. It became a mesne borough by the charter granted by John in + 1201, which provided that the town should be a free borough, the + burgesses to be free and quit of all tolls, and made William de Briwere + overlord. Other charters were granted by Henry III. in 1227 (confirmed in + 1318, 1370, 1380), which gave Bridgwater a gild merchant. It was + incorporated by charter of Edward IV. (1468), confirmed in 1554, 1586, + 1629 and 1684. Parliamentary representation began in 1295 and continued + until the Reform Act of 1870. A Saturday market and a fair on the 24th of + June were granted by the charter of 1201. Another fair at the beginning + of Lent was added in 1468, and a second market on Thursday, and fairs at + Midsummer and on the 21st of September were added in 1554. Charles II. + granted another fair on the 29th of December. The medieval importance of + these markets and fairs for the sale of wool and wine and later of cloth + has gone. The shipping trade of the port revived after the construction + of the new dock in 1841, and corn and timber have been imported for + centuries.</p> + + <p>See S. G. Jarman, "History of Bridgwater," <i>Historical MSS. + Commission</i>, Report 9, Appendix; <i>Victoria County History: + Somerset</i>, vol. ii.</p> + + <p><b>BRIDLINGTON,</b> a market town, municipal borough and seaside + resort in the Buckrose parliamentary division of the East Riding of + Yorkshire, England, 31 m. N.N.E. from Hull by a branch of the North + Eastern railway. Pop. (1891) 8919; (1901) 12,482. It is divided into two + parts, the ancient market town lying about 1 m. from the coast, while the + modern houses of Bridlington Quay, the watering-place, fringe the shore + of Bridlington Bay. Southward the coast becomes low, but northward it is + steep and very fine, where the great spur of Flamborough Head + (<i>q.v.</i>) projects eastward. In the old town of Bridlington the + church of St Mary and St Nicholas consists of the fine Decorated and + Perpendicular nave, with Early English portions, of the priory church of + an Augustinian foundation of the time of Henry I. There remains also the + Perpendicular gateway, serving as the town-hall. The founder of the + priory was Walter de Gaunt, about 1114, and the institution flourished + until 1537, when the last prior was executed for taking part in the + Pilgrimage of Grace. A Congregational society was founded in 1662, and + its old church, dating from 1702, stood until 1906. At Bridlington Quay + there is excellent sea-bathing, and the parade and ornamental gardens + provide pleasant promenades. Extensive works have been carried out along + the sea front. There is a chalybeate spring. The harbour is enclosed by + two stone piers, and there is good anchorage in the bay. The municipal + borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors, and has an area + of 2751 acres.</p> + + <p>The mention of four burgesses at Bridlington (Brellington, Burlington) + in the Domesday survey shows it to have been a borough before the + Conquest. With the rest of the north of England, Bridlington suffered + from the ravages of the Normans, and decreased in value from £32 in the + reign of Edward the Confessor, when it formed part of the possessions of + Earl Morcar, to 8s. at the time of the Domesday survey. By that time it + was in the hands of the king by the forfeiture of Earl Morcar. It was + granted by William II. to Gilbert de Gaunt, whose son and heir Walter + founded the priory and endowed it with the manor of Bridlington and other + lands. From this date the importance of the town steadily increased. + Henry I. and several succeeding kings confirmed Walter de Gaunt's gift, + Stephen granting in addition the right to have a port. In 1546 Henry IV. + granted the prior and convent exemption from fifteenths, tenths and + subsidies, in return for prayer for himself and his queen in every mass + sung at the high altar. After the Dissolution the manor remained with the + crown until 1624, when Charles I. granted it to Sir John Ramsey, whose + brother and heir, Sir George Ramsey, sold it in 1633 to thirteen + inhabitants of the town on behalf of all the tenants of the manor. The + thirteen lords were assisted by twelve other inhabitants chosen by the + freeholders, and when the number of lords was reduced to six, seven + others were chosen from the assistants. A chief lord was chosen every + year. This system still holds good. It is evident from the fact of + thirteen inhabitants being allowed to hold the manor that the town had + some kind of incorporation in the 17th century, although its + incorporation charter was not granted until 1899, when it was created a + municipal borough. In 1200 King John granted the prior of Bridlington a + weekly market on Saturday and an annual fair on the vigil, feast and + morrow of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary. Henry VI. in 1446 granted + the prior three new fairs yearly on the vigil, day and morrow of the + Nativity of the Virgin Mary, the Deposition of St John, late prior of + Bridlington, and the Translation of the same St John. All fairs and + markets were sold with the manor to the inhabitants of the town.</p> + + <p>See J. Thompson, <i>Historical Sketches of Bridlington</i> (1821); + <i>Victoria County History: Yorkshire</i>.</p> + + <p><b>BRIDPORT, ALEXANDER HOOD,</b> <span class="sc">Viscount</span> + (1727-1814), British admiral, was the younger brother of Samuel, Lord + Hood, and cousin of Sir Samuel and Captain Alexander Hood. Entering the + navy in January 1741, he was appointed lieutenant of the "Bridgewater" + six years later, and in that rank served for ten years in various ships. + He was then posted to the "Prince," the flag-ship of Rear-Admiral + Saunders (under whom Hood had served as a lieutenant) and in this command + served in the Mediterranean for some time. Returning home, he was + appointed to the "Minerva" frigate, in which he was present at Hawke's + great victory in Quiberon Bay (20th November 1759). In 1761 the "Minerva" + recaptured, after a long struggle, the "Warwick" of equal force, and + later in the same year Captain Alexander Hood went in the "Africa" to the + Mediterranean, where he served until the conclusion of peace. From this + time forward he was in continuous employment afloat and ashore, and in + the "Robust" was present at the battle of Ushant in 1778. Hood was + involved in the court-martial on Admiral (afterwards Viscount) Keppel + which followed this action, and although adverse popular feeling was + aroused by the course which he took in Keppel's defence, his conduct does + not seem to have injured his professional career. Two years later he was + made rear-admiral of the white, and succeeded Kempenfeldt as one of + Howe's flag-officers, and in the "Queen" (90) he was present at the + relief of Gibraltar in 1782. For a time he sat in the House of Commons. + Promoted vice-admiral in 1787, he became K.B. in the following year, and + on the occasion of the Spanish armament in 1790 flew his flag again for a + short time. On the outbreak of the war with France in 1793 Sir Alexander + Hood once more went to sea, this time as Howe's second in command, and he + had his share in the operations which culminated in the "Glorius First of + June," and for his services was made Baron Bridport of Cricket St Thomas + in Somerset <!-- Page 561 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page561"></a>[v.04 p.0561]</span>in the Irish peerage. Henceforth + Bridport was practically in independent command. In 1795 he fought the + much-criticized partial action of the 23rd of June off Belle-Ile, which, + however unfavourably it was regarded in some quarters, was counted as a + great victory by the public. Bridport's peerage was made English, and he + became vice-admiral of England. In 1796-1797 he practically directed the + war from London, rarely hoisting his flag afloat save at such critical + times as that of the Irish expedition in 1797. In the following year he + was about to put to sea when the Spithead fleet mutinied. He succeeded at + first in pacifying the crew of his flag-ship, who had no personal grudge + against their admiral, but a few days later the mutiny broke out afresh, + and this time was uncontrollable. For a whole week the mutineers were + supreme, and it was only by the greatest exertions of the old Lord Howe + that order was then restored and the men returned to duty. After the + mutiny had been suppressed, Bridport took the fleet to sea as + commander-in-chief in name as well as in fact, and from 1798 to 1800 + personally directed the blockade of Brest, which grew stricter and + stricter as time went on. In 1800 he was relieved by St Vincent, and + retired from active duty after fifty-nine years' service. In reward for + his fine record his peerage was made a viscounty. He spent the remaining + years of his life in retirement. He died on the 2nd of May 1814. The + viscounty in the English peerage died with him; the Irish barony passed + to the younger branch of his brother's family, for whom the viscounty was + recreated in 1868.</p> + + <p>See Charnock, <i>Biographia Navalis</i>, vi. 153; <i>Naval + Chronicle</i>, i. 265; Ralfe, <i>Nav. Biog.</i> i. 202.</p> + + <p><b>BRIDPORT,</b> a market town and municipal borough in the Western + parliamentary division of Dorsetshire, England, 18 m. N.W. of Dorchester, + on a branch of the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 5710. It is + pleasantly situated in a hilly district on the river Brit, from which it + takes its name. The main part of the town is about a mile from the sea, + with which it is connected by a winding street, ending at a quay + surrounded by the fishing village of West Bay, where the railway + terminates. The church of St Mary is a handsome cruciform Perpendicular + building. The harbour is accessible only to small vessels. There is some + import trade in flax, timber and coal. The principal articles of + manufacture have long been sailcloth, cordage, linen and fishing-nets. + The municipal borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. + Area, 593 acres.</p> + + <p>Bridport was evidently of some importance before the Conquest, when it + consisted of 120 houses rated for all the king's services and paying geld + for five hides. By 1086 the number of houses had decreased to 100, and of + these 20 were in such a wretched condition that they could not pay geld. + The town is first mentioned as a borough in the Pipe Roll of 1189, which + states that William de Bendenges owed £9: 10s. for the ancient farm of + Bridport, and that the men of the town owed tallage to the amount of 53s. + 10d. Henry III. granted the first charter in 1252-1253, making the town a + free borough and granting the burgesses the right to hold it at the + ancient fee farm with an increase of 40s., and to choose two bailiffs to + answer at the exchequer for the farm. A deed of 1381 shows that Henry + III. also granted the burgesses freedom from toll. Bridport was + incorporated by James I. in 1619, but Charles II. granted a new charter + in 1667, and by this the town was governed until 1835. The first existing + grant of a market and fairs to Bridport is dated 1593, but it appears + from the <i>Quo Warranto</i> Rolls that Edward I. possessed a market + there. The town was noted for the manufacture of ropes and cables as + early as 1213, and an act of parliament (21 Henry VIII.) shows that the + inhabitants had "from time out of mind" made the cables, ropes and + hawsers for the royal navy and for most of the other ships. Bridport was + represented in parliament by two members from 1395 to 1867. In the latter + year the number was reduced to one, and in 1885 the town was + disfranchised.</p> + + <p><b>BRIE</b> (<i>Briegus saltus</i>, from Celtic <i>briek</i>, clay), + an agricultural district of northern France, to the E. of Paris, bounded + W. and S. by the Seine, N. by the Marne. It has an area of 2400 sq. m., + comprising the greater part of the department of Seine-et-Marne, together + with portions of the departments of Seine, Seine-et-Oise, Aisne, Marne + and Aube. The western portion was known as the <i>Brie française</i>, the + eastern portion as the <i>Brie champenoise</i>. The Brie forms a plateau + with few eminences, varying in altitude between 300 and 500 ft. in the + west, and between 500 and 650 ft. in the east. Its scenery is varied by + forests of some size—the chief being the Forêt de Senart, the Forêt + de Crécy and the Forêt d'Armainvilliers. The surface soil is clay in + which are embedded fragments of siliceous sandstone, used for millstones + and constructional purposes; the subsoil is limestone. The Yères, a + tributary of the Seine, and the Grand Morin and Petit Morin, tributaries + of the Marne, are the chief rivers, but the region is not abundantly + watered and the rainfall is only between 20 and 24 in. The Brie is famous + for its grain and its dairy products, especially cheeses.</p> + + <p><b>BRIEF</b> (Lat. <i>brevis</i>, short), in English legal practice, + the written statement given to a barrister to form the basis of his case. + It was probably so called from its at first being only a copy of the + original writ. Upon a barrister devolves the duty of taking charge of a + case when it comes into court, but all the preliminary work, such as the + drawing up of the case, serving papers, marshalling evidence, &c., is + performed by a solicitor, so that a brief contains a concise summary for + the information of counsel of the case which he has to plead, with all + material facts in chronological order, and frequently such observations + thereon as the solicitor may think fit to make, the names of witnesses, + with the "proofs," that is, the nature of the evidence which each witness + is ready to give, if called upon. The brief may also contain suggestions + for the use of counsel when cross-examining witnesses called by the other + side. Accompanying the brief may be copies of the pleadings (see <span + class="sc">Pleading</span>), and of all documents material to the case. + The brief is always endorsed with the title of the court in which the + action is to be tried, with the title of the action, and the names of the + counsel and of the solicitor who delivers the brief. Counsel's fee is + also marked. The delivery of a brief to counsel gives him authority to + act for his client in all matters which the litigation involves. The + result of the action is noted on the brief by counsel, or if the action + is compromised, the terms of the compromise are endorsed on each brief + and signed by the leading counsel on the opposite side. In Scotland a + brief is called a memorial.</p> + + <p>In the United States the word has, to a certain extent, a different + meaning, a brief in its English sense not being required, for the + American attorney exercises all the functions distributed in England + between barristers and solicitors. A lawyer sometimes prepares for his + own use what is called a "trial brief" for use at the trial. This + corresponds in all essential particulars with the "brief" prepared by the + solicitor in England for the use of counsel. But the more distinctive use + of the term in America is in the case of the brief "in error or appeal," + before an appellate court. This is a written or printed document, varying + according to circumstances, but embodying the argument on the question + affected. Most of the appellate courts require the filing of printed + briefs for the use of the court and opposing counsel at a time designated + for each side before hearing. In the rules of the United States Supreme + Court and circuit courts of appeals the brief is required to contain a + concise statement of the case, a specification of errors relied on, + including the substance of evidence, the admission or rejection of which + is to be reviewed, or any extract from a charge excepted to, and an + argument exhibiting clearly the points of law or fact to be discussed. + This form of brief, it may be added, is also adopted for use at the trial + in certain states of the Union which require printed briefs to be + delivered to the court.</p> + + <p>In English ecclesiastical law a brief meant letters patent issued out + of chancery to churchwardens or other officers for the collection of + money for church purposes. Such briefs were regulated by a statute of + 1704, but are now obsolete, though they are still to be found named in + one of the rubrics in the Communion service of the Book of Common + Prayer.</p> + + <p>The <i>brief-bag</i>, in which counsel's papers are carried to and + from court, now forms an integral part of a barrister's outfit, but in + the early part of the 19th century the possession of a brief-bag was + strictly confined to those who had received one from a king's counsel. + King's counsel were then few in number, were considered officers of the + court, and had a salary of £40 a year, with a supply of paper, pens and + purple bags. These bags they distributed among rising juniors of their + acquaintance, <!-- Page 562 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page562"></a>[v.04 p.0562]</span>whose bundles of briefs were + getting inconveniently large to be carried in their hands. These + perquisites were abolished in 1830. English brief-bags are now either + blue or red. Blue bags are those with which barristers provide themselves + when first called, and it is a breach of etiquette to let this bag be + visible in court. The only brief-bag allowed to be placed on the desks is + the red bag, which by English legal etiquette is given by a leading + counsel to a junior who has been useful to him in some important + case.</p> + + <p><b>BRIEG,</b> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia, + on the left bank of the Oder, and on the Breslau and Beuthen railway, 27 + m. S.E. of the former city. Pop. (1900) 24,090. It has a castle (the + residence of the old counts of Brieg), a lunatic asylum, a gymnasium with + a good library, several churches and hospitals, and a theatre. Its + fortifications were destroyed by the French in 1807, and are now replaced + by beautiful promenades. Brieg carries on a considerable trade, its chief + manufactures being linen, embroideries, cotton and woollen goods, + ribbons, leather, machinery, hats, pasteboard and cigars. Important + cattle-markets are held here. Brieg, or, as it is called in early + documents, <i>Civitas Altae Ripae</i>, obtained municipal rights in 1250 + from Duke Henry III. of Breslau, and was fortified in 1297; its name is + derived from the Polish <i>Brzeg</i> (shore). Burned by the Hussites in + 1428, the town was soon afterwards rebuilt, and in 1595 it was again + fortified by Joachim Frederick, duke of Brieg. In the Thirty Years' War + it suffered greatly; in that of the Austrian succession it was heavily + bombarded by the Prussian forces; and in 1807 it was captured by the + French and Bavarians. From 1311 to 1675 Brieg was the capital of an + independent line of dukes, a cadet branch of the Polish dukes of Lower + Silesia, by one of whom the castle was built in 1341. In 1537 Frederick + II., duke of Liegnitz, Brieg and Wohlau, concluded with Joachim II., + elector of Brandenburg, a treaty according to which his duchy was to pass + to the house of Brandenburg in the event of the extinction of his line. + On the death of George William the last duke in 1675, however, Austria + refused to acknowledge the validity of the treaty and annexed the + duchies. It was the determination of Frederick II. of Prussia to assert + his claim that led in 1740 to the war that ended two years later in the + cession of Silesia to Prussia.</p> + + <p>See Stokvis, <i>Manuel d'histoire</i>, iii. pp. 54, 64.</p> + + <p><b>BRIEG,</b> often now spelt <span class="sc">Brig</span> (Fr. + <i>Brigue</i>, Ital. <i>Briga</i>), a picturesque small town in the Swiss + canton of the Valais, situated at the foot of the northern slope of the + Simplon Pass, on the right bank of the Saltine stream, and a little above + its junction with the Rhone. Its older houses are very Italian in + appearance, while its most prominent buildings (castle, former Jesuits' + college and Ursuline convent) all date from the 17th century, and are due + to the generosity of a single member of the local Stockalper family. The + prosperity of Brieg is bound up with the Simplon Pass (<i>q.v.</i>), so + that it gradually supplanted the more ancient village of Naters opposite, + becoming a separate parish (the church is at Glis, a few minutes from the + town) in 1517. Its medieval name was <i>Briga dives</i>. The opening of + the carriage road across the Simplon (1807) and of the tunnel beneath the + pass (1906), as well as the fact that above Brieg is the steeper and less + fertile portion of the Upper Valais (now much frequented by tourists), + have greatly increased the importance and size of the town. The opening + of the railway tunnel beneath the Lötschen Pass, affording direct + communication with Bern and the Bernese Oberland, is calculated still + further to contribute to its prosperity. The new town extends below the + old one and is closer to the right bank of the Rhone. In 1900 the + population was 2182, almost all Romanists, while 1316 were + German-speaking, 719 Italian-speaking (the Simplon tunnel workmen), and + 142 French-speaking, one person only speaking Romonsch.</p> + + <p>(W. A. B. C.)</p> + + <p><b>BRIELLE</b> (<i>Briel</i> or <i>Bril</i>), a seaport in the + province of South Holland, Holland, on the north side of the island of + Voorne, at the mouth of the New Maas, 5½ m. N. of Hellevoetsluis. Pop. + (1900) 4107. It is a fortified place and has a good harbour, arsenal, + magazine and barracks. It also possesses a quaint town hall, and an + orphanage dating from 1533. The tower of the Groote Kerk of St Catherine + serves as a lighthouse. Most of the trade of Brielle was diverted to + Hellevoetsluis by the cutting of the Voornsche Canal in 1829, but it + still has some business in corn and fodder, as well as a few factories. A + large number of the inhabitants are also engaged in the fisheries and as + pilots.</p> + + <p>The chief event in the history of Brielle is its capture by the + <i>Gueux sur Mer</i>, a squadron of privateers which raided the Dutch + coast under commission of the prince of Orange. This event, which took + place on the 1st of April 1572, was the first blow in the long war of + Dutch independence, and was followed by a general outbreak of the + patriotic party (Motley, <i>Rise of the Dutch Republic</i>, part iii. + chapter vi.). "The Brill" was one of the four Dutch towns handed over to + Queen Elizabeth in 1584 as security for English expenses incurred in + aiding the Dutch. Brielle is the birthplace of the famous admiral Martin + van Tromp, and also of Admiral van Almonde, a distinguished commander of + the early 18th century.</p> + + <p><b>BRIENNE-LE-CHÂTEAU,</b> a town of north-eastern France, in the + department of Aube, 1 m. from the right bank of the Aube and 26 m. N.E. + of Troyes on the Eastern railway. Pop. (1906) 1761. The château, which + overlooks the town, is an imposing building of the latter half of the + 18th century, built by the cardinal de Brienne (see below). It possesses + an important collection of pictures, many of them historical portraits of + the 17th and 18th centuries. The church dates from the 16th century and + contains good stained glass. A statue of Napoleon commemorates his + sojourn at Brienne from 1779 to 1784, when he was studying at the + military school suppressed in 1790. In 1814 Brienne was the scene of + fighting between Napoleon and the Allies (see <span class="sc">Napoleonic + Campaigns</span>). Brewing is carried on in the town. Brienne-la-Vieille, + a village 1½ m. south of Brienne-le-Château, has a church of the 12th and + 16th centuries with fine stained windows. The portal once belonged to the + ancient abbey of Bassefontaine, the ruins of which are situated near the + village.</p> + + <p><i>Counts of Brienne.</i>—Under the Carolingian dynasty + Brienne-le-Château was the capital town of a French countship. In the + 10th century it was captured by two adventurers named Engelbert and + Gobert, and from the first of these sprang the noble house of Brienne. In + 1210 John of Brienne (1148-1237) became king of Jerusalem, through his + marriage with Mary of Montsserrat, heiress of the kingdom of Jerusalem. + He led a crusade in Egypt which had no lasting success; and when in 1229 + he was elected emperor of the East, for the period of Baldwin II.'s + minority, he fought and conquered the Greek emperor John III. (Batatzes + or Vatatzes). Walter V., count of Brienne and of Lecce (Apulia) and duke + of Athens, fought against the Greeks and at first drove them from + Thessaly, but was eventually defeated and killed near Lake Copais in + 1311. His son, Walter VI., after having vainly attempted to reconquer + Athens in 1331, served under Philip of Valois against the English. Having + defended Florence against the Pisans he succeeded in obtaining + dictatorial powers for himself in the republic; but his tyrannical + conduct brought about his expulsion. He was appointed constable of France + by John the Good, and was killed at the battle of Poitiers in 1356. His + sister and heiress Isabelle married Walter of Enghien, and so brought + Brienne to the house of Enghien, and, by his marriage with Margaret of + Enghien, John of Luxemburg-St Pol (d. about 1397) became count of + Brienne. The house of Luxemburg retained the countship until Margaret + Charlotte of Luxemburg sold it to a certain Marpon, who ceded it to Henri + Auguste de Loménie (whose wife, Louise de Béon, descended from the house + of Luxemburg-Brienne) in 1640. The Limousin house of Loménie (the + genealogies which trace this family to the 15th century are + untrustworthy) produced many well-known statesmen, among others the + celebrated cardinal Étienne Charles de Loménie de Brienne (1727-1794), + minister of Louis XV.; and the last lords of Brienne were members of this + family.</p> + + <p>(M. P.*)</p> + + <p><b>BRIENZ, LAKE OF,</b> in the Swiss canton of Bern, the first lake + into which the river Aar expands. It lies in a deep hollow between the + village of Brienz on the east (2580 inhabitants, the <!-- Page 563 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page563"></a>[v.04 p.0563]</span>chief + centre of the Swiss wood-carving industry) and, on the west, Bönigen + (1515 inhabitants), close to Interlaken. Its length is about 9 m., its + width 1½ m., and its maximum depth 856 ft., while its area is 11½ sq. m., + and the surface is 1857 ft. above the sea-level. On the south shore are + the Giessbach Falls and the hamlet of Iseltwald. On the north shore are a + few small villages. The character of the lake is gloomy and sad as + compared with its neighbour, that of Thun. Its chief affluent is the + Lütschine (flowing from the valleys of Grindelwald and Lauterbrunnen). + The first steamer was placed on the lake in 1839.</p> + + <p>(W. A. B. C.)</p> + + <p><b>BRIERLEY, BENJAMIN</b> (1825-1896), English weaver and writer in + Lancashire dialect, was born near Manchester, the son of humble parents, + and started life in a textile factory, educating himself in his spare + time. At about the age of thirty he began to contribute articles to local + papers, and the republication of some of his sketches of Lancashire + character in <i>A Summer Day in Daisy Nook</i> (1859) attracted + attention. In 1863 he definitely took to journalism and literature as his + work, publishing in 1863 his <i>Chronicles of Waverlow</i>, and in 1864 a + long story called <i>The Layrock of Langley Side</i> (afterwards + dramatized), followed by others. He started in 1869 <i>Ben Brierley's + Journal</i>, a weekly, which continued till 1891, and he gave public + readings from his own writings, visiting America in 1880 and 1884. His + various <i>Ab-o'-th'-Yate</i> sketches (about America, London, &c.), + and his pictures of Lancashire common life were very popular, and were + collected after his death. In 1884 he lost his savings by the failure of + a building society, and a fund was raised for his support. He died on the + 18th of January 1896, and two years later a statue was erected to him in + Queen's Park, Manchester.</p> + + <p><b>BRIERLY, SIR OSWALD WALTERS</b> (1817-1894), English marine + painter, who came of an old Cheshire family, was born at Chester. He + entered Sass's art-school in London, and after studying naval + architecture at Plymouth he exhibited some drawings of ships at the Royal + Academy in 1839. He had a passion for the sea, and in 1841 started round + the world with Benjamin Boyd (1796-1851), afterwards well known as a + great Australian squatter, in the latter's ship "Wanderer," and having + got to New South Wales, made his home at Auckland for ten years. Brierly + Point is called after him. He added to his sea experiences by voyages on + H.M.S. "Rattlesnake" in 1848, and with Sir Henry Keppel on the "Meander" + in 1850; he returned to England in 1851 on this ship, and illustrated + Keppel's book about his cruise (1853). He was again with Keppel during + the Crimean War, and published in 1855 a series of lithographs + illustrating "The English and French fleets in the Baltic." He was now + taken up by Queen Victoria and other members of the royal family, and was + attached to the suites of the duke of Edinburgh and the prince of Wales + on their tours by sea, the results being seen in further marine pictures + by him; and in 1874 he was made marine-painter to the queen. He exhibited + at the Academy, but more largely at the Royal Water-colour Society, his + more important works including the historical pictures, "The Retreat of + the Spanish Armada" (1871) and "The Loss of the Revenge" (1877). In 1885 + he was knighted, and he died on the 14th of December 1894. He was twice + married and had an active and prosperous life, but was no great artist; + his best pictures are at Melbourne and Sydney.</p> + + <p><b>BRIEUX, EUGÈNE</b> (1858- ), French dramatist, was born in Paris of + poor parents on the 19th of January 1858. A one-act play, <i>Bernard + Palissy</i>, written in collaboration with M. Gaston Salandri, was + produced in 1879, but he had to wait eleven years before he obtained + another hearing, his <i>Ménage d' artistes</i> being produced by Antoine + at the Théâtre Libre in 1890. His plays are essentially didactic, being + aimed at some weakness or iniquity of the social system. + <i>Blanchette</i> (1892) pointed out the evil results of education of + girls of the working classes; <i>M. de Réboval</i> (1892) was directed + against pharisaism; <i>L'Engrenage</i> (1894) against corruption in + politics; <i>Les Bienssaiteurs</i> (1896) against the frivolity of + fashionable charity; and <i>L'Évasion</i> (1896) satirized an + indicriminate belief in the doctrine of heredity. <i>Les Trois Filles de + M. Dupont</i> (1897) is a powerful, somewhat brutal, study of the + miseries imposed on poor middle-class girls by the French system of + dowry; <i>Le Résultat des courses</i> (1898) shows the evil results of + betting among the Parisian workmen; <i>La Robe rouge</i> (1900) was + directed against the injustices of the law; <i>Les Remplaçantes</i> + (1901) against the practice of putting children out to nurse. <i>Les + Avariés</i> (1901), forbidden by the censor, on account of its medical + details, was read privately by the author at the Théâtre Antoine; and + <i>Petite amie</i> (1902) describes the life of a Parisian shop-girl. + Later plays are <i>La Couvée</i> (1903, acted privately at Rouen in + 1893), <i>Maternité</i> (1904), <i>La Déserteuse</i> (1904), in + collaboration with M. Jean Sigaux, and <i>Les Hannetons</i>, a comedy in + three acts (1906).</p> + + <p><b>BRIGADE</b> (Fr. and Ger. <i>brigade</i>, Ital. <i>brigata</i>, + Span. <i>brigada</i>; the English use of the word dates from the early + 17th century), a unit in military organization commanded by a + major-general, brigadier-general or colonel, and composed of two or more + regiments of infantry, cavalry or artillery. The British infantry brigade + consists as a rule of four battalions (or about 4000 bayonets) with + supply, transport and medical units attached; the cavalry brigade of two + or three regiments of cavalry. An artillery "brigade" (field, horse, and + heavy) is in Great Britain a smaller unit, forming a lieut.-colonel's + command and consisting of two or three batteries. (See <span + class="sc">Army, Artillery, Infantry</span>, and <span + class="sc">Cavalry</span>.) The staff of an infantry or cavalry brigade + usually consists of the brigadier commanding, his aide-de-camp, and the + brigade-major, a staff officer whose duties are intermediate between + those of an adjutant and those of a general staff officer.</p> + + <p><b>BRIGANDAGE.</b> The brigand is supposed to derive his name from the + O. Fr. <i>brigan</i>, which is a form of the Ital. <i>brigante,</i> an + irregular or partisan soldier. There can be no doubt as to the origin of + the word "bandit," which has the same meaning. In Italy, which is not + unjustly considered the home of the most accomplished European brigands, + a <i>bandito</i> was a man declared outlaw by proclamation, or + <i>bando</i>, called in Scotland "a decree of horning" because it was + delivered by a blast of a horn at the town cross. The brigand, therefore, + is the outlaw who conducts warfare after the manner of an irregular or + partisan soldier by skirmishes and surprises, who makes the war support + itself by plunder, by extorting blackmail, by capturing prisoners and + holding them to ransom, who enforces his demands by violence, and kills + the prisoners who cannot pay. In certain conditions the brigand has not + been a mere malefactor. "It is you who are the thieves"—"<i>I + Ladroni, siete voi,</i>"—was the defence of the Calabrian who was + tried as a brigand by a French court-martial during the reign of Murat in + Naples. Brigandage may be, and not infrequently has been, the last + resource of a people subject to invasion. The Calabrians who fought for + Ferdinand of Naples, and the Spanish irregular levies, which maintained + the national resistance against the French from 1808 to 1814, were called + brigands by their enemies. In the Balkan peninsula, under Turkish rule, + the brigands (called <i>klephts</i> by the Greeks and <i>hayduks</i> or + <i>haydutzi</i> by the Slavs) had some claim to believe themselves the + representatives of their people against oppressors. The only approach to + an attempt to maintain order was the permission given to part of the + population to carry arms in order to repress the klephts. They were hence + called "armatoli." As a matter of fact the armatole were rather the + allies than the enemies of the klephts. The invader who reduces a nation + to anarchy, and then suffers from the disorder he creates, always calls + his opponents brigands. It is a natural consequence of such a war, but a + very disastrous one, for the people who have to have recourse to these + methods of defence, that the brigand acquires some measure of honourable + prestige from his temporary association with patriotism and honest men. + The patriot band attracts the brigand proper, who is not averse to + continue his old courses under an honourable pretext. "<i>Viva Fernando y + vamos robando</i>" (Long life to Ferdinand, and let us go robbing) has + been said by not unfair critics to have been the maxim of many Spanish + guerrilleros. Italy and Spain suffered for a long time from the disorder + developed out of the popular resistance to the French. Numbers of the + guerrilleros of both countries, who in normal conditions might have been + honest, had acquired a preference <!-- Page 564 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page564"></a>[v.04 p.0564]</span>for living on + the country, and for occasional booty, which they could not resign when + the enemy had retired. Their countrymen had to work for a second + deliverance from their late defenders. In the East the brigand has had a + freer scope, and has even founded kingdoms. David's following in the cave + of Adullam was such material as brigands are made of. "And every one that + was in distress, and every one that was in debt, and every one that was + discontented, gathered themselves unto him, and he became a captain over + them: and there were with him about four hundred men." Nadir Shah of + Persia began in just such a cave of Adullam, and lived to plunder Delhi + with a host of Persians and Afghans.</p> + + <p>The conditions which favour the development of brigandage may be + easily summed up. They are first bad administration, and then, in a less + degree, the possession of convenient hiding-places. A country of mountain + and forest is favourable to the brigand. The highlands of Scotland + supplied a safe refuge to the "gentlemen reavers," who carried off the + cattle of the Sassenach landlords. The Apennines, the mountains of + Calabria, the Sierras of Spain, were the homes of the Italian "banditos" + and the Spanish "bandoleros" (banished men) and "salteadores" (raiders). + The forests of England gave cover to the outlaws whose very much + flattered portrait is to be found in the ballads of Robin Hood. The + "maquis," i.e. the bush of Corsica, and its hills, have helped the + Corsican brigand, as the bush of Australia covered the bushranger. But + neither forest thicket nor mountain is a lasting protection against a + good police, used with intelligence by the government, and supported by + the law-abiding part of the community. The great haunts of brigands in + Europe have been central and southern Italy and the worst-administered + parts of Spain, except those which fell into the hands of the Turks. + "Whenever numerous troops of banditti, multiplied by success and + impunity, publicly defy, instead of eluding, the justice of their + country, we may safely infer that the excessive weakness of the + government is felt and abused by the lowest ranks of the community," is + the judgment passed by Gibbon on the disorders of Sicily in the reign of + the emperor Gallienus. This weakness has not always been a sign of real + feebleness in the government. England was vigorously ruled in the reign + of William III., when "a fraternity of plunderers, thirty in number + according to the lowest estimate, squatted near Waltham Cross under the + shades of Epping Forest, and built themselves huts, from which they + sallied forth with sword and pistol to bid passengers stand." It was not + because the state was weak that the Gubbings (so called in contempt from + the trimmings and refuse of fish) infested Devonshire for a generation + from their headquarters near Brent Tor, on the edge of Dartmoor. It was + because England had not provided herself with a competent rural police. + In relatively unsettled parts of the United States there has been a + considerable amount of a certain kind of brigandage. In early days the + travel routes to the far West were infested by highwaymen, who, however, + seldom united into bands, and such outlaws, when captured, were often + dealt with in an extra-legal manner, e.g. by "vigilance committees." The + Mexican brigand Cortina made incursions into Texas before the Civil War. + In Canada the mounted police have kept brigandage down, and in Mexico the + "Rurales" have made an end of the brigands. Such curable evils as the + highwaymen of England, and their like in the States, are not to be + compared with the "Écorcheurs," or Skinners, of France in the 15th + century, or the "Chauffeurs" of the revolutionary epoch. The first were + large bands of discharged mercenary soldiers who pillaged the country. + The second were ruffians who forced their victims to pay ransom by + holding their feet in fires. Both flourished because the government was + for the time disorganized by foreign invasion or by revolution. These + were far more terrible evils than the licence of criminals, who are + encouraged by a fair prospect of impunity because there is no permanent + force always at hand to check them, and to bring them promptly to + justice. At the same time it would be going much too far to say that the + absence of an efficient police is the sole cause of brigandage in + countries not subject to foreign invasion, or where the state is not very + feeble. The Sicilian peasants of whom Gibbon wrote were not only + encouraged by the hope of impunity, but were also maddened by an + oppressive system of taxation and a cruel system of land tenure. So were + the Gauls and Spaniards who throughout the 3rd and 4th centuries were a + constant cause of trouble to the empire, under the name of Bagaudae, a + word of uncertain origin. In the years preceding the French Revolution, + the royal government commanded the services of a strong army, and a + numerous <i>maréchaussée</i> or gendarmerie. Yet it was defied by the + troops of smugglers and brigands known as <i>faux saulniers</i>, + unauthorized salt-sellers, and gangs of poachers haunted the king's + preserves round Paris. The salt monopoly and the excessive preservation + of the game were so oppressive that the peasantry were provoked to + violent resistance and to brigandage. They were constantly suppressed, + but as the cause of the disorder survived, so its effects were + continually renewed. The offenders enjoyed a large measure of public + sympathy, and were warned or concealed by the population, even when they + were not actively supported. The traditional outlaw who spared the poor + and levied tribute on the rich was, no doubt, always a creature of + fiction. The ballad which tells us how "Rich, wealthy misers were + abhorred, By brave, free-hearted Bliss" (a rascal hanged for highway + robbery at Salisbury in 1695) must have been a mere echo of the Robin + Hood songs. But there have been times and countries in which the law and + its administration have been so far regarded as enemies by people who + were not themselves criminals, that all who defied them have been sure of + a measure of sympathy. Then and there it was that brigandage has + flourished, and has been difficult to extirpate. Schinder-Hannes, Jack + the Skinner, whose real name was Johann Buckler, and who was born at + Muklen on the Rhine, flourished from 1797 to 1802 because there was no + proper police to stop him; it is also true that as he chiefly plundered + the Jews he had a good deal of Christian sympathy. When caught and + beheaded he had no successors.</p> + + <p>The brigandage of Greece, southern Italy, Corsica and Spain had deeper + roots, and has never been quite suppressed. All four countries are well + provided with hiding-places in forest and mountain. In all the + administration has been bad, the law and its officers have been regarded + as dangers, if not as deliberate enemies, so that they have found little + native help, and, what is not the least important cause of the + persistence of brigandage, there have generally been local potentates who + found it to their interest to protect the brigand. The case of Greece + under Turkish rule need not be dealt with. Whoever was not a klepht was + the victim of some official extortioner. It would be grossly unfair to + apply the name brigand to the Mainotes and similar clans, who had to + choose between being flayed by the Turks or living by the sword under + their own law. When it became independent Greece was extremely ill + administered under a nominal parliamentary government by politicians who + made use of the brigands for their own purposes. The result was the state + of things described with only pardonable exaggeration in Edmond About's + amusing <i>Roi de la montagne</i>. An authentic and most interesting + picture of the Greek brigands will be found in the story of the captivity + of S. Soteropoulos, an ex-minister who fell into their hands. It was + translated into English under the title of <i>The Brigands of the + Morea</i>, by the Rev. J.O. Bagdon (London, 1868). The misfortunes of + Soteropoulos led to the adoption of strong measures which cleared the + Morea, where the peasantry gave active support to the troops when they + saw that the government was in earnest. But brigandage was not yet + extinct in Greece. In 1870 an English party, consisting of Lord and Lady + Muncaster, Mr Vyner, Mr Lloyd, Mr Herbert, and Count de Boyl, was + captured at Oropos, near Marathon, and a ransom of £25,000 was demanded. + Lord and Lady Muncaster were set at liberty to seek for the ransom, but + the Greek government sent troops in pursuit of the brigands, and the + other prisoners were then murdered. The scoundrels were hunted down, + caught, and executed, and Greece has since then been tolerably free from + this reproach. In the Balkan peninsula, under Turkish rule, brigandage + continued to exist in connexion <!-- Page 565 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page565"></a>[v.04 p.0565]</span>with Christian revolt against the + Turk, and the race conflicts of Albanians, Walachians, Pomuks, Bulgarians + and Greeks. In Corsica the "maquis" has never been without its brigand + hero, because industry has been stagnant, family feuds persist, and the + government has never quite succeeded in persuading the people to support + the law. The brigand is always a hero to at least one faction of + Corsicans.</p> + + <p>The conditions which favour brigandage have been more prevalent, and + for longer, in Italy than elsewhere in western Europe, with the standing + exception of Corsica, which is Italian in all but political allegiance. + Until the middle of the 19th century Italy was divided into small states, + so that the brigand who was closely pursued in one could flee to another. + Thus it was that Marco Sciarra of the Abruzzi, when hard pressed by the + Spanish viceroy of Naples—just before and after 1600—could + cross the border of the papal states and return on a favourable + opportunity. When pope and viceroy combined against him he took service + with Venice, from whence he could communicate with his friends at home, + and pay them occasional visits. On one such visit he was led into a trap + and slain. Marco Sciarra had terrorized the country far and wide at the + head of 600 men. He was the follower and imitator of Benedetto Mangone, + of whom it is recorded that, having stopped a party of travellers which + included Torquato Tasso, he allowed them to pass unharmed out of his + reverence for poets and poetry. Mangone was finally taken, and beaten to + death with hammers at Naples. He and his like are the heroes of much + popular verse, written in <i>ottava rima</i>, and beginning with the + traditional epic invocation to the muse. A fine example is "The most + beautiful history of the life and death of Pietro Mancino, chief of + Banditti," which has remained popular with the people of southern Italy. + It begins:—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"Io canto li ricatti, e il fiero ardire</p> + <p>Del gran Pietro Mancino fuoruscito"</p> + <p>(Pietro Mancino that great outlawed man</p> + <p>I sing, and all his rage.)</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>In Naples the number of competing codes and jurisdictions, the + survival of the feudal power of the nobles, who sheltered banditti, just + as a Highland chief gave refuge to "caterans" in Scotland, and the + helplessness of the peasantry, made brigandage chronic, and the same + conditions obtained in Sicily. The Bourbon dynasty reduced brigandage + very much, and secured order on the main high-roads. But it was not + extinguished, and it revived during the French invasion. This was the + flourishing time of the notorious Fra Diavolo, who began as brigand and + blossomed into a patriot. Fra Diavolo was captured and executed by the + French. When Ferdinand was restored on the fall of Napoleon he employed + an English officer, General Sir Richard Church, to suppress the brigands. + General Church, who kept good order among his soldiers, and who made them + pay for everything, gained the confidence of the peasantry, and restored + a fair measure of security. It was he who finally brought to justice the + villainous Don Ciro Anicchiarico—priest and brigand—who + declared at his trial with offhand indifference that he supposed he had + murdered about seventy people first and last. When a brother priest was + sent to give him the consolations of religion, Ciro cut him short, + saying, "Stop that chatter, we are two of a trade: we need not play the + fool to one another" (<i>Lasciate queste chiacchiere, siamo dell' istessa + professione: non ci burliamo fra noi</i>). Every successive revolutionary + disturbance in Naples saw a recrudescence of brigandage down to the + unification of 1860-1861, and then it was years before the Italian + government rooted it out. The source of the trouble was the support the + brigands received from various kinds of "<i>manuténgoli</i>" + (maintainers)—great men, corrupt officials, political parties, and + the peasants who were terrorized, or who profited by selling the brigands + food and clothes. In Sicily brigandage has been endemic. In 1866 two + English travellers, Mr E.J.C. Moens and the Rev. J.C. Murray Aynesley, + were captured and held to ransom. Mr Moens found that the "manuténgoli" + of the brigands among the peasants charged famine prices for food, and + extortionate prices for clothes and cartridges. What is true of Naples + and Sicily is true of other parts of Italy <i>mutatis mutandis</i>. In + Tuscany, Piedmont and Lombardy the open country has been orderly, but the + borders infested with brigands. The worst district outside Calabria has + been the papal states. The Austrian general, Frimont, did, however, + partly clear the Romagna about 1820, though at a heavy cost of life to + his soldiers—mostly Bohemian Jägers—from the malaria.</p> + + <p>The history of brigandage in Spain is very similar. It may be said to + have been endemic in and south of the Sierra Morena. In the north it has + flourished when government was weak, and after foreign invasion and civil + wars. But it has always been put down easily by a capable administration. + It reached its greatest heights in Catalonia, where it began in the + strife of the peasants against the feudal exactions of the landlords. It + had its traditional hero, Roque Guinart, who figures in the second part + of Don Quixote. The revolt against the house of Austria in 1640, and the + War of the Succession (1700-1714), gave a great stimulus to Catalan + brigandage. But it was then put down in a way for which Italy offers no + precedent. A country gentleman named Pedro Veciana, hereditary + <i>balio</i> (military and civil lieutenant) of the archbishop of + Tarragona in the town of Valls, armed his farm-servants, and resisted the + attacks of the brigands. With the help of neighbouring country gentlemen + he formed a strong band, known as the Mozos (Boys) of Veciana. The + brigands combined to get rid of him by making an attack on the town of + Valls, but were repulsed with great loss. The government of Philip V. + then commissioned Veciana to raise a special corps of police, the + "escuadra de Cataluna," which still exists. For five generations the + colonel of the escuadra was always a Veciana. At all times in central and + northern Spain the country population has supported the police when the + government would act firmly. Since the organization of the excellent + constabulary called "La Guardia Civil" by the duke of Ahumada, about + 1844, brigandage has been well kept down. At the close of the Carlist War + in 1874 a few bands infested Catalonia, but one of the worst was + surprised, and all its members battered to death with boxwood cudgels by + a gang of charcoal-burners on the ruins of the castle of San Martin de + Centellas. In such conditions as these brigandage cannot last. More + sympathy is felt for "bandoleros" in the south, and there also they find + Spanish equivalents for the "manuténgoli" of Italy. The tobacco smuggling + from Gibraltar keeps alive a lawless class which sinks easily into pure + brigandage. Perhaps the influence of the Berber blood in the population + helps to prolong this barbarism. The Sierra Morena, and the Serrania de + Ronda, have produced the bandits whose achievements form the subject of + popular ballads, such as Francisco Esteban El Guapo (Francis Stephen, the + Buck or Dandy), Don Juan de Serralonga, Pedranza, &c. The name of + José Maria has been made familiar to all the world by Merimée's story, + <i>Carmen</i>, and by Bizet's opera. José Maria, called El Tempranillo + (the early bird), was a historical personage, a liberal in the rising + against Ferdinand VII., 1820-1823, then a smuggler, then a "bandolero." + He was finally bought off by the government, and took a commission to + suppress the other brigands. Jose Maria was at last shot by one of them, + whom he was endeavouring to arrest. The civil guard prevents brigandage + from reaching any great height in normal times, but in 1905 a bandit of + the old stamp, popularly known as "El Vivillo" (the Vital Spark), haunted + the Serrania de Ronda.</p> + + <p>The brigand life has been made the subject of much romance. But when + stripped of fiction it appears that the bands have been mostly recruited + by men who had been guilty of homicide, out of jealousy or in a gambling + quarrel, and who remained in them not from love of the life, but from + fear of the gallows. A reformed brigand, known as Passo di Lupo (Wolf's + Step), confessed to Mr McFarlane about 1820 that the weaker members of + the band were terrorized and robbed by the bullies, and that murderous + conflicts were constant among them.</p> + + <p>The "dacoits" or brigands of India were of the same stamp as their + European colleagues. The Pindaris were more than brigands, and the Thugs + were a religious sect.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—The literature of + brigandage, apart from pure romances, or official reports of trials, is + naturally extensive. Mr <!-- Page 566 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page566"></a>[v.04 p.0566]</span>McFarlane's <i>Lives and Exploits + of Banditti and Robbers</i> (London, 1837) is a useful introduction to + the subject. The author saw a part of what he wrote about, and gives many + references, particularly for Italy. A good bibliography of Spanish + brigandage will be found in the <i>Reseña Historica de la Guardia + Civil</i> of Eugenio de la Iglesia (Madrid, 1898). For actual pictures of + the life, nothing is better than the <i>English Travellers and Italian + Brigands</i> of W.J.C. Moens (London, 1866), and <i>The Brigands of the + Morea</i>, by S. Soteropoulos, translated by the Rev. J.O. Bagdon + (London, 1868).</p> + + <p>(D. H.)</p> + + <p><b>BRIGANDINE,</b> a French word meaning the armour for the + <i>brigandi</i> or <i>brigantes</i>, light-armed foot soldiers; part of + the armour of a foot soldier in the middle ages, consisting of a padded + tunic of canvas, leather, &c., and lined with closely sewn scales or + rings of iron.</p> + + <p><b>BRIGANTES</b> (Celtic for "mountaineers" or "free, privileged"), a + people of northern Britain, who inhabited the country from the mouth of + the Abus (Humber) on the east and the Belisama (Mersey; according to + others, Ribble) on the west as far northwards as the Wall of Antoninus. + Their territory thus included most of Yorkshire, the whole of Lancashire, + Durham, Westmorland, Cumberland and part of Northumberland. Their chief + town was Eburacum (or Eboracum; York). They first came into contact with + the Romans during the reign of Claudius, when they were defeated by + Publius Ostorius Scapula. Under Vespasian they submitted to Petillius + Cerealis, but were not finally subdued till the time of Antoninus Pius + (Tac. <i>Agricola</i>, 17; Pausan. viii. 43. 4). The name of their + eponymous goddess Brigantia is found on inscriptions (<i>Corp. Inscr. + Lat.</i> vii. 200, 875, 1062; F. Haverfield in <i>Archaeological + Journal</i>, xlix., 1892), and also that of a god Bergans = Brigans + (<i>Ephemeris Epigraphica</i>, vii. No. 920). A branch of the Brigantes + also settled in the south-east corner of Ireland, near the river Birgus + (Barrow).</p> + + <p>See A. Holder, <i>Altceltischer Sprachschatz</i>, i. (1896), for + ancient authorities; J. Rhys, <i>Celtic Britain</i> (3rd ed., 1904); + Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Realencyclopädie</i>, iii. pt. i. (1897).</p> + + <p><b>BRIGG</b> (properly Glanford Briggs or Glamford Bridge), a market + town in the North Lindsey or Brigg parliamentary division of + Lincolnshire, England, situated on the river Ancholme, which affords + water communication with the Humber. Pop. of urban district (1901) 3137. + It is 23 m. by road north of Lincoln, and is served by the Grimsby line + of the Great Central railway. Trade is principally agricultural. In 1885 + a remarkable boat, assigned to early British workmanship, was unearthed + near the river; it is hollowed out of the trunk of an oak, and measures + 48 ft. 6 in. by about 5 ft. Other prehistoric relics have also been + discovered.</p> + + <p><b>BRIGGS, CHARLES AUGUSTUS</b> (1841- ), American Hebrew scholar and + theologian, was born in New York City on the 15th of January 1841. He was + educated at the university of Virginia (1857-1860), graduated at the + Union Theological Seminary in 1863, and studied further at the university + of Berlin. He was pastor of the Presbyterian church of Roselle, New + Jersey, 1869-1874, and professor of Hebrew and cognate languages in Union + Theological Seminary 1874-1891, and of Biblical theology there from 1891 + to 1904, when he became professor of theological encyclopaedia and + symbolics. From 1880 to 1890 he was an editor of the <i>Presbyterian + Review</i>. In 1892 he was tried for heresy by the presbytery of New York + and acquitted. The charges were based upon his inaugural address of the + preceding year. In brief they were as follows: that he had taught that + reason and the Church are each a "fountain of divine authority which + apart from Holy Scripture may and does savingly enlighten men"; that + "errors may have existed in the original text of the Holy Scripture"; + that "many of the Old Testament predictions have been reversed by + history" and that "the great body of Messianic prediction has not and + cannot be fulfilled"; that "Moses is not the author of the Pentateuch," + and that "Isaiah is not the author of half of the book which bears his + name"; that "the processes of redemption extend to the world to + come"—he had considered it a fault of Protestant theology that it + limits redemption to this world—and that "sanctification is not + complete at death." The general assembly, to which the case was appealed, + suspended Dr Briggs in 1893, being influenced, it would seem, in part, by + the manner and tone of his expressions—by what his own colleagues + in the Union Theological Seminary called the "dogmatic and irritating" + nature of his inaugural address. He was ordained a priest of the + Protestant Episcopal Church in 1899. His scholarship procured for him the + honorary degree of D.D. from Edinburgh (1884) and from Glasgow (1901), + and that of Litt.D. from Oxford (1901). With S.R. Driver and Francis + Brown he prepared a revised <i>Hebrew and English Lexicon</i> + (1891-1905), and with Driver edited the "International Commentary + Series." His publications include <i>Biblical Study: Its Principles, + Methods and History</i> (1883); <i>Hebrew Poems of the Creation</i> + (1884); <i>American Presbyterianism: Its Origin and Early History</i> + (1885); <i>Messianic Prophecy</i> (1886); <i>Whither? A Theological + Question for the Times</i> (1889); <i>The Authority of the Holy + Scripture</i> (1891); <i>The Bible, the Church and the Reason</i> (1892); + <i>The Higher Criticism of the Hexateuch</i> (1893); <i>The Messiah of + the Gospels</i> (1804), <i>The Messiah of the Apostles</i> (1894); <i>New + Light on the Life of Jesus</i> (1904); <i>The Ethical Teaching of + Jesus</i> (1904); <i>A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of + Psalms</i> (2 vols., 1906-1907), in which he was assisted by his + daughter; and <i>The Virgin Birth of Our Lord</i> (1909).</p> + + <p><b>BRIGGS, HENRY</b> (1556-1630), English mathematician, was born at + Warley Wood, near Halifax, in Yorkshire. He graduated at St John's + College, Cambridge, in 1581, and obtained a fellowship in 1588. In 1592 + he was made reader of the physical lecture founded by Dr Thomas Linacre, + and in 1596 first professor of geometry in Gresham House (afterwards + College), London. In his lectures at Gresham House he proposed the + alteration of the scale of logarithms from the hyperbolic form which John + Napier had given them, to that in which unity is assumed as the logarithm + of the ratio of ten to one; and soon afterwards he wrote to the inventor + on the subject. In 1616 he paid a visit to Napier at Edinburgh in order + to discuss the suggested change; and next year he repeated his visit for + a similar purpose. During these conferences the alteration proposed by + Briggs was agreed upon; and on his return from his second visit to + Edinburgh in 1617 he accordingly published the first chiliad of his + logarithms. (See <span class="sc">Napier, John</span>.) In 1619 he was + appointed Savilian professor of geometry at Oxford, and resigned his + professorship of Gresham College on the 25th of July 1620. Soon after his + settlement at Oxford he was incorporated master of arts. In 1622 he + published a small tract on the <i>North-West Passage to the South Seas, + through the Continent of Virginia and Hudson's Bay</i>; and in 1624 his + <i>Arithmetica Logarithmica</i>, in folio, a work containing the + logarithms of thirty thousand natural numbers to fourteen places of + figures besides the index. He also completed a table of logarithmic sines + and tangents for the hundredth part of every degree to fourteen places of + figures besides the index, with a table of natural sines to fifteen + places, and the tangents and secants for the same to ten places; all of + which were printed at Gouda in 1631 and published in 1633 under the title + of <i>Trigonometria Britannica</i> (see <span class="sc">Table, + Mathematical</span>). Briggs died on the 26th of January 1630, and was + buried in Merton College chapel, Oxford. Dr Smith, in his <i>Lives of the + Gresham Professors</i>, characterizes him as a man of great probity, a + contemner of riches, and contented with his own station, preferring a + studious retirement to all the splendid circumstances of life.</p> + + <p>His works are: <i>A Table to find the Height of the Pole, the + Magnetical Declination being given</i> (London, 1602, 4to); "Tables for + the Improvement of Navigation," printed in the second edition of Edward + Wright's treatise entitled <i>Certain Errors in Navigation detected and + corrected</i> (London, 1610, 4to); <i>A Description of an Instrumental + Table to find the part proportional, devised by Mr Edward Wright</i> + (London, 1616 and 1618, 12mo); <i>Logarithmorum Chilias prima</i> + (London, 1617, 8vo); <i>Lucubrationes et Annotationes in opera posthuma + J. Neperi</i> (Edinburgh, 1619, 4to); <i>Euclidis Elementorum VI. libri + priores</i> (London, 1620. folio); <i>A Treatise on the North-West + Passage to the South Sea</i> (London, 1622, 4to), reprinted in Purchas's + <i>Pilgrims</i>, vol. iii. p. 852; <i>Arithmetica Logarithmica</i> + (London, 1624, folio); <i>Trigonometria Britannica</i> (Goudae, 1663, + folio); two <i>Letters</i> to Archbishop Usher; <i>Mathematica ab + Antiquis minus cognita</i>. Some other works, as his <i>Commentaries on + the Geometry of Peter Ramus</i>, and <i>Remarks on the Treatise of + Longomontanus respecting the Quadrature of the Circle</i>, have not been + published.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 567 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page567"></a>[v.04 p.0567]</span></p> + + <p><b>BRIGHOUSE,</b> a municipal borough in the Elland parliamentary + division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 5½ m. N. of + Huddersfield by the Lancashire & Yorkshire railway, on the river + Calder. Pop. (1901) 21,735. It is in the heart of the manufacturing + district of the West Riding, and has large woollen and worsted factories; + carpets, machinery and soap are also produced. The town was incorporated + in 1893, and is governed by a mayor, 8 aldermen and 24 councillors. Area, + 2231 acres.</p> + + <p><b>BRIGHT, SIR CHARLES TILSTON</b> (1832-1888), English telegraph + engineer, who came of an old Yorkshire family, was born on the 8th of + June 1832, at Wanstead, Essex. At the age of fifteen he became a clerk + under the Electric Telegraph Company. His talent for electrical + engineering was soon shown, and his progress was rapid; so that in 1852 + he was appointed engineer to the Magnetic Telegraph Company, and in that + capacity superintended the laying of lines in various parts of the + British Isles, including in 1853 the first cable between Great Britain + and Ireland, from Portpatrick to Donaghadee. His experiments convinced + him of the practicability of an electric submarine cable connexion + between Ireland and America; and having in 1855 already discussed the + question with Cyrus Field, who with J. W. Brett controlled the + Newfoundland Telegraph Company on the other side of the ocean, Bright + organized with them the Atlantic Telegraph Company in 1856 for the + purpose of carrying out the idea, himself becoming engineer-in-chief. The + story of the first Atlantic cable is told elsewhere (see <span + class="sc">Telegraph</span>), and it must suffice here to say that in + 1858, after two disappointments, Bright successfully accomplished what to + many had seemed an impossible feat, and within a few days of landing the + Irish end of the line at Valentia he was knighted in Dublin. Subsequently + Sir Charles Bright supervised the laying of submarine cables in various + regions of the world, and took a leading part as pioneer in other + developments of the electrical industry. In conjunction with Josiah + Latimer Clark, with whom he entered into partnership in 1861, he invented + improved methods of insulating submarine cables, and a paper on + electrical standards read by them before the British Association in the + same year led to the establishment of the British Association committee + on that subject, whose work formed the foundations of the system still in + use. From 1865 to 1868 he was Liberal M.P. for Greenwich. He died on the + 3rd of May 1888, at Abbey Wood, near London.</p> + + <p>See <i>Life Story of Sir C. T. Bright</i>, by his son Charles Bright + (revised ed. 1908).</p> + + <p><b>BRIGHT, JOHN</b> (1811-1889), British statesman, was born at + Rochdale on the 16th of November 1811. His father, Jacob Bright, was a + much-respected Quaker, who had started a cottonmill at Rochdale in 1809. + The family had reached Lancashire by two migrations. Abraham Bright was a + Wiltshire yeoman, who, early in the 18th century, removed to Coventry, + where his descendants remained, and where, in 1775, Jacob Bright was + born. Jacob Bright was educated at the Ackworth school of the Society of + Friends, and was apprenticed to a fustian manufacturer at New Mills. He + married his employer's daughter, and settled with his two brothers-in-law + at Rochdale in 1802, going into business for himself seven years later. + His first wife died without children, and in 1809 he married Martha Wood, + daughter of a tradesman of Bolton-le-Moors. She had been educated at + Ackworth school, and was a woman of great strength of character and + refined taste. There were eleven children of this marriage, of whom John + Bright was the second, but the death of his elder brother in childhood + made him the eldest son. He was a delicate child, and was sent as a + day-scholar to a boarding-school near his home, kept by Mr William + Littlewood. A year at the Ackworth school, two years at a school at York, + and a year and a half at Newton, near Clitheroe, completed his education. + He learned, he himself said, but little Latin and Greek, but acquired a + great love of English literature, which his mother fostered, and a love + of outdoor pursuits. In his sixteenth year he entered his father's mill, + and in due time became a partner in the business. Two agitations were + then going on in Rochdale—the first (in which Jacob Bright was a + leader) in opposition to a local church-rate, and the second for + parliamentary reform, by which Rochdale successfully claimed to have a + member allotted to it under the Reform Bill. In both these movements John + Bright took part. He was an ardent Nonconformist, proud to number among + his ancestors John Gratton, a friend of George Fox, and one of the + persecuted and imprisoned preachers of the Society of Friends. His + political interest was probably first kindled by the Preston election in + 1830, in which Lord Stanley, after a long struggle, was defeated by + "Orator" Hunt. But it was as a member of the Rochdale Juvenile Temperance + Band that he first learned public speaking. These young men went out into + the villages, borrowed a chair of a cottager, and spoke from it at + open-air meetings. In Mrs John Mills's life of her husband is an account + of John Bright's first extempore speech. It was at a temperance meeting. + Bright got his notes muddled, and broke down. The chairman gave out a + temperance song, and during the singing told Bright to put his notes + aside and say what came into his mind. Bright obeyed, began with much + hesitancy, but found his tongue and made an excellent address. On some + early occasions, however, he committed his speech to memory. In 1832 he + called on the Rev. John Aldis, an eminent Baptist minister, to accompany + him to a local Bible meeting. Mr Aldis described him as a slender, modest + young gentleman, who surprised him by his intelligence and + thoughtfulness, but who seemed nervous as they walked to the meeting + together. At the meeting he made a stimulating speech, and on the way + home asked for advice. Mr Aldis counselled him not to learn his speeches, + but to write out and commit to memory certain passages and the + peroration. Bright took the advice, and acted on it all his life.</p> + + <p>This "first lesson in public speaking," as Bright called it, was given + in his twenty-first year, but he had not then contemplated entering on a + public career. He was a fairly prosperous man of business, very happy in + his home, and always ready to take part in the social, educational and + political life of his native town. He was one of the founders of the + Rochdale Literary and Philosophical Society, took a leading part in its + debates, and on returning from a holiday journey in the East, gave the + society a lecture on his travels. He first met Richard Cobden in 1836 or + 1837. Cobden was an alderman of the newly formed Manchester corporation, + and Bright went to ask him to speak at an education meeting in Rochdale. + "I found him," said Bright, "in his office in Mosley Street, introduced + myself to him, and told him what I wanted." Cobden consented, and at the + meeting was much struck by Bright's short speech, and urged him to speak + against the Corn Laws. His first speech on the Corn Laws was made at + Rochdale in 1838, and in the same year he joined the Manchester + provisional committee which in 1839 founded the Anti-Corn Law League He + was still only the local public man, taking part in all public movements, + especially in opposition to John Feilden's proposed factory legislation, + and to the Rochdale church-rate. In 1839 he built the house which he + called "One Ash," and married Elizabeth, daughter of Jonathan Priestman + of Newcastle-on-Tyne. In November of the same year there was a dinner at + Bolton to Abraham Paulton, who had just returned from a successful + Anti-Corn Law tour in Scotland. Among the speakers were Cobden and + Bright, and the dinner is memorable as the first occasion on which the + two future leaders appeared together on a Free Trade platform. Bright is + described by the historian of the League as "a young man then appearing + for the first time in any meeting out of his own town, and giving + evidence, by his energy and by his grasp of the subject, of his capacity + soon to take a leading part in the great agitation." But his call had not + yet come. In 1840 he led a movement against the Rochdale church-rate, + speaking from a tombstone in the churchyard, where it looks down on the + town in the valley below. A very happy married life at home contented + him, and at the opening of the Free Trade hall in January 1840 he sat + with the Rochdale deputation, undistinguished in the body of the meeting. + A daughter, Helen, was born to him; but his young wife, after a long + illness, died of consumption in September 1841. Three days after her + death at Leamington, Cobden called to see him. "I was in the depths of + grief," said Bright, when unveiling <!-- Page 568 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page568"></a>[v.04 p.0568]</span>the statue of + his friend at Bradford in 1877, "I might almost say of despair, for the + life and sunshine of my house had been extinguished." Cobden spoke some + words of condolence, but after a time he looked up and said, 'There are + thousands of homes in England at this moment where wives, mothers and + children are dying of hunger. Now, when the first paroxysm of your grief + is past, I would advise you to come with me, and we will never rest till + the Corn Laws are repealed.' "I accepted his invitation," added Bright, + "and from that time we never ceased to labour hard on behalf of the + resolution which we had made." At the general election in 1841 Cobden was + returned for Stockport, and in 1843 Bright was the Free Trade candidate + at a by-election at Durham. He was defeated, but his successful + competitor was unseated on petition, and at the second contest Bright was + returned. He was already known in the country as Cobden's chief ally, and + was received in the House of Commons with a suspicion and hostility even + greater than had met Cobden himself. In the Anti-Corn Law movement the + two speakers were the complements and correlatives of each other. Cobden + had the calmness and confidence of the political philosopher, Bright had + the passion and the fervour of the popular orator. Cobden did the + reasoning, Bright supplied the declamation, but like Demosthenes he + mingled argument with appeal. No orator of modern times rose more rapidly + to a foremost place. He was not known beyond his own borough when Cobden + called him to his side in 1841, and he entered parliament towards the end + of the session of 1843 with a formidable reputation as an agitator. He + had been all over England and Scotland addressing vast meetings and, as a + rule, carrying them with him; he had taken a leading part in a conference + held by the Anti-Corn Law League in London, had led deputations to the + duke of Sussex, to Sir James Graham, then home secretary, and to Lord + Ripon and Mr Gladstone, the secretary and under secretary of the Board of + Trade; and he was universally recognized as the chief orator of the Free + Trade movement. Wherever "John Bright of Rochdale" was announced to + speak, vast crowds assembled. He had been so announced, for the last + time, at the first great meeting in Drury Lane theatre on 15th March + 1843; henceforth his name was enough. He took his seat in the House of + Commons as one of the members for Durham on 28th July 1843, and on 7th + August delivered his maiden speech in support of a motion by Mr Ewart for + reduction of import duties. He was there, he said, "not only as one of + the representatives of the city of Durham, but also as one of the + representatives of that benevolent organization, the Anti-Corn Law + League." A member who heard the speech described Bright as "about the + middle size, rather firmly and squarely built, with a fair, clear + complexion, and an intelligent and pleasing expression of countenance. + His voice is good, his enunciation distinct, and his delivery free from + any unpleasant peculiarity or mannerism." He wore the usual Friend's + coat, and was regarded with much interest and hostile curiosity on both + sides of the House.</p> + + <p>Mr Ewart's motion was defeated, but the movement of which Cobden and + Bright were the leaders continued to spread. In the autumn the League + resolved to raise £100,000; an appeal was made to the agricultural + interest by great meetings in the farming counties, and in November + <i>The Times</i> startled the world by declaring, in a leading article, + "The League is a great fact. It would be foolish, nay, rash, to deny its + importance." In London great meetings were held in Covent Garden theatre, + at which William Johnson Fox was the chief orator, but Bright and Cobden + were the leaders of the movement. Bright publicly deprecated the popular + tendency to regard Cobden and himself as the chief movers in the + agitation, and Cobden told a Rochdale audience that he always stipulated + that he should speak first, and Bright should follow. His "more stately + genius," as Mr John Morley calls it, was already making him the + undisputed master of the feelings of his audiences. In the House of + Commons his progress was slower. Cobden's argumentative speeches were + regarded more sympathetically than Bright's more rhetorical appeals, and + in a debate on Villiers's annual motion against the Corn Laws Bright was + heard with so much impatience that he was obliged to sit down. In the + next session (1845) he moved for an inquiry into the operation of the + Game Laws. At a meeting of county members earlier in the day Peel had + advised them not to be led into discussion by a violent speech from the + member for Durham, but to let the committee be granted without debate. + Bright was not violent, and Cobden said that he did his work admirably, + and won golden opinions from all men. The speech established his position + in the House of Commons. In this session Bright and Cobden came into + opposition, Cobden voting for the Maynooth Grant and Bright against it. + On only one other occasion—a vote for South Kensington—did + they go into opposite lobbies, during twenty-five years of parliamentary + life. In the autumn of 1845 Bright retained Cobden in the public career + to which Cobden had invited him four years before. Bright was in Scotland + when a letter came from Cobden announcing his determination, forced on + him by business difficulties, to retire from public work. Bright replied + that if Cobden retired the mainspring of the League was gone. "I can in + no degree take your place," he wrote. "As a second I can fight, but there + are incapacities about me, of which I am fully conscious, which prevent + my being more than second in such a work as we have laboured in." A few + days later he set off for Manchester, posting in that wettest of autumns + through "the rain that rained away the Corn Laws," and on his arrival got + his friends together, and raised the money which tided Cobden over the + emergency. The crisis of the struggle had come. Peel's budget in 1845 was + a first step towards Free Trade. The bad harvest and the potato disease + drove him to the repeal of the Corn Laws, and at a meeting in Manchester + on 2nd July 1846 Cobden moved and Bright seconded a motion dissolving the + league. A library of twelve hundred volumes was presented to Bright as a + memorial of the struggle.</p> + + <p>Bright married, in June 1847, Miss Margaret Elizabeth Leatham, of + Wakefield, by whom he had seven children, Mr John Albert Bright being the + eldest. In the succeeding July he was elected for Manchester, with Mr + Milner Gibson, without a contest. In the new parliament, as in the + previous session, he opposed legislation restricting the hours of labour, + and, as a Nonconformist, spoke against clerical control of national + education. In 1848 he voted for Hume's household suffrage motion, and + introduced a bill for the repeal of the Game Laws. When Lord John Russell + brought forward his Ecclesiastical Titles Bill, Bright opposed it as "a + little, paltry, miserable measure," and foretold its failure. In this + parliament he spoke much on Irish questions. In a speech in favour of the + government bill for a rate in aid in 1849, he won loud cheers from both + sides, and was complimented by Disraeli for having sustained the + reputation of that assembly. From this time forward he had the ear of the + House, and took effective part in the debates. He spoke against capital + punishment, against church-rates, against flogging in the army, and + against the Irish Established Church. He supported Cobden's motion for + the reduction of public expenditure, and in and out of parliament pleaded + for peace. In the election of 1852 he was again returned for Manchester + on the principles of free trade, electoral reform and religious freedom. + But war was in the air, and the most impassioned speeches he ever + delivered were addressed to this parliament in fruitless opposition to + the Crimean War. Neither the House nor the country would listen. "I went + to the House on Monday," wrote Macaulay in March 1854, "and heard Bright + say everything I thought." His most memorable speech, the greatest he + ever made, was delivered on the 23rd of February 1855. "The angel of + death has been abroad throughout the land. You may almost hear the + beating of his wings," he said, and concluded with an appeal to the prime + minister that moved the House as it had never been moved within living + memory. There was a tremor in Bright's voice in the touching parts of his + great speeches which stirred the feelings even of hostile listeners. It + was noted for the first time in this February speech, but the most + striking instance was in a speech on Mr Osborne Morgan's Burials Bill in + April 1875, in which he described a Quaker funeral, and protested against + the "miserable superstition of the phrase 'buried like a dog.'" "In that + sense," he said, <!-- Page 569 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page569"></a>[v.04 p.0569]</span>"I shall be buried like a dog, and + all those with whom I am best acquainted, whom I best love and esteem, + will be 'buried like a dog.' Nay more, my own ancestors, who in past time + suffered persecution for what is now held to be a righteous cause, have + all been buried like dogs, if that phrase is true." The tender, + half-broken tones in which these words were said, the inexpressible + pathos of his voice and manner, were never forgotten by those who heard + that Wednesday morning speech.</p> + + <p>Bright was disqualified by illness during the whole of 1856 and 1857. + In Palmerston's penal dissolution in the latter year, Bright was rejected + by Manchester, but in August, while ill and absent, Birmingham elected + him without a contest. He returned to parliament in 1858, and in February + seconded the motion which threw out Lord Palmerston's government. Lord + Derby thereupon came into office for the second time, and Bright had the + satisfaction of assisting in the passing of two measures which he had + long advocated—the admission of Jews to parliament and the transfer + of the government of India from the East India Company to the crown. He + was now restored to full political activity, and in October addressed his + new constituents, and started a movement for parliamentary reform. He + spoke at great gatherings at Edinburgh, Glasgow, Bradford and Manchester, + and his speeches filled the papers. For the next nine years he was the + protagonist of Reform. Towards the close of the struggle he told the + House of Commons that a thousand meetings had been held, that at every + one the doors were open for any man to enter, yet that an almost + unanimous vote for reform had been taken. In the debates on the Reform + Bills submitted to the House of Commons from 1859. to 1867, Bright's was + the most influential voice. He rebuked Lowe's "Botany Bay view," and + described Horsman as retiring to his "cave of Adullam," and hooking in + Lowe. "The party of two," he said, "reminds me of the Scotch terrier, + which was so covered with hair that you could not tell which was the head + and which was the tail." These and similar phrases, such as the excuse + for withdrawing the Reform Bill in the year of the great budget of + 1860—"you cannot get twenty wagons at once through Temple + Bar"—were in all men's mouths. It was one of the triumphs of + Bright's oratory that it constantly produced these popular cries. The + phrase "a free breakfast table" was his; and on the rejection of + Forster's Compensation for Disturbance Bill he used the phrase as to + Irish discontent, "Force is not a remedy."</p> + + <p>During his great reform agitation Bright had vigorously supported + Cobden in the negotiations for the treaty of commerce with France, and + had taken, with his usual vehemence, the side of the North in the + discussions in England on the American Civil War. In March 1865 Cobden + died, and Bright told the House of Commons he dared not even attempt to + express the feelings which oppressed him, and sat down overwhelmed with + grief. Their friendship was one of the most characteristic features of + the public life of their time. "After twenty years of intimate and almost + brotherly friendship with him," said Bright, "I little knew how much I + loved him till I had lost him." In June 1865 parliament was dissolved, + and Bright was returned for Birmingham without opposition. Palmerston's + death in the early autumn brought Lord John Russell into power, and for + the first time Bright gave his support to the government. Russell's + fourth Reform Bill was introduced, was defeated by the Adullamites, and + the Derby-Disraeli ministry was installed. Bright declared Lord Derby's + accession to be a declaration of war against the working classes, and + roused the great towns in the demand for reform. Bright was the popular + hero of the time. As a political leader the winter of 1866-1867 was the + culminating point in his career. The Reform Bill was carried with a + clause for minority representation, and in the autumn of 1868 Bright, + with two Liberal colleagues, was again returned for Birmingham. Mr + Gladstone came into power with a programme of Irish reform in church and + land such as Bright had long urged, and he accepted the post of president + of the Board of Trade. He thus became a member of the privy council, with + the title of Right Honourable, and from this time forth was a recognized + leader of the Liberal party in parliament and in the country. He made a + great speech on the second reading of the Irish Church Bill, and wrote a + letter on the House of Lords, in which he said, "In harmony with the + nation they may go on for a long time, but throwing themselves athwart + its course they may meet with accidents not pleasant for them to think + of." He also spoke strongly in the same session in favour of the bill + permitting marriage with a deceased wife's sister. The next session found + him disqualified by a severe illness, which caused his retirement from + office at the end of the year, and kept him out of public life for four + years. In August 1873 Mr Gladstone reconstructed his cabinet, and Bright + returned to it as chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. But his hair had + become white, and though he spoke again with much of his former vigour, + he was now an old man. In the election in January 1874 Bright and his + colleagues were returned for Birmingham without opposition. When Mr + Gladstone resigned the leadership of his party in 1875, Bright was + chairman of the party meeting which chose Lord Hartington as his + successor. He took a less prominent part in political discussion till the + Eastern Question brought Great Britain to the verge of war with Russia, + and his old energy flamed up afresh. In the debate on the vote of credit + in February 1878, he made one of his impressive speeches, urging the + government not to increase the difficulties manufacturers had in finding + employment for their workpeople by any single word or act which could + shake confidence in business. The debate lasted five days. On the fifth + day a telegram from Mr Layard was published announcing that the Russians + were nearing Constantinople. The day, said <i>The Times</i>, "was crowded + with rumours, alarms, contradictions, fears, hopes, resolves, + uncertainties." In both Houses Mr Layard's despatch was read, and in the + excited Commons Mr Forster's resolution opposing the vote of credit was + withdrawn. Bright, however, distrusted the ambassador at the Porte, and + gave reasons for doubting the alarming telegram. While he was speaking a + note was put into the hands of Sir Stafford Northcote, and when Bright + sat down he read it to the House. It was a confirmation from the Russian + prime minister of Bright's doubts: "There is not a word of truth in the + rumours which have reached you." At the general election in 1880 he was + re-elected at Birmingham, and joined Mr Gladstone's new government as + chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. For two sessions he spoke and voted + with his colleagues, but after the bombardment of the Alexandria forts he + left the ministry and never held office again. He felt most painfully the + severance from his old and trusted leader, but it was forced on him by + his conviction of the danger and impolicy of foreign entanglements. He, + however, gave a general support to Mr Gladstone's government. In 1883 he + took the chair at a meeting of the Liberation Society in Mr Spurgeon's + chapel; and in June of that year was the object of an unparalleled + demonstration at Birmingham to celebrate his twenty-five years of service + as its representative. At this celebration he spoke strongly of "the + Irish rebel party," and accused the Conservatives of "alliance" with + them, but withdrew the imputation when Sir Stafford Northcote moved that + such language was a breach of the privileges of the House of Commons. At + a banquet to Lord Spencer he accused the Irish members of having + "exhibited a boundless sympathy for criminals and murderers." He refused + in the House of Commons to apologise for these words, and was supported + in his refusal by both sides of the House. At the Birmingham election in + 1885 he stood for the central division of the redistributed constituency; + he was opposed by Lord Randolph Churchill, but was elected by a large + majority. In the new parliament he voted against the Home Rule Bill, and + it was generally felt that in the election of 1886 which followed its + defeat, when he was re-elected without opposition, his letters told with + fatal effect against the Home Rule Liberals. His contribution to the + discussion was a suggestion that the Irish members should form a grand + committee to which every Irish bill should go after first reading. The + break-up of the Liberal party filled him with gloom. His last speech at + Birmingham was on 29th March 1888, at a banquet to celebrate Mr + Chamberlain's return from his peace mission to the United States. He + spoke of imperial federation as a "dream and an absurdity." In May his + illness returned, he took to his bed in <!-- Page 570 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page570"></a>[v.04 p.0570]</span>October, and + died on the 27th of March 1889. He was buried in the graveyard of the + meeting-house of the Society of Friends in Rochdale.</p> + + <p>Bright had much literary and social recognition in his later years. In + 1882 he was elected lord rector of the university of Glasgow, and Dr Dale + wrote of his rectorial address: "It was not the old Bright." "I am weary + of public speaking," he had told Dr Dale; "my mind is almost a blank." He + was given an honorary degree of the university of Oxford in 1886, and in + 1888 a statue of him was erected at Birmingham. The 3rd marquess of + Salisbury said of him, and it sums up his character as a public man: "He + was the greatest master of English oratory that this generation—I + may say several generations—has seen.... At a time when much + speaking has depressed, has almost exterminated eloquence, he maintained + that robust, powerful and vigorous style in which he gave fitting + expression to the burning and noble thoughts he desired to utter."</p> + + <p>See <i>The Life and Speeches of the Right Hon. John Bright, M.P</i>., + by George Barnett Smith, 2 vols. 8vo (1881); <i>The Life of John Bright, + M.P.</i>, by John M<sup>c</sup>Gilchrist, in Cassell's Representative + Biographies (1868); <i>John Bright</i>, by C.A. Vince (1898); <i>Speeches + on Parliamentary Reform by John Bright, M.P., revised by Himself</i> + (1866); <i>Speeches on Questions of Public Policy</i>, by John Bright, + M.P., edited by J.E. Thorold Rogers, 2 vols. 8vo (1868); <i>Public + Addresses</i>, edited by J.E. Thorold Rogers, 8vo (1879); <i>Public + Letters of the Right Hon. John Bright, M.P.</i>, collected by H.J. Leech + (1885).</p> + + <p>(P. W. C.)</p> + + <p><b>BRIGHTLINGSEA</b> (pronounced <span class="sc">Brittlesea</span>), + a port and fishing station in the Harwich parliamentary division of + Essex, England, on a creek opening from the east shore of the Colne + estuary, the terminus of a branch from Colchester of the Great Eastern + railway, 62½ m. E.N.E. of London. Pop. of urban district (1901) 4501. The + Colchester oyster beds are mainly in this part of the Colne, and the + oyster fishery is the chief industry. Boat-building is carried on. This + is also a favourite yachting centre. The church of All Saints, + principally Perpendicular, has interesting monuments and brasses, and a + fine lofty tower and west front. Brightlingsea, which appears in + Domesday, is a member of the Cinque Port of Sandwich in Kent. Near the + opposite shore of the creek is St Osyth's priory, which originated as a + nunnery founded by Osyth, a grand-daughter of Penda, king of Mercia, + martyred (<i>c.</i> 653) by Norse invaders. A foundation for Augustinian + canons followed on the site early in the 12th century. The remains, + incorporated with a modern residence, include a late Perpendicular + gateway, abbots' tower, clock tower and crypt. The gateway, an embattled + structure with flanking turrets, is particularly fine, the entire front + being panelled and ornamented with canopied niches. The church of St + Osyth, also Perpendicular in the main, is of interest.</p> + + <p><b>BRIGHTON,</b> a watering-place of Bourke county, Victoria, + Australia, 7½ m. by rail S.E. of Melbourne, of which it is practically a + suburb. It stands on the east shore of Port Phillip, and has two piers, a + great extent of sandy beach and numerous beautiful villas. Pop. (1901) + 10,029.</p> + + <p><b>BRIGHTON,</b> a municipal, county and parliamentary borough of + Sussex, England, one of the best-known seaside resorts in the United + Kingdom, 51 m. S. from London by the London, Brighton & South Coast + railway. Pop. (1901) 123,478. Its ready accessibility from the metropolis + is the chief factor in its popularity. It is situated on the seaward + slope of the South Downs; the position is sheltered from inclement winds, + and the climate is generally mild. The sea-front, overlooking the English + Channel, stretches nearly 4 m. from Kemp Town on the east to Hove (a + separate municipal borough) on the west. Inland, including the suburb of + Preston, the town extends some 2 m. The tendency of the currents in the + Channel opposite Brighton is to drive the shingle eastward, and + encroachments of the sea were frequent and serious until the erection of + a massive sea-wall, begun about 1830, 60 ft. high, 23 ft. thick at the + base, and 3 ft. at the summit. There are numerous modern churches and + chapels, many of them very handsome; and the former parish church of St + Nicholas remains, a Decorated structure containing a Norman font and a + memorial to the great duke of Wellington. The incumbency of Trinity + Chapel was held by the famous preacher Frederick William Robertson + (1847-1853). The town hall and the parochial offices are the principal + administrative buildings. Numerous institutions contribute to the + entertainment of visitors. Of these the most remarkable is the Pavilion, + built as a residence for the prince regent (afterwards George IV.) and + remodelled in 1819 by the architect, John Nash, in a grotesque Eastern + style of architecture. In 1849 it was purchased by the town for £53,000, + and is devoted to various public uses, containing a museum, + assembly-rooms and picture-galleries. The detached building, formerly the + stables, is converted into a fine concert hall; it is lighted by a vast + glazed dome approaching that of St Paul's cathedral, London, in + dimensions. There are several theatres and music-halls. The aquarium, the + property of the corporation, contains an excellent marine collection, but + is also used as a concert hall and winter garden, and a garden is laid + out on its roof. The Booth collection of British birds, bequeathed to the + corporation by E.T. Booth, was opened in 1893. There are two piers, of + which the Palace pier, near the site of the old chain pier (1823), which + was washed away in 1896, is near the centre of the town, while the West + pier is towards Hove. Preston and Queen's parks are the principal of + several public recreation grounds; and the racecourse at Kemp Town is + also the property of the town. Educational establishments are numerous, + and include Brighton College, which ranks high among English public + schools. There are municipal schools of science, technology and art. St + Mary's Hall (1836) is devoted to the education of poor clergymen's + daughters. Among many hospitals, the county hospital (1828), "open to the + sick and lame poor of every country and nation," may be mentioned. There + are an extensive mackerel and herring fishery, and motor engineering + works. The parliamentary borough, which includes the parish of Hove, + returns two members. The county borough was created in 1888. The + municipal borough is under a mayor, 14 aldermen and 42 councillors. Area, + 2536 acres.</p> + + <p>Although there is evidence of Roman and Saxon occupation of the site, + the earliest mention of Brighton (Bristelmeston, Brichelmestone, + Brighthelmston) is the Domesday Book record that its three manors + belonged to Earl Godwin and were held by William de Warenne. Of these, + two passed to the priories of Lewes and Michelham respectively, and after + the dissolution of the monasteries were subject to frequent sale and + division. The third descended to the earls of Arundel, falling to the + share of the duke of Norfolk in 1415, and being divided in 1502 between + the families of Howard and Berkeley. That Brighton was a large fishing + village in 1086 is evident from the rent of 4000 herrings; in 1285 it had + a separate constable, and in 1333 it was assessed for a tenth, and + fifteenth at £5:4:6¾, half the assessment of Shoreham. In 1340 there were + no merchants there, only tenants of lands, but its prosperity increased + during the 15th and 16th centuries, and it was assessed at £6:12:8 in + 1534. There is, however, no indication that it was a borough. In 1580 + commissioners sent to decide disputes between the fishermen and landsmen + found that from time immemorial Brighton had been governed by two head + boroughs sitting in the borough court, and assisted by a council called + the Twelve. This constitution disappeared before 1772, when commissioners + were appointed. Brighton refused a charter offered by George, prince of + Wales, but was incorporated in 1854. It had become a parliamentary + borough in 1832. From a fishing town in 1656 it became a fashionable + resort in 1756; its popularity increased after the visit of the prince of + Wales (see <span class="sc">George</span> IV.) to the duke of Cumberland + in 1783, and was ensured by his building the Pavilion in 1784-1787, and + his adoption of it as his principal residence; and his association with + Mrs Fitzherbert at Brighton was the starting-point of its fashionable + repute.</p> + + <p>See <i>Victoria County History—Sussex; Sussex Archaeological + Society Transactions</i>, vol. ii.; L. Melville, <i>Brighton, its + History, its Follies and its Fashions</i> (London, 1909).</p> + + <p><b>BRIGHT'S DISEASE,</b> a term in medicine applied to a class of + diseases of the kidneys (acute and chronic nephritis) which have as their + most prominent symptom the presence of albumen in the urine, and + frequently also the coexistence of dropsy. <!-- Page 571 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page571"></a>[v.04 p.0571]</span>These + associated symptoms in connexion with kidney disease were first described + in 1827 by Dr Richard Bright (1789-1858). Since that period it has been + established that the symptoms, instead of being, as was formerly + supposed, the result of one form of disease of the kidneys, may be + dependent on various morbid conditions of those organs (see <span + class="sc">Kidney Diseases</span>). Hence the term Bright's disease, + which is retained in medical nomenclature in honour of Dr Bright, must be + understood as having a generic application.</p> + + <p>The symptoms are usually of a severe character. Pain in the back, + vomiting and febrile disturbance commonly usher in the attack. Dropsy, + varying in degree from slight puffiness of the face to an accumulation of + fluid sufficient to distend the whole body, and to occasion serious + embarrassment to respiration, is a very common accompaniment. The urine + is reduced in quantity, is of dark, smoky or bloody colour, and exhibits + to chemical reaction the presence of a large amount of albumen, while, + under the microscope, blood corpuscles and casts, as above mentioned, are + found in abundance.</p> + + <p>This state of acute inflammation may by its severity destroy life, or, + short of this, may by continuance result in the establishment of one of + the chronic forms of Bright's disease. On the other hand an arrest of the + inflammatory action frequently occurs, and this is marked by the + increased amount of the urine, and the gradual disappearance of its + albumen and other abnormal constituents; as also by the subsidence of the + dropsy and the rapid recovery of strength.</p> + + <p>In the treatment of acute Bright's disease, good results are often + obtained from local depletion, from warm baths and from the careful + employment of diuretics and purgatives. Chronic Bright's disease is much + less amenable to treatment, but by efforts to maintain the strength and + improve the quality of the blood by strong nourishment, and at the same + time by guarding against the risks of complications, life may often be + prolonged in comparative comfort, and even a certain measure of + improvement be experienced.</p> + + <p><b>BRIGNOLES,</b> a town in the department of Var in the S.E. of + France, 36 m. by rail N. of Toulon. Pop. (1906) 3639. It is built at a + height of 754 ft. above the sea-level, in a fertile valley, and on the + right bank of the Carami river. It contains the old summer palace of the + counts of Provence, and has an active trade, especially in prunes, known + as <i>prunes de Brignoles</i>. Its old name was <i>Villa Puerorum</i>, as + the children of the counts of Provence were often brought up here. It was + sacked on several occasions during the religious wars in the 16th + century. Twelve miles to the N.W. is St Maximin (with a fine medieval + church), which is one of the best starting-points for the most famous + pilgrimage resort in Provence, the Sainte Baume, wherein St Mary + Magdalene is said to have taken refuge. This is 20 m. distant by + road.</p> + + <p>(W. A. B. C.)</p> + + <p><b>BRIHASPATI,</b> or <span class="sc">Brahmanaspati</span> ("god of + strength"), a deity of importance in early Hindu mythology. In the + Rigveda he is represented as the god of prayer, aiding Indra in his + conquest of the cloud-demon, and at times appears to be identified with + Agni, god of fire. He is the offspring of Heaven and Earth, the two + worlds; is the inspirer of prayer and the guide and protector of the + pious. He is pictured as having seven mouths, a hundred wings and horns + and is armed with bow and arrows and an axe. He rides in a chariot drawn + by red horses. In the later scriptures he is represented as a Rishi or + seer.</p> + + <p>See A.A. Macdonell, <i>Vedic Mythology</i> (Strassburg, 1897).</p> + + <p><b>BRIL, PAUL</b> (1554-1626), Flemish painter, was born at Antwerp. + The success of his elder brother Matthew (1550-1584) in the Vatican + induced him to go to Rome to live. On the death of Matthew, Paul, who far + surpassed him as an artist, succeeded to his pensions and employments. He + painted landscapes with a depth of chiaroscuro then little practised in + Italy, and introduced into them figures well drawn and finely coloured. + One of his best compositions is the "Martyrdom of St Clement," in the + Sala Clementina of the Vatican.</p> + + <p><b>BRILL,</b> the name given to a flat-fish (<i>Psetta laevis</i>, or + <i>Rhombus laevis</i>) which is a species closely related to the turbot, + differing from it in having very small scales, being smaller in size, + having no bony tubercules in the skin, and being reddish in colour. It + abounds on parts of the British coast, and is only less favoured for the + table than the turbot itself.</p> + + <p><b>BRILLAT-SAVARIN, ANTHELME</b> (1755-1826), French gastronomist, was + born at Belley, France, on the 1st of April 1755. In 1789 he was a + deputy, in 1793 mayor of Belley. To escape proscription he fled from + France to Switzerland, and went thence to the United States, where he + played in the orchestra of a New York theatre. On the fall of Robespierre + he returned to France, and in 1797 became a member of the court of + cassation. He wrote various volumes on political economy and law, but his + name is famous for his <i>Physiologie du goût</i>, a compendium of the + art of dining. Many editions of this work have been published. + Brillat-Savarin died in Paris on the 2nd of February 1826.</p> + + <p><b>BRIMSTONE,</b> the popular name of sulphur (<i>q.v.</i>), + particularly of the commercial "roll sulphur." The word means literally + "burning stone"; the first part being formed from the stem of the Mid. + Eng. <i>brennen</i>, to burn. Earlier forms of the word are + <i>brenstone</i>, <i>bernstone</i>, <i>brynstone,</i> &c.</p> + + <p><b>BRIN, BENEDETTO</b> (1833-1898), Italian naval administrator, was + born at Turin on the 17th of May 1833, and until the age of forty worked + with distinction as a naval engineer. In 1873 Admiral Saint-Bon, minister + of marine, appointed him under-secretary of state. The two men completed + each other; Saint-Bon conceived a type of ship, Brin made the plans and + directed its construction. On the advent of the Left to power in 1876, + Brin was appointed minister of marine by Depretis, a capacity in which he + continued the programme of Saint-Bon, while enlarging and completing it + in such way as to form the first organic scheme for the development of + the Italian fleet. The huge warships "Italia" and "Dandolo" were his + work, though he afterwards abandoned their type in favour of smaller and + faster vessels of the "Varese" and the "Garibaldi" class. By his + initiative Italian naval industry, almost non-existent in 1873, made + rapid progress. During his eleven years' ministry (1876-1878 with + Depretis, 1884-1891 with Depretis and Crispi, 1896-1898 with Rudini), he + succeeded in creating large private shipyards, engine works and + metallurgical works for the production of armour, steel plates and guns. + In 1892 he entered the Giolitti cabinet as minister for foreign affairs, + accompanying, in that capacity, the king and queen of Italy to Potsdam, + but showed weakness towards France on the occasion of the massacre of + Italian workmen at Aigues-Mortes. He died on the 24th of May 1898, while + minister of marine in the Rudini cabinet. He, more than any other man, + must be regarded as the practical creator of the Italian navy.</p> + + <p><b>BRINDABAN,</b> a town of British India, in the Muttra district of + the United Provinces, on the right bank of the Jumna, 6 m. N. of Muttra. + Pop. (1901) 22,717. Brindaban is one of the most popular places of + pilgrimage in India, being associated with the cult of Krishna as a + shepherd. It contains bathing-stairs, tanks and wells, and a great number + of handsome temples, of which the finest is that of Govind Deva, a + cruciform vaulted building of red sandstone, dating from 1590. The town + was founded earlier in the same century.</p> + + <p><b>BRINDISI</b> (anc. <i>Brundisium</i>, <i>q.v.</i>), a seaport town + and archiepiscopal see of Apulia, Italy, in the province of Lecce, 24 m. + N.W. by rail from the town of Lecce, and 346 m. from Ancona. Pop.(1861) + 8000; (1871) 13,755; (1901) 25,317. The chief importance of Brindisi is + due to its position as a starting-point for the East. The inner harbour, + admirably sheltered and 27 to 30 ft. in depth, allows ocean steamers to + lie at the quays. Brindisi has, however, been abandoned by the large + steamers of the Peninsular & Oriental Steam Navigation Company, which + had called there since 1870, but since 1898 call at Marseilles instead; + small express boats, carrying the mails, still leave every week, + connecting with the larger steamers at Port Said; but the number of + passengers leaving the port, which for the years 1893-1897 averaged + 14,728, was only 7608 in 1905, and only 943 of these were carried by the + P. & O. boats. The harbour railway station was not completed until + 1905 (<i>Consular <!-- Page 572 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page572"></a>[v.04 p.0572]</span>Report</i>, No. 3672, 1906, pp. 13 + sqq.). The port was cleared in 1905 by 1492 vessels of 1,486,269 tons. + The imports represented a value of £629,892 and the exports a value of + £663,201—an increase of £84,077 and £57,807 respectively on the + figures of the previous year, while in 1899 the amounts, which were below + the average, were only £298,400 and £253,000. The main imports are coal, + flour, sulphur, timber and metals; and the main exports, wine and + spirits, oil and dried fruits.</p> + + <p>Frederick II. erected a castle, with huge round towers, to guard the + inner harbour; it is now a convict prison. The cathedral, ruined by + earthquakes, was restored in 1743-1749, but has some remains of its + mosaic pavement (1178). The baptismal church of S. Giovanni al Sepolcro + (11th century) is now a museum. The town was captured in 836 by the + Saracens, and destroyed by them; but was rebuilt in the 11th century by + Lupus the protospatharius, Byzantine governor. In 1071 it fell into the + hands of the Normans, and frequently appears in the history of the + Crusades. Early in the 14th century the inner port was blocked by + Giovanni Orsini, prince of Taranto; the town was devastated by pestilence + in 1348, and was plundered in 1352 and 1383; but even greater damage was + done by the earthquake of 1456.</p> + + <p>(<span class="sc">T. As.</span>)</p> + + <p><b>BRINDLEY, JAMES</b> (1716-1772), English engineer, was born at + Thornsett, Derbyshire, in 1716. His parents were in very humble + circumstances, and he received little or no education. At the age of + seventeen he was apprenticed to a millwright near Macclesfield, and soon + after completing his apprenticeship he set up in business for himself as + a wheelwright at Leek, quickly becoming known for his ingenuity and skill + in repairing all kinds of machinery. In 1752 he designed and set up an + engine for draining some coal-pits at Clifton in Lancashire. Three years + later he extended his reputation by completing the machinery for a + silk-mill at Congleton. In 1759, when the duke of Bridgewater was anxious + to improve the outlets for the coal on his estates, Brindley advised the + construction of a canal from Worsley to Manchester. The difficulties in + the way were great, but all were surmounted by his genius, and his + crowning triumph was the construction of an aqueduct to carry the canal + at an elevation of 39 ft. over the river Irwell at Barton. The great + success of this canal encouraged similar projects, and Brindley was soon + engaged in extending his first work to the Mersey, at Runcorn. He then + designed and nearly completed what he called the Grand Trunk Canal, + connecting the Trent and Humber with the Mersey. The Staffordshire and + Worcestershire, the Oxford and the Chesterfield Canals were also planned + by him, and altogether he laid out over 360 m. of canals. He died at + Turnhurst, Staffordshire, on the 30th of September 1772. Brindley + retained to the last a peculiar roughness of character and demeanour; but + his innate power of thought more than compensated for his lack of + training. It is told of him that when in any difficulty he used to retire + to bed, and there remain thinking out his problem until the solution + became clear to him. His mechanical ingenuity and fertility of resource + were very remarkable, and he undoubtedly possessed the engineering + faculty in a very high degree. He was an enthusiastic believer in canals, + and his reported answer, when asked the use of navigable rivers, "To feed + canals," is characteristic, if not altogether authentic.</p> + + <p><b>BRINTON, DANIEL GARRISON</b> (1837-1899), American archaeologist + and ethnologist, was born at Thornbury, Pennsylvania, on the 13th of May + 1837. He graduated at Yale in 1858, studied for two years in the + Jefferson Medical College, and then for one year travelled in Europe and + continued his studies at Paris and Heidelberg. From 1862 to 1865, during + the Civil War in America, he was a surgeon in the Union army, acting for + one year, 1864-1865, as surgeon in charge of the U.S. Army general + hospital at Quincy, Illinois. After the war he practised medicine at + Westchester, Pennsylvania, for several years; was the editor of a weekly + periodical, the <i>Medical and Surgical Reporter</i>, in Philadelphia, + from 1874 to 1887; became professor of ethnology and archaeology in the + Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia in 1884, and was professor of + American linguistics and archaeology in the university of Pennsylvania + from 1886 until his death at Philadelphia on the 31st of July 1899. He + was a member of numerous learned societies in the United States and in + Europe, and was president at different times of the Numismatic and + Antiquarian Society of Philadelphia, of the American Folk-Lore Society + and of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. During + the period from 1859 (when he published his first book) to 1899, he wrote + a score of books, several of them of great value, and a large number of + pamphlets, brochures, addresses and magazine articles. His principal + works are:—<i>The Myths of the New World</i> (1868), the first + attempt to analyse and correlate, according to true scientific + principles, the mythology of the American Indians; <i>The Religious + Sentiment: Its Sources and Aim: A Contribution to the Science and + Philosophy of Religion</i> (1876); <i>American Hero Myths</i> (1882); + <i>Essays of an Americanist</i> (1890); <i>Races and Peoples</i> (1890); + <i>The American Race</i> (1891); <i>The Pursuit of Happiness</i> (1893); + and <i>Religions of Primitive People</i> (1897). In addition, he edited + and published a <i>Library of American Aboriginal Literature</i> (8 vols. + 1882-1890), a valuable contribution to the science of anthropology in + America. Of the eight volumes, six were edited by Brinton himself, one by + Horatio Hale and one by A.S. Gatschet.</p> + + <p><b>BRINVILLIERS, MARIE MADELEINE MARGUERITE D'AUBRAY,</b> <span + class="sc">Marquise de</span> (<i>c.</i> 1630-1676), French poisoner, + daughter of Dreux d'Aubray, civil lieutenant of Paris, was born in Paris + about 1630. In 1651 she married the marquis de Brinvilliers, then serving + in the regiment of Normandy. Contemporary evidence describes the marquise + at this time as a pretty and much-courted little woman, with a + fascinating air of childlike innocence. In 1659 her husband introduced + her to his friend Godin de Sainte-Croix, a handsome young cavalry officer + of extravagant tastes and bad reputation, whose mistress she became. + Their relations soon created a public scandal, and as the marquis de + Brinvilliers, who had left France to avoid his creditors, made no effort + to terminate them, M. d'Aubray secured the arrest of Sainte-Croix on a + <i>lettre de cachet</i>. For a year Sainte-Croix remained a prisoner in + the Bastille, where he is popularly supposed to have acquired a knowledge + of poisons from his fellow-prisoner, the Italian poisoner Exili. When he + left the Bastille, he plotted with his willing mistress his revenge upon + her father. She cheerfully undertook to experiment with the poisons which + Sainte-Croix, possibly with the help of a chemist, Christopher Glaser, + prepared, and found subjects ready to hand in the poor who sought her + charity, and the sick whom she visited in the hospitals. Meanwhile + Sainte-Croix, completely ruined financially, enlarged his original idea, + and determined that not only M. Dreux d'Aubray but also the latter's two + sons and other daughter should be poisoned, so that the marquise de + Brinvilliers and himself might come into possession of the large family + fortune. In February 1666, satisfied with the efficiency of + Sainte-Croix's preparations and with the ease with which they could be + administered without detection, the marquise poisoned her father, and in + 1670, with the connivance of their valet La Chaussée, her two brothers. A + post-mortem examination suggested the real cause of death, but no + suspicion was directed to the murderers. Before any attempt could be made + on the life of Mlle Théresè d'Aubray, Sainte-Croix suddenly died. As he + left no heirs the police were called in, and discovered among his + belongings documents seriously incriminating the marquise and La + Chaussée. The latter was arrested, tortured into a complete confession, + and broken alive on the wheel (1673), but the marquise escaped, taking + refuge first probably in England, then in Germany, and finally in a + convent at Liége, whence she was decoyed by a police emissary disguised + as a priest. A full account of her life and crimes was found among her + papers. Her attempt to commit suicide was frustrated, and she was taken + to Paris, where she was beheaded and her body burned on the 16th of July + 1676.</p> + + <p>See G. Roullier, <i>La Marquise de Brinvilliers</i> (Paris, 1883); + Toiseleur, <i>Trois énigmes historiques</i> (Paris, 1882).</p> + + <p><b>BRIONIAN ISLANDS,</b> a group of small islands, in the Adriatic + Sea, off the west coast of Istria, from which they are separated by the + narrow Canale di Fasana. They belong to Austria and <!-- Page 573 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page573"></a>[v.04 p.0573]</span>are + twelve in number. Up to a recent period they were chiefly noted for their + quarries, which have been worked for centuries and have supplied material + not only for the palaces and bridges of Venice and the whole Adriatic + coast, but latterly for Vienna and Berlin also. As they command the + entrance to the naval harbour of Pola, a strong fortress, "Fort + Tegetthoff," has been erected on the largest of them (Brioni), together + with minor fortifications on some of the others. The islands are + inhabited by about 100 Italian quarrymen.</p> + + <p><b>BRIOSCO, ANDREA</b> (<i>c.</i> 1470-1532), Italian sculptor and + architect, known as Riccio ("curly-headed"), was born at Padua. In + architecture he is known by the church of Sta Giustina in his native + city, but he is most famous as a worker in metal. His masterpieces are + the bronze Paschal candelabrum (11 ft. high) in the choir of the Santo + (S. Antonio) at Padua (1515), and the two bronze reliefs (1507) of "David + dancing before the Ark" and "Judith and Holofernes" in the same church. + His bronze and marble tomb of the physician Girolamo della Torre in San + Fermo at Verona was beautifully decorated with reliefs, which were taken + away by the French and are now in the Louvre. A number of other works + which emanated from his workshop are attributed to him; and he has been + suggested, but doubtfully, as the author of a fine bronze relief, a + "Dance of Nymphs," in the Wallace collection at Hertford House, + London.</p> + + <p><b>BRIOUDE,</b> a town of central France, capital of an arrondissement + in the department of Haute-Loire, on the left bank of the Allier, 1467 + ft. above the sea, 47 m. N.W. of Le Puy on the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. + (1906) 4581. Brioude has to a great extent escaped modernization and + still has many old houses and fountains. Its streets are narrow and + irregular, but the town is surrounded by wide boulevards lined with + trees. The only building of consequence is the church of St Julian (12th + and 13th centuries) in the Romanesque style of Auvergne, of which the + choir, with its apse and radiating chapels and the mosaic ornamentation + of the exterior, is a fine example. Brioude is the seat of a sub-prefect, + and of tribunals of first instance and of commerce. The plain in which it + is situated is of great fertility; the grain trade of the town is + considerable, and market-gardening is carried on in the outskirts. The + industries include brewing, saw-milling, lace-making and antimony mining + and founding.</p> + + <p>Brioude, the ancient <i>Brinas</i>, was formerly a place of + considerable importance. It was in turn besieged and captured by the + Goths (532), the Burgundians, the Saracens (732) and the Normans. In 1181 + the viscount of Polignac, who had sacked the town two years previously, + made public apology in front of the church, and established a body of + twenty-five knights to defend the relics of St Julian. For some time + after 1361 the town was the headquarters of Bérenger, lord of Castelnau, + who was at the head of one of the bands of military adventurers which + then devastated France. The knights (or canons, as they afterwards + became) of St Julian bore the title of counts of Brioude, and for a long + time opposed themselves to the civic liberties of the inhabitants.</p> + + <p><b>BRIQUEMAULT</b> (or <span class="sc">Briquemaut</span>), + <b>FRANÇOIS DE BEAUVAIS,</b> <span class="sc">Seigneur de</span> + (<i>c.</i> 1502-1572), leader of the Huguenots during the first religious + wars, was the son of Adrien de Briquemault and Alexane de Sainte Ville, + and was born about 1502. His first campaign was under the count of + Brissac in the Piedmontese wars. On his return to France in 1554 he + joined Admiral Coligny. Charged with the defence of Rouen, in 1562, he + resigned in favour of Montgomery, to whom the prince of Condé had + entrusted the task, and went over to England, where he concluded the + treaty of Hampton Court on the 20th of September. He then returned to + France, and took Dieppe from the Catholics before the conclusion of + peace. If his share in the second religious war was less important, he + played a very active part in the third. He fought at Jarnac, + Roche-Abeille and Montcontour, assisted in the siege of Poitiers, was + nearly captured by the Catholics at Bourg-Dieu, re-victualled Vézelay, + and almost surprised Bourges. In 1570, being charged by Coligny to stop + the army of the princes in its ascent of the Rhone valley, he crossed + Burgundy and effected his junction with the admiral at St. Étienne in + May. On the 21st of the following June he assisted in achieving the + victory of Arnay-le-Duc, and was then employed to negotiate a marriage + between the prince of Navarre and Elizabeth of England. Being in Paris on + the night of St Bartholomew he took refuge in the house of the English + ambassador, but was arrested there. With his friend Arnaud da Cavagnes he + was delivered over to the parlement, and failed in courage when + confronted with his judges, seeking to escape death by unworthy means. He + was condemned, nevertheless, on the 27th of October 1572, to the last + penalty and to the confiscation of his property, and on the 29th of + October he and Cavagnes were executed.</p> + + <p>See <i>Histoire ecclésiastique des Églises réformées au royaume de + France</i> (new edition, 1884), vol. ii.; <i>La France protestante</i> + (2nd edition), vol. ii., article "Beauvais."</p> + + <p><b>BRIQUETTE</b> (diminutive of Fr. <i>brique</i>, brick), a form of + fuel, known also as "patent fuel," consisting of small coal compressed + into solid blocks by the aid of some binding material. For making + briquettes the small coal, if previously washed, is dried to reduce the + moisture to at most 4%, and if necessary crushed in a disintegrator. It + is then incorporated in a pug mill with from 8 to 10% of gas pitch, and + softened by heating to between 70° and 90° C. to a plastic mass, which is + moulded into blocks and compacted by a pressure of ½ to 2 tons per sq. + in. in a machine with a rotating die-plate somewhat like that used in + making semi-plastic clay bricks. When cold, the briquettes, which usually + weigh from 7 to 20 lb each, although smaller sizes are made for domestic + use, become quite hard, and can be handled with less breakage than the + original coal. Their principal use is as fuel for marine and locomotive + boilers, the evaporative value being about the same as, or somewhat + greater than, that of coal. The principal seat of the manufacture in + Great Britain is in South Wales, where the dust and smalls resulting from + the handling of the best steam coals (which are very brittle) are + obtainable in large quantities and find no other use. Some varieties of + lignite, when crushed and pressed at a steam heat, soften sufficiently to + furnish compact briquettes without requiring any cementing material. + Briquettes of this kind are made to a large extent from the tertiary + lignites in the vicinity of Cologne; they are used mainly for house fuel + on the lower Rhine and in Holland, and occasionally come to London.</p> + + <p><b>BRISBANE, SIR THOMAS MAKDOUGALL</b> (1773-1860), Scottish soldier + and astronomer, was born on the 23rd of July 1773 at Brisbane House, near + Largs, in Ayrshire. He entered the army in 1789, and served in Flanders, + the West Indies and the Peninsula. In 1814 he was sent to North America; + on the return of Napoleon from Elba he was recalled, but did not arrive + in time to take part in the battle of Waterloo. In 1821 he was appointed + governor of New South Wales. During the four years for which he held that + office, although he allowed the finances of the colony to get into + confusion, he endeavoured to improve its condition by introducing the + vine, sugar-cane and tobacco plant, and by encouraging the breeding of + horses and the reclamation of land. At his instigation exploring parties + were sent out, and one of these discovered the Brisbane river which was + named after him. He established an astronomical observatory at Paramatta + in 1822, and the <i>Brisbane Catalogue</i>, which was printed in 1835 and + contained 7385 stars, was the result of observations made there in + 1822-1826. The observatory was discontinued in 1855. After his return to + Scotland he resided chiefly at Makerstoun in Roxburghshire, where, as at + Brisbane House, he had a large and admirably equipped observatory. + Important magnetic observations were begun at Makerstoun in 1841, and the + results gained him in 1848 the Keith prize of the Royal Society of + Edinburgh, in whose <i>Transactions</i> they were published. In 1836 he + was made a baronet, and G.C.B. in 1837; and in 1841 he became general. He + was elected president of the Royal Society of Edinburgh after the death + of Sir Walter Scott in 1833, and in the following year acted as president + of the British Association. He died at Brisbane House on the 27th of + January 1860. He founded two gold medals for the encouragement of + scientific research, one in the <!-- Page 574 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page574"></a>[v.04 p.0574]</span>award of the Royal Society of + Edinburgh, and the other in that of the Scottish Society of Arts.</p> + + <p><b>BRISBANE,</b> the capital of Queensland, Australia. It is situated + in Stanley county, on the banks of the river Brisbane, 25 m. from its + mouth in Moreton Bay. It is built on a series of hills rising from the + river-banks, but some parts of it, such as Woollongabba and South + Brisbane, occupy low-lying flats, which have sometimes been the scene of + disastrous floods. The main streets and principal buildings of the city + are situated on a tongue of land formed by a southward bend of the river. + The extremity of the tongue, however, is open. Here, adjoining one + another, are the botanical gardens, the grounds surrounding Government + House, the official residence of the governor of the colony, and the + Houses of Parliament, and Queen's Park, which is used as a recreation + ground. From this park Albert Street runs for about three-quarters of a + mile through the heart of the city, leading to Albert Park, in which is + the observatory. Queen's Street, the main thoroughfare of Brisbane, + crosses Albert Street midway between the two parks and leads across the + Victoria Bridge to the separate city of South Brisbane on the other side + of the river. The Victoria Bridge is a fine steel structure, which + replaced the bridge swept away by floods in February 1893. Brisbane has a + large number of buildings of architectural merit, though in some cases + their effect is marred by the narrowness of the streets in which they + stand. Among the most prominent are the Houses of Parliament, the great + domed custom-house on the river-bank, the lands office, the general + post-office, the town halls of Brisbane and South Brisbane, and the opera + house. The Roman Catholic cathedral of St Stephen (Elizabeth Street) is + an imposing building, having a detached campanile containing the largest + bell in Australia. The foundation-stone of the Anglican cathedral, on an + elevated site in Ann Street, was laid by the prince of Wales (as duke of + York) in 1901. The city is the seat of a Roman Catholic archbishop and of + an Anglican bishop. Many of the commercial and private buildings are also + worthy of notice, especially the Queensland National Bank, a classic + Italian structure, the massive treasury buildings, one of the largest + erections in Australia, the Queensland Club with its wide colonnades in + Italian Renaissance style, and the great buildings of the Brisbane + Newspaper Company. Brisbane is well provided with parks and open spaces; + the Victoria Park and Bowen Park are the largest; the high-lying Mount + Coot-tha commands fine views, and there are other parks and numerous + recreation grounds in various parts of the city, besides the admirable + botanical gardens and the gardens of the Acclimatization Society. + Electric tramways and omnibuses serve all parts of the city, and numerous + ferries ply across the river. There is railway communication to north, + south and west. By careful dredging, the broad river is navigable as far + as Brisbane for ocean-going vessels, and the port is the terminal port + for the Queensland mail steamers to Europe, and is visited by steamers to + China, Japan and America, and for various inter-colonial lines. There is + wharf accommodation on both banks of the river, a graving dock which can + be used by vessels up to 5000 tons, and two patent slips which can take + up ships of 1000 and 400 tons respectively. The exports are chiefly coal, + sheep, tallow, wool, frozen meat and hides. The annual value of imports + and exports exceeds seven and nine millions sterling respectively. There + are boot factories, soap works, breweries, tanneries, tobacco works, + &c. The climate is on the whole dry and healthy, but during summer + the temperature is high, the mean shade temperature being about 70° + F.</p> + + <p>Brisbane was founded in 1825 as a penal settlement, taking its name + from Sir Thomas Brisbane, then governor of Australia; in 1842 it became a + free settlement and in 1859 capital of Queensland, the town up to that + time having belonged to New South Wales. It was incorporated in the same + year. South Brisbane became a separate city in 1903. The municipal + government of the city, and also of South Brisbane, is in the hands of a + mayor and ten alderman; the suburbs are controlled by shire councils and + divisional boards. The chief suburbs are Kangaroo Point, Fortitude + Valley, New Farm, Red Hill, Paddington, Milon, Toowong, Breakfast Creek, + Bulimba, Woolongabba, Highgate and Indooroopilly. The population of the + metropolitan area in 1901 was 119,907; of the city proper, 28,953; of + South Brisbane, 25,481.</p> + + <p><b>BRISEUX, CHARLES ÉTIENNE</b> (<i>c.</i> 1680-1754), French + architect. He was especially successful as a designer of internal + decorations—mantelpieces, mirrors, doors and overdoors, ceilings, + consoles, candelabra, wall panellings and other fittings, chiefly in the + Louis Quinze mode. He was also an industrious writer on architectural + subjects. His principal works are:—<i>L'Architecture moderne</i> (2 + vols., 1728); <i>L'Art de bâtir les maisons de campagne</i> (2 vols., + 1743); <i>Traité du beau essentiel dans les arts, appliqué + particulièrement à l'architecture</i> (1752); and <i>Traité des + proportions harmoniques.</i></p> + + <p><b>BRISSAC, DUKES OF.</b> The fief of Brissac in Anjou was acquired at + the end of the 15th century by a noble French family named Cossé + belonging to the same province. René de Cossé married into the Gouffier + family, just then very powerful at court, and became <i>premier + panelier</i> (chief pantler) to Louis XII. Two of his sons were marshals + of France. Brissac was made a countship in 1560 for Charles, the eldest, + who was grandmaster of artillery, and governor of Piedmont and of + Picardy. The second, Artus, who held the offices of <i>grand panetier</i> + of France and superintendent of finance, distinguished himself in the + religious wars. Charles II. de Cossé fought for the League, and as + governor of Paris opened the gates of that town to Henry IV., who created + him marshal of France in 1594. Brissac was raised to a duchy in the + peerage of France in 1611. Louis Hercule Timoléon de Cossé, due de + Brissac, and commandant of the constitutional guard of Louis XVI., was + killed at Versailles on the 9th of September 1792 for his devotion to the + king.</p> + + <p>(M. P.*)</p> + + <p><b>BRISSON, EUGÈNE HENRI</b> (1835- ), French statesman, was born at + Bourges on the 31st of July 1835. He followed his father's profession of + advocate, and having made himself conspicuous in opposition during the + last days of the empire, was appointed deputy-mayor of Paris after its + overthrow. He was elected to the Assembly on the 8th of February 1871, as + a member of the extreme Left. While not approving of the Commune, he was + the first to propose amnesty for the condemned (on the 13th of September + 1871), but the proposal was voted down. He strongly supported obligatory + primary education, and was a firm anti-clerical. He was president of the + chamber from 1881—replacing Gambetta—to March 1885, when he + became prime minister upon the resignation of Jules Ferry; but he + resigned when, after the general elections of that year, he only just + obtained a majority for the vote of credit for the Tongking expedition. + He remained conspicuous as a public man, took a prominent part in + exposing the Panama scandals, was a powerful candidate for the presidency + after the murder of President Carnot in 1894, and was again president of + the chamber from December 1894 to 1898. In June of the latter year he + formed a cabinet when the country was violently excited over the Dreyfus + affair; his firmness and honesty increased the respect in which he was + already held by good citizens, but a chance vote on an occasion of + especial excitement overthrew his ministry in October. As one of the + leaders of the radicals he actively supported the ministries of + Waldeck-Rousseau and Combes, especially concerning the laws on the + religious orders and the separation of church and state. In 1899 he was a + candidate for the presidency. In May 1906 he was elected president of the + chamber of deputies by 500 out of 581 votes.</p> + + <p><b>BRISSON, MATHURIN JACQUES</b> (1723-1806), French zoologist and + natural philosopher, was born at Fontenay le Comte on the 30th of April + 1723. The earlier part of his life was spent in the pursuit of natural + history, his published works in this department including <i>Le Règne + animal</i> (1756) and <i>Ornithologie</i> (1760). After the death of + R.A.F. Réaumur (1683-1757), whose assistant he was, he abandoned natural + history, and was appointed professor of natural philosophy at Navarre and + later at Paris. His most important work in this department was his + <i>Poids spécifiques des corps</i> (1787), but he published several other + books on physical subjects which were in considerable repute for a time. + He died at Croissy near Paris, on the 23rd of June 1806.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 575 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page575"></a>[v.04 p.0575]</span></p> + + <p><b>BRISSOT, JACQUES PIERRE</b> (1754-1793), who assumed the name of + <span class="sc">de Warville</span>, a celebrated French Girondist, was + born at Chartres, where his father was an inn-keeper, in January 1754. + Brissot received a good education and entered the office of a lawyer at + Paris. His first works, <i>Théorie des lois criminelles</i> (1781) and + <i>Bibliothèque philosophique du législateur</i> (1782), were on the + philosophy of law, and showed how thoroughly Brissot was imbued with the + ethical precepts of Rousseau. The first work was dedicated to Voltaire, + and was received by the old <i>philosophe</i> with much favour. Brissot + became known as a facile and able writer, and was engaged on the + <i>Mercure</i>, on the <i>Courrier de l'Europe</i>, and on other papers. + Ardently devoted to the service of humanity, he projected a scheme for a + general concourse of all the savants in Europe, and started in London a + paper, <i>Journal du Lycée de Londres</i>, which was to be the organ of + their views. The plan was unsuccessful, and soon after his return to + Paris Brissot was lodged in the Bastille on the charge of having + published a work against the government. He obtained his release after + four months, and again devoted himself to pamphleteering, but had + speedily to retire for a time to London. On this second visit he became + acquainted with some of the leading Abolitionists, and founded later in + Paris a Société des Amis des Noirs, of which he was president during 1790 + and 1791. As an agent of this society he paid a visit to the United + States in 1788, and in 1791 published his <i>Nouveau Voyage dans les + États-Unis de l'Amerique Septentrionale</i> (3 vols.).</p> + + <p>From the first, Brissot threw himself heart and soul into the + Revolution. He edited the <i>Patriote français</i> from 1789 to 1793, and + being a well-informed and capable man took a prominent part in affairs. + Upon the demolition of the Bastille the keys were presented to him. + Famous for his speeches at the Jacobin club, he was elected a member of + the municipality of Paris, then of the Legislative Assembly, and later of + the National Convention. During the Legislative Assembly his knowledge of + foreign affairs enabled him as member of the diplomatic committee + practically to direct the foreign policy of France, and the declaration + of war against the emperor on the 20th of April 1792, and that against + England on the 1st of July 1793, were largely due to him. It was also + Brissot who gave these wars the character of revolutionary propaganda. He + was in many ways the leading spirit of the Girondists, who were also + known as Brissotins. Vergniaud certainly was far superior to him in + oratory, but Brissot was quick, eager, impetuous, and a man of wide + knowledge. But he was at the same time vacillating, and not qualified to + struggle against the fierce energies roused by the events of the + Revolution. His party fell before the Mountain; sentence of arrest was + passed against the leading members of it on the 2nd of June 1793. Brissot + attempted to escape in disguise, but was arrested at Moulins. His + demeanour at the trial was quiet and dignified; and on the 31st of + October 1793 he died bravely with several other Girondists.</p> + + <p>See <i>Mémoires de Brissot, sur ses contemporains et la Révolution + française</i>, published by his sons, with notes by F. de Montrol (Paris, + 1830); Helena Williams, <i>Souvenirs de la Révolution française</i> + (Paris, 1827); F. A. Aulard, <i>Les Orateurs de la Législative et de la + Convention</i> 2nd ed., (Paris, 1905); F. A. Aulard, <i>Les Portraits + littéraires à la fin du XVIII<sup>e</sup> siècle, pendant la + Révolution</i> (Paris, 1883).</p> + + <p><b>BRISTOL, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF.</b> This English title has been + held in the Hervey family since 1714, though previously an earldom of + Bristol, in the Digby family, is associated with two especially famous + representatives, of whom separate biographies are given. The Herveys are + mentioned during the 13th century as seated in Bedfordshire, and + afterwards in Suffolk, where they have held the estate of Ickworth since + the 15th century. John Hervey (1616-1679) was the eldest son of Sir + William Hervey (d. 1660), and was born on the 18th of August 1616. He + held a high position in the household of Catherine, wife of Charles II., + and was for many years member of parliament for Hythe. He married + Elizabeth, the only surviving child of his kinsman, William, Lord Hervey + of Kidbrooke (d. 1642), but left no children when he died on the 18th of + January 1679, and his estates passed to his brother, Sir Thomas Hervey. + Sir Thomas, who was member of parliament for Bury St Edmunds, died on the + 27th of May 1694, and was succeeded by his son, John, who became the 1st + earl of Bristol.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">John Hervey</span>, 1st earl of Bristol (1665-1751), + born on the 27th of August 1665, was educated at Clare Hall, Cambridge, + and became member of parliament for Bury St Edmunds in March 1694. In + March 1703 he was created Baron Hervey of Ickworth, and in October 1714 + was made earl of Bristol as a reward for his zeal in promoting the + principles of the revolution and supporting the Hanoverian succession. He + died on the 20th of January 1751. By his first wife, Isabella (d. 1693), + daughter of Sir Robert Carr, Bart., of Sleaford, he had one son, Carr, + Lord Hervey (1691-1723), who was educated at Clare Hall, Cambridge, and + was member for Bury St Edmunds from 1713 to 1722. (It has been suggested + that Carr, who died unmarried on the 14th of November 1723, was the + father of Horace Walpole.) He married secondly Elizabeth (d. 1741), + daughter and co-heiress of Sir Thomas Felton, Bart., of Playford, + Suffolk, by whom he had ten sons and six daughters. His eldest son, John + (1696-1743), took the courtesy title of Lord Hervey on the death of his + half-brother, Carr, in 1723, and gained some renown both as a writer and + a politician (see <span class="sc">Hervey of Ickworth</span>). Another + son, Thomas (1699-1775), was one of the members for Bury from 1733 to + 1747; held various offices at court; and eloped with Elizabeth, wife of + Sir Thomas Hanmer. He had very poor health, and his reckless life + frequently brought him into pecuniary and other difficulties. He wrote + numerous pamphlets, and when he died Dr Johnson said of him, "Tom Hervey, + though a vicious man, was one of the genteelest men who ever lived." + Another of the 1st earl's sons, Felton (1712-1773), was also member for + the family borough of Bury St Edmunds. Having assumed the additional name + of Bathurst, Felton's grandson, Felton Elwell Hervey-Bathurst + (1782-1819), was created a baronet in 1818, and on his death a year later + the title descended to his brother, Frederick Anne (1783-1824), the + direct ancestor of the present baronet. The 1st earl died in January + 1751, the title and estates descending to his grandson.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">George William Hervey</span>, 2nd earl of Bristol + (1721-1775), the eldest son of John, Lord Hervey of Ickworth, by his + marriage with Mary (1700-1768), daughter of Nicholas Lepell, was born on + the 31st of August 1721. He served for some years in the army, and in + 1755 was sent to Turin as envoy extraordinary. He was ambassador at + Madrid from 1758 to 1761, filling a difficult position with credit and + dignity, and ranked among the followers of Pitt. Appointed + lord-lieutenant of Ireland in 1766, he never visited that country during + his short tenure of this office, and, after having served for a short + time as keeper of the privy seal, became groom of the stole to George + III. in January 1770. He died unmarried on the 18th or 20th of March + 1775, and was succeeded by his brother.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Augustus John Hervey</span>, 3rd earl of Bristol + (1724-1779), was born on the 19th of May 1724, and entered the navy, + where his promotion was rapid. He distinguished himself in several + encounters with the French, and was of great assistance to Admiral Hawke + in 1759, although he had returned to England before the battle of + Quiberon Bay in November 1759. Having served with distinction in the West + Indies under Rodney, his active life at sea ceased when the peace of + Paris was concluded in February 1763. He was, however, nominally + commander-in-chief in the Mediterranean in this year, and was made + vice-admiral of the blue in January 1778. Hervey was member of parliament + for Bury from 1757 to 1763, and after being for a short time member for + Saltash, again represented Bury from 1768 until he succeeded his brother + in the peerage in 1775. He often took part in debates in parliament, and + was a frequent contributor to periodical literature. Having served as a + lord of the admiralty from 1771 to 1775 he won some notoriety as an + opponent of the Rockingham ministry and a defender of Admiral Keppel. In + August 1744 he had been secretly married to Elizabeth Chudleigh + (1720-1788), afterwards duchess of Kingston (<i>q.v.</i>), but this union + was dissolved in 1769. The earl died in London on the 23rd of December + 1779, leaving no legitimate issue, and having, as far as possible, + alienated his property from the <!-- Page 576 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page576"></a>[v.04 p.0576]</span>title. He was succeeded by his + brother. Many of his letters are in the Record Office, and his journals + in the British Museum. Other letters are printed in the <i>Grenville + Papers</i>, vols. iii. and iv. (London, 1852-1853), and the <i>Life of + Admiral Keppel</i>, by the Hon. T. Keppel (London, 1852).</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Frederick Augustus Hervey</span>, bishop of Derry + (1730-1803), who now became 4th earl of Bristol, was born on the 1st of + August 1730, and educated at Westminster school and Corpus Christi + College, Cambridge, graduating in 1754. Entering the church he became a + royal chaplain; and while waiting for other preferment spent some time in + Italy, whither he was led by his great interest in art. In February 1767, + while his brother, the 2nd earl, was lord-lieutenant of Ireland, he was + made bishop of Cloyne, and having improved the property of the see he was + translated to the rich bishopric of Derry a year later. Here again he was + active and philanthropic. While not neglecting his luxurious personal + tastes he spent large sums of money on making roads and assisting + agriculture, and his munificence was shared by the city of Londonderry. + He built splendid residences at Downhill and Ballyscullion, which he + adorned with rare works of art. As a bishop, Hervey was industrious and + vigilant; he favoured complete religious equality, and was opposed to the + system of tithes. In December 1779 he became earl of Bristol, and in + spite of his brother's will succeeded to a considerable property. Having + again passed some time in Italy, he returned to Ireland and in 1782 threw + himself ardently into the Irish volunteer movement, quickly attaining a + prominent position among the volunteers, and in great state attending the + convention held in Dublin in November 1783. Carried away by his position + and his popularity he talked loudly of rebellion, and his violent + language led the government to contemplate his arrest. Subsequently he + took no part in politics, spending his later years mainly on the + continent of Europe. In 1798 he was imprisoned by the French at Milan, + remaining in custody for eighteen months. He died at Albano on the 8th of + July 1803, and was buried in Ickworth church. Varying estimates have been + found of his character, including favourable ones by John Wesley and + Jeremy Bentham. He was undoubtedly clever and cultured, but licentious + and eccentric. In later life he openly professed materialistic opinions; + he fell in love with the countess Lichtenau, mistress of Frederick + William II., king of Prussia; and by his bearing he gave fresh point to + the saying that "God created men, women and Herveys." In 1752 he had + married Elizabeth (d. 1800), daughter of Sir Jermyn Davers, Bart., by + whom he had two sons and three daughters. His elder son, Augustus John, + Lord Hervey (1757-1796), had predeceased his father, and he was succeeded + in the title by his younger son.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Frederick William Hervey</span>, 5th earl and 1st + marquess of Bristol (1769-1859), was born on the 2nd of October 1769. He + married Elizabeth Albana (d. 1844), daughter of Clotworthy, 1st Baron + Templetown, by whom he had six sons and three daughters. In 1826 he was + created marquess of Bristol and Earl Jermyn, and died on the 15th of + February 1859. He was succeeded by his son Frederick William (1800-1864), + M.P. for Bury St Edmunds 1830-1859, as 2nd marquess; and by the latter's + son Frederick William John (1834-1907), M.P. for West Suffolk 1859-1864, + as 3rd marquess. The latter's nephew, Frederick William Fane Hervey (b. + 1863), who succeeded as 4th marquess, served with distinction in the + royal navy, and was M.P. for Bury St Edmunds from 1906 to 1907.</p> + + <p>See John, Lord Hervey, <i>Memoirs of the Reign of George II</i>., + edited by J.W. Croker (London, 1884); John Hervey, 1st earl of Bristol, + <i>Diary</i> (Wells, 1894); and <i>Letter Books of Bristol; with Sir T. + Hervey's Letters during Courtship and Poems during Widowhood</i> (Wells, + 1894). Also the articles in the <i>Dictionary of National Biography</i>, + vol. xxvi. (London, 1891).</p> + + <p><b>BRISTOL, GEORGE DIGBY,</b> <span class="sc">2nd Earl of</span><a + name="FnAnchor_071" href="#Footnote_071"><sup>[1]</sup></a> (1612-1677), + eldest son of the 1st earl (see below), was born in October 1612. At the + age of twelve he appeared at the bar of the House of Commons and pleaded + for his father, then in the Tower, when his youth, graceful person and + well-delivered speech made a great impression. He was admitted to + Magdalen College, Oxford, on the 15th of August 1626, where he was a + favourite pupil of Peter Heylin, and became M.A. in 1636. He spent the + following years in study and in travel, from which he returned, according + to Clarendon, "the most accomplished person of our nation or perhaps any + other nation," and distinguished by a remarkably handsome person. In 1638 + and 1639 were written the <i>Letters between Lord George Digby and Sir + Kenelm Digby, Knt. concerning Religion</i> (publ. 1651), in which Digby + attacked Roman Catholicism. In June 1634 Digby was committed to the Fleet + till July for striking Crofts, a gentleman of the court, in Spring + Gardens; and possibly his severe treatment and the disfavour shown to his + father were the causes of his hostility to the court. He was elected + member for Dorsetshire in both the Short and Long parliaments in 1640, + and in conjunction with Pym and Hampden he took an active part in the + opposition to Charles. He moved on the 9th of November for a committee to + consider the "deplorable state" of the kingdom, and on the 11th was + included in the committee for the impeachment of Strafford, against whom + he at first showed great zeal. He, however, opposed the attainder, made + an eloquent speech on the 21st of April 1641, accentuating the weakness + of Vane's evidence against the prisoner, and showing the injustice of + <i>ex post facto</i> legislation. He was regarded in consequence with + great hostility by the parliamentary party, and was accused of having + stolen from Pym's table Vane's notes on which the prosecution mainly + depended. On the 15th of July his speech was burnt by the hangman by the + order of the House of Commons. Meanwhile on the 8th of February he had + made an important speech in the Commons advocating the reformation and + opposing the abolition of episcopacy. On the 8th of June, during the + angry discussion on the army plot, he narrowly escaped assault in the + House; and the following day, in order to save him from further attacks, + the king called him up to the Lords in his father's barony of Digby.</p> + + <p>He now became the evil genius of Charles, who had the incredible folly + to follow his advice in preference to such men as Hyde and Falkland. In + November he is recorded as performing "singular good service," and "doing + beyond admiration," in speaking in the Lords against the instruction + concerning evil counsellors. He suggested to Charles the impeachment of + the five members, and urged upon him the fatal attempt to arrest them on + the 4th of January 1642; but he failed to play his part in the Lords in + securing the arrest of Lord Mandeville, to whom on the contrary he + declared that "the king was very mischievously advised"; and according to + Clarendon his imprudence was responsible for the betrayal of the king's + plan. Next day he advised the attempt to seize them in the city by force. + The same month he was ordered to appear in the Lords to answer a charge + of high treason for a supposed armed attempt at Kingston, but fled to + Holland, where he joined the queen, and on the 26th of February was + impeached. Subsequently he visited Charles at York disguised as a + Frenchman, but on the return voyage to Holland he was captured and taken + to Hull, where he for some time escaped detection; and at last he cajoled + Sir John Hotham, after discovering himself, into permitting his escape. + Later he ventured on a second visit to Hull to persuade Hotham to + surrender the place to Charles, but this project failed. He was present + at Edgehill, and greatly distinguished himself at Lichfield, where he was + wounded while leading the assault. He soon, however, threw down his + commission in consequence of a quarrel with Prince Rupert, and returned + to the king at Oxford, over whom he obtained more influence as the + prospect became more gloomy. On the 28th of September 1643 he was + appointed secretary of state and a privy councillor, and on the 31st of + October high steward of Oxford University. He now supported the queen's + disastrous policy of foreign alliances and help from Ireland, and engaged + in a series of imprudent and ill-conducted negotiations which greatly + injured the king's affairs, while his fierce disputes with Rupert and his + party further embarrassed them. On the 14th of October 1645 he was made + lieutenant general of the royal forces north of the Trent, with the + object of pushing through to join Montrose, but he was defeated on <!-- + Page 577 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page577"></a>[v.04 + p.0577]</span>the 15th at Sherburn, where his correspondence was + captured, disclosing the king's expectations from abroad and from Ireland + and his intrigues with the Scots; and after reaching Dumfries, he found + his way barred. He escaped on the 24th to the Isle of Man, thence + crossing to Ireland, where he caused Glamorgan to be arrested. Here, on + this new stage, he believed he was going to achieve wonders. "Have I not + carried my body swimmingly," he wrote to Hyde in irrepressible good + spirits, "who being before so irreconcilably hated by the Puritan party, + have thus seasonably made myself as odious to the Papists?"<a + name="FnAnchor_072" href="#Footnote_072"><sup>[2]</sup></a> His project + now was to bring over Prince Charles to head a royalist movement in the + island; and having joined Charles at Jersey in April 1646, he intended to + entrap him on board, but was dissuaded by Hyde. He then travelled to + Paris to gain the queen's consent to his scheme, but returned to persuade + Charles to go to Paris, and accompanied him thither, revisiting Ireland + on the 29th of June once more, and finally escaping to France on the + surrender of the island to the parliament. At Paris amongst the royalists + he found himself in a nest of enemies eager to pay off old scores. Prince + Rupert challenged him, and he fought a duel with Lord Wilmot. He + continued his adventures by serving in Louis XIV.'s troops in the war of + the Fronde, in which he greatly distinguished himself. He was appointed + in 1651 lieutenant-general in the French army, and commander of the + forces in Flanders. These new honours, however, were soon lost. During + Mazarin's enforced absence from the court Digby aspired to become his + successor; and the cardinal, who had from the first penetrated his + character and regarded him as a mere adventurer,<a name="FnAnchor_073" + href="#Footnote_073"><sup>[3]</sup></a> on his restoration to power sent + Digby away on an expedition in Italy; and on his return informed him that + he was included in the list of those expelled from France, in accordance + with the new treaty with Cromwell. In August 1656 he joined Charles II. + at Bruges, and desirous of avenging himself upon the cardinal offered his + services to Don John of Austria in the Netherlands, being instrumental in + effecting the surrender of the garrison of St Ghislain to Spain in 1657. + On the 1st of January 1657 he was appointed by Charles II. secretary of + state, but shortly afterwards, having become a Roman + Catholic—probably with the view of adapting himself better to his + new Spanish friends—he was compelled to resign office. Charles, + however, on account of his "jollity" and Spanish experience took him with + him to Spain in 1659, though his presence was especially deprecated by + the Spanish; but he succeeded in ingratiating himself, and was welcomed + by the king of Spain subsequently at Madrid.</p> + + <p>By the death of his father Digby had succeeded in January 1659 to the + peerage as 2nd earl of Bristol, and had been made K.G. the same month. He + returned to England at the restoration, when he found himself excluded + from office on account of his religion, and relegated to only secondary + importance. His desire to make a brilliant figure induced a restless and + ambitious activity in parliament. He adopted an attitude of violent + hostility to Clarendon. In foreign affairs he inclined strongly to the + side of Spain, and opposed the king's marriage with Catherine of + Portugal. He persuaded Charles to despatch him to Italy to view the + Medici princesses, but the royal marriage and treaty with Portugal were + settled in his absence. In June 1663 he made an attempt to upset + Clarendon's management of the House of Commons, but his intrigue was + exposed to the parliament by Charles, and Bristol was obliged to attend + the House to exonerate himself, when he confessed that he had "taken the + liberty of enlarging," and his "comedian-like speech" excited general + amusement. Exasperated by these failures, in a violent scene with the + king early in July, he broke out into fierce and disrespectful + reproaches, ending with a threat that unless Charles granted his requests + within twenty-four hours "he would do somewhat that should awaken him out + of his slumbers, and make him look better to his own business." + Accordingly on the 10th he impeached Clarendon in the Lords of high + treason, and on the charge being dismissed renewed his accusation, and + was expelled from the court, only avoiding the warrant issued for his + apprehension by a concealment of two years. In January 1664 he caused a + new sensation by his appearance at his house at Wimbledon, where he + publicly renounced before witnesses his Roman Catholicism, and declared + himself a Protestant, his motive being probably to secure immunity from + the charge of recusancy preferred against him.<a name="FnAnchor_074" + href="#Footnote_074"><sup>[4]</sup></a> When, however, the fall of + Clarendon was desired, Bristol was again welcomed at court. He took his + seat in the Lords on the 29th of July 1667. "The king," wrote Pepys in + November, "who not long ago did say of Bristoll that he was a man able in + three years to get himself a fortune in any kingdom in the world and lose + all again in three months, do now hug him and commend his parts + everywhere above all the world."<a name="FnAnchor_075" + href="#Footnote_075"><sup>[5]</sup></a> He pressed eagerly for + Clarendon's commital, and on the refusal of the Lords accused them of + mutiny and rebellion, and entered his dissent with "great fury."<a + name="FnAnchor_076" href="#Footnote_076"><sup>[6]</sup></a> In March 1668 + he attended prayers in the Lords. On the 15th of March 1673 though still + ostensibly a Roman Catholic, he spoke in favour of the Test Act, + describing himself as "a Catholic of the church of Rome, not a Catholic + of the court of Rome," and asserting the unfitness of Romanists for + public office. His adventurous and erratic career closed by death on the + 20th of March 1677.</p> + + <p>Bristol was one of the most striking and conspicuous figures of his + time, a man of brilliant abilities, a great orator, one who distinguished + himself without effort in any sphere of activity he chose to enter, but + whose natural gifts were marred by a restless ambition and instability of + character fatal to real greatness. Clarendon describes him as "the only + man I ever knew of such incomparable parts that was none the wiser for + any experience or misfortune that befell him," and records his + extraordinary facility in making friends and making enemies. Horace + Walpole characterized him in a series of his smartest antitheses as "a + singular person whose life was one contradiction." "He wrote against + popery and embraced it; he was a zealous opposer of the court and a + sacrifice for it; was conscientiously converted in the midst of his + prosecution of Lord Strafford and was most unconscientiously a persecutor + of Lord Clarendon. With great parts, he always hurt himself and his + friends; with romantic bravery, he was always an unsuccessful commander. + He spoke for the Test Act, though a Roman Catholic; and addicted himself + to astrology on the birthday of true philosophy." Besides his youthful + correspondence with Sir K. Digby on the subject of religion already + mentioned, he was the author of an <i>Apologie</i> (1643, Thomason + Tracts, E. 34 (32)), justifying his support of the king's cause; of + <i>Elvira ... a comedy</i> (1667), printed in R. Dodsley's <i>Select + Collect. of Old English Plays</i> (Hazlitt, 1876), vol. xv., and of + <i>Worse and Worse</i>, an adaptation from the Spanish, acted but not + printed. Other writings are also ascribed to him, including the + authorship with Sir Samuel Tuke of <i>The Adventures of Five Hours</i> + (1663). His eloquent and pointed speeches, many of which were printed, + are included in the article in the <i>Biog. Brit.</i> and among the + <i>Thomason Tracts</i>; see also the general catalogue in the British + Museum. The catalogue of his library was published in 1680. He married + Lady Anne Russell, daughter of Francis, 4th earl of Bedford, by whom, + besides two daughters, he had two sons, Francis, who predeceased him + unmarried, and John, who succeeded him as 3rd earl of Bristol, at whose + death without issue the peerage became extinct.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—See the article in <i>Dict. + Nat. Biog.</i>; Wood's <i>Ath. Oxon.</i> (Bliss), iii. 1100-1105; + <i>Biographia Brit.</i> (Kippis), v. 210-238; H. Walpole's <i>Royal and + Noble Authors</i> (Park, 1806), iii. 191; <i>Roscius Anglicanus</i>, by + J. Downes, pp. 31, 36 (1789); Cunningham's <i>Lives of Eminent + Englishmen</i> (1837), iii. 29; <i>Somers Tracts</i> (1750), iii. (1809), + iv.; <i>Harleian Miscellany</i> (1808), v., vi.; <i>Life</i> by T. H. + Lister (1838); <i>State Papers</i>.</p> + + <p>(P. C. Y.)</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_071" href="#FnAnchor_071">[1]</a> <i>I.e.</i> in the + Digby line; for the Herveys see above.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_072" href="#FnAnchor_072">[2]</a> <i>Clarendon State + Papers</i>, ii. 201.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_073" href="#FnAnchor_073">[3]</a> <i>Mémoires du + Cardinal de Retz</i> (1859), app. iii. 437, 442.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_074" href="#FnAnchor_074">[4]</a> Pepys's + <i>Diary</i>, iv. 51.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_075" href="#FnAnchor_075">[5]</a> <i>Ib.</i> vii. + 199.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_076" href="#FnAnchor_076">[6]</a> <i>Ib.</i> 207; + <i>Protests of the Lords</i>, by J.E.T. Rogers, i. 36.</p> + +</div> + <p><b>BRISTOL, JOHN DIGBY,</b> <span class="sc">1st Earl of</span><a + name="FnAnchor_081" href="#Footnote_081"><sup>[1]</sup></a> (1580-1653) + English diplomatist, son of Sir George Digby of Coleshill, Warwickshire, + and of Abigail, daughter of Sir Arthur Henningham, was born in <!-- Page + 578 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page578"></a>[v.04 + p.0578]</span>1580, and entered Magdalen College, Oxford, in 1595 (M.A. + 1605), becoming a member of the Inner Temple in 1598. In 1605 he was sent + to James to inform him of the safety of the princess Elizabeth at the + time of the Gunpowder Plot. He gained his favour, was made a gentleman of + the privy chamber and one of the king's carvers, and was knighted in + 1607. From 1610 to 1611 he was member of parliament for Heydon. In 1611 + he was sent as ambassador to Spain to negotiate a marriage between Prince + Henry and the infanta Anne, and to champion the cause of the English + merchants, for whom he obtained substantial concessions, and arranged the + appointment of consuls at Lisbon and Seville. He also discovered a list + of the English pensioners of the Spanish court, which included some of + the ministers, and came home in 1613 to communicate this important + intelligence to the king. In 1614 he again went to Spain to effect a + union between the infanta Maria and Charles, though he himself was in + favour of a Protestant marriage, and desired a political and not a + matrimonial treaty. In 1616, on the disgrace of Somerset, he was recalled + home to give evidence concerning the latter's connexions with Spain, was + made vice-chamberlain and a privy councillor, and obtained from James the + manor of Sherborne forfeited by the late favourite. In 1618 he went once + more to Spain to reopen the negotiations, returning in May, and being + created Baron Digby on the 25th of November. He endeavoured to avoid a + breach with Spain on the election of the elector palatine, the king's + son-in-law, to the Bohemian throne; and in March 1621, after the latter's + expulsion from Bohemia, Digby was sent to Brussels to obtain a suspension + of hostilities in the Palatinate. On the 4th of July he went to Vienna + and drew up a scheme of pacification with the emperor, by which Frederick + was to abandon Bohemia and be secured in his hereditary territories, but + the agreement could never be enforced. After raising money for the + defence of Heidelberg he returned home in October, and on the 21st of + November explained his policy to the parliament, and asked for money and + forces for its execution. The sudden dissolution of parliament, however, + prevented the adoption of any measure of support, and entirely ruined + Digby's plans. In 1622 he returned to Spain with nothing on which to rely + but the goodwill of Philip IV., and nothing to offer but entreaties.</p> + + <p>On the 15th of September he was created earl of Bristol. He urged on + the marriage treaty, believing it would include favourable conditions for + Frederick, but the negotiations were taken out of his control, and + finally wrecked by the arrival of Charles himself and Buckingham in March + 1623. He incurred their resentment, of which the real inspiration was + Buckingham's implacable jealousy, by a letter written to James informing + him of Buckingham's unpopularity among the Spanish ministers, and by his + endeavouring to maintain the peace with Spain after their departure. In + January 1624 he left Spain, and on arriving at Dover in March, Buckingham + and Charles having now complete ascendancy over the king, he was + forbidden to appear at court and ordered to confine himself at Sherborne. + He was required by Buckingham to answer a series of interrogatories, but + he refused to inculpate himself and demanded a trial by parliament. On + the death of James he was removed by Charles I. from the privy council, + and ordered to absent himself from his first parliament. On his demand in + January 1626 to be present at the coronation Charles angrily refused, and + accused him of having tried to pervert his religion in Spain. In March + 1626, after the assembling of the second parliament, Digby applied to the + Lords, who supported his rights, and Charles sent him his writ + accompanied by a letter from Lord Keeper Coventry desiring him not to use + it. Bristol, however, took his seat and demanded justice against + Buckingham (Thomason Tracts, E. 126 (20)). The king endeavoured to + obstruct his attack by causing Bristol on the 1st of May to be himself + brought to the bar, on an accusation of high treason by the + attorney-general. The Lords, however, ordered that both charges should be + investigated simultaneously. Further proceedings were stopped by the + dissolution of parliament on the 15th of June; a prosecution was ordered + by Charles in the Star Chamber, and Bristol was sent to the Tower, where + he remained till the 17th of March 1628, when the peers, on the + assembling of Charles's third parliament, insisted on his liberation and + restoration to his seat in the Lords.</p> + + <p>In the discussions upon the Petition of Right, Bristol supported the + use of the king's prerogative in emergencies, and asserted that the king + besides his legal had a regal power, but joined in the demand for a full + acceptance of the petition by the king after the first unsatisfactory + answer. He was now restored to favour, but took no part in politics till + the outbreak of the Scottish rebellion, when he warned Charles of the + danger of attacking with inadequate forces. He was the leader in the + Great Council held at York, was a commissioner to treat with the Scots in + September 1640 at Ripon, and advised strongly the summoning of the + parliament. In February 1641 he was one of the peers who advocated + reforms in the administration and were given seats in the council. Though + no friend to Strafford, he endeavoured to save his life, desiring only to + see him excluded from office, and as a witness was excused from voting on + the attainder. He was appointed gentleman of the bedchamber on the king's + departure for Scotland, and on the 27th of December he was declared an + evil counsellor by the House of Commons, Cromwell on the 28th moving an + address to the king to dismiss him from his councils, on the plea that he + had advocated the bringing up of the northern army to overawe parliament + in the preceding spring. There is no evidence to support the charge, but + Digby was regarded by the parliamentary party with special hatred and + distrust, of which the chief causes were probably his Spanish + proclivities and his indifference on the great matter of religion, to + which was added the unpopularity reflected from his misguided son. On the + 28th of March 1642 he was sent to the Tower for having failed to disclose + to parliament the Kentish petition. Liberated in April, he spoke in the + Lords on the 20th of May in favour of an accommodation, and again in June + in vindication of the king; but finding his efforts ineffectual, and + believing all armed rebellion against the king a wicked violation of the + most solemn oaths, he joined Charles at York, was present at Edgehill and + accompanied him to Oxford. On the 1st of February 1643 he was named with + Lord Herbert of Raglan for removal from the court and public office for + ever, and in the propositions of November 1644 was one of those excepted + from pardon. In January he had endeavoured to instigate a breach of the + Independents with the Scots. Bristol, however, was not in favour of + continuing the war, and withdrew to Sherborne, removing in the spring of + 1644 to Exeter, and after the surrender of the city retiring abroad on + the 11th of July by order of the Houses, which rejected his petition to + compound for his estate. He took up his residence at Caen, passing the + rest of his life in exile and poverty, and occasionally attending the + young king. In 1647 he printed at Caen <i>An Apology</i>, defending his + support of the royal cause. This was reprinted in 1656 (Thomason Tracts, + E. 897, 6). He died at Paris on the 16th of January 1653.</p> + + <p>He is described by Clarendon as "a man of grave aspect, of a presence + that drew respect, and of great parts and ability, but passionate and + supercilious and too voluminous a discourser in council." His aim was to + effect a political union between England and Spain apart from the + religious or marriage questions—a policy which would probably have + benefited both English and European interests; but it was one understood + neither in Spain nor in England, and proved impracticable. He was a man + of high character, who refused to compound with falsehood and injustice, + whose misfortune it was to serve two Stuart sovereigns, and whose firm + resistance to the king's tyranny led the way to the great movement which + finally destroyed it. Besides his <i>Apology</i>, he was the author of + several printed speeches and poems, and translated <i>A Defence of the + Catholic Faith</i> by Peter du Moulin (1610). He married Beatrix, + daughter of Charles Walcot, and widow of Sir John Dyve, and besides two + daughters left two sons, George, who succeeded him as 2nd earl of + Bristol, and John, who died unmarried.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—The best account of + Bristol will be found in the scattered notices of him in the <i>Hist. of + England</i> and of the <i>Civil War</i>, by S. R. Gardiner, who also + wrote the short sketch of his career in <!-- Page 579 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page579"></a>[v.04 p.0579]</span>the <i>Dict. of + Nat. Biog.</i>, and who highly eulogizes his character and diplomacy. For + lives, see <i>Biographia Britannica</i> (Kippis), v. 199; Wood's <i>Ath. + Oxon.</i> (Bliss), iii. 338; D. Lloyd's <i>Memoires</i> (1668), 579; + Collins's <i>Peerage</i> (Brydges, 1812), v. 362; Fuller's + <i>Worthies</i> (Nichols, 1811), ii. 412; H. Walpole's <i>Royal and Noble + Authors</i> (Park, 1806), iii. 49; also Clarendon's <i>Hist of the + Rebellion</i>, esp. vi. 388; <i>Clarendon State Papers</i> and <i>Cal. of + Cl. State Papers</i>; <i>Old Parliamentary History</i>; <i>Cabala</i> + (1691; letters); Camden Soc., <i>Miscellany</i>, vol. vi. (1871); + <i>Defence of his Spanish Negotiations</i>, ed. by S.R. Gardiner; + <i>Somers Tracts</i> (1809), ii. 501; <i>Thomason Tracts</i> in Brit. + Museum; <i>Hardwicke State Papers</i>, i. 494. The MSS. at Sherborne + Castle, of which a selection was transcribed and deposited in the Public + Record Office, were calendared by the Hist. MSS. Commission in + <i>Rep.</i> viii. app. i. p. 213 and 10th <i>Rep.</i> app. i. p. 520; + there are numerous references to Bristol in various collections + calendared in the same publication and in the <i>Cal. of State Papers, + Dom. Series</i>; see also <i>Harleian MSS.</i>, Brit. Mus. 1580, art. + 31-48, and <i>Add. MSS.</i> indexes and calendars.</p> + + <p>(P. C. Y.)</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_081" href="#FnAnchor_081">[1]</a> <i>I.e.</i> in the + Digby line; for the Herveys see above.</p> + +</div> + <p><b>BRISTOL,</b> a township of Hartford county, Connecticut, U.S.A., in + the central part of the state, about 16 m. S.W. of Hartford. It has an + area of 27 sq. m., and contains the village of Forestville and the + borough of Bristol (incorporated in 1893). Both are situated on the + Pequabuck river, and are served by the western branch of the midland + division of the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway, and by + electric railway to Hartford, New Britain and Terryville. Pop. (1890) + 7382; (1900) 9643, including that of the borough, 6268 (1910) 13,502 + (borough, 9527). Among the manufactures of the borough of Bristol are + clocks, woollen goods, iron castings, hardware, brass ware, silverplate + and bells. Bristol clocks, first manufactured soon after the War of + Independence, have long been widely known. Bristol, originally a part of + the township of Farmington, was first settled about 1727, but did not + become an independent corporation until the formation, in 1742, of the + first church, known after 1744 as the New Cambridge Society. In 1748 a + Protestant Episcopal Church was organized, and before and during the War + of Independence its members belonged to the Loyalist party; their rector, + Rev. James Nichols, was tarred and feathered by the Whigs, and Moses + Dunbar, a member of the church, was hanged for treason by the Connecticut + authorities. Chippen's Hill (about 3 m. from the centre of the township) + was a favourite rendezvous of the local Loyalists; and a cave there, + known as "The Tories' Den," is a well-known landmark. In 1785 New + Cambridge and West Britain, another ecclesiastical society of Farmington, + were incorporated as the township of Bristol, but in 1806 they were + divided into the present townships of Bristol and Burlington.</p> + + <p><b>BRISTOL,</b> a city, county of a city, municipal, county and + parliamentary borough, and seaport of England, chiefly in Gloucestershire + but partly in Somersetshire, 118½ m. W. of London. Pop. (1901) 328,945. + The Avon, here forming the boundary between Gloucestershire and Somerset, + though entering the estuary of the Severn (Bristol Channel) only 8 m. + below the city, is here confined between considerable hills, with a + narrow valley-floor on which the nucleus of the city rests. Between + Bristol and the Channel the valley becomes a gorge, crossed at a single + stride by the famous Clifton Suspension Bridge. Above Bristol the hills + again close in at Keynsham, so that the city lies in a basin-like hollow + some 4 m. in diameter, and extends up the heights to the north. The Great + Western railway, striking into the Avon valley near Bath, serves Bristol + from London, connects it with South Wales by the Severn tunnel, and with + the southern and south-western counties of England. Local lines of this + company encircle the city on the north and the south, serving the + outports of Avonmouth and Portishead on the Bristol Channel. A trunk line + of the Midland railway connects Bristol with the north of England by way + of Gloucester, Worcester, Birmingham and Derby. Both companies use the + central station, Temple Meads.</p> + + <p>The nucleus of Bristol lies to the north of the river. The business + centre is in the district traversed by Broad Street, High Street, Wine + Street and Corn Street, which radiate from a centre close to the Floating + Harbour. To the south of this centre, connected with it by Bristol + Bridge, an island is formed between the Floating Harbour and the New + Course of the Avon, and here are Temple Meads station, above Victoria + Street, two of the finest churches (the Temple and St Mary Redcliffe) the + general hospital and other public buildings. Immediately above the bridge + the little river Frome joins the Avon. Owing to the nature of the site + the streets are irregular; in the inner part of the city they are + generally narrow, and sometimes, with their ancient gabled houses, + extremely picturesque. The principal suburbs surround the city to the + west, north and east.</p> + + <p><i>Churches, &c.</i>—In the centre of Bristol a remarkable + collection of architectural antiquities is found, principally + ecclesiastical. This the city owes mainly to a few great baronial + families, such as the earls of Gloucester and the Berkeleys, in its early + history, and to a few great merchants, the Canyngs, Shipwards and + Framptons, in its later career. The see of Bristol, founded by Henry + VIII. in 1542, was united to that of Gloucester in 1836; but again + separated in 1896. The diocese includes parts of Gloucestershire and + Wiltshire, and a small but populous <span + class="sidenote">Cathedral.</span> portion of Somerset. The cathedral, + standing above the so-called Canons' Marsh which borders the Floating + Harbour, is pleasantly situated on the south side of College Green. It + has two western towers and a central tower, nave, short transepts, choir + with aisles, an eastern Lady chapel and other chapels; and on the south, + a chapter-house and cloister court. The nave is modern (by Street, 1877), + imitating the choir of the 14th century, with its curious + skeleton-vaulting in the aisles. Besides the canopied tombs of the + Berkeleys with their effigies in chain mail, and similarly fine tombs of + the crosiered abbots, there are memorials to Bishop Butler, to Sterne's + Eliza (Elizabeth Draper), and to Lady Hesketh (the friend of Cowper), who + are all interred here. There is also here William Mason's fine epitaph to + his wife (d. 1767), beginning "Take, holy earth, all that my soul holds + dear." Of Fitz-Harding's abbey of St Augustine, founded in 1142 (of which + the present cathedral was the church), the stately entrance gateway, with + its sculptured mouldings, remains hardly injured. The abbot's gateway, + the vestibule to the chapter-house, and the chapter-house itself, which + is carved with Byzantine exuberance of decoration, and acknowledged to be + one of the finest Norman chambers in Europe, are also perfect. On the + north side of College Green is the small but ornate Mayor's chapel + (originally St Mark's), devoted to the services of the mayor and + corporation. It is mainly Decorated and Perpendicular. Of the churches + within the centre of the city, the following are found within a radius of + half-a-mile from Bristol Bridge. St Stephen's church, built between 1450 + and 1490, is a dignified structure, chiefly interesting for its + fan-traceried porch and stately tower. It was built entirely by the + munificence of John Shipward, a wealthy merchant. The tower and spire of + St John's (15th century) stand on one of the gateways of the city. This + church is a parallelogram, without east or west windows or aisles, and is + built upon a fine groined crypt. St James's church, the burial place of + its founder, Robert, earl of Gloucester, dates from 1130, and fine Norman + work remains in the nave. The tower is of the 14th century. St Philip's + has an Early English tower, but its external walls and windows are for + the most part debased Perpendicular. Robert FitzHamon's Norman tower of + St Peter, the oldest church tower in Bristol, still presents its massive + square to the eye. This church stands in Castle Street, which + commemorates the castle of Robert, earl of Gloucester, the walls of which + were 25 ft. thick at the base. Nothing remains of this foundation, but + there still exist some walls and vaults of the later stronghold, + including a fine Early English cell. Adjacent to the church is St Peter's + hospital, a picturesque gabled building of Jacobean and earlier date, + with a fine court room. St Mary le Port and St Augustine the Less are + churches of the Perpendicular era, and not the richest specimens of their + kind. St Nicholas church is modern, on a crypt of the date 1503, and + earlier. On the island south of the Floating Harbour are two of the most + interesting churches in the city. Temple church, with its leaning tower, + 5 ft. off the perpendicular, retains nothing of the Templars' period, but + is a fine building of the Decorated and Perpendicular periods. The church + of <!-- Page 580 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page580"></a>[v.04 + p.0580]</span>St Mary Redcliffe, for grandeur of proportion and + elaboration of design and finish, is the first ecclesiastical building in + Bristol, and takes high rank among the parish churches of England. It was + built for the most part in the latter part of the 14th century by William + Canyng or Canynges (<i>q.v.</i>), but the sculptured north porch is + externally Decorated, and internally Early English. The fine tower is + also Decorated, on an Early English base. The spire, Decorated in style, + is modern. Among numerous monuments is that of Admiral Penn (d. 1718), + the father of the founder of Pennsylvania. The church exhibits the rare + feature of transeptal aisles. Of St Thomas's, in the vicinity, only the + tower (15th century) remains of the old structures. All Hallows church + has a modern Italian campanile, but is in the main of the 15th century, + with the retention of four Norman piers in the nave; and is interesting + from its connexion with the ancient gild of calendars, whose office it + was "to convert Jews, instruct youths," and keep the archives of the + town. Theirs was the first free library in the city, possibly in England. + The records of the church contain a singularly picturesque representation + of the ancient customs of the fraternity.</p> + + <p>Among conventual remains, besides those already mentioned, there exist + of the Dominican priory the Early English refectory and dormitory, the + latter comprising a row of fifteen original windows and an oak roof of + the same date; and of St Bartholomew's hospital there is a double arch, + with intervening arcades, also Early English. These, with the small + chapel of the Three Kings of Cologne, Holy Trinity Hospital, both + Perpendicular, and the remains of the house of the Augustinian canons + attached to the cathedral, comprise the whole of the monastic relics.</p> + + <p>There are many good specimens of ancient domestic + architecture—notably some arches of a grand Norman hall and some + Tudor windows of Colston's house, Small Street; and Canyng's house, with + good Perpendicular oak roof. Of buildings to which historic interest + attaches, there are the Merchant Venturers' almshouses (1699), adjoining + their hall. This gild was established in the 16th century. A small house + near St Mary Redcliffe was the school where the poet Chatterton received + his education. His memorial is in the churchyard of St Mary, and in the + church a chest contains the records among which he claimed to have + discovered some of the manuscripts which were in reality his own. A house + in Wine Street was the birthplace of the poet-laureate Robert Southey + (1744).</p> + + <p><i>Public Buildings, &c.</i>—The public buildings are + somewhat overshadowed in interest by the ecclesiastical. The council + house, at the "Cross" of the four main thoroughfares, dates from 1827, + was enlarged in 1894, and contains the city archives and many portraits, + including a Van Dyck and a Kneller. The Guildhall is close by—a + modern Gothic building. The exchange (used as a corn-market) is a + noteworthy building by the famous architect of Bath, John Wood (1743). + Edward Colston, a revered citizen and benefactor of the city (d. 1721), + is commemorated by name in several buildings and institutions, notably in + Colston Hall, which is used for concerts and meetings. A bank close by St + Stephen's church claims to have originated in the first savings-bank + established in England (1812). Similarly, the city free library (1613) is + considered to be the original of its kind. The Bristol museum and + reference library were transferred to the corporation in 1893. Vincent + Stuckey Lean (d. 1899) bequeathed to the corporation of Bristol the sum + of £50,000 for the further development of the free libraries of the city, + and with especial regard to the formation and sustenance of a general + reference library of a standard and scientific character. The central + library was opened in 1906. An art gallery, presented by Sir William + Henry Wills, was opened in 1905.</p> + + <p>Among educational establishments, the technical college of the Company + of Merchant Venturers (1885) supplies scientific, technical and + commercial education. The extensive buildings of this institution were + destroyed by fire in 1906. University College (1876) forms the nucleus of + the university of Bristol (chartered 1909). Clifton College, opened in + 1862 and incorporated in 1877, includes a physical science school, with + laboratories, a museum and observatory. Colston's girls' day school + (1891) includes domestic economy and calisthenics. Among the many + charitable institutions are the general hospital, opened in 1858, and + since repeatedly enlarged; royal hospital for sick children and women, + Royal Victoria home, and the Queen Victoria jubilee convalescent + home.</p> + + <p>Of the open spaces in and near Bristol the most extensive are those + bordering the river in the neighbourhood of the gorge, Durdham and + Clifton Downs, on the Gloucestershire side (see <span + class="sc">Clifton</span>). Others are Victoria Park, south of the river, + near the Bedminster station, Eastville Park by the Frome, on the + north-east of the city beyond Stapleton Road station, St Andrew's Park + near Montpelier station to the north, and Brandon Hill, west of the + cathedral, an abrupt eminence commanding a fine view over the city, and + crowned with a modern tower commemorating the "fourth centenary of the + discovery of America by John Cabot, and sons Lewis, Sebastian and + Sanctus." Other memorials in the city are the High Cross on College Green + (1850), and statues of Queen Victoria (1888), Samuel Morley (1888), + Edmund Burke (1894), and Edward Colston (1895), in whose memory are held + annual Colston banquets.</p> + + <p><i>Harbour and Trade.</i>—Bristol harbour was formed in 1809 by + the conversion of the Avon and a branch of the Frome into "the Float," by + the cutting of a new channel for the Avon and the formation of two + basins. Altogether the water area, at fixed level, is about 85 acres. + Four dry docks open into the floating harbour. In 1884 the Avonmouth and + Portishead docks at the river entrance were bought up by the city; and + the port extends from Hanham Mills on the Avon to the mouth of the river, + and for some distance down the estuary of the Severn. The city docks have + a depth of 22 ft., while those at Avonmouth are accessible to the largest + vessels. In 1902 the construction of the extensive Royal Edward dock at + Avonmouth was put in hand by the corporation, and the dock was opened by + King Edward VII. in 1908. It is entered by a lock 875 ft. long and 100 + ft. wide, with a depth of water on the sill of 46 ft. at ordinary spring, + and 36 ft. at ordinary neap tides. The dock itself has a mean length of + 1120 ft. and a breadth of 1000 ft., and there is a branch and passage + connecting with the old dock. The water area is about 30 acres, and the + dock is so constructed as to be easily capable of extension. Portishead + dock, on the Somerset shore, has an area of 12 acres. The port has a + large trade with America, the West Indies and elsewhere, the principal + imports being grain, fruit, oils, ore, timber, hides, cattle and general + merchandise; while the exports include machinery, manufactured oils, + cotton goods, tin and salt. The Elder Dempster, Dominion and other large + steamship companies trade at the port.</p> + + <p>The principal industries are shipbuilding, ropewalks, chocolate + factories, sugar refineries, tobacco mills and pipe-making, glass works, + potteries, soaperies, shoe factories, leather works and tanneries, + chemical works, saw mills, breweries, copper, lead and shot works, iron + works, machine works, stained-paper works, anchors, chain cables, + sail-cloth, buttons. A coalfield extending 16 m. south-east to Radstock + avails much for Bristol manufactures.</p> + + <p>The parliamentary borough is divided into four divisions, each + returning one member. The government of the city is in the hands of a + lord mayor, 22 aldermen and 66 councillors. The area in 1901 was 11,705 + acres; but in 1904 it was increased to 17,004 acres.</p> + + <p><i>History.</i>—Bristol (Brigstow, Bristou, Bristow, Bristole) + is one of the best examples of a town that has owed its greatness + entirely to trade. It was never a shire town or the site of a great + religious house, and it owed little to its position as the head of a + feudal lordship, or as a military post. Though it is near both British + and Roman camps, there is no evidence of a British or Roman settlement. + It was the western limit of the Saxon invasion of Britain, and about the + year 1000 a Saxon settlement began to grow up at the junction of the + rivers Frome and Avon, the natural advantages of the situation favouring + the growth of the township. Bristol owed much to Danish rule, and during + the reign of Canute, when the wool trade with <!-- Page 581 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page581"></a>[v.04 p.0581]</span>Ireland began, + it became the market for English slaves. In the reign of Edward the + Confessor the town was included in the earldom of Sweyn Godwinsson, and + at the date of the Domesday survey it was already a royal borough + governed by a reeve appointed by the king as overlord, the king's geld + being assessed at 110 marks. There was a mint at the time of the + Conquest, which proves that Bristol must have been already a place of + some size, though the fact that the town was a member of the royal manor + of Baston shows that its importance was still of recent growth. One-third + of the geld was paid to Geoffrey de Coutances, bishop of Exeter, who + threw up the earthworks of the castle. He joined in a rebellion against + William II., and after his death the king granted the town and castle, as + part of the honour of Gloucester, to Robert FitzHamon, whose daughter + Mabel, marrying Earl Robert of Gloucester in 1119, brought him Bristol as + her dowry. Earl Robert still further strengthened the castle, probably + with masonry, and involved Bristol in the rebellion against Stephen. From + the castle he harried the whole neighbourhood, threatened Bath, and sold + his prisoners as slaves to Ireland. A contemporary chronicler describes + Bristol castle as "seated on a mighty mound, and garrisoned with knights + and foot soldiers or rather robbers and raiders," and he calls Bristol + the stepmother of England.</p> + + <p>The history of the charters granted to Bristol begins about this time. + A charter granted by Henry II. in 1172 exempted the burgesses of Bristol + from certain tolls throughout the kingdom, and confirmed existing + liberties. Another charter of the same year granted the city of Dublin to + the men of Bristol as a colony with the same liberties as their own + town.</p> + + <p>As a result probably of the close connexion between Bristol and + Ireland the growth of the wool trade was maintained. Many Bristol men + settled in Dublin, which for a long time was a Bristol beyond the seas, + its charters being almost duplicates of those granted to Bristol. About + this time Bristol began to export wool to the Baltic, and had developed a + wine trade with the south of France, while soap-making and tanning were + flourishing industries. Bristol was still organized manorially rather + than municipally. Its chief courts were the weekly hundred court and the + court leet held three times a year, and presided over by the reeve + appointed by the earl of Gloucester. By the marriage of Earl John with + the heiress of Earl William of Gloucester, Bristol became part of the + royal demesne, the rent payable to the king being fixed, and the town + shook off the feudal yoke. The charter granted by John in 1190 was an + epoch in the history of the borough. It provided that no burgess should + be impleaded without the walls, that no non-burgess should sell wine, + cloth, wool, leather or corn in Bristol, that all should hold by burgage + tenure, that corn need not be ground at the lord's mill, and that the + burgesses should have all their reasonable gilds. At some uncertain date + soon after this a commune was established in Bristol on the French model, + Robert FitzNichol, the first mayor of Bristol, taking the oath in 1200. + The mayor was chosen, not, like the reeve whom he had displaced, by the + overlord, but by the merchants of Bristol who were members of the + merchant gild. The first documentary evidence of the existence of the + merchant gild appears in 1242. In addition, there were many craft gilds + (later at least twenty-six were known to exist), the most important being + the gilds of the weavers, tuckers and fullers, and the Gild of the + Kalendars of Bristol, which devoted itself to religious, educational and + social work. The mayor of Bristol was helped by two assistants, who were + called provosts until 1267, and from 1267 to 1311 were known as stewards, + and after that date as bailiffs. Before this time many religious houses + had been founded. Earl Robert of Gloucester established the Benedictine + priory of St James; there were Dominican and Franciscan priories, a + monastery of Carmelites, and an abbey of St Augustine founded by Robert + FitzHardinge.</p> + + <p>In the reign of John, Bristol began the struggle to absorb the + neighbouring manor of Bedminster, the eastern half of which was held by + the Templars by gift of Earl Robert of Gloucester, and the western half, + known as Redcliffe, was sold by the same earl to Robert FitzHardinge, + afterwards Lord Berkeley. The Templars acquiesced without much + difficulty, but the wealthy owners of the manor of Redcliffe, who had + their own manorial courts, market, fair and quay, resisted the union for + nearly one hundred years. In 1247 a new course was cut for the river + Frome which vastly improved the harbour, and in the same year a stone + bridge was built over the Avon, bringing Temple and Redcliffe into closer + touch with the city. The charter granted by Henry III. in 1256 was + important. It gave the burgesses the right to choose coroners, and as + they already farmed the geld payable to the king, Bristol must have been + practically independent of the king. The growing exclusiveness of the + merchant gild led to the great insurrection of 1312. The oligarchical + party was supported by the Berkeleys, but the opposition continued their + rebellion until 1313, when the town was besieged and taken by the royal + forces. During the reign of Edward III. cloth manufacture developed in + Bristol. Thomas Blanket set up looms in 1337, employing many foreign + workmen, and in 1353 Bristol was made one of the Staple towns, the office + of mayor of the staple being held by the mayor of the town.</p> + + <p>The charter of 1373 extended the boundaries of the town to include + Redcliffe (thus settling the long-standing dispute) and the waters of the + Avon and Severn up to the Steep and Flat Holmes; and made Bristol a + county in itself, independent of the county courts, with an elected + sheriff, and a council of forty to be chosen by the mayor and sheriff. + The town was divided into five wards, each represented by an alderman, + the aldermen alone being eligible for the mayoralty. This charter + (confirmed in 1377 and 1488) was followed by the period of Bristol's + greatest prosperity, the era of William Canyng, of the foundation of the + Society of Merchant Venturers, and of the voyages of John and Sebastian + Cabot. William Canyng (1399-1474) was five times mayor and twice + represented Bristol in parliament; he carried on a huge cloth trade with + the Baltic and rebuilt St Mary Redcliffe. At the same time cloth was + exported by Bristol merchants to France, Spain and the Levant. The + records of the Society of Merchant Venturers began in 1467, and the + society increased in influence so rapidly that in 1500 it directed all + the foreign trade of the city and had a lease of the port dues. It was + incorporated in 1552, and received other charters in 1638 and 1662. Henry + VII. granted Bristol a charter in 1499 (confirmed in 1510) which removed + the theoretically popular basis of the corporation by the provision that + the aldermen were to be elected by the mayor and council. At the + dissolution of the monasteries the diocese of Bristol was founded, which + included the counties of Bristol and Dorset. The voyages of discovery in + which Bristol had played a conspicuous part led to a further trade + development. In the 16th century Bristol traded with Spain, the Canaries + and the Spanish colonies in America, shared in the attempt to colonize + Newfoundland, and began the trade in African slaves which flourished + during the 17th century. Bristol took a great share in the Civil War and + was three times besieged. Charles II. granted a formal charter of + incorporation in 1664, the governing body being the mayor, 12 aldermen, + 30 common councilmen, 2 sheriffs, 2 coroners, a town clerk, clerk of the + peace and 39 minor officials, the governing body itself filling up all + vacancies in its number. In the 18th century the cloth trade declined + owing to the competition of Ireland and to the general migration of + manufactures to the northern coalfields, but the prosperity of the city + was maintained by the introduction of manufactures of iron, brass, tin + and copper, and by the flourishing West Indian trade, sugar being taken + in exchange for African slaves.</p> + + <p>The hot wells became fashionable in the reign of Anne (who granted a + charter in 1710), and a little later Bristol was the centre of the + Methodist revival of Whitefield and Wesley. The city was small, densely + populated and dirty, with dark, narrow streets, and the mob gained an + unenviable notoriety for violence in the riots of 1708, 1753, 1767 and + 1831. At the beginning of the 19th century it was obvious that the + prosperity of Bristol was diminishing, comparatively if not actually, + owing to (1) the rise of Liverpool, which had more natural facilities as + a port than Bristol could offer, (2) the abolition of the slave trade, + <!-- Page 582 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page582"></a>[v.04 + p.0582]</span>which ruined the West Indian sugar trade, and (3) the + extortionate rates levied by the Bristol Dock Company, incorporated in + 1803. These rates made competition with Liverpool and London impossible, + while other tolls were levied by the Merchant Venturers and the + corporation. The decline was checked by the efforts of the Bristol + chamber of commerce (founded in 1823) and by the Municipal Reform Act of + 1835. The new corporation, consisting of 48 councillors and 16 aldermen + who elected the mayor, being themselves chosen by the burgesses of each + ward, bought the docks in 1848 and reduced the fees. In 1877-1880 the + docks at the mouth of the river at Avonmouth and Portishead were made, + and these were bought by the corporation in 1884. A revival of trade, + rapid increase of population and enlargement of the boundaries of the + city followed. The chief magistrate became a lord mayor in 1899.</p> + + <p>See J. Corry, <i>History of Bristol</i> (Bristol, 1816); J. Wallaway, + <i>Antiquities</i> (1834); J. Evans, <i>Chronological History of + Bristol</i> (1824); Bristol vol. of <i>Brit. Archaeol. Inst.</i>; J.F. + Nicholl and J. Taylor, <i>Bristol Past and Present</i> (Bristol and + London, 1882); W. Hunt, <i>Bristol</i>, in "Historic Towns" series + (London, 1887); J. Latimer, <i>Annals of Bristol</i> (various periods); + G.E. Weare, <i>Collectanea relating to the Bristol Friars</i> (Bristol, + 1893); Samuel Seyer, <i>History of Bristol and Bristol Charters</i> + (1812); <i>The Little Red Book of Bristol</i> (1900); <i>The Maior's + Kalendar</i> (Camden Soc., 1872); <i>Victoria County History, + Gloucester</i>.</p> + + <p><b>BRISTOL,</b> a borough of Bucks county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on + the Delaware river, opposite Burlington, New Jersey, 20 m. N.E. of + Philadelphia. Pop. (1890) 6553; (1900) 7104 (1134 foreign-born); (1910) + 9256. It is served by the Pennsylvania railway. The borough is built on + level ground elevated several feet above the river, and in the midst of + an attractive farming country. The principal business houses are on Mill + Street; while Radcliffe Street extends along the river. Among Bristol's + manufacturing establishments are machine shops, rolling mills, a planing + mill, yarn, hosiery and worsted mills, and factories for making carpets, + wall paper and patent leather. Bath Springs are located just outside the + borough limits; though not so famous as they were early in the 18th + century, these springs are still well known for the medicinal properties + of their chalybeate waters. Bristol was one of the first places to be + settled in Pennsylvania after William Penn received his charter for the + province in 1681, and from its settlement until 1725 it was the seat of + government of the county. It was laid out in 1697 and was incorporated as + a borough in 1720; the present charter, however, dates only from + 1851.</p> + + <p><b>BRISTOL,</b> the shire-township of Bristol county, Rhode Island, + U.S.A., about 15 m. S.S.E. of Providence, between Narragansett Bay on the + W. and Mount Hope Bay on the E., thus being a peninsula. Pop. (1900) + 6901, of whom 1923 were foreign-born; (1905; state census) 7512; (1910) + 8565; area 12 sq. m. It is served by the New York, New Haven & + Hartford, and the Rhode Island Suburban railways, and is connected with + the island of Rhode Island by ferry. Mount Hope (216 ft.), on the eastern + side, commands delightful views of landscape, bay and river scenery. + Elsewhere in the township the surface is gently undulating and generally + well adapted to agriculture, especially to the growing of onions. A small + island, Hog Island, is included in the township. The principal village, + also known as Bristol, is a port of entry with a capacious and deep + harbour, has manufactories of rubber and woollen goods, and is well known + as a yacht-building centre, several defenders of the America's Cup, + including the "Columbia" and the "Reliance," having been built in the + Herreshoff yards here. At the close of King Philip's War in 1676, Mount + Hope Neck (which had been the seat of the vanquished sachem), with most + of what is now the township of Bristol, was awarded to Plymouth Colony. + In 1680, immediately after Plymouth had conveyed the "Neck" to a company + of four, the village was laid out; the following year, in anticipation of + future commercial importance, the township and the village were named + Bristol, from the town in England. The township became the shire-township + in 1685, passed under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts in 1692, and in + 1747 was annexed to Rhode Island. During the War of Independence the + village was bombarded by the British on the 7th of October 1775, but + suffered little damage; on the 25th of May 1778 it was visited and + partially destroyed by a British force.</p> + + <p><b>BRISTOL,</b> a city of Sullivan county, Tennessee, and Washington + county, Virginia, U.S.A., 130 m. N.E. of Knoxville, Tennessee, at an + altitude of about 1700 ft. Pop. (1880) 3209; (1890) 6226; (1900) 9850 + (including 1981 negroes); (1910) 13,395, of whom 7148 were in Tennessee + and 6247 were in Virginia. Bristol is served by the Holston Valley, the + Southern, the Virginia & South-Western, and the Norfolk & Western + railways, and is a railway centre of some importance. It is near the + great mineral deposits of Virginia, Tennessee, West Virginia, Kentucky + and North Carolina; an important distributing point for iron, coal and + coke; and has tanneries and lumber mills, iron furnaces, tobacco + factories, furniture factories and packing houses. It is the seat of + Sullins College (Methodist Episcopal, South; 1870) for women, and of the + Virginia Institute for Women (Baptist, 1884), both in the state of + Virginia, and of a normal college for negroes, on the Tennessee side of + the state line. The Tennessee-Virginia boundary line runs through the + principal street, dividing the place into two separate corporations, the + Virginia part, which before 1890 (when it was chartered as a city) was + known as Goodson, being administratively independent of the county in + which it is situated. Bristol was settled about 1835, and the town of + Bristol, Tennessee, was first incorporated in 1856.</p> + + <p><b>BRISTOW, BENJAMIN HELM</b> (1832-1896), American lawyer and + politician, was born in Elkton, Kentucky, on the 20th of June 1832, the + son of Francis Marion Bristow (1804-1864), a Whig member of Congress in + 1854-1855 and 1859-1861. He graduated at Jefferson College, Canonsburg, + Pennsylvania, in 1851, studied law under his father, and was admitted to + the Kentucky bar in 1853. At the beginning of the Civil War he became + lieutenant-colonel of the 25th Kentucky Infantry; was severely wounded at + Shiloh; helped to recruit the 8th Kentucky Cavalry, of which he was + lieutenant-colonel and later colonel; and assisted at the capture of John + H. Morgan in July 1863. In 1863-1865 he was state senator; in 1865-1866 + assistant United States district-attorney, and in 1866-1870 + district-attorney for the Louisville district; and in 1870-1872, after a + few months' practice of law with John M. Harlan, was the (first + appointed) solicitor-general of the United States. In 1873 President + Grant nominated him attorney-general of the United States in case George + H. Williams were confirmed as chief justice of the United States,—a + contingency which did not arise. As secretary of the treasury (1874-1876) + he prosecuted with vigour the so-called "Whisky Ring," the headquarters + of which was at St Louis, and which, beginning in 1870 or 1871, had + defrauded the Federal government out of a large part of its rightful + revenue from the distillation of whisky. Distillers and revenue officers + in St Louis, Milwaukee, Cincinnati and other cities were implicated, and + the illicit gains—which in St Louis alone probably amounted to more + than $2,500,000 in the six years 1870-1876—were divided between the + distillers and the revenue officers, who levied assessments on distillers + ostensibly for a Republican campaign fund to be used in furthering + Grant's re-election. Prominent among the ring's alleged accomplices at + Washington was Orville E. Babcock, private secretary to President Grant, + whose personal friendship for Babcock led him to indiscreet interference + in the prosecution. Through Bristow's efforts more than 200 men were + indicted, a number of whom were convicted, but after some months' + imprisonment were pardoned. Largely owing to friction between himself and + the president, Bristow resigned his portfolio in June 1876; as secretary + of the treasury he advocated the resumption of specie payments and at + least a partial retirement of "greenbacks"; and he was also an advocate + of civil service reform. He was a prominent candidate for the Republican + presidential nomination in 1876. After 1878 he practised law in New York + City, where he died on the 22nd of June 1896.</p> + + <p>See <i>Memorial of Benjamin Helm Bristow</i>, largely prepared by + David Willcox (Cambridge, Mass., privately printed, 1897); <i>Whiskey + Frauds</i>, 44th Cong., 1st Sess., Mis. Doc. No. 186; <i>Secrets of the + Great Whiskey Ring</i> (Chicago, 1880), by John McDonald, who for nearly + six years had been supervisor of internal revenue at St Louis,—a + book by one concerned and to be considered in that light.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 583 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page583"></a>[v.04 p.0583]</span></p> + + <p><b>BRISTOW, HENRY WILLIAM</b> (1817-1889), English geologist, son of + Major-General H. Bristow, who served in the Peninsular War, was born on + the 17th of May 1817. He was educated at King's College, London, under + John Phillips, then professor of geology. In 1842 he was appointed + assistant geologist on the Geological Survey, and in that service he + remained for forty-six years, becoming director for England and Wales in + 1872, and retiring in 1888. He was elected F.R.S. in 1862. He died in + London on the 14th of June 1889. His publications (see <i>Geol. Mag.</i>, + 1889, p. 384) include <i>A Glossary of Mineralogy</i> (1861) and <i>The + Geology of the Isle of Wight</i> (1862).</p> + + <p><b>BRITAIN</b> (Gr. <span title="Pretanikai nêsoi, Brettania" class="grk" + >Πρετανικαὶ + νῆσοι, + Βρεττανία</span>; Lat. + <i>Britannia</i>, rarely <i>Brittania</i>), the anglicized form of the + classical name of England, Wales and Scotland, sometimes extended to the + British Isles as a whole (<i>Britannicae Insulae</i>). The Greek and + Roman forms are doubtless attempts to reproduce a Celtic original, the + exact form of which is still matter of dispute. Brittany (Fr. + <i>Bretagne</i>) in western France derived its name from Britain owing to + migrations in the 5th and 6th century <span class="scac">A.D.</span> The + personification of Britannia as a female figure may be traced back as far + as the coins of Hadrian and Antoninus Pius (early 2nd century <span + class="scac">A.D.</span>); its first appearance on modern coins is on the + copper of Charles II. (see <span class="sc">Numismatics</span>).</p> + + <p>In what follows, the archaeological interest of early Britain is dealt + with, in connexion with the history of Britain in Pre-Roman, Roman, and + Anglo-Saxon days; this account being supplementary to the articles <span + class="sc">England; English History; Scotland</span>, &c.</p> + +<h4><span class="sc">Pre-Roman Britain</span></h4> + + <p>Geologists are not yet agreed when and by whom Britain was first + peopled. Probably the island was invaded by a succession of races. The + first, the Paleolithic men, may have died out or retired before + successors arrived. During the Neolithic and Bronze Ages we can dimly + trace further immigrations. Real knowledge begins with two Celtic + invasions, that of the Goidels in the later part of the Bronze Age, and + that of the Brythons and Belgae in the Iron Age. These invaders brought + Celtic civilization and dialects. It is uncertain how far they were + themselves Celtic in blood and how far they were numerous enough to + absorb or obliterate the races which they found in Britain. But it is not + unreasonable to think that they were no mere conquering caste, and that + they were of the same race as the Celtic-speaking peoples of the western + continent. By the age of Julius Caesar all the inhabitants of Britain, + except perhaps some tribes of the far north, were Celts in speech and + customs. Politically they were divided into separate and generally + warring tribes, each under its own princes. They dwelt in hill forts with + walls of earth or rude stone, or in villages of round huts sunk into the + ground and resembling those found in parts of northern Gaul, or in + subterranean chambered houses, or in hamlets of pile-dwellings + constructed among the marshes. But, at least in the south, market centres + had sprung up, town life was beginning, houses of a better type were + perhaps coming into use, and the southern tribes employed a gold coinage + and also a currency of iron bars or ingots, attested by Caesar and by + surviving examples, which weigh roughly, some two-thirds of a pound, some + 2⅔ lb, but mostly 1⅓ lb. In religion, the chief feature was + the priesthood of Druids, who here, as in Gaul, practised magical arts + and barbarous rites of human sacrifice, taught a secret lore, wielded + great influence, but, at least as Druids, took ordinarily no part in + politics. In art, these tribes possessed a native Late Celtic fashion, + descended from far-off Mediterranean antecedents and more directly + connected with the La-Tène culture of the continental Celts. Its + characteristics were a flamboyant and fantastic treatment of plant and + animal (though not of human) forms, a free use of the geometrical device + called the "returning spiral," and much skill in enamelling. Its finest + products were in bronze, but the artistic impulse spread to humbler work + in wood and pottery. The late Celtic age was one which genuinely + delighted in beauty of form and detail. In this it resembled the middle + ages rather than the Roman empire or the present day, and it resembled + them all the more in that its love of beauty, like theirs, was mixed with + a feeling for the fantastic and the grotesque. The Roman conquest of + northern Gaul (57-50 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>) brought Britain into + definite relation with the Mediterranean. It was already closely + connected with Gaul, and when Roman civilization and its products invaded + Gallia Belgica, they passed on easily to Britain. The British coinage now + begins to bear Roman legends, and after Caesar's two raids (55, 54 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>) the southern tribes were regarded at Rome, + though they do not seem to have regarded themselves, as vassals. Actual + conquest was, however, delayed. Augustus planned it. But both he and his + successor Tiberius realized that the greater need was to consolidate the + existing empire, and absorb the vast additions recently made to it by + Pompey, Caesar and Augustus.</p> + +<h4><span class="sc">Roman Britain</span></h4> + + <p>I. <i>The Roman Conquest.</i>—The conquest of Britain was + undertaken by Claudius in <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 43. Two causes + coincided to produce the step. On the one hand a forward policy then + ruled at Rome, leading to annexations in various lands. On the other + hand, a probably philo-Roman prince, Cunobelin (known to literature as + Cymbeline), had just been succeeded by two sons, Caractacus (<i>q.v.</i>) + and Togodumnus, who were hostile to Rome. Caligula, the half-insane + predecessor of Claudius, had made in respect to this event some blunder + which we know only through a sensational exaggeration, but which + doubtless had to be made good. An immediate reason for action was the + appeal of a fugitive British prince, presumably a Roman partisan and + victim of Cunobelin's sons. So Aulus Plautius with a singularly well + equipped army of some 40,000 men landed in Kent and advanced on London. + Here Claudius himself appeared—the one reigning emperor of the 1st + century who crossed the waves of ocean,—and the army, crossing the + Thames, moved forward through Essex and captured the native capital, + Camulodūnum, now Colchester. From the base of London and Colchester + three corps continued the conquest. The left wing, the Second Legion + (under Vespasian, afterwards emperor), subdued the south; the centre, the + Fourteenth and Twentieth Legions, subdued the midlands, while the right + wing, the Ninth Legion, advanced through the eastern part of the island. + This strategy was at first triumphant. The lowlands of Britain, with + their partly Romanized and partly scanty population and their easy + physical features, presented no obstacle. Within three or four years + everything south of the Humber and east of the Severn had been either + directly annexed or entrusted, as protectorates, to native + client-princes.</p> + + <p>A more difficult task remained. The wild hills and wilder tribes of + Wales and Yorkshire offered far fiercer resistance. There followed thirty + years of intermittent hill fighting (<span class="scac">A.D.</span> + 47-79). The precise steps of the conquest are not known. Legionary + fortresses were established at Wroxeter (for a time only), Chester and + Caerleon, facing the Welsh hills, and at Lincoln in the northeast. + Monmouthshire, and Flintshire with its lead mines, were early overrun; in + 60 Suetonius Paulinus reached Anglesea. The method of conquest was the + establishment of small detached forts in strategic positions, each + garrisoned by 500 or 1000 men, and it was accompanied by a full share of + those disasters which vigorous barbarians always inflict on civilized + invaders. Progress was delayed too by the great revolt of Boadicea + (<i>q.v.</i>) and a large part of the nominally conquered Lowlands. Her + rising was soon crushed, but the government was obviously afraid for a + while to move its garrisons forward. Indeed, other needs of the empire + caused the withdrawal of the Fourteenth Legion about 67. But the decade + <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 70-80 was decisive. A series of three able + generals commanded an army restored to its proper strength by the + addition of Legio II. Adiutrix, and achieved the final subjugation of + Wales and the first conquest of Yorkshire, where a legionary fortress at + York was substituted for that at Lincoln.</p> + + <p>The third and best-known, if not the ablest, of these generals, Julius + Agricola, moved on in <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 80 to the conquest + of the farther north. He established between the Clyde and Forth a + frontier meant to be permanent, guarded by a line of forts, <!-- Page 584 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page584"></a>[v.04 p.0584]</span>two of + which are still traceable at Camelon near Falkirk, and at Bar Hill. He + then advanced into Caledonia and won a "famous victory" at Mons Graupius + (sometimes, but incorrectly, spelt Grampius), probably near the + confluence of the Tay and the Isla, where a Roman encampment of his date, + Inchtuthill, has been partly examined (see <span + class="sc">Galgacus</span>). He dreamt even of invading Ireland, and + thought it an easy task. The home government judged otherwise. Jealous + possibly of a too brilliant general, certainly averse from costly and + fruitless campaigns and needing the Legio II. Adiutrix for work + elsewhere, it recalled both governor and legion, and gave up the more + northerly of his nominal conquests. The most solid result of his + campaigns is that his battlefield, misspelt Grampius, has provided to + antiquaries, and through them to the world, the modern name of the + Grampian Hills.</p> + + <p>What frontier was adopted after Agricola's departure, whether Tweed or + Cheviot or other, is unknown. For thirty years (<span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 85-115) the military history of Britain is a + blank. When we recover knowledge we are in an altered world. About 115 or + 120 the northern Britons rose in revolt and destroyed the Ninth Legion, + posted at York, which would bear the brunt of any northern trouble. In + 122 the second reigning emperor who crossed the ocean, Hadrian, came + himself to Britain, brought the Sixth Legion to replace the Ninth, and + introduced the frontier policy of his age. For over 70 m. from Tyne to + Solway, more exactly from Wallsend to Bowness, he built a continuous + rampart, more probably of turf than of stone, with a ditch in front of + it, a number of small forts along it, one or two outposts a few miles to + the north of it, and some detached forts (the best-known is on the hill + above Maryport) guarding the Cumberland coast beyond its western end. The + details of his work are imperfectly known, for though many remains + survive, it is hard to separate those of Hadrian's date from others that + are later. But that Hadrian built a wall here is proved alike by + literature and by inscriptions. The meaning of the scheme is equally + certain. It was to be, as it were, a Chinese wall, marking the definite + limit of the Roman world. It was now declared, not by the secret + resolutions of cabinets, but by the work of the spade marking the solid + earth for ever, that the era of conquest was ended.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:66%;"> + <a href="images/zbritain_roman.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/britain_roman.png" + alt="Roman Britain." title="Roman Britain." /></a> + </div> + <p>But empires move, though rulers bid them stand still. Whether the land + beyond Hadrian's wall became temptingly peaceful or remained in vexing + disorder, our authorities do not say. We know only that about 142 + Hadrian's successor, Antoninus Pius, acting through his general Lollius + Urbicus, advanced from the Tyne and Solway frontier to the narrower + isthmus between Forth and Clyde, 36 m. across, which Agricola had + fortified before him. Here he reared a continuous rampart with a ditch in + front of it, fair-sized forts, probably a dozen in number, built either + close behind it or actually abutting on it, and a connecting road running + from end to end. An ancient writer states that the rampart was built of + regularly laid sods (the same method which had probably been employed by + Hadrian), and excavations in 1891-1893 have verified the statement. The + work still survives visibly, though in varying preservation, except in + the agricultural districts near its two ends. Occasionally, as on + Croyhill (near Kilsyth), at Westerwood, and in the covers of Bonnyside (3 + m. west of Falkirk), wall and ditch and even road can be distinctly + traced, and the sites of many of the forts are plain to practised eyes. + Three of these forts have been excavated. All three show the ordinary + features of Roman <i>castella</i>, though they differ more than one would + expect in forts built at one time by one general. Bar Hill, the most + completely explored, covers three acres—nearly five times as much + as the earlier fort of Agricola on the same site. It had ramparts of + turf, barrack-rooms of wood, and a headquarters building, storehouse and + bath in stone: it stands a few yards back from the wall. Castle Cary + covers nearly four acres: its ramparts contain massive and well-dressed + masonry; its interior buildings, though they agree in material, do not + altogether agree in plan with those of Bar Hill, and its north face falls + in line with the frontier wall. Rough Castle, near Falkirk, is very much + smaller; it is remarkable for the astonishing strength of its turf-built + and earthen ramparts and ravelins, and for a remarkable series of + defensive pits, reminiscent of Caesar's <i>lilia</i> at Alesia, plainly + intended to break an enemy's charge, and either provided with stakes to + impale the assailant or covered over with hurdles or the like to deceive + him. Besides the dozen forts on the wall, one or two outposts may have + been held at Ardoch and Abernethy along the natural route which runs by + Stirling and Perth to the lowlands of the east coast. This frontier was + reached from the south by two roads. One, known in medieval times as Dere + Street and misnamed Watling Street by modern antiquaries, ran from + Corbridge on the Tyne past Otterburn, crossed Cheviot near Makendon + Camps, and passed by an important fort at Newstead near Melrose, and + another at Inveresk (outside of Edinburgh), to the eastern end of the + wall. The other, starting from Carlisle, ran to Birrens, a Roman fort + near Ecclefechan, and thence, by a line not yet explored and indeed not + at all certain, to Carstairs and the west end of the wall. This wall was + in addition to, and not instead of, the wall of Hadrian. Both barriers + were held together, and the district between them was regarded as a + military area, outside the range of civilization.</p> + + <p>The work of Pius brought no long peace. Sixteen years later disorder + broke out in north Britain, apparently in the district between the + Cheviots and the Derbyshire hills, and was repressed with difficulty + after four or five years' fighting. Eighteen or twenty years later + (180-185) a new war broke out with a different issue. The Romans lost + everything beyond Cheviot, and perhaps even more. The government of + Commodus, feeble in itself and vexed by many troubles, could not repair + the loss, and the civil wars which soon raged in Europe (193-197) gave + the Caledonians further chance. It was not till 208 that Septimius + Severus, the ablest emperor of his age, could turn his attention to the + island. He came thither in person, invaded Caledonia, commenced the + reconstruction of the wall of Hadrian, rebuilding it from end to end in + stone, and then in the fourth year of his operations died at York. Amid + much that is uncertain and even legendary about his work in Britain, this + is plain, that he fixed on the line of Hadrian's wall as his substantive + frontier. His successors, Caracalla and Severus Alexander (211-235), + accepted the position, and many inscriptions refer to building or + rebuilding executed by them for the greater efficiency of the frontier + defences. The conquest of Britain was at last over. The wall of Hadrian + remained for nearly two hundred years more the northern limit of Roman + power in the extreme west.</p> + + <p>II. <i>The Province of Britain and its Military + System.</i>—Geographically, Britain consists of two parts: (1) the + comparatively flat lowlands of the south, east and midlands, suitable to + agriculture and open to easy intercourse with the continent, i.e. with + the rest of the Roman empire; (2) the district consisting of the hills of + Devon and Cornwall, of Wales and of northern England, regions lying more, + and often very much more, than 600 ft. above the sea, scarred with gorges + and deep valleys, mountainous in character, difficult for armies to + traverse, ill fitted to the peaceful pursuits in agriculture. These two + parts of the province differ also in their history. The lowlands, as we + have seen, were conquered easily and quickly. The uplands were hardly + subdued completely till the end of the 2nd century. They differ, thirdly, + in the character of their Roman occupation. The lowlands were the scene + of civil life. Towns, villages and country houses were their prominent + features; troops were hardly seen in them save in some fortresses on the + edge of the hills and in a chain of forts built in the 4th century to + defend the south-east coast, the so-called Saxon Shore. The uplands of + Wales and the north presented another spectacle. Here civil life was + almost wholly absent. No country town or country house has been found + more than 20 m. north of York or west of Monmouthshire. The hills were + one extensive military frontier, covered with forts and strategic roads + connecting them, and devoid of town life, country houses, farms or + peaceful civilized industry. This geographical division was not + reproduced by Rome in any administrative partitions of the province. At + first the whole was governed by one <i>legatus Augusti</i> of consular + standing. <!-- Page 585 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page585"></a>[v.04 p.0585]</span>Septimius Severus made it two + provinces, Superior and Inferior, with a boundary which probably ran from + Humber to Mersey, but we do not know how long this arrangement lasted. In + the 5th century there were five provinces, Britannia Prima and Secunda, + Flavia and Maxima Caesariensis and (for a while) Valentia, ruled by + <i>praesides</i> and <i>consulares</i> under a <i>vicartus</i>, but the + only thing known of them is that Britannia Prima included + Cirencester.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:50%;"> + <a href="images/britain_1.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/britain_1.png" + alt="Fig 1.--Plan of Housesteads." title="Fig 1.--Plan of Housesteads." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.—Plan of Housesteads (Borcovicium) + on Hadrian's Wall. + </div> + <p>The army which guarded or coerced the province consisted, from the + time of Hadrian onwards, of (1) three legions, the Second at Isca Silurum + (Caerleon-on-Usk, <i>q.v.</i>), the Ninth at Eburācum (<i>q.v.</i>; + now York), the Twentieth at Deva (<i>q.v.</i>; now Chester), a total of + some 15,000 heavy infantry; and (2) a large but uncertain number of + auxiliaries, troops of the second grade, organized in infantry cohorts or + cavalry <i>alae</i>, each 500 or 1000 strong, and posted in + <i>castella</i> nearer the frontiers than the legions. The legionary + fortresses were large rectangular enclosures of 50 or 60 acres, + surrounded by strong walls of which traces can still be seen in the lower + courses of the north and east town-walls of Chester, in the abbey gardens + at York, and on the south side of Caerleon. The auxiliary <i>castella</i> + were hardly a tenth of the size, varying generally from three to six + acres according to the size of the regiment and the need for stabling. Of + these upwards of 70 are known in England and some 20 more in Scotland. Of + the English examples a few have been carefully excavated, notably + Gellygaer between Cardiff and Brecon, one of the most perfect specimens + to be found anywhere in the Roman empire of a Roman fort dating from the + end of the 1st century <span class="scac">A.D.</span>; Hardknott, on a + Cumberland moor overhanging Upper Eskdale; and Housesteads on Hadrian's + wall. In Scotland excavation has been more active, in particular at the + forts of Birrens, Newstead near Melrose, Lyne near Peebles, Ardoch + between Stirling and Perth, and Castle Cary, Rough Castle and Bar Hill on + the wall of Pius. The internal arrangements of all these forts follow one + general plan. But in some of them the internal buildings are all of + stone, while in others, principally (it seems) forts built before 150, + wood is used freely and only the few principal buildings seem to have + been constructed throughout of stone.</p> + + <p>We may illustrate their character from Housesteads, which, in the form + in which we know it, perhaps dates from Septimius Severus. This fort + measures about 360 by 600 ft. and covers a trifle less than 5 acres. Its + ramparts are of stone, and its north rampart coincides with the great + wall of Hadrian. Its interior is filled with stone buildings. Chief among + these (see fig. 1), and in the centre of the whole fort, is the + Headquarters, in Lat. <i>Principia</i> or, as it is often (though perhaps + less correctly) styled by moderns, <i>Praetorium</i>. This is a + rectangular structure with only one entrance which gives access, first, + to a small cloistered court (x. 4), then to a second open court (x. 7), + and finally to a row of five rooms (x. 8-12) containing the shrine for + official worship, the treasury and other offices. Close by were officers' + quarters, generally built round a tiny cloistered court (ix., xi., xii.), + and substantially built storehouses with buttresses and dry basements + (viii.). These filled the middle third of the fort. At the two ends were + barracks for the soldiers (i.-vi., xiii.-xviii.). No space was allotted + to private religion or domestic life. The shrines which voluntary + worshippers might visit, the public bath-house, and the cottages of the + soldiers' wives, camp followers, &c., lay outside the walls. Such + were nearly all the Roman forts in Britain. They differ somewhat from + Roman forts in Germany or other provinces, though most of the differences + arise from the different usage of wood and of stone in various + places.</p> + + <p>Forts of this kind were dotted all along the military roads of the + Welsh and northern hill-districts. In Wales a road ran from Chester past + a fort at Caer-hyn (near Conway) to a fort at Carnarvon (Segontium). A + similar road ran along the south coast from Caerleon-on-Usk past a fort + at Cardiff and perhaps others, to Carmarthen. A third, roughly parallel + to the shore of Cardigan Bay, with forts at Llanio and Tommen-y-mur (near + Festiniog), connected the northern and southern roads, while <!-- Page + 586 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page586"></a>[v.04 + p.0586]</span>the interior was held by a system of roads and forts not + yet well understood but discernible at such points as Caer-gai on Bala + Lake, Castle Collen near Llandrindod Wells, the Gaer near Brecon, Merthyr + and Gellygaer. In the north of Britain we find three principal roads. One + led due north from York past forts at Catterick Bridge, Piers Bridge, + Binchester, Lanchester, Ebchester to the wall and to Scotland, while + branches through Chester-le-Street reached the Tyne Bridge (Pons Aelius) + at Newcastle and the Tyne mouth at South Shields. A second road, turning + north-west from Catterick Bridge, mounted the Pennine Chain by way of + forts at Rokeby, Bowes and Brough-under-Stainmoor, descended into the + Eden valley, reached Hadrian's wall near Carlisle (Luguvallium), and + passed on to Birrens. The third route, starting from Chester and passing + up the western coast, is more complex, and exists in duplicate, the + result perhaps of two different schemes of road-making. Forts in plenty + can be detected along it, notably Manchester (Mancunium or Mamucium), + Ribchester (Bremetennacum), Brougham Castle (Brocavum), Old Penrith + (Voreda), and on a western branch, Watercrook near Kendal, Waterhead near + the hotel of that name on Ambleside, Hardknott above Eskdale, Maryport + (Uxellodūnum), and Old Carlisle (possibly Petriana). In addition, + two or three cross roads, not yet sufficiently explored, maintained + communication between the troops in Yorkshire and those in Cheshire and + Lancashire. This road system bears plain marks of having been made at + different times, and with different objectives, but we have no evidence + that any one part was abandoned when any other was built. There are + signs, however, that various forts were dismantled as the country grew + quieter. Thus, Gellygaer in South Wales and Hardknott in Cumberland have + yielded nothing later than the opening of the 2nd century.</p> + + <div class="figleft" style="width:50%;"> + <a href="images/britain_2.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/britain_2.png" + alt="Fig 2.--Hadrian's Wall." title="Fig 2.--Hadrian's Wall." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.—Hadrian's Wall. + + <p class="poem">From <i>Social England</i>, by permission of Cassell + & Co., Ltd.</p> + </div> + <p>Besides these detached forts and their connecting roads, the north of + Britain was defended by Hadrian's wall (figs. 2 and 3). The history of + this wall has been given above. The actual works are threefold. First, + there is that which to-day forms the most striking feature in the whole, + the wall of stone 6-8 ft. thick, and originally perhaps 14 ft. high, with + a deep ditch in front, and forts and "mile castles" and turrets and a + connecting road behind it. On the high moors between Chollerford and + Gilsland its traces are still plain, as it climbs from hill to hill and + winds along perilous precipices. Secondly, there is the so-called + "Vallum," in reality no <i>vallum</i> at all, but a broad flat-bottomed + ditch out of which the earth has been cast up on either side into regular + and continuous mounds that resemble ramparts. Thirdly, nowhere very clear + on the surface and as yet detected only at a few points, there are the + remains of the "turf wall," constructed of sods laid in regular courses, + with a ditch in front. This turf wall is certainly older than the stone + wall, and, as our ancient writers mention two wall-builders, Hadrian and + Septimius Severus, the natural inference is that Hadrian built his wall + of turf and Severus reconstructed it in stone. The reconstruction + probably followed in general the line of Hadrian's wall in order to + utilize the existing ditch, and this explains why the turf wall itself + survives only at special points. In general it was destroyed to make way + for the new wall in stone. Occasionally (as at Birdoswald) there was a + deviation, and the older work survived. This conversion of earthwork into + stone in the age of Severus can be paralleled from other parts of the + Roman empire.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:50%;"> + <a href="images/britain_3.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/britain_3.png" + alt="Fig 3.--Section of Hadrian's Wall." title="Fig 3.--Section of Hadrian's Wall." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.—Section of Hadrian's Wall. + </div> + <p>The meaning of the <i>vallum</i> is much more doubtful. John Hodgson + and Bruce, the local authorities of the 19th century, supposed that it + was erected to defend the wall from southern insurgents. Others have + ascribed it to Agricola, or have thought it to be the wall of Hadrian, or + even assigned it to pre-Roman natives. The two facts that are clear about + it are, that it is a Roman work, no older than Hadrian (if so old), and + that it was not intended, like the wall, for military defence. Probably + it is contemporaneous with either the turf wall or the stone wall, and + marked some limit of the civil province of Britain. Beyond this we cannot + at present go.</p> + + <p>III. <i>The Civilization of Roman Britain.</i>—Behind these + formidable garrisons, sheltered from barbarians and in easy contact with + the Roman empire, stretched the lowlands of southern and eastern Britain. + Here a civilized life grew up, and Roman culture spread. This part of + Britain became Romanized. In the lands looking on to the Thames estuary + (Kent, Essex, Middlesex) the process had perhaps begun before the Roman + conquest. It was continued after that event, and in two ways. To some + extent it was definitely encouraged by the Roman government, which here, + as elsewhere, founded towns peopled with Roman citizens—generally + discharged legionaries—and endowed them with franchise and + constitution like those of the Italian municipalities. It developed still + more by its own automatic growth. The coherent civilization of the Romans + was accepted by the Britons, as it was by the Gauls, with something like + enthusiasm. Encouraged perhaps by sympathetic Romans, spurred on still + more by their own instincts, and led no doubt by their nobles, they began + to speak Latin, to use the material resources of Roman civilized life, + and in time to consider themselves not the unwilling subjects of a + foreign empire, but the British members of the Roman state. The steps by + which these results were reached can to some extent be dated. Within a + few years of the Claudian invasion a <i>colonia</i>, or municipality of + time-expired soldiers, had been planted in the old native capital of + Colchester (Camulodūnum), and though it served at first mainly as a + fortress and thus provoked British hatred, it came soon to exercise a + civilizing influence. At the same time the British town of Verulamium (St + Albans) was thought sufficiently Romanized to deserve the municipal + status of a <i>municipium</i>, which at this period differed little from + that of a <i>colonia</i>. Romanized Britons must now have begun to be + numerous. In the great revolt of Boadicea (60) the nationalist party seem + to have massacred many thousands of them along with actual Romans. + Fifteen or twenty years later, the movement increases. Towns spring up, + such as Silchester, laid out in Roman fashion, furnished with public + buildings of Roman type, and filled with houses which are Roman in + fittings if not in plan. The baths of Bath (Aquae Sulis) are exploited. + Another <i>colonia</i> is planted at Lincoln (Lindum), and a third at + Gloucester (Glevum) in 96. A new "chief judge" is appointed for + increasing civil business. The tax-gatherer and recruiting officer begin + to make their way into the hills. During the 2nd century progress was + perhaps slower, hindered doubtless by the repeated risings in the north. + It was not till the 3rd century that country houses and farms became + common in most parts of the civilized area. In the beginning of the <!-- + Page 587 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page587"></a>[v.04 + p.0587]</span>4th century the skilled artisans and builders, and the + cloth and corn of Britain were equally famous on the continent. This + probably was the age when the prosperity and Romanization of the province + reached its height. By this time the town populations and the educated + among the country-folk spoke Latin, and Britain regarded itself as a + Roman land, inhabited by Romans and distinct from outer barbarians.</p> + + <p>The civilization which had thus spread over half the island was + genuinely Roman, identical in kind with that of the other western + provinces of the empire, and in particular with that of northern Gaul. + But it was defective in quantity. The elements which compose it are + marked by smaller size, less wealth and less splendour than the same + elements elsewhere. It was also uneven in its distribution. Large tracts, + in particular Warwickshire and the adjoining midlands, were very thinly + inhabited. Even densely peopled areas like north Kent, the Sussex coast, + west Gloucestershire and east Somerset, immediately adjoin areas like the + Weald of Kent and Sussex where Romano-British remains hardly occur.</p> + + <p>The administration of the civilized part of the province, while + subject to the governor of all Britain, was practically entrusted to + local authorities. Each Roman municipality ruled itself and a territory + perhaps as large as a small county which belonged to it. Some districts + belonged to the Imperial Domains, and were administered by agents of the + emperor. The rest, by far the larger part of the country, was divided up + among the old native tribes or cantons, some ten or twelve in number, + each grouped round some country town where its council (<i>ordo</i>) met + for cantonal business. This cantonal system closely resembles that which + we find in Gaul. It is an old native element recast in Roman form, and + well illustrates the Roman principle of local government by + devolution.</p> + + <p>In the general framework of Romano-British life the two chief features + were the town, and the <i>villa</i>. The towns of the province, as we + have already implied, fall into two classes. Five modern cities, + Colchester, Lincoln, York, Gloucester and St Albans, stand on the sites, + and in some fragmentary fashion bear the names of five Roman + municipalities, founded by the Roman government with special charters and + constitutions. All of these reached a considerable measure of prosperity. + None of them rivals the greater municipalities of other provinces. + Besides them we trace a larger number of country towns, varying much in + size, but all possessing in some degree the characteristics of a town. + The chief of these seem to be cantonal capitals, probably developed out + of the market centres or capitals of the Celtic tribes before the Roman + conquest. Such are Isurium Brigantum, capital of the Brigantes, 12 m. + north-west of York and the most northerly Romano-British town; Ratae, now + Leicester, capital of the Coritani; Viroconium, now Wroxeter, near + Shrewsbury, capital of the Cornovii; Venta Silurum, now Caerwent, near + Chepstow; Corinium, now Cirencester, capital of the Dobuni; Isca + Dumnoniorum, now Exeter, the most westerly of these towns; Durnovaria, + now Dorchester, in Dorset, capital of the Durotriges; Venta Belgarum, now + Winchester; Calleva Atrebatum, now Silchester, 10 m. south of Reading; + Durovernum Cantiacorum, now Canterbury; and Venta Icenorum, now + Caistor-by-Norwich. Besides these country towns, Londinium (London) was a + rich and important trading town, centre of the road system, and the seat + of the finance officials of the province, as the remarkable objects + discovered in it abundantly prove, while Aquae Sulis (Bath) was a spa + provided with splendid baths, and a richly adorned temple of the native + patron deity, Sul or Sulis, whom the Romans called Minerva. Many smaller + places, too, for example, Magna or Kenchester near Hereford, Durobrivae + or Rochester in Kent, another Durobrivae near Peterborough, a site of + uncertain name near Cambridge, another of uncertain name near + Chesterford, exhibited some measure of town life.</p> + + <p>As a specimen we may take Silchester, remarkable as the one town in + the whole Roman empire which has been completely and systematically + uncovered. As we see it to-day, it is an open space of 100 acres, set on + a hill with a wide prospect east and south and west, in shape an + irregular hexagon, enclosed in a circuit of a mile and a half by the + massive ruins of a city wall which still stands here and there some 20 + ft. high (fig. 4). Outside, on the north-east, is the grassy hollow of a + tiny amphitheatre; on the west a line of earthworks runs in wider circuit + than the walls. The area within the walls is a vast expanse of cultivated + land, unbroken by any vestige of antiquity; yet the soil is thick with + tile and potsherd, and in hot summers the unevenly growing corn reveals + the remains of streets beneath the surface. Casual excavations were made + here in 1744 and 1833; more systematic ones intermittently between 1864 + and 1884 by the Rev. J.G. Joyce and others; finally, in May 1890, the + complete uncovering of the whole site was begun by Mr G.E. Fox and + others. The work was carried on with splendid perseverance, and the + uncovering of the interior was completed in 1908.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:50%;"> + <a href="images/britain_4.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/britain_4.png" + alt="Fig. 4.--General Plan of Silchester." title="Fig. 4.--General Plan of Silchester." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4.—General Plan of Silchester + (Calleva Atrebatum). + </div> + <p>The chief results concern the buildings. Though these have vanished + wholly from the surface, the foundations and lowest courses of their + walls survive fairly perfect below ground: thus the plan of the town can + be minutely recovered, and both the character of the buildings which make + up a place like Calleva, and the character of Romano-British buildings + generally, become plainer. Of the buildings the chief are:—</p> + + <p>1. <i>Forum.</i>—Near the middle of the town was a rectangular + block covering two acres. It comprised a central open court, 132 ft. by + 140 ft. in size, surrounded on three sides by a corridor or cloister, + with rooms opening on the cloister (fig. 5). On the fourth side was a + great hall, with rooms opening into it from behind. This hall was 270 ft. + long and 58 ft. wide; two rows of Corinthian columns ran down the middle, + and the clerestory roof may have stood 50 ft. above the floor; the walls + were frescoed or lined with marble, and for ornament there were probably + statues. Finally, a corridor ran round outside the whole block. Here the + local authorities had their offices, justice was administered, traders + trafficked, citizens and idlers gathered. Though we cannot apportion the + rooms to their precise uses, the great hall was plainly the basilica, for + meetings and business; the rooms behind it were perhaps law courts, and + some of the rooms on the other three sides of the quadrangle may have + been shops. Similar municipal buildings existed in most towns of the + western Empire, whether they were full municipalities or (as probably + Calleva was) of lower rank. The Callevan Forum seems in general simpler + than others, but its basilica is remarkably large. Probably the British + climate compelled more indoor life than the sunnier south.</p> + + <p>2. <i>Temples.</i>—Two small square temples, of a common + western-provincial type, were in the east of the town; the <i>cella</i> + of the larger measured 42 ft. sq., and was lined with Purbeck marble. A + third, circular temple stood between the forum and the south gate. A + fourth, a smaller square shrine found in 1907 a little east of the <!-- + Page 588 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page588"></a>[v.04 + p.0588]</span>forum, yielded some interesting inscriptions which relate + to a gild (<i>collegium</i>) and incidentally confirm the name + Calleva.</p> + + <div class="figleft" style="width:50%;"> + <a href="images/zbritain_5.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/britain_5.png" + alt="Fig. 5.--Plan of Forum, Basilica and surroundings, Silchester." title="Fig. 5.--Plan of Forum, Basilica and surroundings, Silchester." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5.—Plan of Forum, Basilica and + surroundings, Silchester. + </div> + <p>3. <i>Christian Church.</i>—Close outside the south-east angle + of the forum was a small edifice, 42 ft. by 27 ft., consisting of a nave + and two aisles which ended at the east in a porch as wide as the + building, and at the west in an apse and two flanking chambers. The nave + and porch were floored with plain red tesserae: in the apse was a simple + mosaic panel in red, black and white. Round the building was a yard, + fenced with wooden palings; in it were a well near the apse, and a small + structure of tile with a pit near the east end. No direct proof of date + or use was discovered. But the ground plan is that of an early Christian + church of the "basilican" type. This type comprised nave and aisles, + ending at one end in an apse and two chambers resembling rudimentary + transepts, and at the other end in a porch (<i>narthex</i>). Previous to + about <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 420 the porch was often at the east + end and the apse at the west, and the altar, often movable, stood in the + apse—as at Silchester, perhaps, on the mosaic panel. A court + enclosed the whole; near the porch was a laver for the ablutions of + intending worshippers. Many such churches have been found in other + countries, especially in Roman Africa; no other satisfactory instance is + known in Britain.</p> + + <p>4. <i>Town Baths.</i>—A suite of public baths stood a little + east of the forum. At the entrance were a peristyle court for loungers + and a latrine: hence the bather passed into the Apodyterium + (dressing-room), the Frigidarium (cold room) fitted with a cold bath for + use at the end of the bathing ceremony, and a series of hot + rooms—the whole resembling many modern Turkish baths. In their + first form the baths of Silchester were about 160 ft. by 80 ft., but they + were later considerably extended.</p> + + <p>5. <i>Private Houses.</i>—The private houses of Silchester are + of two types. They consist either of a row of rooms, with a corridor + along them, and perhaps one or two additional rooms at one or both ends, + or of three such corridors and rows of rooms, forming three sides of a + large square open yard. They are detached houses, standing each in its + own garden, and not forming terraces or rows. The country houses of Roman + Britain have long been recognized as embodying these (or allied) types; + now it becomes plain that they were the normal types throughout Britain. + They differ widely from the town houses of Rome and Pompeii: they are + less unlike some of the country houses of Italy and Roman Africa; but + their real parallels occur in Gaul, and they may be Celtic types modified + to Roman use—like Indian bungalows. Their internal + fittings—hypocausts, frescoes, mosaics—are everywhere Roman; + those at Silchester are average specimens, and, except for one mosaic, + not individually striking. The largest Silchester house, with a special + annexe for baths, is usually taken to be a guest-house or inn for + travellers between London and the west (fig. 6). Altogether, the town + probably did not contain more than seventy or eighty houses of any size, + and large spaces were not built over at all. This fact and the peculiar + character of the houses must have given to Silchester rather the + appearance of a village with scattered cottages, each in its own plot + facing its own way, than a town with regular and continuous streets.</p> + + <p>6. <i>Industries.</i>—Shops are conjectured in the forum and + elsewhere, but were not numerous. Many dyers' furnaces, a little silver + refinery, and perhaps a bakery have also been noticed.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:50%;"> + <a href="images/britain_6.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/britain_6.png" + alt="Fig. 6.--Plan of supposed Inn and Baths at Silchester." title="Fig. 6.--Plan of supposed Inn and Baths at Silchester." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 6.—Plan of supposed Inn and Baths at + Silchester. + </div> + <p>7. <i>Streets, Roads, &c.</i>—The streets were paved with + gravel: they varied in width up to 28½ ft. They intersect regularly at + right angles, dividing the town into square blocks, like modern Mannheim + or Turin, according to a Roman system usual in both Italy and the + provinces: plainly they were laid out all at once, possibly by Agricola + (Tac. <i>Agr.</i> 21) and most probably about his time. There were four + chief gates, not quite symmetrically placed. The town-walls are built of + flint and concrete bonded with ironstone, and are backed with earth. In + the plans, though not in the reports, of the excavations, they are shown + as built later than the streets. No traces of meat-market, theatre or + aqueduct have come to light: water was got from wells lined with wooden + tubs, and must have been scanty in dry summers. Smaller objects + abound—coins, pottery, window and bottle and cup glass, bronze + ornaments, iron tools, &c.—and many belong to the beginnings of + Calleva, but few pieces are individually notable. Traces of late Celtic + art are singularly absent; Roman fashions rule supreme, and inscriptions + show that even the lower classes here spoke and wrote Latin. Outside the + walls were the cemeteries, not yet explored. Of suburbs we have as yet no + hint. Nor indeed is the neighbourhood of Calleva at all rich in Roman + remains. In fact, as well as in Celtic etymology, it was "the town in the + forest." A similar absence of remains may be noticed outside other + Romano-British towns, and is significant of their economic position. Such + doubtless were most of the towns of Roman Britain—thoroughly + Romanized, peopled with Roman-speaking citizens, furnished with Roman + appurtenances, living in Roman ways, but not very large, not very rich, a + humble witness to the assimilating power of the Roman civilization in + Britain.</p> + + <p>The country, as opposed to the towns, of Roman Britain seems to have + been divided into estates, commonly (though perhaps incorrectly) known as + "villas." Many examples survive, some of them large and luxurious + country-houses, some mere farms, constructed usually on one of the two + patterns described in the account of Silchester above. The inhabitants + were plainly as various—a few of them great nobles and wealthy + landowners, others small farmers or possibly bailiffs. Some of these + estates were worked on the true "villa" system, by which the lord + occupied the "great house," and cultivated the land close round it by + slaves, while he let the rest to half-free <i>coloni</i>. But other + systems may have prevailed as well. Among the most important + country-houses are those of Bignor in west Sussex, and Woodchester and + Chedworth in Gloucestershire.</p> + + <p>The wealth of the country was principally agrarian. Wheat and wool + were exported in the 4th century, when, as we have said, Britain was + especially prosperous. But the details of the trade are unrecorded. More + is known of the lead and iron mines which, at least in the first two + centuries, were worked in many districts—lead in Somerset, + Shropshire, Flintshire and Derbyshire; iron in the west Sussex Weald, the + Forest of Dean, and (to a slight extent) elsewhere. Other minerals were + less notable. The gold mentioned by Tacitus proved scanty. The Cornish + tin, according to present evidence, was worked comparatively little, and + perhaps most in the later Empire.</p> + + <p>Lastly, the roads. Here we must put aside all idea of "Four Great + Roads." That category is probably the invention of <!-- Page 589 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page589"></a>[v.04 p.0589]</span>antiquaries, + and certainly unconnected with Roman Britain (see <span class="sc">Ermine + Street</span>). Instead, we may distinguish four main groups of roads + radiating from London, and a fifth which runs obliquely. One road ran + south-east to Canterbury and the Kentish ports, of which Richborough + (Rutupiae) was the most frequented. A second ran west to Silchester, and + thence by various branches to Winchester, Exeter, Bath, Gloucester and + South Wales. A third, known afterwards to the English as Watling Street, + ran by St Albans Wall near Lichfield (Letocetum), to Wroxeter and + Chester. It also gave access by a branch to Leicester and Lincoln. A + fourth served Colchester, the eastern counties, Lincoln and York. The + fifth is that known to the English as the Fosse, which joins Lincoln and + Leicester with Cirencester, Bath and Exeter. Besides these five groups, + an obscure road, called by the Saxons Akeman Street, gave alternative + access from London through Alchester (outside of Bicester) to Bath, while + another obscure road winds south from near Sheffield, past Derby and + Birmingham, and connects the lower Severn with the Humber. By these roads + and their various branches the Romans provided adequate communications + throughout the lowlands of Britain.</p> + + <p>IV. <i>The End of Roman Britain.</i>—Early in the 4th century it + was necessary to establish a special coast defence, reaching from the + Wash to Spithead, against Saxon pirates: there were forts at Brancaster, + Borough Castle (near Yarmouth), Bradwell (at the mouth of the Colne and + Blackwater), Reculver, Richborough, Dover and Lymme (all in Kent), + Pevensey in Sussex, Porchester near Portsmouth, and perhaps also at + Felixstowe in Suffolk. After about 350, barbarian assaults, not only of + Saxons but also of Irish (Scoti) and Picts, became commoner and more + terrible. At the end of the century Magnus Maximus, claiming to be + emperor, withdrew many troops from Britain and a later pretender did the + same. Early in the 5th century the Teutonic conquest of Gaul cut the + island off from Rome. This does not mean that there was any great + "departure of Romans." The central government simply ceased to send the + usual governors and high officers. The Romano-British were left to + themselves. Their position was weak. Their fortresses lay in the north + and west, while the Saxons attacked the east and south. Their trained + troops, and even their own numbers, must have been few. It is + intelligible that they followed a precedent set by Rome in that age, and + hired Saxons to repel Saxons. But they could not command the fidelity of + their mercenaries, and the Saxon peril only grew greater. It would seem + as if the Romano-Britons were speedily driven from the east of the + island. Even Wroxeter on the Welsh border may have been finally destroyed + before the end of the 5th century. It seems that the Saxons though + apparently unable to maintain their hold so far to the west, were able to + prevent the natives from recovering the lowlands. Thus driven from the + centres of Romanized life, from the region of walled cities and civilized + houses, into the hills of Wales and the north-west, the provincials + underwent an intelligible change. The Celtic element, never quite extinct + in those hills and, like most forms of barbarism, reasserting itself in + this wild age—not without reinforcement from + Ireland—challenged the remnants of Roman civilization and in the + end absorbed them. The Celtic language reappeared; the Celtic art emerged + from its shelters in the west to develop in new and medieval + fashions.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—The principal references to + early Britain in classical writers occur in Strabo, Diodorus, Julius + Caesar, the elder Pliny, Tacitus, Ptolemy and Cassius Dio, and in the + lists of the Antonine Itinerary (probably about <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 210-230; ed. Parthey, 1848), the <i>Notitia + Dignitatum</i> (about <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 400; ed. Seeck, + 1876), and the Ravennas (7th-century <i>rechauffé</i>; ed. Parthey 1860). + The chief passages are collected in Petrie's <i>Monumenta Hist. + Britann.</i> (1848), and (alphabetically) in Holder's <i>Altkeltische + Sprachschatz</i> (1896-1908). The Roman inscriptions have been collected + by Hübner, <i>Corpus Inscriptionum Latin.</i> vii. (1873), and in + supplements by Hübner and Haverfield in the periodical <i>Ephemeris + epigraphica</i>; see also Hübner, <i>Inscript. Britann. Christianae</i> + (1876, now out of date), and J. Rhys on Pictish, &c., inscriptions, + <i>Proceedings Soc. Antiq. Scotland</i>, xxvi., xxxii.</p> + + <p>Of modern works the best summary for Roman Britain and for Caesar's + invasions is T.R. Holmes, <i>Ancient Britain</i> (1907), who cites + numerous authorities. See also Sir John Evans, <i>Stone Implements, + Bronze Implements</i>, and <i>Ancient British Coins</i> (with suppl.); + Boyd Dawkins, <i>Early Man in Britain</i> (1880); J. Rhys, <i>Celtic + Britain</i> (3rd ed., 1904). For late Celtic art see J.M. Kemble and A.W. + Franks' <i>Horae Ferales</i> (1863), and Arthur J. Evans in + <i>Archaeologia</i>, vols. lii.-lv. Celtic ethnology and philology (see + <span class="sc">Celt</span>) are still in the "age of discussion." For + ancient earthworks see A. Hadrian Allcroft, <i>Earthwork of England</i> + (1909).</p> + + <p>For Roman Britain see, in general, Prof. F. Haverfield, <i>The + Romanization of Roman Britain</i> (Oxford, 1906), and his articles in the + <i>Victoria County History</i>; also the chapter in Mommsen's <i>Roman + Provinces</i>; and an article in the <i>Edinburgh Review</i>, 1899. For + the wall of Hadrian see John Hodgson, <i>History of Northumberland</i> + (1840); J.C. Bruce, <i>Roman Wall</i> (3rd ed., 1867); reports of + excavations by Haverfield in the <i>Cumberland Archaeological Society + Transactions</i> (1894-1904); and R.C. Bosanquet, <i>Roman Camp at + Housesteads</i> (Newcastle, 1904). For the Scottish Excavations see + <i>Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland</i>, xx.-xl., + and especially J. Macdonald, <i>Bar Hill</i> (reprint, Glasgow, 1906). + For other forts see R.S. Ferguson, <i>Cumberland Arch. Soc. Trans.</i> + xii., on Hardknott; and J. Ward, <i>Roman Fort of Gellygaer</i> (London, + 1903). For the Roman occupation of Scotland see Haverfield in <i>Antonine + Wall Report</i> (1899); J. Macdonald, <i>Roman Stones in Hunterian + Mus.</i> (1897); and, though an older work, Stuart's <i>Caledonia + Romana</i> (1852). For Silchester, <i>Archaeologia</i> (1890-1908); for + Caerwent (ib. 1901-1908); for London, Charles Roach Smith, <i>Roman + London</i> (1859); for Christianity in Roman Britain, <i>Engl. Hist. + Rev.</i> (1896); for the villages, Gen. Pitt-Rivers' <i>Excavations in + Cranborne Chase, &c.</i> (4 vols., 1887-1908), and <i>Proc. Soc. of + Ant.</i> xviii. For the end of Roman Britain see <i>Engl. Hist. Rev.</i> + (1904); Prof. Bury's <i>Life of St Patrick</i> (1905); Haverfield's + <i>Romanization</i> (cited above); and P. Vinogradoff, <i>Growth of the + Manor</i> (1905), bk. i.</p> + + <p>(F. J. H.)</p> + +<h4><span class="sc">Anglo-Saxon Britain</span></h4> + + <p>1. <i>History.</i>—The history of Britain after the withdrawal + of the Roman troops is extremely obscure, but there can be little doubt + that for many years the inhabitants of the provinces were exposed to + devastating raids by the Picts and Scots. According to Gildas it was for + protection against these incursions that the Britons decided to call in + the Saxons. Their allies soon obtained a decisive victory; but + subsequently they turned their arms against the Britons themselves, + alleging that they had not received sufficient payment for their + services. A somewhat different account, probably of English origin, may + be traced in the <i>Historia Brittonum</i>, according to which the first + leaders of the Saxons, Hengest and Horsa, came as exiles, seeking the + protection of the British king, Vortigern. Having embraced his service + they quickly succeeded in expelling the northern invaders. Eventually, + however, they overcame the Britons through treachery, by inducing the + king to allow them to send for large bodies of their own countrymen. It + was to these adventurers, according to tradition, that the kingdom of + Kent owed its origin. The story is in itself by no means improbable, + while the dates assigned to the first invasion by various Welsh, Gaulish + and English authorities, with one exception all fall within about a + quarter of a century, viz. between the year 428 and the joint reign of + Martian and Valentinian III. (450-455).</p> + + <p>For the subsequent course of the invasion our information is of the + most meagre and unsatisfactory character. According to the Anglo-Saxon + Chronicle the kingdom of Sussex was founded by a certain Ella or Ælle, + who landed in 477, while Wessex owed its origin to Cerdic, who arrived + some eighteen years later. No value, however, can be attached to these + dates; indeed, in the latter case the story itself is open to suspicion + on several grounds (see <span class="sc">Wessex</span>). For the + movements which led to the foundation of the more northern kingdoms we + have no evidence worth consideration, nor do we know even approximately + when they took place. But the view that the invasion was effected + throughout by small bodies of adventurers acting independently of one + another, and that each of the various kingdoms owes its origin to a + separate enterprise, has little probability in its favour. Bede states + that the invaders belonged to three different nations, Kent and southern + Hampshire being occupied by Jutes (<i>q.v.</i>), while Essex, Sussex and + Wessex were founded by the Saxons, and the remaining kingdoms by the + Angli (<i>q.v.</i>). The peculiarities of social organization in Kent + certainly tend to show that this kingdom had a different origin from the + rest; but the evidence for the distinction between the Saxons and the + Angli is of a much less satisfactory character (see <span + class="sc">Anglo-Saxons</span>). <!-- Page 590 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page590"></a>[v.04 p.0590]</span>The royal + family of Essex may really have been of Saxon origin (see <span + class="sc">Essex</span>), but on the other hand the West Saxon royal + family claimed to be of the same stock as that of Bernicia, and their + connexions in the past seem to have lain with the Angli.</p> + + <p>We need not doubt that the first invasion was followed by a long + period of warfare between the natives and the invaders, in which the + latter gradually strengthened their hold on the conquered territories. It + is very probable that by the end of the 5th century all the eastern part + of Britain, at least as far as the Humber, was in their hands. The first + important check was received at the siege of "Mons Badonicus" in the year + 517 (<i>Ann. Cambr.</i>), or perhaps rather some fifteen or twenty years + earlier. According to Gildas this event was followed by a period of peace + for at least forty-four years. In the latter part of the 6th century, + however, the territories occupied by the invaders seem to have been + greatly extended. In the south the West Saxons are said to have conquered + first Wiltshire and then all the upper part of the Thames valley, + together with the country beyond as far as the Severn. The northern + frontier also seems to have been pushed considerably farther forward, + perhaps into what is now Scotland, and it is very probable that the basin + of the Trent, together with the central districts between the Trent and + the Thames, was conquered about the same time, though of this we have no + record. Again, the destruction of Chester about 615 was soon followed by + the overthrow of the British kingdom of Elmet in south-west Yorkshire, + and the occupation of Shropshire and the Lothians took place perhaps + about the same period, that of Herefordshire probably somewhat later. In + the south, Somerset is said to have been conquered by the West Saxons + shortly after the middle of the 7th century. Dorset had probably been + acquired by them before this time, while part of Devon seems to have come + into their hands soon afterwards.</p> + + <p>The area thus conquered was occupied by a number of separate kingdoms, + each with a royal family of its own. The districts north of the Humber + contained two kingdoms, Bernicia (<i>q.v.</i>) and Deira (<i>q.v.</i>), + which were eventually united in Northumbria. South of the Humber, Lindsey + seems to have had a dynasty of its own, though in historical times it was + apparently always subject to the kings of Northumbria or Mercia. The + upper basin of the Trent formed the nucleus of the kingdom of Mercia + (<i>q.v.</i>), while farther down the east coast was the kingdom of East + Anglia (<i>q.v.</i>). Between these two lay a territory called Middle + Anglia, which is sometimes described as a kingdom, though we do not know + whether it ever had a separate dynasty. Essex, Kent and Sussex (see + articles on these kingdoms) preserve the names of ancient kingdoms, while + the old diocese of Worcester grew out of the kingdom of the Hwicce + (<i>q.v.</i>), with which it probably coincided in area. The south of + England, between Sussex and "West Wales" (eventually reduced to + Cornwall), was occupied by Wessex, which originally also possessed some + territory to the north of the Thames. Lastly, even the Isle of Wight + appears to have had a dynasty of its own. But it must not be supposed + that all these kingdoms were always, or even normally, independent. When + history begins, Æthelberht, king of Kent, was supreme over all the kings + south of the Humber. He was followed by the East Anglian king Raedwald, + and the latter again by a series of Northumbrian kings with an even wider + supremacy. Before Æthelberht a similar position had been held by the West + Saxon king Ceawlin, and at a much earlier period, according to tradition, + by Ella or Ælle, the first king of Sussex. The nature of this supremacy + has been much discussed, but the true explanation seems to be furnished + by that principle of personal allegiance which formed such an important + element in Anglo-Saxon society.</p> + + <p>2. <i>Government.</i>—Internally the various states seem to have + been organized on very similar lines. In every case we find kingly + government from the time of our earliest records, and there is no doubt + that the institution goes back to a date anterior to the invasion of + Britain (see <span class="sc">Offa</span>; <span + class="sc">Wermund</span>). The royal title, however, was frequently + borne by more than one person. Sometimes we find one supreme king + together with a number of under-kings (<i>subreguli</i>); sometimes + again, especially in the smaller kingdoms, Essex, Sussex and Hwicce, we + meet with two or more kings, generally brothers, reigning together + apparently on equal terms. During the greater part of the 8th century + Kent seems to have been divided into two kingdoms; but as a rule such + divisions did not last beyond the lifetime of the kings between whom the + arrangement had been made. The kings were, with very rare exceptions, + chosen from one particular family in each state, the ancestry of which + was traced back not only to the founder of the kingdom but also, in a + remoter degree, to a god. The members of such families were entitled to + special wergilds, apparently six times as great as those of the higher + class of nobles (see below).</p> + + <p>The only other central authority in the state was the king's council + or court (<i>þeod</i>, <i>witan</i>, <i>plebs</i>, <i>concilium</i>). + This body consisted partly of young warriors in constant attendance on + the king, and partly of senior officials whom he called together from + time to time. The terms used for the two classes by Bede are + <i>milites</i> (<i>ministri</i>) and <i>comites</i>, for which the + Anglo-Saxon version has <i>þegnas</i> and <i>gesiðas</i> respectively. + Both classes alike consisted in part of members of the royal family. But + they were by no means confined to such persons or even to born subjects + of the king. Indeed, we are told that popular kings like Oswine attracted + young nobles to their service from all quarters. The functions of the + council have been much discussed, and it has been claimed that they had + the right of electing and deposing kings. This view, however, seems to + involve the existence of a greater feeling for constitutionalism than is + warranted by the information at our disposal. The incidents which have + been brought forward as evidence to this effect may with at least equal + probability be interpreted as cases of profession or transference of + personal allegiance. In other respects the functions of the council seem + to have been of a deliberative character. It was certainly customary for + the king to seek their advice and moral support on important questions, + but there is nothing to show that he had to abide by the opinion of the + majority.</p> + + <p>For administrative purposes each of the various kingdoms was divided + into a number of districts under the charge of royal reeves (<i>cyninges + gerefa</i>, <i>praefectus</i>, <i>praepositus</i>). These officials seem + to have been located in royal villages (<i>cyninges tun</i>, <i>villa + regalis</i>) or fortresses (<i>cyninges burg</i>, <i>urbs regis</i>), + which served as centres and meeting-places (markets, &c.) for the + inhabitants of the district, and to which their dues, both in payments + and services had to be rendered. The usual size of such districts in + early times seems to have been 300, 600 or 1200 hides.<a + name="FnAnchor_091" href="#Footnote_091"><sup>[1]</sup></a> In addition + to these districts we find mention also of much larger divisions + containing 2000, 3000, 5000 or 7000 hides. To this category belong the + shires of Wessex (Hampshire, Wiltshire, Berkshire, &c.), each of + which had an earl (<i>aldormon</i>, <i>princeps</i>, <i>dux</i>) of its + own, at all events from the 8th century onwards. Many, if not all, of + these persons were members of the royal family, and it is not unlikely + that they originally bore the kingly title. At all events they are + sometimes described as <i>subreguli</i>.</p> + + <p>3. <i>Social Organization.</i>—The officials mentioned above, + whether of royal birth or not, were probably drawn from the king's + personal retinue. In Anglo-Saxon society, as in that of all Teutonic + nations in early times, the two most important principles were those of + kinship and personal allegiance. If a man suffered injury it was to his + relatives and his lord, rather than to any public official, that he + applied first for protection and redress. If he was slain, a fixed sum + (<i>wergild</i>), varying according to his station, had to be paid to his + relatives, while a further but smaller sum (<i>manbot</i>) was due to his + lord. These principles applied to all classes of society alike, and + though strife within the family was by no means unknown, at all events in + royal families, the actual slaying of a kinsman was regarded as the most + heinous of all offences. Much the same feeling applied to the slaying of + a lord—an offence for which no compensation could be rendered. How + far the armed followers of a lord were entitled to compensation when the + latter was slain <!-- Page 591 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page591"></a>[v.04 p.0591]</span>is uncertain, but in the case of a + king they received an amount equal to the wergild. Another important + development of the principle of allegiance is to be found in the custom + of heriots. In later times this custom amounted practically to a system + of death-duties, payable in horses and arms or in money to the lord of + the deceased. There can be little doubt, however, that originally it was + a restoration to the lord of the military outfit with which he had + presented his man when he entered his service. The institution of + thegnhood, <i>i.e.</i> membership of the <i>comitatus</i> or retinue of a + prince, offered the only opening by which public life could be entered. + Hence it was probably adopted almost universally by young men of the + highest classes. The thegn was expected to fight for his lord, and + generally to place his services at his disposal in both war and peace. + The lord, on the other hand, had to keep his thegns and reward them from + time to time with arms and treasure. When they were of an age to marry he + was expected to provide them with the means of doing so. If the lord was + a king this provision took the form of a grant, perhaps normally ten + hides, from the royal lands. Such estates were not strictly hereditary, + though as a mark of favour they were not unfrequently re-granted to the + sons of deceased holders.</p> + + <p>The structure of society in England was of a somewhat peculiar type. + In addition to slaves, who in early times seem to have been numerous, we + find in Wessex and apparently also in Mercia three classes, described as + <i>twelfhynde</i>, <i>sixhynde</i> and <i>twihynde</i> from the amount of + their wergilds, viz. 1200, 600 and 200 shillings respectively. It is + probable that similar classes existed also in Northumbria, though not + under the same names. Besides these terms there were others which were + probably in use everywhere, viz. <i>gesiðcund</i> for the two higher + classes and <i>ceorlisc</i> for the lowest. Indeed, we find these terms + even in Kent, though the social system of that kingdom seems to have been + of an essentially different character. Here the wergild of the + <i>ceorlisc</i> class amounted to 100 shillings, each containing twenty + silver coins (<i>sceattas</i>), as against 200 shillings of four (in + Wessex five) silver coins, and was thus very much greater than the + latter. Again, there was apparently but one <i>gestiðcund</i> class in + Kent, with a wergild of 300 shillings, while, on the other hand, below + the <i>ceorlisc</i> class we find three classes of persons described as + <i>laetas</i>, who corresponded in all probability to the <i>liti</i> or + freedmen of the continental laws, and who possessed wergilds of 80, 60 + and 40 shillings respectively. To these we find nothing analogous in the + other kingdoms, though the poorer classes of Welsh freemen had wergilds + varying from 120 to 60 shillings. It should be added that the + differential treatment of the various classes was by no means confined to + the case of wergilds. We find it also in the compensations to which they + were entitled for various injuries, in the fines to which they were + liable, and in the value attached to their oaths. Generally, though not + always, the proportions observed were the same as in the wergilds.</p> + + <p>The nature of the distinction between the <i>gesiðcund</i> and + <i>ceorlisc</i> classes is nowhere clearly explained; but it was + certainly hereditary and probably of considerable antiquity. In general + we may perhaps define them as nobles and commons, though in view of the + numbers of the higher classes it would probably be more correct to speak + of gentry and peasants. The distinction between the <i>twelfhynde</i> and + <i>sixhynde</i> classes was also in part at least hereditary, but there + is good reason for believing that it arose out of the possession of land. + The former consisted of persons who possessed, whether as individuals or + families, at least five hides of land—which practically means a + village—while the latter were landless, <i>i.e.</i> probably + without this amount of land. Within the <i>ceorlisc</i> class we find + similar subdivisions, though they were not marked by a difference in + wergild. The <i>gafolgelda</i> or <i>tributarius</i> (tribute-payer) + seems to have been a ceorl who possessed at least a hide, while the + <i>gebur</i> was without land of his own, and received his outfit as a + loan from his lord.</p> + + <p>4. <i>Payments and Services.</i>—We have already had occasion to + refer to the dues which were rendered by different classes of the + population, and which the reeves in royal villages had to collect and + superintend. The payments seem to have varied greatly according to the + class from which they were due. Those rendered by landowners seem to have + been known as <i>feorm</i> or <i>fostor</i>, and consisted of a fixed + quantity of articles paid in kind. In Ine's Laws (cap. 70) we find a list + of payments specified for a unit of ten hides, perhaps the normal holding + of a <i>twelfhynde</i> man—though on the other hand it may be + nothing more than a mere fiscal unit in an aggregate of estates. The list + consists of oxen, sheep, geese, hens, honey, ale, loaves, cheese, butter, + fodder, salmon and eels. Very similar specifications are found elsewhere. + The payments rendered by the <i>gafolgelda</i> (<i>tributarius</i>) were + known as <i>gafol</i> (<i>tributuni</i>), as his name implies. In Ine's + Laws we hear only of the <i>hwitel</i> or white cloak, which was to be of + the value of six pence per household (hide), and of barley, which was to + be six pounds in weight for each worker. In later times we meet with many + other payments both in money and in kind, some of which were doubtless in + accordance with ancient custom. On the other hand the <i>gebur</i> seems + not to have been liable to payments of this kind, presumably because the + land which he cultivated formed part of the demesne (<i>inland</i>) of + his lord. The term <i>gafol</i>, however, may have been applied to the + payments which he rendered to the latter.</p> + + <p>The services required of landowners were very manifold in character. + Probably the most important were military service (<i>fird</i>, + <i>expeditio</i>) and the repairing of fortifications and + bridges—the <i>trinoda necessitas</i> of later times. Besides these + we find reference in charters of the 9th century to the keeping of the + king's hunters, horses, dogs and hawks, and the entertaining of + messengers and other persons in the king's service. The duties of men of + the <i>sixhynde</i> class, if they are to be identified with the + <i>radcnihtas</i> (<i>radmanni</i>) of later times, probably consisted + chiefly in riding on the king's (or their lord's) business. The services + of the peasantry can only be conjectured from what we find in later + times. Presumably their chief duty was to undertake a share in the + cultivation of the demesne land. We need scarcely doubt also that the + labour of repairing fortifications and bridges, though it is charged + against the landowners, was in reality delegated by them to their + dependents.</p> + + <p>5. <i>Warfare.</i>—All classes are said to have been liable to + the duty of military service. Hence, since the ceorls doubtless formed + the bulk of the population, it has been thought that the Anglo-Saxon + armies of early times were essentially peasant forces. The evidence at + our disposal, however, gives little justification for such a view. The + regulation that every five or six hides should supply a warrior was not a + product of the Danish invasions, as is sometimes stated, but goes back at + least to the beginning of the 9th century. Had the fighting material been + drawn from the <i>ceorlisc</i> class a warrior would surely have been + required from each hide, but for military service no such regulation is + found. Again, the fird (<i>fyrd</i>) was composed of mounted warriors + during the 9th century, though apparently they fought on foot, and there + are indications that such was the case also in the 7th century. No doubt + ceorls took part in military expeditions, but they may have gone as + attendants and camp-followers rather than as warriors, their chief + business being to make stockades and bridges, and especially to carry + provisions. The serious fighting, however, was probably left to the + <i>gesiðcund</i> classes, who possessed horses and more or less effective + weapons. Indeed, there is good reason for regarding these classes as + essentially military.</p> + + <p>The chief weapons were the sword and spear. The former were two-edged + and on the average about 3 ft. long. The hilts were often elaborately + ornamented and sometimes these weapons were of considerable value. No + definite line can be drawn between the spear proper and the javelin. The + spear-heads which have been found in graves vary considerably in both + form and size. They were fitted on to the shaft, by a socket which was + open on one side. Other weapons appear to have been quite rare. Bows and + arrows were certainly in use for sporting purposes, but there is no + reason for believing that they were much used in warfare before the + Danish invasions. They are very seldom met with in graves. The most + common article of defensive armour was the shield, which was small and + circular and apparently of quite thin lime-wood, the edge being formed + <!-- Page 592 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page592"></a>[v.04 + p.0592]</span>probably by a thin band of iron. In the centre of the + shield, in order to protect the hand which held it, was a strong iron + boss, some 7 in. in diameter and projecting about 3 in. It is clear from + literary evidence that the helmet (<i>helm</i>) and coat of chain mail + (<i>byrne</i>) were also in common use. They are seldom found in graves, + however, whether owing to the custom of heriots or to the fact that, on + account of their relatively high value, they were frequently handed on + from generation to generation as heirlooms. Greaves are not often + mentioned. It is worth noting that in later times the heriot of an + "ordinary thegn" (<i>medema þegn</i>)—by which is meant apparently + not a king's thegn but a man of the <i>twelfhynde</i> + class—consisted of his horse with its saddle, &c. and his arms, + or two pounds of silver as an equivalent of the whole. The arms required + were probably a sword, helmet, coat of mail and one or two spears and + shields. There are distinct indications that a similar outfit was fairly + common in Ine's time, and that its value was much the same. One would + scarcely be justified, however, in supposing that it was anything like + universal; for the purchasing power of such a sum was at that time + considerable, representing as it did about 16-20 oxen or 100-120 sheep. + It would hardly be safe to credit men of the <i>sixhynde</i> class in + general with more than a horse, spear and shield.</p> + + <p>6. <i>Agriculture and Village Life.</i>—There is no doubt that a + fairly advanced system of agriculture must have been known to the + Anglo-Saxons before they settled in Britain. This is made clear above all + by the representation of a plough drawn by two oxen in one of the very + ancient rock-carvings at Tegneby in Bohuslän. In Domesday Book the heavy + plough with eight oxen seems to be universal, and it can be traced back + in Kent to the beginning of the 9th century. In this kingdom the system + of agricultural terminology was based on it. The unit was the + <i>sulung</i> (<i>aratrum</i>) or ploughland (from <i>sulh</i>, + "plough"), the fourth part of which was the <i>geocled</i> or <i>geoc</i> + (<i>jugum</i>), originally a yoke of oxen. An analogy is supplied by the + <i>carucata</i> of the Danelagh, the eighth part of which was the + <i>bouata</i> or "ox-land." In the 10th century the <i>sulung</i> seems + to have been identified with the hide, but in earlier times it contained + apparently two hides. The hide itself, which was the regular unit in the + other kingdoms, usually contained 120 acres in later times and was + divided into four <i>girda</i> (<i>virgatae</i>) or yardlands. But + originally it seems to have meant simply the land pertaining to a + household, and its area in early times is quite uncertain, though + probably far less. For the acre also there was in later times a standard + length and breadth, the former being called <i>furhlang</i> + (<i>furlong</i>) and reckoned at one-eighth of a mile, while the + <i>aecerbraedu</i> or "acre-breadth" (chain) was also a definite measure. + We need not doubt, however, that in practice the form of the acre was + largely conditioned by the nature of the ground. Originally it is thought + to have been the measure of a day's ploughing, in which case the + dimensions given above would scarcely be reached. Account must also be + taken of the possibility that in early times lighter teams were in + general use. If so the normal dimensions of the acre may very well have + been quite different.</p> + + <p>The husbandry was of a co-operative character. In the 11th century it + was distinctly unusual for a peasant to possess a whole team of his own, + and there is no reason for supposing the case to have been otherwise in + early times; for though the peasant might then hold a hide, the hide + itself was doubtless smaller and not commensurate in any way with the + ploughland. The holdings were probably not compact but consisted of + scattered strips in common fields, changed perhaps from year to year, the + choice being determined by lot or otherwise. As for the method of + cultivation itself there is little or no evidence. Both the "two-course + system" and the "three-course system" may have been in use; but on the + other hand it is quite possible that in many cases the same ground was + not sown more than once in three years. The prevalence of the + co-operative principle, it may be observed, was doubtless due in large + measure to the fact that the greater part of England, especially towards + the east, was settled not in scattered farms or hamlets but in compact + villages with the cultivated lands lying round them.</p> + + <p>The mill was another element which tended to promote the same + principle. There can be little doubt that before the Anglo-Saxons came to + Britain they possessed no instrument for grinding corn except the quern + (<i>cweorn</i>), and in remote districts this continued in use until + quite late times. The grinding seems to have been performed chiefly by + female slaves, but occasionally we hear also of a donkey-mill + (<i>esolcweorn</i>). The mill proper, however, which was derived from the + Romans, as its name (<i>mylen</i>, from Lat. <i>molina</i>) indicates, + must have come into use fairly early. In the 11th century every village + of any size seems to have possessed one, while the earliest references go + back to the 8th century. It is not unlikely that they were in use during + the Roman occupation of Britain, and consequently that they became known + to the invaders almost from the first. The mills were presumably driven + for the most part by water, though we have a reference to a windmill as + early as the year 833.</p> + + <p>All the ordinary domestic animals were known. Cattle and sheep were + pastured on the common lands appertaining to the village, while pigs, + which (especially in Kent) seem to have been very numerous, were kept in + the woods. Bee-keeping was also practised. In all these matters the + invasion of Britain had brought about no change. The cultivation of fruit + and vegetables on the other hand was probably almost entirely new. The + names are almost all derived from Latin, though most of them seem to have + been known soon after the invasion, at all events by the 7th century.</p> + + <p>From the considerations pointed out above we can hardly doubt that the + village possessed a certain amount of corporate life, centred perhaps in + an ale-house where its affairs were discussed by the inhabitants. There + is no evidence, however, which would justify us in crediting such + gatherings with any substantial degree of local authority. So far as the + limited information at our disposal enables us to form an opinion, the + responsibility both for the internal peace of the village, and for its + obligations to the outside world, seems to have lain with the lord or his + steward (<i>gerefa</i>, <i>villicus</i>) from the beginning. A quite + opposite view has, it is true, found favour with many scholars, viz. that + the villages were orginally settlements of free kindreds, and that the + lord's authority was superimposed on them at a later date. This view is + based mainly on the numerous place-names ending in <i>-ing</i>, + <i>-ingham</i>, <i>-ington</i>, &c., in which the syllable + <i>-ing</i> is thought to refer to kindreds of cultivators. It is more + probable, however, that these names are derived from persons of the + <i>twelfhynde</i> class to whom the land had been granted. In many cases + indeed there is good reason for doubting whether the name is a patronymic + at all.</p> + + <p>The question how far the villages were really new settlements is + difficult to answer, for the terminations <i>-ham</i>, <i>-ton</i>, + &c. cannot be regarded as conclusive evidence. Thus according to the + Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (ann. 571) Bensington and Eynsham were formerly + British villages. Even if the first part of Egonesham is + English—which is by no means certain—it is hardly sufficient + reason for discrediting this statement, for Canterbury + (<i>Cantwaraburg</i>) and Rochester (<i>Hrofes ceaster</i>) were without + doubt Roman places in spite of their English names. On the whole it seems + likely that the cultivation of the land was not generally interrupted for + more than a very few years; hence the convenience of utilizing existing + sites of villages would be obvious, even if the buildings themselves had + been burnt.</p> + + <p>7. <i>Towns.</i>—Gildas states that in the time of the Romans + Britain contained twenty-eight cities (<i>civitates</i>), besides a + number of fortresses (<i>castetta</i>). Most of these were situated + within the territories eventually occupied by the invaders, and reappear + as towns in later times. Their history in the intervening period, + however, is wrapped in obscurity. Chester appears to have been deserted + for three centuries after its destruction early in the 7th century, and + in most of the other cases there are features observable in the situation + and plan of the medieval town which suggest that its occupation had not + been continuous. Yet London and Canterbury must have recovered a certain + amount of importance quite early, at all events within two centuries + after the invasion, and the same is probably true of York, <!-- Page 593 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page593"></a>[v.04 + p.0593]</span>Lincoln and a few other places. The term applied to both + the cities and the fortresses of the Romans was <i>ceaster</i> (Lat. + <i>castra</i>), less frequently the English word <i>burg</i>. There is + little or no evidence for the existence of towns other than Roman in + early times, for the word <i>urbs</i> is merely a translation of + <i>burg</i>, which was used for any fortified dwelling-place, and it is + improbable that anything which could properly be called a town was known + to the invaders before their arrival in Britain. The Danish settlements + at the end of the 9th century and the defensive system initiated by King + Alfred gave birth to a new series of fortified towns, from which the + boroughs of the middle ages are mainly descended.</p> + + <p>8. <i>Houses.</i>—Owing to the fact that houses were built + entirely of perishable materials, wood and wattle, we are necessarily + dependent almost wholly upon literary evidence for knowledge of this + subject. Stone seems to have been used first for churches, but this was + not before the 7th century, and we are told that at first masons were + imported from Gaul. Indeed wood was used for many churches, as well as + for most secular buildings, until a much later period. The walls were + formed either of stout planks laid together vertically or horizontally, + or else of posts at a short distance from one another, the interstices + being filled up with wattlework daubed with clay. It is not unlikely that + the houses of wealthy persons were distinguished by a good deal of + ornamentation in carving and painting. The roof was high-pitched and + covered with straw, hay, reeds or tiles. The regular form of the + buildings was rectangular, the gable sides probably being shorter than + the others. There is little evidence for partitions inside, and in + wealthy establishments the place of rooms seems to have been supplied by + separate buildings within the same enclosure. The windows must have been + mere openings in the walls or roof, for glass was not used for this + purpose before the latter part of the 7th century. Stoves were known, but + most commonly heat was obtained from an open fire in the centre of the + building. Of the various buildings in a wealthy establishment the chief + were the hall (<i>heall</i>), which was both a dining and reception room, + and the "lady's bower" (<i>brydbur</i>), which served also as a bedroom + for the master and mistress. To these we have to add buildings for the + attendants, kitchen, bakehouse, &c., and farm buildings. There is + little or no evidence for the use of two-storeyed houses in early times, + though in the 10th and 11th centuries they were common. The whole group + of buildings stood in an enclosure (<i>tun</i>) surrounded by a stockade + (<i>burg</i>), which perhaps rested on an earthwork, though this is + disputed. Similarly the homestead of the peasant was surrounded by a + fence (<i>edor</i>).</p> + + <p>9. <i>Clothes.</i>—The chief material for clothing was at first + no doubt wool, though linen must also have been used and later became + fairly common. The chief garments were the coat (<i>roc</i>), the + trousers (<i>brec</i>), and the cloak, for which there seem to have been + a number of names (<i>loða</i>, <i>hacele</i>, <i>sciccing</i>, + <i>pad</i>, <i>hwitel</i>). To these we may add the hat (<i>haet</i>), + belt (<i>gyrdel</i>), stockings (<i>hosa</i>), shoes (<i>scoh</i>, + <i>gescy</i>, <i>rifeling</i>) and gloves (<i>glof</i>). The + <i>crusene</i> was a fur coat, while the <i>serc</i> or <i>smoc</i> seems + to have been an undergarment and probably sleeveless. The whole attire + was of national origin and had probably been in use long before the + invasion of Britain. In the great bog-deposit at Thorsbjaerg in Angel, + which dates from about the 4th century, there were found a coat with long + sleeves, in a fair state of preservation, a pair of long trousers with + remains of socks attached, several shoes and portions of square cloaks, + one of which had obviously been dyed green. The dress of the upper + classes must have been of a somewhat gorgeous character, especially when + account is taken of the brooches and other ornaments which they wore. It + is worth noting that according to Jordanes the Swedes in the 6th century + were splendidly dressed.</p> + + <p>10. <i>Trade.</i>—The few notices of this subject which occur in + the early laws seem to refer primarily to cattle-dealing. But there can + be no doubt that a considerable import and export trade with the + continent had sprung up quite early. In Bede's time, if not before, + London was resorted to by many merchants both by land and by sea. At + first the chief export trade was probably in slaves. English slaves were + to be obtained in Rome even before the end of the 6th century, as appears + from the well-known story of Gregory the Great. Since the standard price + of slaves on the continent was in general three or four times as great as + it was in England, the trade must have been very profitable. After the + adoption of Christianity it was gradually prohibited by the laws. The + nature of the imports during the heathen period may be learned chiefly + from the graves, which contain many brooches and other ornaments of + continental origin, and also a certain number of silver, bronze and glass + vessels. With the introduction of Christianity the ecclesiastical + connexion between England and the continent without doubt brought about a + large increase in the imports of secular as well as religious objects, + and the frequency of pilgrimages by persons of high rank must have had + the same effect. The use of silk (<i>seoluc</i>) and the adoption of the + mancus (see below) point to communication, direct or indirect, with more + distant countries. In the 8th century we hear frequently of tolls on + merchant ships at various ports, especially London.</p> + + <p>11. <i>Coinage.</i>—The earliest coins which can be identified + with certainty are some silver pieces which bear in Runic letters the + name of the Mercian king Æthelred (675-704). There are others, however, + of the same type and standard (about 21 grains) which may be attributed + with probability to his father Penda (d. 655). But it is clear from the + laws of Æthelberht that a regular silver coinage was in use at least half + a century before this time, and it is not unlikely that many unidentified + coins may go back to the 6th century. These are fairly numerous, and are + either without inscriptions or, if they do bear letters at all, they seem + to be mere corruptions of Roman legends. Their designs are derived from + Roman or Frankish coins, especially the former, and their weight varies + from about 10 to 21 grains, though the very light coins are rare. + Anonymous gold coins, resembling Frankish trientes in type and standard + (21 grains), are also fairly common, though they must have passed out of + use very early, as the laws give no hint of their existence. Larger gold + coins (<i>solidi</i>) are very rare. In the early laws the money actually + in use appears to have been entirely silver. In Offa's time a new gold + coin, the <i>mancus</i>, resembling in standard the Roman solidus (about + 70 grains), was introduced from Mahommedan countries. The oldest extant + specimen bears a faithfully copied Arabic inscription. In the same reign + the silver coins underwent a considerable change in type, being made + larger and thinner, while from this time onwards they always bore the + name of the king (or queen or archbishop) for whom they were issued. The + design and execution also became remarkably good. Their weight was at + first unaffected, but probably towards the close of Offa's reign it was + raised to about 23 grains, at which standard it seems to have remained, + nominally at least, until the time of Alfred. It is to be observed that + with the exception of Burgred's coins and a few anonymous pieces the + silver was never adulterated. No bronze coins were current except in + Northumbria, where they were extremely common in the 9th century.</p> + + <p>Originally <i>scilling</i> ("shilling") and <i>sceatt</i> seem to have + been the terms for gold and silver coins respectively. By the time of + Ine, however, <i>pending</i>, <i>pen(n)ing</i> ("penny"), had already + come into use for the latter, while, owing to the temporary disappearance + of a gold coinage, <i>scilling</i> had come to denote a mere unit of + account. It was, however, a variable unit, for the Kentish shilling + contained twenty <i>sceattas</i> (pence), while the Mercian contained + only four. The West Saxon shilling seems originally to have been + identical with the Mercian, but later it contained five pence. Large + payments were generally made by weight, 240-250 pence being reckoned to + the pound, perhaps from the 7th century onwards. The mancus was equated + with thirty pence, probably from the time of its introduction. This means + that the value of gold relatively to silver was 10:1 from the end of + Offa's reign. There is reason, however, for thinking that in earlier + times it was as low as 6:1, or even 5:1. In Northumbria a totally + different monetary system prevailed, the unit being the <i>tryms</i>, + which contained three <i>sceattas</i> or pence. As to the value of the + bronze coins we are without information.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 594 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page594"></a>[v.04 p.0594]</span></p> + + <p>The purchasing power of money was very great. The sheep was valued at + a shilling in both Wessex and Mercia, from early times till the 11th + century. One pound was the normal price of a slave and half a pound that + of a horse. The price of a pig was twice, and that of an ox six times as + great as that of a sheep. Regarding the prices of commodities other than + live-stock we have little definite information, though an approximate + estimate may be made of the value of arms. It is worth noticing that we + often hear of payments in gold and silver vessels in place of money. In + the former case the mancus was the usual unit of calculation.</p> + + <p>12. <i>Ornaments.</i>—Of these the most interesting are the + brooches which were worn by both sexes and of which large numbers have + been found in heathen cemeteries. They may be classed under eight leading + types: (1) circular or ring-shaped, (2) cruciform, (3) square-headed, (4) + radiated, (5) S-shaped, (6) bird-shaped, (7) disk-shaped, (8) cupelliform + or saucer-shaped. Of these Nos. 5 and 6 appear to be of continental + origin, and this is probably the case also with No. 4 and in part with + No. 7. But the last-mentioned type varies greatly, from rude and almost + plain disks of bronze to magnificent gold specimens studded with gems. + No. 8 is believed to be peculiar to England, and occurs chiefly in the + southern Midlands, specimens being usually found in pairs. The interiors + are gilt, often furnished with detachable plates and sometimes set with + brilliants. The remaining types were probably brought over by the + Anglo-Saxons at the time of the invasion. Nos. 1 and 3 are widespread + outside England, but No. 2, though common in Scandinavian countries, is + hardly to be met with south of the Elbe. It is worth noting that a number + of specimens were found in the cremation cemetery at Borgstedterfeld near + Rendsburg. In England it occurs chiefly in the more northern counties. + Nos. 2 and 3 vary greatly in size, from 2½ to 7 in. or more. The smaller + specimens are quite plain, but the larger ones are gilt and generally of + a highly ornamental character. In later times we hear of brooches worth + as much as six mancusas, <i>i.e.</i> equivalent to six oxen.</p> + + <p>Among other ornaments we may mention hairpins, rings and ear-rings, + and especially buckles which are often of elaborate workmanship. + Bracelets and necklets are not very common, a fact which is rather + surprising, as in early times, before the issuing of a coinage, these + articles (<i>beagas</i>) took the place of money to a large extent. The + glass vessels are finely made and of somewhat striking appearance, though + they closely resemble contemporary continental types. Since the art of + glass-working was unknown, according to Bede, until nearly the end of the + 7th century, it is probable that these were all of continental or + Roman-British origin.</p> + + <p>13. <i>Amusements</i>.—It is clear from the frequent references + to dogs and hawks in the charters that hunting and falconry were keenly + pursued by the kings and their retinues. Games, whether indoor or + outdoor, are much less frequently mentioned, but there is no doubt that + the use of dice (<i>taefl</i>) was widespread. At court much time was + given to poetic recitation, often accompanied by music, and accomplished + poets received liberal rewards. The chief musical instrument was the harp + (<i>hearpe</i>), which is often mentioned. Less frequently we hear of the + flute (<i>pipe</i>) and later also of the fiddle (<i>fiðele</i>). + Trumpets (<i>horn</i>, <i>swegelhorn</i>, <i>byme</i>) appear to have + been used chiefly as signals.</p> + + <p>14. <i>Writing.</i>—The Runic alphabet seems to have been the + only form of writing known to the Anglo-Saxons before the invasion of + Britain, and indeed until the adoption of Christianity. In its earliest + form, as it appears in inscriptions on various articles found in + Schleswig and in Scandinavian countries, it consisted of twenty-four + letters, all of which occur in abecedaria in England. In actual use, + however, two letters soon became obsolete, but a number of others were + added from time to time, some of which are found also on the continent, + while others are peculiar to certain parts of England. Originally the + Runic alphabet seems to have been used for writing on wooden boards, + though none of these have survived. The inscriptions which have come down + to us are engraved partly on memorial stones, which are not uncommon in + the north of England, and partly on various metal objects, ranging from + swords to brooches. The adoption of Christianity brought about the + introduction of the Roman alphabet; but the older form of writing did not + immediately pass out of use, for almost all the inscriptions which we + possess date from the 7th or following centuries. Coins with Runic + legends were issued at least until the middle of the 8th century, and + some of the memorial stones date probably even from the 9th. The most + important of the latter are the column at Bewcastle, Cumberland, believed + to commemorate Alhfrith, the son of Oswio, who died about 670, and the + cross at Ruthwell, Dumfriesshire, which is probably about a century + later. The Roman alphabet was very soon applied to the purpose of writing + the native language, <i>e.g.</i> in the publication of the laws of + Æthelberht. Yet the type of character in which even the earliest + surviving MSS. are written is believed to be of Celtic origin. Most + probably it was introduced by the Irish missionaries who evangelized the + north of England, though Welsh influence is scarcely impossible. + Eventually this alphabet was enlarged (probably before the end of the 7th + century) by the inclusion of two Runic letters for <i>th</i> and + <i>w</i>.</p> + + <p>15. <i>Marriage.</i>—This is perhaps the subject on which our + information is most inadequate. It is evident that the relationships + which prohibited marriage were different from those recognized by the + Church; but the only fact which we know definitely is that it was + customary, at least in Kent, for a man to marry his stepmother. In the + Kentish laws marriage is represented as hardly more than a matter of + purchase; but whether this was the case in the other kingdoms also the + evidence at our disposal is insufficient to decide. We know, however, + that in addition to the sum paid to the bride's guardian, it was + customary for the bridegroom to make a present (<i>morgengifu</i>) to the + bride herself, which, in the case of queens, often consisted of a + residence and considerable estates. Such persons also had retinues and + fortified residences of their own. In the Kentish laws provision is made + for widows to receive a proportionate share in their husbands' + property.</p> + + <p>16. <i>Funeral Rites.</i>—Both inhumation and cremation were + practised in heathen times. The former seems to have prevailed + everywhere; the latter, however, was much more common in the more + northern counties than in the south, though cases are fairly numerous + throughout the valley of the Thames. In <i>Beowulf</i> cremation is + represented as the prevailing custom. There is no evidence that it was + still practised when the Roman and Celtic missionaries arrived, but it is + worth noting that according to the tradition given in the Anglo-Saxon + Chronicle, Oxfordshire, where the custom seems to have been fairly + common, was not conquered before the latter part of the 6th century. The + burnt remains were generally, if not always, enclosed in urns and then + buried. The urns themselves are of clay, somewhat badly baked, and bear + geometrical patterns applied with a punch. They vary considerably in size + (from 4 to 12 in. or more in diameter) and closely resemble those found + in northern Germany. Inhumation graves are sometimes richly furnished. + The skeleton is laid out at full length, generally with the head towards + the west or north, a spear at one side and a sword and shield obliquely + across the middle. Valuable brooches and other ornaments are often found. + In many other cases, however, the grave contained nothing except a small + knife and a simple brooch or a few beads. Usually both classes of graves + lie below the natural surface of the ground without any perceptible trace + of a barrow.</p> + + <p>17. <i>Religion.</i>—Here again the information at our disposal + is very limited. There can be little doubt that the heathen Angli + worshipped certain gods, among them Ti (Tig), Woden, Thunor and a goddess + Frigg, from whom the names Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday and Friday are + derived. Ti was probably the same god of whom early Roman writers speak + under the name Mars (see <span class="sc">Týr</span>), while Thunor was + doubtless the thunder-god (see <span class="sc">Thor</span>). From Woden + (<i>q.v.</i>) most of the royal families traced their descent. Seaxneat, + the ancestor of the East Saxon dynasty, was also in all probability a god + (see <span class="sc">Essex, Kingdom of</span>).</p> + +<p><!-- Page 595 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page595"></a>[v.04 p.0595]</span></p> + + <p>Of anthropomorphic representations of the gods we have no clear + evidence, though we do hear of shrines in sacred enclosures, at which + sacrifices were offered. It is clear also that there were persons + specially set apart for the priesthood, who were not allowed to bear arms + or to ride except on mares. Notices of sacred trees and groves, springs, + stones, &c., are much more frequent than those referring to the gods. + We hear also a good deal of witches and valkyries, and of charms and + magic; as an instance we may cite the fact that certain (Runic) letters + were credited, as in the North, with the power of loosening bonds. It is + probable also that the belief in the spirit world and in a future life + was of a somewhat similar kind to what we find in Scandinavian religion. + (See <span class="sc">Teutonic Peoples</span>, §6.)</p> + + <p>The chief primary authorities are Gildas, <i>De Excidio + Britanniae</i>, and Nennius, <i>Historia Britonum</i> (ed. San-Marte, + Berlin, 1844); Th. Mommsen in <i>Mon. Germ. Hist., Auct. Antiquiss.</i>, + tom. xiii. (Berlin, 1898); Bede, <i>Hist. Eccl.</i> (ed. C. Plummer, + Oxford, 1896); the <i>Saxon Chronicle</i> (ed. C. Plummer, Oxford, + 1892-1899); and the <i>Anglo-Saxon Laws</i> (ed. F. Liebermann, Halle, + 1903), and Charters (W. de G. Birch, <i>Cartularium Saxonicum</i>, + London, 1885-1893). Modern authorities: Sh. Turner, <i>History of the + Anglo-Saxons</i> (London, 1799-1805; 7th ed., 1852); Sir F. Palgrave, + <i>Rise and Progress of the English Commonwealth</i> (London, 1831-1832); + J.M. Kemble, <i>The Saxons in England</i> (London, 1849; 2nd ed., 1876); + K. Maurer, <i>Kritische Überschau d. deutschen Gesetzgebung u. + Rechtswissenschaft</i>, vols. i.-iii. (Munich, 1853-1855); J.M. + Lappenberg, <i>Geschichte von England</i> (Hamburg, 1834); <i>History of + England under the Anglo-Saxon Kings</i> (London, 1845; 2nd ed., 1881); + J.R. Green, <i>The Making of England</i> (London, 1881); T. Hodgkin, + <i>History of England from the Earliest Times to the Norman Conquest</i> + (vol. i. of <i>The Political History of England</i>) (London, 1906); F. + Seebohm, <i>The English Village Community</i> (London, 1883); A. Meitzen, + <i>Siedelung und Agrarwesen d. Westgermanen, u. Ostgermanen, &c.</i> + (Berlin, 1895); Sir F. Pollock and F.W. Maitland, <i>History of English + Law</i> (Cambridge, 1895; 2nd ed., 1898); F.W. Maitland, <i>Domesday Book + and Beyond</i> (Cambridge, 1897); F. Seebohm, <i>Tribal Custom in + Anglo-Saxon Law</i> (London, 1903); P. Vinogradoff, <i>The Growth of the + Manor</i> (London, 1905); H.M. Chadwick, <i>Studies on Anglo-Saxon + Institutions</i> (Cambridge, 1905); <i>The Origin of the English + Nation</i> (<i>ib.</i>, 1907); M. Heyne, <i>Über die Lage und + Construction der Halle Heorot</i> (Paderborn, 1864); R. Henning, <i>Das + deutsche Haus</i> (<i>Quellen u. Forschungen</i>, 47) (Strassburg, 1882); + M. Heyne, <i>Deutsche Hausaltertümer</i>, i., ii., iii. (Leipzig, + 1900-1903); G. Baldwin Brown, <i>The Arts in Early England</i> (London, + 1903); C.F. Keary, <i>Catalogue of Anglo-Saxon Coins in the British + Museum</i>, vol. i. (London, 1887); C. Roach Smith, <i>Collectanea + Antiqua</i> (London, 1848-1868); R.C. Neville, <i>Saxon Obsequies</i> + (London, 1852); J.Y. Akerman, <i>Remains of Pagan Saxondom</i> (London, + 1855); Baron J. de Baye, <i>Industrie anglo-saxonne</i> (Paris, 1889); + <i>The Industrial Arts of the Anglo-Saxons</i> (London, 1893); G. + Stephens, <i>The Old Northern Runic Monuments</i> (London and Copenhagen, + 1866-1901); W. Vietor, <i>Die northumbrischen Runensteine</i> (Marburg, + 1895). Reference must also be made to the articles on Anglo-Saxon + antiquities in the <i>Victoria County Histories</i>, and to various + papers in <i>Archaeologia</i>, the <i>Archaeological Journal</i>, the + <i>Journal of the British Archaeological Society</i>, the <i>Proceedings + of the Society of Antiquaries</i>, the <i>Associated Architectural + Societies' Reports</i>, and other antiquarian journals.</p> + + <p>(H. M. C.)</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_091" href="#FnAnchor_091">[1]</a> The hide + (<i>hid</i>, <i>hiwisc</i>, <i>familia</i>, <i>tributarius</i>, + <i>cassatus</i>, <i>manens</i>, &c.) was in later times a measure of + land, usually 120 acres. In early times, however, it seems to have meant + (1) household, (2) normal amount of land appertaining to a household.</p> + +</div> + <p><b>BRITANNICUS</b>, son of the Roman emperor Claudius by his third + wife Messallina, was born probably <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 41. He + was originally called Claudius Tiberius Germanicus, and received the name + Britannicus from the senate on account of the conquest made in Britain + about the time of his birth. Till 48, the date of his mother's execution, + he was looked upon as the heir presumptive; but Agrippina, the new wife + of Claudius, soon persuaded the feeble emperor to adopt Lucius Domitius, + known later as Nero, her son by a previous marriage. After the accession + of Nero, Agrippina, by playing on his fears, induced him to poison + Britannicus at a banquet (<span class="scac">A.D.</span> 55). A golden + statue of the young prince was set up by the emperor Titus. Britannicus + is the subject of a tragedy by Racine.</p> + + <p>Tacitus, <i>Annals</i>, xii. 25, 41, xiii. 14-16; Suetonius, + <i>Nero</i>, 33; Dio Cassius lx. 32, 34; works quoted under <span + class="sc">Nero</span>.</p> + + <p><b>BRITISH CENTRAL AFRICA</b>, the general name given to the British + protectorates in South Central Africa north of the Zambezi river, but + more particularly to a large territory lying between 8° 25′ S. on + Lake Tanganyika and 17° 6′ S. on the river Shiré, near its + confluence with the Zambezi, and between 36° 10′ E. (district of + Mlanje) and 26° 30′ E. (river Luengwe-Kafukwe). Originally the term + "British Central Africa" was applied by Sir H.H. Johnston to all the + territories under British influence north of the Zambezi which were + formerly intended to be under one administration; but the course of + events having prevented the connexion of Barotseland (see <span + class="sc">Barotse</span>) and the other Rhodesian territories with the + more direct British administration north of the Zambezi, the name of + British Central Africa was confined officially (in 1893) to the British + protectorate on the Shiré and about Lake Nyasa. In 1907 the official + title of the protectorate was changed to that of Nyasaland Protectorate, + while the titles "North Eastern Rhodesia" and "North Western Rhodesia" + (Barotseland) have been given to the two divisions of the British South + Africa Company's territory north of the Zambezi. The western boundary, + however, of the territory here described has been taken to be a line + drawn from near the source of the Lualaba on the southern boundary of + Belgian Congo to the western source of the Luanga river, and thence the + course of the Luanga to its junction with the Luengwe-Kafukwe, after + which the main course of the Kafukwe delimits the territory down to the + Zambezi. Thus, besides the Nyasaland Protectorate and North Eastern + Rhodesia, part of North Western Rhodesia is included, and for the whole + of this region British Central Africa is the most convenient + designation.</p> + + <p><i>Physical Features.</i>—Within these limits we have a + territory of about 250,000 sq. m., which includes two-thirds of Lake + Nyasa, the south end of Lake Tanganyika, more than half Lake Mweru, and + the whole of Lake Bangweulu, nearly the whole courses of the rivers Shiré + and Luangwa (or Loangwa), the whole of the river Chambezi (the most + remote of the headwaters of the river Congo), the right or east bank of + the Luapula (or upper Congo) from its exit from Lake Bangweulu to its + issue from the north end of Lake Mweru; also the river Luanga and the + whole course of the Kafue or Kafukwe.<a name="FnAnchor_101" + href="#Footnote_101"><sup>[1]</sup></a> Other lesser sheets of water + included within the limits of this territory are the Great Mweru Swamp, + between Tanganyika and Mweru, Moir's Lake (a small mountain + tarn—possibly a crater lake—lying between the Luangwa and the + Luapula), Lake Malombe (on the upper Shiré), and the salt lake Chilwa + (wrongly styled Shirwa, being the Bantu word <i>Kilwa</i>), which lies on + the borders of the Portuguese province of Moçambique. The southern border + of this territory is the north bank of the Zambezi from the confluence of + the Kafukwe to that of the Luangwa at Zumbo. Eastwards of Zumbo, British + Central Africa is separated from the river Zambezi by the Portuguese + possessions; nevertheless, considerably more than two-thirds of the + country lies within the Zambezi basin, and is included within the + subordinate basins of Lake Nyasa and of the rivers Luangwa and + Luengwe-Kafukwe. The remaining portions drain into the basins of the + river Congo and of Lake Tanganyika, and also into the small lake or + half-dried swamp called Chilwa, which at the present time has no outlet, + though in past ages it probably emptied itself into the Lujenda river, + and thence into the Indian Ocean.</p> + + <p>As regards orographical features, much of the country is high plateau, + with an average altitude of 3500 ft. above sea-level. Only a very minute + portion of its area—the country along the banks of the river + Shiré—lies at anything like a low elevation; though the Luangwa + valley may not be more than about 900 ft. above sea-level. Lake Nyasa + lies at an elevation of 1700 ft. above the sea, is about 350 m. long, + with a breadth varying from 15 to 40 m. Lake Tanganyika is about 2600 ft. + above sea-level, with a length of about 400 m. and an average breadth of + nearly 40 m. Lake Mweru and Lake Bangweulu are respectively 3000 and 3760 + ft. above sea-level; Lake Chilwa is 1946 ft. in altitude. The highest + mountain found within the limits previously laid down is Mount Mlanje, in + the extreme south-eastern corner of the protectorate. This remarkable and + picturesque mass is an isolated "chunk" of the Archean plateau, through + which at a later date there has been a volcanic outburst of basalt. The + summit and sides of this mass exhibit several craters. The highest peak + of Mlanje reaches an altitude of 9683 ft. (In German territory, near the + north end of Lake Nyasa, and close to the British frontier, is Mount + Rungwe, the altitude of which exceeds 10,000 ft.) Other high mountains + are Mounts Chongone and Dedza, in Angoniland, which reach an altitude of + 7000 ft., and points on the Nyika Plateau and in the Konde Mountains to + the north-west of Lake Nyasa, which probably exceed a height of 8000 ft. + There are also Mounts Zomba (6900 ft.) and Chiradzulu (5500 ft.) in the + Shiré Highlands. The principal plateaus or high ridges are (1) the Shiré + Highlands, a clump of mountainous country lying between the river Shiré, + the river Ruo, Lake Chilwa and the south end of Lake Nyasa; (2) + Angoniland—a stretch of elevated country to the west of Lake Nyasa + and the north-west of the river <!-- Page 596 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page596"></a>[v.04 p.0596]</span>Shiré; (3) the Nyika Plateau, + which lies to the north of Angoniland; and (4) the Nyasa-Tanganyika + Plateau, between the basin of the river Luangwa, the vicinity of + Tanganyika and the vicinity of Lake Mweru (highest point, 7000-8000 ft.). + Finally may be mentioned the tract of elevated country between Lake + Bangweulu and the river Luapula, and between Lake Bangweulu and the basin + of the Luangwa; and also the Lukinga (Mushinga) or Ugwara Mountains of + North Western Rhodesia, which attain perhaps to altitudes of 6000 ft.</p> + + <p>The whole of this part of Africa is practically without any stretch of + desert country, being on the whole favoured with an abundant rainfall. + The nearest approach to a desert is the rather dry land to the east and + north-east of Lake Mweru. Here, and in parts of the lower Shiré district, + the annual rainfall probably does not exceed an average of 35 in. + Elsewhere, in the vicinity of the highest mountains, the rainfall may + attain an average of 75 in., in parts of Mount Mlanje possibly often + reaching to 100 in. in the year. The average may be put at 50 in. per + annum, which is also about the average rainfall of the Shiré Highlands, + that part of British Central Africa which at present attracts the + greatest number of European settlers.</p> + + <p><i>Geology.</i>—The whole formation is Archean and Primary (with + a few modern plutonic outbursts), and chiefly consists of granite, + felspar, quartz, gneiss, schists, amphibolite and other Archean rocks, + with Primary sandstones and limestones in the basin of Lake Nyasa (a + great rift depression), the river Shiré, and the regions within the + northern watershed of the Zambezi river. Sandstones of Karroo age occur + in the basin of the Luangwa (N.E. Rhodesia). There are evidences of + recent volcanic activity on the summit of the small Mlanje plateau (S.E. + corner of the protectorate: here there are two extinct craters with a + basaltic outflow), and at the north end of Lake Nyasa and the eastern + edge of the Tanganyika plateau. Here there are many craters and much + basalt, or even lava; also hot springs.</p> + + <p><i>Metals and Minerals.</i>—Gold has been found in the Shiré + Highlands, in the hills along the Nyasa-Zambezi waterparting, and in the + mountainous region west of Lake Nyasa; silver (galena, silver-lead) in + the hills of the Nyasa-Zambezi waterparting; lead in the same district; + graphite in the western basin of Lake Nyasa; copper (pyrites and pure + ore) in the west Nyasa region and in the hills of North Western and North + Eastern Rhodesia; iron ore almost universally; mica almost universally; + coal occurs in the north and west Nyasa districts (especially in the + Karroo sandstones of the Rukuru valley), and perhaps along the + Zambezi-Nyasa waterparting; limestone in the Shiré basin; malachite in + south-west Angoniland and North Western Rhodesia; and perhaps petroleum + in places along the Nyasa-Zambezi waterparting. (See also <span + class="sc">Rhodesia</span>.)</p> + + <p><i>Flora</i>.—No part of the country comes within the forest + region of West Africa. The whole of it may be said to lie within the + savannah or park-like division of the continent. As a general rule, the + landscape is of a pleasing and attractive character, well covered with + vegetation and fairly well watered. Actual forests of lofty trees, + forests of a West African type, are few in number, and are chiefly + limited to portions of the Nyika, Angoniland and Shiré Highlands + plateaus, and to a few nooks in valleys near the south end of Tanganyika. + Patches of forest of tropical luxuriance may still be seen on the slopes + of Mounts Mlanje and Chiradzulu. On the upper plateaus of Mount Mlanje + there are forests of a remarkable conifer (<i>Widdringtonia whytei</i>), + a relation of the cypress, which in appearance resembles much more the + cedar, and is therefore wrongly styled the "Mlanje cedar." This tree is + remarkable as being the most northern form of a group of yew-like + conifers confined otherwise to South Africa (Cape Colony). Immense areas + in the lower-lying plains are covered by long, coarse grass, sometimes + reaching 10 ft. in height. Most of the West African forest trees are + represented in British Central Africa. A full list of the known flora has + been compiled by Sir W. Thiselton-Dyer and his assistants at Kew, and is + given in the first and second editions of Sir H. H. Johnston's work on + British Central Africa. Amongst the principal vegetable products of the + country interesting for commercial purposes may be mentioned tobacco + (partly native varieties and partly introduced); coffee (wild coffee is + said to grow in some of the mountainous districts, but the actual coffee + cultivated by the European settlers has been introduced from abroad); + rubber—derived chiefly from the various species of + <i>Landolphia</i>, <i>Ficus</i>, <i>Clitandra</i>, <i>Carpodinus</i> and + <i>Conopharygia</i>, and from other apocynaceous plants; the + <i>Strophanthus</i> pod (furnishing a valuable drug); ground-nuts + (<i>Arachis</i> and <i>Voandzeia</i>); the cotton plant; all African + cultivated cereals (<i>Sorghum</i>, <i>Pennisetum</i>, maize, rice, + wheat—cultivated chiefly by Europeans—and <i>Eleusine</i>); + and six species of palms—the oil palm on the north-west (near Lake + Nyasa, at the south end of Tanganyika and on the Luapula), the + <i>Borassus</i> and <i>Hyphaene</i>, <i>Phoenix</i> (or wild date), + <i>Raphia</i> and the coco-nut palm. The last named was introduced by + Arabs and Europeans, and is found on Lake Nyasa and on the lower Shiré. + Most of the European vegetables have been introduced, and thrive + exceedingly well, especially the potato. The mango has also been + introduced from India, and has taken to the Shiré Highlands as to a + second home. Oranges, lemons and limes have been planted by Europeans and + Arabs in a few districts. European fruit trees do not ordinarily + flourish, though apples are grown to some extent at Blantyre. The vine + hitherto has proved a failure. Pineapples give the best result among + cultivated fruit, and strawberries do well in the higher districts. In + the mountains the native wild brambles give blackberries of large size + and excellent flavour. The vegetable product through which this + protectorate first attracted trade was coffee, the export of which, + however, has passed through very disheartening fluctuations. In + 1905-1906, 773,919 lb of coffee (value £16,123) were exported; but during + this twelve months the crop of cotton—quite a newly developed + product, rose to 776,621 lb, from 285,185 lb in 1904-1905. An equally + marked increase in tobacco and ground-nuts (<i>Arachis</i>) has taken + place. Beeswax is a rising export.</p> + + <p><i>Fauna.</i>—The fauna is on the whole very rich. It has + affinities in a few respects with the West African forest region, but + differs slightly from the countries to the north and south by the absence + of such animals as prefer drier climates, as for instance the oryx + antelopes, gazelles and the ostrich. There is a complete blank in the + distribution of this last between the districts to the south of the + Zambezi and those of East Africa between Victoria Nyanza and the Indian + Ocean. The giraffe is found in the Luanga valley; it is also met with in + the extreme north-east of the country. The ordinary African rhinoceros is + still occasionally, but very rarely, seen in the Shiré Highlands, The + African elephant is fairly common throughout the whole territory. Lions + and leopards are very abundant; the zebra is still found in great + numbers, and belongs to the Central African variety of Burchell's zebra, + which is completely striped down to the hoofs, and is intermediate in + many particulars between the true zebra of the mountains and Burchell's + zebra of the plains. The principal antelopes found are the sable and the + roan (<i>Hippotragus</i>), five species of <i>Cobus</i> or waterbuck (the + puku, the Senga puku, the lechwe, Crawshay's waterbuck and the common + waterbuck); the pallah, tsessébe (<i>Damaliscus</i>), hartebeest, + brindled gnu (perhaps two species), several duykers (including the large + <i>Cephalophus sylvicultrix</i>), klipspringer, oribi, steinbok and + reedbuck. Among tragelaphs are two or more bushbucks, the inyala, the + water tragelaph (<i>Limnotragus selousi</i>), the kudu and Livingstone's + eland. The only buffalo is the common Cape species. The hyaena is the + spotted kind. The hunting dog is present. There are some seven species of + monkeys, including two baboons and one colobus. The hippopotamus is found + in the lakes and rivers, and all these sheets of water are infested with + crocodiles, apparently belonging to but one species, the common Nile + crocodile.</p> + + <p><i>Inhabitants.</i>—The human race is represented by only one + indigenous native type—the Negro. No trace is anywhere found of a + Hamitic intermixture (unless perhaps at the north end of Lake Nyasa, + where the physique of the native Awankonde recalls that of the Nilotic + negro). Arabs from Zanzibar have settled in the country, but not, as far + as is known, earlier than the beginning of the 19th century. As the + present writer takes the general term "Negro" to include equally the + Bantu, Hottentot, Bushman and Congo Pygmy, this designation will cover + all the natives of British Central Africa. The Bantu races, however, + exhibit in some parts signs of Hottentot or Bushman intermixture, and + there are legends in some mountain districts, especially Mount Mlanje, of + the former existence of unmixed Bushman tribes, while Bushman stone + implements are found at the south end of Tanganyika. At the present day + the population is, as a rule, of a black or chocolate-coloured Negro + type, and belongs, linguistically, entirely and exclusively to the Bantu + family. The languages spoken offer several very interesting forms of + Bantu speech, notably in the districts between the north end of Lake + Nyasa, the south end of Lake Tanganyika, and the river Luapula. In the + more or less plateau country included within these geographical limits, + the Bantu dialects are of an archaic type, and to the present writer it + has seemed as though one of them, Kibemba or Kiwemba, came near to the + original form of the Bantu mother-language, though not nearer than the + interesting Subiya of southern Barotseland. Through dialects spoken on + the west and north of Tanganyika, these languages of North Eastern + Rhodesia and northern Nyasaland and of the Kafukwe basin are connected + with the Bantu languages of Uganda. They also offer a slight resemblance + to Zulu-Kaffir, and it would seem as though the Zulu-Kaffir race must + have come straight down from the countries to the north-east of + Tanganyika, across the Zambezi, to their present home. Curiously enough, + some hundreds of years after this southward migration, intestine wars and + conflicts actually determined a north-eastward return migration of Zulus. + From Matabeleland, Zulu tribes crossed the Zambezi at various periods + (commencing from about 1820), and gradually extended their ravages and + dominion over the plateaus to the west, north and north-east of Lake + Nyasa. The Zulu language is still spoken by the dominating caste in West + <!-- Page 597 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page597"></a>[v.04 + p.0597]</span>Nyasaland (see further <span class="sc">Zululand</span>: + <i>Ethnology</i>; <span class="sc">Rhodesia</span>: <i>Ethnology</i>; and + <span class="sc">Yaos</span>). As regards foreign settlers in this part + of Africa, the Arabs may be mentioned first, though they are now met with + only in very small numbers. The Arabs undoubtedly first <i>heard</i> of + this rich country—rich not alone in natural products such as ivory, + but also in slaves of good quality—from their settlements near the + delta of the river Zambezi, and these settlements may date back to an + early period, and might be coeval with the suggested pre-Islamite Arab + settlements in the gold-bearing regions of South East Africa. But the + Arabs do not seem to have made much progress in their penetration of the + country in the days before firearms; and when firearms came into use they + were for a long time forestalled by the Portuguese, who ousted them from + the Zambezi. But about the beginning of the 19th century the increasing + power and commercial enterprise of the Arab sultanate of Zanzibar caused + the Arabs of Maskat and Zanzibar to march inland from the east coast. + They gradually founded strong slave-trading settlements on the east and + west coasts of Lake Nyasa, and thence westwards to Tanganyika and the + Luapula. They never came in great numbers, however, and, except here and + there on the coast of Lake Nyasa, have left no mixed descendants in the + population. The total native population of all British Central Africa is + about 2,000,000, that of the Nyasaland Protectorate being officially + estimated in 1907 at 927,355. Of Europeans the protectorate possesses + about 600 to 700 settlers, including some 100 officials. (For the + European population of the other territories, see <span + class="sc">Rhodesia</span>.) The Europeans of British Central Africa are + chiefly natives of the United Kingdom or South Africa, but there are a + few Germans, Dutchmen, French, Italians and Portuguese. The protectorate + has also attracted a number of Indian traders (over 400), besides whom + about 150 British Indian soldiers (Sikhs) are employed as the nucleus of + an armed force.<a name="FnAnchor_102" + href="#Footnote_102"><sup>[2]</sup></a></p> + + <p><i>Trade and Communications.</i>—The total value of the trade of + the protectorate in the year 1899-1900 was £255,384, showing an increase + of 75% on the figures for the previous year, 1898-1899. Imports were + valued at £176,035, an increase of 62%, and exports at £79,449, an + increase of 109%. In 1905-1906 the imports reached £222,581 and the + exports £56,778. The value of imports into the Rhodesian provinces during + the same period was about £50,000, excluding railway material, and the + exports £18,000. The principal exports are (besides minerals) coffee, + cotton, tobacco, rubber and ivory. A number of Englishmen and Scotsmen + (perhaps 200) are settled, mainly in the Shiré Highlands, as coffee + planters.</p> + + <p>From the Chinde mouth of the Zambezi to Port Herald on the lower Shiré + communication is maintained by light-draught steamers, though in the dry + season (April-November) steamers cannot always ascend as far as Port + Herald, and barges have to be used to complete the voyage. A railway runs + from Port Herald to Blantyre, the commercial capital of the Shiré + Highlands. The "Cape to Cairo" railway, which crossed the Zambezi in 1905 + and the Kafukwe in 1906, reached the Broken Hill mine in 1907, and in + 1909 was continued to the frontier of Belgian Congo. There are regular + services by steamer between the ports on Lakes Nyasa and Tanganyika. The + African trans-continental telegraph line (founded by Cecil Rhodes) runs + through the protectorate, and a branch line has been established from + Lake Nyasa to Fort Jameson, the present headquarters of the Chartered + Company in North Eastern Rhodesia.</p> + + <p><i>Towns.</i>—The principal European settlement or town is + Blantyre (<i>q.v.</i>), at a height of about 3000 ft. above the sea, in + the Shiré Highlands. This place was named after Livingstone's birthplace, + and was founded in 1876 by the Church of Scotland mission. The government + capital of the protectorate, however, is Zomba, at the base of the + mountain of that name. Other townships or sites of European settlements + are Port Herald (on the lower Shiré), Chiromo (at the junction of the Ruo + and the Shiré), Fort Anderson (on Mount Mlanje), Fort Johnston (near the + outlet of the river Shiré from the south end of Lake Nyasa), Kotakota and + Bandawe (on the west coast of Lake Nyasa), Likoma (on an island off the + east coast of Lake Nyasa), Karonga (on the north-west coast of Lake + Nyasa), Fife (on the Nyasa-Tanganyika plateau), Fort Jameson (capital of + N.E. Rhodesia, near the river Luangwa), Abercorn (on the south end of + Lake Tanganyika), Kalungwisi (on the east coast of Lake Mweru) and Fort + Rosebery (near the Johnston Falls on the Luapula [upper Congo]).</p> + + <p><i>Administration.</i>—The present political divisions of the + country are as follows:—The Nyasaland Protectorate, <i>i.e.</i> the + districts surrounding Lake Nyasa and the Shiré province, are administered + directly under the imperial government by a governor, who acts under the + orders of the colonial office. The governor is assisted by an executive + council and by a nominated legislative council, which consists of at + least three members. The districts to the westward, forming the provinces + of North Eastern and North Western Rhodesia, are governed by two + administrators of the British South Africa Chartered Company, in + consultation with the governor of Nyasaland and the colonial office.</p> + + <p><i>History.</i>—The history of the territory dealt with above is + recent and slight. Apart from the vague Portuguese wanderings during the + 16th and 17th centuries, the first European explorer of any education who + penetrated into this country was the celebrated Portuguese official, Dr + F.J.M. de Lacerda e Almeida, who journeyed from Tete on the Zambezi to + the vicinity of Lake Mweru. But the real history of the country begins + with the advent of David Livingstone, who in 1859 penetrated up the Shiré + river and discovered Lake Nyasa. Livingstone's subsequent journeys, to + the south end of Tanganyika, to Lake Mweru and to Lake Bangweulu (where + he died in 1873), opened up this important part of South Central Africa + and centred in it British interests in a very particular manner. + Livingstone's death was soon followed by the entry of various missionary + societies, who commenced the evangelization of the country; and these + missionaries, together with a few Scottish settlers, steadily opposed the + attempts of the Portuguese to extend their sway in this direction from + the adjoining provinces of Moçambique and of the Zambezi. From out of the + missionary societies grew a trading company, the African Lakes Trading + Corporation. This body came into conflict with a number of Arabs who had + established themselves on the north end of Lake Nyasa. About 1885 a + struggle began between Arab and Briton for the possession of the country, + which was not terminated until the year 1896. The African Lakes + Corporation in its unofficial war enlisted volunteers, amongst whom were + Captain (afterwards Sir F.D.) Lugard and Mr (afterwards Sir) Alfred + Sharpe. Both these gentlemen were wounded, and the operations they + undertook were not crowned with complete success. In 1889 Mr (afterwards + Sir) H.H. Johnston was sent out to endeavour to effect a possible + arrangement of the dispute between the Arabs and the African Lakes + Corporation, and also to ensure the protection of friendly native chiefs + from Portuguese aggression beyond a certain point. The outcome of these + efforts and the treaties made was the creation of the British + protectorate and sphere of influence north of the Zambezi (see <span + class="sc">Africa</span>; § 5). In 1891 Johnston returned to the country + as imperial commissioner and consul-general. In the interval between 1889 + and 1891 Mr Alfred Sharpe, on behalf of Cecil Rhodes, had brought a large + part of the country into treaty with the British South Africa Company, + These territories (Northern Rhodesia) were administered for four years by + Sir Harry Johnston in connexion with the British Central Africa + protectorate. Between 1891 and 1895 a long struggle continued, between + the British authorities on the one hand and the Arabs and Mahommedan Yaos + on the other, regarding the suppression of the slave trade. By the + beginning of 1896 the last Arab stronghold was taken and the Yaos were + completely reduced to submission. Then followed, during 1896-1898, wars + with the Zulu (Angoni) tribes, who claimed to dominate and harass the + native populations to the west of Lake Nyasa. The Angoni having been + subdued, and the British South Africa Company having also quelled the + turbulent Awemba and Bashukulumbwe, there is a reasonable hope of the + country enjoying a settled peace and considerable prosperity. This + prospect has been, indeed, already realized to a considerable extent, + though the increase of commerce has scarcely been as rapid as was + anticipated. In 1897, on the transference of Sir Harry Johnston to Tunis, + the commissionership was conferred on Mr Alfred Sharpe, who was created a + K.C.M.G. in 1903. In 1904 the administration of the protectorate, + originally directed by the foreign office, was transferred to the + colonial office. In 1907, on the change in the title of the protectorate, + the designation of the chief official was altered from commissioner to + governor, and executive and legislative councils were established. The + mineral <!-- Page 598 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page598"></a>[v.04 p.0598]</span>surveys and railway construction + commenced under the foreign office were carried on vigorously under the + colonial office. The increased revenue, from £51,000 in 1901-1902 to + £76,000 in 1905-1906, for the protectorate alone (see also <span + class="sc">Rhodesia</span>), is an evidence of increasing prosperity. + Expenditure in excess of revenue is met by grants in aid from the + imperial exchequer, so far as the Nyasaland Protectorate is concerned. + The British South Africa Company finances the remainder. The native + population is well disposed towards European rule, having, indeed, at all + times furnished the principal contingent of the armed force with which + the African Lakes Company, British South Africa Company or the British + government endeavoured to oppose Arab, Zulu or Awemba aggression. The + protectorate government maintains three gunboats on Lake Nyasa, and the + British South Africa Company an armed steamer on Lake Tanganyika.</p> + + <p>Unfortunately, though so rich and fertile, the land is not as a rule + very healthy for Europeans, though there are signs of improvement in this + respect. The principal scourges are black-water fever and dysentery, + besides ordinary malarial fever, malarial ulcers, pneumonia and + bronchitis. The climate is agreeable, and except in the low-lying + districts is never unbearably hot; while on the high mountain plateaus + frost frequently occurs during the dry season.</p> + + <p>See <i>Narrative of an Expedition to the Zambezi</i>, &c., by + David and Charles Livingstone (1865); <i>Last Journals of David + Livingstone</i>, edited by the Rev. Horace Waller (1874); L. Monteith + Fotheringham, <i>Adventures in Nyasaland</i> (1891); Henry Drummond, + <i>Tropical Africa</i> (4th ed., 1891); Rev. D.C. Scott, <i>An + Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Mang'anja Language, as spoken in British + Central Africa</i> (1891); Sir H.H. Johnston, <i>British Central + Africa</i> (2nd ed., 1898); Miss A. Werner, <i>The Natives of British + Central Africa</i> (1906); John Buchanan, <i>The Shiré Highlands</i> + (1885); Lionel Décle, <i>Three Years in Savage Africa</i> (1898); H.L. + Duff, <i>Nyasaland under the Foreign Office</i> (1903); J.E.S. Moore, + <i>The Tanganyika Problem</i> (1904); articles on North Eastern and North + Western Rhodesia (chiefly by Frank Melland) in the <i>Journal of the + African Society</i> (1902-1906); annual <i>Reports</i> on British Central + Africa published by the Colonial Office; various linguistic works by Miss + A. Werner, the Rev. Govan Robertson, Dr R. Laws, A.C. Madan, Father + Torrend and Monsieur E. Jacottet.</p> + + <p>(H. H. J.)</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_101" href="#FnAnchor_101">[1]</a> The nomenclature + of several of these rivers is perplexing. It should be borne in mind that + the Luanga (also known as the Lunga) is a tributary of the + Luengwe-Kafukwe, itself often called Kafue, and that the Luangwa (or + Loangwa) is an independent affluent of the Zambezi (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_102" href="#FnAnchor_102">[2]</a> The organized + armed forces and police are under the direction of the imperial + government throughout British Central Africa, and number about 880 (150 + Sikhs, 730 negroes and 14 British officers).</p> + +</div> + <p><b>BRITISH COLUMBIA,</b> the western province of the Dominion of + Canada. It is bounded on the east by the continental watershed in the + Rocky Mountains, until this, in its north-westerly course, intersects + 120° W., which is followed north to 60° N., thus including within the + province a part of the Peace river country to the east of the mountains. + The southern boundary is formed by 49° N. and the strait separating + Vancouver Island from the state of Washington. The northern boundary is + 60° N., the western the Pacific Ocean, upon which the province fronts for + about 600 m., and the coast strip of Alaska for a further distance of 400 + m. Vancouver Island and the Queen Charlotte Islands, as well as the + smaller islands lying off the western coast of Canada, belong to the + province of British Columbia.</p> + + <p><i>Physical Features.</i>—British Columbia is essentially a + mountainous country, for the Rocky Mountains which in the United States + lie to the east of the Great Basin, on running to the north bear toward + the west and approach the ranges which border the Pacific coast. Thus + British Columbia comprises practically the entire width of what has been + termed the Cordillera or Cordilleran belt of North America, between the + parallels of latitude above indicated. There are two ruling mountain + systems in this belt—the Rocky Mountains proper on the north-east + side, and the Coast Range on the south-west or Pacific side. Between + these are subordinate ranges to which various local names have been + given, as well as the "Interior Plateau"—an elevated tract of hilly + country, the hill summits having an accordant altitude, which lies to the + east of the Coast Range. The several ranges, having been produced by + successive foldings of the earth's crust in a direction parallel to the + border of the Pacific Ocean, have a common trend which is south-east and + north-west. Vancouver Island and the Queen Charlotte Islands are remnants + of still another mountain range, which runs parallel to the coast but is + now almost entirely submerged beneath the waters of the Pacific. The + province might be said to consist of a series of parallel mountain ranges + with long narrow valleys lying between them.</p> + + <p>The Rocky Mountains are composed chiefly of palaeozoic sediments + ranging in age from the Cambrian to the Carboniferous, with subordinate + infolded areas of Cretaceous which hold coal. The average height of the + range along the United States boundary is 8000 ft., but the range + culminates between the latitudes of 51° and 53°, the highest peak in the + Canadian Rockies being Mount Robson, 13,700 ft., although the highest + peak in British Columbia is Mount Fairweather on the International + Boundary, which rises to 15,287 ft. Other high peaks in the Rocky + Mountains of Canada are Columbia, 12,740 ft.; Forbes, 12,075; + Assiniboine, 11,860; Bryce. 11,686; Temple, 11,626; Lyell, 11,463. There + are a number of passes over the Rocky Mountains, among which may be + mentioned, beginning from the south, the South Kootenay or Boundary Pass, + 7100 ft.; the Crow's Nest Pass, 5500 (this is traversed by the southern + branch of the Canadian Pacific railway and crosses great coal fields); + the Kicking Horse or Wapta Pass, 5300 (which is traversed by the main + line of the Canadian Pacific railway); the Athabasca Pass, 6025; the + Yellow Head Pass, 3733 (which will probably be used by the Grand Trunk + Pacific railway); the Pine River Pass, 2850; and the Peace River Pass, + 2000, through which the Peace river flows.</p> + + <p>The Coast Range, sometimes called the Cascade Range, borders the + Pacific coast for 900 m. and gives to it its remarkable character. To its + partially submerged transverse valleys are due the excellent harbours on + the coast, the deep sounds and inlets which penetrate far inland at many + points, as well as the profound and gloomy fjords and the stupendous + precipices which render the coast line an exaggerated reproduction of + that of Norway. The coast is, in fact, one of the most remarkable in the + world, measuring with all its indentations 7000 m. in the aggregate, and + being fringed with an archipelago of innumerable islands, of which + Vancouver Island and the Queen Charlotte Islands are the largest.</p> + + <p>Along the south-western side of the Rocky Mountains is a very + remarkable valley of considerable geological antiquity, in which some + seven of the great rivers of the Pacific slope, among them the Kootenay, + Columbia, Fraser and Finlay, flow for portions of their upper courses. + This valley, which is from 1 to 6 m. in width, can be traced continuously + for a length of at least 800 m. One of the most important rivers of the + province is the Fraser, which, rising in the Rocky Mountains, flows for a + long distance to the north-west, and then turning south eventually + crosses the Coast Range by a deep canton-like valley and empties into the + Strait of Georgia, a few miles south of the city of Vancouver. The + Columbia, which rises farther south in the same range, flows north for + about 150 m., crossing the main line of the Canadian Pacific railway at + Donald, and then bending abruptly back upon its former course, flows + south, recrossing the Canadian Pacific railway at Revelstoke, and on + through the Arrow Lakes in the Kootenay country into the United States, + emptying into the Pacific Ocean at Astoria in the state of Oregon. These + lakes, as well as the other large lakes in southern British Columbia, + remain open throughout the winter. In the north-western part of the + province the Skeena flows south-west into the Pacific, and still farther + to the north the Stikine rises in British Columbia, but before entering + the Pacific crosses the coast strip of Alaska. The Liard, rising in the + same district, flows east and falls into the Mackenzie, which empties + into the Arctic Ocean. The headwaters of the Yukon are also situated in + the northern part of the province. All these rivers are swift and are + frequently interrupted by rapids, so that, as means of communication for + commercial purposes, they are of indifferent value. Wherever lines of + railway are constructed, they lose whatever importance they may have held + in this respect previously.</p> + + <p>At an early stage in the Glacial period British Columbia was covered + by the Cordilleran glacier, which moved south-eastwards and + north-westwards, in correspondence with the ruling features of the + country, from a gathering-ground situated in the vicinity of the 57th + parallel. Ice from this glacier poured through passes in the coast + ranges, and to a lesser extent debouched upon the edge of the great + plains, beyond the Rocky Mountain range. The great valley between the + coast ranges and Vancouver Island was also occupied by a glacier that + moved in both directions from a central point in the vicinity of Valdez + Island. The effects of this glacial action and of the long periods of + erosion preceding it and of other physiographic changes connected with + its passing away, have most important bearings on the distribution and + character of the gold-bearing alluviums of the province.</p> + + <p><i>Climate.</i>—The subjoined figures relating to temperature + and precipitation are from a table prepared by Mr R.F. Stupart, director + of the meteorological service. The station at Victoria may be taken as + representing the conditions of the southern part of the coast of British + Columbia, although the rainfall is much greater on exposed parts of the + outer coast. Agassiz represents the Fraser delta and Kamloops the + southern interior district. The mean temperature naturally decreases to + the northward of these selected stations, both along the coast and in the + interior, while the precipitation increases. The figures given for Port + Simpson are of interest, as the Pacific terminus of the Grand Trunk + Pacific railway will be in this vicinity.</p> + + +<table width="88%" class="allbnomar" summary="Climate of British Columbia." title="Climate of British Columbia."> + <tr> + <td class="verttopb" style="text-align:left; width:21%"> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center" colspan="3"> + <p>Mean Temp., Fahr.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center" colspan="2"> + <p>Absolute Temperature.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center" colspan="3"> + <p>Rainfall—Inches.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center; width:14%"> + <p>Coldest Month.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center; width:14%"> + <p>Warmest Month.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center; width:5%"> + <p>Average Annual.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center; width:5%"> + <p>Highest.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center; width:5%"> + <p>Lowest.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center; width:14%"> + <p>Wettest Month.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center; width:14%"> + <p>Driest Month.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center; width:5%"> + <p>Average Annual.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Victoria<a name="FnAnchor_111" + href="#Footnote_111"><sup>[1]</sup></a></p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Jan. 37.5°</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>July 60.3°</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>48.8°</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>90°</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>-1°</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Dec. 7.98</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>July .4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>37.77</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Agassiz<a name="FnAnchor_112" + href="#Footnote_112"><sup>[2]</sup></a></p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Jan. 33.0°</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Aug. 64.7°</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>48.9°</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>97°</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>-13°</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Dec. 9.43</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>July 1.55</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>66.85</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Kamloops<a name="FnAnchor_113" + href="#Footnote_113"><sup>[3]</sup></a></p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Jan. 24.2°</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Aug. 68.5°</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>47.1°</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>101°</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>-27°</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>July 1.61</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>April .37</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>11.46</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Port Simpson<a name="FnAnchor_114" + href="#Footnote_114"><sup>[4]</sup></a></p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Jan. 34.9°</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Aug. 56.9°</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>45.1°</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>88°</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>-10°</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Oct. 12.42</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>June 4.37</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>94.63</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_111" href="#FnAnchor_111">[1]</a> 48° 24′ N., + 123° 19′ W., height 85 ft.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_112" href="#FnAnchor_112">[2]</a> 49° 14′ N., + 121° 31′ W., height 52 ft.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_113" href="#FnAnchor_113">[3]</a> 50° 41′ N., + 120° 29′ W., height 1193 ft.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_114" href="#FnAnchor_114">[4]</a> 54° 34′ N., + 130° 26′ W., height 26 ft.</p> + +</div> + <p><i>Fauna.</i>—Among the larger mammals are the big-horn or + mountain sheep (<i>Ovis canadensis</i>), the Rocky Mountain goat + (<i>Mazama montana</i>), the grizzly bear, moose, woodland caribou, + black-tailed or mule deer, white-tailed deer, and coyote. All these are + to be found only on the mainland. The black bear, wolf, puma, lynx, + wapiti, and Columbian or coast deer are common to parts of both mainland + and islands. Of marine mammals the most characteristic are the sea-lion, + fur-seal, sea-otter and harbour-seal. About 340 species of birds are + known to occur in the province, among which, as of special interest, may + be mentioned the burrowing owl of the dry, interior region, the <!-- Page + 599 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page599"></a>[v.04 + p.0599]</span>American magpie, Steller's jay and a true nut-cracker, + Clark's crow (<i>Picicorvus columbianus</i>). True jays and orioles are + also well represented. The gallinaceous birds include the large blue + grouse of the coast, replaced in the Rocky Mountains by the dusky grouse. + The western form of the "spruce partridge" of eastern Canada is also + abundant, together with several forms referred to the genus + <i>Bonasa</i>, generally known as "partridges" or ruffed grouse. + Ptarmigans also abound in many of the higher mountain regions. Of the + <i>Anatidae</i> only passing mention need be made. During the spring and + autumn migrations many species are found in great abundance, but in the + summer a smaller number remain to breed, chief among which are the teal, + mallard, wood-duck, spoon-bill, pin-tail, buffle-head, red-head, + canvas-back, scaup-duck, &c.</p> + + <p><i>Area and Population.</i>—The area of British Columbia is + 357,600 sq. m., and its population by the census of 1901 was 190,000. + Since that date this has been largely increased by the influx of miners + and others, consequent upon the discovery of precious metals in the + Kootenay, Boundary and Atlin districts. Much of this is a floating + population, but the opening up of the valleys by railway and new lines of + steamboats, together with the settlements made in the vicinity of the + Canadian Pacific railway, has resulted in a considerable increase of the + permanent population. The white population comprises men of many + nationalities. There is a large Chinese population, the census of 1901 + returning 14,201. The influx of Chinamen has, however, practically + ceased, owing to the tax of $500 per head imposed by the government of + the dominion. Many Japanese have also come in. The Japanese are engaged + chiefly in lumbering and fishing, but the Chinese are found everywhere in + the province. Great objection is taken by the white population to the + increasing number of "Mongolians," owing to their competition with whites + in the labour markets. The Japanese do not appear to be so much disliked, + as they adapt themselves to the ways of white men, but they are equally + objected to on the score of cheap labour; and in 1907-1908 considerable + friction occurred with the Dominion government over the Anti-Japanese + attitude of British Columbia, which was shown in some rather serious + riots. In the census of 1901 the Indian population is returned at 25,488; + of these 20,351 are professing Christians and 5137 are pagans. The + Indians are divided into very many tribes, under local names, but fall + naturally on linguistic grounds into a few large groups. Thus the + southern part of the interior is occupied by the Salish and Kootenay, and + the northern interior by the Tinneh or Athapackan people. On the coast + are the Haida, Tsimshian, Kwakiatl, Nootka, and about the Gulf of Georgia + various tribes related to the Salish proper. There is no treaty with the + Indians of British Columbia, as with those of the plains, for the + relinquishment of their title to the land, but the government otherwise + assists them. There is an Indian superintendent at Victoria, and under + him are nine agencies throughout the province to attend to the + Indians—relieving their sick and destitute, supplying them with + seed and implements, settling their disputes and administering justice. + The Indian fishing stations and burial grounds are reserved, and other + land has been set apart for them for agricultural and pastoral purposes. + A number of schools have been established for their education. They were + at one time a dangerous element, but are now quiet and peaceable.</p> + + <p>The chief cities are Victoria, the capital, on Vancouver Island; and + Vancouver on the mainland, New Westminster on the Fraser and Nanaimo on + Vancouver Island. Rossland and Nelson in West Kootenay, as well as Fernie + in East Kootenay and Grand Forks in the Boundary district, are also + places of importance.</p> + + <p><i>Mining.</i>—Mining is the principal industry of British + Columbia. The country is rich in gold, silver, copper, lead and coal, and + has also iron deposits. From 1894 to 1904 the mining output increased + from $4,225,717 to $18,977,359. In 1905 it had reached $22,460,295. The + principal minerals, in order of value of output, are gold, copper, coal, + lead and silver. Between 1858—the year of the placer discoveries on + the Fraser river and in the Cariboo district—and 1882, the placer + yields were much heavier than in subsequent years, running from one to + nearly four million dollars annually, but there was no quartz mining. + Since 1899 placer mining has increased considerably, although the greater + part of the return has been from lode mining. The Rossland, the Boundary + and the Kootenay districts are the chief centres of vein-mining, yielding + auriferous and cupriferous sulphide ores, as well as large quantities of + silver-bearing lead ores. Ores of copper and the precious metals are + being prospected and worked also, in several places along the coast and + on Vancouver Island. The mining laws are liberal, and being based on the + experience gained in the adjacent mining centres of the Western States, + are convenient and effective. The most important smelting and reducing + plants are those at Trail and Nelson in the West Kootenay country, and at + Grand Forks and Greenwood in the Boundary district. There are also + numerous concentrating plants. Mining machinery of the most modern types + is employed wherever machinery is required.</p> + + <p>The province contains enormous supplies of excellent coal, most of + which are as yet untouched. It is chiefly of Cretaceous age. The + producing collieries are chiefly on Vancouver Island and on the western + slope of the Rockies near the Crow's Nest Pass in the extreme + south-eastern portion of the provinces. Immense beds of high grade + bituminous coal and semi-anthracite are exposed in the Bulkley Valley, + south of the Skeena river, not far from the projected line of the Grand + Trunk Pacific railway. About one-half the coal mined is exported to the + United States.</p> + + <p><i>Fisheries.</i>—A large percentage of the commerce is derived + from the sea, the chief product being salmon. Halibut, cod (several + varieties), oolachan, sturgeon, herring, shad and many other fishes are + also plentiful, but with the exception of the halibut these have not yet + become the objects of extensive industries. There are several kinds of + salmon, and they run in British Columbia waters at different seasons of + the year. The quinnat or spring salmon is the largest and best table + fish, and is followed in the latter part of the summer by the sockeye, + which runs in enormous numbers up the Fraser and Skeena rivers. This is + the fish preferred for canning. It is of brighter colour, more uniform in + size, and comes in such quantities that a constant supply can be reckoned + upon by the canneries. About the mouth of the Fraser river from 1800 to + 2600 boats are occupied during the run. There is an especially large run + of sockeye salmon in the Fraser river every fourth year, while in the + year immediately following there is a poor run. The silver salmon or + cohoe arrives a little later than the sockeye, but is not much used for + packing except when required to make up deficiencies. The dog-salmon is + not canned, but large numbers are caught by the Japanese, who salt them + for export to the Orient. The other varieties are of but little + commercial importance at present, although with the increasing demand for + British Columbia salmon, the fishing season is being extended to cover + the runs of all the varieties of this fish found in the waters of the + province.</p> + + <p>Great Britain is the largest but not the only market for British + Columbia salmon. The years vary in productiveness, 1901 having been + unusually large and 1903 the smallest in eleven years, but the average + pack is about 700,000 cases of forty-eight 1-lb tins, the greater part of + all returns being from the Fraser river canneries, the Skeena river and + the Rivers Inlet coming next in order. There are between 60 and 70 + canneries, of which about 40 are on the banks of <!-- Page 600 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page600"></a>[v.04 p.0600]</span>the Fraser + river. There is urgent need for the enactment of laws restricting the + catch of salmon, as the industry is now seriously threatened. The fish + oils are extracted chiefly from several species of dog-fish, and + sometimes from the basking shark, as well as from the oolachan, which is + also an edible fish.</p> + + <p>The fur-seal fishery is an important industry, though apparently a + declining one. Owing to the scarcity of seals and international + difficulties concerning pelagic sealing in Bering Sea, where the greatest + number have been taken, the business of seal-hunting is losing favour. + Salmon fish-hatcheries have been established on the chief rivers + frequented by these fish. Oysters and lobsters from the Atlantic coast + have been planted in British Columbia waters.</p> + + <p><i>Timber.</i>—The province is rich in forest growth, and there + is a steady demand for its lumber in the other parts of Canada as well as + in South America, Africa, Australia and China. The following is a list of + some of the more important trees—large leaved maple (<i>Acer + macrophyllum</i>), red alder (<i>Alnus rubra</i>), western larch + (<i>Larix occidentalis</i>), white spruce (<i>Picea alba</i>), + Engellmann's spruce (<i>Picea Engelmanii</i>), Menzies's spruce (<i>Picea + sitchensis</i>), white mountain pine (<i>Pinus monticola</i>), black pine + (<i>Pinus murrayana</i>), yellow pine (<i>Pinus ponderosa</i>), Douglas + fir (<i>Pseudotsuga Douglasii</i>), western white oak (<i>Quercus + garryana</i>), giant cedar (<i>Thuya gigantea</i>), yellow cypress or + cedar (<i>Thuya excelsa</i>), western hemlock (<i>Tsuga mertensiana</i>). + The principal timber of commerce is the Douglas fir. The tree is often + found 300 ft. high and from 8 to 10ft. in diameter. The wood is tough and + strong and highly valued for ships' spars as well as for building + purposes. Red or giant cedar, which rivals the Douglas fir in girth, is + plentiful, and is used for shingles as well as for interior work. The + western white spruce is also much employed for various purposes. There + are about eighty sawmills, large and small, in the province. The amount + of timber cut on Dominion government lands in 1904 was 22,760,222 ft., + and the amount cut on provincial lands was 325,271,568 ft., giving a + total of 348,031,790 ft. In 1905 the cut on dominion lands exceeded that + in 1904, while the amount cut on provincial lands reached 450,385,554 ft. + The cargo shipments of lumber for the years 1904 and 1905 were as + follows:—</p> + + +<table class="nob" summary="Shipments of lumber 1904-5" title="Shipments of lumber 1904-5"> + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left"> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + <p>1904. Ft.</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + <p>1905. Ft.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left"> + <p>United Kingdom</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + <p>7,498,301</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + <p>13,690,869</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left"> + <p>South America</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + <p>15,647,808</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + <p>13.332,993</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left"> + <p>Australia</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + <p>10,045,094</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + <p>11,596,482</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left"> + <p>South Africa</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + <p>2,517,154</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + <p>7,093,681</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left"> + <p>China and Japan</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + <p>4,802,426</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + <p>4,787,784</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left"> + <p>Germany</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + <p>983,342</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left"> + <p>Fiji Islands</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + <p>308,332</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + <p>29,949</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left"> + <p>France</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + <p>1,308,662</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left"> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + <p>—————</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + <p>—————</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left"> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + <p>42,199,777</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + <p>51,515,100</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + + <p>There is a very large market for British Columbia lumber in the + western provinces of Canada.</p> + + <p><i>Agriculture.</i>—Although mountainous in character the + province contains many tracts of good farming land. These lie in the long + valleys between the mountain ranges of the interior, as well as on the + lower slopes of the mountains and on the deltas of the rivers running out + to the coast. On Vancouver Island also there is much good farming land. + The conditions are in most places best suited to mixed farming; the chief + crops raised are wheat, oats, potatoes and hay. Some areas are especially + suited for cattle and sheep raising, among which may be mentioned the + Yale district and the country about Kamloops. Much attention has been + given to fruit raising, especially in the Okanagan valley. Apples, plums + and cherries are grown, as well as peaches, apricots, grapes and various + small fruits, notably strawberries. All these are of excellent quality. + Hops are also cultivated. A large market for this fruit is opening up in + the rapidly growing provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan.</p> + + <p><i>Imports and Exports.</i>—For the year ending June 30th 1905 + the total exports and imports (showing a slight gradual increase on the + two preceding years) were valued at $16,677,882 and $12,565,019 + respectively. The exports were classified as follows:—Mines, + $9,777,423; fisheries, $2,101,533; forests, $1,046,718; animals, + $471,231; agriculture, $119,426; manufactures, $1,883,777; miscellaneous, + $1,106,643; coin and bullion, $171,131.</p> + + <p><i>Railways.</i>—The Pacific division of the Canadian Pacific + railway enters British Columbia through the Rocky Mountains on the east + and runs for about 500 m. across the province before reaching the + terminus at Vancouver. A branch of the same railway leaves the main line + at Medicine Hat, and running to the south-west, crosses the Rocky + Mountains through the Crow's Nest Pass, and thus enters British Columbia + a short distance north of the United States boundary. This continues + across the province, running approximately parallel to the boundary as + far as Midway in what is known as the Boundary district. The line has + opened up extensive coal fields and crosses a productive mining district. + On Vancouver Island there are two railways, the Esquimalt & Nanaimo + railway (78 m.) connecting the coal fields with the southern ports, and + the Victoria & Sydney railway, about 16 m. in length. The Great + Northern has also a number of short lines in the southern portion of the + province, connecting with its system in the United States. In 1905 there + were 1627m. of railway in the province, of which 1187 were owned or + controlled by the Canadian Pacific railway.</p> + + <p><i>Shipping.</i>—The Canadian Pacific Railway Company has two + lines of mail steamer running from Vancouver and Victoria: (l) the + Empress line, which runs to Japan and China once in three weeks, and (2) + the Australian line to Honolulu, Fiji and Sydney, once a month. The same + company also has a line of steamers running to Alaska, as well as a fleet + of coasting steamers.</p> + + <p><i>Government.</i>—The province is governed by a + lieutenant-governor, appointed by the governor-general in council for + five years, but subject to removal for cause, an executive council of + five ministers, and a single legislative chamber. The executive council + is appointed by the lieutenant-governor on the advice of the first + minister, and retains office so long as it enjoys the support of a + majority of the legislature. The powers of the lieutenant-governor in + regard to the provincial government are analogous to those of + governor-general in respect of the dominion government.</p> + + <p>The British North America Act (1867) confederating the colonies, + defines the jurisdiction of the provincial legislature as distinguished + from that of the federal parliament, but within its own jurisdiction the + province makes the laws for its own governance. The act of the + legislature may be disallowed, within one year of its passage, by the + governor-general in council, and is also subject to challenge as to its + legality in the supreme court of Canada or on appeal to the juridical + committee of the privy council of the United Kingdom. British Columbia + sends three senators and seven members to the lower house of the federal + parliament, which sits at Ottawa.</p> + + <p><i>Justice.</i>—There is a supreme court of British Columbia + presided over by a chief justice and five puisne judges, and there are + also a number of county courts. In British Columbia the supreme court has + jurisdiction in divorce cases, this right having been invested in the + colony before confederation.</p> + + <p><i>Religion and Education.</i>—In 1901 the population was + divided by creeds as follows: Church of England, 40,687; Methodist, + 25,047; Presbyterian, 34,081; Roman Catholic, 33,639; others, 40,197; not + stated, 5003; total, 178,654. The educational system of British Columbia + differs slightly from that of other provinces of Canada. There are three + classes of schools—common, graded and high—all maintained by + the government and all free and undenominational. There is only one + college in the province, the "McGill University College of British + Columbia" at Vancouver, which is one of the colleges of McGill + University, whose chief seat is at Montreal. The schools are controlled + by trustees selected by the ratepayers of each school district, and there + is a superintendent of education acting under the provincial + secretary.</p> + + <p><i>Finance.</i>—Under the terms of union with Canada, British + Columbia receives from the dominion government annually a certain + contribution, which in 1905 amounted to $307,076. This, with provincial + taxes on real property, personal property, income tax, sales of public + land, timber dues, &c., amounted in the year 1905 to $2,920,461. The + expenditure for the year was $2,302,417. The gross debt of the province + in 1905 was $13,252,097, with assets of $4,463,869, or a net debt of + $8,788,228. These assets do not include new legislative buildings or + other public works. The income tax is on a sliding scale. In 1899 a + fairly close estimate was made of the capital invested in the province, + which amounted to $307,385,000 including timber, $100,000,000; railways + and telegraphs, $47,500,000; mining plant and smelters, $10,500,000; + municipal assessments, $45,000,000; provincial assessments, $51,500,000; + in addition to private wealth, $280,000,000. There are branch offices of + one or more of the Canadian banks in each of the larger towns.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:80%;"> + <a href="images/zbritishcolumbia_1.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/britishcolumbia_1.png" + alt="British Columbia." title="British Columbia." /></a> + </div> + <p><i>History.</i>—The discovery of British Columbia was made by + the Spaniard Perez in 1774. With Cook's visit the geographical + exploration of the coast began in 1778. Vancouver, in 1792-1794, surveyed + almost the entire coast of British Columbia with much of that to the + north and south, for the British government. The interior, about the same + time, was entered by Mackenzie and traders of the N.W. Company, which in + 1821 became amalgamated with the Hudson's Bay Company. For the next + twenty-eight years the Hudson's Bay Company ruled this immense territory + with beneficent despotism. In 1849 Vancouver Island was proclaimed a + British colony. In 1858, consequent on the discovery of gold and the + large influx of miners, the mainland territory was erected into a colony + under the name of British Columbia, and in 1866 this was united with the + colony of Vancouver Island, under the same name. In 1871 British Columbia + entered the confederation and became part of the Dominion of Canada, + sending three senators and six (now seven) members to the House of + Commons of the federal parliament. One of the conditions under which the + colony entered the dominion was the speedy construction of the Canadian + Pacific railway, and in 1876 the non-fulfilment of this promise and the + apparent indifference of the government at Ottawa to the representations + of British Columbia created <!-- Page 601 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page601"></a>[v.04 p.0601]</span>strained relations, which were + only ameliorated when the construction of a transcontinental road was + begun. In subsequent years the founding of the city of Vancouver by the + C.P.R., the establishment of the first Canadian steamship line to China + and Japan, and that to Australia, together with the disputes with the + United States on the subject of pelagic sealing, and the discovery of the + Kootenay and Boundary mining districts, have been the chief events in the + history of the province.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—Cook's <i>Voyage to the + Pacific Ocean</i> (London, 1784); Vancouver, <i>Voyage of Discovery to + the Pacific Ocean</i> (London, 1798); H.H. Bancroft's works, vol. xxxii., + <i>History of British Columbia</i> (San Francisco, 1887); Begg's + <i>History of British Columbia</i> (Toronto, 1894); Gosnell, <i>Year + Book</i> (Victoria, British Columbia, 1897 and 1903); <i>Annual Reports + British Columbia Board of Trade</i> (Victoria); <i>Annual Reports of + Minister of Mines and other Departmental Reports of the Provincial and + Dominion Governments; Catalogue of Provincial Museum</i> (Victoria); + <i>Reports Geological Survey of Canada</i> (from 1871 to date); + <i>Reports of Canadian Pacific (Government) Surveys</i> (1872-1880); + <i>Reports of Committee of Brit. Assn. Adv. Science on N.W. Tribes</i> + (1884-1895); Lord, <i>Naturalist in Vancouver Island</i> (London, 1866); + <i>Bering Sea Arbitration</i> (reprint of letters to <i>Times</i>), + (London, 1893); <i>Report of Bering Sea Commission</i> (London, + Government, 1892); A. Métin, <i>La Colombie Britannique</i> (Paris, + 1908). See also various works of reference under <span + class="sc">Canada</span>.</p> + + <p>(<span class="sc">G. M. D.; M. St J.; F. D. A.</span>)</p> + + <p><b>BRITISH EAST AFRICA,</b> a term, in its widest sense, including all + the territory under British influence on the eastern side of Africa + between German East Africa on the south and Abyssinia and the + Anglo-Egyptian Sudan on the north. It comprises the protectorates of + Zanzibar, Uganda and East Africa. Apart from a narrow belt of coastland, + the continental area belongs almost entirely to the great plateau of East + Africa, rarely falling below an elevation of 2000 ft., while extensive + sections rise to a height of 6000 to 8000 ft. From the coast lowlands a + series of steps with intervening plateaus leads to a broad zone of high + ground remarkable for the abundant traces of volcanic action. This broad + upland is furrowed by the eastern "rift-valley," formed by the subsidence + of its floor and occupied in parts by lakes without outlet. Towards the + west a basin of lower elevation is partially occupied by Victoria Nyanza, + drained north to the Nile, while still farther inland the ground again + rises to a second volcanic belt, culminating in the Ruwenzori range. (See + <span class="sc">Zanzibar</span>, and for Uganda protectorate see <span + class="sc">Uganda</span>.) The present article treats of the East Africa + protectorate only.</p> + + <div class="figleft" style="width:50%;"> + <a href="images/zbritisheastafrica_1.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/britisheastafrica_1.png" + alt="British East Africa." title="British East Africa." /></a> + </div> + <p><i>Topography.</i>—The southern frontier, coterminous with the + northern frontier of German East Africa, runs north-west from the mouth + of the Umba river in 4° 40′ S. to Victoria Nyanza, which it strikes + at 1° S., deviating, however, so as to leave Mount Kilimanjaro wholly in + German territory. The eastern boundary is the Indian Ocean, the coast + line being about 400 m. On the north the protectorate is bounded by + Abyssinia and Italian Somaliland; on the west by Uganda. It has an area + of about 240,000 sq. m., and a population estimated at from 2,000,000 to + 4,000,000, including some 25,000 Indians and 3000 Europeans. Of the + Europeans many are emigrants from South Africa; they include some + hundreds of Boer families.</p> + + <p>The first of the parallel zones—the coast plain or + "Temborari"—is generally of insignificant width, varying from 2 to + 10 m., except in the valleys of the main rivers. The shore line is broken + by bays and branching creeks, often cutting off islands from the + mainland. Such are Mvita or Mombasa in 4° 4′ S., and the larger + islands of Lamu, Manda and Patta (the Lamu archipelago), between 2° + 20′ and 2° S. Farther north the coast becomes straighter, with the + one indentation of Port Durnford in 1° 10′ S., but skirted seawards + by a row of small islands. Beyond the coast plain the country rises in a + generally well defined step or steps to an altitude of some 800 ft., + forming the wide level plain called "Nyika" (uplands), largely composed + of quartz. It contains large waterless areas, such as the Taru desert in + the Mombasa district. The next stage in the ascent is marked by an + intermittent line of mountains—gneissose or schistose—running + generally north-north-west, sometimes in parallel chains, and + representing the primitive axis of the continent. Their height varies + from 5000 to 8000 ft. Farther inland grassy uplands extend to the eastern + edge of the rift-valley, though varied with cultivated ground and forest, + the former especially in Kikuyu, the latter between 0° and 0° 40′ + S. The most extensive grassy plains are those of Kapte or Kapote and + Athi, between 1° and 2° S. The general altitude of these uplands, the + surface of which is largely composed of lava, varies from 5000 to 8000 + ft. This zone contains the highest elevations in British East Africa, + including the volcanic pile of Kenya (<i>q.v.</i>) (17,007 ft.), Sattima + (13,214 ft.) and Nandarua (about 12,900 ft.). The Sattima (Settima) + range, or Aberdare Mountains, has a general elevation of fully 10,000 ft. + To the west the fall to the rift-valley is marked by a line of cliffs, of + which the best-defined portions are the Kikuyu escarpment (8000 ft.), + just south of 1° S., and the Laikipia escarpment, on the equator. One of + the main watersheds of East Africa runs close to the eastern wall of the + rift-valley, separating the basins of inland drainage from the rivers of + the east coast, of which the two largest wholly within British East + Africa are the Sabaki and Tana, both separately noticed. The Guaso Nyiro + rises in the hills north-west of Kenya and flows in a north-east + direction. After a course of over 350 m. the river in about 1° N., 39° + 30′ E. is lost in a marshy expanse known as the Lorian Swamp.</p> + + <p>The rift-valley, though with a generally level floor, is divided by + transverse ridges into a series of basins, each containing a lake without + outlet. The southernmost section within British East Africa is formed by + the arid Dogilani plains, drained south towards German territory. At + their north end rise the extinct volcanoes of Suswa (7800 ft.) and + Longonot (8700), the latter on the ridge dividing off the next + basin—that of Lake Naivasha. This is a small fresh-water lake, 6135 + ft. above the sea, measuring some 13 m each way. Its basin is closed to + the north by the ridge of Mount Buru, beyond which is the basin of the + <!-- Page 602 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page602"></a>[v.04 + p.0602]</span>still smaller Lakes Nakuro (5845 ft.) and Elmenteita (5860 + ft.), followed in turn by that of Lakes Hannington and Baringo + (<i>q.v.</i>). Beyond Baringo the valley is drained north into Lake + Sugota, in 2° N., some 35 m. long, while north of this lies the much + larger Lake Rudolf (<i>q.v.</i>), the valley becoming here somewhat less + defined.</p> + + <p>On the west of the rift-valley the wall of cliffs is best marked + between the equator and 1° S., where it is known as the Mau Escarpment, + and about 1° N., where the Elgeyo Escarpment falls to a longitudinal + valley separated from Lake Baringo by the ridge of Kamasia. Opposite Lake + Naivasha the Mau Escarpment is over 8000 ft. high. Its crest is covered + with a vast forest. To the south the woods become more open, and the + plateau falls to an open country drained towards the Dogilani plains. On + the west the cultivated districts of Sotik and Lumbwa, broken by wooded + heights, fall towards Victoria Nyanza. The Mau plateau reaches a height + of 9000 ft. on the equator, north of which is the somewhat lower Nandi + country, well watered and partly forested. In the treeless plateau of + Uasin Gishu, west of Elgeyo, the land again rises to a height of over + 8000 ft., and to the west of this is the great mountain mass of Elgon + (<i>q.v.</i>). East of Lake Rudolf and south of Lake Stefanie is a large + waterless steppe, mainly volcanic in character, from which rise mountain + ranges. The highest peak is Mount Kanjora, 6900 ft. high. South of this + arid region, strewn with great lava stones, are the Rendile uplands, + affording pasturage for thousands of camels. Running north-west and + south-east between Lake Stefanie and the Daua tributary of the Juba is a + mountain range with a steep escarpment towards the south. It is known as + the Goro Escarpment, and at its eastern end it forms the boundary between + the protectorate and Abyssinia. South-east of it the country is largely + level bush covered plain, mainly waterless.</p> + + <p>[<i>Geology.</i>—The geological formations of British East + Africa occur in four regions possessing distinct physiographical + features. The coast plain, narrow in the south and rising somewhat + steeply, consists of recent rocks. The foot plateau which succeeds is + composed of sedimentary rocks dating from Trias to Jurassic. The ancient + plateau commencing at Taru extends to the borders of Kikuyu and is + composed of ancient crystalline rocks on which immense quantities of + volcanic rocks—post-Jurassic to Recent—have accumulated to + form the volcanic plateau of Central East Africa.</p> + + <p>The formations recognized are given in the following table:—</p> + + +<table class="nob" summary="Geological formations of British East Africa" title="Geological formations of British East Africa"> + <tr> + <td style="text-align:center" colspan="3"> + <p><i>Sedimentary.</i></p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:left" rowspan="3"> + <p>Recent</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:left" rowspan="3"> + <p><img src="images/$lbrace.png" style="height:8ex; width:0.8em" + alt="left brace" /></p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:left"> + <p>1. Alluvium and superficial sands.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left"> + <p>2. Modern lake deposits, living coral rock.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left"> + <p>3. Raised coral rock, conglomerate of Mombasa Island.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:left" rowspan="2"> + <p>Pleistocene</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:left" rowspan="2"> + <p><img src="images/$lbrace.png" style="height:6ex; width:0.8em" + alt="left brace" /></p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:left"> + <p>4. Gravels with flint implements.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left"> + <p>5. Glacial beds of Kenya</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left" colspan="2"> + <p>Jurassic</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:left"> + <p>6. Shales and limestones of Changamwe.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:left" rowspan="2"> + <p>Karroo</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:left" rowspan="2"> + <p><img src="images/$lbrace.png" style="height:6ex; width:0.8em" + alt="left brace" /></p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:left"> + <p>7. Flags and sandstones.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left"> + <p>8. Grits and shales of Masara and Taru.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left" colspan="2"> + <p>Carboniferous?</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:left"> + <p>9. Shales of the Sabaki river.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:left" rowspan="2"> + <p>Archaean</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:left" rowspan="2"> + <p><img src="images/$lbrace.png" style="height:7ex; width:0.8em" + alt="left brace" /></p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:left"> + <p>10. Schists and quartzites of Nandi.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left"> + <p>11. Gneisses, schists, granites.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:center" colspan="3"> + <p><i>Igneous and Volcanic.</i></p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left" colspan="2"> + <p>Recent</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:left"> + <p>Active, dormant and extinct volcanoes.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:left" rowspan="2"> + <p>Post-Jurassic to Pleistocene</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:left" rowspan="2"> + <p><img src="images/$lbrace.png" style="height:6ex; width:0.8em" + alt="left brace" /></p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:left"> + <p>Kibo and volcanoes of the rift-valley.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left"> + <p>Kimawenzi, Kenya and plateau eruptions.</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + + <p><i>Archaean.</i>—These rocks prevail in the districts of Taru, + Nandi and throughout Ukamba. A course gneiss is the predominant rock, but + is associated with garnetiferous mica-schists and much intrusive granite. + Hornblende schists and beds of metamorphic limestone are rare. Cherty + quartzites interbedded with mylonites occur on the flanks of the Nandi + hills, but their age is not known.</p> + + <p><i>Carboniferous?</i>—From shales on the Sabaki river Dr Gregory + obtained fish-scales and specimens of <i>Palaeanodonta Fischeri.</i></p> + + <p><i>Karroo.</i>—The grits of Masara, near Rabai mission station + and Mombasa, have yielded specimens of <i>Glossopteris browniana</i> var. + <i>indica</i>, thus indicating their Karroo age.</p> + + <p><i>Jurassic.</i>—Shales and limestones of this age are well seen + along the railway near Changamwe. They contain gigantic ammonites. + According to Dr Waagen the ammonites show a striking analogy to forms + from the Acanthicus zone of East India. Belemnites are plentiful.</p> + + <p><i>Pleistocene.</i>—These are feebly represented by some boulder + beds on the higher slopes of Kilimanjaro and Kenya. They show that in + Pleistocene times the glaciers of Kilimanjaro and Kenya extended much + farther down the mountain slopes.</p> + + <p><i>Recent.</i>—The ancient and more modern lake deposits have so + far yielded no mammalian or other organic remains of interest.</p> + + <p><i>Igneous and Volcanic.</i>—A belt of volcanic rocks, over + 150,000 sq. m. in area, extends from beyond the southern to beyond the + northern territorial limits. They belong to an older and a newer set. The + older group commenced with a series of fissure eruptions along the site + of the present rift-valley and parallel with it. From these fissures + immense and repeated flows of lava spread over the Kapte and Laikipia + plateaus. At about the same time, or a little later, Kenya and Kimawenzi, + Elgon and Chibcharagnani were in eruption. The age of these volcanic + outbursts cannot be more definitely stated than that they are + post-Jurassic, and probably extended through Cretaceous into early + Tertiary times. This great volcanic period was followed by the eruptions + of Kibo and some of the larger volcanoes of the rift-valley. The flows + from Kibo include nepheline and leucite basanite lavas rich in soda + felspars. They bear a close resemblance to the Norwegian + "Rhombenporphyrs." The chain of volcanic cones along the northern lower + slopes of Kilimanjaro, those of the Kyulu mountains, Donyo Longonot and + numerous craters in the rift-valley region, are of a slightly more recent + date. A few of the volcanoes in the latter region have only recently + become extinct; a few may be only dormant. Donyo Buru still emits small + quantities of steam, while Mount Teleki, in the neighbourhood of Lake + Rudolf, was in eruption at the close of the 19th century.]</p> + + <p><i>Climate, Flora and Fauna.</i>—In its climate and vegetation + British East Africa again shows an arrangement of zones parallel to the + coast. The coast region is hot but is generally more healthy than the + coast lands of other tropical countries, this being due to the constant + <span class="correction" title="'beeeze' in original">breeze</span> from + the Indian Ocean and to the dryness of the soil. The rainfall on the + coast is about 35 in. a year, the temperature tropical. The succeeding + plains and the outer plateaus are more arid. Farther inland the + highlands—in which term may be included all districts over 5000 ft. + high—are very healthy, fever being almost unknown. The average + temperature is about 66° F. in the cool season and 73° F. in the hot + season. Over 7000 ft. the climate becomes distinctly colder and frosts + are experienced. The average rainfall in the highlands is between 40 and + 50 in. The country bordering Victoria Nyanza is typically tropical; the + rainfall exceeds 60 in. in the year, and this region is quite unsuitable + to Europeans. The hottest period throughout the protectorate is December + to April, the coolest, July to September. The "greater rains" fall from + March to June, the "smaller rains" in November and December. The rainfall + is not, however, as regular as is usual in countries within the tropics, + and severe droughts are occasionally experienced.</p> + + <p>In the districts bordering Victoria Nyanza the flora resembles that of + Uganda (<i>q.v.</i>). The characteristic trees of the coast regions are + the mangrove and coco-nut palm. Ebony grows in the scrub-jungle. Vast + forests of olives and junipers are found on the Mau escarpment; the + cotton, fig and bamboo on the Kikuyu escarpment; and in several regions + are dense forests of great trees whose lowest branches are 50 ft. from + the ground. Two varieties of the valuable rubber-vine, <i>Landolphia + florida</i> and <i>Landolphia Kirkii</i>, are found near the coast and in + the forests. The higher mountains preserve distinct species, the + surviving remnants of the flora of a cooler period.</p> + + <p>The fauna is not abundant except in large mammals, which are very + numerous on the drier steppes. They include the camel (confined to the + arid northern regions), elephant (more and more restricted to + unfrequented districts), rhinoceros, buffalo, many kinds of antelope, + zebra, giraffe, hippopotamus, lion and other carnivora, and numerous + monkeys. In many parts the rhinoceros is particularly abundant and + dangerous. Crocodiles are common in the larger rivers and in Victoria + Nyanza. Snakes are somewhat rare, the most dangerous being the + puff-adder. Centipedes and scorpions, as well as mosquitoes and other + insects, are also less common than in most tropical countries. In some + districts bees are exceedingly numerous. The birds include the ostrich, + stork, bustard and secretary-bird among the larger varieties, the guinea + fowl, various kinds of spur fowl, and the lesser bustard, the wild + pigeon, weaver and hornbill. By the banks of lakes and rivers are to be + seen thousands of cranes, pelicans and flamingoes.</p> + + <p><i>Inhabitants.</i>—The white population is chiefly in the + Kikuyu uplands, the rift-valley, and in the Kenya region. The whites are + mostly agriculturists. There are also numbers of Indian settlers in the + same districts. The African races include representatives of various + stocks, as the country forms a borderland between the Negro and Hamitic + peoples, and contains many tribes of doubtful affinities. The Bantu + division of the negroes is represented chiefly in the south, the + principal tribes being the Wakamba, Wakikuyu and Wanyika. By the + north-east shores of Victoria Nyanza dwell the Kavirondo (<i>q.v.</i>), a + race remarkable among the tribes of the protectorate for their nudity. + Nilotic tribes, including the Nandi (<i>q.v.</i>), Lumbwa, Suk and + Turkana, are found in the north-west. Of Hamitic strain are the Masai + (<i>q.v.</i>), a race of cattle-rearers speaking a Nilotic language, who + occupy part of the uplands bordering on the eastern rift-valley. A branch + of the Masai which has adopted the settled life of agriculturists is + known as the Wakuafi. The Galla section of the Hamites is represented, + among others, by Borani living <!-- Page 603 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page603"></a>[v.04 p.0603]</span>south of the Goro Escarpment + (though the true Boran countries are Liban and Dirri in Abyssinian + territory), while Somali occupy the country between the Tana and Juba + rivers. Of the Somali tribes the Herti dwell near the coast and are more + or less stationary. Further inland is the nomadic tribe of Ogaden Somali. + The Gurre, another Somali tribe, occupy the country south of the lower + Daua. Primitive hunting tribes are the Wandorobo in Masailand, and + scattered tribes of small stature in various parts. The coast-land + contains a mixed population of Swahili, Arab and Indian immigrants, and + representatives of numerous interior tribes.</p> + + <p><i>Provinces and Towns.</i>—The protectorate has been divided + into the provinces of Seyyidie (the south coast province, capital + Mombasa); Ukamba, which occupies the centre of the protectorate (capital + Nairobi); Kenya, the district of Mt. Kenya (capital Fort Hall); Tanaland, + to the north of the two provinces first named (capital Lamu); Jubaland, + the northern region (capital Kismayu); Naivasha (capital Naivasha); and + Kisumu (capital Kisumu); each being in turn divided into districts and + sub-districts. Naivasha and Kisumu, which adjoin the Victoria Nyanza, + formed at first the eastern province of Uganda, but were transferred to + the East Africa protectorate on the 1st of April 1902. The chief port of + the protectorate is Mombasa (<i>q.v.</i>) with a population of about + 30,000. The harbour on the south-west side of Mombasa island is known as + Kilindini, the terminus of the Uganda railway. On the mainland, nearly + opposite Mombasa town, is the settlement of freed slaves named Freretown, + after Sir Bartle Frere. Freretown (called by the natives Kisaoni) is the + headquarters in East Africa of the Church Missionary Society. It is the + residence of the bishop of the diocese of Mombasa and possesses a fine + church and mission house. Lamu, on the island of the same name, 150 m. + north-east of Mombasa, is an ancient settlement and the headquarters of + the coast Arabs. Here are some Portuguese ruins, and a large Arab city is + buried beneath the sands. The other towns of note on the coast are + Malindi, Patta, Kipini and Kismayu. At Malindi, the "Melind" of + <i>Paradise Lost</i>, is the pillar erected by Vasco da Gama when he + visited the port in 1498. The harbour is very shallow. Kismayu, the + northernmost port of the protectorate, 320 m. north-east of Mombasa, is + the last sheltered anchorage on the east coast and is invaluable as a + harbour of refuge. Flourishing towns have grown up along the Uganda + railway. The most important, Nairobi (<i>q.v.</i>), 327 m. from Mombasa, + 257 from Port Florence, was chosen in 1907 as the administrative capital + of the protectorate. Naivasha, 64 m. north-north-west of Nairobi, lies in + the rift-valley close to Lake Naivasha, and is 6230 ft. above the sea. It + enjoys an excellent climate and is the centre of a European agricultural + settlement. Kisumu or Port Florence (a term confined to the harbour) is a + flourishing town built on a hill overlooking Victoria Nyanza. It is the + entrepôt for the trade of Uganda.</p> + + <p><i>Communications.</i>—Much has been done to open up the country + by means of roads, including a trunk road from Mombasa, by Kibwezi in the + upper Sabaki basin, and Lake Naivasha, to Berkeley Bay on Victoria + Nyanza. But the most important engineering work undertaken in the + protectorate was the construction of a railway from Mombasa to Victoria + Nyanza, for which a preliminary survey was executed in 1892, and on which + work was begun in 1896. The line chosen roughly coincides with that of + the road, until the equator is reached, after which it strikes by a more + direct route across the Mau plateau to the lake, which it reaches at Port + Florence on Kavirondo Gulf. The railway is 584 m. long and is of metre + (3.28 ft.) gauge, the Sudan, and South and Central African lines being of + 3 ft. 6 in. gauge. The Uganda railway is essentially a mountain line, + with gradients of one in fifty and one in sixty. From Mombasa it crosses + to the mainland by a bridge half a mile long, and ascends the plateau + till it reaches the edge of the rift-valley, 346 m. from its starting + point, at the Kikuyu Escarpment, where it is 7600 ft. above the sea. It + then descends across ravines bridged by viaducts to the valley floor, + dropping to a level of 6011 ft., and next ascending the opposite (Mau) + escarpment to the summit, 8321 ft. above sea-level—the highest + point on the line. In the remaining 100 m. of its course the level sinks + to 3738 ft., the altitude of the station at Port Florence. The railway + was built by the British government at a cost of £5,331,000, or about + £9500 per mile. The first locomotive reached Victoria Nyanza on the 26th + of December 1901; and the permanent way was practically completed by + March 1903, when Sir George Whitehouse, the engineer who had been in + charge of the construction from the beginning, resigned his post. The + railway, by doing away with the carriage of goods by men, gave the final + death-blow to the slave trade in that part of East Africa. It also + facilitated the continued occupation and development of Uganda, which + was, previous to its construction, an almost impossible task, owing to + the prohibitive cost of the carriage of goods from the coast—£60 + per ton. The two avowed objects of the railway—the destruction of + the slave trade and the securing of the British position in + Uganda—have been attained; moreover, the railway by opening up land + suitable for European settlement has also done much towards making a + prosperous colony of the protectorate, which was regarded before the + advent of the line as little better than a desert (see below, + <i>History</i>). The railway also shows a fair return on the capital + expenditure, the surplus after defraying all working expenses being + £56,000 in 1905-1906 and £76,000 in 1906-1907.</p> + + <p>Mombasa is visited by the boats of several steamship companies, the + German East Africa line maintaining a fortnightly service from Hamburg. + There is also a regular service to and from India. A cable connecting + Mombasa with Zanzibar puts the protectorate in direct telegraphic + communication with the rest of the world. There is also an inland system + of telegraphs connecting the chief towns with one another and with + Uganda.</p> + + <p><i>Agriculture and other Industries.</i>—In the coast region and + by the shores of Victoria Nyanza the products are tropical, and + cultivation is mainly in the hands of the natives or of Indian + immigrants. There are, however, numerous plantations owned by Europeans. + Rice, maize and other grains are raised in large quantities; cotton and + tobacco are cultivated. The coco-nut palm plantations yield copra of + excellent quality, and the bark of the mangrove trees is exported for + tanning purposes. In some inland districts beans of the castor oil plant, + which grows in great abundance, are a lucrative article of trade. The + sugar-cane, which grows freely in various places, is cultivated by the + natives. The collection of rubber likewise employs numbers of people.</p> + + <p>Among the European settlers in the higher regions much attention is + devoted to the production of vegetables, and very large crops of potatoes + are raised. Oats, barley, wheat and coffee are also grown. The uplands + are peculiarly adapted for the raising of stock, and many of the white + settlers possess large flocks and herds. Merino sheep have been + introduced from Australia. Ostrich farms have also been established. + Clover, lucerne, ryegrass and similar grasses have been introduced to + improve and vary the fodder. Other vegetable products of economic value + are many varieties of timber trees, and fibre-producing plants, which are + abundant in the scrub regions between the coast and the higher land + bordering the rift-valley. Over the greater part of the country the soil + is light reddish loam; in the eastern plains it is a heavy black loam. As + a rule it is easily cultivated. While the majority of the African tribes + in the territory are not averse from agricultural labour, the number of + men available for work on European holdings is small. Moreover, on some + of the land most suited for cultivation by white men there is no native + population.</p> + + <p>In addition to the fibre industry and cotton ginning there are + factories for the curing of bacon. Native industries include the weaving + of cloth and the making of mats and baskets. Stone and lime quarries are + worked, and copper is found in the Tsavo district. Diamonds have been + discovered in the Thika river, one of the headstreams of the Tana.</p> + + <p><i>Trade.</i>—The imports consist largely of textiles, hardware + and manufactured goods from India and Europe; Great Britain and India + between them supplying over 50% of the total imports. Of other countries + Germany has the leading share in the trade. The exports, which include + the larger part of the external trade of Uganda, are chiefly copra, hides + and skins, grains, potatoes, rubber, ivory, chillies, beeswax, cotton and + fibre. The retail trade is largely in the hands of Indians. The value of + the exports rose from £89,858 in 1900-1901 to £234,664 in 1904-1905, in + which year the value of the imports for the first time exceeded £500,000. + In 1906-1907 the volume of trade was £1,194,352, imports being valued at + £753,647 and exports at £440,705. The United States takes 33% of the + exports, Great Britain coming next with 15%.</p> + + <p><i>Government.</i>—The system of government resembles that of a + British crown colony. At the head of the administration is a governor, + who has a deputy styled lieutenant-governor, provincial commissioners + presiding over each province. There are also executive and legislative + councils, unofficial nominated members serving on the last-named council. + In the "ten-mile strip" (see below, <i>History</i>), the sultan of + Zanzibar being territorial sovereign, the laws of Islam apply to the + native and Arab population. The extra-territorial jurisdiction granted by + the sultan to various Powers was in 1907 transferred to Great Britain. + Domestic slavery formerly existed; but on the advice of the British + government a decree was issued by the sultan on the 1st of August 1890, + enacting that no one born after that date could be a slave, and this was + followed in 1907 by a decree abolishing the legal status of slavery. In + the rest of the protectorate slavery is not recognized in any form. + Legislation is by ordinances made by the governor, with the assent of the + legislative council. The judicial system is based on Indian models, + though in cases in which Africans are concerned regard is had to <!-- + Page 604 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page604"></a>[v.04 + p.0604]</span>native customs. Europeans have the right to trial by jury + in serious cases. There is a police force of about 2000 men, and two + battalions of the King's African Rifles are stationed in the + protectorate. Revenue is derived chiefly from customs, licences and + excise, railway earnings, and posts and telegraphs. Natives pay a hut + tax. Since the completion of the Uganda railway, trade, and consequently + revenue, has increased greatly. In 1900-1901 the revenue was £64,275 and + the expenditure £193,438; in 1904-1905 the figures were: revenue + £154,756, expenditure £302,559; in 1905-1906 the totals were £270,362 and + £418,839, and in 1906-1907 (when the railway figures were included for + the first time) £461,362 and £616,088. The deficiencies were made good by + grants-in-aid from the imperial exchequer. The standard coin used is the + rupee (16d.).</p> + + <p>Education is chiefly in the hands of the missionary societies, which + maintain many schools where instruction is given in handicrafts, as well + as in the ordinary branches of elementary education. There are Arab + schools in Mombasa, and government schools for Europeans and Indians at + Nairobi.</p> + + <p><i>History.</i>—From the 8th century to the 11th Arabs and + Persians made settlements along the coast and gained political supremacy + at many places, leading to the formation of the so-called Zenj empire. + The history of the coast towns from that time until the establishment of + British rule is identified with that of Zanzibar (<i>q.v.</i>). The + interior of what is now British East Africa was first made known in the + middle of the 19th century by the German missionaries Ludwig Krapf and + Johannes Rebmann, and by Baron Karl von der Decken (1833-1865) and + others. Von der Decken and three other Europeans were murdered by Somali + at a town called Bardera in October 1865, whilst exploring the Juba + river. The countries east of Victoria Nyanza (Masailand, &c.) were, + however, first traversed throughout their whole extent by the Scottish + traveller Joseph Thomson (<i>q.v.</i>) in 1883-1884. In 1888 Count S. + Teleki (a Hungarian) discovered Lakes Rudolf and Stefanie.</p> + + <p>The growth of British interests in the country now forming the + protectorate arises from its connexion with the sultanate of Zanzibar. At + Zanzibar British influence was very strong in the last quarter of the + 19th century, and the seyyid or sultan, Bargash, depended greatly on the + advice of the British representative, Sir John Kirk. In 1877 Bargash + offered to Mr (afterwards Sir) William Mackinnon (1823-1893), chairman of + the British India Steam Navigation Company, a merchant in whom he had + great confidence, or to a company to be formed by him, a lease for 70 + years of the customs and administration of the whole of the mainland + dominions of Zanzibar including, with certain reservations, rights of + sovereignty. This was declined owing to a lack of support by the foreign + office, and concessions obtained in 1884 by Mr (afterwards Sir) H.H. + Johnston in the Kilimanjaro district were, at the time, disregarded. The + large number of concessions acquired by Germans in 1884-1885 on the East + African coast aroused, however, the interest of those who recognized the + paramount importance of the maintenance of British influence in those + regions. A British claim, ratified by an agreement with Germany in 1886, + was made to the districts behind Mombasa; and in May 1887 Bargash granted + to an association formed by Mackinnon a concession for the administration + of so much of his mainland territory as lay outside the region which the + British government had recognized as the German sphere of operations. By + international agreement the mainland territories of the sultan were + defined as extending 10 m. inland from the coast. Mackinnon's + association, whose object <span class="sidenote">A chartered company + formed.</span> was to open up the hinterland as well as this ten-mile + strip, became the Imperial British East Africa Company by a founder's + agreement of April 1888, and received a royal charter in September of the + same year. To this company the sultan made a further concession dated + October 1888. On the faith of these concessions and the charters a sum of + £240,000 was subscribed, and the company received formal charge of their + concessions. The path of the company was speedily beset with + difficulties, which in the first instance arose out of the aggressions of + the German East African Company. This company had also received a grant + from the sultan in October 1888, and its appearance on the coast was + followed by grave disturbances among the tribes which had welcomed the + British. This outbreak led to a joint British and German blockade, which + seriously hampered trade operations. It had also been anticipated, in + reliance on certain assurances of Prince Bismarck, emphasized by Lord + Salisbury, that German enterprise in the interior of the country would be + confined to the south of Victoria Nyanza. Unfortunately this expectation + was not realized. Moreover German subjects put forward claims to coast + districts, notably Lamu, within the company's sphere and in many ways + obstructed the company's operations. In all these disputes the German + government countenanced its own subjects, while the British foreign + office did little or nothing to assist the company, sometimes directly + discouraging its activity. Moreover, the company had agreed by the + concession of October 1888 to pay a high revenue to the + sultan—Bargash had died in the preceding March and the Germans were + pressing his successor to give them a grant of Lamu—in lieu of the + customs collected at the ports they took over. The disturbance caused by + the German claims had a detrimental effect on trade and put a + considerable strain on the resources of the company. The action of the + company in agreeing to onerous financial burdens was dictated partly by + regard for imperial interests, which would have been seriously weakened + had Lamu gone to the Germans.</p> + + <p>By the hinterland doctrine, accepted both by Great Britain and Germany + in the diplomatic correspondence of July 1887, Uganda would fall within + Great Britain's "sphere of influence"; but German public opinion did not + so regard the matter. German maps assigned the territory to Germany, + while in England public opinion as strongly expected British influence to + be paramount. In 1889 Karl Peters, a German official, led what was + practically a raiding expedition into that country, after running a + blockade of the ports. An expedition under F.J. Jackson had been sent by + the company in the same year to Victoria Nyanza, but with instructions to + avoid Uganda. In consequence of representations from Uganda, and of + tidings he received of Peters's doings, Jackson, however, determined to + go to that country. Peters retired at Jackson's approach, claiming, + nevertheless, to have made certain treaties which constituted "effective + occupation." Peters's treaty was dated the 1st of March 1890: Jackson + concluded another in April. Meantime negotiations were proceeding in + Europe; and by the Anglo-German agreement of the 1st of July 1890 Uganda + was assigned to the British sphere. To consolidate their position in + Uganda—the French missionaries there were hostile to Great + Britain—the company sent thither Captain F.D. Lugard, who reached + Mengo, the capital, in December 1890 and established the authority of the + company despite French intrigues. In July 1890 representatives of the + powers assembled at Brussels had agreed on common efforts for the + suppression of the slave trade. The interference of the company in Uganda + had been a material step towards that object, which they sought to + further and at the same time to open up the country by the construction + of a railway from Mombasa to Victoria Nyanza. But their resources being + inadequate for such an undertaking they sought imperial aid. Although + Lord Salisbury, then prime minister, paid the highest tribute to the + company's labours, and a preliminary grant for the survey had been + practically agreed upon, the scheme was wrecked in parliament. At a later + date, however, the railway was built entirely at government cost + (<i>supra</i>, § <i>Communications</i>). Owing to the financial strain + imposed upon it the company decided to withdraw Captain Lugard and his + forces in August 1891; and eventually the British government assumed a + protectorate over the country (see <span class="sc">Uganda</span>).</p> + + <p>Further difficulties now arose which led finally to the extinction of + the company. Its pecuniary interests sustained a severe <span + class="sidenote">The company and the crown.</span> blow owing to the + British government—which had taken Zanzibar under its protection in + November 1890—declaring (June 1892) the dominions of the sultan + within the free trade zone. This act extinguished the treaties regulating + all tariffs and duties with foreign powers, and gave free trade all along + the coast. The result for the company was that dues were now swept away + without compensation, and the company was left saddled with the payment + of the rent, and with the cost, in addition, of administration, <!-- Page + 605 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page605"></a>[v.04 + p.0605]</span>the necessary revenue for which had been derived from the + dues thus abolished. Moreover, a scheme of taxation which it drew up + failed to gain the approval of the foreign office.</p> + + <p>In every direction the company's affairs had drifted into an + <i>impasse</i>. Plantations had been taken over on the coast and worked + at a loss, money had been advanced to native traders and lost, and + expectations of trade had been disappointed. At this crisis Sir William + Mackinnon, the guiding spirit of the company, died (June 1893). At a + meeting of shareholders on the 8th of May 1894 an offer to surrender the + charter to the government was approved, though not without strong + protests. Negotiations dragged on for over two years, and ultimately the + terms of settlement were that the government should purchase the + property, rights and assets of the company in East Africa for £250,000. + Although the company had proved unprofitable for the shareholders (when + its accounts were wound up they disclosed a total deficit of £193,757) it + had accomplished a great deal of good work and had brought under British + sway not only the head waters of the upper Nile, but a rich and healthy + upland region admirably adapted for European colonization. To the + judgment, foresight and patriotism of Sir William Mackinnon British East + Africa practically owes its foundation. Sir William and his colleagues of + the company were largely animated by humanitarian motives—the + desire to suppress slavery and to improve the condition of the natives. + With this aim they prohibited the drink traffic, started industrial + missions, built roads, and administered impartial justice. In the opinion + of a later administrator (Sir C. Eliot), their work and that of their + immediate successors was the greatest philanthropic achievement of the + latter part of the 19th century.</p> + + <p>On the 1st of July 1895 the formal transfer to the British crown of + the territory administered by the company took place at Mombasa, the + foreign office assuming responsibility for its administration. The + territory, hitherto known as "Ibea," from the initials of the company, + was now styled the East Africa protectorate. The small sultanate of Witu + (<i>q.v.</i>) on the mainland opposite Lamu, from 1885 to 1890 a German + protectorate, was included in the British protectorate. Coincident with + the transfer of the administration to the imperial government a dispute + as to the succession to a chieftainship in the Mazrui, the most important + Arab family on the coast, led to a revolt which lasted ten months and + involved much hard fighting. It ended in April 1896 in the flight of the + rebel leaders to German territory, where they were interned. The + rebellion marks an important epoch in the history of the protectorate as + its suppression definitely substituted European for Arab influence. + "Before the rebellion," says Sir C. Eliot, "the coast was a protected + Arab state; since its suppression it has been growing into a British + colony."</p> + + <p>From 1896, when the building of the Mombasa-Victoria Nyanza railway + was begun, until 1903, when the line was <span class="sidenote">A white + man's country.</span> practically completed, the energies of the + administration were largely absorbed in that great work, and in + establishing effective control over the Masai, Somali, and other tribes. + The coast lands apart, the protectorate was regarded as valuable chiefly + as being the high road to Uganda. But as the railway reached the high + plateaus the discovery was made that there were large areas of + land—very sparsely peopled—where the climate was excellent + and where the conditions were favourable to European colonization. The + completion of the railway, by affording transport facilities, made it + practicable to open the country to settlers. The first application for + land was made in April 1902 by the East Africa Syndicate—a company + in which financiers belonging to the Chartered Company of South Africa + were interested—which sought a grant of 500 sq. m.; and this was + followed by other applications for considerable areas, a scheme being + also propounded for a large Jewish settlement.</p> + + <p>During 1903 the arrival of hundreds of prospective settlers, chiefly + from South Africa, led to the decision to entertain no more applications + for large areas of land, especially as questions were raised concerning + the preservation for the Masai of their rights of pasturage. In the + carrying out of this policy a dispute arose between Lord Lansdowne, + foreign secretary, and Sir Charles Eliot, who had been commissioner since + 1900. The foreign secretary, believing himself bound by pledges given to + the syndicate, decided that they should be granted the lease of the 500 + sq. m. they had applied for; but after consulting officials of the + protectorate then in London, he refused Sir Charles Eliot permission to + conclude leases for 50 sq. m. each to two applicants from South Africa. + Sir Charles thereupon resigned his post, and in a public telegram to the + prime minister, dated Mombasa, the 21st of June 1904, gave as his + reason:—"Lord Lansdowne ordered me to refuse grants of land to + certain private persons while giving a monopoly of land on unduly + advantageous terms to the East Africa Syndicate. I have refused to + execute these instructions, which I consider unjust and impolitic."<a + name="FnAnchor_121" href="#Footnote_121"><sup>[1]</sup></a></p> + + <p>On the day Sir Charles sent this telegram the appointment of Sir + Donald W. Stewart, the chief commissioner of Ashanti, to succeed him was + announced. Sir Donald induced the Masai whose grazing rights were + threatened to remove to another district, and a settlement of the land + claims was arranged. An offer to the Zionist Association of land for + colonization by Jews was declined in August 1905 by that body, after the + receipt of a report by a commissioner sent to examine the land (6000 sq. + m.) offered. Sir Donald Stewart died on the 1st of October 1905, and was + succeeded by Colonel Hayes Sadler, the commissioner of Uganda. Meantime, + in April 1905, the administration of the protectorate had been + transferred from the foreign to the colonial office. By the close of 1905 + considerably over a million acres of land had been leased or sold by the + protectorate authorities—about half of it for grazing purposes. In + 1907, to meet the demands of the increasing number of white inhabitants, + who had formed a Colonists' Association<a name="FnAnchor_122" + href="#Footnote_122"><sup>[2]</sup></a> for the promotion of their + interests, a legislative council was established, and on this council + representatives of the settlers were given seats. The style of the chief + official was also altered, "governor" being substituted for + "commissioner". In the same year a scheme was drawn up for assisting the + immigration of British Indians to the regions adjacent to the coast and + to Victoria Nyanza, districts not suitable for settlement by + Europeans.</p> + + <p>In general the relations of the British with the tribes of the + interior have been satisfactory. The Somali in Jubaland have given some + trouble, but the Masai, notwithstanding their warlike reputation, + accepted peaceably the control of the whites. This was due, in great + measure, to the fact that at the period in question plague carried off + their cattle wholesale and reduced them for years to a state of want and + weakness which destroyed their warlike habits. One of the most + troublesome tribes proved to be the Nandi, who occupied the southern part + of the plateau west of the Mau escarpment. They repeatedly raided their + less warlike neighbours and committed wholesale thefts from the railway + and telegraph lines. In September 1905 an expedition was sent against + them which reduced the tribe to submission in the following November; and + early in 1906 the Nandi were removed into a reserve. The majority of the + natives, unaccustomed to regular work, showed themselves averse from + taking service under the white farmers. The inadequacy of the labour + supply was an early cause of trouble to the settlers, while the labour + regulations enforced led, during 1907-1908, to considerable friction + between the colonists and the administration.</p> + + <p>For several years after the establishment of the protectorate the + northern region remained very little known and no attempt was made to + administer the district. The natives were frequently raided by parties of + Gallas and Abyssinians, and in the absence of a defined frontier + Abyssinian government posts were pushed south to Lake Rudolf. The + Abyssinians also made themselves masters of the Boran country. After long + negotiations an agreement as to the boundary line between the lake and + <!-- Page 606 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page606"></a>[v.04 + p.0606]</span>the river Juba was signed at Adis Ababa on the 6th of + December 1907, and in 1908-1909 the frontier was delimited by an + Anglo-Abyssinian commission, Major C.W. Gwynn being the chief British + representative. Save for its north-eastern extremity Lake Rudolf was + assigned to the British, Lake Stefanie falling to Abyssinia, while from + about 4° 20′ N. the Daua to its junction with the Juba became the + frontier.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—The most comprehensive + account of the protectorate to the close of 1904, especially of its + economic resources, is <i>The East Africa Protectorate</i>, by Sir + Charles Eliot (London, 1905). The progress of the protectorate is + detailed in the <i>Reports</i> by the governor issued annually by the + British government since 1896, and in <i>Drumkey's Year Book for East + Africa</i> (Bombay), first issued in 1908. The <i>Précis of + Information</i> concerning the British East Africa Protectorate (issued + by the War Office, London, 1901) is chiefly valuable for its historical + information. The work of the Imperial British East Africa Company is + concisely and authoritatively told from official documents in <i>British + East Africa or Ibea</i>, by P.L. McDermont (new ed., London, 1895). + Another book, valuable for its historical perspective, is <i>The + Foundation of British East Africa</i>, by J.W. Gregory (London, 1901). + Bishop A.R. Tucker's <i>Eighteen Years in Uganda and East Africa</i> + (London, 1908) contains a summary of missionary labours. Of the works of + explorers <i>Through Masai Land</i>, by Joseph Thomson (London, 1886), is + specially valuable. For the northern frontier see Capt. P. Maud's report + in <i>Africa No. 13</i> (1904). For geology see, besides Thomson's book, + <i>The Great Rift Valley</i>, by J.W. Gregory (London, 1896); <i>Across + an East African Glacier</i>, by Hans Meyer (London and Leipzig, 1890); + and <i>Report relating to the Geology of the East Africa + Protectorate</i>, by H.B. Muff (Colonial Office, London, 1908). For big + game and ornithology see <i>On Safari</i>, by A. Chapman (London, 1908). + The story of the building of the Uganda railway is summarized in the + <i>Final Report of the Uganda Railway Committee, Africa, No. 11</i> + (1904), published by the British government.</p> + + <p>(F. R. C.)</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_121" href="#FnAnchor_121">[1]</a> See + <i>Correspondence relating to the Resignation of Sir C. Eliot, Africa, + No. 8</i> (1904).</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_122" href="#FnAnchor_122">[2]</a> The Planters and + Farmers' Association, as this organization was originally called, dates + from 1903.</p> + +</div> + <p><b>BRITISH EMPIRE</b>, the name now loosely given to the whole + aggregate of territory, the inhabitants of which, under various forms of + government, ultimately look to the British crown as the supreme head. The + term "empire" is in this connexion obviously used rather for convenience + than in any sense equivalent to that of the older or despotic empires of + history.</p> + + <p>The land surface of the earth is estimated to extend over about + 52,500,000 sq. m. Of this area the British empire occupies <span + class="sidenote">Extent.</span> nearly one-quarter, extending over an + area of about 12,000,000 sq. m. By far the greater portion lies within + the temperate zones, and is suitable for white settlement. The notable + exceptions are the southern half of India and Burma; East, West and + Central Africa; the West Indian colonies; the northern portion of + Australia; New Guinea, British Borneo and that portion of North America + which extends into Arctic regions. The area of the territory of the + empire is divided almost equally between the southern and the northern + hemispheres, the great divisions of Australasia and South Africa covering + between them in the southern hemisphere 5,308,506 sq. m., while the + United Kingdom, Canada and India, including the native states, cover + between them in the northern hemisphere 5,271,375 sq. m. The alternation + of the seasons is thus complete, one-half of the empire enjoying summer, + while one-half is in winter. The division of territory between the + eastern and western hemispheres is less equal, Canada occupying alone in + the western hemisphere 3,653,946 sq. m., while Australasia, South Africa, + India and the United Kingdom occupy together in the eastern hemisphere + 6,925,975 sq. m. As a matter of fact, however, the eastern portions of + Australasia border so nearly upon the western hemisphere that the + distribution of day and night throughout the empire is, like the + alternations of the seasons, almost complete, one-half enjoying daylight, + while the other half is in darkness. These alternations of time and of + seasons, combined with the variety of soils and climates, are calculated + to have an increasingly important effect upon the material and + industrial, as well as upon the social and political developments of the + empire. This will become evident in considering the industrial + productions of the different divisions, and the harvest seasons which + permit the summer produce of one portion of the empire to supply the + winter requirements of its other markets, and conversely.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:80%;"> + <a href="images/zbritishempire_1.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/britishempire_1.png" + alt="The British Empire." title="The British Empire." /></a> + </div> + <p>The empire contains or is bounded by some of the highest mountains, + the greatest lakes, and the most important rivers of the world. Its + climates may be said to include all the known climates of the world; its + soils are no less various. In the prairies of central Canada it possesses + some of the most valuable wheat-producing land; in the grass lands of the + interior of Australia the best pasture country; and in the uplands of + South Africa the most valuable gold- and diamond-bearing beds which + exist. The United Kingdom at present produces more coal than any other + single country except the United States. The effect of climate throughout + the empire in modifying the type of the Anglo-Saxon race has as yet + received only partial attention, and conclusions regarding it are of a + somewhat empiric nature. The general tendency in Canada is held to be + towards somewhat smaller size, and a hardy active habit; in Australia to + a tall, slight, pale development locally known as "cornstalkers," + characterized by considerable nervous and intellectual activity. In New + Zealand the type preserves almost exactly the characteristics of the + British Isles. The South African, both Dutch and British, is readily + recognized by an apparently sun-dried, lank and hard habit of body. In + the tropical possessions of the empire, where white settlement does not + take place to any considerable extent, the individual alone is affected. + The type undergoes no modification. It is to be observed in reference to + this interesting aspect of imperial development, that the multiplication + and cheapening of channels of communication and means of travel + throughout the empire will tend to modify the future accentuation of race + difference, while the variety of elements in the vast area occupied + should have an important, though as yet not scientifically traced, effect + upon the British imperial type.</p> + + <p>The white population of the empire<a name="FnAnchor_131" + href="#Footnote_131"><sup>[1]</sup></a> reached in 1901 a total of over + 53,000,000, or something over one-eighth of its entire <span + class="sidenote">Population.</span> population, which, including native + races, is estimated at about 400,000,000. The white population includes + some French, Dutch and Spanish peoples, but is mainly of Anglo-Saxon + race. It is distributed roughly as follows:—</p> + + +<table width="50%" class="nob" summary="White population of the British Empire." title="White population of the British Empire."> + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left; width:75%"> + <p>United Kingdom and home dependencies</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right; width:25%"> + <p>41,608,791</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left"> + <p>Australasia</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + <p>4,662,000</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left"> + <p>British North America</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + <p>5,500,000</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left"> + <p>Africa (Dutch and British)<a name="FnAnchor_132" + href="#Footnote_132"><sup>[2]</sup></a></p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + <p>1,000,000</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left"> + <p>India</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + <p>169,677</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left"> + <p>West Indies and Bermuda</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + <p>100,000</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left"> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + <p>—————</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left"> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + <p>53,040,468</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + + <p>The native population of the empire includes types of the principal + black, yellow and brown races, classing with these the high-type races of + the East, which may almost be called white. The native population of + India, mainly high type, brown, was returned at the census of 1901 as + 294,191,379. The population of India is divided into 118 groups on the + basis of language. These may, however, be collected into the following + principal groups:—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>(A) Malayo-Polynesian.</p> + <p>(B) Indo-Chinese:</p> + <p class="i4">i. Mon-Khmer.</p> + <p class="i4">ii. Tibeto-Burman.</p> + <p class="i4">iii. Siamese-Chinese.</p> + <p>(C) <span class="special" title="Dravido-Munda">Dravido-Muṇḍā</span>:</p> + <p class="i4">i. <span class="special" title="Munda">Muṇḍā</span> (Kolarian).</p> + <p class="i4">ii. Dravidian.</p> + <p>(D) Indo-European.</p> + <p class="i4">Indo-Aryan sub-family.</p> + <p>(E) Semitic.</p> + <p>(F) Hamitic.</p> + <p>(G) Unclassed, e.g. Gipsy.</p> + </div> + </div> +<h4><i>Eastern Colonies</i></h4> + + +<table width="50%" class="nob" summary="Non-White populations, Eastern Colonies." title="Non-White populations, Eastern Colonies."> + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left; width:75%"> + <p>Ceylon, high type, brown and mixed</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right; width:25%"> + <p>3,568,824</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left"> + <p>Straits Settlements, brown, mixed and Chinese</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + <p>570,000</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left"> + <p>Hong-Kong, Chinese and brown</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + <p>306,130</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left"> + <p>North Borneo, mixed brown and Sarawak</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + <p>700,000</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left"> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + <p>—————</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left"> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + <p>5,144,954</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p><!-- Page 607 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page607"></a>[v.04 p.0607]</span></p> + + <p>Of the various races which inhabit these Eastern dependencies the most + important are the 2,000,000 Sinhalese and the 954,000 Tamil that make up + the greater part of the population of Ceylon. The rest is made up of + Arabs, Malays, Chinese (in the Straits Settlements and Hong-Kong), Dyaks, + Eurasians and others.</p> + +<h4><i>West Indies.</i></h4> + + <p>The West Indies, including the continental colonies of British Guiana + and Honduras, and seventeen islands or groups of islands, have a total + coloured population of about 1,912,655. The colonies of this group which + have the largest coloured populations are:—</p> + + +<table width="56%" class="nob" summary="Non-White populations, West Indies." title="Non-White populations, West Indies."> + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left; width:77%"> + <p>Jamaica—Chiefly black, some brown and yellow</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right; width:22%"> + <p>790,000</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left"> + <p>Trinidad and Tobago—Black and brown</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + <p>250,000</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left"> + <p>British Guiana—Black and brown</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + <p>286,000</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:right" colspan="2"> + <p>—————</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:right" colspan="2"> + <p>1,326,000</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + + <p>The populations of the West Indies are very various, being made up + largely of imported African negroes. In Jamaica these contribute + four-fifths of the population. There are also in the islands a + considerable number of imported East Indian coolies and some Chinese. The + aboriginal races include American Indians of the mainland and Caribs. + With these there has been intermixture of Spanish and Portuguese blood, + and many mixed types have appeared. The total European population of this + group of colonies amounts to upwards of 80,000, to which 15,000 on + account of Bermuda may be added.</p> + +<h4><i>Africa.</i></h4> + + +<table width="50%" class="nob" summary="Non-White populations, South and Central Africa." title="Non-White populations, South and Central Africa."> + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left" colspan="2"> + <p>Chiefly black, estimated</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left; width:75%"> + <p>South</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right; width:25%"> + <p>5,211,329</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left"> + <p>Central</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + <p>2,000,000</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + + <p>The aboriginal races of South Africa were the Bushmen and Hottentots. + Both these races are rapidly diminishing in numbers, and in British South + Africa it is expected that they will in the course of the twentieth + century become extinct. Besides these primitive races there are the + dark-skinned negroids of Bantu stock, commonly known in their tribal + groups as Kaffirs, Zulu, Bechuana and Damara, which are again subdivided + into many lesser groups. The Bantu compose the greater part of the native + population. There are also in South Africa Malays and Indians and others, + who during the last two hundred years have been introduced from Java, + Ceylon, Madagascar, Mozambique and British India, and by intermarriage + with each other and with the natives have produced a hybrid population + generally classed together under the heading of the Mixed Races. These + are of all colours, varying from yellow to dark brown. The tribes of + Central Africa are as yet less known. Many of them exhibit racial + characteristics allied to those of the tribes of South Africa, but with + in some cases an admixture of Arab blood.</p> + +<h4><i>East Africa.</i></h4> + +<table width="50%" class="nob" summary="Non-White populations, East Africa." title="Non-White populations, East Africa."> + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left" colspan="2"> +Protectorate—Black and brown: + + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left; width:75%"> + <p>—Natives (estimated)</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right; width:25%"> + <p>4,000,000</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left"> + <p>—Asiatics (estimated)</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + <p>25,000</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left"> + <p>Zanzibar—Black and brown</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + <p>200,000</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left"> + <p>Uganda</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + <p>3,200,000</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:right" colspan="2"> + <p>—————</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:center"> + <p>Total</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + <p>7,425,000</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<h4><i>West Africa.</i></h4> + + +<table width="50%" class="nob" summary="Non-White populations, West Africa." title="Non-White populations, West Africa."> + <tr> + <td style="text-align:right" colspan="2"> + <p>Estimated.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left; width:75%"> + <p>Nigeria (including Lagos)—Black and brown</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right; width:25%"> + <p>15,000,000</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left"> + <p>Gold Coast and hinterland—Chiefly black</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + <p>2,700,000</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sierra Leone—Chiefly black</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + <p>1,000,000</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left"> + <p>Gambia—Chiefly black</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + <p>163,000</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:right" colspan="2"> + <p>—————</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:right" colspan="2"> + <p>18,863,000</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + + <p>From east to west across Africa the aboriginal nations are mostly of + the black negroid type, their varieties being only imperfectly known. The + tendency of some of the lower negroid types has been to drift towards the + west coast, where they still practise cannibalistic and fetish rites. On + the east coast are found much higher types approaching to the Christian + races of Abyssinia, and from east to west there has been a wide admixture + of Arab blood producing a light-brown type. In Uganda and Nigeria a large + proportion of the population is Arab and relatively light-skinned.</p> + +<h4><i>Australasia</i>.</h4> + + +<table width="56%" class="nob" summary="Non-White populations, Australasia." title="Non-White populations, Australasia."> + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left; width:77%"> + <p>Australia—Black, very low type</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right; width:22%"> + <p>200,000</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left"> + <p>—Chinese and half castes, yellow</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + <p>50,000</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left"> + <p>New Zealand—Maoris, brown, Chinese and half castes</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + <p>53,000</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left"> + <p>Fiji—Polynesian, black and brown</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + <p>121,000</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left"> + <p>Papua—Polynesian, black and brown</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + <p>400,000</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:right" colspan="2"> + <p>————<br /> + 824,000</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + + <p>The native races of Australia and the Polynesian groups of islands are + divided into two main types known as the dark and light Polynesian. The + dark type, which is black, is of a very low order, and in some of the + islands still retains its cannibal habits. The aboriginal tribes of + Australia are of a low-class black race, but generally peaceful and + inoffensive in their habits. The white Polynesian races are of a very + superior type, and exhibit, as in the Maoris of New Zealand, + characteristics of a high order. The natives of Papua (New Guinea) are in + a very low state of civilization. The estimate given of their numbers is + approximate, as no census has been taken.</p> + +<h4><i>Canada.</i></h4> + + +<table width="50%" class="nob" summary="Non-White populations, Canada." title="Non-White populations, Canada."> + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left; width:75%"> + <p>Indians—Brown</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right; width:25%"> + <p>100,000</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + + <p>The only coloured native races of Canada are the Red Indians, many in + tribal variety, but few in number.</p> + +<h4><i>Summary</i>.</h4> + + +<table width="50%" class="nob" summary="Non-White populations, Canada." title="Non-White populations, Canada."> + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left; width:75%"> + <p>Native Populations:</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left"> + <p>India</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right; width:25%"> + <p>294,191,379</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left"> + <p>Ceylon and Eastern Colonies</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + <p>5,144,954</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left"> + <p>West Indies</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + <p>1,912,655</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left"> + <p>South Africa</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + <p>5,211,329</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left"> + <p>British Central Africa</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + <p>2,000,000</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left"> + <p>East Africa</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + <p>7,425,000</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left"> + <p>West Africa</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + <p>18,863,000</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left"> + <p>Australasia and Islands</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + <p>824,000</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left"> + <p>Canada</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + <p>100,000</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:right" colspan="2"> + <p>——————<br /> + 335,672,317</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:left"> + <p>White populations</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + <p>53,040,468</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:center"> + <p>Total</p> + </td> + <td style="text-align:right"> + <p>388,712,785</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + + <p>This is without taking into account the population of the lesser crown + colonies or allowing for the increase likely to be shown by later + censuses. Throughout the empire, and notably in the United Kingdom, there + is among the white races a considerable sprinkling of Jewish blood.</p> + + <p>The latest calculation of the entire population of the world, + including a liberal estimate of 650,000,000 for peoples not brought under + any census, gives a total of something over 1,500,000,000. The population + of the empire may therefore be calculated as amounting to something more + than one-fourth of the population of the world.</p> + + <p>It is a matter of first importance in the geographical distribution of + the empire that the five principal divisions, the United <span + class="sidenote">Divisions.</span> Kingdom, South Africa, India, + Australia and Canada are separated from each other by the three great + oceans of the world. The distance as usually calculated in nautical + miles: from an English port to the Cape of Good Hope is 5840 m.; from the + Cape of Good Hope to Bombay is 4610; from Bombay to Melbourne is 5630; + from Melbourne to Auckland is 1830; from Auckland to Vancouver is 6210; + from Halifax to Liverpool is 2744. From a British port direct to Bombay + by way of the Mediterranean it is 6272; from a British port by the same + route to Sydney 11,548 m. These great distances have necessitated the + acquisition of intermediate ports suitable for coaling stations on the + trade routes, and have determined the position of many of the lesser + crown colonies which are held simply for military and commercial + purposes. Such are the Bermudas, Gibraltar, Malta, Aden, Ceylon, the + Straits Settlements, Labuan, Hong-Kong, which complete the <!-- Page 608 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page608"></a>[v.04 p.0608]</span>chain + of connexion on the eastern route, and such on other routes are the + lesser West African stations, Ascension, St. Helena, the Mauritius and + Seychelles, the Falklands, Tristan da Cunha, and the groups of the + western Pacific. Other annexations of the British empire have been rocky + islets of the northern Pacific required for the purpose of telegraph + stations in connexion with an all-British cable.</p> + + <p>For purposes of political administration the empire falls into the + three sections of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, with + the dependencies of the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man; the Indian + empire, consisting of British India and the feudatory native states; and + the colonial empire, comprising all other colonies and dependencies.</p> + + <p>In the modern sense of extension beyond the limits of the United + Kingdom the growth of the empire is of comparatively <span + class="sidenote">Growth.</span> recent date. The Channel Islands became + British as a part of the Norman inheritance of William the Conqueror. The + Isle of Man, which was for a short time held in conquest by Edward I. and + restored, was sold by its titular sovereign to Sir William Scrope, earl + of Wiltshire, in 1393, and by his subsequent attainder for high treason + and the confiscation of his estates, became a fief of the English crown. + It was granted by Henry IV. in 1406 to Sir John Stanley, K.C., ancestor + of the earls of Derby, by whom it was held till 1736, when it passed to + James Murray, 2nd duke of Atholl, as heir-general of the 10th earl. It + was inherited by his daughter Charlotte, wife of the 3rd duke of Atholl, + who sold it to the crown for £70,000 and an annuity of £2000. With these + exceptions and the nominal possession taken of Newfoundland by Sir + Humphrey Gilbert in 1583, all the territorial acquisitions of the empire + have been made in the 17th and subsequent centuries.</p> + + <p>The following is a list of the British colonies and dependencies + (other than those belonging to the Indian empire) together with a summary + statement of the date and method of their acquisition. Arranged in + chronological order they give some idea of the rate of growth of the + empire. The dates are not, however, in all cases those in which British + sovereignty was established. They indicate in some instances only the + first definite step, such as the building of a fort, the opening of a + trading station, or other act, which led later to the incorporation in + the empire of the country indicated. In the case of Australian states or + Canadian provinces originally part of other states or provinces the date + is that, approximately, of the first settlement of British in the + district named; <i>e.g.</i> there were British colonists in Saskatchewan + in the last half of the 18th century, but the province was not + constituted until 1905. Save where otherwise stated, British authority + has been continuous from the first date mentioned in the table. Reference + should be made to the articles on the various colonies.</p> + + +<table width="100%" class="nob" summary="Growth of the British Empire" title="Growth of the British Empire"> + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left; width:33%"> + <p>Name.</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; width:13%"> + <p>Date.</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left; width:53%"> + <p>Method of Acquisition.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Newfoundland</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1583</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Possession taken by Sir H. Gilbert for the crown.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:center" colspan="3"> + <p><i>17th Century.</i></p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Barbados</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1605-1625</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Settlement.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Bermudas</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1609</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>"</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Gambia</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p><i>c.</i> 1618</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>" A second time in 1816.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>St Christopher</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1623</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>" Did not become wholly British until 1713.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Novia Scotia</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1628</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>" Ceded to France 1632; recovered 1713.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Nevis</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1628</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>"</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Montserrat</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1632</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>"</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Antigua</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1632</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>"</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Honduras</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1638</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>"</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>St Lucia</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1638</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>" Finally passed to Great Britain in 1803.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Gold Coast</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p><i>c.</i> 1650</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Settlement. Danish forts bought 1850, Dutch forts 1871. Northern + Territories added 1897.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>St Helena</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1651</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Settled by East India Co. Government vested in British crown + 1833.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Jamaica</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1655</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Conquest.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Bahamas</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1666</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Settlement.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Virgin Islands</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1666-1672</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Settlement and conquest.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>N.W. Territories of Canada</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1669</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Settlement under royal charter of Hudson's Bay Co. Purchased from + imp. gov. 1869, and transferred to Canada 1870.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Turks and Caicos Is.</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1678</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Settlement.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:center" colspan="3"> + <p><i>18th Century.</i></p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Gibraltar</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1704</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Capitulation.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>New Brunswick</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1713</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Cession.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Prince Edward Is.</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1758</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Conquest.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Ontario</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1759-1790</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>With New Brunswick and Nova</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Quebec</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1759-1790</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Scotia constituted Dominion of Canada 1867. Prince Edward Is. + enters the confederation 1873. In 1880 all British possessions (other + than Newfoundland) in North America annexed to the Dominion.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Dominica</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1761</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Conquest.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>St Vincent</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1762</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Capitulation.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Grenada</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1762</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>"</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Tobago</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1763</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Cession. Afterwards in French possession. Reconquered 1803.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Falkland Is.</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1765</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Settlement. Reoccupied 1832.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Saskatchewan</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1766</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Settlement. Separation from N.W. Territories of Canada 1905.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Pitcairn I.</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1780</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Settlement.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Straits Settlements</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1786 to 1824</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Settlement and cession. Vested (1858) in crown by E.I. Co. + Transferred from Indian to colonial possessions 1867. Malacca in + British occupation 1795-1818.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Sierra Leone</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1787</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Settlement.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Alberta</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p><i>c.</i> 1788</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Separated from N. W. Territories of Canada 1905.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>New South Wales</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1788</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Settlement.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Ceylon</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1795</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Capitulation.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Trinidad</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1797</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>"</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Malta</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1800</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>"</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:center" colspan="3"> + <p><i>19th Century.</i></p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>British Guiana</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1803</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Capitulation.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Tasmania</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1803</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Settlement.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Cape of Good Hope</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1806</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Capitulation. Present limits not attained until 1895. First + British occupation 1795-1803.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Seychelles</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1806</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Capitulation.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Mauritius</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1810</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>"</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Manitoba</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1811</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Settlement by Red River or Selkirk colony. Created province of + Canada 1870.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Ascension and Tristan da Cunha</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1815</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Military occupation.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>B. Columbia and Vancouver Island</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1821</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Settlement under Hudson's Bay Co. Entered Canadian confederation + 1871.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Natal</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1824</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Settlement. Natal Boers submit 1843.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Queensland</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1824</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Separated from New South Wales 1859.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>West Australia</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1826</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Settlement.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Victoria</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1834</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Separated from New South Wales 1851.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>South Australia</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1836</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Settlement.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>New Zealand</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1840</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Settlement and treaty.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Hong-Kong</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1841</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Treaties. Kowloon on the mainland added in 1860; additional area + leased 1898.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Labuan</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1846</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Cession. Incorporated in Straits Settlements 1906.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Lagos</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1861</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Cession. South Nigeria amalgamated with Lagos, under style of + Colony and Protectorate of Southern Nigeria 1906.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Basutoland</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1868</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Annexation.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Fiji</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1874</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Cession. <!-- Page 609 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page609"></a>[v.04 p.0609]</span></p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>W. Pacific Islands, including including Union, Ellice, Gilbert, + Southern Solomon, and other groups</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1877</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>High commission created by order in council, giving jurisdiction + over islands not included in other colonial governments, nor within + jurisdiction of other civilized powers. Protectorates declared over + all these islands by 1900.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Federated Malay States</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1874-1895</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Treaty.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Cyprus</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1878</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Occupied by treaty.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>North Borneo</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1881</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Treaty and settlement under royal charter. Protectorate assumed + 1888.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Papua</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1884</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Protectorate declared.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Nigeria</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1884-1886</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Treaty, conquest and settlement under royal charter. Chartered + Co.'s territory transferred to crown, and whole divided into North + and South Nigeria 1900.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Somaliland</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1884-1886</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Occupation and cession. Protectorate declared 1887.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Bechuanaland</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1885-1891</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Protectorate declared. Southern portion annexed to Cape Colony + 1895.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Zululand</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1887</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Annexation. Incorporated in Natal 1897.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Sarawak</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1888</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Protectorate declared.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Brunei</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1888</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>" "</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>British East Africa</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1888</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Treaty, conquest and settlement under royal charter. Transferred + to crown 1895.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Rhodesia</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1888-1893</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Treaty, conquest and settlement under royal charter.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Zanzibar</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1890</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Protectorate declared.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Uganda</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1890-1896</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Treaty and protectorate.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Nyasaland</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1891</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Protectorate declared.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Ashanti</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1896</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Military occupation.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Wei-hai-wei</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1898</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Lease from China.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Pacific Islands—</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>—Christmas, Fanning, Penrhyn, Suvarov</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1898</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Annexed for purposes of projected Pacific cable.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>—Choiseul and Isabel Is. (Solomon Group)</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1899</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Cession.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>—Tonga and Niué</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1900</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Protectorate declared.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Orange Free State</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1900</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Annexation. Formerly British 1848-1854.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Transvaal and Swaziland</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1900</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Annexation. Formerly British 1877-1881.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="text-align:center" colspan="3"> + <p><i>20th Century.</i></p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Kelantan, Trengganu, &c.</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1909</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Cession from Siam.</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + + <p>In the Pacific are also Bird Island, Bramble Cay, Cato Island, Cook + Islands, Danger Islands, Ducie Island, Dudosa, Howland Island, Jarvis + Island, Kermadec Islands, Macquarie Island, Manihiki Islands, Nassau + Island, Palmerston Island, Palmyra Island, Phoenix Group, Purdy Group, + Raine Island, Rakaanga Island, Rotumah Island, Surprise Island, + Washington or New York Island, Willis Group and Wreck Reef.</p> + + <p>In the Indian Ocean there are, besides the colonies already mentioned, + Rodriguez, the Chagos Islands, St Brandon Islands, Amirante Islands, + Aldabra, Kuria Muria Islands, Maldive Islands and some other small + groups.</p> + + <p>In certain dependencies the sovereignty of Great Britain is not + absolute. The island of Cyprus is nominally still part of the Turkish + empire, but in 1878 was handed over to Great Britain for occupation and + administration; Great Britain now making to the Porte on account of the + island an annual payment of £5000. The administration is in the hands of + an official styled high commissioner, who is invested with the powers + usually conferred on a colonial governor. In Zanzibar and other regions + of equatorial Africa the native rulers retain considerable powers; in the + Far East certain areas are held on lease from China.</p> + + <p>Egypt, without forming part of the British empire, came under the + military occupation of Great Britain in 1882. "By right of conquest" + Great Britain subsequently claimed a share in the administration of the + former Sudan provinces of Egypt, and an agreement of the 19th of January + 1899 established the joint sovereignty of Great Britain and Egypt over + what is now known as the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.</p> + + <p>The Indian section of the empire was acquired during the 17th-19th + centuries under a royal charter granted to the East India Company by + Queen Elizabeth in 1600. It was transferred to the imperial government in + 1858, and Queen Victoria was proclaimed empress under the Royal Titles + Act in 1877. The following list gives the dates and method of acquisition + of the centres of the main divisions of the Indian empire. They have, in + most instances, grown by general process of extension to their present + dimensions.</p> + + +<table width="100%" class="nob" summary="Acquisition of Indian Empire" title="Acquisition of Indian Empire"> + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left; width:33%"> + <p>Name.</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; width:13%"> + <p>Date.</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left; width:53%"> + <p>Method of Acquisition.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Madras</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1639 to 1748</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>By treaty and subsequent conquest. Fort St George, the foundation + of Madras was the first territorial possession of the E.I. Co. in + India. It was acquired by treaty with its Indian ruler. Madras was + raised into a presidency in 1683; ceded to France 1746; recovered + 1748.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Bombay</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1608 to 1685</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Treaty and cession. Trade first established 1608. Ceded to British + crown by Portugal 1661. Transferred to E.I. Co. 1668. Presidency + removed from Surat 1687.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Bengal</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1633 to 1765</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Treaty and subsequent conquests. First trade settlement + established by treaty at Pipli in Orissa 1633. Erected into + presidency by separation from Madras 1681. Virtual sovereignty + announced by E.I. Co., as result of conquests of Clive, 1765.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>United Provinces of Agra and Oudh</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1764 to 1856</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>By conquests and treaty through successive stages, of which the + principal dates were 1801-3-14-15. In 1832 the nominal sovereignty of + Delhi, till then retained by the Great Mogul, was resigned into the + hands of the E.I. Co. Oudh, of which the conquest may be said to have + begun with the battle of Baxar in 1764, was finally annexed in + 1856.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Central Provinces</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1802-1817</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>By conquest and treaty.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Eastern Bengal and Assam</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1825-1826</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Conquest and cession. The Bengal portion of the province by + separation from Bengal in 1905.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Burma</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1824-1852</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Conquest and cession.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Punjab</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1849</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Conquest and annexation. Made into distinct province 1859.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>N.-W. Frontier Province</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1901</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Subdivision.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Ajmere and Merwara</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1818</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>By conquest and cession.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Coorg</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1834</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Conquest and annexation.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>British Baluchistan</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1854-1876</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Conquest and treaty.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Andaman Islands</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>1858</p> + </td> + <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Annexation.</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + + <p>The following is a list of some of the principal Indian states which + are more or less under the control of the British government:—</p> + + <p>1. In direct political relations with the governor-general in + council.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Hyderabad.</p> + <p>Baroda.</p> + <p>Mysote.</p> + <p>Kashmir.</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>2. Under the Rajputana agency.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Udaipur.</p> + <p>Jodhpur.</p> + <p>Bikanir.</p> + <p>Jaipur (and feudatories).</p> + <p>Bharatpur.</p> + <p>Dholpur.</p> + <p>Alwar.</p> + <p>Tonk.</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>3. Under the Central Indian agency.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Indore.</p> + <p>Rewa.</p> + <p>Bhopal.</p> + <p>Gwalior.</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>4. Under the Bombay government.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Cutch.</p> + <p>Kolhapur (and dependencies).</p> + <p>Khairpur (Sind).</p> + <p>Bhaunagar.</p> + </div> + </div> +<p><!-- Page 610 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page610"></a>[v.04 p.0610]</span></p> + + <p>5. Under the Madras government.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Travancore.</p> + <p>Cochin.</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>6. Under the Central Provinces government.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Bastar.</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>7. Under the Bengal government.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Kuch Behar.</p> + <p>Sikkim.</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>8. Under United Provinces government.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Rampur.</p> + <p>Garhwal.</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>9. Under the Punjab government.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Patiala.</p> + <p>Bahawalpur.</p> + <p>Jind.</p> + <p>Nabha.</p> + <p>Kapurthala.</p> + <p>Mandi.</p> + <p>Sirmur (Nahan).</p> + <p>Faridkot.</p> + <p>Chamba.</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>10. Under the government of Burma.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Shan states.</p> + <p>Karen states.</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>In addition to these there are British tracts known as the Upper Burma + frontier and the Burma frontier. There is also a sphere of British + influence in the border of Afghanistan. The state of Nepal, though + independent as regards its internal administration, has been since the + campaign of 1814-15 in close relations with Great Britain. It is bound to + receive a British resident, and its political relations with other states + are controlled by the government of India. All these native states have + come into relative dependency upon Great Britain as a result of conquest + or of treaty consequent upon the annexation of the neighbouring + provinces. The settlement of Aden, with its dependencies of Perim and + Sokotra Island, forms part of the government of Bombay.</p> + + <p>This vast congeries of states, widely different in character, and + acquired by many different methods, holds together under <span + class="sidenote">Administration.</span> the supreme headship of the crown + on a generally acknowledged triple principle of self-government, + self-support and self-defence. The principle is more fully applied in + some parts of the empire than in others; there are some parts which have + not yet completed their political evolution; some others in which the + principle is temporarily or for special reasons in abeyance; others, + again—chiefly those of very small extent, which are held for + purposes of the defence or advantage of the whole—to which it is + not applicable; but the principle is generally acknowledged as the + structural basis upon which the constitution of the empire exists.</p> + + <p>In its relation to the empire the home section of the British Isles is + distinguished from the others as the place of origin of the British race + and the residence of the crown. The history and constitutional + development of this portion of the empire will be found fully treated + under separate headings. (See <span class="sc">England; Wales; Ireland; + Scotland; United Kingdom; English History; India; Africa; Australia; + Canada</span>; &c.)</p> + + <p>It is enough to say that for purposes of administration the Indian + empire is divided into nine great provinces and four minor + commissionerships. The nine great provinces are presided over by two + governors (Bombay and Madras), five lieut.-governors (Bengal, Eastern + Bengal and Assam, United Provinces [Agra and Oudh], the Punjab and + Burma), a chief commissioner (the Central Provinces) and an agent to the + governor-general (the N.-W. Frontier Province). The four minor + commissionerships are presided over each by a chief commissioner. Above + these the supreme executive authority in India is vested in the viceroy + in council. The council consists of six ordinary members besides the + existing commander-in-chief. For legislative purposes the + governor-general's council is increased by the addition of fifteen + members nominated by the crown, and has power under certain restrictions + to make laws for British India, for British subjects in the native + states, and for native Indian subjects of the crown in any part of the + world. The administration of the Indian empire in England is carried on + by a secretary of state for India assisted by a council of not less than + ten members. The expenditure of the revenues is under the control of the + secretary in council.</p> + + <p>The colonial empire comprises over fifty distinct governments. It is + divided into colonies of three classes and dependencies; these, again, + are in some instances associated for administrative purposes in federated + groups. The three classes of colonies are crown colonies, colonies + possessing representative institutions but not responsible government, + and colonies possessing representative institutions and responsible + government. In crown colonies the crown has entire control of + legislation, and the public officers are under the control of the home + government. In representative colonies the crown has only a veto on + legislation, but the home government retains control of the public + officers. In responsible colonies the crown retains a veto upon + legislation, but the home government has no control of any public officer + except the governor.</p> + + <p>In crown colonies—with the exception of Gibraltar and St Helena, + where laws may be made by the governor alone—laws are made by the + governor with the concurrence of a council nominated by the crown. In + some crown colonies, chiefly those acquired by conquest or cession, the + authority of this council rests wholly on the crown; in others, chiefly + those acquired by settlement, the council is created by the crown under + the authority of local or imperial laws. The crown council of Ceylon may + be cited as an example of the first kind, and the crown council of + Jamaica of the second.</p> + + <p>In colonies possessing representative institutions without responsible + government, the crown cannot (generally) legislate by order in council, + and laws are made by the governor with the concurrence of the legislative + body or bodies, one at least of these bodies in cases where a second + chamber exists possessing a preponderance of elected representatives. The + Bahamas, Barbados, and Bermuda have two legislative bodies—one + elected and one nominated by the crown; Malta and the Leeward Islands + have but one, which is partly elected and partly nominated.</p> + + <p>Under responsible government legislation is carried on by + parliamentary means exactly as at home, with a cabinet responsible to + parliament, the crown reserving only a right of veto, which is exercised + at the discretion of the governor in the case of certain bills. The + executive councils in those colonies, designated as at home by + parliamentary choice, are appointed by the governor alone, and the other + public officers only nominally by the governor on the advice of his + executive council.</p> + + <p>Colonial governors are classed as governors-general; governors; + lieut.-governors; administrators; high commissioners; and commissioners, + according to the status of the colony and dependency, or group of + colonies and dependencies, over which they preside. Their powers vary + according to the position which they occupy. In all cases they represent + the crown.</p> + + <p>As a consequence of this organization the finance of crown colonies is + under the direct control of the imperial government; the finance of + representative colonies, though not directly controlled, is usually + influenced in important departures by the opinion of the imperial + government. In responsible colonies the finance is entirely under local + control, and the imperial government is dissociated from either moral or + material responsibility for colonial debts.</p> + + <p>In federated groups of colonies and dependencies matters which are of + common interest to a given number of separate governments are by mutual + consent of the federating communities adjudged to the authority of a + common government, which, in the case of self-governing colonies, is + voluntarily created for the purpose. The associated states form under the + federal government one federal body, but the parts retain control of + local matters, and exercise all their original rights of government in + regard to these. The two great self-governing groups of federated + colonies within the empire are the Dominion of Canada and the + Commonwealth of Australia. In South Africa unification was preferred to + federation, the then self-governing colonies being united in 1910 into + one state—the Union of South Africa. India, of which the associated + provinces are under the control of the central government, may be given + as an example of the practical federation of dependencies. Examples <!-- + Page 611 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page611"></a>[v.04 + p.0611]</span>of federated crown colonies and lesser dependencies are to + be found in the Leeward Island group of the West Indies and the federated + Malay States.</p> + + <p>This rough system of self-government for the empire has been evolved + not without some strain and friction, by the recognition through the + vicissitudes of three hundred years of the value of independent + initiative in the development of young countries. Queen Elizabeth's first + patent to Sir Walter Raleigh permitted British subjects to accompany him + to America, "with guarantee of a continuance of the enjoyment of all the + rights which her subjects enjoyed at home."</p> + + <p>This guarantee may presumably have been intended at the time only to + assure the intending settlers that they should lose no rights of British + citizenship at home by taking up their residence in America. Its mutual + interpretation in a wider sense, serving at once to establish in the + colony rights of citizenship equivalent to those enjoyed in England, and + to preserve for the colonist the status of British subject at home and + abroad, has formed in application to all succeeding systems of British + colonization the unconscious charter of union of the empire.</p> + + <p>The first American colonies were settled under royal grants, each with + its own constitution. The immense distance in time which in those days + separated America from Great Britain secured them from interference by + the home authorities. They paid their own most moderate governing + expenses, and they contributed largely to their own defence. From the + middle of the 17th century their trade was not free, but this was the + only restriction from which they suffered. The great war with France in + the middle of the 18th century temporarily destroyed this system. That + war, which resulted in the conquest of Canada and the delivery of the + North American colonies from French antagonism, cost the imperial + exchequer £90,000,000. The attempt to avert the repetition of such + expenditure by the assertion of a right to tax the colonies through the + British parliament led to the one great rupture which has marked the + history of the empire. It has to be noted that at home during the latter + half of the 17th century and the earlier part of the 18th century + parliamentary power had to a great extent taken the place of the divine + right of kings. But parliamentary power meant the power of the English + people and taxpayers. The struggle which developed itself between the + American colonies and the British parliament was in fact a struggle on + the part of the people and taxpayers of one portion of the empire to + resist the domination of the people and taxpayers of another portion. In + this light it may be accepted as having historically established the + fundamental axiom of the constitution of the empire, that the crown is + the supreme head from which the parts take equal dependence.</p> + + <p>The crown requiring advice in the ordinary and constitutional manner + receives it in matters of colonial administration from the secretaries of + state for the colonies and for India. After the great rupture separate + provision in the home government for the administration of colonial + affairs was at first judged to be unnecessary, and the "Council<a + name="FnAnchor_133" href="#Footnote_133"><sup>[3]</sup></a> of Trade and + Plantations," which up to that date had supplied the place now taken by + the two offices of the colonies and India, was suppressed in 1782. There + was a reaction from the liberal system of colonial self-government, and + an attempt was made to govern the colonies simply as dependencies.</p> + + <p>In 1791, not long after the extension of the range of parliamentary + authority in another portion of the empire, by the creation in 1784 of + the Board of Control for India, Pitt made the step forward of granting to + Canada representative institutions, of which the home government kept the + responsible control. Similar institutions were also given at a later + period to Australia and South Africa. But the long peace of the early + part of the 19th century was marked by great colonial developments; + Australia, Canada and South Africa became important communities. + Representative institutions controlled by the home government were + insufficient, and they reasserted the claim for liberty to manage their + own affairs.</p> + + <p>Fully responsible government was granted to Canada in 1840, and + gradually extended to the other colonies. In 1854 a separate secretary of + state for the colonies was appointed at home, and the colonial office was + established on its present footing. In India, as in the colonies, there + came with the growing needs of empire a recognition of the true relations + of the parts to each other and of the whole to the crown. In 1858, on the + complete transference of the territories of the East India Company to the + crown, the board of control was abolished, and the India Council, under + the presidency of a secretary of state for India, was created. It was + especially provided that the members of the council may not sit in + parliament.</p> + + <p>Thus, although it has not been found practicable in the working of the + British constitution to carry out the full theory of the direct and + exclusive dependence of colonial possessions on the crown, the theory is + recognized as far as possible. It is understood that the principal + sections of the empire enjoy equal rights under the crown, and that none + is subordinate to another. The intervention of the imperial parliament in + colonial affairs is only admitted theoretically in so far as the support + of parliament is required by the constitutional advisers of the crown. To + bring the practice of the empire into complete harmony with the theory it + would be necessary to constitute, for the purpose of advising the crown + on imperial affairs, a council in which all important parts of the empire + should be represented.</p> + + <p>The gradual recognition of the constitutional theory of the British + empire, and the assumption by the principal <span + class="sidenote">Imperialism.</span> colonies of full self-governing + responsibilities, has cleared the way for a movement in favour of a + further development which should bring the supreme headship of the empire + more into accord with modern ideas.</p> + + <p>It was during the period of domination of the "Manchester school," of + which the most effective influence in public affairs was exerted for + about thirty years, extending from 1845 to 1875, that the fullest + development of colonial self-government was attained, the view being + generally accepted at that time that self-governing institutions were to + be regarded as the preliminary to inevitable separation. A general + inclination to withdraw from the acceptance of imperial responsibilities + throughout the world gave to foreign nations at the same time an + opportunity by which they were not slow to profit, and contributed to the + force of a reaction of which the part played by Great Britain in the + scramble for Africa marked the culmination. Under the increasing pressure + of foreign enterprise, the value of a federation of the empire for + purposes of common interest began to be discussed. Imperial federation + was openly spoken of in New Zealand as early as 1852. A similar + suggestion was officially put forward by the general association of the + Australian colonies in London in 1857. The Royal Colonial Institution, of + which the motto "United Empire" illustrates its aims, was founded in + 1868. First among leading British statesmen to repudiate the old + interpretation of colonial self-government as a preliminary to + separation, Lord Beaconsfield, in 1872, spoke of the constitutions + accorded to the colonies as "part of a great policy of imperial + consolidation." In 1875 W. E. Forster, afterwards a member of the Liberal + government, made a speech in which he advocated imperial federation as a + means by which it might become practicable to "replace dependence by + association." The foundation of the Imperial Federation League—in + 1884, with Forster for its first president, shortly to be succeeded by + Lord Rosebery—marked a distinct step forward. The Colonial + Conferences of 1887 and subsequent years (the title being changed to + Imperial Conference in 1907), in which colonial opinion was sought and + accepted in respect of important questions of imperial organization and + defence, and the enthusiastic loyalty displayed by the colonies towards + the crown on the occasion of the jubilee manifestations of Queen + Victoria's reign, were further indications of progress in the same + direction. Coincidently with this development, the achievements of Sir + George Goldie and Cecil Rhodes, who, the one in West Africa and the other + in South Africa, added between them to the empire in a space of less than + twenty years a dominion of greater extent than the whole of British <!-- + Page 612 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page612"></a>[v.04 + p.0612]</span>India, followed by the action of a host of distinguished + disciples in other parts of the world, effectually stemmed the movement + initiated by Cobden and Bright. A tendency which had seemed temporarily + to point towards a complacent dissolution of the empire was arrested, and + the closing years of the 19th century were marked by a growing + disposition to appreciate the value and importance of the unique position + which the British empire has created for itself in the world. No stronger + demonstration of the reality of imperial union could be needed than that + which was afforded by the support given to the imperial forces by the + colonies and India in the South African War. It remained only to be seen + by what process of evolution the further consolidation of the empire + would find expression in the machinery of government. A step in this + direction was taken in 1907, when at the Colonial Conference held in + London that year it was decided to form a permanent secretariat to deal + with the common interests of the self-governing colonies and the + mother-country. It was further decided that conferences, to be called in + future Imperial Conferences, between the home government and the + governments of the self-governing dominions, should be held every four + years, and that the prime minister of Great Britain should be <i>ex + officio</i> president of the conference. No executive power was, however, + conferred upon the conference.</p> + + <p>The movement in favour of tariff reform initiated by Mr Chamberlain + (<i>q.v.</i>) in 1903 with the double object of giving a preference to + colonial goods and of protecting imperial trade by the imposition in + certain cases of retaliative duties on foreign goods, was a natural + evolution of the imperialist idea, and of the fact that by this time the + trade-statistics of the United Kingdom had proved that trade with the + colonies was forming an increasingly large proportion of the whole. In + spite of the defeat of the Unionist party in England in 1906, and the + accession to power of a Liberal government opposed to anything which + appeared to be inconsistent with free trade, the movement for colonial + preference, based on tariff reform, continued to make headway in the + United Kingdom, and was definitely adopted by the Unionist party. And at + the Imperial Conference of 1907 it was advocated by all the colonial + premiers, who could point to the progress made in their own states + towards giving a tariff preference to British goods and to those of one + another.</p> + + <p>The question of self-government is closely associated with the + question of self-support. Plenty of good land and the liberty to manage + their own affairs were the causes assigned by Adam Smith for the marked + prosperity of the British colonies towards the end of the 18th century. + The same causes are still observed to produce the same effects, and it + may be pointed out that, since the date of the latest of Adam Smith's + writings, upwards of 6,000,000 sq. m. of virgin soil, rich with + possibilities of agricultural, pastoral and mineral wealth, have been + added to the empire. In the same period the white population has grown + from about 12,000,000 to 53,000,000, and the developments of agricultural + and industrial machinery have multiplied, almost beyond computation, the + powers of productive labour.</p> + + <p>It is scarcely possible within this article to deal with so widely + varied a subject as that of the productions and industry of the <span + class="sidenote">The imperial factor in industry and trade.</span> + empire. For the purposes of a general statement, it is interesting to + observe that concurrently with the acquisition of the vast continental + areas during the 19th century, the progress of industrial science in + application to means of transport and communication brought about a + revolution of the most radical character in the accepted laws of economic + development. Railways did away with the old law that the spread of + civilization is necessarily governed by facilities for water carriage and + is consequently confined to river valleys and sea-shores. Steam and + electricity opened to industry the interior of continents previously + regarded as unapproachable. The resources of these vast inland spaces + which have lain untouched since history began became available to + individual enterprise, and over a great portion of the earth's surface + were brought within the possessions of the British empire. The production + of raw material within the empire increased at a rate which can only be + appreciated by a careful study of figures, and by a comparison of the + total of these figures with the total figures of the world. The tropical + and temperate possessions of the empire include every field of production + which can be required for the use of man. There is no main staple of + human food which is not grown; there is no material of textile industry + which is not produced. The British empire gives occupation to more than + one-third of the persons employed in mining and quarrying in the world. + It may be interesting, as an indication of the relative position in this + respect of the British empire to the world, to state that at present it + produces one-third of the coal supply of the world, one-sixth of the + wheat supply, and very nearly two-thirds of the gold supply. But while + these figures may be taken as in themselves satisfactory, it is far more + important to remember that as yet the potential resources of the new + lands opened to enterprise have been barely conceived, and their wealth + has been little more than scratched. Population as yet has been only very + sparsely sprinkled over the surface of many of the areas most suitable + for white settlement. In the wheat lands of Canada, the pastoral country + of Australasia, and the mineral fields of South Africa and western Canada + alone, the undeveloped resources are such as to ensure employment to the + labour and satisfaction to the needs of at least as many millions as they + now contain thousands of the British race. In respect of this promise of + the future the position of the British empire is unique.</p> + + <p>It is not too much to say that trade has been at once the most active + cause of expansion and the most potent bond of union in the development + of the empire. Trade with the tropical and settlement in the temperate + regions of the world formed the basis upon which the foundations of the + empire were laid. Trading companies founded most of the American and West + Indian colonies; a trading company won India; a trading company colonized + the north-western districts of Canada; commercial wars during the greater + part of the 18th century established the British command of the sea, + which rendered the settlement of Australasia possible. The same wars gave + Great Britain South Africa, and chartered companies in the 19th century + carried the British flag into the interior of the African continent from + south and east and west. Trading companies developed Borneo and Fiji. The + bonds of prosperous trade have kept the Australasian colonies within the + empire. The protection of colonial commerce by the imperial navy is one + of the strongest of material links which connect the crown with the + outlying possessions of the empire.</p> + + <p>The trade of the empire, like the other developments of imperial + public life, has been profoundly influenced by the variety of <span + class="sidenote">Imperial trade policy.</span> local conditions under + which it has flourished. In the early settlement of the North American + colonies their trade was left practically free; but by the famous + Navigation Act of 1660 the importation and exportation of goods from + British colonies were restricted to British ships, of which the master + and three-fourths of the mariners were English. This act, of which the + intention was to encourage British shipping and to keep the monopoly of + British colonial trade for the benefit of British merchants, was followed + by many others of a similar nature up to the time of the repeal of the + Corn Laws in 1846 and the introduction of free trade into Great Britain. + The Navigation Acts were repealed in 1849. Thus for very nearly two + hundred years British trade was subject to restrictions, of which the + avowed intention was to curtail the commercial intercourse of the empire + with the world. During this period the commercial or mercantile system, + of which the fallacies were exposed by the economists of the latter half + of the 18th century, continued to govern the principles of British trade. + Under this system monopolies were common, and among them few were more + important than that of the East India Company. In 1813 the trade of India + was, however, thrown open to competition, and in 1846, after the + introduction of free trade at home, the principal British colonies which + had not yet at that date received the grant of responsible government + were specially empowered to abolish differential duties upon foreign + trade. A first result of the commercial emancipation of the <!-- Page 613 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page613"></a>[v.04 + p.0613]</span>colonies was the not altogether unnatural rise in the + manufacturing centres of the political school known as the Manchester + school, which was disposed to question the value to Great Britain of the + retention of colonies which were no longer bound to give her the monopoly + of their commercial markets. An equally natural desire on the part of the + larger colonies to profit by the opportunity which was opened to them of + establishing local manufactures of their own, combined with the + convenience in new countries of using the customs as an instrument of + taxation, led to something like a reciprocal feeling of resentment, and + there followed a period during which the policy of Great Britain was to + show no consideration for colonial trade, and the policy of the principal + colonies was to impose heavy duties upon British trade. By a gradual + process of better understanding, largely helped by the development of + means of communication, the antagonistic extreme was abandoned, and a + tendency towards a system of preferential duties within the empire + displayed itself.</p> + + <p>At the Colonial Conference held in London in 1887 a proposal was + formally submitted by the South <span class="sidenote">Colonial + preference.</span> African delegate for the establishment within the + empire of a preferential system, imposing a duty of 2% upon all foreign + goods, the proceeds to be directed to the maintenance of the imperial + navy. To this end it was requested that certain treaties with foreign + nations which imposed restrictions on the trade of various parts of the + empire with each other should be denounced. Some years later, a strong + feeling having been manifested in England against any foreign engagement + standing in the way of new domestic trade arrangements between a colony + and the mother-country, the German and Belgian treaties in question were + denounced (1897). Meanwhile, simultaneously with the movement in favour + of reciprocal fiscal advantages to be granted within the empire by the + many local governments to each other, there was a growth of the + perception that an increase of the foreign trade of Great Britain, + carried on chiefly in manufactured goods, was accompanied by a + corresponding enlargement of the home markets for colonial raw material, + and consequently that injury to the foreign trade of Great Britain, while + as yet it so largely outweighed the trade between the United Kingdom and + the colonies, must necessarily react upon the colonies. This view was + definitely expressed at the Colonial Conference at Ottawa in 1894, and + was one of the factors which led to the relinquishment of the demand that + in return for colonial concessions there should be an imposition on the + part of Great Britain of a differential duty upon foreign goods. Canada + was the first important British colony to give substantial expression to + the new imperial sentiment in commercial matters by the introduction in + 1897 of an imperial tariff, granting without any reciprocal advantage a + deduction of 25% upon customs duties imposed upon British goods. The same + advantage was offered to all British colonies trading with her upon equal + terms. In later years the South African states, Australia and New Zealand + also granted preferential treatment to British goods. Meanwhile in Great + Britain the system of free imports, regarded as "free trade" (though only + one-sided free trade), had become the established policy, customs duties + being only imposed for purposes of revenue on a few selected articles, + and about half the national income was derived from customs and excise. + In most of the colonies customs form of necessity one of the important + sources of revenue. It is, however, worthy of remark that in the + self-governing colonies, even those which are avowedly protectionist, a + smaller proportion of the public revenue was derived from customs and + excise than was derived from these sources in the United Kingdom. The + proportion in Australasia before federation was about one quarter. In + Canada it is more difficult to estimate it, as customs and excise form + the principal provision made for federal finance, and note must therefore + be taken of the separate sources of revenue in the provinces. With these + reservations it will still be seen that customs, or, in other words, a + tax upon the movements of trade, forms one of the chief sources of + imperial revenue.</p> + + <p>The development of steam shipping and electricity gave to the + movements of trade a stimulus no less remarkable than that given by the + introduction of railroads and industrial machinery to production and + manufactures. Whereas at the beginning of the 19th century the journey to + Australia occupied eight months, and business communications between + Sydney and London could not receive answers within the year, at the + beginning of the 20th century the journey could be accomplished in + thirty-one days, and telegraphic despatches enabled the most important + business to be transacted within twenty-four hours. For one cargo carried + in the year at the beginning of the 19th century at least six could now + be carried by the same ship, and from the point of view of trade the + difference of a venture which realizes its profits in two months, as + compared with one which occupied a whole year, does not need to be + insisted on. The increased rapidity of the voyage and the power of daily + communication by telegraph with the most distant markets have introduced + a wholly new element into the national trade of the empire, and + commercial intercourse between the southern and the northern hemispheres + has received a development from the natural alternation of the seasons, + of which until quite recent years the value was not even conceived. + Fruit, eggs, butter, meat, poultry and other perishable commodities pass + in daily increasing quantities between the northern and the southern + hemispheres with an alternate flow which contributes to raise in no + inconsiderable degree the volume of profitable trade. Thus the butter + season of Australasia is from October to March, while the butter season + of Ireland and northern Europe is from March to October. In three years + after the introduction of ice-chambers into the steamers of the great + shipping lines, Victoria and New South Wales built up a yearly butter + trade of £1,000,000 with Great Britain without seriously affecting the + Irish and Danish markets whence the summer supply is drawn. These + facilities, combined with the enormous additions made to the public stock + of land and labour, contributed to raise the volume of trade of the + empire from a total of less than £100,000,000 in the year 1800 to a total + of nearly £1,500,000,000 in 1900. The declared volume of British exports + to all parts of the world in 1800 was £38,120,120, and the value of + British imports from all parts of the world was £30,570,605; total, + £68,690,725. As in those days the colonies were not allowed to trade with + any other country this must be taken as representing imperial trade. The + exact figures of the trade of India, the colonies, and the United Kingdom + for 1900 were: imports, £809,178,209; exports, £657,899,363; total, + £1,467,077,572.</p> + + <p>A question of sovereign importance to the continued existence of the + empire is the question of defence. A country of which <span + class="sidenote">Imperial defence.</span> the main thoroughfares are the + oceans of the world demands in the first instance a strong navy. It has + of late years been accepted as a fundamental axiom of defence that the + British navy should exceed in strength any reasonable combination of + foreign navies which could be brought against it, the accepted formula + being the "two-power standard," <i>i.e.</i> a 10% margin over the joint + strength of the two next powers. The expense of maintaining such a + floating armament must be colossal, and until within the decade 1890-1900 + it was borne exclusively by the taxpayers of the United Kingdom. As the + benefits of united empire have become more consciously appreciated in the + colonies, and the value of the fleet as an insurance for British commerce + has been recognized, a desire has manifested itself on the part of the + self-governing colonies to contribute towards the formation of a truly + imperial navy. In 1895 the Australasian colonies voted a subsidy of + £126,000 per annum for the maintenance of an Australasian squadron, and + in 1897 the Cape Colony also offered a contribution of £30,000 a year to + be used at the discretion of the imperial government for naval purposes. + The Australian contribution was in 1902 increased to £240,000, and that + of the Cape to £50,000, while Natal voted £35,000 a year and Newfoundland + £3000. But apart from these comparatively slight contributions, and the + local up-keep of colonial fortifications,—and the beginning in + 1908-1909 of an Australian torpedo-boat flotilla provided by the + Commonwealth,—the whole cost of the imperial navy, on which + ultimately the security of the empire rested, remained to be <!-- Page + 614 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page614"></a>[v.04 + p.0614]</span>borne by the taxpayers in the British islands. The extent + of this burden was emphasized in 1909 by the revelations as to the + increase of the German (and the allied Austrian) fleet. At this crisis in + the history of the two-power standard a wave of enthusiasm started in the + colonies, resulting in the offer of "Dreadnoughts" from New Zealand and + elsewhere; and the British government called an Imperial Conference to + consider the whole question afresh.</p> + + <p>Land defence, though a secondary branch of the great question of + imperial defence, has been intimately connected with the development and + internal growth of the empire. In the case of the first settlement of the + American colonies they were expected to provide for their own land + defence. To some extent in the early part of their career they carried + out this expectation, and even on occasion, as in the taking of + Louisburg, which was subsequently given back at the peace of + Aix-la-Chapelle as the price of the French evacuation of Madras, rendered + public service to the empire at large. In India the principle of local + self-defence was from the beginning carried into practice by the East + India Company. But in America the claim of the French wars proved too + heavy for local resources. In 1755 Great Britain intervened with troops + sent from home under General Braddock, and up to the outbreak of the + American War the cost of the defence of the North American colonies was + borne by the imperial exchequer. To meet this expense the imperial + parliament took upon itself the right to tax the American colonies. In + 1765 a Quartering Act was passed by which 10,000 imperial troops were + quartered in the colonies. As a result of the American War which followed + and led to the loss of the colonies affected, the imperial authorities + accepted the charge of the land defences of the empire, and with the + exception of India and the Hudson Bay territories, where the trading + companies determined to pay their own expenses, the whole cost of + imperial defence was borne, like the cost of the navy, by the taxpayers + of the United Kingdom. This condition of affairs lasted till the end of + the Napoleonic Wars. During the thirty years' peace which followed there + came time for consideration. The fiscal changes which towards the middle + of the 19th century gave to the self-governing colonies the command of + their own resources very naturally carried with them the consequence that + a call should be made on colonial exchequers to provide for their own + governing expenses. Of these defence is obviously one of the most + essential. Coincidently, therefore, with the movements of free trade at + home, the renunciation of what was known as the mercantile system and the + accompanying grants of constitutional freedom to the colonies, a movement + for the reorganization of imperial defence was set on foot. In the decade + which elapsed between 1846 and 1856 the movement as regards the colonies + was confined chiefly to calls made upon them to contribute to their own + defence by providing barracks, fortifications, &c., for the + accommodation of imperial troops, and in some cases paying for the use of + troops not strictly required for imperial purposes. In 1857 the + Australian colonies agreed to pay the expenses of the imperial garrison + quartered in Australia. This was a very wide step from the imperial + attempt to tax the American colonies for a similar purpose in the + preceding century. Nevertheless, in evidence given before a departmental + committee in 1859, it was shown that at that time the colonies of Great + Britain were free from almost every obligation of contributing either by + personal service or money payment towards their own defence, and that the + cost of military expenditure in the colonies in the preceding year had + amounted in round figures to £4,000,000. A committee of the House of + Commons sat in 1861 to consider the question, and in 1862 it was + resolved, without a division, that "colonies exercising the right of + self-government ought to undertake the main responsibility of providing + for their own internal order and security, and ought to assist in their + own external defence." The decision was accepted as the basis of imperial + policy. The first effect was the gradual withdrawing of imperial troops + from the self-governing colonies, together with the encouragement of the + development of local military systems by the loan, when desired, of + imperial military experts. A call was also made for larger military + contributions from some of the crown colonies. The committee of 1859 had + emphasized in its report the fact that the principal dependence of the + colonies for defence is necessarily upon the British navy, and in 1865, + exactly 100 years after the Quartering Act, which had been the cause of + the troubles that led to the independence of the United States, a + Colonial Naval Defence Act was passed which gave power to the colonies to + provide ships of war, steamers, and volunteers for their own defence, and + in case of necessity to place them at the disposal of the crown. In 1868 + the Canadian Militia Act gave the fully organized nucleus of a local army + to Canada. In the same year the imperial troops were withdrawn from New + Zealand, leaving the colonial militia to deal with the native war still + in progress. In 1870 the last imperial troops were withdrawn from + Australia, and in 1873 it was officially announced that military + expenditure in the colonies was almost "wholly for imperial purposes." In + 1875 an imperial officer went to Australia to report for the Australian + government upon Australian defence. The appointment in 1879 of a royal + commission to consider the question of imperial defence, which presented + its report in 1882, led to a considerable development and reorganization + of the system of imperial fortifications. Coaling stations were also + selected with reference to the trade routes. In 1885 rumours of war + roused a very strong feeling in connexion with the still unfinished and + in many cases unarmed condition of the fortifications recommended by the + commission of 1879. Military activity was stimulated throughout the + empire, and the Colonial Defence Committee was created to supply a + much-felt need for organized direction and advice to colonial + administrations acting necessarily in independence of each other. The + question of colonial defence was among the most important of the subjects + discussed at the colonial conference held in London in 1887, and it was + at this conference that the Australasian colonies first agreed to + contribute to the expense of their own naval defence. From this date the + principle of local responsibility for self-defence has been fully + accepted. India has its own native army, and pays for the maintenance + within its frontiers of an imperial garrison. Early in the summer of + 1899, when hostilities in South Africa appeared to be imminent, the + governments of the principal colonies took occasion to express their + approval of the South African policy pursued by the imperial government, + and offers were made by the governments of India, the Australasian + colonies, Canada, Hong-Kong, the Federal Malay states, some of the West + African and other colonies, to send contingents for active service in the + event of war. On the outbreak of hostilities these offers, on the part of + the self-governing colonies, were accepted, and colonial contingents + upwards of 30,000 strong were among the most efficient sections of the + British fighting force. The manner in which these colonial contingents + were raised, their admirable fighting qualities, and the service rendered + by them in the field, disclosed altogether new possibilities of military + organization within the empire, and in subsequent years the subject + continued to engage the attention of the statesmen of the empire. + Progress in this field lay chiefly in the increased support given in the + colonial states to the separate local movements for self-defence; but in + 1909 a scheme was arranged by Mr Haldane, by which the British War Office + should co-operate with the colonial governments in providing for the + training of officers and an interchange of views on a common military + policy.</p> + + <p>The important questions of justice, religion and instruction will be + found dealt with in detail under the headings of separate <span + class="sidenote">Justice, &c.</span> sections of the empire. Systems + of justice throughout the empire have a close resemblance to each other, + and the judicial committee of the privy council, on which the + self-governing colonies and India are represented, constitutes a supreme + court of appeal (<i>q.v.</i>) for the entire empire. In the matter of + religion, while no imperial organization in the strict sense is possible, + the progress made by the Lambeth Conferences and otherwise (see <span + class="sc">Anglican Communion</span>) has done much to bring the work of + the Church of England in different parts of the world into a co-operative + system. Religion, of which the forms are infinitely varied, is however + everywhere free, <!-- Page 615 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page615"></a>[v.04 p.0615]</span>except in cases where the exercise + of religious rites leads to practices foreign to accepted laws of + humanity. It is perhaps interesting to state that the number of persons + in the empire nominally professing the Christian religion is 58,000,000, + of Mahommedans 94,000,000, of Buddhists 12,000,000, of Hindus + 208,000,000, of pagans and others 25,000,000. Systems of instruction, of + which the aim is generally similar in the white portions of the empire + and is directed towards giving to every individual the basis of a liberal + education, are governed wholly by local requirements. Native schools are + established in all settled communities under British rule.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.—In recent years the subject + of British imperialism has inspired a growing literature, and it is only + possible here to name a selected number of the more important works which + may usefully be consulted on different topics: Sir C.P. Lucas, + <i>Historical Geography of the British Colonies</i> (1888, et seq.); H.E. + Egerton, <i>Short History of British Colonial Policy</i> (1897); H.J. + Mackinder, <i>Britain and the British Seas</i> (1902); Sir J.R. Seeley, + <i>Expansion of England</i> (1883); <i>Growth of British Policy</i> + (1895); Sir Charles Dilke, <i>Greater Britain</i> (1869), <i>Problems of + Greater Britain</i> (1890), <i>The British Empire</i> (1899); G.R. + Parkin, <i>Imperial Federation</i> (1892); Sir John Colomb, <i>Imperial + Federation, Naval and Military</i> (1886); Sir G.S. Clarke, <i>Imperial + Defence</i> (1897); Sidney Goldmann and others, <i>The Empire and the + Century</i> (1905); J.L. Garvin, <i>Imperial Reciprocity</i> (1903); J.W. + Welsford, <i>The Strength of a Nation</i> (1907); <i>Compatriots Club + Essays</i> (1906); Sir H. Jenkyns, <i>British Rule and Jurisdiction + beyond the Seas</i> (1902); Bernard Holland, <i>Imperium et libertas</i> + (1901); (for an anti-imperialist view) J.A. Hobson, <i>Imperialism</i> + (1902). See also the Reports of the various colonial conferences, + especially that of the Imperial Conference of 1907; and for trade + statistics, J. Holt Schooling's <i>British Trade Book</i>. For the tariff + reform movement in England see the articles <span class="sc">Free + Trade</span> and <span class="sc">Protection</span>.</p> + + <p>(F. L. L.)</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_131" href="#FnAnchor_131">[1]</a> The census returns + for 1901 from the various parts of the empire were condensed for the + first time in 1906 into a blue-book under the title of <i>Census of the + British Empire, Report with Summary</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_132" href="#FnAnchor_132">[2]</a> The white + population of British South Africa according to the census of 1904 was + 1,132,226.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_133" href="#FnAnchor_133">[3]</a> Or "Board," as it + became in 1605.</p> + +</div> + <p><b>BRITISH HONDURAS</b>, formerly called <span + class="sc">Balize</span>, or <span class="sc">Belize</span>, a British + crown colony in Central America; bounded on the N. and N.W. by the + Mexican province of Yucatan, N.E. and E. by the Bay of Honduras, an inlet + of the Caribbean Sea, and S. and W. by Guatemala. (For map, see <span + class="sc">Central America</span>.) Pop. (1905) 40,372; area, 7562 sq. m. + The frontier of British Honduras, as defined by the conventions of 1859 + and 1893 between Great Britain and Guatemala, begins at the mouth of the + river Sarstoon or Sarstun, in the Bay of Honduras; ascends that river as + far as the rapids of Gracias à Dios; and thence, turning to the right, + runs in a straight line to Garbutt's Rapids, on the Belize river. From + this point it proceeds due north to the Mexican frontier, where it + follows the river Hondo to its mouth in Chetumal Bay.</p> + + <p>British Honduras differs little from the rest of the Yucatan + peninsula. The approach to the coast is through the islets known as cays, + and through coral reefs. It is both difficult and dangerous. For some + miles inland the ground is low and swampy, thickly covered with mangroves + and tropical jungle. Next succeeds a narrow belt of rich alluvial land, + not exceeding a mile in width, beyond which, and parallel to the rivers, + are vast tracts of sandy, arid land, called "pine ridges," from the red + pines with which they are covered. Farther inland these give place, + first, to the less elevated "broken ridges," and then to what are called + "cahoon ridges," with a deep rich soil covered with myriads of palm + trees. Next come broad savannas, studded with clumps of, trees, through + which the streams descending from the mountains wind in every direction. + The mountains themselves rise in a succession of ridges parallel to the + coast. The first are the Manatee Hills, from 800 to 1000 ft. high; and + beyond these are the Cockscomb Mountains, which are about 4000 ft. high. + No less than sixteen streams, large enough to be called rivers, descend + from these mountains to the sea, between the Hondo and Sarstoon. The + uninhabited country between Garbutt's Rapids and the coast south of Deep + river was first explored in 1879, by Henry Fowler, the colonial secretary + of British Honduras; it was then found to consist of open and undulating + grasslands, affording fine pasturage in the west and of forests full of + valuable timber in the east. Its elevation varies from 1200 to 3300 ft. + Auriferous quartz and traces of other minerals have been discovered, but + not in sufficient quantity to repay the cost of mining. The geology, + fauna and flora of British Honduras do not materially differ from those + of the neighbouring regions (see <span class="sc">Central + America</span>).</p> + + <p>Although the colony is in the tropics, its climate is subtropical. The + highest shade temperature recorded is 98° F., the lowest 50°. Easterly + sea-winds prevail during the greater part of the year. The dry season + lasts from the middle of February to the middle of May; rain occurs at + intervals during the other months, and almost continuously in October, + November and December. The annual rainfall averages about 81½ in., but + rises in some districts to 150 in. or more. Cholera, yellow fever and + other tropical diseases occur sporadically, but, on the whole, the + country is not unhealthy by comparison with the West Indies or Central + American states.</p> + + <p><i>Inhabitants.</i>—British Honduras is a little larger than + Wales, and has a population smaller than that of Chester (England). In + 1904 the inhabitants of European descent numbered 1500, the Europeans + 253, and the white Americans 118. The majority belong to the hybrid race + descended from negro slaves, aboriginal Indians and white settlers. At + least six distinct racial groups can be traced. These consist of (1) + native Indians, to be found chiefly in forest villages in the west and + north of the colony away from the sea coast; (2) descendants of the + English buccaneers, mixed with Scottish and German traders; (3) the + woodcutting class known as "Belize Creoles," of more or less pure descent + from African negroes imported, as slaves or as labourers, from the West + Indies; (4) the Caribs of the southern districts, descendants of the + population deported in 1796 from St Vincent, who were of mixed African + and Carib origin; (5) a mixed population in the south, of Spanish-Indian + origin, from Guatemala and Honduras; and (6) in the north another + Spanish-Indian group which came from Yucatan in 1848. The population + tends slowly to increase; about 45% of the births are illegitimate, and + males are more numerous than females. Many tracts of fallow land and + forest were once thickly populated, for British Honduras has its ruined + cities, and other traces of a lost Indian civilization, in common with + the rest of Central America.</p> + + <p><i>Natural Products.</i>—-For more than two centuries British + Honduras has been supported by its trade in timber, especially in + mahogany, logwood, cedar and other dye-woods and cabinet-woods, such as + lignum-vitae, fustic, bullet-wood, santa-maria, ironwood, rosewood, + &c. The coloured inhabitants are unsurpassed as woodmen, and averse + from agriculture; so that there are only about 90 sq. m. of tilled land. + Sugar-cane, bananas, cocoanut-palms, plantains, and various other fruits + are cultivated; vanilla, sarsaparilla, sapodilla or chewing-gum, rubber, + and the cahoon or coyol palm, valuable for its oil, grow wild in large + quantities. In September 1903 all the pine trees on crown lands were sold + to Mr B. Chipley, a citizen of the United States, at one cent (½ d.) per + tree; the object of the sale being to secure the opening up of + undeveloped territory. Unsuccessful attempts have been made to establish + sponge fisheries on a large scale.</p> + + <p><i>Chief Towns and Communications.</i>—Belize (pop. in 1904, + 9969), the capital and principal seaport, is described in a separate + article. Other towns are Stann Creek (2459), Corosal (1696), Orange Walk + (1244), Punta Gorda (706), the Cayo (421), Monkey River (384) and Mullins + River (243). All these are administered by local boards, whose aggregate + revenue amounts to some £7000. Telegraph and telephone lines connect the + capital with Corosal in the north, and Punta Gorda in the south; but + there are no railways, and few good roads beyond municipal limits. Thus + the principal means of communication are the steamers which ply along the + coast. Mail steamers from New Orleans, Liverpool, Colon and Puerto Cortes + in Honduras, regularly visit Belize.</p> + + <p><i>Commerce and Finance.</i>—Between 1901 and 1905 the tonnage + of vessels accommodated at the ports of British Honduras rose from + 300,000 to 496,465; the imports rose from £252,500 to £386,123; the + exports from £285,500 to £377,623. The exports consist of the timber, + fruit and other vegetable products already mentioned, besides rum, + deerskins, tortoiseshell, turtles and sponges, while the principal + imports are cotton goods, hardware, beer, wine, spirits, groceries and + specie. The sea-borne trade is mainly shared by Great Britain and the + United States. On the 14th of October 1894, the American gold dollar was + adopted as the standard coin, in place of the Guatemalan dollar; and the + silver of North, South and Central America ceased to be legal tender. + Government notes are issued to the value of 1, 2, 5, 10, 50 and 100 + dollars, and there is a local currency of one cent bronze pieces, and of + 5, 10, 25 and 50 cent silver pieces. The British sovereign and half + sovereign are legal tender. In 1846 the government savings bank was + founded in Belize; branches were afterwards opened in the principal + towns; and in 1903 the British Bank of Honduras was established at + Belize. The revenue, chiefly derived from customs, rose from £60,150 in + 1901 to £68,335 in 1905. The expenditure, in which the cost of police + <!-- Page 616 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page616"></a>[v.04 + p.0616]</span>and education are important items, rose, during the same + period, from £51,210 to £61,800. The public debt, amounting in 1905 to + £34,736, represents the balance due on three loans which were raised in + 1885, 1887, and 1891, for public works in Belize. The loans are repayable + between 1916 and 1923.</p> + + <p><i>Constitution and Administration.</i>—From 1638 to 1786 the + colonists were completely independent, and elected their own magistrates, + who performed all judicial and executive functions. The customs and + precedents thus established were codified and published under the name of + "Burnaby's Laws," after the visit of Admiral Sir W. Burnaby, in 1756, and + were recognized as valid by the crown. In 1786 a superintendent was + appointed by the home government, and although this office was vacant + from 1790 to 1797, it was revived until 1862. An executive council was + established in 1839, and a legislative assembly, of three nominated and + eighteen elected members, in 1853. British Honduras was declared a colony + in 1862, with a lieutenant governor, subject to the governor of Jamaica, + as its chief magistrate. In 1870 the legislative assembly was abolished, + and a legislative council substituted—the constitution of this body + being fixed, in 1892, at three official and five unofficial members. In + 1884 the lieutenant governor was created governor and commander-in-chief, + and rendered independent of Jamaica. He is assisted by an executive + council of three official and three unofficial members. For + administrative purposes the colony is divided into six + districts—Belize, Corosal, Orange Walk, the Cayo, Stann Creek and + Toledo. The capital of the last named is Punta Gorda; the other districts + take the names of their chief towns. English common law is valid + throughout British Honduras, subject to modification by local enactments, + and to the operation of the <i>Consolidated Laws of British Honduras</i>. + This collection of ordinances, customs, &c., was officially revised + and published between 1884 and 1888. Appeals may be carried before the + privy council or the supreme court of Jamaica,</p> + + <p><i>Religion and Education.</i>—The churches represented are + Roman Catholic, Anglican, Wesleyan, Baptist and Presbyterian; but none of + them receives assistance from public funds. The bishopric of British + Honduras is part of the West Indian province of the Church of England. + Almost all the schools, secondary as well as primary, are denominational. + School fees are charged, and grants-in-aid are made to elementary + schools. Most of these, since 1894, have been under the control of a + board, on which the religious bodies managing the schools are + represented.</p> + + <p><i>Defence.</i>—The Belize volunteer light infantry corps, + raised in 1897, consists of about 200 officers and men; a mounted + section, numbering about 40, was created in 1904. For the whole colony, + the police Dumber about 120. There is also a volunteer fire brigade of + 335 officers and men.</p> + + <p><i>History.</i>—"His Majesty's Settlement in the Bay of + Honduras," as the territory was formerly styled in official documents, + owes, its origin, in 1638, to log-wood cutters who had formerly been + buccaneers. These were afterwards joined by agents of the Chartered + Company which exploited the pearl fisheries of the Mosquito coast. + Although thus industriously occupied, the settlers so far retained their + old habits as to make frequent descents on the logwood establishments of + the Spaniards, whose attempts to expel them were generally successfully + resisted. The most formidable of these was made by the Spaniards in April + 1754, when, in consequence of the difficulty of approaching the position + from the sea, an expedition, consisting of 1500 men, was organized inland + at the town of Peten. As it neared the coast, it was met by 250 British, + and completely routed. The log-wood cutters were not again disturbed for + a number of years, and their position had become so well established + that, in the treaty of 1763 with Spain, Great Britain, while agreeing to + demolish "all fortifications which English subjects had erected in the + Bay of Honduras," insisted on a clause in favour of the cutters of + logwood, that "they or their Workmen were not to be disturbed or + molested, under any pretext whatever, in their said places of cutting and + loading logwood." Strengthened by the recognition of the crown, the + British settlers made fresh encroachments on Spanish territory. The + Spaniards, asserting that they were engaged in smuggling and other + illicit practices, organized a large force, and on the 15th of September + 1779, suddenly attacked and destroyed the establishment at Belize, taking + the inhabitants prisoners to Mérida in Yucatan, and afterwards to Havana, + where most of them died, The survivors were liberated in 1782, and + allowed to go to Jamaica. In 1783 they returned with many new + adventurers, and were soon engaged in cutting woods. On the 3rd of + September in that year a new treaty was signed between Great Britain and + Spain, in which it was expressly agreed that his Britannic Majesty's + subjects should have "the right of cutting, loading, and carrying away + logwood in the district lying between the river Wallis or Belize and Rio + Hondo, taking the course of these two rivers for unalterable boundaries." + These concessions "were not to be considered as derogating from the + rights of sovereignty of the king of Spain" over the district in + question, where all the English dispersed in the Spanish territories were + to concentrate themselves within eighteen months. This did not prove a + satisfactory arrangement; for in 1786 a new treaty was concluded, in + which the king of Spain made an additional grant of territory, embracing + the area between the rivers Sibun or Jabon and Belize. But these extended + limits were coupled with still more rigid restrictions. It is not to be + supposed that a population composed of so lawless a set of men was + remarkably exact in its observance of the treaty. They seem to have + greatly annoyed their Spanish neighbours, who eagerly availed themselves + of the breaking out of war between the two countries in 1796 to concert a + formidable attack on Belize. They concentrated a force of 2000 men at + Campeachy, which, under the command of General O'Neill, set sail in + thirteen vessels for Belize, and arrived on the 10th of July, 1798. The + settlers, aided by the British sloop of war "Merlin," had strongly + fortified a small island in the harbour, called St George's Cay. They + maintained a determined resistance against the Spanish forces, which were + obliged to retire to Campeachy. This was the last attempt to dislodge the + British.</p> + + <p>The defeat of the Spanish attempt of 1798 has been adduced as an act + of conquest, thereby permanently establishing British sovereignty. But + those who take this view overlook the important fact that, in 1814, by a + new treaty with Spain, the provisions of the earlier treaty were revived. + They forget also that for many years the British government never laid + claim to any rights acquired in virtue of the successful defence; for so + late as 1817-1819 the acts of parliament relating to Belize always refer + to it as "a settlement, for certain purposes, under the protection of His + Majesty." After Central America had attained its independence (1819-1822) + Great Britain secured its position by incorporating the provisions of the + treaty of 1786 in a new treaty with Mexico (1826), and in the drafts of + treaties with New Granada (1825) and the United States of Central America + (1831). The territories between the Belize and Sarstoon rivers were + claimed by the British in 1836. The subsequent peaceful progress of the + country under British rule; the exception of Belize from that provision + of the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (<i>q.v.</i>) of 1850 which forbade Great + Britain and the United States to fortify or colonize any point on the + Central American mainland; and the settlement of the boundary disputes + with Guatemala in 1859, finally confirmed the legal sovereignty of Great + Britain over the whole colony, including the territories claimed in 1836. + The Bay Islands were recognized as part of the republic of Honduras in + 1859. Between 1849, when the Indians beyond the Hondo rose against their + Mexican rulers, and 1901, when they were finally subjugated, rebel bands + occasionally attacked the northern and north-western marches of the + colony. The last serious raid was foiled in 1872.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—For all statistical matter + relating to the colony, see the annual reports to the British Colonial + Office (London). For the progress of exploration, see <i>A Narrative of a + Journey across the unexplored Portion of British Honduras</i>, by H. + Fowler (Belize, 1879); and "An Expedition to the Cockscomb Mountains," by + J. Bellamy, in <i>Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society</i>, vol. + xi. (London, 1889). A good general description is given in the + <i>Handbook of British Honduras</i>, by L.W. Bristowe and P.B. Wright + (Edinburgh, 1892); and the local history is recounted in the <i>History + of British Honduras</i>, by A.R. Gibbs (London, 1883); in <i>Notes on + Central America</i>, by E.J. Squier (New York, 1855); and in <i>Belize or + British Honduras</i>, a paper read before the Society of Arts by Chief + Justice Temple (London, 1847).</p> + + <p>(K. G. J.)</p> + + <p><b>BRITOMARTIS</b> ("sweet maiden"), an old Cretan goddess, later + identified with Artemis. According to Callimachus (<i>Hymn to Diana</i>, + 190), she was a nymph, the daughter of Zeus and Carme, and a favourite + companion of Artemis. Being pursued by Minos, king of Crete, who was + enamoured of her, she sprang from a rock into the sea, but was saved from + drowning by falling into some fishermen's nets. She was afterwards made a + goddess by Artemis under the name of Dictynna (<span title="diktuon" class="grk" + >δίκτυον</span>, "a <!-- Page + 617 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page617"></a>[v.04 + p.0617]</span>net"). She was the patroness of hunters, fishermen and + sailors, and also a goddess of birth and health. The centre of her + worship was Cydonia, whence it extended to Sparta and Aegina (where she + was known as Aphaea) and the islands of the Mediterranean. By some she is + considered to have been a moon-goddess, her flight from Minos and her + leap into the sea signifying the revolution and disappearance of the moon + (Pausanias ii. 30, iii. 14; Antoninus Liberalis 40).</p> + + <p><b>BRITON-FERRY,</b> a seaport in the mid-parliamentary division of + Glamorganshire, Wales, on the eastern bank of the estuary of the Neath + river in Swansea Bay, with stations on the Great Western and the Rhondda + & Swansea Bay railways, being 174 m. by rail from London. Pop. of + urban district (1901) 6973. A tram-line connects it with Neath, 2 m. + distant, and the Vale of Neath Canal (made in 1797) has its terminus + here. The district was formerly celebrated for its scenery, but this has + been considerably marred by industrial development which received its + chief impetus from the construction in 1861 of a dock of 13 acres, the + property of the Great Western Railway Company, and the opening up about + the same time of the mining districts of Glyncorrwg and Maesteg by means + of the South Wales mineral railway, which connects them with the dock and + supplies it with its chief export, coal. Steel and tinplates are + manufactured here on a large scale. There are also iron-works and a + foundry.</p> + + <p>The name La Brittone was given by the Norman settlers of the 12th + century to its ferry across the estuary of the Neath (where Archbishop + Baldwin and Giraldus crossed in 1188, and which is still used), but the + Welsh name of the town from at least the 16th century has been + Llansawel.</p> + + <p><b>BRITTANY</b>, or <span class="sc">Britanny</span> (Fr. + <i>Bretagne</i>), known as Armorica (<i>q.v.</i>) until the influx of + Celts from Britain, an ancient province and duchy of France, consisting + of the north-west peninsula, and nearly corresponding to the departments + of Finistère, Côtes-du-Nord, Morbihan, Ille-et-Vilaine and Lower Loire. + It is popularly divided into Upper or Western, and Lower or Eastern + Brittany. Its greatest length between the English Channel and the + Atlantic Ocean is 250 kilometres (about 155 English miles), and its + superficial extent is 30,000 sq. kilometres (about 18,630 English sq. + m.). It comprises two distinct zones, a maritime zone and an inland zone. + In the centre there are two plateaus, partly covered with <i>landes</i>, + unproductive moorland: the southern plateau is continued by the Montagnes + Noires, and the northern is dominated by the Monts d'Arrée. These ranges + nowhere exceed 1150 ft. in height, but from their wild nature they recall + the aspect of high mountains. The waterways of Brittany are for the most + part of little value owing to their torrent-like character. The only + river basin of any importance is that of the Vilaine, which flows through + Rennes. The coast is very much indented, especially along the English + Channel, and is rocky and lined with reefs and islets. The mouths of the + rivers form deep estuaries. Thus nature itself condemned Brittany to + remain for a long time shut out from civilization. But in the 19th + century the development of railways and other means of communication drew + Brittany from its isolation. In the 19th century also agriculture + developed in a remarkable manner. Many of the <i>landes</i> were cleared + and converted into excellent pasturage, and on the coast market-gardening + made great progress. In the fertile districts cereals too are cultivated. + Industrial pursuits, except in a few seaport towns, which are rather + French than Breton, have hitherto received but little attention.</p> + + <p>The Bretons are by nature conservative. They cling with almost equal + attachment to their local customs and their religious superstitions. It + was not till the 17th century that paganism was even nominally abolished + in some parts, and there is probably no district in Europe where the + popular Christianity has assimilated more from earlier creeds. Witchcraft + and the influence of fairies are still often believed in. The costume of + both sexes is very peculiar both in cut and colour, but varies + considerably in different districts. Bright red, violet and blue are much + used, not only by the women, but in the coats and waistcoats of the men. + The reader will find full illustrations of the different styles in + Bouet's <i>Breiz-izel, ou vie des Breions de l'Armorique</i> (1844). The + Celtic language is still spoken in lower Brittany. Four dialects are + pretty clearly marked (see the article <span class="sc">Celt</span>: + <i>Language</i>, "<i>Breton</i>," p. 328). Nowhere has the taste for + marvellous legends been kept so green as in Brittany; and an entire + folk-literature still flourishes there, as is manifested by the large + number of folk-tales and folk-songs which have been collected of late + years.</p> + + <p>The whole duchy was formerly divided into nine + bishoprics:—Rennes, Dol, Nantes, St Malo and St Brieuc, in Upper + Brittany and Tréguier, Vannes, Quimper and St Pol de Léon in Lower.</p> + + <p><i>History.</i>—Of Brittany before the coming of the Romans we + have no exact knowledge. The only traces left by the primitive + populations are the megalithic monuments (dolmens, menhirs and + cromlechs), which remain to this day in great numbers (see <span + class="sc">Stone Monuments</span>). In 56 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> + the Romans destroyed the fleet of the Veneti, and in 52 the inhabitants + of Armorica took part in the great insurrection of the Gauls against + Caesar, but were subdued finally by him in 51. Roman civilization was + then established for several centuries in Brittany.</p> + + <p>In the 5th century numbers of the Celtic inhabitants of Britain, + flying from the Angles and Saxons, emigrated to Armorica, and populated a + great part of the peninsula. Converted to Christianity, the new-comers + founded monasteries which helped to clear the land, the greater part of + which was barren and wild. The Celtic immigrants formed the counties of + Vannes, Cornouaille, Léon and Domnonée. A powerful aristocracy was + constituted, which owned estates and had them cultivated by serfs or + villeins. The Celts sustained a long struggle against the Frankish kings, + who only nominally occupied Brittany. Louis the Pious placed a native + chief Nomenoë at the head of Brittany. There was then a fairly long + period of peace; but Nomenoë rebelled against Charles the Bald, defeated + him, and forced him, in 846, to recognize the independence of Brittany. + The end of the 9th century and the beginning of the 10th were remarkable + for the invasions of the Northmen. On several occasions they were driven + back—by Salomon (d. 874) and afterwards by Alain, count of Vannes + (d. 907)—but it was Alain Barbetorte (d. 952) who gained the + decisive victory over them.</p> + + <p>In the second half of the 10th century and in the 11th century the + counts of Rennes were predominant in Brittany. Geoffrey, son of Conan, + took the title of duke of Brittany in 992. Conan II., Geoffrey's + grandson, threatened by the revolts of the nobles, was attacked also by + the duke of Normandy (afterwards William I. of England). Alain Fergent, + one of his successors, defeated William in 1085, and forced him to make + peace. But in the following century the Plantagenets succeeded in + establishing themselves in Brittany. Conan IV., defeated by the revolted + Breton nobles, appealed to Henry II. of England, who, in reward for his + help, forced Conan to give his daughter in marriage to his son Geoffrey. + Thus Henry II. became master of Brittany, and Geoffrey was recognized as + duke of Brittany. But this new dynasty was not destined to last long. + Geoffrey's posthumous son, Arthur, was assassinated by John of England in + 1203, and Arthur's sister Alix, who succeeded to his rights, was married + in 1212 to Pierre de Dreux, who became duke. This was the beginning of a + ducal dynasty of French origin, which lasted till the end of the 15th + century.</p> + + <p>From that moment the ducal power gained strength in Brittany and + succeeded in curbing the feudal nobles. Under French influence + civilization made notable progress. For more than a century peace reigned + undisturbed in Brittany. But in 1341 the death of John III., without + direct heir, provoked a war of succession between the houses of Blois and + Montfort, which lasted till 1364. This war of succession was, in reality, + an incident of the Hundred Years' War, the partisans of Blois and + Montfort supporting respectively the kings of France and England. In 1364 + John of Montfort (d. 1399) was recognized as duke of Brittany under the + style of John IV.<a name="FnAnchor_141" + href="#Footnote_141"><sup>[1]</sup></a>, but his reign <!-- Page 618 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page618"></a>[v.04 p.0618]</span>was + constantly troubled, notably by his struggle with Olivier de Clisson + (1336-1407). John V. (d. 1442), on the other hand, distinguished himself + by his able and pacific policy. During his reign and the reigns of his + successors, Francis I., Peter II. and Arthur III., the ducal authority + developed in a remarkable manner. The dukes formed a standing army, and + succeeded in levying hearth taxes (<i>fouages</i>) throughout Brittany. + Francis II. (1435-1488) fought against Louis XI., notably during the War + of the Public Weal, and afterwards engaged in the struggle against + Charles VIII., known as "The Mad War" (<i>La Guerre Folle</i>). After the + death of Francis II. the king of France invaded Brittany, and forced + Francis's daughter, Anne of Brittany, to marry him in 1491. Thus the + reunion of Brittany and France was prepared. After the death of Charles + VIII. Anne married Louis XII. Francis I., who married Claude, the + daughter of Louis XII. and Anne, settled the definitive annexation of the + duchy by the contract of 1532, by which the maintenance of the privileges + and liberties of Brittany was guaranteed. Until the Revolution Brittany + retained its own estates. The royal power, however, was exerted to reduce + the privileges of the province as much as possible. It often met with + vigorous resistance, notably in the 18th century. The struggle was + particularly keen between 1760 and 1769, when E. A. de V. du Plessis + Richelieu, duc d'Aiguillon, had to fight simultaneously the estates and + the parliament, and had a formidable adversary in L. R. de C. de la + Chalotais. But under the monarchy the only civil war in Brittany in which + blood was shed was the revolt of the duc de Mercœur (d. 1602) + against the crown at the time of the troubles of the League, a revolt + which lasted from 1589 to 1598. Mention, however, must also be made of a + serious popular revolt which broke out in 1675—"the revolt of the + stamped paper."</p> + + <p>See Bertrand d'Argentré, <i>Histoire de Bretagne</i> (Paris, 1586); + Dom Lobineau, <i>Histoire de Bretagne</i> (Paris, 1702); Dom Morice, + <i>Histoire de Bretagne</i> (1742-1756); T. A. Trollope, <i>A Summer in + Brittany</i> (1840); A. du Chatellier, <i>L'Agriculture et les classes + agricoles de la Bretagne</i> (1862); F. M. Luzel, <i>Légendes chrétiennes + de la Basse-Bretagne</i> (Paris, 1881), and <i>Veillées bretonnes</i> + (Paris, 1879); A. Dupuy, <i>La Réunion de la Bretagne à la France</i> + (Paris, 1880), and <i>Études sur l'administration municipale en Bretagne + au XVIII<sup>e</sup> siècle</i> (1891); J. Loth, <i>L'Émigration bretonne + en Armorique du V<sup>e</sup> au VII<sup>e</sup> siècle</i> (Rennes, + 1883); H. du Cleuziou, <i>Bretagne artistique et pittoresque</i> (Paris, + 1886); Arthur de la Borderie, <i>Histoire de Bretagne</i> (Rennes, 1896 + seq.); J. Lemoine, <i>La Révolte du papier timbré ou des bonnets rouges + en Bretagne en 1675</i> (1898); M. Marion, <i>La Bretagne et le duc + d'Aiguillon</i> (Paris, 1898); B. Pocquet, <i>Le Duc d'Aiguillon et la + Chalotais</i> (Paris, 1900-1902); Anatole le Braz, <i>Vieilles Histoires + du pays breton</i> (1897), and <i>La Légende de la mort</i> (Paris, + 1902); Ernest Lavisse, <i>Histoire de France</i>, vol. i. (Paris, 1903); + Henri Sée, <i>Étude sur les classes rurales en Bretagne au moyen âge</i> + (1896), and <i>Les Classes rurales en Bretagne du XVI<sup>e</sup> siècle + à la Revolution</i> (1906).</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_141" href="#FnAnchor_141">[1]</a> Certain + authorities count the father of this duke, another John of Montfort (d. + 1345), among the dukes of Brittany, and according to this enumeration the + younger John becomes John V., not John IV., and his successor John VI. + and not John V.</p> + +</div> + <p><b>BRITTON, JOHN</b> (1771-1857), English antiquary, was born on the + 7th of July 1771 at Kington-St-Michael, near Chippenham. His parents were + in humble circumstances, and he was left an orphan at an early age. At + sixteen he went to London and was apprenticed to a wine merchant. + Prevented by ill-health from serving his full term, he found himself + adrift in the world, without money or friends. In his fight with poverty + he was put to strange shifts, becoming cellarman at a tavern and clerk to + a lawyer, reciting and singing at a small theatre, and compiling a + collection of common songs. After some slight successes as a writer, a + Salisbury publisher commissioned him to compile an account of Wiltshire + and, in conjunction with his friend Edward Wedlake Brayley, Britton + produced <i>The Beauties of Wiltshire</i> (1801; 2 vols., a third added + in 1825), the first of the series <i>The Beauties of England and + Wales</i>, nine volumes of which Britton and his friend wrote. Britton + was the originator of a new class of literary works. "Before his time," + says Digby Wyatt, "popular topography was unknown." In 1805 Britton + published the first part of his <i>Architectural Antiquities of Great + Britain</i> (9 vols., 1805-1814); and this was followed by <i>Cathedral + Antiquities of England</i> (14 vols., 1814-1835). In 1845 a Britton Club + was formed, and a sum of £1000 was subscribed and given to Britton, who + was subsequently granted a civil list pension by Disraeli, then + chancellor of the exchequer. Britton was an earnest advocate of the + preservation of national monuments, proposing in 1837 the formation of a + society such as the modern Society for the Preservation of Ancient + Monuments. Britton himself supervised the reparation of Waltham Cross and + Stratford-on-Avon church. He died in London on the 1st of January + 1857.</p> + + <p>Among other works with which Britton was associated either as author + or editor are <i>Historical Account of Redcliffe Church, Bristol</i> + (1813); <i>Illustrations of Fonthill Abbey</i> (1823); <i>Architectural + Antiquities of Normandy</i>, with illustrations by Pugin (1825-1827); + <i>Picturesque Antiquities of English Cities</i> (1830); and <i>History + of the Palace and Houses of Parliament at Westminster</i> (1834-1836), + the joint work of Britton and Brayley. He contributed much to the + <i>Gentleman's Magazine</i> and other periodicals.</p> + + <p>His <i>Autobiography</i> was published in 1850. A <i>Descriptive + Account of his Literary Works</i> was published by his assistant T.E. + Jones.</p> + + <p><b>BRITTON,</b> the title of the earliest summary of the law of + England in the French tongue, which purports to have been written by + command of King Edward I. The origin and authorship of the work have been + much disputed. It has been attributed to John le Breton, bishop of + Hereford, on the authority of a passage found in some MSS. of the history + of Matthew of Westminster; there are difficulties, however, involved in + this theory, inasmuch as the bishop of Hereford died in 1275, whereas + allusions are made in <i>Britton</i> to several statutes passed after + that time, and more particularly to the well-known statute <i>Quia + emptores terrarum</i>, which was passed in 1290. It was the opinion of + Selden that the book derived its title from Henry de Bracton, the last of + the chief justiciaries, whose name is sometimes spelled in the fine Rolls + "Bratton" and "Bretton", and that it was a royal abridgment of Bracton's + great work on the customs and laws of England, with the addition of + certain subsequent statutes. The arrangement, however, of the two works + is different, and but a small proportion of Bracton's work is + incorporated in <i>Britton</i>. The work is entitled in an early MS. of + the 14th century, which was once in the possession of Selden, and is now + in the Cambridge university library, <i>Summa de legibus Anglie que + vocatur Bretone</i>; and it is described as "a book called Bretoun" in + the will of Andrew Horn, the learned chamberlain of the city of London, + who bequeathed it to the chamber of the Guildhall in 1329, together with + another book called <i>Mirroir des Justices</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Britton</i> was first printed in London by Robert Redman, without a + date, probably about the year 1530. Another edition of it was printed in + 1640, corrected by E. Wingate. A third edition of it, with an English + translation, was published at the University Press, Oxford, 1865, by F. + M. Nichol. An English translation of the work without the Latin text had + been previously published by R. Kelham in 1762.</p> + + <p><b>BRITZSKA,</b> or <span class="sc">Britska</span> (from the Polish + <i>bryczka</i>; a diminutive of <i>bryka</i>, a goods-wagon), a form of + carriage, copied in England from Austria early in the 19th century; as + used in Poland and Russia it had four wheels, with a long wicker-work + body constructed for reclining and a calash (hooded) top.</p> + + <p><b>BRIVE,</b> or <span class="sc">Brives-la-Gaillarde</span>, a town + of south-central France, capital of an arrondissement in the department + of Corrèze, 62 m. S.S.E. of Limoges on the main line of the Orléans + railway from Paris to Montauban. Pop. (1906) town 14,954; commune 20,636. + It lies on the left bank of the Corrèze in an ample and fertile plain, + which is the meeting-place of important roads and railways. The + <i>enceinte</i> which formerly surrounded the town has been replaced by + shady boulevards, and a few wide thoroughfares have been made, but many + narrow winding streets and ancient houses still remain. Outside the + boulevards lie the modern quarters, also the fine promenade planted with + plane trees which stretches to the Corrèze and contains the chief + restaurants and the theatre. Here also is the statue of Marshal Guillaume + Marie Anne Brune, who was a native of Brive. A fine bridge leads over the + river to suburbs on its right bank. The public buildings are of little + interest apart from the church of St Martin, which stands in the heart of + the old town. It is a building of the 12th century in the Romanesque + style of Limousin, with three narrow naves of almost equal height. The + ecclesiastical seminary occupies a graceful mansion of the 16th century, + with a façade, a staircase and fireplaces of fine Renaissance + workmanship. Brive is the seat of a sub-prefect <!-- Page 619 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page619"></a>[v.04 p.0619]</span>and has a + tribunal of first instance, a tribunal of commerce, a communal college + and a school of industry. Its position makes it a market of importance, + and it has a very large trade in the early vegetables and fruit of the + valley of the Corrèze, and in grain, live-stock and truffles. + Table-delicacies, paper, wooden shoes, hats, wax and earthenware are + manufactured, and there are slate and millstone workings and + dye-works.</p> + + <p>In the vicinity are numerous rock caves, many of them having been used + as dwellings in prehistoric times. The best known are those of Lamouroux, + excavated in stages in a vertical wall of rock, and four grotto-chapels + resorted to by pilgrims in memory of St Anthony of Padua, who founded a + Franciscan monastery at Brive in 1226. Under the Romans Brive was known + as <i>Briva Curretiae</i> (bridge of the Corrèze). In the middle ages it + was the capital of lower Limousin.</p> + + <p><b>BRIXEN</b> (Ital. <i>Bressanone</i>), a small city in the Austrian + province of Tirol, and the chief town of the administrative district of + Brixen. Pop. (1900) 5767. It is situated in the valley of the Eisack, at + the confluence of that stream with the Rienz, and is a station on the + Brenner railway, being 34 m. south-east of that pass, and 24 m. + north-east of Botzen. The aspect of the city is very ecclesiastical; it + is still the see of a bishop, and contains an 18th-century cathedral + church, an episcopal palace and seminary, twelve churches and five + monasteries. The see was founded at the end of the 8th century (possibly + of the 6th century) at Säben on the rocky heights above the town of + Klausen (some way to the south of Brixen), but in 992 was transferred to + Brixen, which, perhaps a Roman station, became later a royal estate, + under the name of <i>Prichsna</i>, and in 901 was given by Louis the + Child to the bishop. In 1027 the bishop received from the emperor Conrad + II. very extensive temporal powers, which he only lost to Austria in + 1803. The town was surrounded in 1030 by walls. In 1525 it was the scene + of the first outbreak of the great peasants' revolt. About 5½ m. north of + Brixen is the great fortress of Franzensfeste, built 1833-1838, to guard + the route over the Brenner and the way to the east up the Pusterthal.</p> + + <p>(W. A. B. C.)</p> + + <p><b>BRIXHAM,</b> a seaport and market town in the Torquay parliamentary + division of Devonshire, England, 33 m. S. of Exeter, on a branch of the + Great Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 8092. The town is + irregularly built on the cliffs to the south of Torbay, and its harbour + is sheltered by a breakwater. Early in the 19th century it was an + important military post, with fortified barracks on Berry Head. It is the + headquarters of the Devonshire sea-fisheries, having also a large + coasting trade. Shipbuilding and the manufacture of ropes, paint and + sails are industries. There is excellent bathing, and Brixham is in + favour as a seaside resort. St Mary's, the ancient parish church, has an + elaborate 14th-century font and some monuments of interest. At the + British Seamen's Orphans' home boys are fed, clothed and trained as + apprentices for the merchant service. A statue commemorates the landing, + in 1688, of William of Orange.</p> + + <p><i>Brixham Cave</i>, called also Windmill Hill Cavern, is a well-known + ossiferous cave situated near Brixham, on the brow of a hill composed of + Devonian limestone. It was discovered by chance in 1858, having been + until then hermetically sealed by a mass of limestone breccia. Dr Hugh + Falconer with the assistance of a committee of geologists excavated it. + The succession of beds in descending order is as follows:—(1) + Shingle consisting of pebbles of limestone, slate and other local rocks, + with fragments of stalagmite and containing a few bones and worked + flints. The thickness varies from five to sixteen feet. (2) Red cave + earth with angular fragments of limestone, bones and worked flints, and + having a thickness of 3 to 4 ft. (3) Remnants (<i>in situ</i>) of an old + stalagmitic floor about nine inches thick. (4) Black peaty soil varying + in thickness, the maximum being about a foot. (5) Angular debris fallen + from above varying in thickness from one to ten feet. (6) Stalagmite with + a few bones and antlers of reindeer, the thickness varying from one to + fifteen inches. Of particular interest is the presence of patches or + ledges of an old stalagmitic floor, three to four feet above the present + floor. On the under-side, there are found attached fragments of limestone + and quartz, showing that the shingle bed once extended up to it, and that + it then formed the original floor. The shingle therefore stood some feet + higher than it does now, and it is supposed that a shock or jar, such as + that of an earthquake, broke up the stalagmite, and the pebbles and sand + composing the shingle sunk deeper into the fissures in the limestone. + This addition to the size of the cave was partially filled up by the cave + earth. At a later period the fall of angular fragments at the entrance + finally closed the cave, and it ceased to be accessible except to a few + burrowing animals, whose remains are found above the second and newer + stalagmite floor.</p> + + <p>The fauna of Brixham cavern closely resembles that of Kent's Hole. The + bones of the bear, horse, rhinoceros, lion, elephant, hyena and of many + birds and small rodents were unearthed. Altogether 1621 bones, nearly all + broken and gnawed, were found; of these 691 belonged to birds and small + rodents of more recent times. The implements are of a roughly-chipped + type resembling those of the Mousterian period. From these structural and + palaeontological evidences, geologists suppose that the formation of the + cave was carried on simultaneously with the excavation of the valley; + that the small streams, flowing down the upper ramifications of the + valley, entered the western opening of the cave, and traversing the + fissures in the limestone, escaped by the lower openings in the chief + valley; and that the rounded pebbles found in the shingle bed were + carried in by these streams. It would be only at times of drought that + the cave was frequented by animals, a theory which explains the small + quantity of animal remains in the shingle. The implements of man are + relatively more common, seventeen chipped flints having been found. As + the excavation of the valley proceeded, the level of the stream was + lowered and its course diverted; the cave consequently became drier and + was far more frequently inhabited by predatory animals. It was now + essentially an animal den, the occasional visits of man being indicated + by the rare occurrence of flint-implements. Finally, the cave became a + resort of bears; the remains of 334 specimens, in all stages of growth, + including even sucking cubs, being discovered.</p> + + <p>See Sir Joseph Prestwich, <i>Geology</i> (1888); Sir John Evans, + <i>Ancient Stone Implements of Great Britain</i>, p. 512; Report on the + Cave, <i>Phil. Trans.</i> (Royal Society, 1873).</p> + + <p><b>BRIXTON,</b> a district in the south of London, England, included + in the metropolitan borough of Lambeth (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + + <p><b>BRIZEUX, JULIEN AUGUSTE PÉLAGE</b> (1803-1858), French poet, was + born at Lorient (Morbihan) on the 12th of September 1803. He belonged to + a family of Irish origin, long settled in Brittany, and was educated for + the law, but in 1827 he produced at the Théâtre Français a one-act verse + comedy, <i>Racine</i>, in collaboration with Philippe Busoni. A journey + to Italy in company with Auguste Barbier made a great impression on him, + and a second visit (1834) resulted in 1841 in the publication of a + complete translation of the <i>Divina Commedia</i> in <i>terza rima</i>. + With <i>Primel el Nola</i> (1852) he included poems written under Italian + influence, entitled <i>Les Ternaires</i> (1841), but in the rustic idyl + of <i>Marie</i> (1836) turned to Breton country life; in <i>Les + Bretons</i> (1845) he found his inspiration in the folklore and legends + of his native province, and in <i>Telen-Aroor</i> (1844) he used the + Breton dialect. His <i>Histoires poétiques</i> (1855) was crowned by the + French Academy. His work is small in bulk, but is characterized by + simplicity and sincerity. Brizeux was an ardent student of the philology + and archaeology of Brittany, and had collected materials for a dictionary + of Breton place-names He died at Montpellier on the 3rd of May 1858.</p> + + <p>His <i>Œuvres complètes</i> (2 vols., 1860) were edited with a + notice of the author by Saint-René Taillandier. Another edition appeared + in 1880-1884 (4 vols.). A long list of articles on his work may be + consulted in an exhaustive monograph, <i>Brizeux; sa vie et ses + œuvres</i> (1898), by the abbé C. Lecigne.</p> + + <p><b>BRIZO,</b> an ancient goddess worshipped in Delos. She delivered + oracles in dreams to those who consulted her about fishery and seafaring. + The women of Delos offered her presents consisting of little boats filled + with all kinds of eatables (with the exception of <!-- Page 620 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page620"></a>[v.04 p.0620]</span>fish) in order + to obtain her protection for those engaged on the sea (Athenaeus viii. p. + 335).</p> + + <p><b>BROACH,</b> or <span class="sc">Bharuch</span>, an ancient city and + modern district of British India, in the northern division of Bombay. The + city is on the right bank of the Nerbudda, about 30 m. from the sea, and + 203 m. N. of Bombay. The area, including suburbs, occupies 2-1/6 sq. m. + Pop. (1901) 42,896. The sea-borne trade is confined to a few coasting + vessels. Handloom-weaving is almost extinct, but several cotton mills + have been opened. There are also large flour-mills. Broach is the + Barakacheva of the Chinese traveller Hsüan Tsang and the Barygaza of + Ptolemy and Arrian. Upon the conquest of Gujarat by the Mahommedans, and + the formation of the state of that name, Broach formed part of the new + kingdom. On its overthrow by Akbar in 1572, it was annexed to the Mogul + empire and governed by a Nawab. The Mahrattas became its masters in 1685, + from which period it was held in subordination to the peshwa until 1772, + when it was captured by a force under General Wedderburn (brother to Lord + Loughborough), who was killed in the assault. In 1783 it was ceded by the + British to Sindhia in acknowledgment of certain services. It was stormed + in 1803 by a detachment commanded by Colonel Woodington, and was finally + ceded to the East India Company by Sindhia under the treaty of Sarji + Anjangaom.</p> + + <p>The <span class="sc">District of Broach</span> contains an area of + 1467 sq. m. Consisting chiefly of the alluvial plain at the mouth of the + river Nerbudda, the land is rich and highly cultivated, and though it is + without forests it is not wanting in trees. The district is well supplied + with rivers, having in addition to the Nerbudda the Mahi in the north and + the Kim in the south. The population comprises several distinct races or + castes, who, while speaking a common dialect, Gujarati, inhabit separate + villages. Thus there are Koli, Kunbi or Voro (Bora) villages, and others + whose lands are almost entirely held and cultivated by high castes, such + as Rajputs, Brahmans or Parsees. In 1901 the population was 291,763, + showing a decrease of 15%, compared with an increase of 5% in the + preceding decade. The principal crops are cotton, millet, wheat and + pulse. Dealing in cotton is the chief industry, the dealers being + organized in a gild. Besides the cotton mills in Broach city there are + several factories for ginning and pressing cotton, some of them on a very + large scale. The district is traversed throughout its length by the + Bombay & Baroda railway, which crosses the Nerbudda opposite Broach + city on an iron-girder bridge of 67 spans. The district suffered severely + from the famine of 1899-1900.</p> + + <p><b>BROACH</b> (Fr. <i>broche</i>, a pointed instrument, Med. Lat. + <i>brocca</i>, cf. the Latin adjective <i>brochus</i> or <i>broccus</i>, + projecting, used of teeth), a word, of which the doublet "brooch" + (<i>q.v.</i>) has a special meaning, for many forms of pointed + instruments, such as a bodkin, a wooden needle used in tapestry-making, a + spit for roasting meat, and a tool, also called a "rimer," used with a + wrench for enlarging or smoothing holes (see <span + class="sc">Tool</span>). From the use of a similar instrument to tap + casks, comes "to broach" or "tap" a cask. A particular use in + architecture is that of "broach-spire," a term employed to designate a + particular form of spire, found only in England, which takes its name + from the stone roof of the lower portion. The stone spire being octagonal + and the tower square on plan, there remained four angles to be covered + over. This was done with a stone roof of slight pitch, compared with that + of the spire, and it is the intersection of this roof with the octagonal + faces of the spire which forms the broach.</p> + + <p><b>BROADSIDE,</b> sometimes termed <span class="sc">Broadsheet</span>, + a single sheet of paper containing printed matter on one side only. The + broadside seems to have been employed from the very beginning of printing + for royal proclamations, papal indulgences and similar documents. England + appears to have been its chief home, where it was used chiefly for + ballads, particularly in the 16th century, but also as a means of + political agitation and for personal statements of all kinds, especially + for the dissemination of the dying speeches and confessions of criminals. + It is prominent in the history of literature because, particularly during + the later part of the 17th century, several important poems, by Dryden, + Butler and others, originally appeared printed on the "broad side" of a + sheet. The term is also used of the simultaneous discharge of the guns on + one side of a ship of war.</p> + + <p><b>BROADSTAIRS,</b> a watering-place, in the Isle of Thanet + parliamentary division of Kent, England, 3 m. S.E. of Margate, on the + South-Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. of urban district, Broadstairs + and St Peter's (1901) 6466. From 1837 to 1851 Broadstairs was a favourite + summer resort of Charles Dickens, who, in a sketch called "Our English + Watering-Place," described it as a place "left high and dry by the tide + of years." This seaside village, with its "semicircular sweep of houses," + grew into a considerable town owing to the influx of summer visitors, for + whose entertainment there are, besides the "Albion" mentioned by Dickens, + numerous hotels and boarding-houses, libraries, a bathing establishment + and a fine promenade. Dickens' residence was called Fort House, but it + became known as Bleak House, through association with his novel of that + name, though this was written after his last visit to Broadstairs in + 1851. Broadstairs has a small pier for fishing-boats, first built in the + reign of Henry VIII. An archway leading down to the shore bears an + inscription showing that it was erected by George Culmer in 1540, and not + far off is the site of a chapel of the Virgin, to which ships were + accustomed to lower their top-sails as they passed. St Peter's parish, + lying on the landward side of Broadstairs, and included in the urban + district, has a church dating from the 12th to the end of the 16th + century. Kingsgate, on the North Foreland, north of Broadstairs on the + coast, changed its name from St Bartholomew's Gate in honour of Charles + II.'s landing here with the duke of York in 1683 on his way from London + to Dover. Stonehouse, close by, now a preparatory school for boys, was + the residence of Archbishop Tait, whose wife established the orphanage + here.</p> + + <p><b>BROCA, PAUL</b> (1824-1880), French surgeon and anthropologist, was + born at Sainte-Foy la Grande, Gironde, on the 28th of June 1824. He early + developed a taste for higher mathematics, but circumstances decided him + in adopting medicine as his profession. Beginning his studies at Paris in + 1841, he made rapid progress, becoming house-surgeon in 1844, assistant + anatomical lecturer in 1846, and three years later professor of surgical + anatomy. He had already gained a reputation by his pathological + researches. In 1853 he was named fellow of the Faculty of Medicine, and + in 1867 became member of the Academy of Medicine and professor of + surgical pathology to the Faculty. During the years occupied in winning + his way to the head of his profession he had published treatises of much + value on cancer, aneurism and other subjects. It was in 1861 that he + announced his discovery of the seat of articulate speech in the left side + of the frontal region of the brain, since known as the convolution of + Broca. But famous as he was as a surgeon, his name is associated most + closely with the modern school of anthropology. Establishing the + Anthropological Society of Paris in 1859, of which he was secretary till + his death, he was practically the inventor of the modern science of + craniology. He rendered distinguished service in the Franco-German War, + and during the Commune by his organization and administration of the + public hospitals. He founded <i>La Revue d'Anthropologie</i> in 1872, and + it was in its pages that the larger portion of his writings appeared. In + his last years Broca turned from his labours in the region of craniology + to the exclusive study of the brain, in which his greatest triumphs were + achieved (see <span class="sc">Aphasia</span>). He was decorated with the + Legion of Honour in 1868, and was honorary fellow of the leading + anatomical, biological and anthropological societies of the world. He + died on the 9th of July 1880. A statue of him by Choppin was erected in + 1887 in front of the Faculty of Medicine in Paris.</p> + + <p><b>BROCADE</b>, the name usually given to a class of richly decorative + shuttle-woven fabrics, often made in coloured silks and with or without + gold and silver threads. Ornamental features in brocade are emphasized + and wrought as additions to the main fabric, sometimes stiffening it, + though more frequently producing on its face the effect of low relief. + These additions present a distinctive appearance on the back of the stuff + where <!-- Page 621 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page621"></a>[v.04 + p.0621]</span>the weft or floating threads of the brocaded or broached + parts hang in loose groups or are clipped away.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:50%;"> + <a href="images/zbrocade_2.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/brocade_2.png" + alt="Fig. 2.--Part of a Siculo-Saracenic brocade." title="Fig. 2.--Part of a Siculo-Saracenic brocade." /></a> + <p class="poem"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.—Part of a + Siculo-Saracenic brocade woven in the 12th century. l6½ in. wide.</p> + </div> + <div class="figleft" style="width:40%;"> + <a href="images/zbrocade_1.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/brocade_1.png" + alt="Fig. 1.--Brocade woven in red and olive green silks." title="Fig. 1.--Brocade woven in red and olive green silks." /></a> + <p class="poem"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.—Brocade woven in + red and olive green silks and gold thread on a cream-coloured ground. + Along the top is the Kufic inscription "Arrahmān" (The Merciful) + several times repeated in olive green on a gold-thread ground. Pairs of + seated animals, <i>addorsed regardant</i> and geese <i>vis-à-vis</i> + are worked within the lozenge-shaped compartments of the trellis + framework which regulates the pattern. Both animals and birds are + separated by conventional trees, and the latter are enclosed in + inscriptions of Kufic characters. <i>Siculo-Saracenic</i>; 11th or 12th + century. 5½ in. sq.</p> + </div> + <p><br style="clear : both" /></p> + <div class="figright" style="width:27%;"> + <a href="images/brocade_3.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/brocade_3.png" + alt="Fig. 3.--Brocaded with red silk and gold thread." title="Fig. 3.--Brocaded with red silk and gold thread." /></a> + <p class="poem"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.—Piece of stuff + woven or brocaded with red silk and gold thread, with an ogival framing + enclosing alternately, pairs of parrots, <i>addorsed regardant</i>, and + a well-known Persian (or Sassanian) leaf-shaped fruit device. Probably + of Rhenish-Byzantine manufacture in the 12th or 13th century. 9 in. + long.</p> + </div> + <p>The Latin word <i>broccus</i> is related equally to the Italian + <i>brocato</i>, the Spanish <i>brocar</i> and the French <i>brocarts</i> + and <i>brocher</i>, and implies a form of stitching or broaching, so that + textile fabrics woven with an appearance of stitching or broaching have + consequently come to be termed "brocades." A Spanish document dated 1375 + distinguishes between <i>los draps d'or é d'argent o de seda</i> and + <i>brocats d'or é d'argent</i>, a difference which is readily perceived, + upon comparing for instance cloths of gold, Indian kincobs, with Lyons + silks that are <i>brochés</i> with threads of gold, silk or other + material. Notwithstanding this, many Indian kincobs and dainty gold and + coloured silk-weavings of Persian workmanship, both without floating + threads, are often called brocades, although in neither is the + ornamentation really <i>broché</i> or brocaded. Contemporary in use with + the Spanish <i>brocats</i> is the word <i>brocado</i>. In addition to + <i>brocarts</i> the French now use the word <i>brocher</i> in connexion + with certain silk stuffs which however are not brocades in the same sense + as the <i>brocarts</i>. A wardrobe account of King Edward IV. (1480) has + an entry of "satyn broched with gold"—a description that fairly + applies to such an enriched satin as that for instance shown in fig. 4. + But some three centuries earlier than the date of that specimen, + decorative stuffs were partly <i>brochés</i> with gold threads by + oriental weavers, especially those of Persia, Syria and parts of southern + Europe and northern Africa under the domination of the Saracens, to whom + the earlier germs, so to speak, of brocading may be traced. Of such is + the 11th or 12th century Siculo-Saracenic specimen in fig. 1, in which + the heads only of the pairs of animals and birds are broched with gold + thread. Another sort of brocaded material is indicated in fig. 2, taken + from a part of a sumptuous Siculo-Saracenic weaving produced in coloured + silks and gold threads at the famous Hotel des Tiraz in Palermo for an + official robe of Henry IV. (1165-1197) as emperor of the Holy Roman + Empire, and still preserved in the cathedral of Regensburg. Fig. 3 is a + further variety of textile that would be classed as <i>brocat</i>. This + is of the 12th or 13th century manufacture, possibly by German or + Rhenish-Byzantine weavers, or even by Spanish weavers, many of whom at + Almeria, Malaga, Grenada and Seville rivalled those at Palermo. In the + 14th century the making of satins heavily brocaded with gold threads was + associated conspicuously with such Italian towns as Lucca, Genoa, Venice + and Florence. Fig. 4 is from a piece of 14th-century dark-blue satin + broached in relief with gold thread in a design the like of which appears + in the background of Orcagna's "Coronation of the Virgin," now in the + National Gallery, London. During the 17th century Genoa, Florence and + Lyons vied with each other in making brocades in which the enrichments + were as frequently of coloured silks as of gold intermixed with silken + threads. Fig. 5 is from a piece of crimson silk damask flatly brocaded + with flowers, scroll forms, fruit and birds in gold. This is probably of + Florentine workmanship. Rather more closely allied to modern brocades is + the Lyons specimen given in fig. 6, in which the brocading is done not + only with silver but also with coloured silks. Early in the 18th century + Spitalfields was busy as a competitor with Lyons in manufacturing many + sorts of brocades, specified in a collection of designs preserved in the + national art library of the Victoria and <!-- Page 622 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page622"></a>[v.04 p.0622]</span>Albert Museum, + under such trade titles as "brocade lutstring, brocade tabby, brocade + tissue, brocade damask, brocade satin, Venetian brocade, and India + figured brocade." Brocading in China seems to be of considerable + antiquity, and Dr Bushell in his valuable handbook on Chinese art cites a + notice of five rolls of brocade with dragons woven upon a crimson ground, + presented by the emperor Ming Ti of the Wei dynasty, in the year <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 238, to the reigning empress of Japan; and + varieties of brocade patterns are recorded as being in use during the + Sung dynasty (960-1279). The first edition of an illustrated work upon + tillage and weaving was published in China in 1210, and contains an + engraving of a loom constructed to weave flowered-silk brocades such as + are woven at the present time at Suchow and Hangchow and elsewhere. On + the other hand, although they are described usually as brocades, certain + specimens of imperial Chinese robes sumptuous in ornament, sheen of + coloured silks and the glisten of golden threads, are woven in the + tapestry-weaving manner and without any floating threads. It seems + reasonable to infer that Persians and Syrians derived the art of weaving + brocades from the Chinese, and as has been indicated, passed it on to + Saracens as well as Europeans.</p> + + <p>(A. S. C.)</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:35%;"> + <a href="images/zbrocade_6.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/brocade_6.png" + alt="Fig. 6.--Piece of brocaded pink silk." title="Fig. 6.--Piece of brocaded pink silk." /></a> + <p class="poem"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 6.—Piece of pink + silk brocaded in silver and white and coloured silks. French middle + 18th century; about 15 in. square.</p> + </div> + <div class="figright" style="width:24%;"> + <a href="images/zbrocade_5.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/brocade_5.png" + alt="Fig. 5.--Piece of crimson silk damask." title="Fig. 5.--Piece of crimson silk damask." /></a> + <p class="poem"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5.—Piece of crimson + silk damask brocaded in gold thread with symmetrically arranged + flowers, scrolls, birds, &c. Italian (?Florentine). Late 17th + century; about 2 ft. 6 in. long.</p> + </div> + <div class="figright" style="width:31%;"> + <a href="images/zbrocade_4.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/brocade_4.png" + alt="Fig. 4.--Piece of blue satin brocaded with gold threads." title="Fig. 4.--Piece of blue satin brocaded with gold threads." /></a> + <p class="poem"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4.—Piece of blue + satin brocaded with gold threads. The unit of the pattern is a + symmetrical arrangement of fantastic birds, vine leaves and curving + stems. The bird shapes are remotely related to, if not derived from, + the Chinese mystical "fonghoang." North Italian weaving of the 14th + century; about 11 in. square.</p> + </div> + <p><br style="clear : both" /></p> + <p><b>BROCCHI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA</b> (1772-1826), Italian mineralogist + and geologist, was born at Bassano on the 18th of February 1772. He + studied at the university of Pisa, where his attention was turned to + mineralogy and botany. In 1802 he was appointed professor of botany in + the new lyceum of Brescia; but he more especially devoted himself to + geological researches in the adjacent districts. The fruits of these + labours appeared in different publications, particularly in his + <i>Trattato mineralogico e chemico sulle miniere di ferro del + dipartimento del Mella</i> (1808)—treatise on the iron mines of + Mella. These researches procured him the office of inspector of mines in + the recently established kingdom of Italy, and enabled him to extend his + investigations over great part of the country. In 1811 he produced a + valuable essay entitled <i>Memoria mineralogica sulla Valle di Fassa in + Tirolo</i>; but his most important work is the <i>Conchiologia fossile + subapennina con osservazioni geologiche sugli Apennini, e sul suolo + adiacente</i> (2 vols., 4to, Milan, 1814), containing accurate details of + the structure of the Apennine range, and an account of the fossils of the + Italian Tertiary strata compared with existing species. These subjects + were further illustrated by his geognostic map, and his <i>Catalogo + ragionato di una raccolta di rocce, disposto con ordine geografico, per + servire alla geognosia dell' Italia</i> (Milan, 1817). His work <i>Dello + stato fisico del suolo di Roma</i> (1820), with its accompanying map, is + likewise noteworthy. In it he corrected the erroneous views of Breislak, + who conceived that Rome occupies the site of a volcano, to which he + ascribed the volcanic materials that cover the seven hills. Brocchi + pointed out that these materials were derived either from Mont Albano, + <!-- Page 623 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page623"></a>[v.04 + p.0623]</span>an extinct volcano, 12 m. from the city, or from Mont + Cimini, still farther to the north. Several papers by him, on + mineralogical subjects, appeared in the <i>Biblioteca Italiana</i> from + 1816 to 1823. In the latter year Brocchi sailed for Egypt, in order to + explore the geology of that country and report on its mineral resources. + Every facility was granted by Mehemet Ali, who in 1823 appointed him one + of a commission to examine the district of Sennaar; but Brocchi, + unfortunately for science, fell a victim to the climate, and died at + Khartum on the 25th of September 1826.</p> + + <p><b>BROCHANT DE VILLIERS, ANDRÉ JEAN FRANÇOIS MARIE</b> (1772-1840), + French mineralogist and geologist, was born at Villiers, near Nantes, on + the 6th of August 1772. After studying at the École Polytechnique, he was + in 1794 the first pupil admitted to the École des Mines. In 1804 he was + appointed professor of geology and mineralogy in the École des Mines, + which had been temporarily transferred to Pezay in Savoy, and he returned + with the school to Paris in 1815. Later on he became inspector general of + mines and a member of the Academy of Sciences. He investigated the + transition strata of the Tarantaise, wrote on the position of the granite + rocks of Mont Blanc, and on the lead minerals of Derbyshire and + Cumberland. He was charged with the superintendence of the construction + of the geological map of France, undertaken by his pupils Dufrénoy and + Elie de Beaumont. He died in Paris on the 16th of May 1840. His + publications include <i>Traité élémentaire de minéralogie</i> (2 vols., + 1801-1802; 2nd ed., 1808), and <i>Traité abrégé de cristallographie</i> + (Paris, 1818).</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:16%;"> + <a href="images/brochantite_1.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/brochantite_1.png" + alt="Brochantite crystal." title="Brochantite crystal." /></a> + </div> + <p><b>BROCHANTITE,</b> a mineral species consisting of a basic copper + sulphate Cu<sub>4</sub>(OH)<sub>6</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>, crystallizing in + the orthorhombic system. The crystals are usually small and are prismatic + or acicular in habit; they have a perfect cleavage parallel to the face + lettered a in the adjoining figure. They are transparent to translucent, + with a vitreous lustre, and are of an emerald-green to blackish-green + colour. Specific gravity 3.907; hardness 3½-4. The mineral was first + found associated with malachite and native copper in the copper mines of + the Urals, and was named by A. Lévy in 1824 after A.J.M. Brochant de + Villiers. Several varieties, differing somewhat in crystalline form, have + been distinguished, some of them having originally been described as + distinct species, but afterwards proved to be essentially identical with + brochantite; these are königine from the Urals, brongniartine from + Mexico, krisuvigite from Iceland, and warringtonite from Cornwall. Of + other localities, mention may be made of Roughten Gill, Caldbeck Fells, + Cumberland, where small brilliant crystals are associated with malachite + and chrysocolla in a quartzose rock; Rézbánya in the Bihar Mountains, + Hungary; Atacama in Chile, with atacamite, which closely resembles + brochantite in general appearance; the Tintic district in Utah. A + microscopical examination of the green copper ores of secondary origin in + the Clifton and Morenci district of Arizona proves brochantite to be of + extremely common occurrence mostly intergrown with malachite which + effectually masks its presence: it is not unlikely that the malachite of + other localities will on examination be found to be intergrown with + brochantite.</p> + + <p>Mention may be here made of another orthorhombic basic copper sulphate + not unlike brochantite in general characters, but differing from it in + containing water of crystallization and in its fine blue colour; this is + the Cornish mineral langite, which has the composition + CuSO<sub>4</sub>·3Cu(OH)<sub>2</sub>+H<sub>2</sub>O.</p> + + <p>(L. J. S.)</p> + + <p><b>BROCK, SIR ISAAC</b> (1769-1812), British soldier and + administrator, was born at St Peter Port, Guernsey, on the 6th of October + 1769. Joining the army at the age of fifteen as an ensign of the 8th + regiment, he became a lieutenant-colonel in 1797, after less than + thirteen years' service. He commanded the 49th regiment in the expedition + to North Holland in 1799, was wounded at the battle of Egmont-op-Zee, and + subsequently served on board the British fleet at the battle of + Copenhagen. From 1802 to 1805 he was with his regiment in Canada, + returning thither in 1806 in view of the imminence of war between Great + Britain and the United States. From September 1806 till August 1810 he + was in charge of the garrison at Quebec; in the latter year he assumed + the command of the troops in Upper Canada, and soon afterwards took over + the civil administration of that province as provisional + lieutenant-governor. On the outbreak of the war of 1812 Brock had to + defend Upper Canada against invasion by the United States. In the face of + many difficulties and not a little disaffection, he organized the militia + of the province, drove back the invaders, and on the 16th of August 1812, + with about 730 men and 600 Indians commanded by their chief Tecumseh, + compelled the American force of 2500 men under General William Hull + (1753-1825) to surrender at Detroit, an achievement which gained him a + knighthood of the Bath and the popular title of "the hero of Upper + Canada" From Detroit he hurried to the Niagara frontier, but on the 13th + of October in the same year was killed at the battle of Queenston + Heights. The House of Commons voted a public monument to his memory, + which was erected in Saint Paul's cathedral, London. On the 13th of + October 1824, the twelfth anniversary of his death, his remains were + removed from the bastions of Fort George, where they had been originally + interred, and placed beneath a monument on Queenston Heights, erected by + the provincial legislature. This was blown up by a fanatic in 1840, but + as the result of a mass-meeting of over 8000 citizens held on the spot, a + new and more stately monument was erected.</p> + + <p>His <i>Life and Correspondence</i> by his nephew, Ferdinand Brock + Tupper (2nd edition, London, 1847), still remains the best; later lives + are by D.R. Read (Toronto, 1894), and by Lady Edgar (Toronto and + London,1905).</p> + + <p>(W. L. G.)</p> + + <p><b>BROCK, THOMAS</b> (1847- ), English sculptor, was the chief pupil + of Foley, and later became influenced by the new romantic movement. His + group "The Moment of Peril" was followed by "The Genius of Poetry," + "Eve," and other ideal works that mark his development. His busts, such + as those of Lord Leighton and Queen Victoria; his statues, such as "Sir + Richard Owen" and "Dr Philpott, bishop of Worcester"; his sepulchral + monuments, such as that to Lord Leighton in St Paul's cathedral, a work + of singular significance, refinement and beauty; and his memorial statues + of Queen Victoria, at Hove and elsewhere, are examples of his power as a + portraitist, sympathetic in feeling, sound and restrained in execution, + and dignified and decorative in arrangement. The colossal equestrian + statue of "Edward the Black Prince" was set up in the City Square in + Leeds in 1901, the year in which the sculptor was awarded the commission + to execute the vast Imperial Memorial to Queen Victoria in front of + Buckingham Palace. Brock was elected an associate of the Royal Academy in + 1883 and full member in 1891.</p> + + <p><b>BROCKEN,</b> a mountain of Germany, in Prussian Saxony, the highest + point (3733 ft.) of the Harz. It is a huge, bare, granite-strewn, + dome-shaped mass and, owing to its being the greatest elevation in north + Germany, commands magnificent views in all directions. From it Magdeburg + and the Elbe, the towers of Leipzig and the Thuringian forest are + distinctly visible in clear weather. Access to the summit is attained by + a mountain railway (12 m.) from Dreiannen-Hohne, a station on the normal + gauge line Wernigerode-Nordhausen, and by two carriage roads from the + Bodetal and Ilsenburg respectively. In the folklore of north Germany the + Brocken holds an important place, and to it cling many legends. Long + after Christianity had penetrated to these regions, the Brocken remained + a place of heathen worship. Annually, on Walpurgis night (1st of May), + curious rites were here enacted, which, condemned by the priests of the + Christian church, led to the belief that the devil and witches here held + their orgies. Even to this day, this superstition possesses the minds of + many country people around, who believe the mountain to be haunted on + this night. In literature <!-- Page 624 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page624"></a>[v.04 p.0624]</span>it is represented by the famous + "Brocken scene" in Goethe's <i>Faust</i>.</p> + + <p>See Jacobs, <i>Der Brocken in Geschichte und Sage</i> (Halle, 1878); + and Pröhle, <i>Brockensagen</i> (Magdeburg, 1888).</p> + + <p><b>BROCKEN, SPECTRE OF THE</b> (so named from having been first + observed in 1780 on the Brocken), an enormously magnified shadow of an + observer cast upon a bank of cloud when the sun is low in high mountain + regions, reproducing every motion of the observer in the form of a + gigantic but misty image of himself.</p> + + <p><b>BROCKES, BARTHOLD HEINRICH</b> (1680-1747), German poet, was born + at Hamburg on the 22nd of September 1680. He studied jurisprudence at + Halle, and after extensive travels in Italy, France and Holland, settled + in his native town in 1704. In 1720 he was appointed a member of the + Hamburg senate, and entrusted with several important offices. Six years + (from 1735 to 1741) he spent as <i>Amtmann</i> (magistrate) at + Ritzebtütel. He died in Hamburg on the 16th of January 1747. Brockes' + poetic works were published in a series of nine volumes under the + fantastic title <i>Irdisches Vergnügen in Gott</i> (1721-1748); he also + translated Marini's <i>La Strage degli innocenti</i> (1715), Pope's + <i>Essay on Man</i> (1740) and Thomson's <i>Seasons</i> (1745). His + poetry has small intrinsic value, but it is symptomatic of the change + which came over German literature at the beginning of the 18th century. + He was one of the first German poets to substitute for the bombastic + imitations of Marini, to which he himself had begun by contributing, a + clear and simple diction. He was also a pioneer in directing the + attention of his countrymen to the new poetry of nature which originated + in England. His verses, artificial and crude as they often are, express a + reverential attitude towards nature and a religious interpretation of + natural phenomena which was new to German poetry and prepared the way for + Klopstock.</p> + + <p>Brockes' autobiography was published by J.M. Lappenberg in the + <i>Zeitschrift des Vereins für Hamburger Geschichte,</i> ii. pp. 167 ff. + (1847). See also A. Brandl, <i>B. H. Brockes</i> (1878), and D.F. + Strauss, <i>Brockes und H.S. Reimarus</i> (<i>Gesammelte Schriften</i>, + ii.). A short selection of his poetry will be found in vol. 39 (1883) of + Kürschner's <i>Deutsche Nationalliteratur</i>.</p> + + <p><b>BROCKHAUS, FRIEDRICH ARNOLD</b> (1772-1823), German publisher, was + born at Dortmund, on the 4th of May 1772. He was educated at the + gymnasium of his native place, and from 1788 to 1793 served an + apprenticeship in a mercantile house at Düsseldorf. He then devoted two + years at Leipzig to the study of modern languages and literature, after + which he set up at Dortmund an emporium for English goods. In 1801 he + transferred this business to Arnheim, and in the following year to + Amsterdam. In 1805, having given up his first line of trade, he began + business as a publisher. Two journals projected by him were not allowed + by the government to survive for any length of time, and in 1810 the + complications in the affairs of Holland induced him to return homewards. + In 1811 he settled at Altenburg. About three years previously he had + purchased the copyright of the <i>Konversations-Lexikon</i>, started in + 1796, and in 1810-1811 he completed the first edition of this celebrated + work (14th ed. 1901-4). A second edition under his own editorship was + begun in 1812, and was received with universal favour. His business + extended rapidly, and in 1818 Brockhaus removed to Leipzig, where he + established a large printing-house. Among the more extensive of his many + literary undertakings were the critical periodicals—<i>Hermes</i>, + the <i>Literarisches Konversationsblatt</i> (afterwards the <i>Blätter + für literarische Unterhaltung</i>), and the <i>Zeitgenossen</i>, and some + large historical and bibliographical works, such as Raumer's + <i>Geschichte der Hohenstaufen</i>, and Ebert's <i>Allgemeines + bibliographisches Lexikon</i>. F.A. Brockhaus died at Leipzig on the 20th + of August 1823. The business was carried on by his sons, Friedrich + Brockhaus (1800-1865) who retired in 1850, and Heinrich Brockhaus + (1804-1874), under whom it was considerably extended. The latter + especially rendered great services to literature and science, which the + university of Jena recognized by making him, in 1858, honorary doctor of + philosophy. In the years 1842-1848, Heinrich Brockhaus was member of the + Saxon second chamber, as representative for Leipzig, was made honorary + citizen of that city in 1872, and died there on the 15th of November + 1874.</p> + + <p>See H. E. Brockhaus, <i>Friedrich A. Brockhaus, sein Leben und Wirken + nach Briefen und andern Aufzeichnungen</i> (3 vols., Leipzig, 1872-1881); + also by the same author, <i>Die Firma F. A. Brockhaus von der Begrundung + bis zum hundertjahrigen Jubilaum</i> (1805-1905, Leipzig, 1905).</p> + + <p>Another of Friedrich's sons, <span class="sc">Hermann Brockhaus</span> + (1806-1877), German Orientalist, was born at Amsterdam on the 28th of + January 1806. While his two brothers carried on the business he devoted + himself to an academic career. He was appointed extraordinary professor + in Jena in 1838, and in 1841 received a call in a similar capacity to + Leipzig, where in 1848 he was made ordinary professor of ancient Semitic. + He died at Leipzig on the 5th of January 1877. Brockhaus was an Oriental + scholar in the old sense of the word, devoting his attention, not to one + language only, but to acquiring a familiarity with the principal + languages and literature of the East. He studied Hebrew, Arabic and + Persian, and was able to lecture on Sanskrit, afterwards his specialty, + Pali, Zend and even on Chinese. His most important work was the <i>editio + princeps</i> of the <i>Katha-sarit-sagara</i>, "The Ocean of the Streams + of Story," the large collection of Sanskrit stories made by Soma Deva in + the 12th century. By this publication he gave the first impetus to a + really scientific study of the origin and spreading of popular tales, and + enabled Prof. Benfey and others to trace the great bulk of Eastern and + Western stories to an Indian, and more especially to a Buddhistic source. + Among Prof. Brockhaus's other publications were his edition of the + curious philosophical play <i>Prabodhachandrodaya</i>, "The Rise of the + Moon of Intelligence," his critical edition of the "Songs of Hafiz," and + his publication in Latin letters of the text of the "Zend-Avesta."</p> + + <p><b>BROCKLESBY, RICHARD</b> (1722-1797), English physician, was born at + Minehead, Somersetshire, on the 11th of August 1722. He was educated at + Ballitore, in Ireland, where Edmund Burke was one of his schoolfellows, + studied medicine at Edinburgh, and finally graduated at Leiden in 1745. + Appointed physician to the army in 1758, he served in Germany during part + of the Seven Years' War, and on his return settled down to practise in + London. In 1764 he published <i>Economical and Medical Observations</i>, + which contained suggestions for improving the hygiene of army hospitals. + In his latter years he withdrew altogether into private life. The circle + of his friends included some of the most distinguished literary men of + the age. He was warmly attached to Dr Johnson, to whom about 1784 he + offered an annuity of £100 for life, and whom he attended on his + death-bed, while in 1788 he presented Burke, of whom he was an intimate + friend, with £1000, and offered to repeat the gift "every year until your + merit is rewarded as it ought to be at court." He died on the 11th of + December 1797, leaving his house and part of his fortune to his + grand-nephew, Dr Thomas Young.</p> + + <p><b>BROCKTON</b>, a city of Plymouth county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., + about 20 m. S. of Boston, and containing an area of 21 sq. m. of rolling + surface. Pop. (1870) 8007; (1880)13,608; (1890) 27,294; (1900) 40,063, of + whom 9484 were foreign-born, including 2667 Irish, 2199 English Canadians + and 1973 Swedes; (1910, census) 56,878. It is served by the New York, New + Haven & Hartford railway. Brockton has a public library, with 54,000 + volumes, in 1908. By popular vote, beginning in 1886 (except in 1898), + the liquor traffic was prohibited annually. The death-rate, 13.18 in + 1907, is very low for a manufacturing city of its size. Brockton is the + industrial centre of a large population surrounding it (East and West + Bridgewater, North Easton, Avon, Randolph, Holbrook and Whitman), and is + an important manufacturing place. Both in 1900 and in 1905 it ranked + first among the cities of the United States in the manufacture of boots + and shoes. The city's total factory product in 1900 was valued at + $24,855,362, and in 1905 at $37,790,982, an increase during the five + years of 52%. The boot and shoe product in 1905 was valued at $30,073,014 + (9.4% of the value of the total boot and shoe product of the United + States), the boot <!-- Page 625 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page625"></a>[v.04 p.0625]</span>and shoe cut stock at $1,344,977, + and the boot and shoe findings at $2,435,137—the three combined + representing 89.6% of the city's total manufactured product. In 1908 + there were 35 shoe factories, including the W.L. Douglas, the Ralston, + the Walkover, the Eaton, the Keith and the Packard establishments, and, + in 1905, 14,000,000 (in 1907 about 17,000,000) pairs of shoes were + produced in the city. Among the other products are lasts, blacking, paper + and wooden packing boxes, nails and spikes, and shoe fittings and tools. + The assessed valuation of the city rose from $6,876,427 in 1881 to + $37,408,332 in 1907. Brockton was a part of Bridgewater until 1821, when + it was incorporated as the township of North Bridgewater. Its present + name was adopted in 1874, and it was chartered as a city in 1881. + Brockton was the first city in Massachusetts to abolish all grade + crossings (1896) within its limits.</p> + + <p><b>BROCKVILLE,</b> a town and port of entry of Ontario, Canada, and + capital of Leeds county, named after General Sir Isaac Brock, <span + class="correction" title="'situtated' in original">situated</span> 119 m. + S.W. of Montreal, on the left bank of the St Lawrence, and on the Grand + Trunk, and Brockville & Westport railways. A branch line connects it + with the Canadian Pacific. It has steamer communication with the St + Lawrence and Lake Ontario ports, and is a summer resort. The principal + manufactures are hardware, furnaces, agricultural implements, carriages + and chemicals. It is the centre of one of the chief dairy districts of + Canada, and ships large quantities of cheese and butter. Pop. (1881) + 7609; (1901) 8940.</p> + + <p><b>BROD,</b> a town of Croatia-Slavonia, in the county of Pozega, on + the left bank of the river Save, 124 m. by rail S.E. by E. of Agram. Pop. + (1900) 7310. The principal Bosnian railway here crosses the river, to + meet the Hungarian system. Brod has thus a considerable transit trade, + especially in cereals, wine, spirits, prunes and wood. It is sometimes + called Slavonisch-Brod, to distinguish it from Bosna-Brod, or + Bosnisch-Brod, across the river. The town owes its name to a ford + (Servian <i>brod</i>) of the Save, and dates at least from the 15th + century. Brod was frequently captured and recaptured in the wars between + Turkey and Austria; and it was here that the Austrian army mustered, in + 1879, for the occupation of Bosnia.</p> + + <p><b>BRODERIP, WILLIAM JOHN</b> (1789-1859), English naturalist, was + born in Bristol on the 21st of November 1789. After graduating at Oxford + he was called to the bar in 1817, and for some years was engaged in + law-reporting. In 1822 he was appointed a metropolitan police magistrate, + and filled that office until 1856, first at the Thames police court and + then at Westminster. His leisure was devoted to natural history, and his + writings did much to further the study of zoology in England. The + zoological articles in the <i>Penny Cyclopaedia</i> were written by him, + and a series of articles contributed to <i>Fraser's Magazine</i> were + reprinted in 1848 as <i>Zoological Recreations</i>, and were followed in + 1852 by <i>Leaves from the Note-book of a Naturalist</i>. He was one of + the founders of the Zoological Society of London, and a large collection + of shells which he formed was ultimately bought by the British Museum. He + died in London on the 27th of February 1859.</p> + + <p><b>BRODHEAD, JOHN ROMEYN</b> (1814-1873), American historical scholar, + was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 2nd of January 1814, the + son of Jacob Brodhead (1782-1855), a prominent clergyman of the Dutch + Reformed Church. He graduated at Rutgers College in 1831, and in 1835 was + admitted to the bar in New York City. After 1837, however, he devoted + himself principally to the study of American colonial history, and in + order to have access to the records of the early Dutch settlements in + America he obtained in 1839 an appointment as attaché of the American + legation at the Hague. His investigations here soon proved that the Dutch + archives were rich in material on the early history of New York, and led + the state legislature to appropriate funds for the systematic gathering + from various European archives of transcripts of documents relating to + New York. Brodhead was appointed (1841) by Governor William H. Seward to + undertake the work, and within several years gathered from England, + France and Holland some eighty manuscript volumes of transcriptions, + largely of documents which had not hitherto been used by historians. + These transcriptions were subsequently edited by Edward O'Callaghan + (vols. i.-xi. incl.) and by Berthold Fernow (vols. xii.-xv., incl.), and + published by the state under the title <i>Documents relating to the + Colonial History of New York</i> (15 vols., 1853-1883). From 1846 to + 1849, while George Bancroft was minister to Great Britain, Brodhead held + under him the post of secretary of legation. In 1853-1857 he was naval + officer of the port of New York. He published several addresses and a + scholarly <i>History of the State of New York</i> (2 vols., 1853-1871), + generally considered the best for the brief period covered (1609-1690). + He died in New York City on the 6th of May 1873.</p> + + <p><b>BRODIE, SIR BENJAMIN COLLINS</b>, 1st Bart. (1783-1862), English + physiologist and surgeon, was born in 1783 at Winterslow, Wiltshire. He + received his early education from his father; then choosing medicine as + his profession he went to London in 1801, and attended the lectures of + John Abernethy. Two years later he became a pupil of Sir Everard Home at + St George's hospital, and in 1808 was appointed assistant surgeon at that + institution, on the staff of which he served for over thirty years. In + 1810 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society, to which in the next + four or five years he contributed several papers describing original + investigations in physiology. At this period also he rapidly obtained a + large and lucrative practice, and from time to time he wrote on surgical + questions, contributing numerous papers to the Medical and Chirurgical + Society, and to the medical journals. Probably his most important work is + that entitled <i>Pathological and Surgical Observations on the Diseases + of the Joints</i>, in which he attempts to trace the beginnings of + disease in the different tissues that form a joint, and to give an exact + value to the symptom of pain as evidence of organic disease. This volume + led to the adoption by surgeons of measures of a conservative nature in + the treatment of diseases of the joints, with consequent reduction in the + number of amputations and the saving of many limbs and lives. He also + wrote on diseases of the urinary organs, and on local nervous affections + of a surgical character. In 1854 he published anonymously a volume of + <i>Psychological Inquiries</i>; to a second volume which appeared in 1862 + his name was attached. He received many honours during his career. He + attended George IV., was sergeant-surgeon to William IV. and Queen + Victoria, and was made a baronet in 1834. He became a corresponding + member of the French Institute in 1844, D.C.L. of Oxford in 1855, and + president of the Royal Society in 1858, and he was the first president of + the general medical council. He died at Broome Park, Surrey, on the 21st + of October 1862. His collected works, with autobiography, were published + in 1865 under the editorship of Charles Hawkins.</p> + + <p>His eldest son, Sir Benjamin Collins Brodie, 2nd Bart. (1817-1880), + was appointed professor of chemistry at Oxford in 1865, and is chiefly + known for his investigations on the allotropic states of carbon and for + his discovery of graphitic acid.</p> + + <p><b>BRODIE, PETER BELLINGER</b> (1815-1897), English geologist, son of + P.B. Brodie, barrister, and nephew of Sir Benjamin C. Brodie, was born in + London in 1815. While still residing with his father at Lincoln's Inn + Fields, he gained some knowledge of natural history and an interest in + fossils from visits to the museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, at a + time when W. Clift was curator. Through the influence of Clift he was + elected a fellow of the Geological Society early in 1834. Proceeding + afterwards to Emmanuel College, Cambridge, he came under the spell of + Sedgwick, and henceforth devoted all his leisure time to geology. + Entering the church in 1838, he was curate at Wylye in Wiltshire, and for + a short time at Steeple Claydon in Buckinghamshire, becoming later rector + of Down Hatherley in Gloucestershire, and finally (1855) vicar of + Rowington in Warwickshire, and rural dean. Records of geological + observations in all these districts were published by him. At Cambridge + he obtained fossil shells from the Pleistocene deposit at Barn well; in + the Vale of Wardour he discovered in Purbeck Beds the isopod named by + Milne-Edwards <i>Archaeoniscus Brodiei</i>; in Buckinghamshire he + described the outliers of Purbeck and <!-- Page 626 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page626"></a>[v.04 p.0626]</span>Portland Beds; + and in the Vale of Gloucester the Lias and Oolites claimed his attention. + Fossil insects, however, formed the subject of his special studies + (<i>History of the Fossil Insects of the Secondary Rocks of England</i>, + 1845), and many of his published papers relate to them. He was an active + member of the Cotteswold Naturalists' Club and of the Warwickshire + Natural History and Archaeological Society, and in 1854 he was chief + founder of the Warwickshire Naturalists' and Archaeologists' Field Club. + In 1887 the Murchison medal was awarded to him by the Geological Society + of London. He died at Rowington, on the 1st of November 1897.</p> + + <p>See Memoir by H. B. Woodward in <i>Geological Magazine</i>, 1897, p. + 481 (with portrait).</p> + + <p><b>BRODY,</b> a town of Austria, in Galicia, 62 m. E. of Lemberg by + rail. Pop. (1900) 17,360, of which about two-thirds are Jews. It is + situated near the Russian frontier, and has been one of the most + important commercial centres in Galicia, especially for the trade with + Russia. But since 1879, when its charter as a free commercial city was + withdrawn, its trade has also greatly diminished. Brody was created a + town in 1684, and was raised to the rank of a free commercial city in + 1779.</p> + + <p><b>BROEKHUIZEN, JAN VAN</b> [<span class="sc">Janus + Broukhusius</span>], (1649-1707), Dutch classical scholar and poet, was + born on the 20th of November 1649, at Amsterdam. Having lost his father + when very young, he was placed with an apothecary, with whom he lived + several years. Not liking this employment, he entered the army, and in + 1674 was sent with his regiment to America, in the fleet under Admiral de + Ruyter, but returned to Holland the same year. In 1678 he was sent to the + garrison at Utrecht, where he contracted a friendship with the celebrated + Graevius; here he had the misfortune to be so deeply implicated in a duel + that, according to the laws of Holland, his life was forfeited. Graevius, + however, wrote immediately to Nicholas Heinsius, who obtained his pardon. + Not long afterwards he became a captain of one of the companies then at + Amsterdam. After the peace of Ryswick, 1697, his company was disbanded, + and he retired on a pension to a country house near Amsterdam and pursued + his classical and literary studies at leisure. His Dutch poems, in which + he followed the model of Pieter Hooft, were first published in 1677; a + later edition, with a biography by D. van Hoogstraten, appeared in 1712, + the last edition, 1883, was edited by R.A. Kollewijn. His classical + reputation rests on his editions of Propertius (1702) and Tibullus + (1707). His Latin poems (<i>Carmina</i>) appeared in 1684; a later + edition(<i>Poemata</i>) by D. van Hoogstraten appeared in 1711. The + <i>Select Letters</i> (<i>Jani Browkhusii Epistolae Selectae</i>, 1889 + and 1893) were edited by J.A. Worp, who also wrote his biography, 1891. + Broekhuizen died on the 15th of December 1707.</p> + + <p><b>BRÖGGER, WALDEMAR CHRISTOFER</b> (1851- ), Norwegian geologist, was + born in Christiania on the 10th of November 1851, and educated in that + city. In 1876 he was appointed curator of the geological museum in his + native city, and assistant on the Geological Survey. He was professor of + mineralogy and geology from 1881 to 1890 in the university of Stockholm, + and from 1890 in the university of Christiania. He also became rector and + president of the senate of the royal university of Christiania. His + observations on the igneous rocks of south Tirol compared with those of + Christiania afford much information on the relations of the granitic and + basic rocks. The subject of the differentiation of rock-types in the + process of solidification as plutonic or volcanic rocks from a particular + magma received much attention from him. He dealt also with the Palaeozoic + rocks of Norway, and with the late glacial and post-glacial changes of + level in the Christiania region. The honorary degree of Ph.D. was + conferred upon him by the university of Heidelberg and that of LL.D. by + the university of Glasgow. The Murchison medal of the Geological Society + of London was awarded to him in 1891.</p> + + <p><b>BROGLIE, DE,</b> the name of a noble French family which, + originally Piedmontese, emigrated to France in the year 1643. The head of + the family, <span class="sc">François Marie</span> (1611-1656), then took + the title of comte de Broglie. He had already distinguished himself as a + soldier, and died, as a lieutenant-general, at the siege of Valenza on + the 2nd of July 1656. His son, <span class="sc">Victor Maurice, Comte de + Broglie</span> (1647-1727), served under Condé, Turenne and other great + commanders of the age of Louis XIV., becoming <i>maréchal de camp</i> in + 1676, lieutenant-general in 1688, and finally marshal of France in + 1724.</p> + + <p>The eldest son of Victor Marie, <span class="sc">François + Marie</span>, afterwards <span class="sc">Duc de Broglie</span> + (1671-1745), entered the army at an early age, and had a varied career of + active service before he was made, at the age of twenty-three, + lieutenant-colonel of the king's regiment of cavalry. He served + continuously in the War of the Spanish Succession and was present at + Malplaquet. He was made lieutenant-general in 1710, and served with + Villars in the last campaign of the war and at the battle of Denain. + During the peace he continued in military employment, and in 1719 he was + made director-general of cavalry and dragoons. He was also employed in + diplomatic missions, and was ambassador in England in 1724. The war in + Italy called him into the field again in 1733, and in the following year + he was made marshal of France. In the campaign of 1734 he was one of the + chief commanders on the French side, and he fought the battles of Parma + and Guastalla. A famous episode was his narrow personal escape when his + quarters on the Secchia were raided by the enemy on the night of the 14th + of September 1734. In 1735 he directed a war of positions with credit, + but he was soon replaced by Marshal de Noailles. He was governor-general + of Alsace when Frederick the Great paid a secret visit to Strassburg + (1740). In 1742 de Broglie was appointed to command the French army in + Germany, but such powers as he had possessed were failing him, and he had + always been the "man of small means," safe and cautious, but lacking in + elasticity and daring. The only success obtained was in the action of + Sahay (25th May 1742), for which he was made a duke. He returned to + France in 1743, and died two years later.</p> + + <p>His son, <span class="sc">Victor François, Duc de Broglie</span> + (1718-1804), served with his father at Parma and Guastalla, and in 1734 + obtained a colonelcy. In the German War he took part in the storming of + Prague in 1742, and was made a brigadier. In 1744 and 1745 he saw further + service on the Rhine, and in 1756 he was made <i>maréchal de camp</i>. He + subsequently served with Marshal Saxe in the low countries, and was + present at Roucoux, Val and Maastricht. At the end of the war he was made + a lieutenant-general. During the Seven Years' War he served successively + under d'Estrées, Soubise and Contades, being present at all the battles + from Hastenbeck onwards. His victory over Prince Ferdinand at Bergen + (1759) won him the rank of marshal of France from his own sovereign and + that of prince of the empire from the emperor Francis I. In 1760 he won + an action at Corbach, but was defeated at Vellinghausen in 1761. After + the war he fell into disgrace and was not recalled to active employment + until 1778, when he was given command of the troops designed to operate + against England. He played a prominent part in the Revolution, which he + opposed with determination. After his emigration, de Broglie commanded + the "army of the princes" for a short time (1792). He died at Münster in + 1804.</p> + + <p>Another son of the first duke, <span class="sc">Charles François, + Comte de Broglie</span> (1719-1781), served for some years in the army, + and afterwards became one of the foremost diplomatists in the service of + Louis XV. He is chiefly remembered in connexion with the <i>Secret du + Roi</i>, the private, as distinct from the official, diplomatic service + of Louis, of which he was the ablest and most important member. The son + of Victor François, <span class="sc">Victor Claude, Prince de + Broglie</span> (1757-1794), served in the army, attaining the rank of + <i>maréchal de camp</i>. He adopted revolutionary opinions, served with + Lafayette and Rochambeau in America, was a member of the Jacobin Club, + and sat in the Constituent Assembly, constantly voting on the Liberal + side. He served as chief of the staff to the Republican army on the + Rhine; but in the Terror he was denounced, arrested and executed at Paris + on the 27th of June 1794. His dying admonition to his little son was to + remain <!-- Page 627 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page627"></a>[v.04 + p.0627]</span>faithful to the principles of the Revolution, however + unjust and ungrateful.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Achille Charles Léonce Victor, Duc de Broglie</span> + (1785-1870), statesman and diplomatist, son of the last-named, was born + at Paris on the 28th of November 1785. His mother had shared her + husband's imprisonment, but managed to escape to Switzerland, where she + remained till the fall of Robespierre. She now returned to Paris with her + children and lived there quietly until 1796, when she married a M. + d'Argenson, grandson of Louis XV.'s minister of war. Under the care of + his step-father young de Broglie received a careful and liberal education + and made his entrée into the aristocratic and literary society of Paris + under the Empire. In 1809, he was appointed a member of the council of + state, over which Napoleon presided in person; and was sent by the + emperor on diplomatic missions, as attaché, to various countries. Though + he had never been in sympathy with the principles of the Empire, de + Broglie was not one of those who rejoiced at its downfall. In common with + all men of experience and sense he realized the danger to France of the + rise to power of the forces of violent reaction. With Decazes and + Richelieu he saw that the only hope for a calm future lay in "the + reconciliation of the Restoration with the Revolution." By the influence + of his uncle, Prince Amédée de Broglie, his right to a peerage had been + recognized; and to his own great surprise he received, in June 1814, a + summons from Louis XVIII. to the Chamber of Peers. There, after the + Hundred Days, he distinguished himself by his courageous defence of + Marshal Ney, for whose acquittal he, alone of all the peers, both spoke + and voted. After this defiant act of opposition it was perhaps fortunate + that his impending marriage gave him an excuse for leaving the country. + On the 15th of February 1816, he was married at Leghorn to the daughter + of Madame de Staël. He returned to Paris at the end of the year, but took + no part in politics until the elections of September 1817 broke the power + of the "ultra-royalists" and substituted for the <i>Chambre + introuvable</i> a moderate assembly. De Broglie's political attitude + during the years that followed is best summed up in his own words: "From + 1812 to 1822 all the efforts of men of sense and character were directed + to reconciling the Restoration and the Revolution, the old régime and the + new France. From 1822 to 1827 all their efforts were directed to + resisting the growing power of the counter-revolution. From 1827 to 1830 + all their efforts aimed at moderating and regulating the reaction in a + contrary sense." During the last critical years of Charles X.'s reign, de + Broglie identified himself with the <i>doctrinaires</i>, among whom + Royer-Collard and Guizot were the most prominent. The July revolution + placed him in a difficult position; he knew nothing of the intrigues + which placed Louis Philippe on the throne; but, the revolution once + accomplished, he was ready to uphold the <i>fait accompli</i> with + characteristic loyalty, and on the 9th of August took office in the new + government as minister of public worship and education. As he had + foreseen, the ministry was short-lived, and on the 2nd of November he was + once more out of office. During the critical time that followed he + consistently supported the principles which triumphed with the fall of + Laffitte and the accession to power of Casimir Périer in March 1832. + After the death of the latter and the insurrection of June 1832, de + Broglie took office once more as minister for foreign affairs (October + 11th). His tenure of the foreign office was coincident with a very + critical period in international relations. But for the sympathy of Great + Britain under Palmerston, the July monarchy would have been completely + isolated in Europe; and this sympathy the aggressive policy of France in + Belgium and on the Mediterranean coast of Africa had been in danger of + alienating. The Belgian crisis had been settled, so far as the two powers + were concerned, before de Broglie took office; but the concerted military + and naval action for the coercion of the Dutch, which led to the French + occupation of Antwerp, was carried out under his auspices. The good + understanding of which this was the symbol characterized also the + relations of de Broglie and Palmerston during the crisis of the first war + of Mehemet Ali (<i>q.v.</i>) with the Porte, and in the affairs of the + Spanish peninsula their common sympathy with constitutional liberty led + to an agreement for common action, which took shape in the treaty of + alliance between Great Britain, France, Spain and Portugal, signed at + London on the 22nd of April 1834. De Broglie had retired from office in + the March preceding, and did not return to power till March of the + following year, when he became head of the cabinet. In 1836, the + government having been defeated on a proposal to reduce the five per + cents, he once more resigned, and never returned to official life. He had + remained in power long enough to prove what honesty of purpose, + experience of affairs, and common sense can accomplish when allied with + authority. The debt that France and Europe owed him may be measured by + comparing the results of his policy with that of his successors under not + dissimilar circumstances. He had found France isolated and Europe full of + the rumours of war; he left her strong in the English alliance and the + respect of Liberal Europe, and Europe freed from the restless + apprehensions which were to be stirred into life again by the attitude of + Thiers in the Eastern Question and of Guizot in the affair of the + "Spanish marriages." From 1836 to 1848 de Broglie held almost completely + aloof from politics, to which his scholarly temperament little inclined + him, a disinclination strengthened by the death of his wife on the 22nd + of September 1838. His friendship for Guizot, however, induced him to + accept a temporary mission in 1845, and in 1847 to go as French + ambassador to London. The revolution of 1848 was a great blow to him, for + he realized that it meant the final ruin of the Liberal monarchy—in + his view the political system best suited to France. He took his seat, + however, in the republican National Assembly and in the Convention of + 1848, and, as a member of the section known as the "Burgraves," did his + best to stem the tide of socialism and to avert the reaction in favour of + autocracy which he foresaw. He shared with his colleagues the indignity + of the <i>coup d'état</i> of the 2nd of December 1851, and remained for + the remainder of his life one of the bitterest enemies of the imperial + regime, though he was heard to remark, with that caustic wit for which he + was famous, that the empire was "the government which the poorer classes + in France desired and the rich deserved." The last twenty years of his + life were devoted chiefly to philosophical and literary pursuits. Having + been brought up by his step-father in the sceptical opinions of the time, + he gradually arrived at a sincere belief in the Christian religion. "I + shall die," said he, "a penitent Christian and an impenitent Liberal." + His literary works, though few of them have been published, were rewarded + in 1856 by a seat in the French Academy, and he was also a member of + another branch of the French Institute, the Academy of Moral and + Political Science. In the labours of those learned bodies he took an + active and assiduous part. He died on the 25th of January 1870.</p> + + <p>Besides his <i>Souvenirs</i>, in 4 vols. (Paris, 1885-1888), the duc + de Broglie left numerous works, of which only some have been published. + Of these may be mentioned <i>Écrits et discours</i> (3 vols., Paris, + 1863); <i>Le Libre Échange et l'impôt</i> (Paris, 1879); <i>Vues sur le + gouvernement de la France</i> (Paris, 1861). This last was confiscated + before publication by the imperial government. See Guizot, <i>Le Duc de + Broglie</i> (Paris, 1870), and <i>Mémoires</i> (Paris, 1858-1867); and + the histories of Thureau-Dangin and Duvergier de Hauranne.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Jacques Victor Albert, Duc de Broglie</span> + (1821-1901), his eldest son, was born at Paris on the 13th of June 1821. + After a brief diplomatic career at Madrid and Rome, the revolution of + 1848 caused him to withdraw from public life and devote himself to + literature. He had already published a translation of the religious + system of Leibnitz (1846). He now at once made his mark by his + contributions to the <i>Revue des deux Mondes</i> and the Orleanist and + clerical organ <i>Le Correspondant</i>, which were afterwards collected + under the titles of <i>Études morales et littéraires</i> (1853) and + <i>Questions de religion et d'histoire</i> (1860). These were + supplemented in 1869 by a volume of <i>Nouvelles études de littérature et + de morale</i>. His <i>L'Église et l'empire romain au IVe siècle</i> + (1856-1866) brought him the succession to Lacordaire's seat in the + Academy in 1862. In 1870 he succeeded his father in the dukedom, having + previously been known as the prince de Broglie. In the following year he + was elected to the National <!-- Page 628 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page628"></a>[v.04 p.0628]</span>Assembly for the department of the + Eure, and a few days later (on the 19th of February) was appointed + ambassador in London; but in March 1872, in consequence of criticisms + upon his negotiations concerning the commercial treaties between England + and France, he resigned his post and took his seat in the National + Assembly, where he became the leading spirit of the monarchical campaign + against Thiers. On the replacement of the latter by Marshal MacMahon, the + duc de Broglie became president of the council and minister for foreign + affairs (May 1873), but in the reconstruction of the ministry on the 26th + of November, after the passing of the septennate, transferred himself to + the ministry of the interior. His tenure of office was marked by an + extreme conservatism, which roused the bitter hatred of the Republicans, + while he alienated the Legitimist party by his friendly relations with + the Bonapartists, and the Bonapartists by an attempt to effect a + compromise between the rival claimants to the monarchy. The result was + the fall of the cabinet on the 16th of May 1874. Three years later (on + the 16th of May 1877) he was entrusted with the formation of a new + cabinet, with the object of appealing to the country and securing a new + chamber more favourable to the reactionaries than its predecessor had + been. The result, however, was a decisive Republican majority. The duc de + Broglie was defeated in his own district, and resigned office on the 20th + of November. Not being re-elected in 1885, he abandoned politics and + reverted to his historical work, publishing a series of historical + studies and biographies written in a most pleasing style, and especially + valuable for their extensive documentation. He died in Paris on the 19th + of January 1901.</p> + + <p>Besides editing the <i>Souvenirs</i> of his father (1886, &c.), + the <i>Mémoires</i> of Talleyrand (1891, &c.), and the <i>Letters</i> + of the Duchess Albertine de Broglie (1896), he published <i>Le Secret du + roi, Correspondance secrète de Louis XV avec ses agents diplomatiques, + 1752-1774</i> (1878); <i>Frédéric II et Marie Thérèse</i> (1883); + <i>Frédéric II et Louis XV</i> (1885); <i>Marie Thérèse Impératrice</i> + (1888); <i>Le Père Lacordaire</i> (1889); <i>Maurice de Saxe et le + marquis d'Argenson</i> (1891); <i>La Paix d'Aix-la-Chapelle</i> (1892); + <i>L'Alliance autrichienne</i> (1895); <i>La Mission de M. de + Gontaut-Biron à Berlin</i> (1896); <i>Voltaire avant et pendant la Guerre + de Sept Ans</i> (1898); <i>Saint Ambroise</i>, translated by Margaret + Maitland in the series of "The Saints" (1899).</p> + + <p><b>BROGUE,</b> (1) A rough shoe of raw leather (from the Gael. + <i>brog</i>, a shoe) worn in the wilder parts of Ireland and the Scottish + Highlands. (2) A dialectical accent or pronunciation (of uncertain + origin), especially used of the Irish accent in speaking English.</p> + + <p><b>BROHAN, AUGUSTINE SUSANNE</b> (1807-1887), French actress, was born + in Paris on the 22nd of January 1807. She entered the Conservatoire at + the age of eleven, and took the second prize for comedy in 1820, and the + first in 1821. She served her apprenticeship in the provinces, making her + first Paris appearance at the Odéon in 1832 as Dorine in <i>Tartuffe</i>. + Her success there and elsewhere brought her a summons to the Comédie + Française, where she made her <i>début</i> on the 15th of February 1834, + as Madelon in <i>Les Précieuses ridicules</i>, and Suzanne in <i>Le + Mariage de Figaro</i>. She retired in 1842, and died on the 16th of + August 1887.</p> + + <p>Her elder daughter, <span class="sc">Josephine Félicité Augustine + Brohan</span> (1824-1893), was admitted to the Conservatoire when very + young, twice taking the second prize for comedy. The soubrette part, + entrusted for more than 150 years at the Comédie Française to a + succession of artists of the first rank, was at the moment without a + representative, and Mdlle Augustine Brohan made her <i>début</i> there on + the 19th of May 1841, as Dorine in <i>Tartuffe</i>, and Lise in <i>Rivaux + d'eux-mêmes</i>. She was immediately admitted <i>pensionnaire</i>, and at + the end of eighteen months unanimously elected <i>sociétaire</i>. She + soon became a great favourite, not only in the plays of Molière and de + Regnard, but also in those of Marivaux. On her retirement from the stage + in 1866, she made an unhappy marriage with Edmond David de Gheest (d. + 1885), secretary to the Belgian legation in Paris.</p> + + <p>Susanne Brohan's second daughter, <span class="sc">Émilie Madeleine + Brohan</span> (1833-1900), also took first prize for comedy at the + Conservatoire (1850). She was engaged at once by the Comédie Française, + but instead of making her <i>début</i> in some play of the + <i>répertoire</i> of the theatre, the management put on for her benefit a + new comedy by Scribe and Legouvé, <i>Les Contes de la reine de + Navarre</i>, in which she created the part of Marguerite on the 1st of + September 1850. Her talents and beauty made her a success from the first, + and in less than two years from her <i>début</i> she was elected + <i>sociétaire</i>. In 1853 she married Mario Uchard, from whom she was + soon separated, and in 1858 she returned to the Comédie Française in + leading parts, until her retirement in 1886. Her name is associated with + a great number of plays, besides those in the classical + <i>répertoire</i>, notably <i>Le Monde où l'on s'ennuie</i>, <i>Par droit + de conquête</i>, <i>Les Deux Veuves</i>, and <i>Le Lion amoureux</i>, in + which, as the "marquise de Maupas", she had one of her greatest + successes.</p> + + <p><b>BROKE,</b> or <span class="sc">Brooke</span>, <b>ARTHUR</b> (d. + 1563), English author, wrote the first English version of the story of + Romeo and Juliet. <i>The Tragicall Historye of Romeus and Julieit</i> + (1562) is a rhymed account of the story, taken, not directly from + Bandello's collection of novels (1554), but from the French translation + (<i>Histoires tragiques</i>) of Pierre Boaistuau or Boisteau, surnamed + Launay, and François de Belleforest. Broke adds some detail to the story + as told by Boisteau. As the poem contains many scenes which are not known + to exist elsewhere, but which were adopted by Shakespeare in <i>Romeo and + Juliet</i>, there is no reasonable doubt that it may be regarded as the + main source of the play. Broke perished by shipwreck in 1563, on his way + from Newhaven to join the English troops fighting on the Huguenot side in + France.</p> + + <p>The genesis of the Juliet story, and a close comparison of + Shakespeare's play with Broke's version, are to be found in a reprint of + the poem and of William Paynter's prose translation from the <i>Palace of + Pleasure</i>, edited by Mr P. A. Daniel for the New Shakespere Society + (1875).</p> + + <p><b>BROKE, SIR PHILIP BOWES VERE,</b> <span class="scac">BART.</span> + (1776-1841), British rear-admiral, was born at Broke Hall, near Ipswich, + on the 9th of September 1776, a member of an old Suffolk family. Entering + the navy in June 1792, he saw active service in the Mediterranean from + 1793 to 1795, and was with the British fleet at the battle of Cape St + Vincent, 1797. In 1798 he was present at the defeat and capture of the + French squadron off the north coast of Ireland. From 1799 to 1801 he + served with the North Sea fleet, and in the latter year was made captain. + Unemployed for the next four years, he commanded in 1805 a frigate in the + English and Irish Channels. In 1806 he was appointed to the command of + the "Shannon", 38-gun frigate, remaining afloat, principally in the Bay + of Biscay, till 1811. The "Shannon" was then ordered to Halifax, Nova + Scotia. For a year after the declaration of war between Great Britain and + the United States in 1812, the frigate saw no important service, though + she captured several prizes. Broke utilized this period of comparative + inactivity to train his men thoroughly. He paid particular attention to + gunnery, and the "Shannon" ere long gained a unique reputation for + excellence of shooting. Broke's opportunity came in 1813. In May of that + year the "Shannon" was cruising off Boston, watching the "Chesapeake", an + American frigate of the same nominal force but heavier armament. On the + 1st of June Broke, finding his water supply getting low, wrote to + Lawrence, the commander of the "Chesapeake", asking for a meeting between + the two ships, stating the "Shannon's" force, and guaranteeing that no + other British ship should take part in the engagement. Before this letter + could be delivered, however, the "Chesapeake", under full sail, ran out + of Boston harbour, crowds of pleasure-boats accompanying her to witness + the engagement. Broke briefly addressed his men. "Don't cheer," he + concluded, "go quietly to your quarters. I feel sure you will all do your + duty." As the "Chesapeake" rounded to on the "Shannon's" weather quarter, + at a distance of about fifty yards, the British frigate received her with + a broadside. A hundred of the "Chesapeake's" crew were struck down at + once, Lawrence himself being mortally wounded. A second broadside, + equally well-aimed, increased the confusion, and, her tiller-ropes being + shot away, the American frigate drifted foul of the "Shannon". Broke + sprang on board with some sixty of his men following him. After a brief + struggle <!-- Page 629 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page629"></a>[v.04 p.0629]</span>the fight was over. Within fifteen + minutes of the firing of the first shot, the "Chesapeake" struck her + flag, but Broke himself was seriously wounded. For his services he was + rewarded with a baronetcy, and subsequently was made a K.C.B. His exploit + captivated the public fancy, and his popular title of "Brave Broke" gives + the standard by which his action was judged. Its true significance, + however, lies deeper. Broke's victory was due not so much to courage as + to forethought. "The 'Shannon,'" said Admiral Jurien de La Gravière, + "captured the 'Chesapeake' on the 1st of June 1813; but on the 14th of + September 1806, when he took command of his frigate, Captain Broke had + begun to prepare the glorious termination to this bloody affair." Broke's + wound incapacitated him from further service, and for the rest of his + life caused him serious suffering. He died in London on the 2nd of + January 1841.</p> + + <p><b>BROKEN HILL,</b> a silver-mining town of Yancowinna county, New + South Wales, Australia, 925 m. directly W. by N. of Sydney, and connected + with Adelaide by rail. Pop. (1901) 27,518. One of the neighbouring mines, + the Proprietary, is the richest in the world; gold is associated with the + silver; large quantities of lead, good copper lodes, zinc and tin are + also found. The problem of the profitable treatment of the sulphide ores + has been practically solved here. In addition Broken Hill is the centre + of one of the largest pastoral districts in Australia. The town is the + seat of the Roman Catholic bishop of Wilcannia.</p> + + <p><b>BROKER</b> (according to the <i>New English Dictionary</i>, from + Lat. <i>brocca</i>, spit, spike, <i>broccare</i>, to + "broach"—another Eng. form of the same word; hence O. Fr. <i>vendre + à broche</i>, to retail, e.g. wine, from the tap, and thus the general + sense of dealing; see also for a discussion of the etymology and early + history of the use of the word, J.R. Dos Passos, <i>Law of + Stockbrokers</i>, chap. i., New York, 1905). In the primary sense of the + word, a broker is a mercantile agent, of the class known as general + agents, whose office is to bring together intending buyers and sellers + and make a contract between them, for a remuneration called brokerage or + commission; e.g. cotton brokers, wool brokers or produce brokers. + Originally the only contracts negotiated by brokers were for the sale or + purchase of commodities; but the word in its present use includes other + classes of mercantile agents, such as stockbrokers, insurance-brokers, + ship-brokers or bill-brokers. Pawnbrokers are not brokers in any proper + sense of the word; they deal as principals and do not act as agents. In + discussing the chief questions of modern legal interest in connexion with + brokers, we shall deal with them, firstly, in the original sense of + agents for the purchase and sale of goods.</p> + + <p><i>Relations between Broker and Principal.</i>—A broker has not, + like a factor, possession of his principal's goods, and, unless expressly + authorized, cannot buy or sell in his own name; his business is to bring + into privity of contract his principal and the third party. When the + contract is made, ordinarily he drops out altogether. Brokers very + frequently act as factors also, but, when they do so, their rights and + duties as factors must be distinguished from their rights and duties as + brokers. It is a broker's duty to carry out his principal's instructions + with diligence, skill and perfect good faith. He must see that the terms + of the bargain accord with his principal's orders from a commercial point + of view, e.g. as to quality, quantity and price; he must ensure that the + contract of sale effected by him be legally enforceable by his principal + against the third party; and he must not accept any commission from the + third party, or put himself in any position in which his own interest may + become opposed to his principal's. As soon as he has made the contract + which he was employed to make, in most respects his duty to, and his + authority from, his principal alike cease; and consequently the law of + brokers relates principally to the formation of contracts by them.</p> + + <p>The most important formality in English law, in making contracts for + the sale of goods, with which a broker must comply, in order to make the + contract legally enforceable by his principal against the third party, is + contained in section 4 of the Sale of Goods Act 1893, which (in substance + re-enacting section 17 of the Statute of Frauds) provides as + follows:—"A contract for the sale of any goods of the value of ten + pounds or upwards shall not be enforceable by action unless the buyer + shall accept part of the goods as sold, and actually receive the same, or + give something in earnest to bind the contract, or in part payment, or + <i>unless some note or memorandum in writing of the contract be made and + signed by the party to be charged or his agent in that behalf</i>."</p> + + <p>From the reign of James I. till 1884 brokers in London were admitted + and licensed by the corporation, and regulated by statute; and it was + common to employ one broker only, who acted as intermediary between, and + was the agent of both buyer and seller. When the Statute of Frauds was + passed in the reign of Charles II., it became the practice for the + broker, acting for both parties, to insert in a formal book, kept for the + purpose, a memorandum of each contract effected by him, and to sign such + memorandum on behalf of both parties, in order that there might be a + written memorandum of the contract of sale, signed by the agent of the + parties as required by the statute. He would then send to the buyer a + copy of this memorandum, called the "bought note", and to the seller a + "sold note", which would run as follows:—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"I have this day bought for you from A B [or "my principal"] ..."</p> + <p class="i30">[signed] "M, <i>Broker</i>."</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"I have this day sold for you to A B [or "my principal"] ..."</p> + <p class="i30">[signed] "M, <i>Broker</i>."</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>There was in the earlier part of the 19th century considerable + discussion in the courts as to whether the entry in a broker's book, or + the bought and sold notes (singly or together), constituted the statutory + memorandum; and judicial opinion was not unanimous on the point. But at + the present day brokers are no longer regulated by statute, either in + London or elsewhere, and keep no formal book; and as an entry made in a + private book kept by the broker for another purpose, even if signed, + would probably not be regarded as a memorandum signed by the agent of the + parties in that behalf, the old discussion is now of little practical + interest.</p> + + <p>Under modern conditions of business the written memorandum of the + contract of sale effected by the broker is usually to be found in a + "contract note"; but the question whether, in the particular + circumstances of each case, the contract note affords a sufficient + memorandum in writing, depends upon a variety of + considerations—e.g. whether the transaction is effected through one + or through two brokers; whether the contract notes are rendered by one + broker only, or by both; and, if the latter, whether exchanged between + the brokers, or rendered by each broker to his own client; for under + present practice any one of these methods may obtain, according to the + trade in which the transaction is effected, and the nature of the + particular transaction.</p> + + <p>Where one and the same broker is employed by both seller and buyer, + bought and sold notes rendered in the old form provide the necessary + memorandum of the contract. Where two brokers are employed, one by the + seller and one by the buyer, sometimes one drops out as soon as the terms + are negotiated, and the other makes out, signs and sends to the parties + the bought and sold notes. The latter then becomes the agent of both + parties for the purpose of signing the statutory memorandum, and the + position is the same as if one broker only had been employed. On the + other hand, if one broker does not drop out of the transaction, each + broker remains to the end the agent of his own principal only, and + neither becomes the agent of the other party for the purpose of signing + the memorandum. In such a case it is the usual practice for the buyer's + broker to send to the seller's broker a note of the contract,—"I, + acting on account of A. B. [or, "of my principal,"], have this day bought + <i>from</i> you, acting on account of C. D. [or, "of your + principal"],"—and to receive a corresponding note from the seller's + broker. Thus each of the parties receives through his own agent a + memorandum signed by the other party's agent. These contract notes are + usually known as, and serve the purpose of, "bought" and "sold" notes. In + all the above three cases the broker's duty of compliance with all + formalities necessary to make the contract of sale legally enforceable is + performed, <!-- Page 630 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page630"></a>[v.04 p.0630]</span>and both parties obtain a written + memorandum of the contract upon which they can sue.</p> + + <p>The broker, on performing his duty in accordance with the terms upon + which he is employed, is entitled to be paid his "brokerage." This + usually takes the form of a percentage, varying according to the nature + and conditions of the business, upon the total price of the goods bought + or sold through him. When he guarantees the solvency of the other party, + he is said to be employed upon <i>del credere</i> terms, and is entitled + to a higher rate of remuneration. In some trades it is the custom for the + selling broker to receive payment from the buyer or his broker; and in + such case it is his duty to account to his principal for the purchase + money. A broker who properly expends money or incurs liability on his + principal's behalf in the course of his employment, is entitled to be + reimbursed the money, and indemnified against the liability. Not having, + like a factor, possession of the goods, a broker has no lien by which to + enforce his rights against his principal. If he fails to perform his + duty, he loses his right to remuneration, reimbursement and indemnity, + and further becomes liable to an action for damages for breach of his + contract of employment, at the suit of his principal.</p> + + <p><i>Relations between Broker and Third Party.</i>—A broker who + signs a contract note <i>as broker</i> on behalf of a principal, whether + named or not, is not personally liable on the contract to the third + party. But if he makes the contract in such a way as to make himself a + party to it, the third party may sue either the broker or his principal, + subject to the limitation that the third party, by his election to treat + one as the party to the contract, may preclude himself from suing the + other. In this respect the ordinary rules of the law of agency apply to a + broker. Generally, a broker has not authority to receive payment, but in + trades in which it is customary for him to do so, if the buyer pays the + seller's broker, and is then sued by the seller for the price by reason + of the broker having become insolvent or absconded, he may set up the + payment to the broker as a defence to the action by the broker's + principal. Brokers may render themselves liable for damages in tort for + the conversion of the goods at the suit of the true owner if they + negotiate a sale of the goods for a selling principal who has no title to + the goods.</p> + + <p><i>The Influence of Exchanges.</i>—The relations between brokers + and their principals, and also between brokers and third parties as above + defined, have been to some extent modified in practice by the institution + since the middle of the 19th century in important commercial centres of + "Exchanges," where persons interested in a particular trade, whether as + merchants or as brokers, meet for the transaction of business. By the + contract of membership of the association in whose hands is vested the + control of the exchange, every person on becoming a member agrees to be + bound by the rules of the association, and to make his contracts on the + market in accordance with them. A governing body or committee elected by + the members enforces observance of the rules, and members who fail to + meet their engagements on the market, or to conform to the rules, are + liable to suspension or expulsion by the committee. All disputes between + members on their contracts are submitted to an arbitration tribunal + composed of members; and the arbitrators in deciding the questions + submitted to them are guided by the rules. A printed book of rules is + available for reference; and various printed forms of contract suited to + the various requirements of the business are specified by the rules and + supplied by the association for the use of members. In order to simplify + the settlement of accounts between members, particularly in respect of + "futures," i.e. contracts for future delivery, a weekly or other + periodical settlement is effected by means of a clearing-house; each + member paying or receiving in respect of all his contracts which are + still open, the balance of his weekly "differences," i.e. the difference + between the contract price and the market price fixed for the settlement, + or between the last and the present settlement prices.</p> + + <p>As all contracts on the market are made subject to the rules, it + follows that so far as the rules alter the rights and liabilities + attached by law, the ordinary law is modified. The most important + modification in the position of brokers effected by membership of such an + exchange is due to the rule that as, between themselves, all members are + principals, on the market no agents are recognized; a broker employed by + a non-member to buy for him on the market is treated by the rules as + buying for himself, and is, therefore, personally liable on the contract. + If it be a contract in futures, he is required to conform to the weekly + settlement rules. If his principal fails to take delivery, the engagement + is his and he is required to make good to the member who sold to him any + difference between the contract and market price at the date of delivery. + But whilst this practice alters directly the relations of the broker to + the third party, it also affects or tends to affect indirectly the + relations of the broker to his own principal. The terms of the contract + of employment being a matter of negotiation and agreement between them, + it is open to a broker, if he chooses, to stipulate for particular terms; + and it is the usual practice of exchanges to supply printed contract + forms for the use of members in their dealings with non-members who + employ them as brokers, containing a stipulation that the contract is + made subject to the rules of the exchange; and frequently also a clause + that the contract is made with the broker as <i>principal</i>. In + addition to these express terms, there is in the contract of employment + the term, implied by law in all trade contracts, that the parties consent + to be bound by such trade usages as are consistent with the express terms + of the contract, and reasonable. On executing an order the broker sends + to his client a contract-note either in the form of the old bought and + sold notes "I have this day [bought / sold] for you," or, when the + principal clause is inserted, "I have this day [sold to / bought] from + you." These are not bought and sold notes proper, for the broker is not + the agent of the third party for the purpose of signing them as statutory + memoranda of the sale. But they purport to record the terms of the + contract of employment, and the principal may treat himself as bound by + their provisions. Sometimes they are accompanied by a detachable form, + known as the "client's return contract note," to be filled in, signed and + returned by the client; but even the "client's return contract note" is + retained by the client's own broker, and is only a memorandum of the + terms of employment. The following is a form of contract note rendered by + a broker to his client for American cotton, bought on the Liverpool + Cotton Exchange for future delivery. The client's contract note is + attached to it, and is in precisely corresponding form.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + +<p class="cenhead">AMERICAN COTTON</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Delivery Contract Note.</i></p> + + <p class="author">Liverpool,................</p> + + <p>M................</p> + + <p>DEAR SIRS,</p> + + <p>We have this day.............. to/from you .............. lb American + Cotton, net weight, to be contained in .............. American Bales, + more or less, to be delivered in Liverpool, during .............. on the + basis of .......... per lb for ............ on the terms of the rules, + bye-laws, and Clearing House regulations of the Liverpool Cotton + Association, Limited, whether endorsed hereon or not.</p> + + <p>The contract, of which this is a note, is made between ourselves and + yourselves, and not by or with any person, whether disclosed or not, on + whose instructions or for whose benefit the same may have been entered + into. Yours faithfully,</p> + +<p class="cenhead">...................</p> + + <p>The contract, of which the above is a note, was made on the date + specified, within the business hours fixed by the Liverpool Cotton + Association, Limited.</p> + + <p>......... per cent to us.</p> + + <p>Please confirm by signing and returning the contract attached.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>The above form of contract note illustrates the tendency of exchanges + to alter the relations between the broker and his principal. The object + of inserting in the printed form the provision that the contract is made + subject to the rules of the <!-- Page 631 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page631"></a>[v.04 p.0631]</span>Liverpool Cotton Association is to + make those rules binding upon the principal, and if he employs his broker + upon the basis of the printed form, he does bind himself to any + modification of the relations between himself and his broker which those + rules may effect. The object of the principal clause in the above and + similar printed forms is apparently to entitle the broker to sell to or + buy from his principal on his own account and not as agent at all, thus + disregarding the duty incumbent upon him as broker of making for his + principal a contract with a third party.</p> + + <p>It is not possible, except very generally, to state how far exchanges + have succeeded in imposing their own rules and usages on non-members, but + it is probably correct to say that in most cases if the question came + before the courts, the outside client would be held to have accepted the + rules of the exchange so far as they did not alter the fundamental duties + to him of his broker. On the other hand, provisions purporting to entitle + the broker in disregard of his duties as broker himself to act as + principal, would be rejected by the courts as radically inconsistent with + the primary object of the contract of brokerage and, therefore, + meaningless. But it is undoubtedly too often the practice of brokers who + are members of exchanges to consider themselves entitled to act as + principals and sell on their own account to their own clients, + particularly in futures. The causes of this opinion, erroneously, though + quite honestly held, are probably to be looked for partly in the habit of + acting as principal on the market in accordance with the rules, partly in + the forms of contract notes containing "principal clauses" which they + send to their clients, and perhaps, also, in the occasional difficulty of + effecting actual contracts on the market at the time when they are + instructed so to do.</p> + + <p>A <i>stockbroker</i> is a broker who contracts for the sale of stocks + and shares. Stockbrokers differ from brokers proper chiefly in that + stocks and shares are not "goods," and the requirement of a memorandum in + writing, enacted by the Sale of Goods Act 1893, does not apply. Hence + actions may be brought by the principals to a contract for the sale of + stocks and shares although no memorandum in writing exists. For instance, + the jobber, on failing to recover from the buyer's broker the price of + shares sold, by reason of the broker having failed and been declared a + defaulter, may sue the buyer whose "name was passed" by the broker. The + employment of a stockbroker is subject to the rules and customs of the + Stock Exchange, in accordance with the principles discussed above, which + apply to the employment of brokers proper. A custom which is illegal, + such as the Stock Exchange practice of disregarding Leeman's Act (1867), + which enacts that contracts for the sale of joint-stock bank shares shall + be void unless the registered numbers of the shares are stated therein, + is not binding on the client to the extent of making the contract of sale + valid. But if a client choose to instruct his broker to buy bank shares + in accordance with that practice, the broker is entitled to be + indemnified by his client for money which he pays on his behalf, even + though the contract of sale so made is unenforceable. For further + information the reader is referred to the article <span class="sc">Stock + Exchange</span> and to the treatises on stock exchange law.</p> + + <p>An <i>insurance broker</i> is an agent whose business is to effect + policies of marine insurance. He is employed by the person who has an + interest to insure, pays the premiums to the underwriter, takes up the + policy, and receives from the underwriter payment in the event of a loss + under the policy. By the custom of the trade the underwriter looks solely + to the broker for payment of premiums, and has no right of action against + the assured; and, on the other hand, the broker is paid his commission by + the underwriter, although he is employed by the assured. Usually the + broker keeps a current account with the underwriter, and premiums and + losses are dealt with in account. It is only in the event of the + underwriter refusing to pay on a loss, that the broker drops out and the + assured sues the underwriter direct. Agents who effect life, fire or + other policies, are not known as insurance brokers.</p> + + <p><i>Ship-brokers</i> are, firstly, "commission agents," and, secondly, + very often also ships' managers. Their office is to act as agents for + owners of ships to procure purchasers for ships, or ships for intending + purchasers, in precisely the same manner as house-agents act in respect + of houses. They also act as agents for ship-owners in finding charterers + for their ships, or for charterers in finding ships available for + charter, and in either case they effect the charter-party (see <span + class="sc">Affreightment</span>).</p> + + <p>Chartering brokers are customarily paid by the ship-owner, when the + charter-party is effected, whether originally employed by him or by the + charterer. Charter-parties effected through brokers often contain a + provision—"<i>2½% on estimated amount of freight to be paid to A B, + broker, on the signing of this charter-party, and the ship to be + consigned to him for ship's business at the port of X</i> [inserting the + name of the port where A B carries on business]." The broker cannot sue + on the charter-party contract because he is not a party to it, but the + insertion of the clause practically prevents his right from being + disputed by the ship-owner. When the broker does the ship's business in + port, it is his duty to clear her at the customs and generally to act as + "ship's husband."</p> + + <p>A <i>bill-broker</i> was originally an agent who, for a commission, + procured for country bankers the discounting of their bills in London. + But the practice arose of the broker guaranteeing the London banker or + financier; and finally the brokers ceased to deposit with the London + bankers the bills they received, and at the present day a bill-broker, as + a rule, buys bills on his own account at a discount, borrows money on his + own account and upon his own security at interest, and makes his profit + out of the difference between the discount and the interest. When acting + thus the bill-broker is not a broker at all, as he deals as principal and + does not act as agent.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—Story, <i>Commentaries on + the Law of Agency</i> (Boston, 1882); Brodhurst, <i>Law and Practice of + the Stock Exchange</i> (London, 1897); Gow, <i>Handbook of Marine + Insurance</i> (London, 1900); Arnould, <i>On Marine Insurance</i>, edited + by Messrs Hart & Simey (1901); J.R. Dos Passos, <i>Law of + Stock-Brokers and Stock Exchanges</i> (New York, 1905).</p> + + <p>(L. F. S.)</p> + + <p><b>BROMBERG,</b> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Posen, + 32 m. by rail W.N.W. from the fortress of Thorn, 7 m. W. from the bank of + the Vistula, and at the centre of an important network of railways, + connecting it with the strategical points on the Prusso-Russian frontier. + Pop. (1900) 52,082; (1905) 54,229. Its public buildings comprise two + Roman Catholic and three Protestant churches, a Jewish synagogue, a + seminary, high grade schools and a theatre. The town also possesses a + bronze statue of the emperor William I., a monument of the war of + 1870-71, and a statue of Benkenhoff, the constructor of the Bromberg + Canal. This engineering work, constructed in 1773-1774, by command of + Frederick II., connects the Brahe with the Netze, and thus establishes + communication between the Vistula, the Oder and the Elbe. The principal + industrial works are iron foundries and machine shops, paper factories + and flour mills; the town has, moreover, an active trade in agricultural + and other products. In view of its strategical position, a large garrison + is concentrated in and about the town. Bromberg is mentioned as early as + 1252. It fell soon afterwards into the hands of the Poles, from whom it + was taken in 1327 by the Teutonic Order, which held it till 1343, when + the Poles recaptured it. Destroyed in the course of these struggles, it + was restored by Casimir of Poland in 1346, and down to the close of the + 16th century it continued to be a flourishing commercial city. It + afterwards suffered so much from war and pestilence that about 1772, when + the Prussians took possession, it contained only from five to six hundred + inhabitants. By the treaty of Tilsit it was transferred to the duchy of + Warsaw; in 1813 it was occupied by the Russians, and in 1815 was restored + to Prussia.</p> + + <p><b>BROME, ALEXANDER</b> (1620-1666), English poet, was by profession + an attorney, and was the author of many drinking songs and of satirical + verses in favour of the Royalists and against the Rump. He published in + 1661 <i>Songs and other Poems</i>, containing songs on various subjects, + followed by a series of political songs; ballads, epistles, elegies and + epitaphs; epigrams and translations. Izaak Walton wrote an introductory + eclogue for this volume in praise of the writer, and his gaiety and wit + won for him the title of the "English Anacreon" in Edward Phillips's + <i>Theatrum Poetarum</i>. Brome published in 1666 a translation of Horace + by himself and others, and was the author of a comedy entitled <i>The + Cunning Lovers</i> (1654). He also edited two volumes of Richard Brome's + plays.</p> + + <p><b>BROME, RICHARD</b> (d. 1652), English dramatist, was originally a + servant of Ben Jonson, and owed much to his master. The development of + his plots, the strongly marked characters and the amount of curious + information to be found in his work, all show Jonson's influence. The + relation of master and servant developed into friendship, and our + knowledge of Brome's personal character is chiefly drawn from Ben + Jonson's lines to him, prefixed to <i>The Northern Lasse</i> (1632), the + play which made Brome's reputation. Brome's genius lay entirely in + comedy. He has left fifteen pieces. <i>Five New Playes</i> (ed. by Alex. + Brome, 1652?) contained <i>Madd Couple Well Matcht</i> (acted 1639?); + <!-- Page 632 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page632"></a>[v.04 + p.0632]</span><i>Novella</i> (acted 1632); <i>Court Begger</i> (acted + 1632); <i>City Witt; The Damoiselle or the New Ordinary. Five New + Playes</i> (1659) included <i>The English Moor, or The Mock Marriage; The + Love-Sick Court, or The Ambitious Politique; Covent Garden Weeded; The + New Academy, or The New Exchange</i>; and <i>The Queen and Concubine</i>. + <i>The Antipodes</i> (acted 1638, pr. 1640); <i>The Sparagus Garden</i> + (acted 1635, pr. 1640); <i>A Joviall Crew, or the Merry Beggars</i> + (acted 1641, pr. 1652, revised in 1731 as an "opera"), and <i>The Queenes + Exchange</i> (pr. 1657), were published separately. He collaborated with + Thomas Heywood in <i>The late Lancashire Witches</i> (pr. 1634).</p> + + <p>See A.W. Ward, <i>History of English Dramatic Literature</i>, vol. + iii. pp. 125-131 (1899). <i>The Dramatic Works of Richard Brome ...</i> + were published in 1873.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:36%;"> + <a href="images/bromeliaceae_2.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bromeliaceae_2.png" + alt="Fig. 2.--Tillandsia usneoides." title="Fig. 2.--Tillandsia usneoides." /></a> + <p class="poem"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.—<i>Tillandsia + usneoides</i>, Spanish moss, slightly reduced. 1, Small branch with + flower; 2, flower cut vertically; 3, section of seed of + <i>Bromelia</i>.</p> + + <p class="poem">(From <i>The Botanical Magazine</i>, by permission of + Lovell, Reeve & Co)</p> + </div> + <div class="figright" style="width:18%;"> + <a href="images/bromeliaceae_1.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bromeliaceae_1.png" + alt="Fig. 1.--Fruit of the pine-apple." title="Fig. 1.--Fruit of the pine-apple." /></a> + <p class="poem"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.—Fruit of the + pine-apple (<i>Ananas sativa</i>), consisting of numerous flowers and + bracts united together so as to form a collective or anthocarpous + fruit. The crown of the pine-apple, c, consists of a series of empty + bracts prolonged beyond the fruit.</p> + </div> + <p><b>BROMELIACEAE</b>, in botany, a natural order of Monocotyledons, + confined to tropical and sub-tropical America. It includes the pine-apple + (fig. 1) and the so-called Spanish moss (fig. 2), a rootless plant, which + hangs in long grey lichen-like festoons from the branches of trees, a + native of Mexico and the southern United States; the water required for + food is absorbed from the moisture in the air by peculiar hairs which + cover the surface of the shoots. The plants are generally herbs with a + much shortened stem bearing a rosette of leaves and a spike or panicle of + flowers. They are eminently dry-country plants (xerophytes); the narrow + leaves are protected from loss of water by a thick cuticle, and have a + well-developed sheath which embraces the stem and forms, with the sheaths + of the other leaves of the rosette, a basin in which water collects, with + fragments of rotting leaves and the like. Peculiar hairs are developed on + the inner surface of the sheath by which the water and dissolved + substances are absorbed, thus helping to feed the plant. The leaf-margins + are often spiny, and the leaf-spines of <i>Puya chilensis</i> are used by + the natives as fish-hooks. Several species are grown as hot-house plants + for the bright colour of their flowers or flower-bracts, e.g. species of + <i>Tillandsia</i>, <i>Billbergia</i>, <i>Aechmea</i> and others.</p> + + <p><b>BROMINE</b> (symbol Br, atomic weight 79.96), a chemical element of + the halogen group, which takes its name from its pungent unpleasant smell + (<span title="brômos" class="grk" + >βρῶμος</span>, a stench). It was first + isolated by A.J. Balard in 1826 from the salts in the waters of the + Mediterranean. He established its elementary character, and his + researches were amplified by K.J. Löwig (1803-1890) in <i>Das Brom und + seine chemischen Verhaltnisse</i> (1829). Bromine does not occur in + nature in the uncombined condition, but in combination with various + metals is very widely but sparingly distributed. Potassium, sodium and + magnesium bromides are found in mineral waters, in river and sea-water, + and occasionally in marine plants and animals. Its chief commercial + sources are the salt deposits at Stassfurt in Prussian Saxony, in which + magnesium bromide is found associated with various chlorides, and the + brines of Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania and West Virginia, U.S.A.; small + quantities are obtained from the mother liquors of Chile saltpetre and + kelp. In combination with silver it is found as the mineral bromargyrite + (bromite).</p> + + <p><i>Manufacture.</i>—The chief centres of the bromine industry + are Stassfurt and the central district of Michigan. It is manufactured + from the magnesium bromide contained in "bittern" (the mother liquor of + the salt industry), by two processes, the continuous and the periodic. + The continuous process depends upon the decomposition of the bromide by + chlorine, which is generated in special stills. A regular current of + chlorine mixed with steam is led in at the bottom of a tall tower filled + with broken bricks, and there meets a descending stream of hot bittern: + bromine is liberated and is swept out of the tower together with some + chlorine, by the current of steam, and then condensed in a worm. Any + uncondensed bromine vapour is absorbed by moist iron borings, and the + resulting iron bromide is used for the manufacture of potassium bromide. + The periodic process depends on the interaction between manganese dioxide + (pyrolusite), sulphuric acid, and a bromide, and the operation is carried + out in sandstone stills heated to 60° C., the product being condensed as + in the continuous process. The substitution of potassium chlorate for + pyrolusite is recommended when calcium chloride is present in the + bittern. The crude bromine is purified by repeated shaking with + potassium, sodium or ferrous bromide and subsequent redistillation. + Commercial bromine is rarely pure, the chief impurities present in it + being chlorine, hydrobromic acid, and bromoform (M. Hermann, + <i>Annalen</i>, 1855, 95, p. 211). E. Gessner (<i>Berichte</i>, 1876, 9, + p. 1507) removes chlorine by repeated shaking with water, followed by + distillation over sulphuric acid; hydrobromic acid is removed by + distillation with pure manganese dioxide, or mercuric oxide, and the + product dried over sulphuric acid. J.S. Stas, in his stoichiometric + researches, prepared chemically pure bromine from potassium bromide, by + converting it into the bromate which was purified by repeated + crystallization. By heating the bromate it was partially converted into + the bromide, and the resulting mixture was distilled with sulphuric acid. + The distillate was further purified by digestion with milk of lime, + precipitation with water, and further digestion with calcium bromide and + barium oxide, and was finally redistilled.</p> + + <p><i>Characters.</i>—Bromine at ordinary temperatures is a mobile + liquid of fine red colour, which appears almost black in thick layers. It + boils at 59° C. According to Sir W. Ramsay and S. Young, bromine, when + dried over sulphuric acid, boils at 57.65° C., and when dried over + phosphorus pentoxide, boils at 58.85° C. (under a pressure of 755.8 mm.), + forming a deep red vapour, which exerts an irritating and directly + poisonous action on the respiratory organs. It solidifies at -21° C. + (Quincke) to a dark brown solid. Its specific gravity is 3.18828 (0/4°), + latent heat of fusion 16.185 calories, latent heat of vaporization 45.6 + calories, specific heat 0.1071. The specific heat of bromine vapour, at + constant pressure, is 0.05504 and at constant volume is 0.04251 (K. + Strecker). Bromine is soluble in water, to the extent of 3.226 grammes of + bromine per 100 grammes of solution at 15° C., the solubility being + slightly increased by the presence of potassium bromide. The solution is + of an orange-red colour, and is quite permanent in the dark, but on + exposure to light, gradually becomes colourless, owing to decomposition + into hydrobromic acid and oxygen. By cooling the aqueous solution, + hyacinth-red octahedra of a crystalline hydrate of composition + Br·4H<sub>2</sub>O or Br<sub>2</sub>·8H<sub>2</sub>O are obtained + (Bakhuis Roozeboom, <i>Zeits. phys. Chem.</i>, 1888, 2. p. 449). Bromine + is readily soluble in chloroform, alcohol and ether.</p> + + <p>Its chemical properties are in general intermediate between those of + chlorine and iodine; thus it requires the presence of a catalytic agent, + or a fairly high temperature, to bring about its union with hydrogen. It + does not combine directly with oxygen, nitrogen or carbon. With the other + elements it unites to form bromides, often with explosive violence; + phosphorus detonates in liquid bromine and inflames in the vapour; iron + is occasionally used to absorb bromine vapour, potassium reacts + energetically, but sodium requires to be heated to 200° C. The chief use + of bromine in analytical chemistry is based upon the oxidizing action of + bromine water. Bromine and bromine water both bleach organic colouring + matters. <!-- Page 633 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page633"></a>[v.04 p.0633]</span>The use of bromine in the + extraction of gold (<i>q.v.</i>) was proposed by R. Wagner (<i>Dingler's + Journal</i>, 218, p. 253) and others, but its cost has restricted its + general application. Bromine is used extensively in organic chemistry as + a substituting and oxidizing agent and also for the preparation of + addition compounds. Reactions in which it is used in the liquid form, in + vapour, in solution, and in the presence of the so-called "bromine + carriers," have been studied. Sunlight affects the action of bromine + vapour on organic compounds in various ways, sometimes retarding or + accelerating the reaction, while in some cases the products are different + (J. Schramm, <i>Monatshefte fur Chemie</i>, 1887, 8, p. 101). Some + reactions, which are only possible by the aid of nascent bromine, are + carried out by using solutions of sodium bromide and bromate, with the + amount of sulphuric acid calculated according to the equation 5NaBr + + NaBrO<sub>3</sub> + 6H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub> = 6NaHSO<sub>4</sub> + + 3H<sub>2</sub>O + 6Br. (German Patent, 26642.) The diluents in which + bromine is employed are usually ether, chloroform, acetic acid, + hydrochloric acid, carbon bisulphide and water, and, less commonly, + alcohol, potassium bromide and hydrobromic acid; the excess of bromine + being removed by heating, by sulphurous acid or by shaking with mercury. + The choice of solvent is important, for the velocity of the reaction and + the nature of the product may vary according to the solvent used, thus A. + Baeyer and F. Blom found that on brominating orthoacetamido-acetophenone + in presence of water or acetic acid, the bromine goes into the benzene + nucleus, whilst in chloroform or sulphuric acid or by use of bromine + vapour it goes into the side chain as well. The action of bromine is + sometimes accelerated by the use of compounds which behave catalytically, + the more important of these substances being iodine, iron, ferric + chloride, ferric bromide, aluminium bromide and phosphorus. For oxidizing + purposes bromine is generally employed in aqueous and in alkaline + solutions, one of its most important applications being by Emil Fischer + (<i>Berichte</i>, 1889, 22, p. 362) in his researches on the sugars. The + atomic weight of bromine has been determined by J.S. Stas and C. Marignac + from the analysis of potassium bromide, and of silver bromide. G.P. + Baxter (<i>Zeit. anorg. Chem.</i> 1906, 50, p. 389) determined the ratios + Ag: AgBr, and AgCl: Ag Br.</p> + + <p><i>Hydrobromic Acid.</i>—This acid, HBr, the only compound of + hydrogen and bromine, is in many respects similar to hydrochloric acid, + but is rather less stable. It may be prepared by passing hydrogen gas and + bromine vapour through a tube containing a heated platinum spiral. It + cannot be prepared with any degree of purity by the action of + concentrated sulphuric acid on bromides, since secondary reactions take + place, leading to the liberation of free bromine and formation of sulphur + dioxide. The usual method employed for the preparation of the gas + consists in dropping bromine on to a mixture of amorphous phosphorus and + water, when a violent reaction takes place and the gas is rapidly + liberated. It can be obtained also, although in a somewhat impure + condition, by the direct action of bromine on various saturated + hydrocarbons (e.g. paraffin-wax), while an aqueous solution may be + obtained by passing sulphuretted hydrogen through bromine water. + Alexander Scott (<i>Journal of Chem. Soc.</i>, 1900, 77, p. 648) prepares + pure hydrobromic acid by covering bromine, which is contained in a large + flask, with a layer of water, and passing sulphur dioxide into the water + above the surface of the bromine, until the whole is of a pale yellow + colour; the resulting solution is then distilled in a slow current of air + and finally purified by distillation over barium bromide. At ordinary + temperatures hydrobromic acid is a colourless gas which fumes strongly in + moist air, and has an acid taste and reaction. It can be condensed to a + liquid, which boils at -64.9° C. (under a pressure of 738.2 mm.), and, by + still further cooling, gives colourless crystals which melt at -88.5° C. + It is readily soluble in water, forming the aqueous acid, which when + saturated at 0° C. has a specific gravity of 1.78. When boiled, the + aqueous acid loses either acid or water until a solution of constant + boiling point is obtained, containing 48% of the acid and boiling at 126° + C. under atmospheric pressure; should the pressure, however, vary, the + strength of the solution boiling at a constant temperature varies also. + Hydrobromic acid is one of the "strong" acids, being ionized to a very + large extent even in concentrated solution, as shown by the molecular + conductivity increasing by only a small amount over a wide range of + dilution.</p> + + <p><i>Bromides.</i>—Hydrobromic acid reacts with metallic oxides, + hydroxides and carbonates to form bromides, which can in many cases be + obtained also by the direct union of the metals with bromine. As a class, + the metallic bromides are solids at ordinary temperatures, which fuse + readily and volatilize on heating. The majority are soluble in water, the + chief exceptions being silver bromide, mercurous bromide, palladious + bromide and lead bromide; the last is, however, soluble in hot water. + They are decomposed by chlorine, with liberation of bromine and formation + of metallic chlorides; concentrated sulphuric acid also decomposes them, + with formation of a metallic sulphate and liberation of bromine and + sulphur dioxide. The non-metallic bromides are usually liquids, which are + readily decomposed by water. Hydrobromic acid and its salts can be + readily detected by the addition of chlorine water to their aqueous + solutions, when bromine is liberated; or by warming with concentrated + sulphuric acid and manganese dioxide, the same result being obtained. + Silver nitrate in the presence of nitric acid gives with bromides a pale + yellow precipitate of silver bromide, AgBr, which is sparingly soluble in + ammonia. For their quantitative determination they are precipitated in + nitric acid solution by means of silver nitrate, and the silver bromide + well washed, dried and weighed.</p> + + <p>No oxides of bromine have as yet been isolated, but three oxy-acids + are known, namely hypobromous acid, HBrO, bromous acid, HBrO<sub>2</sub>, + and bromic acid, HBrO<sub>3</sub>. Hypobromous acid is obtained by + shaking together bromine water and precipitated mercuric oxide, followed + by distillation of the dilute solution <i>in vacuo</i> at low temperature + (about 40° C.). It is a very unstable compound, breaking up, on heating, + into bromine and oxygen. The aqueous solution is light yellow in colour, + and possesses strong bleaching properties. Bromous acid is formed by + adding bromine to a saturated solution of silver nitrate (A. H. Richards, + <i>J. Soc Chem. Ind.</i>, 1906, 25, p. 4). Bromic acid is obtained by the + addition of the calculated amount of sulphuric acid (previously diluted + with water) to the barium salt; by the action of bromine on the silver + salt, in the presence of water, 5AgBrO<sub>3</sub> + 3Br<sub>2</sub> + + 3H<sub>2</sub>O = 5AgBr + 6HBrO<sub>3</sub>, or by passing chlorine + through a solution of bromine in water. The acid is only known in the + form of its aqueous solution; this is, however, very unstable, + decomposing on being heated to 100° C. into water, oxygen and bromine. By + reducing agents such, for example, as sulphuretted hydrogen and + sulphur-dioxide, it is rapidly converted into hydrobromic acid. + Hydrobromic acid decomposes it according to the equation HBrO<sub>3</sub> + + 5HBr = 3H<sub>2</sub>O + 3Br<sub>2</sub>. Its salts are known as + bromates, and are as a general rule difficultly soluble in water, and + decomposed by heat, with evolution of oxygen.</p> + + <p><i>Applications.</i>—The salts of bromine are widely used in + photography, especially bromide of silver. For antiseptic purposes it has + been prepared as "bromum solidificatum," which consists of kieselguhr or + similar substance impregnated with about 75% of its weight of bromine. In + medicine it is largely employed in the form of bromides of potassium, + sodium and ammonium, as well as in combination with alkaloids and other + substances.</p> + + <p><i>Medicinal Use.</i>—Bromide of potassium is the safest and + most generally applicable sedative of the nervous system. Whilst very + weak, its action is perfectly balanced throughout all nervous tissue, so + much so that Sir Thomas Lauder Brunton has suggested its action to be due + to its replacement of sodium chloride (common salt) in the fluids of the + nervous system. Hence bromide of potassium—or bromide of sodium, + which is possibly somewhat safer still though not quite so certain in its + action—is used as a hypnotic, as the standard anaphrodisiac, as a + sedative in mania and all forms of morbid mental excitement, and in + hyperaesthesia of all kinds. Its most striking success is in epilepsy, + for which it is the specific remedy. It may be given in doses of from ten + to fifty grains or more, and may be continued without ill effect for long + periods in grave cases of epilepsy (<i>grand mal</i>). Of the three + bromides in common use the potassium salt is the most rapid and certain + in its action, but may depress the heart in morbid states of that organ; + in such cases the sodium salt—of which the base is inert—may + be employed. In whooping-cough, when a sedative is required but a + stimulant is also indicated, ammonium bromide is often invaluable. The + conditions in which bromides are most frequently used are insomnia, + epilepsy, whooping-cough, delirium tremens, asthma, migraine, laryngismus + stridulus, the symptoms often attendant upon the climacteric in women, + hysteria, neuralgia, certain nervous disorders of the heart, strychnine + poisoning, nymphomania and spermatorrhoea. Hydrobromic acid is often used + to relieve or prevent the headache and singing in the ears that may + follow the administration of quinine and of salicylic acid or + salicylates.</p> + + <p><b>BROMLEY, SIR THOMAS</b> (1530-1587), English lord chancellor, was + born in Staffordshire in 1530. He was educated at Oxford University and + called to the bar at the Middle Temple. Through family influence as well + as the patronage of Sir Nicholas Bacon, the lord keeper, he quickly made + progress in his profession. In 1566 he was appointed recorder of London, + and in 1569 he became solicitor-general. He sat in parliament + successively for Bridgnorth, Wigan and Guildford. On the death of Sir + Nicholas Bacon in 1579 he was appointed lord chancellor. As an equity + judge he showed great and profound knowledge, and his judgment in + Shelley's case (<i>q.v.</i>) is a landmark in the history of English real + property law. He presided over the commission which tried Mary, queen of + Scots, in 1586, but the strain of the trial, coupled with the + responsibility which her execution involved upon him, proved too much for + his strength, and he died on the 12th of April 1587. He was buried in + Westminster Abbey.</p> + + <p>See Foss, <i>Lives of the Judges</i>; Campbell, <i>Lives of the Lord + Chancellors</i>.</p> + + <p><b>BROMLEY</b>, a municipal borough in the Sevenoaks parliamentary + division of Kent, England, 10½ m. S.E. by S. of London by the South + Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. (1901) 27,354. It lies on high ground + north of the small river Ravensbourne, in a well-wooded district, and has + become a favourite residential locality for those whose business lies in + London. The former palace of the bishops of Rochester was erected in 1777 + in room <!-- Page 634 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page634"></a>[v.04 p.0634]</span>of an older structure. The manor + belonged to this see as early as the reign of Ethelbert. In the gardens + is a chalybeate spring known as St Blaize's Well, which was in high + repute before the Reformation. The church of St Peter and St Paul, mainly + Perpendicular, retains a Norman font and other remains of an earlier + building. Here is the gravestone of the wife of Dr Johnson. Bromley + College, founded by Bishop Warner in 1666 for "twenty poor widows of + loyal and orthodox clergymen," has been much enlarged, and forty widows + are in receipt of support. Sheppard College (1840) is an affiliated + foundation for unmarried daughters of these widows. In the vicinity of + Bromley, Bickley is a similar residential township, Hayes Common is a + favourite place of excursion, and at Holwood Hill near Keston are remains + of a large encampment known as Caesar's Camp. Bromley was incorporated in + 1903, and is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, + 4703 acres.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:16%;"> + <a href="images/bromlite_1.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bromlite_1.png" + alt="Bromlite crystal." title="Bromlite crystal." /></a> + </div> + <p><b>BROMLITE</b>, a member of the aragonite group of minerals. It + consists of an isomorphous mixture of calcium and barium carbonates in + various proportions, (Ca, Ba) CO<sub>3</sub>, and thus differs chemically + from barytocalcite (<i>q.v.</i>) which is a double salt of these + carbonates in equal molecular proportions. Being isomorphous with + aragonite, it crystallizes in the orthorhombic system, but simple + crystals are not known. The crystals are invariably complex twins, and + have the form of doubly terminated pseudo-hexagonal pyramids, like those + of witherite but more acute; the faces are horizontally striated and are + divided down their centre by a twin-suture, as represented in the + adjoining figure. The examination in polarized light of a transverse + section shows that each compound crystal is built up of six differently + orientated individuals arranged in twelve segments. The crystals are + translucent and white, sometimes with a shade of pink. Sp. gr. 3.706; + hardness 4-4½. The mineral has been found at only two localities, both of + which are in the north of England. At the Fallowfield lead mine, near + Hexham in Northumberland, it is associated with witherite; and at Bromley + Hill, near Alston in Cumberland, it occurs in veins with galena. The + species was named bromlite by T. Thomson in 1837, and alstonite by A. + Breithaupt in 1841, both of which names, derived from the locality, have + been in common use.</p> + + <p>(L. J. S.)</p> + + <p><b>BROMPTON</b>, a western district of London, England, in the + south-east of the metropolitan borough of Kensington. Brompton Road, + leading south-west from Knightsbridge, is continued as Old Brompton Road + and Richmond Road, to join Lillie Road, at which point are the District + and West London railway stations of West Brompton. The Oratory of St + Philip Neri, commonly called Brompton Oratory, close by the Victoria and + Albert Museum, the Brompton consumption hospital and the West London or + Brompton cemetery are included in this district, which is mainly occupied + by residences of the better class. (See <span + class="sc">Kensington</span>.)</p> + + <p><b>BROMSGROVE</b>, a market town in the Eastern parliamentary division + of Worcestershire, England, 12 m. N.N.E. of Worcester, with a station 1 + m. from the town on the Bristol-Birmingham line of the Midland railway. + Pop. of urban district (1901) 8418. It lies in a pleasant undulating + district near the foot of the Lickey Hills, to surmount which the railway + towards Birmingham here ascends for 2 m. one of the steepest gradients in + England over such a distance. There remain several picturesque + half-timbered houses, dating from 1572 and later. The church of St John + is a fine building, Perpendicular and earlier in date, picturesquely + placed on an elevation above the town, with a lofty tower and spire. + There are a well-known grammar-school, founded by Edward VI., with + university scholarships; a college school, a literary institute, and a + school of art. Birmingham Sanatorium stands in the parish. Cloth was + formerly a staple of trade, but manufactures of nails and buttons are now + pre-eminent, while the river Salwarpe works a number of mills in the + neighbourhood, and near the town are carriage works belonging to the + Midland railway.</p> + + <p><b>BRONCHIECTASIS</b> (Gr. <span title="bronchia" class="grk" + >βρόγχια</span>, bronchial tubes, + and <span title="ektasis" class="grk" + >ἒκτασις</span>, extension), + dilatation of the bronchi, a condition occurring in connexion with many + diseases of the lungs. Bronchitis both acute and chronic, chronic + pneumonia and phthisis, acute pneumonia and broncho-pneumonia, may all + leave after them a bronchiectasis whose position is determined by the + primary lesion. Other causes, acting mechanically, are tracheal and + bronchial obstruction, as from the pressure of an aneurism, new growth, + &c. It used to be considered a disease of middle age, but of late + years Dr Walter Carr has shown that the condition is a fairly common one + among debilitated children after measles, whooping cough, &c. The + dilatation is commonly cylindrical, more rarely saccular, and it is the + medium and smaller sized tubes that are generally affected, except where + the cause is mechanical. The affection is usually of one lung only. + Emphysema is a very common accompaniment. Though at first the symptoms + somewhat resemble those of bronchitis, later they are quite distinctive. + Cough is very markedly paroxysmal in character, and though severe is + intermittent, the patient being entirely free for many hours at the time. + The effect of posture is very marked. If the patient lie on the affected + side, he may be free from cough the whole night, but if he turn to the + sound side, or if he rises and bends forward, he brings up large + quantities of bronchial secretion. The expectoration is characterized by + its abundance and manner of expulsion. Where the dilatation is of the + saccular variety, it may come up in such quantities and with so much + suddenness as to gush from the mouth. It is very commonly foetid, as it + is retained and decomposed <i>in situ</i>. Dyspnoea and haemoptysis + occasionally occur, but are by no means the rule. If pyrexia is present, + it is a serious symptom, as it is a sign of septic absorption in the + bronchi, and may be the forerunner of gangrene. If gangrene does set in, + it will be accompanied by severe attacks of shivering and sweating. Where + the disease has lasted long, clubbing of fingers and toes is very common. + The diagnosis from putrid bronchitis is usually fairly easily made, but + at times it may be a matter of extreme difficulty to distinguish between + this condition and a tuberculous cavity in the lung. Nothing can be done + directly to cure this disease, but the patient's condition can be greatly + alleviated. Creosote vapour baths are eminently satisfactory. A + mechanical treatment much recommended by some of the German physicians is + that of forced expiration.</p> + + <p><b>BRONCHITIS,</b> the name given to inflammation of the mucous + membrane of the bronchial tubes (see <span class="sc">Respiratory + System</span>: <i>Pathology</i>). Two main varieties are described, + specific and non-specific bronchitis. The bronchitis which occurs in + infectious or specific disorders, as diphtheria, influenza, measles, + pneumonia, &c., due to the micro-organisms observed in these + diseases, is known as specific; whereas that which results from extension + from above, or from chemical or mechanical irritation, is known as + non-specific. It is convenient to describe it, however, under the + chemical divisions of <i>acute</i> and <i>chronic</i> bronchitis.</p> + + <p><i>Acute bronchitis</i>, like other inflammatory affections of the + chest, generally arises as the result of exposure to cold, particularly + if accompanied with damp, or of sudden change from a heated to a cool + atmosphere. The symptoms vary according to the severity of the attack, + and more especially according to the extent to which the inflammatory + action spreads in the bronchial tubes. The disease usually manifests + itself at first in the form of a catarrh, or common cold; but the + accompanying feverishness and general constitutional disturbance proclaim + the attack to be something more severe, and symptoms denoting the onset + of bronchitis soon present themselves. A short, painful, dry cough, + accompanied with rapid and wheezing respiration, a feeling of rawness and + pain in the throat and behind the breast bone, and of oppression or + tightness throughout the chest, mark the early stages of the disease. In + some cases, from the first, symptoms of the form of asthma (<i>q.v.</i>) + known as the <i>bronchitic</i> are superadded, and greatly aggravate the + patient's suffering.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 635 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page635"></a>[v.04 p.0635]</span></p> + + <p>After a few days expectoration begins to come with the cough, at first + scanty and viscid or frothy, but soon becoming copious and of purulent + character. In general, after free expectoration has been established the + more urgent and painful symptoms abate; and while the cough may persist + for a length of time, often extending to three or four weeks, in the + majority of instances convalescence advances, and the patient is + ultimately restored to health, although there is not unfrequently left a + tendency to a recurrence of the disease on exposure to its exciting + causes.</p> + + <p>When the ear or the stethoscope is applied to the chest of a person + suffering from such an attack as that now described, there are heard in + the earlier stages snoring or cooing sounds, mixed up with others of + wheezing or fine whistling quality, accompanying respiration. These are + denominated dry sounds, and they are occasionally so abundant and + distinct, as to convey their vibrations to the hand applied to the chest, + as well as to be audible to a bystander at some distance. As the disease + progresses these sounds become to a large extent replaced by others of + crackling or bubbling character, which are termed moist sounds or râles. + Both these kinds of abnormal sounds are readily explained by a reference + to the pathological condition of the parts. One of the first effects of + inflammation upon the bronchial mucous membrane is to cause some degree + of swelling, which, together with the presence of a tough secretion + closely adhering to it, tends to diminish the calibre of the tubes. The + respired air as it passes over this surface gives rise to the dry or + sonorous breath sounds, the coarser being generated in the large, and the + finer or wheezing sounds in the small divisions of the bronchi. Before + long, however, the discharge from the bronchial mucous membrane becomes + more abundant and less glutinous, and accumulates in the tubes till + dislodged by coughing. The respired air, as it passes through this fluid, + causes the moist râles above described. In most instances both moist and + dry sounds are heard abundantly in the same case, since different + portions of the bronchial tubes are affected at different times in the + course of the disease.</p> + + <p>Such are briefly the main characteristics presented by an ordinary + attack of acute bronchitis running a favourable course. The case is, + however, very different when the inflammation spreads into, or when it + primarily affects, the minute ramifications of the bronchial tubes which + are in immediate relation to the air-cells of the lungs, giving rise to + that form of the disease known as <i>capillary bronchitis</i> or + <i>broncho-pneumonia</i> (see <span class="sc">Respiratory System</span>: + <i>Pathology</i>; and <span class="sc">Pneumonia</span>). When this takes + place all the symptoms already detailed become greatly intensified, and + the patient's life is placed in imminent peril in consequence of the + interruption to the entrance of air into the lungs, and thus to the due + aeration of the blood. The feverishness and restlessness increase, the + cough becomes incessant, the respiration extremely rapid and laboured, + the nostrils dilating with each effort, and evidence of impending + suffocation appears. The surface of the body is pale or dusky, the lips + are livid, while breathing becomes increasingly difficult, and is + attended with suffocative paroxysms which render the recumbent posture + impossible. Unless speedy relief is obtained by successful efforts to + clear the chest by coughing and expectoration, the patient's strength + gives way, somnolence and delirium set in and death ensues. All this may + be brought about in the space of a few days, and such cases, particularly + among the very young, sometimes prove fatal within forty-eight hours.</p> + + <p>Acute bronchitis must at all times be looked upon as a severe and even + serious ailment, but there are certain circumstances under which its + occurrence is a matter of special anxiety to the physician. It is + pre-eminently dangerous at the extremes of life, and mortality statistics + show it to be one of the most fatal of the diseases of those periods. + This is to be explained not only by the well-recognized fact that all + acute diseases tell with great severity on the feeble frames alike of + infants and aged people, but more particularly by the tendency which + bronchitis undoubtedly has in attacking them to assume the capillary + form, and when it does so to prove quickly fatal. The importance, + therefore, of early attention to the slightest evidence of bronchitis + among the very young or the aged can scarcely be overrated.</p> + + <p>Bronchitis is also apt to be very severe when it occurs in persons who + are addicted to intemperance. Again, in those who suffer from any disease + affecting directly or indirectly the respiratory functions, such as + consumption or heart disease, the supervention of an attack of acute + bronchitis is an alarming complication, increasing, as it necessarily + does, the <span class="correction" title="'embarassment' in original" + >embarrassment</span> of breathing. The same remark is applicable to + those numerous instances of its occurrence in children who are or have + been suffering from such diseases as have always associated with them a + certain degree of bronchial irritation, such as measles and + whooping-cough.</p> + + <p>One other source of danger of a special character in bronchitis + remains to be mentioned, viz. collapse of the lung. Occasionally a branch + of a bronchial tube becomes plugged up with secretion, so that the area + of the lung to which this branch conducts ceases to be inflated on + inspiration. The small quantity of air imprisoned in the portion of lung + gradually escapes, but no fresh air enters, and the part collapses and + becomes of solid consistence. Increased difficulty of breathing is the + result, and where a large portion of lung is affected by the plugging up + of a large bronchus, a fatal result may rapidly follow, the danger being + specially great in the case of children. Fortunately, the obstruction may + sometimes be removed by vigorous coughing, and relief is then + obtained.</p> + + <p>With respect to the treatment of acute bronchitis, in those mild cases + which are more of the nature of a simple catarrh, little else will be + found necessary than confinement in a warm room, or in bed, for a few + days, and the use of light diet, together with warm diluent drinks. + Additional measures are however called for when the disease is more + markedly developed. Medicines to allay fever and promote perspiration are + highly serviceable in the earlier stages. Later, with the view of + soothing the pain of the cough, and favouring expectoration, mixtures of + tolu, with the addition of some opiate, such as the ordinary paregorics, + may be advantageously employed. The use of opium, however, in any form + should not be resorted to in the case of young children without medical + advice, since its action on them is much more potent and less under + control than it is in adults. Not a few of the so-called "soothing + mixtures" have been found to contain opium in quantity sufficient to + prove dangerous when administered to children, and caution is necessary + in using them.</p> + + <p>From the outset of the attack the employment of fomentations, or + especially a turpentine stupe, gives great relief, and occasionally in + the non-specific form this treatment, combined with a good dose of + calomel and salts, may render the attack abortive. Some relief is always + obtained by inhalations, and theoretically, an acute specific bronchitis + should be successfully treated by inhalation of antiseptic and soothing + remedies. In practice, however, it is found that the strength cannot be + sufficiently strong to destroy the bacteria in the bronchial tubes. + However, much relief is obtained from the use of steam atomizers filled + with an aqueous solution of compound tincture of benzoin, creosote or + guaiacol. A still more practicable means of introducing volatile + antiseptic oils is the globe nebulizer, which throws oleaginous solutions + in the form of a fine fog, that can be deeply inhaled. Menthol, + eucalyptol and white pine extract are some of the remedies that may be + tried dissolved in benzoinol, to which cocaine or opium may be added if + the cough is troublesome.</p> + + <p>When the bronchitis is of the capillary form, the great object is to + maintain the patient's strength, and to endeavour to secure the expulsion + of the morbid secretion from the fine bronchi. In addition to the + remedies already alluded to, stimulants are called for from the first; + and should the cough be ineffectual in relieving the bronchial tubes, the + administration of an emetic dose of sulphate of zinc may produce a good + effect.</p> + + <p>During the whole course of any attack of bronchitis attention must be + paid to the due nourishment of the patient; and during the subsequent + convalescence, which, particularly in elderly persons, is apt to be slow, + tonics and stimulants may have to be prescribed.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 636 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page636"></a>[v.04 p.0636]</span></p> + + <p><i>Chronic bronchitis</i> may arise as the result of repeated attacks + of the acute form, or it may exist altogether independently. It occurs + more frequently among persons advanced in life than among the young, + although no age is exempt from it. The usual history of this form of + bronchitis is that of a cough recurring during the colder seasons of the + year, and in its earlier stages, departing entirely in summer, so that it + is frequently called "winter cough." In many persons subject to it, + however, attacks are apt to be excited at any time by very slight causes, + such as changes in the weather; and in advanced cases of the disease the + cough is seldom altogether absent. The symptoms and auscultatory signs of + chronic bronchitis are on the whole similar to those pertaining to the + acute form, except that the febrile disturbance and pain are much less + marked. The cough is usually more troublesome in the morning than during + the day. There is usually free and copious expectoration, and + occasionally this is so abundant as to constitute what is termed + <i>bronchorrhoea</i>.</p> + + <p>Chronic bronchitis leads to alterations of structure in the affected + bronchial tubes, their mucous membrane becoming thickened or even + ulcerated, while occasionally permanent dilatation of the bronchi takes + place, often accompanied with profuse foetid expectoration. In + long-standing cases of chronic bronchitis the nutrition of the lungs + becomes impaired, and dilatation of the air-tubes (<i>emphysema</i>) and + other complications result, giving rise to more or less constant + breathlessness.</p> + + <p>Chronic bronchitis may arise secondarily to some other ailment. This + is especially the case in Bright's disease of the kidneys and in heart + disease, of both of which maladies it often proves a serious + complication, also in gout and syphilis. The influence of occupation is + seen in the frequency in which persons following certain employments + suffer from chronic bronchitis. Hirt has shown that the inhalation of + vegetable dust is very liable to produce bronchitis through the + irritation produced by the dust particles and the growth of organisms + carried in with the dust. Consequently, millers and grain-shovellers are + especially liable to it, while next in order come weavers and workers in + cotton factories.</p> + + <p>The treatment to be adopted in chronic bronchitis depends upon the + severity of the case, the age of the patient and the presence or absence + of complications. Attention to the general health is a matter of prime + importance in all cases of the disease, more particularly among persons + whose avocations entail exposure, and tonics with cod-liver oil will be + found highly advantageous. The use of a respirator in very cold or damp + weather is a valuable means of protection. In those aggravated forms of + chronic bronchitis, where the slightest exposure to cold air brings on + fresh attacks, it may become necessary, where circumstances permit, to + enjoin confinement to a warm room or removal to a more genial climate + during the winter months.</p> + + <p><b>BRONCHOTOMY</b> (Gr. <span title="bronchos" class="grk" + >βρόγχος</span>, wind-pipe, and + <span title="temnein" class="grk" + >τέμνειν</span>, to cut), a medical term + used to describe a surgical incision into the throat; now largely + superseded by the terms laryngotomy, thyrotomy and tracheotomy, which + indicate more accurately the place of incision.</p> + + <p><b>BRONCO,</b> usually incorrectly spelt <span + class="sc">Broncho</span> (a Spanish word meaning rough, rude), an + unbroken or untamed horse, especially in the United States, a mustang; + the word entered America by way of Mexico.</p> + + <p><b>BRÖNDSTED, PETER OLUF</b> (1780-1842), Danish archaeologist and + traveller, was born at Fruering in Jutland on the 17th of November 1780. + After studying at the university of Copenhagen he visited Paris in 1806 + with his friend Georg Koes. After remaining there two years, they went + together to Italy. Both were zealously attached to the study of + antiquities; and congeniality of tastes and pursuits induced them, in + 1810, to join an expedition to Greece, where they excavated the temples + of Zeus in Aegina and of Apollo at Bassae in Arcadia. After three years + of active researches in Greece, Bröndsted returned to Copenhagen, where, + as a reward for his labours, he was appointed professor of Greek in the + university. He then began to arrange and prepare for publication the vast + materials he had collected during his travels; but finding that + Copenhagen did not afford him the desired facilities, he exchanged his + professorship for the office of Danish envoy at the papal court in 1818, + and took up his abode at Rome. In 1820 and 1821 he visited Sicily and the + Ionian Isles to collect additional materials for his great work. In 1826 + he went to London, chiefly with a view of studying the Elgin marbles and + other remains of antiquity in the British Museum, and became acquainted + with the principal archaeologists of England. From 1828-1832 he resided + in Paris, to superintend the publication of his <i>Travels</i>, and then + returned to Copenhagen on being appointed director of the museum of + antiquities and the collection of coins and medals. In 1842 he became + rector of the university; but a fall from his horse caused his death on + the 26th of June. His principal work was the <i>Travels and + Archaeological Researches in Greece</i> (in German and French, + 1826-1830), of which only two volumes were published, dealing with the + island of Ceos and the metopes of the Parthenon.</p> + + <p><b>BRONGNIART, ADOLPHE THÉODORE</b> (1801-1876), French botanist, son + of the geologist Alexandre Brongniart, was born in Paris on the 14th of + January 1801. He soon showed an inclination towards the study of natural + science, devoting himself at first more particularly to geology, and + later to botany, thus equipping himself for what was to be the main + occupation of his life—the investigation of fossil plants. In 1826 + he graduated as doctor of medicine with a dissertation on the Rhamnaceae; + but the career which he adopted was botanical, not medical. In 1831 he + became assistant to R.L. Desfontaines at the Musée d'Histoire Naturelle, + and two years later succeeded him as professor, a position which he + continued to hold until his death in Paris on the 18th of February + 1876.</p> + + <p>Brongniart was an indefatigable investigator and a prolific writer, so + that he left behind him, as the fruit of his labours, a large number of + books and memoirs. As early as 1822 he published a paper on the + classification and distribution of fossil plants (<i>Mém. Mus. Hist. + Nat.</i> viii.). This was followed by several papers chiefly bearing upon + the relation between extinct and existing forms—a line of research + which culminated in the publication of the <i>Histoire des végétaux + fossiles</i>, which has earned for him the title of "father of + palaeobotany." This great work was heralded by a small but most important + "Prodrome" (contributed to the <i>Grand Dictionnaire d'Hist. Nat.</i>, + 1828, t. lvii.) which brought order into chaos by a classification in + which the fossil plants were arranged, with remarkably correct insight, + along with their nearest living allies, and which forms the basis of all + subsequent progress in this direction. It is of especial botanical + interest, because, in accordance with Robert Brown's discoveries, the + Cycadeae and Coniferae were placed in the new group <i>Phanérogames + gymnospermes</i>. In this book attention was also directed to the + succession of forms in the various geological periods, with the important + result (stated in modern terms) that in the Palaeozoic period the + Pteridophyta are found to predominate; in the Mesozoic, the Gymnosperms; + in the Cainozoic, the Angiosperms, a result subsequently more fully + stated in his "Tableau des genres de végétaux fossiles" (D'Orbigny, + <i>Dict. Univ. d'Hist. Nat.</i>, 1849). But the great <i>Histoire</i> + itself was not destined to be more than a colossal fragment; the + publication of successive parts proceeded regularly from 1828 to 1837, + when the first volume was completed, but after that only three parts of + the second volume appeared. Brongniart, no doubt, was overwhelmed with + the continually increasing magnitude of the task that he had undertaken. + Apart from his more comprehensive works, his most important + palaeontological contributions are perhaps his observations on the + structure of <i>Sigillaria</i> (<i>Arch. Mus. Hist. Nat.</i> i., 1839) + and his researches (almost the last he undertook) on fossil seeds, of + which a full account was published posthumously in 1880. His activity was + by no means confined to palaeobotany, but extended into all branches of + botany, more particularly anatomy and phanerogamic taxonomy. Among his + achievements in these directions the most notable is the memoir "Sur la + génération et le développement de l'embryon des Phanérogames" (<i>Ann. + Sci. Nat.</i> xii., 1827). This is remarkable in that it contains the + <!-- Page 637 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page637"></a>[v.04 + p.0637]</span>first account of any value of the development of the + pollen; as also a description of the structure of the pollen-grain, the + confirmation of G. B. Amici's (1823) discovery of the pollen-tube, the + confirmation of R. Brown's views as to the structure of the unimpregnated + ovule (with the introduction of the term "sac embryonnaire"); and in that + it shows how nearly Brongniart anticipated Amici's subsequent (1846) + discovery of the entrance of the pollen-tube into the micropyle, + fertilizing the female cell which then develops into the embryo. Of his + anatomical works, those of the greatest value are probably the + "<i>Recherches sur la structure et les fonctions des feuilles</i>" + (<i>Ann. Sci. Nat.</i> xxi., 1830), and the "Nouvelles Recherches sur + l'Épiderme" (<i>Ann. Sci. Nat.</i> i., 1834), in which, among other + important observations, the discovery of the cuticle is recorded; and, + further, the "Recherches sur l'organisation des tiges des Cycadées" + (<i>Ann. Sci. Nat.</i> xvi., 1829), giving the results of the first + investigation of the anatomy of those plants. His systematic work is + represented by a large number of papers and monographs, many of which + relate to the flora of New Caledonia; and by his <i>Énumération des + genres de plantes cultivées au Musée d'Histoire Naturelle de Paris</i> + (1843), which is an interesting landmark in the history of classification + in that it forms the starting-point of the system, modified successively + by A. Braun, A.W. Eichler and A. Engler, which is now adopted in Germany. + In addition to his scientific and professorial labours, Brongniart held + various important official posts in connexion with the department of + education, and interested himself greatly in agricultural and + horticultural matters. With J.V. Audouin and J.B.A. Dumas, his future + brothers-in-law, he established the <i>Annales des Sciences + Naturelles</i> in 1824; he also founded the Société Botanique de France + in 1854, and was its first president.</p> + + <p>For accounts of his life and work see <i>Bull. de la Soc. Géol. de + France</i>, 1876, and <i>La Nature</i>, 1876; the <i>Bulletin de la Soc. + Bot. de France</i> for 1876, vol. xxiii., contains a list of his works + and the orations pronounced at his funeral.</p> + + <p>(S. H. V.*)</p> + + <p><b>BRONGNIART, ALEXANDRE</b> (1770-1847), French mineralogist and + geologist, son of the eminent architect who designed the Bourse and other + public buildings of Paris, was born in that city on the 5th of February + 1770. At an early age he studied chemistry, under Lavoisier, and after + passing through the École des Mines he took honours at the École de + Médecine; subsequently he joined the army of the Pyrenees as + <i>pharmacien</i>; but having committed some slight political offence, he + was thrown into prison and detained there for some time. Soon after his + release he was appointed professor of natural history in the Collège des + Quatre Nations. In 1800 he was made director of the Sèvres porcelain + factory, a post which he retained to his death, and in which he achieved + his greatest work. In his hands Sèvres became the leading porcelain + factory in Europe, and the researches of an able band of assistants + enabled him to lay the foundations of ceramic chemistry. In addition to + his work at Sèvres, quite enough to engross the entire energy of any + ordinary man, he continued his more purely scientific work. He succeeded + Haüy as professor of mineralogy in the Museum of Natural History; but he + did not confine himself to mineralogy, for it is to him that we owe the + division of Reptiles into the four orders of Saurians, Batrachians, + Chelonians and Ophidians. Fossil as well as living animals engaged his + attention, and in his studies of the strata around Paris he was + instrumental in establishing the Tertiary formations. In 1816 he was + elected to the Academy; and in the following year he visited the Alps of + Switzerland and Italy, and afterwards Sweden and Norway. The result of + his observations was published from time to time in the <i>Journal des + Mines</i> and other scientific journals. Wide as was the range of his + interests his most famous work was accomplished at Sèvres, and his most + enduring monument is his classic <i>Traité des arts céramiques</i> + (1844). He died in Paris on the 7th of October 1847.</p> + + <p>His other principal works are :—<i>Traité élémentaire de + minéralogie, avec des applications aux arts</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1807); + <i>Histoire naturelle des crustacés fossiles</i> (Paris, 1822); + <i>Classification et caractères minéralogiques des roches homogènes et + hétérogènes</i> (Paris, 1827); the <i>Tableau des terrains qui composent + l'écorce du globe, ou Essai sur la structure de la partie connue de la + terre</i> (Paris, 1829); and the <i>Traité des arts céramiques</i> + (1844). Brongniart was also the coadjutor of Cuvier in the admirable + <i>Essai sur la géographie minéralogique des environs de Paris</i> + (Paris, 1811); originally published in <i>Ann. Mus. Hist. Nat.</i> + (Paris, xi. 1808).</p> + + <p><b>BRONN, HEINRICH GEORG</b> (1800-1862), German geologist, was born + on the 3rd of March 1800 at Ziegelhausen near Heidelberg. Studying at the + university at Heidelberg he took his doctor's degree in the faculty of + medicine in 1821, and in the following year was appointed professor of + natural history. He now devoted himself to palaeontological studies, and + to fieldwork in various parts of Germany, Italy and France. From its + commencement in 1830 to 1862 he assisted in editing the <i>Jahrbuch für + Mineralogie</i>, &c., continued as <i>Neues Jahrbuch.</i> His + principal work, <i>Lethaea Geognostica</i> (2 vols., Stuttgart, + 1834-1838; 3rd ed. with F. Römer, 3 vols., 1851-1856), has been regarded + as one of the foundations of German stratigraphical geology. His + <i>Handbuch einer Geschichte der Natur</i>, of which the first part was + issued in 1841, gave a general account of the physical history of the + earth, while the second part dealt with the life-history, species being + regarded as direct acts of creation. The third part included his famous + <i>Index Palaeontologicus</i>, and was issued in 3 vols., 1848-1849, with + the assistance of H. von Meyer and H. R. Göppert. This record of fossils + has proved of inestimable value to all palaeontologists. An important + work on recent and fossil zoology, <i>Die Klassen und Ordnungen des + Thier-Reichs</i>, was commenced by Bronn. He wrote the volumes dealing + with Amorphozoa, Actinozoa, and Malacozoa, published 1859-1862; the work + was continued by other naturalists. In 1861 Bronn was awarded the + Wollaston medal by the Geological Society of London. He died at + Heidelberg on the 5th of July 1862.</p> + + <p><b>BRONSART VON SCHELLENDORF, PAUL</b> (1832-1891), Prussian general, + was born at Danzig in 1832. He entered the Prussian Guards in 1849, and + was appointed to the general staff in 1861 as a captain; after three + years of staff service he returned to regimental duty, but was soon + reappointed to the staff, and lectured at the war academy, becoming major + in 1865 and lieut.-colonel in 1869. During the war of 1870 he was chief + of a section on the Great General Staff, and conducted the preliminary + negotiations for the surrender of the French at Sedan. After the war + Bronsart was made a colonel and chief of staff of the Guard army corps, + becoming major-general in 1876 and lieut.-general (with a division + command) in 1881. Two years later he became war minister, and during his + tenure of the post (1883-1889) many important reforms were carried out in + the Prussian army, in particular the introduction of the magazine rifle. + He was appointed in 1889 to command the I. army corps at Königsberg. He + died on the 23rd of June 1891 at his estate near Braunsberg. Bronsart's + military writings include two works of great importance—<i>Ein + Rückblick auf die taktischen Ruckblicke</i> (2nd ed., Berlin, 1870), a + pamphlet written in reply to Captain May's <i>Tactical Retrospect of + 1866</i>; and <i>Der Dienst des Generalstabes</i> (1st ed., Berlin, 1876; + 3rd ed. revised by General Meckel, 1893; new ed. by the author's son, + Major Bronsart von Schellendorf, Berlin, 1904), a comprehensive treatise + on the duties of the general staff. The third edition of this work was + soon after its publication translated into English and issued officially + to the British army as <i>The Duties of the General Staff</i>. Major + Bronsart's new edition of 1904 was reissued in English by the General + Staff, under the same title, in 1905.</p> + + <p><b>BRONTË, CHARLOTTE</b> (1816-1855), <b>EMILY</b> (1818-1848), and + <b>ANNE</b> (1820-1849), English novelists, were three of the six + children of Patrick Brontë, a clergyman of the Church of England, who for + the last forty-one years of his life was perpetual incumbent of the + parish of Haworth in the West Riding of Yorkshire. Patrick Brontë was + born at Emsdale, Co. Down, Ireland, on the 17th of March 1777. His + parents were of the peasant class, their original name of Brunty + apparently having been changed by their son on his entry at St John's + College, Cambridge, in 1802. In the intervening years he had been + successively a weaver and schoolmaster in his native country. From + Cambridge <!-- Page 638 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page638"></a>[v.04 p.0638]</span>he became a curate, first at + Wethersfield in Essex, in 1806, then for a few months at Wellington, + Salop, in 1809. At the end of 1809 he accepted a curacy at Dewsbury, + Yorkshire, following up this by one at Hartshead-cum-Clifton in the same + county. At Hartshead Patrick Brontë married in 1812 Maria Branwell, a + Cornishwoman, and there two children were born to him, Maria (1813-1825) + and Elizabeth (1814-1825). Thence Patrick Brontë removed to Thornton, + some 3 m. from Bradford, and here his wife gave birth to four children, + Charlotte, Patrick Branwell (1817-1848), Emily Jane, and Anne, three of + whom were to attain literary distinction.</p> + + <p>In April 1820, three months after the birth of Anne Brontë, her father + accepted the living of Haworth, a village near Keighley in Yorkshire, + which will always be associated with the romantic story of the Brontës. + In September of the following year his wife died. Maria Brontë lives for + us in her daughter's biography only as the writer of certain letters to + her "dear saucy Pat," as she calls her lover, and as the author of a + recently published manuscript, an essay entitled <i>The Advantages of + Poverty in Religious Concerns</i>, full of a sententiousness much + affected at the time.</p> + + <p>Upon the death of Mrs Brontë her husband invited his sister-in-law, + Elizabeth Branwell, to leave Penzance and to take up her residence with + his family at Haworth. Miss Branwell accepted the trust and would seem to + have watched over her nephew and five nieces with conscientious care. The + two eldest of those nieces were not long in following their mother. Maria + and Elizabeth, Charlotte and Emily, were all sent to the Clergy + Daughters' school at Cowan Bridge in 1824, and Maria and Elizabeth + returned home in the following year to die. How far the bad food and + drastic discipline were responsible cannot be accurately demonstrated. + Charlotte gibbeted the school long years afterwards in <i>Jane Eyre</i>, + under the thin disguise of "Lowood," and the principal, the Rev. William + Carus Wilson (1792-1859), has been universally accepted as the + counterpart of Mr Naomi Brocklehurst in the same novel. But congenital + disease more probably accounts for the tragedy from which happily + Charlotte and Emily escaped, both returning in 1825 to a prolonged home + life at Haworth. Here the four surviving children amused themselves in + intervals of study under their aunt's guidance with precocious literary + aspirations. The many tiny booklets upon which they laboured in the + succeeding years have been happily preserved. We find stories, verses and + essays, all in the minutest handwriting, none giving any indication of + the genius which in the case of two of the four children was to add to + the indisputably permanent in literature.</p> + + <p>At sixteen years of age—in 1831—Charlotte Brontë became a + pupil at the school of Miss Margaret Wooler (1792-1885) at Roe Head, + Dewsbury. She left in the following year to assist in the education of + the younger sisters, bringing with her much additional proficiency in + drawing, French and composition; she took with her also the devoted + friendship of two out of her ten fellow-pupils—Mary Taylor + (1817-1893) and Ellen Nussey (1817-1897). With Miss Taylor and Miss + Nussey she corresponded for the remainder of her life, and her letters to + the latter make up no small part of what has been revealed to us of her + life story. Her next three years at Haworth were varied by occasional + visits to one or other of these friends. In 1835 she returned to Miss + Wooler's school at Roe Head as a governess, her sister Emily accompanying + her as a pupil, but remaining only three months, and Anne then taking her + place. The year following the school was removed to Dewsbury. In 1838 + Charlotte went back to Haworth and soon afterwards received her first + offer of marriage—from a clergyman, Henry Nussey, the brother of + her friend Ellen. This was followed a little later by a second offer from + a curate named Bryce. She refused both and took a situation as nursery + governess, first with the Sidgwicks of Stonegappe, Yorkshire, and later + with the Whites at Rawdon in the same county. A few months of this, + however, filled her with an ambition to try and secure greater + independence as the possessor of a school of her own, and she planned to + acquire more proficiency in "languages" on the continent, as a + preliminary step. The aunt advanced some money, and accompanied by her + sister Emily she became in February 1842 a pupil at the Pensionnat Héger, + Brussels. Here both girls worked hard, and won the goodwill and indeed + admiration of the principal teacher, M. Héger, whose wife was at the head + of the establishment. But the two girls were hastily called back to + England before the year had expired by the announcement of the critical + illness of their aunt. Miss Branwell died on the 29th of October 1842. + She bequeathed sufficient money to her nieces to enable them to + reconsider their plan of life. Instead of a school at Bridlington which + had been talked of, they could now remain with their father, utilize + their aunt's room as a classroom, and take pupils. But Charlotte was not + yet satisfied with what the few months on Belgian soil had done for her, + and determined to accept M. Héger's offer that she should return to + Brussels as a governess. Hence the year 1843 was passed by her at the + Pensionnat Héger in that capacity, and in this period she undoubtedly + widened her intellectual sphere by reading the many books in French + literature that her friend M. Héger lent her. But life took on a very + sombre shade in the lonely environment in which she found herself. She + became so depressed that on one occasion she took refuge in the + confessional precisely as did her heroine Lucy Snowe in <i>Villette</i>. + In 1844 she returned to her father's house at Haworth, and the three + sisters began immediately to discuss the possibilities of converting the + vicarage into a school. Prospectuses were issued, but no pupils were + forthcoming.</p> + + <p>Matters were complicated by the fact that the only brother, Patrick + Branwell, had about this time become a confirmed drunkard. Branwell had + been the idol of his aunt and of his sisters. Educated under his father's + care, he had early shown artistic leanings, and the slender resources of + the family had been strained to provide him with the means of entering at + the Royal Academy as a pupil. This was in 1835. Branwell, it would seem, + indulged in a glorious month of extravagance in London and then returned + home. His art studies were continued for a time at Leeds, but it may be + assumed that no commissions came to him, and at last he became tutor to + the son of a Mr Postlethwaite at Barrow-in-Furness. Ten months later he + was a booking-clerk at Sowerby Bridge station on the Leeds & + Manchester railway, and later at Luddenden Foot. Then he became tutor in + the family of a clergyman named Robinson at Thorp Green, where his sister + Anne was governess. Finally he returned to Haworth to loaf at the village + inn, shock his sisters by his excesses, and to fritter his life away in + painful sottishness. He died in September 1848, having achieved nothing + reputable, and having disappointed all the hopes that had been centred in + him. "My poor father naturally thought more of his <i>only</i> son than + of his daughters," is one of Charlotte's dreary comments on the tragedy. + In early years he had himself written both prose and verse; and a foolish + story invented long afterwards attributed to him some share in his + sisters' novels, particularly in Emily Brontë's <i>Wuthering Heights</i>. + But Charlotte distinctly tells us that her brother never knew that his + sisters had published a line. He was too much under the effects of drink, + too besotted and muddled in that last year or two of life, to have any + share in their intellectual enthusiasms.</p> + + <p>The literary life had, however, opened bravely for the three girls + during those years. In 1846 a volume of verse appeared from the shop of + Aylott & Jones of Paternoster Row; "<i>Poems</i>, by Currer, Ellis + and Acton Bell," was on the title-page. These names disguised the + identity of Charlotte, Emily and Anne Brontë. The venture cost the + sisters about £50 in all, but only two copies were sold. There were + nineteen poems by Charlotte, twenty-one by Emily, and the same number by + Anne. A consensus of criticism has accepted the fact that Emily's verse + alone revealed true poetic genius. This was unrecognized then except by + her sister Charlotte. It is obvious now to all.</p> + + <p>The failure of the poems did not deter the authors from further + effort. They had each a novel to dispose of. Charlotte Brontë's was + called <i>The Master</i>, which before it was sent off to London was + retitled <i>The Professor</i>. Emily's story was entitled <!-- Page 639 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page639"></a>[v.04 + p.0639]</span><i>Wuthering Heights</i>, and Anne's <i>Agnes Gray</i>. All + these stories travelled from publisher to publisher. At last <i>The + Professor</i> reached the firm of Smith, Elder & Co., of Cornhill. + The "reader" for that firm, R. Smith Williams (1800-1875), was impressed, + as were also his employers. Charlotte Brontë received in August 1847 a + letter informing her that whatever the merits of <i>The + Professor</i>—and it was hinted that it lacked "varied + interest"—it was too short for the three-volume form then counted + imperative. The author was further told that a longer novel would be + gladly considered. She replied in the same month with this longer novel, + and <i>Jane Eyre</i> appeared in October 1847, to be wildly acclaimed on + every hand, although enthusiasm was to receive a counterblast when more + than a year later, in December 1848, Miss Rigby, afterwards Lady Eastlake + (1809-1893), reviewed it in the <i>Quarterly</i>.</p> + + <p>Meanwhile the novels of Emily and Anne had been accepted by T. C. + Newby. They were published together in three volumes in December 1847, + two months later than <i>Jane Eyre</i>, although the proof sheets had + been passed by the authors before their sister's novel had been sent to + the publishers. The dilatoriness of Mr Newby was followed up by + considerable energy when he saw the possibility of the novels by Ellis + and Acton Bell sailing on the wave of Currer Bell's popularity, and he + would seem very quickly to have accepted another manuscript by Anne + Brontë, for <i>The Tenant of Wildfell Hall</i> was published by Newby in + three volumes in June 1848. It was Newby's clever efforts to persuade the + public that the books he published were by the author of <i>Jane Eyre</i> + that led Charlotte and Anne to visit London this summer and interview + Charlotte's publishers in Cornhill with a view to establishing their + separate identity. Soon after their return home Branwell died (the 24th + of September 1848), and less than three months later Emily died also at + Haworth (the 19th December 1848). Then Anne became ill and on the 24th of + May 1849 Charlotte accompanied her to Scarborough in the hope that the + sea air would revive her. Anne died there on the 28th of May, and was + buried in Scarborough churchyard. Thus in exactly eight months Charlotte + Brontë lost all the three companions of her youth, and returned to + sustain her father, fast becoming blind, in the now desolate home at + Haworth.</p> + + <p>In the interval between the death of Branwell and of Emily, Charlotte + had been engaged upon a new novel—<i>Shirley</i>. Two-thirds were + written, but the story was then laid aside while its author was nursing + her sister Anne. She completed the book after Anne's death, and it was + published in October 1849. The following winter she visited London as the + guest of her publisher, Mr George Smith, and was introduced to + Thackerary, to whom she had dedicated <i>Jane Eyre</i>. The following + year she repeated the visit, sat for her portrait to George Richmond, and + was considerably lionized by a host of admirers. In August 1850 she + visited the English lakes as the guest of Sir James Kay-Shuttleworth, and + met Mrs Gaskell, Miss Martineau, Matthew Arnold and other interesting men + and women. During this period her publishers assiduously lent her books, + and her criticisms of them contained in many letters to Mr George Smith + and Mr Smith Williams make very interesting reading. In 1851 she received + a third offer of marriage, this time from Mr James Taylor, who was in the + employment of her publishers. A visit to Miss Martineau at Ambleside and + also to London to the Great Exhibition made up the events of this year. + On her way home she visited Manchester and spent two days with Mrs + Gaskell. During the year 1852 she worked hard with a new novel, + <i>Villette</i>, which was published in January of 1853. In September of + that year she received a visit from Mrs Gaskell at Haworth; in May 1854 + she returned it, remaining three days at Manchester, and planning with + her hostess the details of her marriage, for at this time she had + promised to unite herself with her father's curate, Arthur Bell Nicholls + (1817-1906), who had long been a pertinacious suitor for her hand but had + been discouraged by Mr Brontë. The marriage took place in Haworth church + on the 29th of June 1854, the ceremony being performed by the Rev. + Sutcliffe Sowden, Miss Wooler and Miss Nussey acting as witnesses. The + wedded pair spent their honeymoon in Ireland, returning to Haworth, where + they made their home with Mr Brontë, Mr Nicholls having pledged himself + to continue in his position as curate to his father-in-law. After less + than a year of married life, however, Charlotte Nicholls died of an + illness incidental to childbirth, on the 31st of March 1855. She was + buried in Haworth church by the side of her mother, Branwell and Emily. + The father followed in 1861, and then her husband returned to Ireland, + where he remained some years afterwards, dying in 1906.</p> + + <p>The bare recital of the Brontë story can give no idea of its undying + interest, its exceeding pathos. Their life as told by their biographer + Mrs Gaskell is as interesting as any novel. Their achievement, however, + will stand on its own merits. Anne Brontë's two novels, it is true, + though constantly reprinted, survive principally through the exceeding + vitality of the Brontë tradition. As a hymn writer she still has a place + in most religious communities. Emily is great alike as a novelist and as + a poet. Her "Old Stoic" and "Last Lines" are probably the finest + achievement of poetry that any woman has given to English literature. Her + novel <i>Wuthering Heights</i> stands alone as a monument of intensity + owing nothing to tradition, nothing to the achievement of earlier + writers. It was a thing apart, passionate, unforgettable, haunting in its + grimness, its grey melancholy. Among women writers Emily Brontë has a + sure and certain place for all time. As a poet or maker of verse + Charlotte Brontë is undistinguished, but there are passages of pure + poetry of great magnificence in her four novels, and particularly in + <i>Villette</i>. The novels <i>Jane Eyre</i> and <i>Villette</i> will + always command attention whatever the future of English fiction, by + virtue of their intensity, their independence, their rough + individuality.</p> + + <p>The <i>Life of Charlotte Brontë</i>, by Mrs Gaskell, was first + published in 1857. Owing to the many controversial questions it aroused, + as to the identity of Lowood in <i>Jane Eyre</i> with Cowan Bridge + school, as to the relations of Branwell Brontë with his employer's wife, + as to the supposed peculiarities of Mr Brontë, and certain other minor + points, the third edition was considerably changed. The <i>Life</i> has + been many times reprinted, but may be read in its most satisfactory form + in the Haworth edition (1902), issued by the original publishers, Smith, + Elder & Co. To this edition are attached a great number of letters + written by Miss Brontë to her publisher, George Smith. The first new + material supplied to supplement Mrs Gaskell's <i>Life</i> was contained + in <i>Charlotte Brontë: a Monograph</i>, by T. Wemyss Reid (1877). This + book inspired Mr A.C. Swinburne to issue separately a forcible essay on + Charlotte and Emily Brontë, under the title of <i>A Note on Charlotte + Brontë</i> (1877). A further collection of letters written by Miss Brontë + was contained in <i>Charlotte Brontë and her Circle</i>, by Clement + Shorter (1896), and interesting details can be gathered from the <i>Life + of Charlotte Brontë</i>, by Augustine Birrell (1887), <i>The Brontës in + Ireland</i>, by William Wright, D.D. (1893), <i>Charlotte Brontë and her + Sisters</i>, by Clement Shorter (1906), and the Brontë Society + publications, edited by Butler Wood (1895-1907). Miss A. Mary F. Robinson + (Madame Duclaux) wrote a separate biography of Emily Brontë in 1883, and + an essay in her <i>Grands Écrivains d'outre-Manche</i>. <i>The Brontës: + Life and Letters</i>, by Clement Shorter (1907), contains the whole of C. + Brontë's letters in chronological order.</p> + + <p>(C. K. S.)</p> + + <p><b>BRONTE,</b> a town of the province of Catania, Sicily, on the + western slopes of Mt. Etna, 24 m. N.N.W. of Catania direct, and 34 m. by + rail. Pop. (1901) 20,366. It was founded by the emperor Charles V. The + town, with an extensive estate which originally belonged to the monastery + of Maniacium (Maniace), was granted, as a dukedom, to Nelson by Ferdinand + IV. of Naples in 1799.</p> + + <p><b>BRONX, THE,</b> formerly a district comprising several towns in + Westchester county, New York, U.S.A., now (since 1898) the northernmost + of the five boroughs of New York City (<i>q.v.</i>). Several settlements + in the Bronx were made by the English and the Dutch between 1640 and + 1650.</p> + + <p><b>BRONZE,</b> an alloy formed wholly or chiefly of copper and tin in + variable proportions. The word has been etymologically connected with the + same root as appears in "brown," but according to M.P.E. Berthelot (<i>La + Chimie au moyen âge</i>) it is a place-name derived from <i>aes + Brundusianum</i> (cf. Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> xxxiii. ch. ix. §45, + "specula optima apud majores fuerunt Brundusiana, stanno et aere + mixtis"). A Greek MS. of about the 11th century in the library of St + Mark's, Venice, contains <!-- Page 640 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page640"></a>[v.04 p.0640]</span>the form <span title="brontêsion" class="grk" + >βροντήσιον</span>, + and gives the composition of the alloy as 1 lb of copper with 2 oz. of + tin. The product obtained by adding tin to copper is more fusible than + copper and thus better suited for casting; it is also harder and less + malleable. A soft bronze or <i>gun-metal</i> is formed with 16 parts of + copper to 1 of tin, and a harder gun-metal, such as was used for bronze + ordnance, when the proportion of tin is about doubled. The <i>steel + bronze</i> of Colonel Franz Uchatius (1811-1881) consisted of copper + alloyed with 8% of tin, the tenacity and hardness being increased by + cold-rolling. Bronze containing about 7 parts of copper to 1 of tin is + hard, brittle and sonorous, and can be tempered to take a fine edge. + <i>Bell-metal</i> varies considerably in composition, from about 3 to 5 + parts of copper to 1 of tin. In <i>speculum metal</i> there are 2 to 2½ + parts of copper to 1 of tin. Statuary bronze may contain from 80 to 90% + of copper, the residue being tin, or tin with zinc and lead in various + proportions. The bronze used for the British and French copper coinage + consists of 95% copper, 4% tin and 1% zinc. Many copper-tin alloys + employed for machinery-bearings contain a small proportion of zinc, which + gives increased hardness. "Anti-friction metals," also used in bearings, + are copper-tin alloys in which the amount of copper is small and there is + antimony in addition. Of this class an example is "Babbitt's metal," + invented by Isaac Babbitt (1799-1862); it originally consisted of 24 + parts of tin, 8 parts of antimony and 4 parts of copper, but in later + compositions for the same purpose the proportion of tin is often + considerably higher. Bronze is improved in quality and strength when + fluxed with phosphorus. Alloys prepared in this way, and known as + <i>phosphor bronze</i>, may contain only about 1% of phosphorus in the + ingot, reduced to a mere trace after casting, but their value is + nevertheless enhanced for purposes in which a hard strong metal is + required, as for pump plungers, valves, the bushes of bearings, &c. + Bronze again is improved by the presence of manganese in small quantity, + and various grades of <i>manganese bronze</i>, in some of which there is + little or no tin but a considerable percentage of zinc, are extensively + used in mechanical engineering. Alloys of copper with aluminium, though + often nearly or completely destitute of tin, are known as <i>aluminium + bronze</i>, and are valuable for their strength and the resistance they + offer to corrosion. By the addition of a small quantity of silicon the + tensile strength of copper is much increased; a sample of such <i>silicon + bronze</i>, used for telegraph wires, on analysis was found to consist of + 99.94% of copper, 0.03% of tin, and traces of iron and silicon.</p> + + <p>The bronze (Gr. <span title="chalkos" class="grk" + >χαλκός</span>, Lat. <i>aes</i>) of + classical antiquity consisted chiefly of copper, alloyed with one or more + of the metals, zinc, tin, lead and silver, in proportions that varied as + times changed, or according to the purposes for which the alloy was + required. Among bronze remains the copper is found to vary from 67 to + 95%. From the analysis of coins it appears that for their bronze coins + the Greeks adhered to an alloy of copper and tin till 400 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>, after which time they used also lead with + increasing frequency. Silver is rare in their bronze coins. The Romans + also used lead as an alloy in their bronze coins, but gradually reduced + the quantity, and under Caligula, Nero, Vespasian and Domitian, coined + pure copper coins; afterwards they reverted to the mixture of lead. So + far the words <span title="chalkos" class="grk" + >χαλκός</span> and <i>aes</i> may be + translated as bronze. Originally, no doubt, <span title="chalkos" class="grk" + >χαλκός</span> was the name for pure + copper. It is so employed by Homer, who calls it <span title="eruthros" class="grk" + >ἐρυθρός</span> (red), <span + title="aithups" class="grk">αἴθυψ</span> + (glittering), <span title="phaennos" class="grk" + >φαεννός</span> (shining), terms + which apply only to copper. But instead of its following from this that + the process of alloying copper with other metals was not practised in the + time of the poet, or was unknown to him, the contrary would seem to be + the case from the passage (<i>Iliad</i> xviii. 474) where he describes + Hephaestus as throwing into his furnace copper, tin, silver and gold to + make the shield of Achilles, so that it is not always possible to know + whether when he uses the word <span title="chalkos" class="grk" + >χαλκός</span> he means copper pure + or alloyed. Still more difficult is it to make this distinction when we + read of the mythical Dactyls of Ida in Crete or the Telchines or Cyclopes + being acquainted with the smelting of <span title="chalkos" class="grk" + >χαλκός</span>. It is not, however, + likely that later Greek writers, who knew bronze in its true sense, and + called it <span title="chalkos" class="grk" + >χαλκός</span>, would have employed + this word without qualification for objects which they had seen unless + they had meant it to be taken as bronze. When Pausanias (iii. 17. 6) + speaks of a statue, one of the oldest figures he had seen of this + material, made of separate pieces fastened together with nails, we + understand him to mean literally bronze, the more readily since there + exist very early figures and utensils of bronze so made.</p> + + <p>For the use of bronze in art, see <span + class="sc">Metal-work</span>.</p> + + <p><b>BRONZE AGE,</b> the name given by archaeologists to that stage in + human culture, intermediate between the Stone and Iron Ages, when + weapons, utensils and implements were, as a general rule, made of bronze. + The term has no absolute chronological value, but marks a period of + civilization through which it is believed that most races passed at one + time or another. The "finds" of stone and bronze, of bronze and iron, and + even of stone and iron implements together in tumuli and sepulchral + mounds, suggest that in many countries the three stages in man's progress + overlapped. From the similarity of types of weapons and implements of the + period found throughout Europe a relatively synchronous commencement has + been inferred for the Bronze Age in Europe, fixed by most authorities at + between 2000 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> to 1800 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> But it must have been earlier in some countries, + and is certainly known to have been later in others; while the Mexicans + and Peruvians were still in their bronze age in recent times. Not a few + archaeologists have denied that there ever was a distinct Bronze Age. + They have found their chief argument in the fact that weapons of these + ages have been found side by side in prehistoric burial-places. But when + it is admitted that the ages must have overlapped, it is fairly easy to + undertand the mixed "finds." The beginning, the prevalence and duration + of the Bronze Age in each country would have been ordered by the + accessibility of the metals which form the alloy. Thus in some lands + bronze may have continued to be a substance of extreme value until the + Iron Age was reached, and in tumuli in which more than one body was + interred, as was frequently the case, it would only be with the remains + of the richer tenants of the tomb that the more valuable objects would be + placed. There is, moreover, much reason to believe that sepulchral mounds + were opened from age to age and fresh interments made, and in such a + practice would be found a simple explanation of the mixing of implements. + Another curious fact has been seized on by those who argue against the + existence of a Bronze Age. Among all the "finds" examined in Europe there + is a most remarkable absence of copper implements. The sources of tin in + Europe are practically restricted to Cornwall and Saxony. How then are we + to explain on the one hand the apparent stride made by primitive man when + from a Stone Age civilization he passed to a comparatively advanced + metallurgical skill? On the other, how account for a comparatively + synchronous commencement of bronze civilization when one at least of the + metals needed for the alloy would have been naturally difficult of + access, if not unknown to many races? The answer is that there can be but + little doubt that the knowledge of bronze came to the races of Europe + from outside. Either by the Phoenicians or by the Greeks metallurgy was + taught to men who no sooner recognized the nature and malleable + properties of copper than they learnt that by application of heat a + substance could be manufactured with tin far better suited to their + purposes. Copper would thus have been but seldom used unalloyed; and the + relatively synchronous appearance of bronze in Europe, and the scanty + "finds" of copper implements, are explained. We may conclude then that + there was a Bronze Age in most countries; that it was the direct result + of increasing intercommunication of races and the spread of commerce; and + that the discovery of metals was due to information brought to Stone-Age + man in Europe by races which were already skilful metallurgists.</p> + + <p>The Bronze Age in Europe is characterized by weapons, utensils and + implements, distinct in design and size from those in use in the + preceding or succeeding stage of man's civilization. Moreover—and + this has been employed as an argument in favour of the foreign origin of + the knowledge of bronze—all the <!-- Page 641 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page641"></a>[v.04 p.0641]</span>objects in one + part of Europe are identical in pattern and size with those found in + another part. The implements of the Bronze Age include swords, awls, + knives, gouges, hammers, daggers and arrow-heads. A remarkable + confirmation of the theory that the Bronze Age culture came from the East + is to be found in the patterns of the arms, which are distinctly + oriental; while the handles of swords and daggers are so narrow and short + as to make it unlikely that they would be made for use by the + large-handed races of Europe. The Bronze Age is also characterized by the + fact that cremation was the mode of disposal of the dead, whereas in the + Stone Age burial was the rule. Barrows and sepulchral mounds strictly of + the Bronze Age are smaller and less imposing than those of the Stone Age. + Besides varied and beautiful weapons, frequently exhibiting high + workmanship, amulets, coronets, diadems of solid gold, and vases of + elegant form and ornamentation in gold and bronze are found in the + barrows. These latter appear to have been used as tribal or family + cemeteries. In Denmark as many as seventy deposits of burnt bones have + been found in a single mound, indicating its use through a long + succession of years. The ornamentation of the period is as a rule + confined to spirals, bosses and concentric circles. What is remarkable is + that the swords not only show the design of the cross in the shape of the + handle, but also in tracery what is believed to be an imitation of the + Svastika, that ancient Aryan symbol which was probably the first to be + made with a definite intention and a consecutive meaning. The pottery is + all "hand-made," and the bulk of the objects excavated are cinerary urns, + usually found full of burnt bones. These vary from 12 to 18 in. in + height. Their decoration is confined to a band round the upper part of + the pot, or often only a projecting flange lapped round the whole rim. A + few have small handles, formed of pierced knobs of clay and sometimes + projecting rolls of clay, looped, as it were, all round the urn. The + ornamentation consists of dots, zigzags, chevrons or crosses. The lines + were frequently made by pressing a twisted thong of skin against the + moist clay; the patterns in all cases being stamped into the pot before + it was hardened by fire.</p> + + <p>See <span class="sc">Archaeology</span>, &c. Also Lord Avebury, + <i>Prehistoric Times</i> (1900); Sir J. Evans, <i>Ancient Bronze + Implements of Great Britain</i> (1881); Chartre's <i>Age du bronze en + France</i>.</p> + + <p><b>BRONZING,</b> a process by which a bronze-like surface is imparted + to objects of metal, plaster, wood, &c. On metals a green bronze + colour is sometimes produced by the action of such substances as vinegar, + dilute nitric acid and sal-ammoniac. An antique appearance may be given + to new bronze articles by brushing over the clean bright metal with a + solution of sal-ammoniac and salt of sorrel in vinegar, and rubbing the + surface dry, the operation being repeated as often as necessary. Another + solution for the same purpose is made with sal-ammoniac, cream of tartar, + common salt and silver nitrate. With a solution of platinic chloride + almost any colour can be produced on copper, iron, brass or new bronze, + according to the dilution and the number of applications. Articles of + plaster and wood may be bronzed by coating them with size and then + covering them with a bronze powder, such as Dutch metal, beaten into fine + leaves and powdered. The bronzing of gun-barrels may be effected by the + use of a strong solution of antimony trichloride.</p> + + <p><b>BRONZINO, IL,</b> the name given to <span class="sc">Angelo + Allori</span> (1502-1572), the Florentine painter. He became the + favourite pupil of J. da Pontormo. He painted the portraits of some of + the most famous men of his day, such as Dante, Petrarch and Boccaccio. + Most of his best works are in Florence, but examples are in the National + Gallery, London, and elsewhere.</p> + + <p><b>BRONZITE,</b> a member of the pyroxene group of minerals, belonging + with enstatite and hypersthene to the orthorhombic series of the group. + Rather than a distinct species, it is really a ferriferous variety of + enstatite, which owing to partial alteration has acquired a bronze-like + sub-metallic lustre on the cleavage surfaces. Enstatite is magnesium + metasilicate, MgSiO<sub>3</sub>, with the magnesia partly replaced by + small amounts (up to about 5%) of ferrous oxide; in the bronzite variety, + (Mg,Fe)SiO<sub>3</sub>, the ferrous oxide ranges from about 5 to 14%, and + with still more iron there is a passage to hypersthene. The ferriferous + varieties are liable to a particular kind of alteration, known as + "schillerization," which results in the separation of the iron as very + fine films of oxide and hydroxides along the cleavage cracks of the + mineral. The cleavage surfaces therefore exhibit a metallic sheen or + "schiller," which is even more pronounced in hypersthene than in + bronzite. The colour of bronzite is green or brown; its specific gravity + is about 3.2-3.3, varying with the amount of iron present. Like + enstatite, bronzite is a constituent of many basic igneous rocks, such as + norites, gabbros, and especially peridotites, and of the serpentines + which have been derived from them. It also occurs in some crystalline + schists.</p> + + <p>Bronzite is sometimes cut and polished, usually in convex forms, for + small ornamental objects, but its use for this purpose is less extensive + than that of hypersthene. It often has a more or less distinct fibrous + structure, and when this is pronounced the sheen has a certain + resemblance to that of cat's-eye. Masses sufficiently large for cutting + are found in the norite of the Kupferberg in the Fichtelgebirge, and in + the serpentine of Kraubat near Leoben in Styria. In this connexion + mention may be made of an altered form of enstatite or bronzite known as + <i>bastite</i> or <i>schiller-spar</i>. Here, in addition to + schillerization, the original enstatite has been altered by hydration and + the product has approximately the composition of serpentine. In colour + bastite is brown or green with the same metallic sheen as bronzite. The + typical locality is Baste in the Radauthal, Harz, where patches of pale + greyish-green bastite are embedded in a darker-coloured serpentine. This + rock when cut and polished makes an effective decorative stone, although + little used for that purpose.</p> + + <p>(L. J. S.)</p> + + <p><b>BROOCH,</b> or <span class="sc">Broach</span> (from the Fr. + <i>broche</i>, originally an awl or bodkin; a spit is sometimes called a + broach, and hence the phrase "to broach a barrel"; see <span + class="sc">Broker</span>), a term now used to denote a clasp or fastener + for the dress, provided with a pin, having a hinge or spring at one end, + and a catch or loop at the other.</p> + + <p>Brooches of the safety-pin type (<i>fibulae</i>) were extensively used + in antiquity, but only within definite limits of time and place. They + seem to have been unknown to the Egyptians, and to the oriental nations + untouched by Greek influence. In lands adjacent to Greece, they do not + occur in Crete or at Hissarlik. The place of origin cannot as yet be + exactly determined, but it would seem to have been in central Europe, + towards the close of the Bronze Age, somewhat before 1000 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> The earliest form is little more than a pin, + bent round for security, with the point caught against the head. One such + actual pin has been found. In its next simplest form, very similar to + that of the modern safety-pin (in which the coiled spring forces the + point against the catch), it occurs in the lower city of Mycenae, and in + late deposits of the Mycenaean Age, such as at Enkomi in Cyprus. It + occurs also (though rarely) in the "terramare" deposits of the Po valley, + in the Swiss lake-dwellings of the later Bronze Age, in central Italy, in + Hungary and in Bosnia. (fig. 1).<a name="FnAnchor_151" + href="#Footnote_151"><sup>[1]</sup></a></p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:27%;"> + <a href="images/brooch_1.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/brooch_1.png" + alt="Fig. 1.--Early type from Peschiera." title="Fig. 1.--Early type from Peschiera." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.—Early type from Peschiera. + </div> + <p>From the comparatively simple initial form, the fibula developed in + different lines of descent, into different shapes, varying according to + the structural feature which was emphasized. On account of the number of + local variations, the subject is extremely complex, but the main lines of + development were approximately as follows.</p> + + <p>Towards the end of the Bronze Age the safety-pin was arched into a + bow, so as to include a greater amount of stuff in its compass.</p> + + <p>In the older Iron Age or "Hallstatt period" the bow and its + accessories are thickened and modified in various directions, so as to + give greater rigidity, and prominences or surfaces for decoration. The + chief types have been conveniently classed by <!-- Page 642 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page642"></a>[v.04 p.0642]</span>Montelius in + four main groups, according to the characteristic forms:—</p> + + <p>I. The wire of the catch-plate is hammered into a flat disk, on which + the pin rests (fig. 2)</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:17%;"> + <a href="images/brooch_2.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/brooch_2.png" + alt="Fig. 2.--Type I. with disk for catch-plate." title="Fig. 2.--Type I. with disk for catch-plate." /></a> + <p class="poem"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.—Type I. with disk + for catch-plate.</p> + </div> + <p>II. The bow is thickened towards the middle, so as to assume the + "leech" shape, or it is hollowed out underneath, into the "boat" form. + The catch-plate is only slightly turned up, but it becomes elongated, in + order to mask the end of a long pin (fig. 3).</p> + + <p>III. The catch-plate is flattened out as in group I., but additional + convolutions are added to the bow (fig. 4).</p> + + <p>IV. The bow is convoluted (but the convolutions are sometimes + represented by knobs); the catch-plate develops as in group II. (fig. 5). + For further examples of the four types, see <i>Antiquities of Early Iron + Age in British Museum</i>, p. 32.</p> + + <p>Among the special variations of the early form, mention should be made + of the fibulae of the geometric age of Greece, with an exaggerated + development of the vertical portion of the catch-plate (fig. 6).</p> + + <div class="figleft" style="width:22%;"> + <a href="images/brooch_3.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/brooch_3.png" + alt="Fig. 3.--Type II. with turned-up and elongated catch-plate." title="Fig. 3.--Type II. with turned-up and elongated catch-plate." /></a> + <p class="poem"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.—Type II. with + turned-up and elongated catch-plate. <i>a</i>, "Leech" fibula; + <i>b</i>, "Boat" fibula; <i>c.</i> variation of "Boat" fibula.</p> + </div> + <p>The example shown in fig. 7 is an ornate development of type II. + above.</p> + + <p>In the later Iron Age (or early La Tène period) the prolongation of + the catch-plate described in the second and fourth groups above has a + terminal knob ornament, which is reflexed upwards, at first slightly + (fig. 8), and then to a marked extent, turning back towards the bow.</p> + + <p>A far-reaching change in the design was at the same time brought about + by a simple improvement in principle, apparently introduced within the + area of the La Tène culture. Instead of a unilateral spring—that + is, of one coiled on one side only of the bow as commonly in the modern + safety-pin—the brooch became bilateral. The spring was coiled on + one side of the axis of the bow, and thence the wire was taken to the + other side of the axis, and again coiled in a corresponding manner before + starting in a straight line to form the pin. Once invented, the bilateral + spring became almost universal, and its introduction serves to divide the + whole mass of ancient fibulae into an older and a younger group.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:15%;"> + <a href="images/brooch_4.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/brooch_4.png" + alt="Fig. 4.--Type III with disk for catch-plate, and convoluted bow." title="Fig. 4.--Type III with disk for catch-plate, and convoluted bow." /></a> + <p class="poem"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4.—Type III with + disk for catch-plate, and convoluted bow.</p> + </div> + <p>With the progress of the La Tène period (300-1 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>) the reflection of the catch-plate terminal + became yet more marked, until it became practically merged in the bow + (fig. 9). Meanwhile, the bilateral spring described above was developing + into two marked projections on each side of the axis. In order to give + the double spring strength and protection it was given a metal core, and + a containing tube. When the core had been provided the pin was no longer + necessarily a continuation of the bow, and it became in fact a separate + member, as in a modern brooch of a non-safety-pin type, and was no longer + actuated by its own spring.</p> + + <p>The T-shaped or "cross-bow" fibula was thus developed. During the + first centuries of the Empire it attained great size and importance + (figs. 10-12). The form is conveniently dated at its highest development + by its occurrence on the ivory diptych of Stilicho at Monza (c. <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 400).</p> + + <p>In the tombs of the Frankish and kindred Teutonic tribes between the + 5th and 9th centuries the crossbar of the T becomes a yet more + elaborately decorated semicircle, often surrounded by radial knobs and a + chased surface. The base of the shaft is flattened out, and is no less + ornate (fig. 13). At the beginning of this period the fibula of King + Childeric (<span class="scac">A.D.</span> 481) has a singularly + complicated pin-fastening.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:44%;"> + <a href="images/brooch_7.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/brooch_7.png" + alt="Fig. 7.--Gold fibula from Naples." title="Fig. 7.--Gold fibula from Naples." /></a> + <p class="poem"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 7.—Gold fibula from + Naples.</p> + </div> + <div class="figright" style="width:23%;"> + <a href="images/brooch_6.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/brooch_6.png" + alt="Fig. 6.--Greek geometric fibula." title="Fig. 6.--Greek geometric fibula." /></a> + <p class="poem"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 6.—Greek geometric + fibula.</p> + </div> + <div class="figright" style="width:23%;"> + <a href="images/brooch_5.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/brooch_5.png" + alt="Fig. 5.--Type IV. with turned-up catch-plate and convoluted bow." title="Fig. 5.--Type IV. with turned-up catch-plate and convoluted bow." /></a> + <p class="poem"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5.—Type IV. with + turned-up catch-plate and convoluted bow.</p> + </div> + <div class="figright" style="width:18%;"> + <a href="images/brooch_8.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/brooch_8.png" + alt="Fig. 8.--Early La Tène period. Reflexed terminal ornament." title="Fig. 8.--Early La Tène period. Reflexed terminal ornament." /></a> + <p class="poem"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 8.—Early La Tène + period. Reflexed terminal ornament.</p> + </div> + <p>So far we have traced the history of the safety-pin form of brooch. + Concurrently with it, other forms of brooch were developed in which the + safety-pin principle is either absent or effectually disguised. One such + form is that of the circular medallion brooch. It is found in Etruscan + deposits of a fully developed style, and is commonly represented in Greek + and Roman sculptures as a stud to fasten the cloak on the shoulder. In + the Roman provinces the circular brooches are very numerous, and are + frequently decorated with inlaid stone, paste or enamel. Another kind of + brooch, also known from early times, is in the form of an animal. In the + early types the animal is a decorative appendage, but in later examples + it forms the body of the brooch, to which a pin like the modern + brooch-pin is attached underneath. Both of these shapes, namely the + medallion and the animal form, are found in Frankish cemeteries, together + with the later variations of the T-shaped brooch described above. Such + brooches were made in gold, silver or bronze, adorned with precious + stones, filigree work, or enamel; but whatever the richness of the + material, the pin was nearly always of iron. The Scandinavian or northern + group of T-shaped brooches are in their early forms indistinguishable + from those of the Frankish tombs, but as time went on they became more + massive, and richly decorated with intricate devices (perhaps brought in + by Irish missionary influence), into which animal forms were introduced. + The period covered is from the 5th to the 8th centuries.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"> + <a href="images/brooch_9.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/brooch_9.png" + alt="Fig. 9.--Fibula of the La Tène period." title="Fig. 9.--Fibula of the La Tène period." /></a> + <p class="poem"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 9, a-d.—Fibula of + the La Tène period, showing the development of the reflexed terminal, + and the bilateral spring.</p> + </div> + <p><br style="clear : both" /></p> + <div class="figright" style="width:25%;"> + <a href="images/brooch_11.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/brooch_11.png" + alt="Fig. 11.--Fibula with niello work." title="Fig. 11.--Fibula with niello work." /></a> + <p class="poem"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 11.—Fibula with + niello work. 3rd century <span class="scac">A.D.</span></p> + </div> + <div class="figright" style="width:25%;"> + <a href="images/brooch_10.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/brooch_10.png" + alt="Fig. 10.--Military Fibula." title="Fig. 10.--Military Fibula." /></a> + <p class="poem"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 10.—Military Fibula. + 3rd century <span class="scac">A.D.</span></p> + </div> + <p>The T-form, the medallion-form, and (occasionally) the animal forms + occur in Anglo-Saxon graves in England. In Kent the medallion-form + predominates. The Anglo-Saxon brooches <!-- Page 643 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page643"></a>[v.04 p.0643]</span>were exquisite + works of art, ingeniously and tastefully constructed. They are often of + gold, with a central boss, exquisitely decorated, the flat part of the + brooch being a mosaic of turquoises, garnets on gold foil, mother of + pearl, &c. arranged in geometric patterns, and the gold work enriched + with filigree or decorated with dragonesque engravings.</p> + + <div class="figleft" style="width:33%;"> + <a href="images/brooch_12.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/brooch_12.png" + alt="Fig. 12.--Gold Fibula." title="Fig. 12.--Gold Fibula." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 12.—Gold Fibula. 4th century <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> + </div> + <p>The Scandinavian brooches of the Viking period (<span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 800-1050) were oval and convex, somewhat in the + form of a tortoise. In their earliest form they occur in the form of a + frog-like animal, itself developed from the previous Teutonic T-shaped + type. With the introduction of the intricate system of ornament described + above, the frog-like animal is gradually superseded by purely decorative + lines. The convex bowls are then worked <i>à jour</i> with a perforated + upper shell of chased work over an under shell of impure bronze, gilt on + the convex side. These outer cases are at last decorated with open + crown-like ornament and massive projecting bosses. The geographical + distribution of these peculiar brooches indicates the extent of the + conquests of the Northmen. They occur in northern Scotland, England, + Ireland, Iceland, Normandy and Livonia.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:33%;"> + <a href="images/brooch_13.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/brooch_13.png" + alt="Fig. 13.--Fibula of the Frankish period." title="Fig. 13.--Fibula of the Frankish period." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 13.—Fibula of the Frankish period. + </div> + <p>The Celtic group is characterized by the penannular form of the ring + of the brooch and the greater length of the pin. The penannular ring, + inserted through a hole at the head of the long pin, could be partially + turned when the pin had been thrust through the material in such a way + that the brooch became in effect a buckle. These brooches are usually of + bronze or silver, chased or engraved with intricate designs of interlaced + or dragonesque work in the style of the illuminated Celtic manuscripts of + the 7th, 8th and 9th centuries. The Hunterston brooch, which was found at + Hawking Craig in Ayrshire, is a well-known example of this style. Silver + brooches of immense size, some having pins 15 in. in length, and the + penannular ring of the brooch terminating in large knobs resembling + thistle heads, are occasionally found in Viking hoards of this period, + consisting of bullion, brooches and Cufic and Anglo-Saxon coins buried on + Scottish soil. In medieval times the form of the brooch was usually a + simple, flat circular disk, with open centre, the pin being equal in + length to the diameter of the brooch. They were often inscribed with + religious and talismanic <i>formulae</i>. The Highland brooches were + commonly of this form, but the disk was broader, and the central opening + smaller in proportion to the size of the brooch. They were ornamented in + the style so common on Highland powder-horns, with engraved patterns of + interlacing work and foliage, arranged in geometrical spaces, and + sometimes mingled with figures of animals.</p> + + <p>(<span class="sc">A. H. Sm.</span>)</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_151" href="#FnAnchor_151">[1]</a> The illustrations + of this article are from Dr Robert Forrer's <i>Reallexikon</i>, by + permission of W. Spemann, Berlin and Stuttgart.</p> + +</div> + <p><b>BROOKE, FRANCES</b> (1724-1789), English novelist and dramatist, + whose maiden name was Moore, was born in 1724. Of her novels, some of + which enjoyed considerable popularity in their day, the most important + were <i>The History of Lady Julia Mandeville</i> (1763), <i>Emily + Montague</i> (1769) and <i>The Excursion</i> (1777). Her dramatic pieces + and translations from the French are now forgotten. She died in January + 1789.</p> + + <p><b>BROOKE, FULKE GREVILLE,</b> <span class="scac">1ST BARON</span> + (1554-1628), English poet, only son of Sir Fulke Greville, was born at + Beauchamp Court, Warwickshire. He was sent in 1564, on the same day as + his life-long friend, Philip Sidney, to Shrewsbury school. He + matriculated at Jesus College, Cambridge, in 1568. Sir Henry Sidney, + president of Wales, gave him in 1576 a post connected with the court of + the Marches, but he resigned it in 1577 to go to court with Philip + Sidney. Young Greville became a great favourite with Queen Elizabeth, who + treated him with less than her usual caprice, but he was more than once + disgraced for leaving the country against her wishes. Philip Sidney, Sir + Edward Dyer and Greville were members of the "Areopagus," the literary + clique which, under the leadership of Gabriel Harvey, supported the + introduction of classical metres into English verse. Sidney and Greville + arranged to sail with Sir Francis Drake in 1585 in his expedition against + the Spanish West Indies, but Elizabeth peremptorily forbade Drake to take + them with him, and also refused Greville's request to be allowed to join + Leicester's army in the Netherlands. Philip Sidney, who took part in the + campaign, was killed on the 17th of October 1586, and Greville shared + with Dyer the legacy of his books, while in his <i>Life of the Renowned + Sir Philip Sidney</i> he raised an enduring monument to his friend's + memory. About 1591 Greville served for a short time in Normandy under + Henry of Navarre. This was his last experience of war. In 1583 he became + secretary to the principality of Wales, and he represented Warwickshire + in parliament in 1592-1593, 1597, 1601 and 1620. In 1598 he was made + treasurer of the navy, and he retained the office through the early years + of the reign of James I. In 1614 he became chancellor and under-treasurer + of the exchequer, and throughout the reign he was a valued supporter of + the king's party, although in 1615 he advocated the summoning of a + parliament. In 1618 he became commissioner of the treasury, and in 1621 + he was raised to the peerage with the title of Baron Brooke, a title + which had belonged to the family of his paternal grandmother, Elizabeth + Willoughby. He received from James I. the grant of Warwick Castle, in the + restoration of which he is said to have spent £20,000. He died on the + 30th of September 1628 in consequence of a wound inflicted by a servant + who was disappointed at not being named in his master's will. Brooke was + buried in St Mary's church, Warwick, and on his tomb was inscribed the + epitaph he had composed for himself: "Folk Grevill Servant to Queene + Elizabeth Conceller to King James Frend to Sir Philip Sidney. Trophaeum + Peccati."</p> + + <p>A rhyming elegy on Brooke, published in Huth's <i>Inedited Poetical + Miscellanies</i>, brings charges of extreme penuriousness against him, + but of his generous treatment of contemporary writers there is abundant + testimony. His only works published during his lifetime were four poems, + one of which is the elegy on Sidney which appeared in <i>The Phoenix + Nest</i> (1593), and the <i>Tragedy of Mustapha</i>. A volume of his + works appeared in 1633, another of <i>Remains</i> in 1670, and his + biography of Sidney in 1652. He wrote two tragedies on the Senecan model, + <i>Alaham</i> and <i>Mustapha</i>. The scene of Alaham is laid in Ormuz. + The development of the piece fully bears out the gloom of the prologue, + in which the ghost of a former king of Ormuz reveals the magnitude of the + curse about to descend on the doomed family. The theme of <i>Mustapha</i> + is borrowed from Madeleine de Scudéry's <i>Ibrahim ou l'illustre + Bassa</i>, and turns on the ambition of the sultana Rossa. The choruses + of these plays are really philosophical dissertations, and the connexion + with the rest of the drama is often very slight. In <i>Mustapha</i>, for + instance, the third chorus is a dialogue between Time and Eternity, while + the fifth consists of an invective against the evils of superstition, + followed by a chorus of priests that does nothing to dispel <!-- Page 644 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page644"></a>[v.04 p.0644]</span>the + impression of scepticism contained in the first part. He tells us himself + that the tragedies were not intended for the stage. Charles Lamb says + they should rather be called political treatises. Of Brooke Lamb says, + "He is nine parts Machiavel and Tacitus, for one of Sophocles and + Seneca.... Whether we look into his plays or his most passionate + love-poems, we shall find all frozen and made rigid with intellect." He + goes on to speak of the obscurity of expression that runs through all + Brooke's poetry, an obscurity which is, however, due more to the + intensity and subtlety of the thought than to any lack of mere verbal + lucidity.</p> + + <p>It is by his biography of Sidney that Fulke Greville is best known. + The full title expresses the scope of the work. It runs: <i>The Life of + the Renowned Sr. Philip Sidney. With the true Interest of England as it + then stood in relation to all Forrain Princes: And particularly for + suppressing the power of Spain Stated by Him: His principall Actions, + Counsels, Designes, and Death. Together with a short account of the + Maximes and Policies used by Queen Elizabeth in her Government</i>. He + includes some autobiographical matter in what amounts to a treatise on + government. He had intended to write a history of England under the + Tudors, but Robert Cecil refused him access to the necessary state + papers.</p> + + <p>Brooke left no sons, and his barony passed to his cousin, Robert + Greville (<i>c.</i> 1608-1643), who thus became 2nd Lord Brooke. This + nobleman was imprisoned by Charles I. at York in 1639 for refusing to + take the oath to fight for the king, and soon became an active member of + the parliamentary party; taking part in the Civil War he defeated the + Royalists in a skirmish at Kineton in August 1642. He was soon given a + command in the midland counties, and having seized Lichfield he was + killed there on the 2nd of March 1643. Brooke, who is eulogized as a + friend of toleration by Milton, wrote on philosophical, theological and + current political topics. In 1746 his descendant, Francis Greville, the + 8th baron (1710-1773), was created earl of Warwick, a title still in his + family.</p> + + <p>Dr A.B. Grosart edited the complete works of Fulke Greville for the + <i>Fuller Worthies Library</i> in 1870, and made a small selection, + published in the <i>Elizabethan Library</i> (1894). Besides the works + above mentioned, the volumes include <i>Poems of Monarchy, A Treatise of + Religion, A Treatie of Humane Learning, An Inquisition upon Fame and + Honour, A Treatie of Warres, Caelica in CX Sonnets</i>, a collection of + lyrics in various forms, a letter to an "Honourable Lady," a letter to + Grevill Varney in France, and a short speech delivered on behalf of + Francis Bacon, some minor poems, and an introduction including some of + the author's letters. The life of Sidney was reprinted by Sir S. Egerton + Brydges in 1816; and with an introduction by N. Smith in the "Tudor and + Stuart Library" in 1907; <i>Caelica</i> was reprinted in M.F. Crow's + "Elizabethan Sonnet Cycles" in 1898. See also an essay in Mrs. C.C. + Stopes's <i>Shakespeare's Warwickshire Contemporaries</i> (1907).</p> + + <p><b>BROOKE, HENRY</b> (<i>c.</i> 1703-1783), Irish author, son of + William Brooke, rector of Killinkere, Co. Cavan, was born at Rantavan in + the same county, about 1703. His mother was a daughter of Simon Digby, + bishop of Elphin. Dr Thomas Sheridan was one of his schoolmasters, and he + was entered at Trinity College, Dublin, in 1720; in 1724 he was sent to + London to study law. He married his cousin and ward, Catherine Meares, + before she was fourteen. Returning to London he published a philosophical + poem in six books entitled <i>Universal Beauty</i> (1735). He attached + himself to the party of the prince of Wales, and took a small house at + Twickenham near to Alexander Pope. In 1738 he translated the first and + second books of Tasso's <i>Gerusalemme liberata</i>, and in the next year + he produced a tragedy, <i>Gustavas Vasa, the Deliverer of his + Country</i>. This play had been rehearsed for five weeks at Drury Lane, + but at the last moment the performance was forbidden. The reason of this + prohibition was a supposed portrait of Sir Robert Walpole in the part of + Trollio. In any case the spirit of fervent patriotism which pervaded the + play was probably disliked by the government. The piece was printed and + sold largely, being afterwards put on the Irish stage under the title of + <i>The Patriot</i>. This affair provoked a satirical pamphlet from Samuel + Johnson, entitled "A Complete Vindication of the Licensers of the Stage + from the malicious and scandalous Aspersions of Mr Brooke" (1739). His + wife feared that his connexion with the opposition was imprudent, and + induced him to return to Ireland. He interested himself in Irish history + and literature, but a projected collection of Irish stories and a history + of Ireland from the earliest times were abandoned in consequence of + disputes about the ownership of the materials. During the Jacobite + rebellion of 1745 Brooke issued his <i>Farmer's Six Letters to the + Protestants of Ireland</i> (collected 1746) the form of which was + suggested by Swift's <i>Drapier's Letters</i>. For this service he + received from the government the post of barrack-master at Mullingar, + which he held till his death. He wrote other pamphlets on the Protestant + side, and was secretary to an association for promoting projects of + national utility. About 1760 he entered into negotiations with leading + Roman Catholics, and in 1761 he wrote a pamphlet advocating alleviation + of the penal laws against them. He is said to have been the first editor + of the <i>Freeman's Journal</i>, established at Dublin in 1763. Meanwhile + he had been obliged to mortgage his property in Cavan, and had removed to + Co. Kildare. Subsequently a bequest from Colonel Robert Brooke enabled + him to purchase an estate near his old home, and he spent large sums in + attempting to reclaim the waste-land. His best-known work is the novel + entitled <i>The Fool of Quality; or the History of Henry Earl of + Moreland</i>, the first part of which was published in 1765; and the + fifth and last in 1770. The characters of this book, which relates the + education of an ideal nobleman by an ideal merchant-prince, are gifted + with a "passionate and tearful sensibility," and reflect the real humour + and tenderness of the writer. Brooke's religious and philanthropic temper + recommended the book to John Wesley, who edited (1780) an abridged + edition, and to Charles Kingsley, who published it with a eulogistic + notice in 1859. Brooke had a large family, but only two children survived + him. His wife's death seriously affected him, and he died at Dublin in a + state of mental infirmity on the 10th of October 1783.</p> + + <p>His daughter, Charlotte Brooke, published <i>The Poetical Works of + Henry Brooke</i> in 1792, but was able to supply very little biographical + material. Other sources for Brooke's biography are C. H. Wilson, + <i>Brookiana</i> (2 vols., 1804), and a biographical preface by E. A. + Baker prefixed to a new edition (1906) of <i>The Fool of Quality</i>. + Brooke's other works include several tragedies, only some of which were + actually staged. He also wrote: <i>Jack the Giant Queller</i> (1748), an + operatic satire, the repetition of which was forbidden on account of its + political allusions; "Constantia, or the Man of Lawe's Tale" (1741), + contributed to George Ogle's <i>Canterbury Tales modernized; Juliet + Grenville; or the History of the Human Heart</i> (1773), a novel; and + some fables contributed to Edward Moore's <i>Fables for the Female + Sex</i> (1744).</p> + + <p><b>BROOKE, SIR JAMES</b> (1803-1868), English soldier, traveller and + raja of Sarawak, was born at Coombe Grove near Bath, on the 29th of April + 1803. His father, a member of the civil service of the East India + Company, had long lived in Bengal. His mother was a woman of superior + mind, and to her care he owed his careful early training. He received the + ordinary school education, entered the service of the East India Company, + and was sent out to India about 1825. On the outbreak of the Burmese War + he was despatched with his regiment to the valley of the Brahmaputra; + and, being dangerously wounded in an engagement near Rungpore, was + compelled to return home (1826). After his recovery he travelled on the + continent before going to India, and circumstances led him soon after to + leave the service of the company. In 1830 he made a voyage to China, and + during his passage among the islands of the Indian Archipelago, so rich + in natural beauty, magnificence and fertility, but occupied by a + population of savage tribes, continually at war with each other, and + carrying on a system of piracy on a vast scale and with relentless + ferocity, he conceived the great design of rescuing them from barbarism + and bringing them within the pale of civilization. His purpose was + confirmed by observations made during a second visit to China, and on his + return to England he applied himself in earnest to making the necessary + preparations. Having succeeded on the death of his father to a large + property, he bought and equipped a yacht, the "Royalist," of 140 tons + burden, and for three years tested its capacities and trained his crew of + <!-- Page 645 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page645"></a>[v.04 + p.0645]</span>twenty men, chiefly in the Mediterranean. At length, on the + 27th of October 1838, he sailed from the Thames on his great adventure. + On reaching Borneo, after various delays, he found the raja Muda Hassim, + uncle of the reigning sultan, engaged in war in the province of Sarawak + with several of the Dyak tribes, who had revolted against the sultan. He + offered his aid to the raja; and with his crew, and some Javanese who had + joined them, he took part in a battle with the insurgents, and they were + defeated. For his services the title of raja of Sarawak was conferred on + him by Muda Hassim, the former raja being deprived in his favour. It was, + however, some time before the sultan could be induced to confirm his + title (September 1841). During the next five years Raja Brooke was + engaged in establishing his power, in making just reforms in + administration, preparing a code of laws and introducing just and humane + modes of dealing with the degraded subjects of his rule. But this was not + all. He looked forward to the development of commerce as the most + effective means of putting an end to the worst evils that afflicted the + archipelago; and in order to make this possible, the way must first be + cleared by the suppression, or a considerable diminution, of the + prevailing piracy, which was not only a curse to the savage tribes + engaged in it, but a standing danger to European and American traders in + those seas. Various expeditions were therefore organized and sent out + against the marauders, Dyaks and Malays, and sometimes even Arabs. + Captain (afterwards Admiral Sir Harry) Keppel, and other commanders of + British ships of war, received permission to co-operate with Raja Brooke + in these expeditions. The pirates were attacked in their strongholds, + they fought desperately, and the slaughter was immense. Negotiations with + the chiefs had been tried, and tried in vain. The capital of the sultan + of Borneo was bombarded and stormed, and the sultan with his army routed. + He was, however, soon after restored to his dominion. So large was the + number of natives, pirates and others, slain in these expeditions, that + the "head-money" awarded by the British government to those who had taken + part in them amounted to no less than £20,000. In October 1847 Raja + Brooke returned to England, where he was well received by the government; + and the corporation of London conferred on him the freedom of the city. + The island of Labuan, with its dependencies, having been acquired by + purchase from the sultan of Borneo, was erected into a British colony, + and Raja Brooke was appointed governor and commander-in-chief. He was + also named consul-general in Borneo. These appointments had been made + before his arrival in England. The university of Oxford conferred on him + the honorary degree of D.C.L., and in 1848 he was created K.C.B. He soon + after returned to Sarawak, and was carried thither by a British + man-of-war. In the summer of 1849 he led an expedition against the + Seribas and Sakuran Dyaks, who still persisted in their piratical + practices and refused to submit to British authority. Their defeat and + wholesale slaughter was a matter of course. At the time of this + engagement Sir James Brooke was lying ill with dysentery. He visited + twice the capital of the sultan of Sala, and concluded a treaty with him, + which had for one of its objects the expulsion of the sea-gypsies and + other tribes from his dominions. In 1851 grave charges with respect to + the operations in Borneo were brought against Sir James Brooke in the + House of Commons by Joseph Hume and other members, especially as to the + "head-money" received. To meet these accusations, and to vindicate his + proceedings, he came to England. The evidence adduced was so conflicting + that the matter was at length referred to a royal commission, to sit at + Singapore. As the result of its investigation the charges were declared + to be "not proven." Sir James, however, was soon after deprived of the + governorship of Labuan, and the head-money was abolished. In 1867 his + house in Sarawak was attacked and burnt by Chinese pirates, and he had to + fly from the capital, Kuching. With a small force he attacked the + Chinese, recovered the town, made a great slaughter of them, and drove + away the rest. In the following year he came to England, and remained + there for three years. During this time he was attacked by paralysis, a + public subscription was raised, and an estate in Devonshire was bought + and presented to him. He made two more visits to Sarawak, and on each + occasion had a rebellion to suppress. He spent his last days on his + estate at Burrator in Devonshire, and died there, on the 11th of June + 1868, being succeeded as raja of Sarawak by his nephew. Sir James Brooke + was a man of the highest personal character, and he displayed rare + courage both in his conflicts in the East and under the charges advanced + against him in England.</p> + + <p>His <i>Private Letters</i> (1838 to 1853) were published in 1853. + Portions of his <i>Journal</i> were edited by Captains Munday and Keppel. + (See also <span class="sc">Sarawak</span>.)</p> + + <p><b>BROOKE, STOPFORD AUGUSTUS</b> (1832- ), English divine and man of + letters, born at Letterkenny, Donegal, Ireland, in 1832, was educated at + Trinity College, Dublin. He was ordained in the Church of England in + 1857, and held various charges in London. From 1863 to 1865 he was + chaplain to the empress Frederick in Berlin, and in 1872 he became + chaplain in ordinary to Queen Victoria. But in 1880 he seceded from the + Church, being no longer able to accept its leading dogmas, and officiated + as a Unitarian minister for some years at Bedford chapel, Bloomsbury. + Bedford chapel was pulled down about 1894, and from that time he had no + church of his own, but his eloquence and powerful religious personality + continued to make themselves felt among a wide circle. A man of + independent means, he was always keenly interested in literature and art, + and a fine critic of both. He published in 1865 his <i>Life and Letters + of F. W. Robertson</i> (of Brighton), and in 1876 wrote an admirable + primer of <i>English Literature</i> (new and revised ed., 1900), followed + in 1892 by <i>The History of Early English Literature</i> (2 vols., 1892) + down to the accession of Alfred, and <i>English Literature from the + Beginnings to the Norman Conquest</i> (1898). His other works include + various volumes of sermons; <i>Poems</i> (1888); <i>Dove Cottage</i> + (1890); <i>Theology in the English Poets—Cowper, Coleridge, + Wordsworth, Burns</i> (1874); <i>Tennyson, his Art and Relation to Modern + Life</i> (1894); <i>The Poetry of Robert Browning</i> (1902); <i>On Ten + Plays of Shakespeare</i> (1905); and <i>The Life Superlative</i> + (1906).</p> + + <p><b>BROOK FARM,</b> the name applied to a tract of land in West + Roxbury, Massachusetts, on which in 1841-1847 a communistic experiment + was unsuccessfully tried. The experiment was one of the practical + manifestations of the spirit of "Transcendentalism," in New England, + though many of the more prominent transcendentalists took no direct part + in it. The project was originated by George Ripley, who also virtually + directed it throughout. In his words it was intended "to insure a more + natural union between intellectual and manual labour than now exists; to + combine the thinker and the worker, as far as possible, in the same + individual; to guarantee the highest mental freedom by providing all with + labour adapted to their tastes and talents, and securing to them the + fruits of their industry; to do away with the necessity of menial + services by opening the benefits of education and the profits of labour + to all; and thus to prepare a society of liberal, intelligent and + cultivated persons whose relations with each other would permit a more + simple and wholesome life than can be led amidst the pressure of our + competitive institutions." In short, its aim was to bring about the best + conditions for an ideal civilization, reducing to a minimum the labour + necessary for mere existence, and by this and by the simplicity of its + social machinery saving the maximum of time for mental and spiritual + education and development. At a time when Ralph Waldo Emerson could write + to Thomas Carlyle, "We are all a little wild here with numberless + projects of social reform; not a reading man but has a draft of a new + community in his waistcoat pocket,"—the Brook Farm project + certainly did not appear as impossible a scheme as many others that were + in the air. At all events it enlisted the co-operation of men whose + subsequent careers show them to have been something more than + visionaries. The association bought a tract of land about 10 m. from + Boston, and in the summer of 1841 began its enterprise with about twenty + members. In September the "Brook Farm Institute of Agriculture and + Education" was formally organized, the members <!-- Page 646 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page646"></a>[v.04 p.0646]</span>signing the + Articles of Association and forming an unincorporated joint-stock + company. The farm was assiduously, if not very skilfully, cultivated, and + other industries were established—most of the members paying by + labour for their board—but nearly all of the income, and sometimes + all of it, was derived from the school, which deservedly took high rank + and attracted many pupils. Among these were included George William + Curtis and his brother James Burrill Curtis, Father Isaac Thomas Hecker + (1819-1888), General Francis C. Barlow (1834-1896), who as + attorney-general of New York in 1871-1873 took a leading part in the + prosecution of the "Tweed Ring." For three years the undertaking went on + quietly and simply, subject to few outward troubles other than financial, + the number of associates increasing to seventy or eighty. It was during + this period that Nathaniel Hawthorne had his short experience of Brook + Farm, of which so many suggestions appear in the <i>Blithedale + Romance</i>, though his preface to later editions effectually disposed of + the idea—which gave him great pain—that he had either drawn + his characters from persons there, or had meant to give any actual + description of the colony. Emerson refused, in a kind and characteristic + letter, to join the undertaking, and though he afterwards wrote of Brook + Farm with not uncharitable humour as "a perpetual picnic, a French + Revolution in small, an age of reason in a patty-pan," among its founders + were many of his near friends. In 1844 the growing need of a more + scientific organization, and the influence which F.M.C. Fourier's + doctrines, as modified by Albert Brisbane (1809-1890), had gained in the + minds of Ripley and many of his associates, combined to change the whole + plan of the community. It was transformed, with the strong approval of + all its chief members and the consent of the rest, into a Fourierist + "phalanx" in 1845. There was an accession of new members, a momentary + increase of prosperity, a brilliant new undertaking in the publication of + a weekly journal, the <i>Harbinger</i>, in which Ripley, Charles A. Dana, + Francis G. Shaw and John S. Dwight were the chief writers, and to which + James Russell Lowell, J.G. Whittier, George William Curtis, Parke Godwin, + T.W. Higginson, Horace Greeley and many more now and then contributed. + But the individuality of the old Brook Farm was gone. The association was + not rescued even from financial troubles by the change. With increasing + difficulty it kept on till the spring of 1846, when a fire which + destroyed its nearly completed "phalanstery" brought losses which caused, + or certainly gave the final ostensible reason for, its dissolution. The + experiment was abandoned in the autumn of 1847. Besides Ripley and + Hawthorne, the principal members of the community were Charles A. Dana, + John S. Dwight, Minot Pratt (<i>c.</i> 1805-1878), the head farmer, who, + like George Partridge Bradford (1808-1890), left in 1845, and Warren + Burton (1810-1866) a preacher and, later, a writer on educational + subjects. Indirectly connected with the experiment, also, as visitors for + longer or shorter periods but never as regular members, were Emerson, + Amos Bronson Alcott, Orestes A. Brownson, Theodore Parker and William + Henry Channing, Margaret Fuller and Elizabeth Palmer Peabody. The estate + itself, after passing through various hands, came in 1870 into the + possession of the "Association of the Evangelical Lutheran Church for + Works of Mercy," which established here an orphanage, known as the + "Martin Luther Orphan Home."</p> + + <p>The best account of Brook Farm is Lindsay Swift's <i>Brook Farm, Its + Members, Scholars and Visitors</i> (New York, 1900). <i>Brook Farm: + Historic and Personal Memoirs</i> (Boston, 1894), is by Dr J.T. Codman, + one of the pupils in the school. See also Morris Hillquit's <i>History of + Socialism in the United States</i> (New York, 1903).</p> + + <p>(E. L. B.)</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:23%;"> + <a href="images/brookite_2.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/brookite_2.png" + alt="Fig. 2.--Bipyramidal crystal of brookite." title="Fig. 2.--Bipyramidal crystal of brookite." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2. + </div> + <div class="figright" style="width:23%;"> + <a href="images/brookite_1.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/brookite_1.png" + alt="Fig. 1.--Tabular crystal of brookite." title="Fig. 1.--Tabular crystal of brookite." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1. + </div> + <p><b>BROOKITE,</b> one of the three modifications in which titanium + dioxide (TiO<sub>2</sub>) occurs in nature; the other minerals with the + same chemical composition, but with different physical and + crystallographic characters, being rutile (<i>q.v.</i>) and anatase + (<i>q.v.</i>) The two latter are tetragonal in crystallization, whilst + brookite is orthorhombic. The name was given by A. Lévy in 1825 in honour + of the English mineralogist H.J. Brooke (1771-1857). Two types of + brookite crystals may be distinguished. The commoner type of crystals are + thin and tabular, and often terminated by numerous small and brilliant + faces (fig. 1); the faces of the orthopinacoid (<i>a</i>) and of the + prisms (<i>m</i>, <i>l</i>) are vertically striated. These crystals are + of a rich reddish-brown colour and are often translucent. Crystals of the + second type have the appearance of six-sided bipyramids (fig. 2) owing to + the equal development of the prism <i>m</i> {110} and the pyramid + <i>e</i> {122}; these crystals are black and opaque, and constitute the + variety known as arkansite.</p> + + <p>The lustre of brookite is metallic-adamantine. There is no distinct + cleavage (rutile and anatase have cleavages); hardness 5½-6; sp. gr. 4.0. + The optical characters are interesting: the optic axes for red and for + blue light lie in planes at right angles to each other, whilst for + yellow-green light the crystals are uniaxial. The acute bisectrix of the + optic axes is perpendicular to the orthopinacoid (<i>a</i>) for all + colours, so that this phenomenon of the crossing of the optic axial + planes may be readily observed in the thin tabular crystals of the + first-mentioned type.</p> + + <p>Brookite occurs only as crystals, never in compact masses, and is + usually associated with either anatase or rutile. The crystals are found + attached to the walls of cavities in decomposed igneous rocks and + crystalline schists; it is also found as minute isolated crystals in many + sedimentary rocks. The best-known locality is Fronolen near Tremadoc in + North Wales, where crystals of the thin tabular habit occur with + crystallized quartz, albite and anatase on the walls of crevices in + diabase. Similar crystals of relatively large size are found attached to + gneiss at several places in the Swiss and Tirolese Alps. Thicker crystals + of prismatic, rather than tabular, habit and of a rich red colour + combined with considerable transparency and brilliancy are found in the + gold-washings of the Sanarka river in the southern Urals. The arkansite + variety occurs with rutile in the elaeolite-syenite of Magnet Cove in Hot + Spring county, Arkansas. Minute crystals of brookite have been detected + with anatase and rutile in the iron-ore of Cleveland in Yorkshire.</p> + + <p>Crystals of brookite, as well as of anatase and rutile, have been + prepared artificially by the interaction of steam and titanium fluoride, + the particular modification of titanium dioxide which results depending + on the temperature at which the reaction takes place. Brookite is liable + to become altered to rutile: aggregates of rutile needles with the form + of brookite (arkansite) are not uncommon at Magnet Cove, Arkansas.</p> + + <p>(L. J. S.)</p> + + <p><b>BROOKLIME</b>, known botanically as <i>Veronica Beccabunga</i> + (natural order Scrophulariaceae), a succulent herb growing on margins of + brooks and ditches in the British Isles, and a native of Europe, north + Africa and north and western Asia. It has smooth spreading branches, + blunt oblong leaves and small bright blue or pink flowers.</p> + + <p><b>BROOKLINE</b>, a township of Norfolk county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., + about 3 m. S.W. of Boston, lying immediately S. of the Back Bay district. + Pop. (1890) 12,103; (1900) 19,935, of whom 6536 were foreign-born; (1910, + census) 27,792. The area of the township in 1906 was 6.75 sq. m. It is + served by the Boston & Albany railway, and is connected with Boston + by an electric line. Brookline is the wealthiest of the residential + suburbs of Boston; and contains a number of beautiful estates and homes. + Within its limits are the villages of Cottage Farm, Longwood, and + Reservoir Station, or Chestnut Hill—the Chestnut Hill reservoir is + just beyond the township. Brookline has an excellent public library. At + Clyde Park are the grounds and club-house of the Boston Country Club. + Brookline has long been regarded as a model city suburb. It is connected + with <!-- Page 647 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page647"></a>[v.04 + p.0647]</span>Boston Common by boulevards of the Metropolitan Park + System. The first settlement was probably made about 1635, and it was + called Muddy River until 1705, when it was created a township under the + name of Brookline. Up to 1793 it belonged to Suffolk county, of which + Boston is a part, and since that time it has belonged to Norfolk county; + but Boston has in its growth almost surrounded it, and because of its + great wealth there has been a long struggle for and against its merger in + Boston. Frederick Law Olmsted, the famous landscape gardener, had his + home in Brookline, where there are various examples of his work.</p> + + <p>See H.F. Woods, <i>Historical Sketches of Brookline</i> (Boston, + 1874); C.K. Bolton, <i>Brookline, The History of a Favored Town</i> + (Brookline, 1897); and J.W. Denehy, <i>History of Brookline, + 1630-1906</i>(Allston, Mass., 1907).</p> + + <p><b>BROOKLYN,</b> formerly a city of New York state, U.S.A., but since + 1898 a borough of New York City (<i>q.v.</i>), situated at the S.W. + extremity of Long Island. It is conterminous with Kings county, and is + bounded N. by the borough of Queens, from which it is in part separated + by Newtown Creek; E. by the borough of Queens and Jamaica Bay; S. by the + Atlantic Ocean; W. by Gravesend Bay, the Narrows, Upper New York Bay and + East river, which separate it from Staten Island, Jersey City and the + borough of Manhattan. It has a water-front of 33 m. and extends over an + area of 77.62 sq. m. Pop. (1860) 279,122; (1870) 419,921; (1880) 599,495; + (1890, then Kings county) 838,547; (1900) 1,166,582; (1905, state census) + 1,358,686; (1910) 1,634.351. In 1900 only 310,501, or 26.6%, were + native-born of native white parents; 355,697 were foreign-born, 18,367 + were negroes, and 1206 were Chinese. Out of 332,715 males of voting age + (21 years and over), 15,415 were illiterate (unable to write), and of + these 14,159 were foreign-born.</p> + + <p>Brooklyn is connected with Manhattan by three bridges across the East + river—the lowest, known as the Brooklyn, opened in 1883; another, + known as the Williamsburg or East River bridge, opened in 1903; and a + third, the Manhattan, was opened in 1909. And a tunnel directly across + from the south terminus of Manhattan was completed in 1907. Ferries ply + at frequent intervals between numerous points on its west water-front and + points in Manhattan; there is also ferry connexion with Jersey City. + Brooklyn is served directly by the Long Island railway; by about fifty + regular coast-wise and trans-Atlantic steamship lines; and by elevated or + surface car lines on a large number of its streets. Subway lines, begun + in 1904, connect Brooklyn with the subway system of Manhattan.</p> + + <p><i>Streets and Buildings.</i>—The surface of Brooklyn in the + west section, from the lower course of the East river to Gravesend Bay, + varies in elevation from a few inches to nearly 200 ft. above sea-level, + the highest points being in Prospect Park; but steep street grades even + in this section are rare, and elsewhere the surface is either only + slightly undulating or, as in the east and south, flat. Most of the + streets are from 60 to 100 ft. wide. The principal business thoroughfare + is Fulton Street, which begins at Fulton ferry nearly under the Brooklyn + bridge, runs to City Hall Park, and thence across the north central + section of the borough. In the City Hall Park are the old city hall (now + the borough hall), the hall of records, and the county court-house. Two + blocks to the north (on Washington Street) is the post-office, a fine + granite Romanesque building. The manufacturing and shipping districts are + mostly along the west water-front. Here, on Wallabout Bay at the bend of + the East river to the westward, is the New York navy yard, the principal + navy yard of the United States, established in 1801, and commonly but + incorrectly called the Brooklyn navy yard. It occupies altogether about + 144 acres, contains a trophy park, parade grounds, the United States + Naval Lyceum (founded 1833), officers' quarters, barracks, and three + large dry docks (respectively 564, 465 and 307 ft. long), foundries and + machine shops. A naval hospital (having accommodation for about 500 + patients) to the east is separated from the navy yard by the largest and + most interesting of Brooklyn's markets, the Wallabout (about 45 acres). + The buildings of this market are Dutch in style and have a quaint clock + tower. A little to the north of the navy yard are immense refineries of + sugar. About 2 m. to the south, opposite Governor's Island, is the + Atlantic Basin of 40 acres, with a wharfage of about 3 m. and brick and + granite warehouses used largely for the storage of grain. A little + farther south, on Gowanus Bay, is another basin, the Erie, of 161 acres, + protected by a breakwater 1 m. in length, occupied by piers, warehouses, + lumber depots and some of the largest dry docks in the United States; it + also provides protection during winter to hundreds of canal boats. In + this vicinity, too, are several yards for building yachts, launches and + other boats. At the lower end of the west water-front, facing the + Narrows, are a United States reservation and the harbour defences of Fort + Hamilton.</p> + + <p>For a considerable portion of its inhabitants Brooklyn is only a place + of residence, their business interests being in the borough of Manhattan; + hence Brooklyn has been called the "city of homes" and the "dormitory of + New York." Residential districts with social lines more or less + distinctly drawn are numerous. The oldest is that on Brooklyn (or + Columbia) Heights, west of City Hall Park, rising abruptly from the river + to a height of from 70 to 100 ft., and commanding a delightful view of + the harbour. Here are hotels, large apartment-houses, many private + residences and a number of clubs, including the Brooklyn, the Crescent, + the Hamilton, the Jefferson and the Germania. On Park Slope, immediately + west of Prospect Park, and St Mark's Avenue, in another part of the + borough, are also attractive residential districts. The south shore of + the borough has various summer pleasure resorts, of which Coney Island is + the most popular.</p> + + <p><i>Parks and Cemeteries.</i>—One of the most attractive features + of Brooklyn is Prospect Park, occupying about 516 acres of high ground in + the west central part of the borough, on a site made memorable by the + battle of Long Island. Its large variety of trees and shrubs, including + oak, hickory, elm, maple, chestnut, birch, ash, cedar, pine, larch and + sumach, its flower gardens, a palm house, ponds, a lake of 61 acres for + boating, skating and curling, a parade ground of 40 acres for other + athletic sports, a menagerie, and numerous pieces of statuary, are among + its objects of interest or beauty. From the southern entrance to this + park, Ocean Parkway, a fine boulevard, 210 ft. wide and planted with six + rows of trees, extends 5½ m. south to Seaside Park (15 acres), on + Brighton Beach, Coney Island. From the same entrance Fort Hamilton + Parkway extends 4½ m. south-east to Fort Hamilton, and to Dyker Beach + Park (144 acres) which face the lower end of the Narrows; and from Fort + Hamilton, Shore Road and Bay Ridge Parkway extend north 4½ m. to Bay + Ridge Park overlooking Upper New York Bay. From the northern entrance to + Prospect Park, Eastern Parkway, another fine boulevard, 200 ft. wide, + extends east 2½ m. to a point from which Rockaway Parkway runs 3 m. + south-east to Canarsie Beach Park (40 acres), on Jamaica Bay; and + extensions of Eastern Parkway run north-east through Highland Park (55 + acres), to Brooklyn Forest Park (535 acres, on the border of the borough + of Queens), abounding in beautiful trees and delightful views. Half a + mile east of the borough hall is Washington or Fort Greene Park (30 + acres), laid out on the site of earthworks (known as Fort Greene) + constructed during the War of Independence, and commanding good + views.</p> + + <p>Greenwood cemetery, one of the most beautiful cemeteries in the United + States, ½ m. east of Prospect Park, occupies about 478 acres. Among the + principal monuments are those erected to Roger Williams, S.F.B. Morse, + Elias Howe, De Witt Clinton (colossal bronze statue by Henry Kirke + Brown), Henry Ward Beecher, Peter Cooper, Horace Greeley, Henry Bergh, + Henry George and James Gordon Bennett. At the main entrance is a + beautiful gateway (of elaborately wrought brown stone), 142 ft. wide and + having a central tower 100 ft. in height. Along the north-east border of + the borough are Cypress Hills cemetery (400 acres), adjoining Brooklyn + Forest Park, and the cemetery of the Evergreens (about 375 acres), + adjoining Highland Park and partly in the borough of Queens.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 648 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page648"></a>[v.04 p.0648]</span></p> + + <p>In the plaza at the northern entrance to Prospect Park is a soldiers' + and sailors' memorial arch (80 ft. in width and 71 ft. in height), + adorned with high-reliefs of Lincoln and Grant on horseback (by O'Donovan + and Eakins) and with three large bronze groups (by Frederick MacMonnies). + Immediately within the park there is a statue (also by MacMonnies) of + J.S.T. Stranahan (1808-1898), who did more than any other man for the + development of Brooklyn's system of parks and boulevards. On the slope of + Lookout Hill (185 ft.) within the park is a shaft erected in 1895 to the + memory of the Maryland soldiers who valiantly defended the rear of the + American army at the battle of Long Island. A bronze statue of Abraham + Lincoln overlooks the lake. In Fort Greene Park is a monument to the + memory of the soldiers who died in the British prison ships during the + War of Independence, many of them having been buried in a vault below. + Facing the borough hall is a statue in bronze (by J.Q.A. Ward) of Henry + Ward Beecher, mounted on a granite pedestal with a figure at one side to + commemorate Beecher's sympathy for the slave. A fine bronze statue of + Alexander Hamilton (by W.O. Partridge, b. 1861) stands at the entrance of + the Hamilton Club in Clinton Street and one of U.S. Grant (also by + Partridge) stands at the entrance of the Union League Club in Bedford + Avenue.</p> + + <p><i>Education</i>.—The Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences + embraces twenty-six departments, of which those of music, philology and + the fine arts have each more than 1000 members; the total membership of + all departments in 1906 was 5894. The museum building of this institution + is in Institute Park, which is separated from Prospect Park on the + north-east by Flatbush Avenue. It contains, besides paintings and + statuary, special collections for service in nearly all of the + departments; among its purely art collections the most notable is that of + J.J.J. Tissot's water-colour drawings, to illustrate the life of Christ. + Since 1890 the Institute has received appropriations from the city, but + it is maintained chiefly by private contributions. It is the outgrowth of + the Apprentices' Library Association, founded in 1824, of which General + Lafayette laid the corner-stone on the 4th of July of that year. In 1888 + Franklin W. Hooper (b. 1851), who did much to increase the efficiency of + the work of the Institute, became director. Pratt Institute, founded in + 1887 by Charles Pratt (1830-1891), and the residuary legatee of his wife, + who died in 1907, is one of the most successful manual and industrial + training schools in the country, and its kindergarten normal is one of + the best known in the United States. The Polytechnic Institute, opened in + 1855, is a high-grade school of science and liberal arts. It has two + general departments, the college of arts and engineering and the + preparatory school, which are conducted independently of one another. In + connexion with the college there is provision for graduate study and for + night courses, and there are teachers' courses to which women are + admitted. The Packer Collegiate Institute, opened as the successor of the + Brooklyn Female Academy, in 1854, and endowed by Mrs Harriet L. Packer, + an institution for women, has primary, preparatory, academic and + collegiate departments. Adelphi College, opened in 1896, is for both + sexes and gives special attention to normal training; it is the outgrowth + of Adelphi Academy, founded in 1869, now the preparatory department. St + Francis' College, opened in 1858, and St John's College, opened in 1870, + are institutions maintained by Roman Catholics. Here, too, are the law + school of St Lawrence University, the Long Island Hospital Medical + College, with a training school for nurses, the Brooklyn College of + Pharmacy and several schools of music. Brooklyn's public schools rank + especially high; among them there is a commercial high school and a + manual training high school. Among the larger libraries of the borough + are the Brooklyn public library, those of the Long Island Historical + Society, on Brooklyn Heights, of Pratt Institute, and of the King's + County Medical Society, and a good law library. The <i>Brooklyn Daily + Eagle</i>, which occupies an attractive building near the borough hall, + has been a newspaper of strong influence in the community. It was + established in 1841 as a Democratic organ, and Walt Whitman was its + editor for about a year during its early history.</p> + + <p>Brooklyn is well provided with charitable institutions, and has long + been known as the "city of churches," probably from the famous clergymen + who have lived there. Among them were Henry Ward Beecher, pastor of + Plymouth church (Congregational) from 1847 to 1887; Lyman Abbott, pastor + of the same church from 1887 to 1898; Thomas De Witt Talmage, pastor of + the Brooklyn Tabernacle (Presbyterian) from 1869 to 1894; Richard Salter + Storrs (1821-1900), pastor of the church of the Pilgrims (Congregational) + from 1846 to 1899; and Theodore L. Cuyler (1822-1909), pastor of the + Lafayette Avenue Presbyterian church from 1860 to 1890.</p> + + <p><i>Manufactures and Commerce.</i>—The borough of Brooklyn is one + of the most important manufacturing centres in the United States, most of + the factories being located along or near the East river north of the + Brooklyn bridge. The total value of the manufactured products in 1890 was + $270,823,754 and in 1900, $342,127,124, an increase during the decade of + 26.3%. In 1905 the total value of the borough's manufactured product + (under the factory system) was $373,462,930, or 15% of the total + manufactured product of the state of New York. Brooklyn's largest + manufacturing industry is the refining of sugar, about one-half of the + sugar consumed in the United States being refined here; in 1900 the + product of the sugar and molasses refining establishments was valued at + $77,942,997. Brooklyn is also an important place for the milling of + coffee and spices (the 1905 product was valued at $15,274,092), the + building of small boats, and the manufacture of foundry and machine shop + products, malt liquors, barrels, shoes, chemicals, paints, cordage, + twine, and hosiery and other knitted goods. Of its large commerce, grain + is the chief commodity; it is estimated that about four-fifths of that + exported from the port of New York is shipped from here, and the + borough's grain elevators have an estimated storage capacity of about + 20,000,000 bushels.</p> + + <p>The water-supply system is owned and operated by the borough; the + water is derived from streams flowing southward in the sparsely settled + area east of the borough, and also from driven wells in the same region; + it is pumped by ten engines at Ridgewood to a reservoir having a capacity + of about 300,000,000 gallons, while a part of it is re-pumped to a high + service reservoir near the north entrance to Prospect Park for the + service of the most elevated part of the borough. Besides this system + some towns in the south section recently annexed have their own + water-supply.</p> + + <p><i>History.</i>—The first settlement within the present limits + of Brooklyn was made in 1636, when some Dutch farmers took up their + residence along the shore of Gowanus Bay. About the same time other Dutch + farmers founded Flatlands (at first called Amersfoort), on Jamaica Bay, + and a few Walloons founded Wallabout, where the navy yard now is. In 1642 + a ferry was established across East river from the present foot of Fulton + Street, and a settlement grew up here which was known as The Ferry. The + next year Lady Deborah Moody with some followers from New England founded + Gravesend near the southern extremity of the borough. Finally, in the + year 1645, a settlement was established near the site of the present + borough hall, and was called Breuckelen (also spelled Breucklyn, + Breuckland, Brucklyn, Broucklyn, Brookland and Brookline) until about the + close of the 18th century, when its orthography became fixed as Brooklyn. + The name, Breuckelen, meaning marsh land, seems to have been suggested by + the resemblance of the situation of the settlement to that of Breuckelen, + Holland. Of the other towns which were later united to form the borough, + New Utrecht was settled about 1650, Flatbush (at first called Medwoud, + Midwout or Midwood) about 1651, Bushwick and Williamsburg in 1660. All of + the settlements were for a long time chiefly agricultural communities. + Flatbush was for a few years immediately preceding 1675 the largest; but + Brooklyn was the first (1646) to have a township organization, and within + a few years Wallabout, Gowanus, The Ferry, and Bedford—a new + settlement to the south-east of Wallabout, established in 1662—were + included within its jurisdiction. In 1654 the municipal privileges of + Brooklyn as well as of two of the other towns were enlarged, <!-- Page + 649 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page649"></a>[v.04 + p.0649]</span>but with Dutch rule there was general discontent, and when, + in 1664, Colonel Richard Nicolls came to overthrow it and establish + English rule these towns offered no resistance. Nicolls erected the + region composed of Long Island, Staten Island and Westchester into a + county under the name of Yorkshire, and divided it into three ridings, of + which Staten Island, the present county of Kings, and the town of Newtown + in Queens, formed one. In 1683 the present county of Kings was organized + by the first colonial legislature. During the War of Independence the + chief event was the battle of Long Island, fought on the 27th of August + 1776. In 1816, when the population of the town of Brooklyn was about + 4500, its most populous section was incorporated as a village; and in + 1834, when its population had increased to 23,310, the whole town was + incorporated as a city. By 1850 its population had increased to 138,882. + In 1855 Williamsburg, which had been incorporated as a city in 1851, and + the town of Bushwick were annexed. Other annexations followed until the + city of Brooklyn was conterminous with Kings county; and finally, on the + 1st of January 1898, the city of Brooklyn became a borough of New York + City.</p> + + <p>See S.M. Ostrander, <i>A History of Brooklyn and Kings County</i> + (Brooklyn, 1894); H.W.B. Howard (ed.), <i>History of the City of + Brooklyn</i> (Brooklyn, 1893); and H. Putnam, <i>Brooklyn</i>, in L.P. + Powell's <i>Historic Towns of the Middle States</i> (New York, 1899).</p> + + <p><b>BROOKS, CHARLES WILLIAM SHIRLEY</b> (1816-1874), English novelist, + playwright and journalist, was born on the 29th of April 1816. He was the + son of a London architect, and was articled in 1832 to a solicitor for + five years. He became parliamentary reporter for the <i>Morning + Chronicle</i>, and in 1853 was sent by that paper as special commissioner + to investigate the subject of labour and the poor in southern Russia, + Egypt and Syria; the result of his inquiries appearing first in the form + of letters to the editor, and afterwards in a separate volume, under the + title of <i>The Russians of the South</i> (1856). He wrote, sometimes + alone, sometimes in conjunction with others, slight dramatic pieces of + the burlesque kind, among which may be mentioned <i>Anything for a + Change</i> (1848), <i>The Daughter of the Stars</i> (1850). Brooks was + for many years on the staff of the <i>Illustrated London News</i>, + contributing the weekly article on the politics of the day, and the two + series entitled "Nothing in the Papers" and "By the Way." In 1851 he + joined the staff of <i>Punch</i>, and noteworthy among his numerous + contributions were the weekly satirical summaries of the parliamentary + debates, entitled "The Essence of Parliament." His long service as + newspaper reporter gave him special aptitude for this playful parody. In + 1870, on the death of Mark Lemon, "dear old Shirley," as his friends used + to call him, was chosen to succeed to the editorial chair. His first + novel, <i>Aspen Court</i>, was published in 1855. It was followed by + <i>The Gordian Knot</i> (1860), <i>The Silver Cord</i> (1861) and + <i>Sooner or Later</i> (1868). Brooks was a great letter-writer, + deliberately cultivating the practice as an art, and imitating the style + in vogue before newspapers and telegraphs suppressed private letters. He + had an astonishing memory, was brilliant as an epigrammatist, was a great + reader and a most genial companion. He was in his element with a group of + children, reading to them, sharing their fun and always remembering the + birthdays. He died in London, on the 23rd of February 1874, and was + buried near his friends Leech and Thackeray, in Kensal Green + cemetery.</p> + + <p>See G.S. Layard, <i>A Great "Punch" Editor: Being the Life, Letters + and Diaries of Shirley Brooks</i> (1907.)</p> + + <p><b>BROOKS, PHILLIPS</b> (1835-1893), American clergyman and author, + was born in Boston, Mass., on the 13th of December 1835. Through his + father, William Gray Brooks, he was descended from the Rev. John Cotton; + through his mother, Mary Ann Phillips, a woman of rare force of character + and religious faith, he was a great-grandson of the founder of Phillips + Academy, Andover, Mass. Of the six sons, four—Phillips, Frederic, + Arthur and John Cotton—entered the ministry of the Protestant + Episcopal Church. Phillips Brooks prepared for college at the Boston + Latin school and graduated at Harvard in 1855. After a short and + unsuccessful experience as a teacher in the Boston Latin school, he began + in 1856 to study for the ministry of the Protestant Episcopal Church in + the theological seminary at Alexandria, Virginia. In 1859 he graduated, + was ordained deacon by Bishop William Meade of Virginia, and became + rector of the church of the Advent, Philadelphia. In 1860 he was ordained + priest, and in 1862 became rector of the church of the Holy Trinity, + Philadelphia, where he remained seven years, gaining an increasing name + as preacher and patriot. Endowed by inheritance with a rich religious + character, evangelical traditions, ethical temper and strong intellect, + he developed, by wide reading in ancient and modern literature, a + personality and attitude of mind which appealed to the characteristic + thought and life of the period. With Tennyson, Coleridge, Frederic D. + Maurice and F. W. Robertson he was in strong sympathy. During the Civil + War he upheld with power the cause of the North and the negro, and his + sermon on the death of President Lincoln was an eloquent expression of + the character of both men. In 1869 he became rector of Trinity church, + Boston. In 1877 the present church was finished, the architect being his + friend H. H. Richardson. Here Phillips Brooks preached Sunday after + Sunday to great congregations, until he was consecrated bishop of + Massachusetts in 1891. In 1886 he declined an election as assistant + bishop of Pennsylvania. He was for many years an overseer and preacher of + Harvard University, his influence upon the religious life of the + university being deep and wide. In 1881 he declined an invitation to be + the sole preacher to the university and professor of Christian ethics. On + the 30th of April 1891 he was elected sixth bishop of Massachusetts, and + on the 14th of October was consecrated to that office in Trinity church, + Boston. After a brief but great episcopate of fifteen months, he died, + unmarried, on the 23rd of January 1893. Phillips Brooks was a tall, + well-proportioned man of fine physique, his height being six feet four + inches. In character he was pure, simple, endowed with excellent judgment + and a keen sense of humour, and quick to respond to any call for + sympathy. When kindled by his subject it seemed to take possession of him + and pour itself out with overwhelming speed of utterance, with heat and + power. His sympathy with men of other ways and thought, and with the + truth in other ecclesiastical systems gained for him the confidence and + affection of men of varied habits of mind and religious traditions, and + was thus a great factor in gaining increasing support for the Episcopal + Church. As years went by his influence as a religious leader became + unique. The degree of S.T.D. had been conferred upon him by the + universities of Harvard (1877), and of Columbia (1887), and the degree of + D.D. by the university of Oxford, England (1885). In 1877 he published a + course of lectures upon preaching, which he had delivered at the + theological school of Yale University, and which are an expression of his + own experience. In 1879 appeared the Bohlen Lectures on "The Influence of + Jesus." In 1878 he published his first volume of sermons, and from time + to time issued other volumes, including <i>Sermons Preached in English + Churches</i> (1883).</p> + + <p>In 1901, at New York, was published, in two volumes, <i>Phillips + Brooks, Life and Letters</i>, by the Rev. A.V.G. Allen, D.D., professor + of ecclesiastical history, Episcopal Theological school, Cambridge, + Mass., who in 1907 published at New York, in a single volume, <i>Phillips + Brooks</i>, an abbreviation and revision of the earlier biography.</p> + + <p>(W. L.)</p> + + <p><b>BROOKS'S,</b> a London club in St James's Street. It was founded in + 1764 by the dukes of Roxburghe and Portland. The building had been + previously opened as a gaming-house by William Macall (Almack), and + afterwards by Brooks, a wine merchant and money-lender, whose name it + retained.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:40%;"> + <a href="images/broom_1.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/broom_1.png" + alt="Broom." title="Broom." /></a> + <i>Cytisus scoparius</i>, Common Broom. + + <p class="poem">1. Two-lipped calyx.</p> + + <p class="poem">2. Broadly ovate vexillum or standard.</p> + + <p class="poem">3. One of the alae or wings of the corolla.</p> + + <p class="poem">4. Carina or keel.</p> + + <p class="poem">5. Monadelphous stamens.</p> + + <p class="poem">6. Hairy ovary with the long style, thickened upwards, + and spirally curved.</p> + + <p class="poem">7. Legume or pod.</p> + </div> + <p><b>BROOM,</b> known botanically as <i>Cytisus</i>, or <i>Sarothamnus, + scoparius</i>, a member of the natural order Leguminosae, a shrub found + on heaths and commons in the British Isles, and also in Europe (except + the north) and temperate Asia. The leaves are small, and the function of + carbon-assimilating is shared by the green stems. The bright yellow + flowers scatter their pollen by an explosive mechanism; the weight of a + bee alighting on the flower causes the keel to split and the pollen to be + shot out on to the insect's body. When ripe the black pods explode with a + <!-- Page 650 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page650"></a>[v.04 + p.0650]</span>sudden twisting of the valves and scatter the seeds. The + twigs have a bitter and nauseous taste and have long had a popular + reputation as a diuretic; the seeds have similar properties.</p> + + <p>"Butcher's broom," a very different plant, known botanically as + <i>Ruscus aculeatus</i>, is a member of the natural order Liliaceae. It + is a small evergreen shrub found in copses and woods, but rare in the + southern half of England. The stout angular stems bear leaves reduced to + small scales, which subtend flattened leaf-like branches (cladodes) with + a sharp apex. The small whitish flowers are borne on the face of the + cladodes, and are succeeded by a bright red berry.</p> + + <p><b>BROOME, WILLIAM</b> (1689-1745), English scholar and poet, the son + of a farmer, was born at Haslington, Cheshire, where he was baptized on + the 3rd of May 1689. He was educated at Eton, where he became captain of + the school, and at St John's College, Cambridge. He collaborated with + John Ozell and William Oldisworth in a translation (1712) of the + <i>Iliad</i> from the French version of Madame Dacier, and he contributed + in the same year some verses to <i>Lintot's Miscellany</i>. He was + introduced to Pope, who was at that time engaged on his translation of + the <i>Iliad</i>. Pope asked Broome to make a digest for him of the notes + of Eustathius, the 12th-century annotator of Homer. This task Broome + executed to Pope's entire satisfaction, refusing any payment. He was + rector of Sturston, Norfolk, and his prosperity was further assured by + his marriage in 1716 with a rich widow, Mrs Elizabeth Clarke. When Pope + undertook the translation of the <i>Odyssey</i>, he engaged Elijah Fenton + and Broome to assist him. Broome's facility in verse had gained for him + at college the nickname of "the poet," and he adapted his style very + closely to Pope's. He translated the 2nd, 6th, 8th, 11th, 12th, 16th, + 18th and 23rd books, and practically provided all the notes. He was a + vain, talkative man, and did not fail to make known his real share in the + translation, of which Pope had given a very misleading account in the + "proposals" issued to subscribers. He casually mentioned Broome as his + coadjutor, as though his assistance was of an entirely subsidiary + character. His influence over Broome was so strong that the latter was + induced to write a note at the end of the translation minimizing his own + share and implicating Fenton, who, moreover, had not wished his name to + appear, in the deception. "If my performance," he said, "has merit either + in these [the notes] or in any part of the translation, namely the 6th, + 11th and 18th books, it is but just to attribute it to the judgment and + care of Mr Pope, by whose hand every sheet was corrected." For the + <i>Odyssey</i> Pope received £4500, of which Broome, who had provided a + third of the text and the notes, received £570. He had hoped to secure + fame from his connexion with Pope, and when he found that Pope had no + intention of praising him he complained bitterly of being underpaid. Pope + thought that Broome's garrulity had caused the reports which were being + circulated to his disadvantage, and ungenerously made satirical allusions + to him in the <i>Dunciad</i><a name="FnAnchor_161" + href="#Footnote_161"><sup>[1]</sup></a> and the <i>Bathos</i>. After + these insults Broome's patience gave way, and there is a gap in his + correspondence with Pope, but in 1730 the intercourse was renewed on + friendly terms. In 1728 the degree of LL.D. was conferred on him by the + university of Cambridge, and he was presented to the rectory of Pulham, + Norfolk, and subsequently by Charles, 1st Earl Cornwallis, who had been + his friend at Cambridge, to two livings, Oakley Magna in Essex, and Eye + in Suffolk. He died at Bath on the 16th of November 1745.</p> + + <p>Broome was also the author of some translations from Anacreon printed + in the <i>Gentleman's Magazine</i>, and of <i>Poems on Several + Occasions</i> (1727). His poems are included in Johnson's and other + collections of the British poets. His connexion with Pope is exhaustively + discussed in Elwin and Courthope's edition of Pope's <i>Works</i> (viii. + pp. 30-186), where the correspondence between the two is reproduced.</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_161" href="#FnAnchor_161">[1]</a> i. 146, "worthy + Settle Banks and Broome." A footnote (1743) explained away the allusion + by making it apply to Richard Brome, the disciple of Ben Jonson. Also + iii. 332, of which the original rendering was:—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"Hibernian politics, O Swift, thy doom,</p> + <p>And Pope's, translating ten whole years with Broome."</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>In the <i>Bathos</i> he was classed with the parrots and the + tortoises.</p> + +</div> + <p><b>BROOM-RAPE,</b> known botanically as <i>Orobanche</i>, a genus of + brown leafless herbs growing attached to the roots of other plants from + which they derive their nourishment. The usually stout stem bears + brownish scales, and ends in a spike of yellow, reddish-brown or purplish + flowers, with a gaping two-lipped corolla. Several species occur in the + British Isles; the largest, <i>Orobanche major</i>, is parasitic on roots + of shrubby leguminous plants, and has a stout stem 1 to 2 ft. high.</p> + + <p><b>BROSCH, MORITZ</b> (1829-1907), German historian, was born at + Prague on the 7th of April 1829, was educated at Prague and Vienna, and + became a journalist. Later he devoted himself to historical study, and he + died on the 14th of July 1907 at Venice, where he had resided for over + thirty years. To the series <i>Geschichte der europäischen Staaten</i> + Brosch contributed <i>England 1509-1550</i> (6 vols., Gotha, 1884-1899), + a continuation of the work of J.M. Lappenberg and R. Pauli, and <i>Der + Kirchenstaat</i> (Gotha, 1880-1882). He gave further proof of his + interest in English history by writing <i>Lord Bolingbroke und die Whigs + und Tories seiner Zeit</i> (Frankfort, 1883), and <i>Oliver Cromwell und + die puritanische Revolution</i> (Frankfort, 1886). He also wrote + <i>Julius II. und die Gründung des Kirchenstaats</i> (Gotha, 1878), while + one of his last pieces of work was to contribute a chapter on "The height + of the Ottoman power" to vol. iii. of the <i>Cambridge Modern + History</i>.</p> + + <p>See A.W. Ward in the <i>English Historical Review</i>, vol. xxii. + (1907).</p> + + <p><b>BROSELEY,</b> a market town in the municipal borough of Wenlock + (<i>q.v.</i>) and the Wellington (Mid) parliamentary division of + Shropshire, England, on the right bank of the Severn. It has a station + (Ironbridge and Broseley) on the Great Western railway, 158 m. N.W. from + London. There is trade in coal, but <!-- Page 651 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page651"></a>[v.04 p.0651]</span>the town is + most famous for the manufacture of tobacco-pipes, a long-established + industry. Pottery and bricks are also produced, and at Benthall, 1 m. W., + are large encaustic tile works. The early name of the town was + Burwardesley.</p> + + <p><b>BROSSES, CHARLES DE</b> (1709-1777), French magistrate and scholar, + was born at Dijon and studied law with a view to the magistracy. The bent + of his mind, however, was towards literature and science, and, after a + visit to Italy in 1739 in company with his friend Jean Baptiste de + Lacurne de Sainte-Palaye, he published his <i>Lettres sur l'état actuel + de la mile souterraine d'Herculée</i> (Dijon, 1750), the first work upon + the ruins of Herculaneum. It was during this Italian tour that he wrote + his famous letters on Italy, which remained in MS. till long after his + death. In 1760 he published a dissertation, <i>Du culte des dieux + fétiches</i>, which was afterwards inserted in the <i>Encyclopédie + méthodique</i>. At the solicitation of his friend Buffon, he undertook + his <i>Histoire des navigations aux terres australes</i>, which was + published in 1756, in two vols. 4to, with maps. It was in this work that + de Brosses first laid down the geographical divisions of Australasia and + Polynesia, which were afterwards adopted by John Pinkerton and succeeding + geographers. He also contributed to the <i>Encyclopédie</i> the articles + "Langues," "Musique," "Étymologic." In 1765 appeared his work on the + origin of language, <i>Traite de la formation mécanique des langues</i>, + the merits of which are recognized by E. B. Tylor in <i>Primitive + Culture</i>. De Brosses had been occupied, during a great part of his + life, on a translation of Sallust, and in attempting to supply the lost + chapters in that celebrated historian. At length in 1777 he published + <i>L'Histoire du septième siècle de la république romaine</i>, 3 vols. + 4to, to which is prefixed a learned life of Sallust, reprinted at the + commencement of the translation of that historian by Jean Baptiste Dureau + de La Malle. These literary occupations did not prevent the author from + discharging with ability his official duties as first president of the + parliament of Burgundy, nor from carrying on a constant and extensive + correspondence with the most distinguished literary characters of his + time. In 1758 he succeeded the marquis de Caumont in the Académie des + Belles-lettres; but when in 1770 he presented himself at the French + Academy, his candidature was rejected owing to Voltaire's opposition on + personal grounds. Besides the works already mentioned, he wrote several + memoirs and dissertations in the collections of the Academy of + Inscriptions, and in those of the Academy of Dijon, and he left behind + him several MSS., which were unfortunately lost during the Revolution. + His letters on Italy were, however, found in MS. in the confiscated + library by his son, the <i>émigré</i> officer René de Brosses, and were + first published in 1799, in the uncritical edition of Antoine Serieys, + under the title of <i>Lettres historiques et critiques</i>. A fresh + edition, freed from errors and interpolations, by R. Colomb, with the + title <i>L'Italie il y a cent ans</i>, was issued in 1836; and two + subsequent reprints appeared, one edited by Poulet-Malassis, under the + title <i>Lettres familières</i> (1858); the other, a re-impression of + Colomb's edition, under that of <i>Le Président de Brosses en Italic</i> + (1858).</p> + + <p>See H. Mamet, <i>Le President de Brosses, sa vie et ses ouvrages</i> + (Lille, 1874); also Cunisset-Carnot, "La Querelle de Voltaire et du + président de Brosses," in the <i>Revue des Deux Mondes</i> (February 15, + 1888).</p> + + <p><b>BROTHER</b>, a male person in his relation to the other children of + the same father and mother. "Brother" represents in English the Teutonic + branch of a word common to the Indo-European languages, of. Ger. + <i>Bruder</i>, Dutch <i>broeder</i>, Dan. and Swed. <i>broder</i>, + &c. In Celtic languages, Gaelic and Irish have <i>brathair</i>, and + Welsh <i>brawd</i>; in Greek the word is <span title="phratêr" class="grk" + >φράτηρ</span>, in Lat. <i>frater</i>, from + which come the Romanic forms, Fr. <i>frère</i>, Ital. <i>fratello</i>; + the Span. <i>fray</i>, Port. <i>frei</i>, like the Ital. <i>frate</i>, + <i>fra</i>, are only used of "friars." The Span. <i>hermano</i> and the + Port. <i>irmāo</i>, the regular words for brother, are from Lat. + <i>germanus</i>, born of the same father and mother. The Sanskrit word is + <i>bhrātār</i>, and the ultimate Indo-European root is + generally taken to be <i>bhar</i>, to bear (cf. M. H. Ger. <i>barn</i>, + Scot, <i>bairn</i>, child, and such words as "birth," "burden"). + "Brother" has often been loosely used of kinsmen generally, or for + members of the same tribe; also for quite fictitious relationships, + <i>e.g.</i> "blood-brothers," through a sacramental rite of mutual + blood-tasting, "foster-brothers," because suckled by the same nurse. + Christianity, through the idea of the universal fatherhood of God, + conceives all men as brothers; but in a narrower sense "the brethren" are + the members of the Church, or, in a narrower still, of a confraternity or + "brotherhood" within the Church. This latter idea is reproduced in those + fraternal societies, <i>e.g.</i> the Freemasons, the members of which + become "brothers" by initiation. "Brother" is also used symbolically, as + implying equality, by sovereigns in addressing one another, and also by + bishops.</p> + + <p><b>BROTHERS, RICHARD</b> (1757-1824), British religious fanatic, was + born in Newfoundland on Christmas day, 1757, and educated at Woolwich. He + entered the navy and served under Keppel and Rodney. In 1783 he became + lieutenant, and was discharged on half-pay. He travelled on the + continent, made an unhappy marriage in 1786, and again went to sea. But + he felt that the military calling and Christianity were incompatible and + abandoned the former (1789). Further scruples as to the oath required on + the receipt of his half-pay reduced him to serious pecuniary straits + (1791), and he divided his time between the open air and the workhouse, + where he developed the idea that he had a special divine commission, and + wrote to the king and the parliament to that effect. In 1793 he declared + himself the apostle of a new religion, "the nephew of the Almighty, and + prince of the Hebrews, appointed to lead them to the land of Canaan." At + the end of 1794 he began to print his interpretations of prophecy, his + first book being <i>A Revealed Knowledge of the Prophecies and Times</i>. + In consequence of prophesying the death of the king and the end of the + monarchy, he was arrested for treason in 1795, and confined as a criminal + lunatic. His case was, however, brought before parliament by his ardent + disciple, Nathaniel Halhed, the orientalist, a member of the House of + Commons, and he was removed to a private asylum in Islington. Here he + wrote a variety of prophetic pamphlets, which gained him many believers, + amongst them William Sharp, the engraver, who afterwards deserted him for + Joanna Southcott. Brothers, however, had announced that on the 19th of + November 1795 he was to be "revealed" as prince of the Hebrews and ruler + of the world; and when this date passed without any such manifestation, + what enthusiasm he had aroused rapidly dwindled, despite the fact that + some of his earlier political predictions (<i>e.g.</i> the violent death + of Louis XVI.) had been fulfilled. He died in London on the 25th of + January 1824, in the house of John Finlayson, who had secured his + release, and who afterwards pestered the government with an enormous + claim for Brothers's maintenance. The supporters of the Anglo-Israelite + theory claim him as the first writer on their side.</p> + + <p><b>BROTHERS OF COMMON LIFE,</b> a religious community formerly + existing in the Catholic Church. Towards the end of his career Gerhard + Groot (<i>q.v.</i>) retired to his native town of Deventer, in the + province of Overyssel and the diocese of Utrecht, and gathered about him + a number of those who had been "converted" by his preaching or wished to + place themselves under his spiritual guidance. With the assistance of + Florentius Radewyn, who resigned for the purpose a canonry at Utrecht, he + was able to carry out a long-cherished idea of establishing a house + wherein devout men might live in community without the monastic vows. The + first such community was established at Deventer in the house of + Floentius himself (<i>c.</i> 1380); and Thomas à Kempis, who lived in it + from 1392 to 1399, has left a description of the manner of life + pursued:—</p> + + <p>"They humbly imitated the manner of the Apostolic life, and having one + heart and mind in God, brought every man what was his own into the common + stock, and receiving simple food and clothing avoided taking thought for + the morrow. Of their own will they devoted themselves to God, and all + busied themselves in obeying their rector or his vicar .... They laboured + carefully in copying books, being instant continually in sacred study and + devout meditation. In the morning, having said Matins, they went to the + church (for Mass) .... Some who were priests and were learned in the + divine law preached earnestly in the church."</p> + +<p><!-- Page 652 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page652"></a>[v.04 p.0652]</span></p> + + <p>Other houses of the Brothers of Common Life, otherwise called the + "Modern Devotion," were in rapid succession established in the chief + cities of the Low Countries and north and central Germany, so that there + were in all upwards of forty houses of men; while those of women doubled + that figure, the first having been founded by Groot himself at + Deventer.</p> + + <p>The ground-idea was to reproduce the life of the first Christians as + described in Acts iv. The members took no vows and were free to leave + when they chose; but so long as they remained they were bound to observe + chastity, to practise personal poverty, putting all their money and + earnings into the common fund, to obey the rules of the house and the + commands of the rector, and to exercise themselves in self-denial, + humility and piety. The rector was chosen by the community and was not + necessarily a priest, though in each house there were a few priests and + clerics. The majority, however, were laymen, of all kinds and + degrees—nobles, artisans, scholars, students, labouring men. The + clerics preached and instructed the people, working chiefly among the + poor; they also devoted themselves to the copying of manuscripts, in + order thereby to earn something for the common fund; and some of them + taught in the schools. Of the laymen, the educated copied manuscripts, + the others worked at various handicrafts or at agriculture. After the + religious services of the morning the Brothers scattered for the day's + work, the artisans going to the workshops in the city,—for the idea + was to live and work in the world, and not separated from it, like the + monks. Their rule was that they had to earn their livelihood, and must + not beg. This feature seemed a reflection on the mendicant orders, and + the idea of a community life without vows and not in isolation from + everyday life, was looked upon as something new and strange, and even as + bearing affinities to the Beghards and other sects, at that time causing + trouble to both Church and state. And so opposition arose to the Modern + Devotion, and the controversy was carried to the legal faculty at Cologne + University, which gave a judgment strongly in their favour. The question, + for all that, was not finally settled until the council of Constance + (1414), when their cause was triumphantly defended by Pierre d'Ailly and + Gerson. For a century after this the Modern Devotion flourished + exceedingly, and its influence on the revival of religion in the + Netherlands and north Germany in the 15th century was wide and deep. It + has been the fashion to treat Groot and the Brothers of Common Life as + "Reformers before the Reformation"; but Schulze, in the Protestant + <i>Realencyklopädie</i>, is surely right in pronouncing this view quite + unhistorical—except on the theory that all interior spiritual + religion is Protestant: he shows that at the Reformation hardly any of + the Brothers embraced Lutheranism, only a single community going over as + a body to the new religion. During the second half of the 16th century + the institute gradually declined, and by the middle of the 17th all its + houses had ceased to exist.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—The chief authorities are + Thomas à Kempis, <i>Lives of Groot and his Disciples</i> and <i>Chronicle + of Mount St Agnes</i> (both works translated by J.P. Arthur, the former + under the title <i>Founders of the New Devotion</i>, 1905); Busch, + <i>Chronicle of Windesheim</i> (ed. Grube, 1887). Much has been written + on the subject in Dutch and German; in English, S. Kettlewell, <i>Thomas + à Kempis and the Brothers of Common Life</i> (1882) (but see Arthur in + the Prefaces to above-named books); for a shorter sketch, F.R. Cruise, + <i>Thomas à Kempis</i> (1887). An excellent article in Herzog-Hauck, + <i>Realencyklopädie</i> (3rd ed.), "Brüder des gemeinsamen Lebens," + supplies copious information with references to all the literature; see + also Max Heimbucher, <i>Orden und Kongregationen</i> (1897), ii. § 123. + The part played by the Brothers of Common Life in the religious and + educational movements of the time may be studied in Ludwig Pastor's + <i>History of the Popes from the close of the Middle Ages</i>, or J. + Janssen's <i>History of the German People</i>.</p> + + <p>(E. C. B.)</p> + + <p><b>BROUGH, ROBERT</b> (1872-1905), British painter, was born at + Invergordon, Ross-shire. He was educated at Aberdeen, and, whilst + apprenticed for over six years as lithographer to Messrs Gibb & Co., + attended the night classes at the local art school. He then entered the + Royal Scottish Academy, and in the first year took the Stuart prize for + figure painting, the Chalmers painting bursary, and the Maclaine-Walters + medal for composition. After two years in Paris under J.P. Laurens and + Benjamin-Constant at Julian's <i>atelier</i>, he settled in Aberdeen in + 1894 as a portrait painter and political cartoonist. A portrait of Mr + W.D. Ross first drew attention to his talent in 1896, and in the + following year he scored a marked success at the Royal Academy with his + "Fantaisie en Folie," now at the National Gallery of British Art (Tate + Gallery). Two of his paintings, "'Twixt Sun and Moon" and "Childhood of + St Anne of Brittany," are at the Venice municipal gallery. Brough's art + is influenced by Raeburn and by modern French training, but it strikes a + very personal note. Robert Brough met his death from injuries received in + a railway disaster in 1905, his early death being a notable loss to + British art.</p> + + <p><b>BROUGHAM, JOHN</b> (1814-1880), British actor, was born at Dublin + on the 9th of May 1814, and was educated for a surgeon. Owing to family + misfortunes he was thrown upon his own resources and made his first + appearance on the London stage in 1830, at the Tottenham Street theatre + in <i>Tom and Jerry</i>, in which he played six characters. In 1831 he + was a member of Madame Vestris's company, and wrote his first play, a + burlesque. He remained with Madame Vestris as long as she and Charles + Mathews retained Covent Garden, and he collaborated with Dion Boucicault + in writing <i>London Assurance</i>, Dazzle being one of his best parts. + In 1840 he managed the Lyceum theatre, for which he wrote several light + burlesques, but in 1842 he moved to the United States, where he became a + member of W.E. Burton's company, for which he wrote several comedies. + Later he was the manager of Niblo's Garden, and in 1850 opened Brougham's + Lyceum, which, like his next speculation, the lease of the Bowery + theatre, was not financially a success. He was later connected with + Wallack's and Daly's theatres, and wrote plays for both. In 1860 he + returned to London, where he adapted or wrote several plays, including + <i>The Duke's Motto</i> for Fechter. After the Civil War he returned to + New York. Brougham's theatre was opened in 1869 with his comedy <i>Better + Late than Never</i>, but this managerial experience was also unfortunate, + and he took to playing with various stock companies. His last appearance + was in 1879 as O'Reilly, the detective, in Boucicault's <i>Rescued</i>, + and he died in New York on the 7th of June 1880. Brougham was the author + of nearly 100 plays, most of them now forgotten. He was the founder of + the Lotus Club in New York, and for a time its president. He also edited + there in 1852 a comic paper called <i>The Lantern</i>, and published two + collections of miscellaneous writings, <i>A Basket of Chips</i> and + <i>The Bunsby Papers</i>. Brougham is said to have been the original of + Harry Lorrequer in Charles Lever's novel. He was twice married, in 1838 + to Emma Williams (d. 1865), and in 1844 to Mrs Annette Hawley (d. 1870), + both actresses.</p> + + <p><b>BROUGHAM,</b> a four-wheeled closed carriage, seating two or more + persons, and drawn by a single horse or pair, or propelled by motor. The + modern "brougham" has developed and taken its name from the "odd little + kind of garden-chair" described by Thomas Moore, which the first Lord + Brougham had made by a coachmaker to his own design.</p> + + <p><b>BROUGHAM</b> <span class="scac">AND</span> <b>VAUX, HENRY PETER + BROUGHAM,</b> <span class="sc">1st Baron</span> (1778-1868), lord + chancellor of England, was born at Edinburgh on the 19th of September + 1778. He was the eldest son of Henry Brougham and Eleanora, daughter of + the Rev. James Syme. In his later years he was wont to trace his paternal + descent to Uduardus de Broham, in the reign of Henry II., but no real + connexion has been established between the ancient lords of Brougham + castle, whose inheritance passed by marriage from the Viponts into the + family of the De Cliffords, and the Broughams of Scales Hall, from whom + the chancellor was really descended. Entering the high school of + Edinburgh when barely seven, he left, having risen to be head of the + school, in 1791. He entered the university of Edinburgh in 1792, and + devoted himself chiefly to the study of natural science and mathematics, + contributing in 1795 a paper to the Royal Society on some new phenomenon + of light and colours, which was printed in the <i>Transactions</i> of + that body. A paper on porisms was published in the same manner in 1798, + and in 1803 his scientific <!-- Page 653 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page653"></a>[v.04 p.0653]</span>reputation was so far established + that he was elected F.R.S., But in spite of his taste for mathematical + reasoning, Brougham's mind was not an accurate or exact one; and his + pursuit of physical science was rather a favourite recreation than a + solid advantage to him.</p> + + <p>For two years of his university career he had attended lectures in + civil law, and having adopted law as a profession he was admitted to the + faculty of advocates in 1800. It does not appear that he ever held a + brief in the court of session, but he went a circuit or two, where he + defended or prosecuted a few prisoners, and played a series of tricks on + the presiding judge, Lord Eskgrove, which almost drove that learned + person to distraction. The Scottish bar, however, as he soon perceived, + offered no field sufficiently ample for his talents and his ambition. He + resolved to go to London, where he had already appeared as junior counsel + in a Scottish appeal to the House of Lords. In 1803 he entered at + Lincoln's Inn, and in 1808 he was called to the English bar. In the + meantime he had turned to literature as a means of subsistence. When in + 1802 the <i>Edinburgh Review</i> was founded by the young and aspiring + lights of the northern metropolis, Brougham was the most ready, the most + versatile and the most satirical of all its contributors. To the first + twenty numbers he contributed eighty articles, wandering through every + imaginable subject,—science, politics, colonial policy, literature, + poetry, surgery, mathematics and the fine arts. The prodigious success of + the <i>Review</i>, and the power he was known to wield in it, made him a + man of mark from his first arrival in London. He obtained the friendship + of Lord Grey and the leading Whig politicians. His wit and gaiety made + him an ornament of society, and he sought to extend his literary and + political reputation by the publication of an elaborate work on the + colonial policy of the empire. In 1806, Fox being then in office, he was + appointed secretary to a mission of Lord Rosslyn and Lord St Vincent to + the court of Lisbon, with a view to counteract the anticipated French + invasion of Portugal. The mission lasted two or three months; Brougham + came home out of humour and out of pocket; and meantime the death of Fox + put an end to the hopes of the Whigs.</p> + + <p>Brougham was disappointed by the abrupt fall of the ministry, and + piqued that his Whig friends had not provided him with a seat in + parliament. Nevertheless, he exerted his pen with prodigious activity + during the election of 1809; and Lord Holland declared that he had filled + the booksellers' shops with articles and pamphlets. The result was small. + No seat was placed at his disposal, and he was too poor to contest a + borough. He was fortunate at this time to ally himself with the movement + for the abolition of the slave-trade, and he remained through life not + only faithful, but passionately attached to the cause. Indeed, one of the + first measures he carried in the House of Commons was a bill to make the + slave-trade felony, and he had the happiness, as chancellor of England, + to take a part in the final measure of negro emancipation throughout the + colonies.</p> + + <p>Previous to his entering on practice at the English bar, Brougham had + acquired some knowledge of international law, and some experience of the + prize courts. This circumstance probably led to his being retained as + counsel for the Liverpool merchants who had petitioned both Houses of + Parliament against the Orders in Council. Brougham conducted the + lengthened inquiry which took place at the bar of the House, and he + displayed on this occasion a mastery over the principles of political + economy and international law which at that time was rare. Nevertheless, + he was unsuccessful, and it was not until 1812, when he was himself in + parliament, that he resumed his attack on the Orders in Council, and + ultimately conquered. It was considered inexpedient and impossible that a + man so gifted, and so popular as Brougham had now become, should remain + out of parliament, and by the influence of Lord Holland the duke of + Bedford was induced to return him to the House of Commons for the borough + of Camelford. He took his seat early in 1810, having made a vow that he + would not open his mouth for a month. The vow was kept, but kept for that + month only. He spoke in March in condemnation of the conduct of Lord + Chatham at Walcheren, and he went on speaking for the rest of his life. + In four months, such was the position he had acquired in the House that + he was regarded as a candidate for the leadership of the Liberal party, + then in the feeble hands of George Ponsonby. However, the Tories + continued in power. Parliament was dissolved. Camelford passed into other + hands. Brougham was induced to stand for Liverpool, with Thomas Creevey + against Canning and General Gascoyne. The Liberals were defeated by a + large majority, and what made the sting of defeat more keen was that + Creevey retained his old seat for Thetford, while Brougham was left out + in the cold.</p> + + <p>He remained out of parliament during the four eventful years from 1812 + to 1816, which witnessed the termination of the war, and he did not + conceal his resentment against the Whigs. But in the years he spent out + of parliament occurrences took place which gave ample employment to his + bustling activity, and led the way to one of the most important passages + of his life. He had been introduced in 1809 to the princess of Wales + (afterwards Queen Caroline). But it was not till 1812 that the princess + consulted him on her private affairs, after the rupture between the + prince regent and the Whigs had become more decided. From that time, + Brougham, in conjunction with Samuel Whitbread, became one of the + princess's chief advisers; he was attached to her service, not so much + from any great liking or respect for herself, as from an indignant sense + of the wrongs and insults inflicted upon her by her husband. Brougham + strongly opposed her departure from England in 1814, as well as her + return in 1820 on the accession of George IV.</p> + + <p>In 1816 he had again been returned to parliament for Winchelsea, a + borough of the earl of Darlington, and he instantly resumed a commanding + position in the House of Commons. He succeeded in defeating the + continuance of the income-tax; he distinguished himself as an advocate + for the education of the people; and on the death of Romilly he took up + with ardour the great work of the reform of the law. Nothing exasperated + the Tory party more than the select committee which sat, with Brougham in + the chair, in 1816 and the three following years, to investigate the + state of education of the poor in the metropolis. But he was as far as + ever from obtaining the leadership of the party to which he aspired. + Indeed, as was pointed out by Lord Lansdowne in 1817, the opposition had + no recognized efficient leaders; their warfare was carried on in separate + courses, indulging their own tastes and tempers, without combined action. + Nor was Brougham much more successful at the bar. The death of George + III. suddenly changed this state of things. Queen Caroline at once, in + April 1820, appointed Brougham her attorney-general, and Denman her + solicitor-general; and they immediately took their rank in court + accordingly; this was indeed the sole act of royal authority on the part + of the unhappy queen. In July Queen Caroline came from St Omer to + England; ministers sent down to both Houses of Parliament the secret + evidence which they had long been collecting against her; and a bill was + brought into the House of Lords for the deposition of the queen, and the + dissolution of the king's marriage. The defence of the queen was + conducted by Brougham, assisted by Denman, Lushington and Wilde, with + equal courage and ability. His conduct of the defence was most able, and + he wound up the proceedings with a speech of extraordinary power and + effect. The peroration was said to have been written and rewritten by him + seventeen times. At moments of great excitement such declamation may be + of value, and in 1820 it was both heard and read with enthusiasm. But to + the calmer judgment of later generations this celebrated oration seems + turgid and overstrained. Such immense popular sympathy prevailed on the + queen's behalf, that the ministry did not proceed with the bill in the + Commons, and the result was a virtual triumph for the queen.</p> + + <p>This victory over the court and the ministry raised Henry Brougham at + once to the pinnacle of fame. He shared the triumph of the queen. His + portrait was in every shop window. A piece of plate was presented to him, + paid for by a penny subscription of peasants and mechanics. He refused to + accept a sum of £4000 which the queen herself placed at his disposal; + <!-- Page 654 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page654"></a>[v.04 + p.0654]</span>he took no more than the usual fees of counsel, while his + salary as Her Majesty's attorney-general remained unpaid, until it was + discharged by the treasury after her death. But from that moment his + fortune was made at the bar. His practice on the northern circuit + quintupled. One of his finest speeches was a defence of a Durham + newspaper which had attacked the clergy for refusing to allow the bells + of churches to be tolled on the queen's death; and by the admission of + Lord Campbell, a rival advocate and an unfriendly critic, he rose + suddenly to a position unexampled in the profession. The meanness of + George IV. and of Lord Eldon refused him the silk gown to which his + position at the bar entitled him, and for some years he led the circuit + as an outer barrister, to the great loss of the senior members of the + circuit, who could only be employed against him. His practice rose to + about £7000 a year, but it was again falling off before he became + chancellor.</p> + + <p>It may here be mentioned that in 1825 the first steps were taken, + under the auspices of Brougham, for the establishment of a university in + London, absolutely free from all religious or sectarian distinctions. In + 1827 he contributed to found the "Society for the Diffusion of Useful + Knowledge"—an association which gave an immense impulse to sound + popular literature. Its first publication was an essay on the "Pleasures + and Advantages of Science" written by himself. In the following year + (1828) he delivered his great speech on law reform, which lasted six + hours, in a thin and exhausted House,—a marvellous effort, + embracing every part of the existing system of judicature.</p> + + <p>The death of Canning, the failure of Lord Goderich, and the accession + of the duke of Wellington to power, again changed the aspect of affairs. + The progress of the movement for parliamentary reform had numbered the + days of the Tory government. At the general election of 1830 the county + of York spontaneously returned Brougham to the new House of Commons as + their representative. The parliament met in November. Brougham's first + act was to move for leave to bring in a bill to amend the representation + of the people; but before the debate came on the government was defeated + on another question; the duke resigned, and Earl Grey was commanded by + William IV. to form an administration.</p> + + <p>Amongst the difficulties of the new premier and the Whig party were + the position and attitude of Brougham. He was not the leader of any + party, and had no personal following in the House of Commons. Moreover, + he himself had repeatedly declared that nothing would induce him to + exchange his position as an independent member of parliament for any + office, however great. On the day following the resignation of the Tory + government, he reluctantly consented to postpone for one week his motion + on parliamentary reform. The attorney-generalship was offered to him and + indignantly refused. He himself affirms that he desired to be master of + the rolls, which would have left him free to sit in the House of Commons. + But this was positively interdicted by the king, and objected to by Lord + Althorp, who declared that he could not undertake to lead the House with + so insubordinate a follower behind him. But as it was impossible to leave + Brougham out of the ministry, it was determined to offer him the + chancellorship. Brougham himself hesitated, or affected to hesitate, but + finally yielded to the representations of Lord Grey and Lord Althorp. On + the 22nd of November the great seal was delivered to him by the king, and + he was raised to the peerage as Baron Brougham and Vaux. His + chancellorship lasted exactly four years.</p> + + <p>Lord Brougham took a most active and prominent part in all the great + measures promoted by Grey's government, and the passing of the Reform + Bill was due in a great measure to the vigour with which he defended it. + But success developed traits which had hitherto been kept in the + background. His manner became dictatorial and he exhibited a restless + eccentricity, and a passion for interfering with every department of + state, which alarmed the king. By his insatiable activity he had + contrived to monopolize the authority and popularity of the government, + and notwithstanding the immense majority by which it was supported in the + reformed parliament, a crisis was not long in arriving. Lord Grey + resigned, but very much by Brougham's exertions the cabinet was + reconstructed under Lord Melbourne, and he appeared to think that his own + influence in it would be increased. But the irritability of his temper + and the egotism of his character made it impossible for his colleagues to + work with him, and the extreme mental excitement under which he laboured + at this time culminated during a journey to Scotland in a behaviour so + extravagant, that it gave the final stroke to the confidence of the king. + At Lancaster he joined the bar-mess, and spent the night in an orgy. In a + country house he lost the great seal, and found it again in a game of + blindman's-buff. At Edinburgh, in spite of the coldness which had sprung + up between himself and the Grey family, he was present at a banquet given + to the late premier, and delivered a harangue on his own services and his + public virtue. All this time he continued to correspond with the king in + a strain which created the utmost irritation and amazement at + Windsor.</p> + + <p>Shortly after the meeting of parliament in November the king dismissed + his ministers. The chancellor, who had dined at Holland House, called on + Lord Melbourne on his way home, and learned the intelligence. Melbourne + made him promise that he would keep it a secret until the morrow, but the + moment he quitted the ex-premier he sent a paragraph to <i>The Times</i> + relating the occurrence, and adding that "the queen had done it all." + That statement, which was totally unfounded, was the last act of his + official life. The Peel ministry, prematurely and rashly summoned to + power, was of no long duration, and Brougham naturally took an active + part in overthrowing it. Lord Melbourne was called upon in April 1835 to + reconstruct the Whig government with his former colleagues. But, + formidable as he might be as an opponent, the Whigs had learned by + experience that Brougham was even more dangerous to them as an ally, and + with one accord they resolved that he should not hold the great seal or + any other office. The great seal was put in commission, to divert for a + time his resentment, and leave him, if he chose, to entertain hopes of + recovering it. These hopes, however, were soon dissipated; and although + the late chancellor assumed an independent position in the House of + Lords, and even affected to protect the government, his resentment + against his "noble friends" soon broke out with uncontrolled vehemence. + Throughout the session of 1835 his activity was undiminished. Bills for + every imaginable purpose were thrown by him on the table of the House, + and it stands recorded in Hansard that he made no less than 221 reported + speeches in parliament in that year. But in the course of the vacation a + heavier blow was struck: Lord Cottenham was made lord chancellor. + Brougham's daring and arrogant spirit sank for a time under the shock, + and during the year 1836 he never spoke in parliament. Among the numerous + expedients resorted to in order to keep his name before the public, was a + false report of his death by a carriage accident, sent up from + Westmorland in 1839. He was accused, with great probability, of being + himself the author of the report. Such credence did it obtain that all + the newspapers of October 22, excepting <i>The Times</i>, had obituary + notices. However, for more than thirty years after his fall he continued + to take an active part in the judicial business of the House of Lords, + and in its debates; but it would have been better for his reputation if + he had died earlier. His reappearance in parliament on the accession of + Queen Victoria was marked by sneers at the court, and violent attacks on + the Whigs for their loyal and enthusiastic attachment to their young + sovereign; and upon the outbreak of the insurrection in Canada, and the + miscarriage of Lord Durham's mission, he overwhelmed his former + colleagues, and especially Lord Glenelg, with a torrent of invective and + sarcasm, equal in point of oratory to the greatest of his earlier + speeches. Indeed, without avowedly relinquishing his political + principles, Brougham estranged himself from the whole party by which + those principles were defended; and his conduct in general during the + years following his loss of office revealed his character in a very + unfavourable light. He continued, however, to render judicial services in + the privy council, and the House of Lords. The privy council, especially + when hearing appeals from the colonies, India, and the courts maritime + and ecclesiastical was his favourite tribunal; its vast range of <!-- + Page 655 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page655"></a>[v.04 + p.0655]</span>jurisdiction, varied by questions of foreign and + international law, suited his discursive genius. He had remodelled the + judicial committee in 1833, and it still remains one of the most useful + of his creations.</p> + + <p>In the year 1860 a second patent was conferred upon him by Queen + Victoria, with a reversion of his peerage to his youngest brother, + William Brougham (d. 1886). The preamble of this patent stated that this + unusual mark of honour was conferred upon him by the crown as an + acknowledgment of the great services he had rendered, more especially in + promoting the abolition of slavery, and the emancipation of the negro + race. The peerage was thus perpetuated in a junior branch of the family, + Lord Brougham himself being without an heir. He had married in 1821 Mrs + Spalding (d. 1865), daughter of Thomas Eden, and had two daughters, the + survivor of whom died in 1839. Brougham's last days were passed at + Cannes, in the south of France. An accident having attracted his + attention to the spot about the year 1838, when it was little more than a + fishing village on a picturesque coast, he bought there a tract of land + and built on it. His choice and his example made it the sanatorium of + Europe. He died there on the 7th of May 1868, in the ninetieth year of + his age.</p> + + <p>The verdict of the time has proved that there was nothing of + permanence, and little of originality in the prodigious efforts of + Brougham's genius. He filled the office of chancellor during times + burning with excitement, and he himself embodied and expressed the + fervour of the times. He affected at first to treat the business of the + court of chancery as a light affair, though in truth he had to work hard + to master the principles of equity, of which he had no experience. His + manner in court was desultory and dictatorial. Sometimes he would crouch + in his chair, muffled in his wig and robes, like a man asleep; at other + times he would burst into restless activity, writing letters, working + problems, interrupting counsel. But upon the whole Brougham was a just + and able judge, though few of his decisions are cited as landmarks of the + law.</p> + + <p>As a parliamentary figure Brougham's personality excited for many + years an immense amount of public interest, now somewhat hard to + comprehend. His boundless command of language, his animal spirits and + social powers, his audacity and well-stored memory enabled him to + dominate the situation. His striking and almost grotesque personal + appearance, added to the effect of his voice and manner—a tall + disjointed frame, with strong bony limbs and hands, that seemed to + interpret the power of his address; strange angular motions of the arms; + the incessant jerk of his harsh but expressive features; the modulations + of his voice, now thundering in the loudest tones of indignation, now + subdued to a whisper—all contributed to give him the magical + influence such as is excited by a great actor. But his eccentricity rose + at times to the verge of insanity; and with all his powers he lacked the + moral elevation which inspires confidence and wins respect.</p> + + <p>The activity of Lord Brougham's pen was only second to the volubility + of his tongue. He carried on a vast and incessant correspondence of + incredible extent. For thirty years he contributed largely to the + <i>Edinburgh Review</i>, and he continued to write in that journal even + after he held the great seal. The best of his writings, entitled + "Sketches of the Statesmen of the time of George III.", first appeared in + the <i>Review</i>. These were followed by the "Lives of Men of Letters + and Science," of the same period. Later in life he edited Paley's + <i>Natural Theology</i>; and he published a work on political philosophy, + besides innumerable pamphlets and letters to public men on the events of + the day. He published an incorrect translation of Demosthenes' <i>De + Corona</i>. A novel entitled <i>Albert Lunel</i> was attributed to him. A + fragment of the <i>History of England under the House of Lancaster</i> + employed his retirement. In 1838 was published an edition of his speeches + in four volumes, elaborately corrected by himself. The last of his works + was his posthumous <i>Autobiography</i>. Ambitious as he was of literary + fame, and jealous of the success of other authors, he has failed to + obtain any lasting place in English literature. His style was slovenly, + involved and incorrect; and his composition bore marks of haste and + carelessness, and nowhere shows any genuine originality of thought. The + collected edition of his works and speeches carefully revised by himself + (Edinburgh, 1857 and 1872) is the best. His <i>Autobiography</i> is of + some value from the original letters with which it is interspersed. But + Lord Brougham's memory was so much impaired when he began to write his + recollections that no reliance can be placed on his statements, and the + work abounds in manifest errors. Nor was his regard for truth at any time + unimpeachable, and the accounts which he gave of more than one + transaction in which he played a prominent part were found on + investigation to be unfounded.</p> + + <p>The best modern account of Brougham is J.B. Atlay's, in his + <i>Victorian Chancellors</i> (1906); Lord Campbell's, in <i>Lives of the + Chancellors</i>, is spiteful, and by an unfriendly though well-informed + critic; the Rev. W. Hunt's judicious and careful biography in the + <i>D.N.B.</i> is somewhat lacking in colour; Henry Reeve's article in the + 9th ed. of the <i>Ency. Brit.</i>, which is frequently drawn upon above, + now requires a good many corrections in points of fact and perspective, + but gives a brilliant picture by an appreciative critic, much "behind the + scenes." See also references in the <i>Greville Memoirs</i> and + <i>Creevey Papers</i>; S. Walpole, <i>History of England</i> (1890); J.A. + Roebuck, <i>History of the Whig Ministry</i> (1852); Lord Holland, + <i>Memoirs of the Whig Party</i> (1854); <i>Brougham and his Early + Friends: Letters to James Loch</i>, 1798-1809 (3 vols., London, 1908, + privately printed).</p> + + <p><b>BROUGHTON, HUGH</b> (1549-1612), English scholar and divine, was + born at Owlbury, Bishop's Castle, Shropshire, in 1549. He was educated by + Bernard Gilpin at Houghton-le-Spring and at Cambridge, where he became + fellow of St John's and then of Christ's, and took orders. Here he laid + the foundation of the Hebrew scholarship for which he was afterwards so + distinguished. From Cambridge he went to London, where his eloquence + gained him many and powerful friends. In 1588 he published his first + work, "a little book of great pains," entitled <i>A Concent of + Scripture</i>. This work, dealing with biblical chronology and textual + criticism, was attacked at both universities, and the author was obliged + to defend it in a series of lectures. In 1589 he went to Germany, where + he frequently engaged in discussions both with Romanists and with the + learned Jews whom he met at Frankfort and elsewhere. In 1591 he returned + to England, but his Puritan leanings incurred the hostility of Whitgift. + Accordingly in 1592 he once more went abroad, and cultivated the + acquaintance of the principal scholars of Europe, including Scaligeri and + Rabbi Elias. Such was the esteem in which he was held, even by his + opponents, that he might have had a cardinal's hat if he had been willing + to change his faith. In 1599 he published his "Explication" of the + article "He descended into hell," in which he maintained that Hades means + simply the abode of departed spirits, not the place of torment. On the + accession of James he returned to England; but not being engaged to + co-operate in the new translation of the Bible (though he had for some + years planned a similar work), he retired to Middleburg in Holland, where + he preached to the English congregation. In 1611 he returned to England, + where he died on the 4th of August 1612.</p> + + <p>Some of his works were collected and published in a large folio volume + in 1662, with a sketch of his life by John Lightfoot, but many of his + theological MSS. remain still unedited in the British Museum.</p> + + <p><b>BROUGHTON, JOHN CAM HOBHOUSE,</b> <span class="sc">Baron</span> + (1786-1869), English writer and politician, was the eldest son of Sir + Benjamin Hobhouse, Bart., by his wife Charlotte, daughter of Samuel Cam + of Chantry House, Bradford, Wiltshire. Born at Bristol on the 27th of + June 1786, he was educated at Westminster school and Trinity College, + Cambridge, where he graduated in 1808. He took the Hulsean prize in 1808 + for his <i>Essay on the Origin and Intention of Sacrifices</i>. At + Cambridge he founded the "Whig Club," and the "Amicable Society," and + became very intimate with Byron, who accompanied him on a tour in Spain, + Greece and Turkey in 1809. Hobhouse was present at the battle of Dresden + in August 1813, and, following the allied army into France, saw Louis + XVIII. enter Paris in May 1814. He was again in Paris after the return of + Napoleon from Elba, and showed his dislike of the Bourbons and his + sympathy with <!-- Page 656 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page656"></a>[v.04 p.0656]</span>Bonaparte by writing in 1816 a + pamphlet entitled <i>The substance of some letters written by an + Englishman resident in Paris during the last reign of the emperor + Napoleon</i>. This caused some offence in England and more in France, and + the French translation was seized by the government and both translator + and printer were imprisoned. A further period of travel with Byron + followed, and at this time Hobhouse wrote some notes to the fourth canto + of <i>Childe Harold</i>. This canto was afterwards dedicated to him, and + a revised edition of a part of his notes entitled <i>Historical + illustrations of the fourth canto of "Childe Harold" containing + dissertations on the ruins of Rome and an essay on Italian + literature</i>, was published in 1818. In February 1819 Hobhouse was the + Radical candidate at a by-election for the representation of the city of + Westminster, but he failed to secure election. He had already gained some + popularity by writing in favour of reform, and in 1819 he issued <i>A + defence of the People in reply to Lord Erskine's "Two Defences of the + Whigs,"</i> followed by <i>A trifling mistake in Thomas, Lord Erskine's + recent preface</i>. The House of Commons declared this latter pamphlet a + breach of privilege; its author was arrested on the 14th of December + 1819, and in spite of an appeal to the court of king's bench he remained + in custody until the end of the following February. But this proceeding + only increased his popularity, and at the general election of 1820 he was + returned for Westminster. Hobhouse shared Byron's enthusiasm for the + liberation of Greece; after the poet's death in 1824 he proved his will, + and superintended the arrangements for his funeral. In parliament he + proved a valuable recruit to the party of reform; and having succeeded + his father as 2nd baronet in 1831, was appointed secretary at war in the + ministry of Earl Grey in February 1832, and was made a privy councillor. + He effected some reforms and economies during his tenure of this office, + but, unable to carry out all his wishes, became chief secretary for + Ireland in March 1833. He had only held this post for a few weeks when, + in consequence of his refusal to vote with the government against the + abolition of the house and window tax, he resigned both his office and + his seat in parliament. At the subsequent election he was defeated, but + joined the cabinet as first commissioner of woods and forests when Lord + Melbourne took office in July 1834, and about the same time was returned + at a by-election as one of the members for Nottingham. In Melbourne's + government of 1835 he was president of the board of control, in which + position he strongly supported the Indian policy of Lord Auckland; he + returned to the same office in July 1846 as a member of Lord John + Russell's cabinet; and in February 1851 he went to the House of Lords as + Baron Broughton of Broughton Gyfford. He left office when Russell + resigned in February 1852, and took little part in political life, being + mainly occupied in literary pursuits and in correspondence. He died in + London on the 3rd of June 1869.</p> + + <p>He had married in July 1828 Lady Julia Tomlinson Hay, daughter of + George, 7th marquess of Tweeddale, by whom he had three daughters, but + being without heir male the barony lapsed on his death, the baronetcy + passing to his nephew, Charles Parry Hobhouse. Lord Broughton was a + partner in Whitbread's brewery, a fellow of the Royal Society, and one of + the founders of the Royal Geographical Society. He was responsible for + the passing of the Vestry Act of 1831, and is said to have first used the + phrase "his majesty's opposition." He was a good classical scholar, and + although not eloquent, an able debater. In addition to the works already + enumerated he wrote <i>A journey through Albania and other provinces of + Turkey in Europe and Asia to Constantinople during the years 1809 and + 1810</i> (London, 1813), revised edition (London, 1855); and <i>Italy: + Remarks made in Several Visits from the Year 1816 to 1854</i> (London, + 1859). A collection of his diaries, correspondence and memoranda is in + the British Museum.</p> + + <p>See T. Moore, <i>Life of Lord Byron</i> (London, 1837-1840); + <i>Greville Memoirs</i> (London, 1896); <i>Dictionary of National + Biography</i>, vol. xxvii. (London, 1891); <i>The Times</i>, June 4, + 1869; Spencer Walpole, <i>History of England</i> (London, 1890). + Broughton also wrote <i>Recollections of a Long Life</i>, printed + privately in 1865, and in 1909 published with additions in 2 vols. edited + by his daughter, Lady Dorchester, with a preface by the earl of + Rosebery.</p> + + <p><b>BROUGHTY FERRY,</b> a municipal and police burgh, seaport and + watering-place of Forfarshire, Scotland, on the Firth of Tay, 4 m. E. of + Dundee by the North British railway. Pop. (1901) 10,484. The name is a + corruption of Brugh or Burgh Tay, in allusion to the fortress standing on + the rock that juts into the Firth. It is believed that a stronghold has + occupied this site since Pictish times. The later castle, built in 1498, + fell into the hands of the English in 1547 and was held by them for three + years. Gradually growing more or less ruinous it was acquired by + government in 1855, repaired, strengthened and converted into a Tay + defence, mounting several heavy guns. Owing to its healthy and convenient + situation, Broughty Ferry has become a favourite residence of Dundee + merchants. Fishery and shipping are carried on to a limited extent. + Before the erection of the Tay Bridge the town was the scene of much + traffic, as the railway ferry from Tayport was then the customary access + to Dundee from the south. Monifieth (pop. 2134), 2¼ m. north-east of + Broughty Ferry, with a station on the North British railway, is noted for + its golf links. About 2 m. north rises the conical hill of Laws (400 ft. + high), on the top of which are the remains of a vitrified fort, 390 ft. + long by 198 ft. in breadth.</p> + + <p><b>BROUSSAIS, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH VICTOR</b> (1772-1838), French + physician, was born at St Malo on the 17th of December 1772. From his + father, who was also a physician, he received his first instructions in + medicine, and he studied for some years at the college of Dinan. At the + age of seventeen he entered one of the newly-formed republican regiments, + but ill-health compelled him to withdraw after two years. He resumed his + medical studies, and then obtained an appointment as surgeon in the navy. + In 1799 he proceeded to Paris, wherein 1803 he graduated as M.D. In 1805 + he again joined the army in a professional capacity, and served in + Germany and Holland. Returning to Paris in 1808 he published his + <i>Histoire des phlegmasies ou inflammations chroniques</i>; then left + again for active service in Spain. In 1814 he returned to Paris, and was + appointed assistant-professor to the military hospital of the + Val-de-Grace, where he first promulgated his peculiar doctrines on the + relation between "life" and "stimulus," and on the physiological + interdependence and sympathies of the various organs. His lectures were + attended by great numbers of students, who received with the utmost + enthusiasm the new theories which he propounded. In 1816 he published his + <i>Examen de la doctrine médicale généralement adoptée</i>, which drew + down upon its author the hatred of the whole medical faculty of Paris; + but by degrees his doctrines triumphed, and in 1831 he was appointed + professor of general pathology in the academy of medicine. In 1828 he + published a work <i>De l'irritation et de la folie</i>, and towards the + end of his life he attracted large audiences by his lectures on + phrenology. He died at Vitry-sur-Seine on the 17th of November 1838.</p> + + <p><b>BROUSSONET, PIERRE MARIE AUGUSTE</b> (1761-1807), French + naturalist, was born at Montpellier on the 28th of February 1761, and was + educated for the medical profession. Visiting England, he was admitted in + 1872 an honorary member of the Royal Society, and in the same year + published at London the first part of his work on fishes, + <i>Ichthyologiae Decas I</i>, material for which was communicated to him + by Sir Joseph Banks. On his return to Paris he was appointed perpetual + secretary to the Society of Agriculture, and in 1789 became a member of + the National Assembly. Under the convention he had to leave Paris, and + after some dangers he made his way to Madrid. The enmity of the French + emigrants, however, drove him from Spain, and afterwards from Lisbon, but + at last he found a refuge in Morocco as physician to an embassy sent out + by the United States. Later he obtained permission from the Directory to + return to France, and in 1805 was appointed professor of botany at + Montpellier, where he died on the 17th of January 1807.</p> + + <p><b>BROUWER,</b> or <span class="sc">Brauwer</span>, <b>ADRIAN</b> + (1608-1640), Dutch painter, was born at Haarlem, of very humble parents, + who bound him apprentice to the painter Frans Hals. Brouwer had an + admirable eye for colour, and much spirit in design; and these gifts his + master appears to have turned to his own profit, while his pupil was half + starved. As the result of this ungenerous <!-- Page 657 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page657"></a>[v.04 p.0657]</span>treatment, + Brouwer was frequently brought into low company and dissipated scenes, + which he delineated with great spirit and vivid colouring in his + pictures. The unfortunate artist died in a hospital at Antwerp at the + early age of thirty-two, consequently his works are few and rarely met + with. The largest collection of his masterpieces is in the Pinakothek at + Munich.</p> + + <p><b>BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN</b> (1771-1810), American novelist, was + born of Quaker parents in Philadelphia, on the 17th of January 1771. Of + delicate constitution and retiring habits, he early devoted himself to + study; his principal amusement was the invention of ideal architectural + designs, devised on the most extensive and elaborate scale. This + characteristic talent for construction subsequently assumed the shape of + Utopian projects for perfect commonwealths, and at a later period of a + series of novels distinguished by the ingenuity and consistent evolution + of the plot. The transition between these intellectual phases is marked + by a juvenile romance entitled <i>Carsol</i>, not published until after + the author's death, which professes to depict an imaginary community, and + shows how thoroughly the young American was inspired by Godwin and Mary + Wollstonecraft, whose principal writings had recently made their + appearance. From the latter he derived the idea of his next work, <i>The + Dialogue of Alcuin</i> (1797), an enthusiastic but inexperienced essay on + the question of woman's rights and liberties. From Godwin he learned his + terse style, condensed to a fault, but too laconic for eloquence or + modulation, and the art of developing a plot from a single psychological + problem or mysterious circumstance. The novels which he now rapidly + produced offer the strongest affinity to <i>Caleb Williams</i>, and if + inferior to that remarkable work in subtlety of mental analysis, greatly + surpass it in affluence of invention and intensity of poetical feeling. + All are wild and weird in conception, with incidents bordering on the + preternatural, yet the limit of possibility is never transgressed. In + <i>Wieland; or the Transformation</i> (1798), the first and most + striking, a seemingly inexplicable mystery is resolved into a case of + ventriloquism. <i>Arthur Mervyn; or Memoirs of the Year 1793</i> + (1798-1800), is remarkable for the description of the epidemic of yellow + fever in Philadelphia. <i>Edgar Huntly</i> (Philadelphia, 1801), a + romance rich in local colouring, is remarkable for the effective use made + of somnambulism, and anticipates Cooper's introduction of the American + Indian into fiction. <i>Ormond</i> (1799) is less powerful, but contains + one character, Constantia Dudley, which excited the enthusiastic + admiration of Shelley. Two subsequent novels, <i>Clara Howard</i> (1801) + and <i>Jane Talbot</i> (1804), dealing with ordinary life, proved + failures, and Brown betook himself to compiling a general system of + geography, editing a periodical, and an annual register, and writing + political pamphlets. He died of consumption on the 22nd of February 1810. + He is depicted by his biographer as the purest and most amiable of men, + and in spite of a certain formality, due perhaps to his Quaker education, + the statement is borne out by his correspondence.</p> + + <p>The life of Charles Brockden Brown was written by his friend William + Dunlap (Philadelphia, 1815). See also William H. Prescott, + <i>Biographical and Critical Miscellanies</i> (New York, 1845). His works + in 6 vols. were published at Philadelphia in 1857 with a "life," and in a + limited and more elaborate edition (1887).</p> + + <p><b>BROWN, FORD MADOX</b> (1821-1893), English painter, was born at + Calais on the 16th of April 1821. His father was Ford Brown, a retired + purser in the navy; his mother, Caroline Madox, of an old Kentish family. + His paternal grandfather was Dr John Brown, who established the Brunonian + Theory of Medicine. Ford Madox Brown was the only child of his parents, + save for a daughter who died young. In childhood he was shifted about a + good deal between France and England; and having shown from the age of + six or seven a turn for drawing he was taken, when fourteen years old, + and with meagre acquirements in the way of general tuition, to Bruges, + and placed under the instruction of Gregorius, a pupil of David. His + principal instructor, however, from about 1837, was Baron Wappers, of + Antwerp, then regarded as a great light of the Belgian school. From him + the youth learned the technique not only of oil painting but of various + other branches of art. At a very early age Brown attained a remarkable + degree of force in drawing and painting, as attested by an extant + oil-portrait of his father, done at an age not exceeding fifteen. His + first composition, towards 1836, represented a blind beggar and his + child; his first exhibited work, 1837, was "Job on the Ash-heap"; the + first exhibited work in London (at the Royal Academy, 1840), "The + Giaour's Confession," from Byron's poem. Both his parents died before + 1840, leaving to the young painter a moderate competence, which soon was + materially reduced. In 1840 Brown completed a large picture, "The + Execution of Mary, queen of Scots," strong in dramatic effect and in + handling, with rather sombre colour; from this time forth he must be + regarded as a proficient artist, independent in his point of view and + strenuous in execution. He contributed to the cartoon competitions, 1844 + and 1845, for the Houses of Parliament—"Adam and Eve after the + Fall," "The Body of Harold brought to William the Conqueror," and "The + Spirit of Justice." These highly remarkable cartoons passed not wholly + unobserved, but not one of them obtained a prize. The years 1840 to 1845 + were passed in Paris, London and Rome: towards the middle of 1846 Brown + settled permanently in London. In 1841 he had married his cousin + Elizabeth Bromley, who died of consumption in 1846, leaving a daughter, + Lucy, who in 1874 became the wife of William M. Rossetti. Not long after + being left a widower, Brown took a second wife, Emma Hill, who figures in + many of his pictures. She had two children who grew up: Catherine, who + married Dr Franz Hueffer, the musical scholar and critic, and Oliver, who + died in 1874 in his twentieth year. All three children showed + considerable ability in painting, and Oliver in romance as well. The + second Mrs Brown died in 1890.</p> + + <p>The most marked distinction of Brown as an artist may be defined as + vigorous invention of historic or dramatic scenes, carried out with a + great regard to individuality in the personages, expressions and + accessories of incident and detail, not excluding the familiar, the + peculiar and the semi-grotesque, when these seem to subserve the general + intent. Owing, however, to his association with artists of the so-called + "pre-Raphaelite" movement (which began late in 1848), and especially with + Dante Gabriel Rossetti, who received some training in his studio in the + spring of that year, he has been regarded sometimes as the precursor or + initiator of this movement, and sometimes as a direct co-operator in it. + His claim to be regarded as a precursor or initiator is not strong; + though it is true that even before 1841 he had pondered the theory (not + then much in vogue) that a picture ought to present the veritable light + and shade proper to some one moment in the day, and his "Manfred on the + Jungfrau" (1841) exemplifies this principle to some extent; it reappears + in his very large picture of "Chaucer at the Court of Edward III." (now + in the public gallery of Sydney, Australia), which, although projected in + 1845, was not brought to completion until 1851. As to becoming a direct + co-operator in the pre-Raphaelite movement, he did not join the + "Brotherhood," though it would have been open to him to do so; but for + some years his works exhibited a marked influence derived from the + movement, not on the whole to their clear advantage. The principal + pictures of this class are: "The Pretty Baa-lambs"; "Work" (a street + scene at Hampstead); and "The Last of England" (an emigration subject, + one of his most excellent achievements): dating between 1851 and 1863. + "Christ Washing Peter's Feet" (now in the National Gallery of British + Art) comes within the same range of dates, and is a masterly work; here + the pre-Raphaelite influence is less manifest. Altogether it may be + averred that the conception and introduction of the pre-Raphaelite + scheme, such as it appeared to the public eye in 1849 and 1850, belong to + Millais, Holman Hunt and Rossetti, rather than to Brown.</p> + + <p>Other leading pictures by Brown are the following:—"Cordelia at + the Bedside of Lear"; "Shakespeare"; "Jacob and Joseph's Coat"; "Elijah + and the Widow's Son"; "Cordelia's Portion"; "The Entombment"; "Romeo and + Juliet" (the parting on the balcony); "Don Juan and Haidee"; "Cromwell on + his Farm"; "Cromwell, Protector of the <!-- Page 658 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page658"></a>[v.04 + p.0658]</span>Vaudois":—covering the period from 1849 to 1877. + "Sardanapalus and Myrrha," begun within the same period, was finished + later. He produced, moreover, a great number of excellent cartoons for + stained glass, being up to 1874 a member of the firm of decorative art, + Morris, Marshall, Faulkner and Co. He also executed, in colours or in + crayons, various portraits, including his own. From 1878 he was almost + engrossed by work which he undertook for the town hall of Manchester, and + which entailed his living for some few years in that city—twelve + large wall paintings, some of them done in a modified form of the + Gambier-Parry process, and others in oils on canvas applied to the wall + surface. They present a compendium of the history of Manchester and its + district, from the building of the Roman camp at Mancunium to the + experimental work of Dalton in elaborating the atomic theory. This is an + extremely fine series, though with some diversity of individual merit in + the paintings, and is certainly the chief representative, in the United + Kingdom, of any such form of artistic effort—if we leave out of + count the works (by various painters) in the Houses of Parliament.</p> + + <p>Madox Brown was never a popular or highly remunerated artist. Up to + near middle age he went through trying straits in money matters; + afterwards his circumstances improved, but he was not really well off at + any time. In youth he followed the usual course as an exhibiting painter, + but after some mortifications and heart-burnings he did little in this + way after 1852. He held, however, in 1865, an exhibition of his own then + numerous paintings and designs. He also delivered a few lectures on fine + art from time to time. From 1868 he suffered from gout; and this led to + an attack of apoplexy, from which he died in London on the 6th of October + 1893. He was a man of upright, independent and honourable character, of + warm affections, a steady and self-sacrificing friend; but he took + offence rather readily, and viewed various persons and institutions with + a degree of suspicion which may be pronounced excessive. He felt interest + in many questions outside the range of his art, and, being a good and + varied talker, had often something apposite and suggestive to say about + them. On more than one occasion he exerted himself very zealously for the + benefit of the working classes. In politics he was a consistent Democrat, + and on religious questions an Agnostic.</p> + + <p>The life of this artist has been well written by his grandson, Ford M. + Hueffer, in a handsomely illustrated volume entitled <i>Ford Madox + Brown</i> (London, 1896). This volume contains some extracts from Brown's + diary, extending in the whole from 1847 to 1865; and other lengthier + extracts appear in two books edited by William M. + Rossetti—<i>Ruskin, Rossetti, Pre-Raphaelitism</i> (1899), and + <i>Pre-Raphaelite Diaries and Letters</i> (1899). See also the + <i>Preferences in Art, &c.</i>, by Harry Quilter (1892), and a + pamphlet, <i>Ford Madox Brown</i> (1901), by Helen Rossetti (Angeli), + applicable to a collection of his works exhibited in the Whitechapel Art + Gallery.</p> + + <p>(W. M. R.)</p> + + <p><b>BROWN, FRANCIS</b> (1849- ), American Semitic scholar, was born in + Hanover, New Hampshire, on the 26th of December 1849, the son of Samuel + Gilman Brown (1813-1885), president of Hamilton College from 1867 to + 1881, and the grandson of Francis Brown (1784-1820), whose removal from + the presidency of Dartmouth College and later restoration were incidental + to the famous "Dartmouth College case." The younger Francis graduated + from Dartmouth in 1870 and from the Union Theological Seminary in 1877, + and then studied in Berlin. In 1879 he became instructor in biblical + philology at the Union Theological Seminary, in 1881 an associate + professor of the same subject, and in 1890 professor of Hebrew and + cognate languages.<a name="FnAnchor_171" + href="#Footnote_171"><sup>[1]</sup></a> Dr Brown's published works have + won him honorary degrees from the universities of Glasgow and Oxford, as + well as from Dartmouth and Yale; they are, with the exception of <i>The + Christian Point of View</i> (1902; with Profs. A. C. McGiffert and G. W. + Knox), almost purely linguistic and lexical, and include <i>Assyriology: + its Use and Abuse in Old Testament Study</i> (1885), and the important + revision of Gesenius, undertaken with S. R. Driver and C. A. Briggs, <i>A + Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament</i> (1891-1905).</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_171" href="#FnAnchor_171">[1]</a> In 1908 he + succeeded Charles Cuthbert Hall (1852-1908) as president of the + seminary.</p> + +</div> + <p><b>BROWN, SIR GEORGE</b> (1790-1865), British soldier, was born and + educated in Elgin, Scotland. He obtained a commission in the 43rd (now + 1st Bn. Oxfordshire) Light Infantry in 1806, was promoted lieutenant a + few months later, and saw active service for the first time in the + Mediterranean and at Copenhagen, 1806 and 1807. The 43rd was one of the + earliest arrivals in Spain when the Peninsular War broke out, and Brown + was with his regiment at Vimeiro, and in the Corunna retreat. Later in + 1809 the famous Light Division was formed, and with Craufurd he was + present at all the actions of 1810-1811, being severely wounded at + Talavera; he was then promoted captain and attended the Staff College at + Great Marlow until (late in 1812) he returned to the Peninsula as a + captain in the 85th. With this regiment he served under Major-General + Lord Aylmer at the Nivelle and Nive, his conduct winning for him the rank + of major. The 85th was next employed under General Robert Ross in + America, and Brown, who received a severe wound at the action of + Bladensburg, was promoted to a lieut.-colonelcy. At the age of + twenty-five, with a brilliant war record, he received an appointment at + the Horse Guards, and remained in London for over twenty-five years in + various staff positions. He was made a colonel and K.H. in 1831, and by + 1852 had arrived at the rank of lieut.-general and the dignity of K.C.B. + At this time he was adjutant-general, but on the appointment of Lord + Hardinge to the post of commander-in-chief, Brown left the Horse Guards. + In 1854, on the despatch of a British force to the East, Sir George Brown + was appointed to command the Light Division. This he led in action, and + administered in camp, on Peninsular principles, and, whilst preserving + the strictest discipline to a degree which came in for criticism, he made + himself beloved by his men. At Alma he had a horse shot under him. At + Inkerman he was wounded whilst leading the French Zouaves into action. In + the following year, when an expedition against Kertch and the Russian + communications was decided upon, Brown went in command of the British + contingent. He was invalided home on the day of Lord Raglan's death. From + March 1860 to March 1865 he was commander-in-chief in Ireland. At the + time of his death in 1865 he was general and G.C.B., colonel of the 32nd + Regiment and colonel-in-chief of the Rifle Brigade.</p> + + <p><b>BROWN, GEORGE</b> (1818-1880), Canadian journalist and statesman, + was born in Edinburgh on the 29th of November 1818, and was educated in + his native city. With his father, Peter Brown (d. 1863), he emigrated to + New York in 1838; and in 1843 they removed to Toronto, and began the + publication of <i>The Banner</i>, a politico-religious paper in support + of the newly formed Free Church of Scotland. In 1844 he began, + independently of his father, the issue of the Toronto <i>Globe</i>. This + paper, at first weekly, became in 1853 a daily, and through the ability + and energy of Brown, came to possess an almost tyrannical influence over + the political opinion of Ontario. In 1851 he entered the Canadian + parliament as member for Kent county. Though giving at first a modified + support to the Reform government, he soon broke with it and became leader + of the Radical or "Clear Grit" party. His attacks upon the Roman Catholic + church and on the supposed domination in parliament of the French + Canadian section made him very unpopular in Lower Canada, but in Upper + Canada his power was great. Largely owing to his attacks, the Clergy + Reserves were secularized in 1854. He championed the complete laicization + of the schools in Ontario, but unsuccessfully, the Roman Catholic church + maintaining its right to separate schools. He also fought for the + representation by population of the two provinces in parliament, the Act + of Union (1841) having granted an equal number of representatives to + each. This principle of "Rep. by Pop." was conceded by the British North + America Act (1867). In 1858 Brown became premier of "The Short + Administration," which was defeated and compelled to resign after an + existence of two days.</p> + + <p>He was one of the earliest advocates of a federation of the British + colonies in North America, and in 1864, to accomplish this end, entered + into a coalition with his bitter personal and political opponent, Mr + (afterwards Sir) John A. Macdonald. <!-- Page 659 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page659"></a>[v.04 p.0659]</span>Largely owing + to Brown's efforts, Federation was carried through the House, but on the + 21st of December 1865 he resigned from the Coalition government, though + continuing to support its Federation policy, and in 1867 he was defeated + in South Ontario and never again sat in the House. In great measure owing + to his energy, and in spite of much concealed opposition from the + French-Canadians, the North-West Territories were purchased by the new + Dominion. In December 1873 he was called to the Canadian senate, and in + 1874 was appointed by the imperial government joint plenipotentiary with + Sir Edward Thornton to negotiate a reciprocity treaty between Canada and + the United States. The negotiations were successful, but the draft treaty + failed to pass the United States Senate. Soon afterwards Brown refused + the lieutenant-governorship of Ontario, and on two subsequent occasions + the offer of knighthood, devoting himself to the <i>Globe</i> and to a + model farm at Bow Park near Brantford. On the 25th of March 1880 he was + shot by a discharged employé, and died on the 9th of May.</p> + + <p>His candour, enthusiasm and open tolerance of the opinions of others + made him many warm friends and many fierce enemies. He was at his best in + his generous protests against all privileges, social, political and + religious, and in the self-sacrificing patriotism which enabled him to + fling aside his personal prejudices, and so to make Federation + possible.</p> + + <p>See J. C. Dent, <i>Canadian Portrait Gallery</i> (Toronto, 1800). The + official <i>Life</i>, by the Hon. Alexander Mackenzie, is decidedly + partisan. A life by John Lewis is included in the <i>Makers of Canada</i> + series (Toronto).</p> + + <p>(W. L. G.)</p> + + <p><b>BROWN, HENRY KIRKE</b> (1814-1886), American sculptor, was born in + Leyden, Massachusetts, on the 24th of February 1814. He began to paint + portraits while quite a boy, studied painting in Boston under Chester + Harding, learned a little about modelling, and in 1836-1839 spent his + summers working as a railroad engineer to earn enough to enable him to + study further. He spent four years (1842-1846) in Italy; but returning to + New York he remained distinctively American, and was never dominated, as + were so many of the early American sculptors, by Italian influence. He + died on the 10th of July 1886 at Newburgh, New York. His equestrian + statues are excellent, notably that of General Winfield Scott (1874) in + Washington, D.C., and one of George Washington (1856) in Union Square, + New York City, which was the second equestrian statue made in the United + States, following by three years that of Andrew Jackson in Washington by + Clark Mills (1815-1883). Brown was one of the first in America to cast + his own bronzes. Among his other works are: Abraham Lincoln (Union + Square, New York City); Nathanael Greene, George Clinton, Philip Kearny, + and Richard Stockton (all in the National Statuary Hall, Capitol, + Washington, D.C.); De Witt Clinton and "The Angel of the Resurrection," + both in Greenwood cemetery, New York City; and an "Aboriginal + Hunter."</p> + + <p>His nephew and pupil, Henry Kirke Bush-Brown (b. 1857), also became + prominent among American sculptors, his "Buffalo Hunt," equestrian + statues of Generals Meade and Reynolds at Gettysburg, and "Justinian" in + the New York appellate court-house, being his chief works.</p> + + <p><b>BROWN, JACOB</b> (1775-1828), American soldier, was born of Quaker + ancestry, in Bucks county, Pennsylvania, on the 9th of May 1775. From + 1796 to 1798 he was engaged in surveying public lands in Ohio; in 1798 he + settled in New York City, and during the period (1798-1800) when war with + France seemed imminent he acted as military secretary to Alexander + Hamilton, then inspector-general of the United States army. Subsequently + he purchased a large tract of land in Jefferson county, New York, where + he founded the town of Brownville. There he served as county judge, and + attained the rank (1810) of brigadier-general in the state militia. On + the outbreak of the second war with Great Britain (1812) he was placed in + command of the New York state frontier from Oswego to Lake St Francis + (near Cornwall, Ontario) and repelled the British attacks on Ogdensburg + (October 4, 1812) and Sackett's Harbor (May 29, 1813). In July 1813 he + was commissioned brigadier-general in the regular army, and in January + 1814 he was promoted major-general and succeeded General James Wilkinson + in command of the forces at Niagara. Early in the summer of 1814 he + undertook offensive operations, and his forces occupied Fort Erie, and, + on the 5th of July, at Chippawa, Ontario, defeated the British under + General Phineas Riall (c. 1769-1851). On the 25th of July, with General + Winfield Scott, he fought a hotly contested, but indecisive, battle with + the British under General Gordon Drummond (1771-1854) at Lundy's Lane, + where he was twice wounded. After the war he remained in the army, of + which he was the commanding general from March 1821 until his death at + Washington, D.C., on the 24th of February 1828.</p> + + <p><b>BROWN, JOHN</b> (1715-1766), British divine and author, was born at + Rothbury, Northumberland, on the 5th of November 1715. His father, a + descendant of the Browns of Coalston, near Haddington, became vicar of + Wigton in that year. Young Brown was educated at St John's College, + Cambridge; and after graduating at the head of the list of wranglers in + 1735, he took holy orders, and was appointed minor canon and lecturer at + Carlisle. In 1745 he distinguished himself in the defence of Carlisle as + a volunteer, and in 1747 was appointed chaplain to Dr Osbaldiston, on his + admission to the bishopric of Carlisle. His poem, entitled "Honour" + (1743), was followed by the "Essay on Satire." This gained for him the + friendship of William Warburton, who introduced him to Ralph Allen, of + Prior Park, near Bath. In 1751 Brown dedicated to Allen his <i>Essay on + the Characteristics of Lord Shaftesbury</i>, containing an able defence + of the utilitarian philosophy, praised later by John Stuart Mill + (<i>Westminster Review</i>, vol. xxix. p. 477). In 1756 he was promoted + by the earl of Hardwicke to the living of Great Horkesley in Essex, and + in the following year he took the degree of D.D. at Cambridge. He was the + author of two plays, <i>Barbarossa</i> (1754) and <i>Athelstane</i> + (1756); Garrick played in both, and the first was a success. The most + popular of his works was the <i>Estimate of the Manners and Principles of + the Times</i> (2 vols., 1757-1758), a bitter satire which pleased a + public depressed by the ill-success in the conduct of the war, and ready + to welcome an attack on luxury and kindred evils. Other works are the + <i>Additional Dialogue of the Dead between Pericles and Cosmo ...</i> + (1760), in vindication of Chatham's policy; and the <i>Dissertation on + the Rise, Union and Power, &c., of Poetry and Music</i> (1763). He + was consulted in connexion with a scheme of education which Catherine II. + of Russia desired to introduce into her dominions. A memorandum on the + subject by Dr Brown led to an offer on her part to entertain him at St + Petersburg as her adviser on the subject. He had bought a postchaise and + various other things for the journey, when he was persuaded to relinquish + the design on account of his gout. He had been subject to fits of + melancholy, and, influenced perhaps by disappointment, he committed + suicide on the 23rd of September 1766.</p> + + <p>There is a detailed account of John Brown by Andrew Kippis in + <i>Biographia Britannica</i> (1780), containing the text of the + negotiations for his journey to Russia, and of a long letter in which he + outlines the principles of the scheme he would have proposed. See also T. + Davies, <i>Memoirs of ... David Garrick</i> (1780), chap. xix.</p> + + <p><b>BROWN, JOHN</b> (1722-1787), Scottish divine, was born at Carpow, + in Perthshire. He was almost entirely self-educated, having acquired a + knowledge of Latin, Greek and Hebrew while employed as a shepherd. His + early career was varied, and he was in succession a packman, a soldier in + the Edinburgh garrison in 1745, and a school-master. He was, from 1750 + till his death, minister of the Burgher branch of the Secession church + (see <span class="sc">United Presbyterian Church</span>) in Haddington. + From 1786 he was professor of divinity for his denomination, and was + mainly responsible for the training of its ministry. He gained a just + reputation for learning and piety. The best of his many works are his + <i>Self-Interpreting Bible</i> and <i>Dictionary of the Bible</i>, works + that were long very popular. The former was translated into Welsh. He + also wrote an <i>Explication of the Westminster Confession</i>, and a + number of biographical and historical sketches.</p> + + <p><b>BROWN, JOHN</b> (1735-1788), Scottish physician, was born in 1735 + at Lintlaws or at Preston, Berwickshire. After attending the parish + school at Duns, he went to Edinburgh and entered <!-- Page 660 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page660"></a>[v.04 p.0660]</span>the divinity + classes at the university, supporting himself by private tuition. In 1759 + he seems to have discontinued his theological studies, and to have begun + the study of medicine. He soon attracted the notice of William Cullen, + who engaged him as private tutor to his family, and treated him in some + respects as an assistant professor. In time, however, he quarrelled with + Cullen, as with the professors of the university in general, and from + about 1778 his public lectures contained vigorous attacks on all + preceding systems of medicine and Cullen's in particular. In 1780 he + published his <i>Elementa Medicinae</i>, expounding his own, or as it was + then called the Brunonian, theory of medicine, which for a time had a + great vogue. In 1786 he set out for London in the vain hope of bettering + his fortunes, and died there of apoplexy on the 17th of October 1788.</p> + + <p>An edition of his works, with notice of his life by his son, William + Cullen Brown, appeared in 1804.</p> + + <p><b>BROWN, JOHN</b> (1784-1858), Scottish divine, grandson of the + last-named, was born at Whitburn, Linlithgowshire, on the 12th of July + 1784. He studied at Glasgow university, and afterwards at the divinity + hall of the "Burgher" branch of the "Secession" church at Selkirk, under + the celebrated George Lawson. In 1806 he was ordained minister of the + Burgher congregation at Biggar, Lanarkshire, where he laboured for + sixteen years. While there he had an interesting controversy with Robert + Owen the socialist. Transferred in 1822 to the charge of Rose Street + church, Edinburgh, he at once took a high rank as a preacher. In 1829 he + succeeded James Hall at Broughton Place church, Edinburgh. In 1835 he was + appointed one of the professors in the theological hall of the Secession + church, and, great as was his ability as a preacher and pastor, it was + probably in this sphere that he rendered his most valuable service. He + had been the first in Scotland to use in the pulpit the exegetical method + of exposition of Scripture, and as a professor he illustrated the method + and extended its use. To him chiefly is due the abandonment of the + principle of interpretation according to the "analogy of faith," which + practically subordinated the Bible to the creed. Brown's exegesis was + marked by rare critical sagacity, exact and extensive scholarship, + unswerving honesty, and a clear, logical style; and his expository works + have thus a permanent value. He had a considerable share in the Apocrypha + controversy, and he was throughout life a vigorous and consistent + upholder of anti-state-church or "voluntary" views. His two sermons on + <i>The Law of Christ respecting civil obedience, especially in the + payment of tribute</i>, called forth by a local grievance from which he + had personally suffered, were afterwards published with extensive + additions and notes, and are still regarded as an admirable statement and + defence of the voluntary principle. The part he took in the discussion on + the Atonement, which agitated all the Scottish churches, led to a formal + charge of heresy against him by those who held the doctrine of a limited + atonement. In 1845, after a protracted trial, he was acquitted by the + synod. From that time he enjoyed the thorough confidence of his + denomination (after 1847 merged in "the United Presbyterian church"), of + which in his later years he was generally regarded as the leading + representative. He died on the 13th of October 1858. His chief works + were: <i>Expository Discourses on First Peter</i> (1848); <i>Exposition + of the Discourses and Sayings of our Lord</i> (1850); <i>Exposition of + our Lord's Intercessory Prayer</i> (1850); <i>The Resurrection of + Life</i> (1851); <i>Expository Discourses on Galatians</i> (1853); and + <i>Analytical Exposition of the Epistle to the Romans</i> (1857).</p> + + <p>See <i>Memoir of John Brown, D.D.</i>, by John Cairns (1860).</p> + + <p><b>BROWN, JOHN</b> (1800-1859), American abolitionist, leader of the + famous attack upon Harper's Ferry, in 1859, was born on the 9th of May + 1800, at Torrington, Connecticut. He is said to have been descended from + Peter Brown, who went to America in the <i>Mayflower</i>, and he was the + grandson of Captain John Brown, who served in the War of Independence. He + was taken by his father, Owen Brown, to Hudson, Ohio, in 1805. At the age + of eighteen he began to prepare himself for the Congregational ministry, + but soon changed his mind and turned his attention to land surveying. He + engaged successively in the tanning business, in sheep-raising, and in + the wool trade, but met with little success and in 1842, at Akron, Ohio, + became bankrupt. In 1849, after having lived in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and + Massachusetts, he removed to North Elba, N.Y., where he engaged in + farming on part of the land which was being given in small tracts, by its + owner Gerrit Smith, to negro settlers. Long before this he had conceived + a strong hatred for the institution of slavery, and had determined to do + what he could to bring about its destruction. In 1854 five of his sons + removed to Kansas, where the violent conflict was beginning between the + "free-state" and the pro-slavery settlers, and in the following year + Brown, leaving the rest of his family at North Elba, joined them, + settling near Osawatomie and immediately becoming a conspicuous figure in + the border warfare. His name became particularly well known in connexion + with the so-called "Pottawatomie massacre," the killing in cold blood, on + the 25th of May 1856, by men under his orders, of five pro-slavery + settlers in retaliation for the murder a short time previously of five + "free-state" settlers. He also on the 2nd of June, at the head of about + thirty men, captured Captain H. C. Pate and twenty-two pro-slavery men at + Black Jack, and on the 30th of August 1856, with a small body of + supporters, vigorously resisted an attack of a superior pro-slavery force + upon Osawatomie. Brown then visited the Eastern states for the purpose of + raising money to be used in the Kansas struggle and of arousing the + people against slavery. After spending a short time in Kansas, in + 1858-1859 he proceeded to carry out a long-cherished scheme for + facilitating the escape of fugitive slaves by establishing in the + mountains of Virginia a stronghold in which such fugitives could take + refuge and defend themselves against their pursuers. At Chatham, Canada, + with eleven white and thirty-five negro associates, he adopted a + "Provisional Constitution and Ordinance for the People of the United + States." Brown was elected commander-in-chief, and from among this group + a secretary of state, a secretary of war, a secretary of the treasury, + and members of Congress were chosen. Later, with only twenty-two men + supplied with arms furnished by the Massachusetts-Kansas committee, and + with funds contributed (in ignorance of Brown's plans) by his intimate + associates, Theodore Parker, George L. Stearns, T. W. Higginson, and F. + B. Sanborn, all of Boston, and Gerrit Smith, of Peterboro, New York, he + removed to a farm near Harper's Ferry, the site of a Federal arsenal, + which he intended to capture as a preliminary to the carrying out of the + main part of his plan. On the night of the 16th of October 1859, with + only eighteen men, five of whom were negroes, he made the attack, easily + capturing the arsenal and taking about sixty of the leading citizens + prisoners to be used as hostages. On the following morning Brown and his + followers were vigorously attacked, and on the 18th—a small force + of United States marines under Colonel Robert E. Lee having + arrived—were overpowered, Brown being seriously wounded after he + had surrendered. Of the twenty-two men who had participated in the raid, + ten were killed, seven were taken prisoners, and five escaped. On the + other side five were killed and nine wounded. Brown was committed to the + Charlestown, Virginia (now West Virginia), gaol on the 19th of October; + on the 27th his trial began; on the 31st he was convicted of "treason, + and conspiring and advising with slaves and other rebels, and murder in + the first degree"; and on the 2nd of December he was hanged at + Charlestown. His fellow-prisoners were likewise hanged soon afterwards. + Brown was buried at North Elba, New York. The attack upon Harper's Ferry + created widespread excitement, particularly in the Southern states; and + among the abolitionists in the North Brown was looked upon as a martyr to + their cause. Shortly after his death a famous popular song became widely + current in the North, beginning:—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>John Brown's body lies a-mouldering in the grave,</p> + <p>But his soul goes marching on.</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>Intensely religious in his nature, Brown possessed something of the + gloomy fanaticism of his Puritan ancestors. The secret of his whole + career lies in his emphatic conviction, to use the <!-- Page 661 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page661"></a>[v.04 p.0661]</span>words of + Wendell Phillips, that he had "letters of marque from God"; that he had a + divine commission to destroy slavery by violent means. He scouted the + "milk and water principles" of the milder abolitionists, advocated + vigorous resistance to the slave power, and expressed his ideas by + actions rather than by words. It now seems that this policy aided very + little in making Kansas a free state, and that the attack on Harper's + Ferry, while creating much feeling at the moment, had very little effect + on the subsequent course of events. It is safe to assume that secession + and civil war would have followed the election of Lincoln if there had + been no such raid into Virginia.</p> + + <p>Brown was twice married and was the father of twenty children, eight + of whom died in early childhood. His sons aided him in all his + undertakings, two of them being killed at Harper's Ferry; and Owen Brown, + who died in 1889, was long the only survivor of the attack.</p> + + <p>See the life (1910) by O. G. Villard, and F. B. Sanborn's <i>Life and + Letters of John Brown</i> (Boston, 1885); R. J. Hinton's <i>John Brown + and His Men</i> (New York, 1894); James Redpath's <i>Public Life of + Captain John Brown</i> (Boston, 1860); Von Hoist's essay, <i>John + Brown</i> (Boston, 1889); and J. F. Rhodes, <i>History of the United + States from the Compromise of 1850</i> (New York, 1890-1906).</p> + + <p><b>BROWN, JOHN</b> (1810-1882), Scottish physician and author, son of + John Brown (1784-1858), was born at Biggar, Scotland, on the 22nd of + September 1810. He graduated as M.D. at the university of Edinburgh in + 1833, and practised as a physician in that city. His reputation, however, + is based on the two volumes of essays, <i>Horae Subsecivae</i> (i.e. + "leisure hours") (1858, 1861), <i>John Leech and other Papers</i> (1882), + <i>Rab and His Friends</i> (1859), and <i>Marjorie Fleming: a Sketch</i> + (1863). The first volume of <i>Horae Subsecivae</i> deals chiefly with + the equipment and duties of a physician, the second with subjects outside + his profession. He was emphatic in his belief that an author should + publish nothing "unless he has something to say, and has done his best to + say it aright." Acting on this principle, he published little himself, + and only after subjecting it to the severest criticism. His work is + invariably characterized by humour and tenderness. He suffered during the + latter years of his life from pronounced attacks of melancholy, and died + on the 11th of May 1882.</p> + + <p>See also E. T. M<sup>c</sup>Laren, <i>Dr John Brown and his Sister + Isabella</i> (4th ed., 1890); and <i>Letters of Dr John Brown</i>, edited + by his son and D. W. Forrest, with biography by E. T. M<sup>c</sup>Laren + (1907).</p> + + <p><b>BROWN, SIR JOHN</b> (1816-1896), English armour plate manufacturer, + was born at Sheffield on the 6th of December 1816, the son of a slater. + He was apprenticed when fourteen years old to a Sheffield firm who + manufactured files and table cutlery. Impressed with Brown's ability, the + senior partner offered him the control of the business (Earl Horton and + Co.) and advanced some of the necessary capital. Brown invented in 1848 + the conical steel spring buffer for railway wagons, and in 1860, after + seeing the French ship "La Gloire" armoured with hammered plate, he + determined to attempt the production of armour for the British navy by a + rolling process. The experiment was successful, and led to admiralty + orders for armour plate sufficient to protect about three-quarters of the + navy. In 1856 Brown had started the Atlas Works in Sheffield, which soon + produced, beside armour plates and railway buffers, ordnance forgings, + steel rails, railway carriage axles and tires. The works covered thirty + acres and employed eventually more than four thousand workmen. Besides + supplying iron to the Sheffield steel trade, Brown himself successfully + developed the Bessemer process. In 1864, after his business had been + converted into a limited company, he retired. He died at Bromley, Kent, + on the 27th of December 1896. Among the honours conferred upon him was a + knighthood in 1867, the office of mayor of Sheffield in 1862 and 1863, + and that of Master Cutler in 1865 and 1866.</p> + + <p><b>BROWN, JOHN GEORGE</b> (1831- ), American painter, was born in + Durham, England, on the 11th of November 1831. He studied at + Newcastle-on-Tyne, in the Edinburgh Academy, and after removing to New + York City in 1853, at the schools of the National Academy of Design of + which he afterwards became a member. In 1866 he became one of the charter + members of the Water-Colour Society, of which he was president from 1887 + to 1904. He generally confined himself to representations of street child + life, bootblacks, newsboys, &c. ; his "Passing Show" (Paris, Salon, + 1877) and "Street Boys at Play" (Paris Exhibition, 1900) are good + examples of his popular talent.</p> + + <p><b>BROWN, ROBERT</b> (1773-1858), British botanist, was born on the + 21st of December 1773 at Montrose, and was educated at the grammar school + of his native town, where he had as contemporaries Joseph Hume and James + Mill. In 1787 he entered Marischal College, Aberdeen, but two years + afterwards removed to Edinburgh University, where his taste for botany + attracted the attention of John Walker (1731-1803), then professor of + natural history in the university. In 1795 he obtained a commission in + the Forfarshire regiment of Fencible Infantry as "ensign and assistant + surgeon," and served in the north of Ireland. In 1798 he made the + acquaintance of Sir Joseph Banks, by whom in 1801 he was offered the post + of naturalist to the expedition fitted out under Captain Matthew Flinders + for the survey of the then almost unknown coasts of Australia. Ferdinand + Bauer, afterwards familiarly associated with Brown in his botanical + discoveries, was draughtsman; William Westall was landscape painter; and + among the midshipmen was one afterwards destined to rise into fame as Sir + John Franklin. In 1805 the expedition returned to England, having + obtained, among other acquisitions, nearly 4000 species of plants, many + of which were new. Brown was almost immediately appointed librarian of + the Linnean Society. In this position, though one of no great emolument, + he had abundant opportunities of pursuing his studies; but it was not + until 1810 that he published the first volume of his great work, in + Latin, the <i>Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae et Insulae Van + Diemen</i>, which did much to further the general adoption of A.L. de + Jussieu's natural system of plant classification. Its merits were + immediately recognized, and it gave its author an international + reputation among botanists. It is rare in its original edition, the + author having suppressed it, hurt at the <i>Edinburgh Review</i> having + fallen foul of its Latinity. With the exception of a supplement published + in 1830, no more of the work appeared. In 1810 Brown became librarian to + Sir Joseph Banks, who on his death in 1820 bequeathed to him the use and + enjoyment of his library and collections for life. In 1827 an arrangement + was made by which these were transferred to the British Museum, with + Brown's consent and in accordance with Sir Joseph's will. Brown then + became keeper of this new botanical department, an office which he held + until his death. Soon after Banks's decease he resigned the librarianship + of the Linnean Society, and from 1849 to 1853 he served as its president. + He received many honours. Elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1811, + he received its Copley medal in 1839, for his "discoveries on the subject + of vegetable impregnation," and in 1833 he was elected one of the five + foreign associates of the Institute of France. Among his other + distinctions was membership of the order "pour le Mérite" of Prussia. In + the <i>Academia Caesarea Naturae Curiosorum</i> he sat under the cognomen + of Ray. He died on the 10th of June 1858, in the house in Soho Square, + London, bequeathed to him by Sir Joseph Banks. His works, which embrace + not only systematic botany, but also plant anatomy and physiology, are + distinguished by their thoroughness and conscientious accuracy, and + display powers at once of minute detail and of broad generalization. The + continual movements observed by the microscope among minute particles + suspended in a liquid were noticed by him in 1827, and hence are known as + "Brownian movements."</p> + + <p>In 1825-1834 his works up to that date were collected and published in + four divisions by Nees von Esenbeck, in German, under the title of + <i>Vermischte botanische Schriften</i> (Leipzig and Nuremberg). In 1866 + the Ray Society reprinted, under the editorship of his friend and + successor in the keepership of the Botanical Department of the British + Museum, J.J. Bennet, his complete writings, the <i>Prodromus</i> alone + excepted. In these <i>Miscellaneous Works</i> (2 vols., with atlas of + plates) the history of his discoveries can be best followed.</p> + + <p><b>BROWN, SAMUEL MORISON</b> (1817-1856), Scottish chemist, poet and + essayist, born at Haddington on the 23rd of February 1817, was the fourth + son of Samuel Brown, the founder of <!-- Page 662 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page662"></a>[v.04 p.0662]</span>itinerating + libraries, and grandson of John Brown, author of the <i>Self-Interpreting + Bible</i>. In 1832 he entered the university of Edinburgh, where, after + studying in Berlin and St Petersburg, he graduated as M.D. in 1839. About + 1840 he was engaged in experiments by which he sought to prove that + "carbon in certain states of combination is susceptible of conversion + into silicon," and his failure to establish this proposition had much to + do with his want of success as a candidate for the chair of chemistry at + Edinburgh in 1843. He held the doctrine that the chemical elements are + compounds of equal and similar atoms, and might therefore possibly be all + derived from one generic atom. In 1850 he published a tragedy, <i>Galileo + Galilei</i>, and two volumes of his <i>Lectures on the Atomic Theory and + Essays Scientific and Literary</i> appeared in 1858, with a preface by + his kinsman Dr John Brown, the author of <i>Horae Subsecivae</i>. He died + at Edinburgh on the 20th of September 1856.</p> + + <p><b>BROWN, THOMAS</b> (1663-1704), English satirist, of "facetious + memory" as Addison designates him, was the son of a farmer at Shifnal, in + Shropshire, and was born in 1663. He was entered in 1678 at Christ + Church, Oxford, where he is said to have escaped expulsion by the famous + lines beginning, "I do not love thee, Dr Fell." He was for three years + schoolmaster at Kingston-on-Thames, and afterwards settled in London. + Under the pseudonym of Dudly Tomkinson he wrote a satire on Dryden, + <i>The Reasons of Mr Bays changing his Religion: considered in a Dialogue + between Crites, Eugenius and Mr Bays</i>, with two other parts having + separate titles (1688-1690, republished with additions in 1691). He was + the author of a great variety of poems, letters, dialogues and lampoons, + full of humour and erudition, but coarse and scurrilous. His writings + have a certain value for the knowledge they display of low life in + London. He died on the 16th of June 1704, and was buried in the cloister + of Westminster Abbey.</p> + + <p>His collected works were published in 1707-1708. The second volume + contains a collection of <i>Letters from the Dead to the Living</i>, some + of which are translated from the French. His <i>Comical Romance done into + English</i> (1772, the <i>Roman Comique</i> of Scarron) was reprinted in + 1892.</p> + + <p><b>BROWN, THOMAS</b> (1778-1820), Scottish philosopher, was born at + Kirkmabreck, Kirkcudbright, where his father was parish clergyman. He was + a boy of a refined nature, a wide reader and an eager student. Educated + at several schools in London, he went to Edinburgh University in 1792, + where he attended Dugald Stewart's moral philosophy class. His attendance + was desultory, and he does not appear to have completed his arts course. + After studying law for a time he took up medicine; his graduation thesis + <i>De Somno</i> was well received. But his great strength lay in + metaphysical analysis, as was shown in his answer to the objections + raised against the appointment of Sir John Leslie to the mathematical + professorship (1805). Leslie, a follower of Hume, was attacked by the + clerical party as a sceptic and an infidel, and Brown took the + opportunity to defend Hume's doctrine of causality as in no way inimical + to religion. His defence, at first only a pamphlet, became in its third + edition a lengthy treatise entitled <i>Inquiry into the Relation of Cause + and Effect</i>, and is a fine specimen of Brown's analytical faculty. In + 1806 he became a medical practitioner in partnership with James Gregory, + but, though successful in his profession, preferred literature and + philosophy. After twice failing in the attempt to gain a professorship in + the university, he was invited, during an illness of Dugald Stewart in + the session of 1808-1809, to act as his substitute, and during the + following session he undertook a great part of Stewart's work. The + students received him with enthusiasm, due partly to his splendid + rhetoric and partly to the novelty and ingenuity of his views. In 1810 he + was appointed as colleague to Stewart, a position which he held for the + rest of his life. He wrote his lectures at high pressure, and devoted + much time to the editing and publication of the numerous poems which he + had written at various times during his life. He was also engaged in + preparing an abstract of his lectures as a handbook for his class. His + health, never strong, gave way under the strain of his work. He was + advised to take a voyage to London, where he died on the 2nd of April + 1820.</p> + + <p>His friend and biographer, David Welsh (1793-1845), superintended the + publication of his text-book, the <i>Physiology of the Human Mind</i>, + and his <i>Lectures on the Philosophy of the Human Mind</i> was published + by his successors, John Stewart and the Rev. E. Milroy. The latter was + received with great enthusiasm both in England (where it reached its 19th + edition) and in America; but recent criticism has lessened its popularity + and it is now almost forgotten.</p> + + <p>Brown's philosophy occupies an intermediate place between the earlier + Scottish school and the later analytical or associational psychology. To + the latter Brown really belonged, but he had preserved certain doctrines + of the older school which were out of harmony with his fundamental view. + He still retained a small quantum of intuitive beliefs, and did not + appear to see that the very existence of these could not be explained by + his theory of mental action. This intermediate or wavering position + accounts for the comparative neglect into which his works have now + fallen. They did much to excite thinking, and advanced many problems by + more than one step, but they did not furnish a coherent system, and the + doctrines which were then new have since been worked out with greater + consistency and clearness.</p> + + <p>Brown wrote a criticism of Darwin's <i>Zoonomia</i> (1798), and was + one of the first contributors to the <i>Edinburgh Review</i>, in the + second number of which he published a criticism of the Kantian + philosophy, based entirely on Villers's French account of it. Among his + poems, which are modelled on Pope and Akenside and rather commonplace, + may be mentioned: <i>Paradise of Coquettes</i> (1814); <i>Wanderer in + Norway</i> (1815); <i>Warfiend</i> (1816); <i>Bower of Spring</i> (1817); + <i>Agnes</i> (1818); <i>Emily</i> (1819); a collected edition in 4 vols. + appeared in 1820.</p> + + <p>For a severe criticism of Brown's philosophy, see Sir W. Hamilton's + <i>Discussions</i> and <i>Lectures on Metaphysics</i>; and for a high + estimate of his merits, see J. S. Mill's <i>Examination of Hamilton</i>. + See also D. Welsh's <i>Account of the Life and Writings, &c.</i> + (1825); M<sup>c</sup>Cosh's <i>Scottish Philosophy</i>, pp. 317-337. The + only German writer who seems to have known anything of Brown is Beneke, + who found in him anticipations of some of his own doctrines. See <i>Die + neue Psychologie</i>, pp. 320-330.</p> + + <p><b>BROWN, THOMAS EDWARD</b> (1830-1897), British poet, scholar and + divine, was born on the 5th of May 1830, at Douglas, Isle of Man. His + father, the Rev. Robert Brown, held the living of St Matthew's—a + homely church in a poor district. His mother came of Scottish parentage, + though born in the island. Thomas, the sixth of ten children, was but two + years old when the family removed to Kirk Braddan vicarage, a short + distance from Douglas, where his father (a scholar of no university, but + so fastidious about composition that he would have some sentences of an + English classic read to him before answering an invitation) took share + with the parish schoolmaster in tutoring the clever boy until, at the age + of fifteen, he was entered at King William's College. Here his abilities + soon declared themselves, and hence he proceeded to Christ Church, + Oxford, where his position (as a servitor) cost him much humiliation, + which he remembered to the end of his life. He won a double first, + however, and was elected a fellow of Oriel in April 1854, Dean Gaisford + having refused to promote him to a senior studentship of his own college, + on the ground that no servitor had ever before attained to that honour. + Although at that time an Oriel fellowship conferred a deserved + distinction, Brown never took kindly to the life, but, after a few terms + of private pupils, returned to the Isle of Man as vice-principal of his + old school. He had been ordained deacon, but did not proceed to priest's + orders for many years. In 1857 he married his cousin, Miss Stowell, + daughter of Dr Stowell of Ramsey, and soon afterwards left the island + once more to become headmaster of the Crypt school, Gloucester —a + position which in no long time he found intolerable. From Gloucester he + was summoned by the Rev. John Percival (afterwards bishop of Hereford), + who had recently been appointed to the struggling young foundation of + Clifton College, which he soon raised to be one of the great public + schools. Percival wanted a master for the modern side, and made an + appointment to meet Brown at Oxford; "and there," he writes, "as chance + would have it, I met him standing at the corner of St Mary's <!-- Page + 663 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page663"></a>[v.04 + p.0663]</span>Entry, in a somewhat Johnsonian attitude, four-square, his + hands deep in his pockets to keep himself still, and looking decidedly + volcanic. We very soon came to terms, and I left him there under promise + to come to Clifton as my colleague at the beginning of the following + term." At Clifton Brown remained from September 1863 to July 1892, when + he retired—to the great regret of boys and masters alike, who had + long since come to regard "T.E.B.'s" genius, and even his eccentricities, + with a peculiar pride—to spend the rest of his days upon the island + he had worshipped from childhood and often celebrated in song. His poem + "Betsy Lee" appeared in <i>Macmillan's Magazine</i> (April and May 1873), + and was published separately in the same year. It was included in + <i>Fo'c's'le Yarns</i> (1881), which reached a second edition in 1889. + This volume included at least three other notable poems—"Tommy + Big-eyes," "Christmas Rose," and "Captain Tom and Captain Hugh." It was + followed by <i>The Doctor and other Poems</i> (1887), <i>The Manx Witch + and other Poems</i> (1889), and <i>Old John and other Poems</i>—a + volume mainly lyrical (1893). Since his death all these and a few + additional lyrics and fragments have been published in one volume by + Messrs Macmillan under the title of <i>The Collected Poems of T.E. + Brown</i> (1900). His familiar letters (edited in two volumes by an old + friend, Mr S.T. Irwin, in 1900) bear witness to the zest he carried back + to his native country, although his thoughts often reverted to Clifton. + In October 1897 he returned to the school on a visit. He was the guest of + one of the house-masters, and on Friday evening, 29th October, he gave an + address to the boys of the house. He had spoken for some minutes with his + usual vivacity, when his voice grew thick and he was seen to stagger. He + died in less than two hours. Brown's more important poems are narrative, + and written in the Manx dialect, with a free use of pauses, and sometimes + with daring irregularity of rhythm. A rugged tenderness is their most + characteristic note; but the emotion, while almost equally explosive in + mirth and in tears, remains an educated emotion, disciplined by a + scholar's sense of language. They breathe the fervour of an island + patriotism (humorously aware of its limits) and of a simple natural + piety. In his lyrics he is happiest when yoking one or the other of these + emotions to serve a philosophy of life, often audacious, but always + genial.</p> + + <p>(A. T. Q.-C.)</p> + + <p><b>BROWN, SIR WILLIAM,</b> <span class="sc">Bart.</span> (1784-1864), + British merchant and banker, founder of the banking-house of Brown, + Shipley & Co., was born at Ballymena, Ireland, on the 30th of May + 1784, the son of an Irish linen-merchant. At the age of sixteen he + accompanied his father and brothers to Baltimore, Maryland, U.S.A., + whither it had been decided to transfer the family business, but in 1809 + left America for Liverpool. Here he established a branch of the firm, + which had now begun to deal largely in raw cotton as well as linen and + soon afterwards developed into one of general merchants and finally + bankers. Brown became one of the leaders in Liverpool commerce, and in + 1832 took a principal share in the reform of the system of + dock-management then in vogue at that port. The great financial crisis of + 1837 seriously threatened the ruin of the firm, but on Brown's urgent + representations as to the multiplicity of interests involved the Bank of + England agreed to advance him £2,000,000 to tide matters over. Actually + Brown only found it necessary to apply for £1,000,000, which he repaid + within six months. His business, both mercantile and banking, continued + to increase, and in 1844 he was in possession of a sixth of the trade + between Great Britain and the United States. "There is hardly," declared + Richard Cobden at this period, "a wind that blows, or a tide that flows + in the Mersey, that does not bring a ship freighted with cotton or some + other costly commodity for Mr Brown's house." In 1856 the friction + between the British and American governments due to the enlistment by + British consuls of recruits for the Crimean War was largely allayed by + the action of Brown, who in an interview with Lord Palmerston, then + prime-minister, explained the objections taken in America. From 1846 to + 1859 he was Liberal M.P. for South Lancashire. In 1860 he presented + Liverpool with a public library and museum, and in 1863 was made a + baronet. He died at Liverpool in 1864.</p> + + <p><b>BROWN, WILLIAM LAURENCE</b> (1755-1830), Scottish divine, was born + on the 7th of January 1755 at Utrecht, where his father was minister of + the English church. The father, having been appointed professor of + ecclesiastical history at St Andrews, returned to Scotland in 1757, and + his son went to the grammar school of that city, and then to the + university. After passing through the divinity classes, he went in 1774 + to the university of Utrecht, where he studied theology and civil law. In + 1777 he was appointed to the English church in Utrecht, and about 1788 to + the professorship of moral philosophy and ecclesiastical history in the + university, to which was soon added the professorship of the law of + nature. The war which followed the French Revolution finally drove Brown + in January 1795 to London, where he was cordially welcomed. In 1795 the + magistrates of Aberdeen appointed him to the chair of divinity, and soon + after he was made principal of Marischal College. In the year 1800 he was + appointed chaplain in ordinary to the king, and in 1804 dean of the + chapel royal, and of the order of the Thistle. He died on the 11th of May + 1830. His most widely-known works were an <i>Essay on the Natural + Equality of Men</i> (1793), which gained the Teyler Society's prize; a + treatise <i>On the Existence of the Supreme Creator</i> (1816), to which + was awarded the first Burnet prize of £1250; and <i>A Comparative View of + Christianity, and of the other Forms of Religion with regard to their + Moral Tendency</i> (2 vols., 1826).</p> + + <p><b>BROWN BESS</b>, a name given in the British army to the flintlock + musket with which the infantry were formerly armed. The term is applied + generally to the weapon of the 18th and early 19th centuries, and became + obsolete on the introduction of the rifle. The first part of the name + derives from the colour of the wooden stock, for the name is found much + earlier than the introduction of "browning" the barrel of muskets; "Bess" + may be either a humorous feminine equivalent of the "brown-bill," the old + weapon of the British infantry, or a corruption of the "buss," + <i>i.e.</i> box, in "blunderbuss."</p> + + <p><b>BROWNE, EDWARD HAROLD</b> (1811-1891), English bishop, was born at + Aylesbury and educated at Eton and Cambridge. He was ordained in 1836, + and two years later was elected senior tutor of Emmanuel College, + Cambridge. From 1843 to 1849 he was vice-principal of St David's College, + Lampeter, and in 1854 was appointed Norrisian professor of divinity at + Cambridge. His best-known book is the <i>Exposition of the Thirty-nine + Articles</i> (vol. i., Cambridge, 1850; vol. ii., London, 1853), which + remained for many years a standard work on the subject. In 1864 he was + consecrated bishop of Ely, and proceeded to reorganize his diocese. He + maintained that the deposition of Bishop Colenso endangered the + independence of bishops. Nevertheless, he was opposed to Colenso's + criticism of the Bible, and replied to it in <i>The Pentateuch and the + Elohistic Psalms</i> (1863), written from a conservative standpoint. In + 1869 he was one of the consecrating prelates when Temple became bishop of + Exeter, and endeavoured to remove the prejudice against his appointment + by showing that Temple was not responsible for the views of other writers + in the famous <i>Essays and Reviews</i> (1860). He was bishop of + Winchester from 1873 till 1890, when ill-health compelled him to + resign.</p> + + <p><b>BROWNE, HABLÔT KNIGHT</b> (1815-1882), English artist, famous as + "Phiz," the illustrator of the best-known books by Charles Dickens, + Charles Lever and Harrison Ainsworth in their original editions. His + talents in other directions of art were of a very ordinary kind. As an + interpreter and illustrator of Dickens's characters, "Phiz," as he always + signed his drawings, was in some respects the equal of his rivals + Cruikshank and Leech, while, in his own way, he excelled them both. Of + Huguenot extraction, he was born in Lambeth on the 11th of June 1815. His + father died early and left the family badly off. Browne was apprenticed + to Finden, the eminent engraver on steel, in whose studio he obtained his + only artistic education. To engraving, however, he was entirely unsuited, + and having in 1833 secured an important prize from the Society of Arts + for a drawing of "John Gilpin," he abandoned engraving in the following + year and took to other artistic work, with the ultimate object of + becoming a painter. In the spring of 1836 he met Charles <!-- Page 664 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page664"></a>[v.04 + p.0664]</span>Dickens. It was at the moment when the serial publication + of <i>Pickwick</i> was in danger from the want of a capable interpreter + for the illustrations. Dickens knew Browne slightly as the illustrator of + his little pamphlet <i>Sunday under Three Heads</i>, and probably this + slight knowledge of his work stood the draughtsman in good stead. In the + original edition of <i>Pickwick</i>, issued in shilling monthly parts + from early in 1836 until the end of 1837, the first seven plates were + drawn by Robert Seymour, a clever illustrator who committed suicide in + April 1836. The next two plates were by R.W. Buss, an otherwise + successful portrait-painter and lecturer, but they were so poor that a + change was imperative. Browne and W.M. Thackeray called independently at + the publishers' office with specimens of their powers for Dickens's + inspection. The novelist preferred Browne. Browne's first two etched + plates for <i>Pickwick</i> were signed "Nemo," but the third was signed + "Phiz," a pseudonym which was retained in future. When asked to explain + why he chose this name he answered that the change from "Nemo" to "Phiz" + was made "to harmonize better with Dickens's Boz." Possibly Browne + adopted it to conceal his identity, hoping one day to become famous as a + painter. It is to be noted, however, that "Phiz" is usually attached to + his better work and H.K.B. to his less successful drawings. "Phiz" + undoubtedly created Sam Weller, so far as his well-known figure is + concerned, as Seymour had created Pickwick. Dickens and "Phiz" were + personally good friends in early days, and in 1838 travelled together to + Yorkshire to see the schools of which Nicholas Nickleby became the hero; + afterwards they made several journeys of this nature in company to + facilitate the illustrator's work. The other Dickens characters which + "Phiz" realized most successfully are perhaps Squeers, Micawber, Guppy, + Major Bagstock, Mrs Gamp, Tom Pinch and, above all, David Copperfield. Of + the books by Dickens which "Phiz" illustrated the best are <i>David + Copperfield</i>, <i>Pickwick</i>, <i>Dombey and Son</i>, <i>Martin + Chuzzlewit</i> and <i>Bleak House</i>. Browne made several drawings for + <i>Punch</i> in early days and also towards the end of his life; his + chief work in this direction being the clever design for the wrapper + which was used for eighteen months from January 1842. He also contributed + to <i>Punch's Pocket Books</i>. In addition to his work for Dickens, + "Phiz" illustrated over twenty of Lever's novels (the most successful + being <i>Harry Lorrequer</i>, <i>Charles O'Malley</i>, <i>Jack Hinton</i> + and the <i>Knight of Gwynne</i>). He also illustrated Harrison + Ainsworth's and Frank Smedley's novels. <i>Mervyn Clitheroe</i> by + Ainsworth is one of the most admirable of the artist's Works. Browne was + in continual employment by publishers until 1867, when he had a stroke of + paralysis. Although he recovered slightly and made many illustrations on + wood, they were by comparison inferior productions which the + draughtsman's admirers would willingly ignore. In 1878 he was awarded an + annuity by the Royal Academy. He gradually became worse in health, until + he died on the 8th of July 1882.</p> + + <p>Most of Browne's work was etched on steel plates because these yielded + a far larger edition than copper. Browne was annoyed at some of his + etchings being transferred to stone by the publishers and printed as + lithographic reproductions. Partly with the view to prevent this + treatment of his work he employed a machine to rule a series of lines + over the plate in order to obtain what appeared to be a tint; when + manipulated with acid this tint gave an effect somewhat resembling + mezzotint, which at that time it was found practically impossible to + transfer to stone. The illustrations executed by Browne are particularly + noteworthy because they realized exactly what the reader most desired to + see represented. So skilful was he in drawing and composition that no + part of the story was avoided by reason of the elaborateness of the + subject. Whatever was the best incident for illustration was always the + one selected.</p> + + <p>See D. Croal Thomson, <i>Hablôt Knight Browne, "Phiz": Life and + Letters</i> (London, 1884); John Forster, <i>Life of Charles Dickens</i> + (London, 1871-1874); F.G. Kitton, <i>"Phiz": A Memoir</i> (London, 1882); + <i>Charles Dickens and his Illustrators</i> (London, 1899); M.H. + Spielmann, <i>The History of Punch</i> (London, 1895).</p> + + <p>(D. C. T.)</p> + + <p><b>BROWNE, ISAAC HAWKINS</b> (1705-1760), English poet, was born on + the 21st of January 1705 at Burton-upon-Trent, of which place his father + was vicar. He was educated at Lichfield, at Westminster school, and at + Trinity College, Cambridge. After taking his M.A. degree he removed to + Lincoln's Inn, and was called to the bar, but never practised. He was the + author of "Design and Beauty," a poem addressed to his friend Joseph + Highmore the painter; and of "The Pipe of Tobacco" which parodied Cibber, + Ambrose Philips, Thomson, Young, Pope and Swift, who were then all + living. He was elected to Parliament through private interest in 1744 and + again in 1747 for the borough of Wenlock in Shropshire. In 1754 he + published his chief work, <i>De Animi Immortalitate</i>, a Latin poem + much admired by the scholars of his time. The best of the many + translations of these verses is by Soame Jenyns. Browne is said by + Johnson to have been "one of the first wits of this country." He was a + brilliant talker in private life, especially when his tongue was loosed + by wine; but he made no mark in public life. He died in London on the + 14th of February 1760.</p> + + <p>Two editions of his <i>Poems on Various Subjects, Latin and + English</i>, were published in 1767 by his son Isaac Hawkins Browne + (1745-1818), the author of two volumes of essays on religion and morals. + One of these was printed for private circulation, and is said to have + contained a memoir. A full account by Andrew Kippis in <i>Biographia + Britannica</i> (1780) includes large extracts from his poems.</p> + + <p><b>BROWNE, JAMES</b> (1703-1841), Scottish man of letters, was born at + Whitefield, Perthshire, in 1793. He was educated at Edinburgh and at the + university of St Andrews, where he studied for the church. He wrote a + "Sketch of the History of Edinburgh," for Ewbank's <i>Picturesque + Views</i> of that city, 1823-1825. In 1826 he became a member of the + Faculty of Advocates, and obtained the degree of LL.D. from King's + College, Aberdeen. His works include a <i>Critical Examination of + Macculloch's Work on the Highlands and Islands of Scotland</i> (1826), + <i>Aperçu sur les Hiêroglyphes d'Égypte</i> (Paris, 1827), a + <i>Vindication of the Scottish Bar from the Attacks of Mr Broughton</i>, + and <i>History of the Highlands and Highland Clans</i> (1834-1836). He + was appointed editor of the <i>Caledonian Mercury</i> in 1827; and two + years later he became sub-editor of the seventh edition of the + <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i>, to which he contributed a large number + of articles. He died in April 1841.</p> + + <p><b>BROWNE, SIR JAMES</b> (1839-1896), Anglo-Indian engineer and + administrator, was the son of Robert Browne of Falkirk in Scotland. He + was educated at the military college, Addiscombe, and received a + commission in the Bengal engineers in 1857. He served in the expedition + against the Mahsud Waziris in 1860, being mentioned in despatches, and in + 1863 in the Umbeyla campaign, when he was three times mentioned. In + January 1875 he became superintendent of works for the building of the + Indus bridge. In 1877 he was promoted lieutenant-colonel, and in + 1878-1879 accompanied Sir Donald Stewart as political officer during the + Afghan War. He took part in several engagements, was mentioned in + despatches, and received the C.B. In 1881 he became colonel, and in 1882 + commanded the Indian engineer contingent sent to Egypt, being present at + the battle of Tell-el-Kebir. For his services in Egypt he received the + 3rd class of the Osmanieh Order and the khedive's star. In 1884 he was + appointed engineer in chief of the Sind-Pishin railway. In 1888 he was + made a K.C.S.I, and in 1889 quarter-master-general for India. In 1892 he + was appointed agent to the governor-general in Baluchistan, in succession + to Sir Robert Sandeman, his intimate experience of the Baluchis, gained + during his railway work, having specially fitted him for this post. He + died suddenly on the 13th of June 1896. Sir James Browne was a man of + splendid courage and physique, and many tales are told of the personal + prowess which, together with his sympathetic knowledge of the natives, + made him a popular hero among the frontier tribesmen.</p> + + <p>See General McLeod Innes, <i>The Life and Times of Sir James + Browne</i> (1905).</p> + + <p><b>BROWNE, MAXIMILIAN ULYSSES,</b> <span class="sc">Count von, Baron + de Camus and Mountany</span> (1705-1757), Austrian field marshal, was + born at Basel on the 23rd of October 1705. His father (Ulysses Freiherr + v. Browne, d. 1731) was an Irish exile of 1690, who entered the imperial + service and in 1716 was made a count <!-- Page 665 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page665"></a>[v.04 p.0665]</span>of the Empire + (<i>Reichsgraf</i>) by the emperor Charles VI. His uncle Georg, + Reichsgraf von Browne (1698-1792), was a distinguished soldier, who rose + to the rank of field marshal in the Russian army, and was made Reichsgraf + by the emperor Joseph II. in 1779. The powerful influence which he + commanded, through his father and his wife (<i>née</i> Countess Marie + Philippine v. Martinitz), advanced the young officer through the + subordinate grades so rapidly that at the age of twenty-nine he was + colonel of an infantry regiment. But he justified his early promotion in + the field, and in the Italian campaign of 1734 he greatly distinguished + himself. In the Tirolese fighting of 1735, and in the unfortunate Turkish + war, he won further distinction as a general officer. He was a lieutenant + field marshal in command of the Silesian garrisons when in 1740 Frederick + II. and the Prussian army overran the province. His careful employment of + such resources as he possessed materially hindered the king in his + conquest and gave time for Austria to collect a field army (see <span + class="sc">Austrian Succession, War of the</span>). He was present at + Mollwitz, where he received a severe wound. His vehement opposition to + all half-hearted measures brought him frequently into conflict with his + superiors, but contributed materially to the unusual energy displayed by + the Austrian armies in 1742 and 1743. In the following campaigns Browne + exhibited the same qualities of generalship and the same impatience of + control. In 1745 he served under Count Traun, and was promoted to the + rank of Feldzeugmeister. In 1746 he was present in the Italian campaign + and the battles of Piacenza and Rottofredo. Browne himself with the + advanced guard forced his way across the Apennines and entered Genoa. He + was thereafter placed in command of the army intended for the invasion of + France, and early in 1747 of all the imperial forces in Italy. At the end + of the war Browne was engaged in the negotiations which led to the + convention of Nice (January 21st, 1749). He became commander-in-chief in + Bohemia in 1751, and field marshal two years later. He was still in + Bohemia when the Seven Years' War opened with Frederick's invasion of + Saxony (1756). Browne's army, advancing to the relief of Pirna (see <span + class="sc">Seven Years' War</span>), was met, and, after a hard struggle, + defeated by the king at Lobositz, but he drew off in excellent order, and + soon made another attempt with a picked force to reach Pirna, by wild + mountain tracks. The field marshal never spared himself, bivouacking in + the snow with his men, and Carlyle records that private soldiers made + rough shelters over him as he slept. He actually reached the Elbe at + Schandau, but as the Saxons were unable to break out Browne retired, + having succeeded, however, in delaying the development of Frederick's + operations for a whole campaign. In the campaign of 1757 he voluntarily + served under Prince Charles of Lorraine (<i>q.v.</i>) who was made + commander-in-chief, and on the 6th of May in that year, while leading a + bayonet charge at the battle of Prague, Browne, like Schwerin on the same + day, met his death. He was carried mortally wounded into Prague, and + there died on the 26th of June, his last days embittered by the knowledge + that he was unjustly held responsible for the failure of the campaign. + His name has been borne, since 1888, by the 36th Austrian infantry.</p> + + <p>See <i>Zuverlässige Lebensbeschreibung U.M. Reichsgrafen</i>, v. B. + K.-K. Gen.-Feldmarschall (Frankfurt and Leipzig, 1757); Baron O'Cahill, + <i>Gesch. der grossten Herrfuhrer</i> (Rastadt, 1785, v. ii. pp. + 264-316).</p> + + <p><b>BROWNE, PETER</b> (?1665-1735), Irish divine and bishop of Cork and + Ross, was born in Co. Dublin, not long after the Restoration. He entered + Trinity College, Dublin, in 1682, and after ten years' residence obtained + a fellowship. In 1699 he was made provost of the college, and in the same + year published his <i>Letter in answer to a Book entitled "Christianity + not Mysterious,"</i> which was recognized as the ablest reply yet written + to Toland. It expounds in germ the whole of his later theory of analogy. + In 1710 he was made bishop of Cork and Ross, which post he held till his + death in 1733. In 1713 he had become somewhat notorious from his vigorous + pamphleteering attack on the fashion of drinking healths, especially "to + the glorious and immortal memory." His two most important works are the + <i>Procedure, Extent, and, Limits of the Human Understanding</i> (1728), + an able though sometimes captious critique of Locke's essay, and + <i>Things Divine and Supernatural conceived by Analogy with Things + Natural and Human</i>, more briefly referred to as the <i>Divine + Analogy</i> (1733). The doctrine of analogy was intended as a reply to + the deistical conclusions that had been drawn from Locke's theory of + knowledge. Browne holds that not only God's essence, but his attributes + are inexpressible by our ideas, and can only be conceived analogically. + This view was vigorously assailed as leading to atheism by Berkeley in + his <i>Alciphron</i> (Dialogue iv.), and a great part of the <i>Divine + Analogy</i> is occupied with a defence against that criticism. The bishop + emphasizes the distinction between metaphor and analogy; though the + conceived attributes are not thought as they are in themselves, yet there + is a reality corresponding in some way to our ideas of them. His + analogical arguments resemble those found in the Bampton Lectures of Dean + Mansel. Browne was a man of abstemious habits, charitable disposition, + and impressive eloquence. He died on the 27th of August 1735.</p> + + <p><b>BROWNE, ROBERT</b> (1550-1633), a leader among the early Separatist + Puritans (hence sometimes called Brownists), was born about 1550 at + Tolethorpe, near Stamford. He was of an ancient family, several members + of which had been distinguished as merchants, county magnates and local + benefactors. He was educated at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, + "commencing B.A." in 1572. For some years he was a schoolmaster, but in + what place is uncertain. In 1579, on a brother's application and without + his own consent, he was licensed to preach, and actually preached for + some six months in Cambridge, where he gained considerable popularity; + but impugning the episcopal order of the Established Church, he had his + licence revoked early in the following year. He then went, on the + invitation of Robert Harrison, "Maister in the Hospitall," to Norwich, + where he soon gathered a numerous congregation, the members of which + became associated in a religious "covenant," to the refusing of "all + ungodlie communion with wicked persons." He seems also to have preached + in various parts of Norfolk and Suffolk, especially at Bury St Edmunds, + and vigorously denounced the form of government existing in the Church, + which at this time he held incompatible with true "preaching of the + word." Dr Freake, bishop of Norwich, caused him to be imprisoned early in + 1581, but he was ere long released through the influence of his remote + kinsman, the Lord Treasurer Burghley. Before the end of 1581, however, he + incurred two more imprisonments, and, apparently in January 1582, + migrated with his whole company to Middelburg in Zealand. There they + organized a church on what they conceived to be the New Testament model, + but the community broke up within two years owing to internal + dissensions.</p> + + <p>Meanwhile, Browne issued two most important works, <i>A Treatise of + Reformation without Tarying for Anie</i>, in which he asserts the + inalienable right of the church to effect necessary reforms without the + authorization or permission of the civil magistrate; and <i>A Booke which + sheweth the life and manners of all True Christians</i>, in which he + enunciates the theory of Congregational independency (see <span + class="sc">Congregationalism</span>). These, with a third tract (<i>A + Treatise upon the 23. of Matthew</i>, see C. Burrage, as below, pp. + 21-25), making together a thin quarto, were published at Middelburg in + 1582. The following year two men were hanged at Bury St Edmunds for + circulating them. In January 1584<a name="FnAnchor_181" + href="#Footnote_181"><sup>[1]</sup></a> Browne and some of his company + came to Edinburgh, after visiting Dundee and St Andrews. He remained some + months in Scotland, endeavouring to commend his ecclesiastical theories, + but had no success. He then returned to Stamford, in which town or + neighbourhood he seems to have resided chiefly for the next two years, + his residence being broken by visits to London and probably to the + continent (early in 1585), and by at least one imprisonment (summer, + 1585). His attitude to the lawfulness of occasional attendance at + services in parish churches seems to have been changing about this time; + on the <!-- Page 666 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page666"></a>[v.04 + p.0666]</span>7th of October 1585 he was induced to make a qualified + submission to the established order. The story that this result was + brought about by excommunication, actual or threatened, is very doubtful, + and rests on late and questionable authority. A further submission + prepared the way for his appointment, in November 1586, to the mastership + of St Olave's grammar school, Southwark, which he held for more than two + years. During part of this time he was much engaged in controversy, on + the one hand with Stephen Bredwell, an uncompromising advocate of the + established order, and on the other with some of those who more or less + occupied his own earlier position, and now looked upon him as a renegade. + In particular he several times replied to Barrowe and Greenwood; one of + his replies, entitled <i>A Reproofe of certaine schismatical persons and + their doctrine touching the hearing and preaching of the word of God</i> + (1587-1588), has recently been recovered, and sheds a flood of light upon + the development of Browne's later views (see Burrage, pp. 45-62, for this + whole period).</p> + + <p>Before the 20th of June 1589 his mastership of St Olave's seems to + have terminated, and after being rector of Little Casterton (in the gift + of his eldest brother) for a month or two, he finally, in September 1591, + accepted episcopal ordination and the rectory of Achurch-cum-Thorpe + Waterville, in Northamptonshire. There he ministered for forty-two years, + with one lengthy interval, 1617-1626, which is only partly accounted for + (see Burrage, pp. 68-71). There is reason to believe that he never + entirely abandoned his early ideal, but latterly thought it possible to + maintain a spiritual fellowship within the framework of the Established + Church. The closing years of his life seem to have been clouded, due + partly to separation among his own flock, and partly to growing + irritability in himself, a lonely and disappointed man. When over eighty + years old he had a dispute with the parish constable about a rate, blows + were struck, and before a magistrate he behaved so stubbornly that he was + sent to Northampton gaol, where he died in October 1633. He was buried in + St Giles's churchyard, Northampton. In spite of his later attitude of + compromise with expediency, which he felt forced on him by external + conditions too strong to defy or ignore, Robert Browne remains a pioneer + in ecclesiastical theory in England, the first formulator of an ideal + which subsequently became known as Congregationalism (<i>q.v.</i>). He + rediscovered certain forgotten aspects of primitive church life, and did + not shrink from suffering for the sake of what he held to be the truth. + In addition to the works above-mentioned, Browne wrote several + controversial and apologetic treatises, of which some remained in MS. + until quite recently, and some are still missing.</p> + + <p>See H.M. Dexter, <i>The Congregationalism of the Last Three Hundred + Years</i> (1880); C. Burrage, <i>The True Story of Robert Browne</i> + (Oxford, 1906); <i>Congregational Historical Society's Transactions</i>, + passim (1901-1906).</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_181" href="#FnAnchor_181">[1]</a> Probably after + writing <i>A True and Short Declaration</i>, the main source of our + knowledge of his life hitherto.</p> + +</div> + <p><b>BROWNE, SIR THOMAS</b> (1605-1682), English author and physician, + was born in London, on the 19th of October 1605. He was admitted as a + scholar of Winchester school in 1616, and matriculated at Broadgates Hall + (Pembroke College), Oxford, in 1623, where he graduated B.A. in January + 1626. He took the further degree of M.A. in 1629, studied medicine, and + practised for some time in Oxfordshire. Between 1630 and 1633 he left + England, travelled in Ireland, France and Italy, and on his way home + received the degree of M.D. at the university of Leiden. He returned to + London in 1634, and, after a short residence at Shipden Hall, near + Halifax, settled in practice at Norwich in 1637. He married in 1641 + Dorothy Mileham. Their eldest son, Edward, became president of the Royal + College of Physicians, and glimpses of their happy family life are + obtainable in the fragmentary correspondence contained in Simon Wilkin's + edition. In 1642 a copy of his <i>Religio Medici</i>, which he describes + as "a private exercise directed to myself," was printed from one of his + MSS. without his knowledge, and reviewed by Sir Kenelm Digby in + <i>Observations ...</i> (1643). The interest aroused by this edition + compelled Browne to put forth a correct version (1643) of the work, in + which letters between Digby and Browne were included. The book was + probably written as early as 1635, for he describes himself as still + under thirty. In 1646 he published <i>Pseudodoxia Epidemica; Enquiries + into very many commonly received Tenents and commonly presumed Truths</i> + (1646), and in 1658 <i>Hydriotaphia, Urne-Buriall; or, a discourse of the + sepulchrall urnes lately found in Norfolk. Together with the Garden of + Cyrus, or the quincunciall, lozenge, or net-work plantations of the + ancients, artificially, naturally, and mystically considered. With Sundry + observations</i> (1658). These four works were all that he published, + though several tracts, notably the <i>Christian Morals</i><a + name="FnAnchor_191" href="#Footnote_191"><sup>[1]</sup></a> intended as a + continuation of <i>Religio Medici</i>, were prepared for publication, and + appeared posthumously. In 1671 he received the honour of knighthood from + Charles II. on his visit to Norwich. He began a correspondence with John + Evelyn in 1658. Very few of the letters are extant, but the diarist has + left an account of a visit to Browne (<i>Diary</i>, 17th of October + 1671). He died in 1682 on his seventy-seventh birthday, and was buried at + St Peter's, Mancroft, Norwich. His coffin was accidentally broken in + 1840, and his skull is preserved in the museum of the Norwich + hospital.</p> + + <p>Browne's writings are among the few specimens of purely literary work + produced during a period of great political excitement and discord. He + remained to all appearance placidly indifferent to the struggle going on + around him. His first book appeared in the year of the outbreak of the + Civil War; <i>Pseudodoxia Epidemica</i> in the critical year of 1646; and + <i>Hydriotaphia</i>, the reflections on the shortness of human life + inspired by the unearthing of some funeral urns, on the eve of the + Restoration. A mind as aloof as his is a psychological curiosity, and its + peculiarities are faithfully reflected in the form and matter of his + works. His display of erudition, his copious citations from authorities, + his constant use of metaphor and analogy, and his elaborate diction, are + common qualities of the writers of the 17th century, but Browne stands + apart from his contemporaries by reason of the peculiar cast of his mind. + Imbued with the Platonic mysticism which taught him to look on this world + as only the image, the shadow of an invisible system, he regarded the + whole of experience as only food for contemplation. Nothing is too great + or too small for him; all finds a place in the universe of being, which + he seems to regard almost from the position of an outsider. He did not + speculate systematically on the problems of existence, but he meditates + repeatedly on the outward and visible signs of mortality, and on what + lies beyond death. Of Browne, as of the greatest writers, it is true that + the style is the man. The form of his thought is as peculiar and + remarkable as the matter; the two, indeed, react on one another. Much of + the quaintness of his style, no doubt, depends on the excessive + employment of latinized words, many of which have failed to justify their + existence; but the peculiarities of his vocabulary do not explain the + unique character of his writing, which is appreciated to-day as much as + ever.</p> + + <p>The <i>Religio Medici</i> was a puzzle to his contemporaries, and it + is still hard to reconcile its contradictions. A Latin translation + appeared at Leiden in 1644, and it was widely read on the continent, + being translated subsequently into Dutch, French and German. In Paris it + was issued in the belief that Browne was really a Roman Catholic, but in + Rome the authorities thought otherwise, and the book was placed on the + <i>Index Expurgatorius</i>. It is the confession of a mind keen and + sceptical in some aspects, and credulous in others. Browne professes to + be absolutely free from heretical opinions, but asserts the right to be + guided by his own reason in cases where no precise guidance is given + either by Scripture or by Church teaching. "I love," he says, "to lose + myself in a mystery, to pursue my reason to an O, Altitudo!" The + <i>Pseudodoxia Epidemica</i>, written in a more direct and simple style + than is usual with Browne, is a wonderful storehouse of out-of-the-way + facts and scraps of erudition, <!-- Page 667 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page667"></a>[v.04 p.0667]</span>exhibiting a singular mixture of + credulity and shrewdness. Sir Thomas evidently takes delight in + discussing the wildest fables. That he himself was by no means free from + superstition is proved by the fact that the condemnation of two + unfortunate women, Amy Duny and Rose Cullender, for witchcraft at Norwich + in 1664 was aided by his professional evidence. The <i>Garden of + Cyrus</i> is a continued illustration of one quaint conceit. The whole + universe is ransacked for examples of the <i>Quincunx</i>, and he + discovers, as Coleridge says, "quincunxes in heaven above, quincunxes in + earth below, quincunxes in the mind of man, quincunxes in tones, in optic + nerves, in roots of trees, in leaves, in everything!" But the whole + strength of his genius and the wonderful charm of his style are to be + sought in the <i>Urnburial</i>, the concluding chapter of which, for + richness of imagery and majestic pomp of diction, can hardly be + paralleled in the English language. For anything at all resembling it we + must turn to the finest passages of Jeremy Taylor or of Milton's prose + writings.</p> + + <p>In 1684 appeared a collection of <i>Certain Miscellany Tracts</i> (ed. + Tenison), and in 1712 <i>Posthumous Works of the learned Sir Thomas + Browne</i>. The first collected edition of Browne's works appeared in + 1686. It is said to have been edited by Dr, afterwards Archbishop + Tenison. Sir Thomas Browne's <i>Works, including his Life and + Correspondence</i>, were carefully edited by Simon Wilkin in 1835-1836. + Among modern reprints may be mentioned Dr W.A. Greenhill's editions in + the "Golden Treasury" series of the <i>Religio Medici, Letter to a + friend</i> and <i>Christian Morals</i> (1881), with an admirable + bibliographical note on the complicated subject of the numerous editions + of the <i>Religio Medici</i>; of the <i>Hydriotaphia</i> and the + <i>Garden of Cyrus</i> (1896), completed by Mr E.H. Marshall; a complete + edition for the English Library, edited by Mr Charles Sayle (1904, + &c.). Browne's interest in bird-lore is noted by Evelyn, and some + <i>Notes and Letters on the Natural History of Norfolk</i> were collected + from his MSS. in the Sloane Collection, and edited by Thomas Southwell in + 1902.</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_191" href="#FnAnchor_191">[1]</a> Ed. John Jeffery, + archdeacon of Norwich, 1716. The dignified "Letter to a Friend, upon the + occasion of the Death of his Intimate Friend" (written about 1672, pr. + 1690) has been generally supposed to be a preliminary sketch for + <i>Christian Morals</i>, but Dr W.A. Greenhill thinks it was written + later.</p> + +</div> + <p><b>BROWNE, WILLIAM</b> (1591-1643), English pastoral poet, was born at + Tavistock, Devonshire, in 1591, of a branch of the family of Browne of + Betchworth Castle, Surrey. He received his early education at the grammar + school of his native town, and is said to have proceeded to Oxford about + 1603. After a short residence at Clifford's Inn he entered the Inner + Temple in 1611. His elegy on the death of Henry, prince of Wales, and the + first book of <i>Britannia's Pastorals</i> appeared in 1613; the + <i>Shepherd's Pipe</i>, which contained some eclogues by other poets, in + 1614. The second book of the pastorals (1616) is dedicated to William + Herbert, earl of Pembroke, whose seat at Wilton was Browne's home for + some time. In 1624 he returned to Oxford as tutor to Robert Dormer, + afterwards earl of Carnarvon, matriculating at Exeter College in April + and receiving his M.A. degree in November of the same year. Nearly all + Browne's poetic work dates from his early manhood, before his marriage in + 1628 with Timothy, daughter of Sir Thomas Eversham of Horsham, Essex. In + the fourth eclogue of George Wither's <i>Shepherd's Hunting</i>, written + as early as 1613-1614, Philarete (Wither) asks Willy (Browne) why he is + silent, and the reply is that some "my music do contemne." The times were + unfavourable to his tranquil talent, and the second half of his life was + spent in retirement. He died some time before 1645, when letters of + administration were granted to his widow, and he may have been the + William Browne whose burial is recorded in the Tavistock registers under + the date of the 27th of March 1643.</p> + + <p>Browne was the pupil and friend of Michael Drayton, who associates "my + Browne" in the "Epistle to Henry Reynolds" with the two Beaumonts as "my + dear companions whom I freely chose, My bosom friends." But directly + indebted as Browne is for the form of his poems, for the slight story and + the rather wearisome allegory, to Spenser, Sidney, Drayton and especially + to Fletcher's <i>Faithful Shepherdess</i>, his poetry is no mere copy of + any of these models. His Arcadia is localized in his native Devonshire. + He was untiring in his praises of "Tavy's voiceful stream (to whom I owe + more strains than from my pipe can ever flow)." He knew local history and + traditions, and he celebrates the gallant sailors who "by their power + made the Devonian shore Mock the proud Tagus." (<i>Brit. Past.</i> bk. + ii., song 3). It is for his truthful, affectionate pictures of his + country life and its surroundings that the stories of Marina and + Celandine, Doridon and the rest are still read. A copy of Browne's + pastorals with annotations in Milton's handwriting is preserved in the + Huth library, and there are many points of likeness between Lycidas and + the elegy on Philarete (Thomas Manwood) in the fourth eclogue of the + <i>Shepherd's Pipe</i>. Keats was a student of Browne, and Herrick's + fairy fantasies are thought to owe something to the third book of the + pastorals.</p> + + <p>The first two books of <i>Britannia's Pastorals</i> were re-issued in + 1625. The third, though it had no doubt circulated in the author's + lifetime, remained unknown until Beriah Botfield discovered a copy of it + in the library of Salisbury cathedral, bound up with the 1613 and 1616 + editions of the first and second books. This MS. was edited for the Percy + Society by T.C. Croker in 1852. A collected edition of Browne's works was + published in 1772 by John Davies. It is not known whether <i>The Inner + Temple Masque</i> on the story of Ulysses and Circe, which was written + for performance on the 13th of January 1615, was ever actually + represented. A series of sonnets to Caelia, some epistles, elegies and + epitaphs, with some other miscellaneous poems, complete the list of + Browne's works. These have been collected from various sources, the most + important being Lansdowne MS. 777 (British Museum), and they were printed + for the first time by Sir S.E. Brydges in 1815. Excellent modern complete + editions of Browne and Mr W.C. Hazlitt's (1868-1869) for the Roxburghe + library, and a more compact one (1894) by Mr Gordon Goodwin, with an + introduction by Mr A.H. Bullen, for the "Muse's Library." For an + elaborate analysis of Browne's obligations to earlier pastoral writers + see F.W. Moorman, "William Browne" (<i>Quellen und Forschungen zur + Sprach- und Culturgeschichte der Germanischen Völker</i> Strassburg, + 1897). A translation of Marin le Roy de Gomberville's <i>Polexandre</i>, + by William Browne (1647), may be a posthumous work of the poet's.</p> + + <p><b>BROWNE, WILLIAM GEORGE</b> (1768-1813), English traveller, was born + at Great Tower Hill, London, on the 25th of July 1768. At seventeen he + was sent to Oriel College, Oxford. Having had a moderate competence left + him by his father, on quitting the university he applied himself entirely + to literary pursuits. But the fame of James Bruce's travels, and of the + first discoveries made by the African Association, determined him to + become an explorer of Central Africa. He went first to Egypt, arriving at + Alexandria in January 1792. He spent some time in visiting the oasis of + Siwa or Jupiter Ammon, and employed the remainder of the year in studying + Arabic and in examining the ruins of ancient Egypt. In the spring of 1793 + he visited Sinai, and in May set out for Darfur, joining the great + caravan which every year went by the desert route from Egypt to that + country. This was his most important journey, in which he acquired a + great variety of original information. He was forcibly detained by the + sultan of Darfur and endured much hardship, being unable to effect his + purpose of returning by Abyssinia. He was, however, allowed to return to + Egypt with the caravan in 1796; after this he spent a year in Syria, and + did not arrive in London till September 1798. In 1799 he published his + <i>Travels in Africa, Egypt and Syria, from the year 1792 to 1798</i>. + The work was full of valuable information; but, from the abruptness and + dryness of the style, it never became popular. In 1800 Browne again left + England, and spent three years in visiting Greece, some parts of Asia + Minor and Sicily. In 1812 he once more set out for the East, proposing to + penetrate to Samarkand and survey the most interesting regions of central + Asia. He spent the winter in Smyrna, and in the spring of 1813 travelled + through Asia Minor and Armenia, made a short stay at Erzerum, and arrived + on the 1st of June at Tabriz. About the end of the summer of 1813 he left + Tabriz for Teheran, intending to proceed thence into Tartary, but was + shortly afterwards murdered. Some bones, believed to be his, were + afterwards found and interred near the grave of Jean de Thevenot, the + French traveller.</p> + + <p>Robert Walpole published, in the second volume of his <i>Memoirs + relating to European and Asiatic Turkey</i> (1820), from papers left by + Browne, the account of his journey in 1802 through Asia Minor to Antioch + and Cyprus; also <i>Remarks written at Constantinople</i> (1802).</p> + + <p><b>BROWNHILLS,</b> an urban district in the Lichfield parliamentary + division of Staffordshire, England, 6 m. W. of Lichfield, on branch lines + of the London & North-Western and Midland railways, and near the + Essington Canal. Pop. (1891) 11,820; (1901) 15,252. There are extensive + coal-mines in the district, <!-- Page 668 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page668"></a>[v.04 p.0668]</span>forming part of the Cannock Chase + deposit. The town lies on the Roman Watling Street, and remains of + earthworks are seen at Knave's Castle, on the Street, and at Castle Old + Fort, 2 m. S.E. Ogley Hay, the parish of which partly covers Brownhills, + is a large adjoining village; there are also Great Wyrley and + Norton-under-Cannock or Norton Canes to the N.W. and N., with collieries, + and at Church Bridge are brick, tile, and edge-tool works. Wyrley Grove + is a picturesque mansion of the 17th century.</p> + + <p><b>BROWNING, ELIZABETH BARRETT</b> (1806-1861), English poet, wife of + the poet Robert Browning, was born probably at Coxhoe Hall, Durham, for + this was the home of her father and mother for some time after their + marriage in 1805. Her baptismal register gives the date of her birth as + the 6th of March 1806, and that of her christening as the 10th of + February 1808. The long misunderstanding as to her age, whereby she was + supposed to have been born three years later, was shared by her + contemporaries and even for a time by her husband. She was the daughter + and eldest child of Edward Barrett Moulton, who added the surname of + Barrett on the death of his maternal grandfather, whose estates in + Jamaica he inherited. His wife was Mary Graham-Clarke, daughter of J. + Graham-Clarke of Fenham Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne. She died when her + illustrious daughter was twenty-two years old. Elizabeth's childhood was + passed in the country, chiefly at Hope End, a house bought by her father + in the beautiful country in sight of the Malvern Hills. "They seem to + me," she wrote, "my native hills; for though I was born in the county of + Durham, I was an infant when I went first into their neighbourhood, and + lived there until I had passed twenty by several years." Her country + poems, such as "The Lost Bower," "Hector in the Garden," and "The + Deserted Garden," refer to the woods and gardens of Hope End. Elizabeth + Barrett was much the companion of her father, who pleased himself with + printing fifty copies of what she calls her "great epic of eleven or + twelve years old, in four books"—<i>The Battle of Marathon</i> + (sent to the printer in 1819). She owns this to have been "a curious + production for a child," but disclaims for it anything more than "an + imitative faculty." The love of Pope's Homer, she adds, led her to the + study of Greek, and of Latin as a help to Greek, "and the influence of + all those tendencies is manifest so long afterwards as in my <i>Essay on + Mind</i> [<i>Essay on Mind and other Poems</i>, 1826], a didactic poem + written when I was seventeen or eighteen, and long repented of." She was + a keen student, and it is told of her that when her health failed she had + her Greek books bound so as to look like novels, for fear her doctor + should forbid her continuous study. At this time began her friendship + with the blind scholar Hugh Stuart Boyd, with whom she read Greek + authors, and especially the Greek Christian Fathers and Poets. To him she + addressed later three of her sonnets, and he was one of her chief friends + until his death in 1848. In 1832 Mr Barrett sold his house of Hope End, + and brought his family to Sidmouth, Devon, for some three years. There + Elizabeth made a translation of the <i>Prometheus Bound</i> of Aeschylus, + published with some original poems (1833). After that time London became + the home of the Barretts until the children married and the father died. + The temporary dwelling was at 74 Gloucester Place, Portman Square, and in + 1838 the lease was taken of the final house, 50 Wimpole Street.</p> + + <p>It is in the middle of the year 1836 that Elizabeth Barrett's active + literary life began. She then made the acquaintance of R.H. Horne, + afterwards famous for a time as the author of <i>Orion</i>, but perhaps + best remembered as her correspondent (<i>Letters to R.H. Horne</i>, 2 + vols. 1877), and this acquaintance led to the appearance of rather + frequent poems by Miss Barrett in the <i>New Monthly Magazine</i>, edited + by Bulwer (Lord Lytton), and in other magazines or annuals. But the + publication of <i>The Seraphim and other Poems</i> (1838) was a graver + step. "My present attempt," she writes in this year, "<i>is</i> actually, + and will be considered by others, more a trial of strength than either of + my preceding ones." There was at that date a lull in the production of + conspicuous books of poetry. Wordsworth had ceased, Browning and Tennyson + had hardly begun to write their best. Miss Barrett's volume was well + reviewed, but not popular, and no second edition was required; of the + poems afterwards famous it contained three, "Cowper's Grave," "My Doves," + and "The Sea-Mew," the first impassioned and the other two very quiet, + which a fine taste must rank high among all her works. <i>The Quarterly + Review</i> (September 1840), in an article on "Modern English Poetesses," + criticizes <i>The Seraphim</i> with <i>Prometheus</i>, and treats the + former with respect, but does not lift the author out of the quite + unequal company of Mrs Norton, "V," and other contemporary women. In the + previous year Elizabeth had made the memorable acquaintance of + Wordsworth. "No," she writes, "I was not at all disappointed in + Wordsworth, although perhaps I should not have singled him from the + multitude as a great man. There is a <i>reserve</i> even in his + countenance; ... his eyes have more meekness than brilliancy; and in his + slow, even articulation there is rather the solemnity and calmness of + <i>truth</i> itself than the animation and energy of those who seek for + it ... He was very kind, and sate near me and talked to me as long as he + was in the room, and recited a translation by Cary of a sonnet of + Dante's—and altogether it was a dream." With Landor, at the same + date, a meeting took place that had long results. At this time, too, + began another of Elizabeth's valued friendships—that with Miss + Mitford, author of <i>Our Village</i> and other works less well + remembered. Mr John Kenyon also became at about this time a dear and + intimate friend. He was a distant cousin of the Barretts, had published + some verse, and was a warm and generous friend to men of letters. From + the date of the birth of their child (1849) he gave the Brownings a + hundred pounds a year, and when he died in 1856 he bequeathed to them + eleven thousand pounds. To him a great number of Elizabeth's letters are + addressed, and to him in later years was <i>Aurora Leigh</i> dedicated. + Elizabeth Barrett began also in London an acquaintance with Harriet + Martineau.</p> + + <p>Full of the interest of friendship and literature, the residence in + London was unfavourable to Elizabeth's health. In early girlhood she had + a spinal affection, and her lungs became delicate. She broke a + blood-vessel in the beginning of the Barretts' life in town, and was + thereafter an invalid—by no means entirely confined to her room, + but often imprisoned there, and generally a recluse, until her marriage. + Her state was so threatening that in 1838 it was found necessary to + remove her to Torquay, where she spent three years, accompanied by her + brother Edward, the dearest of her eight brothers, the only one, she said + many years later, who ever comprehended her, and for a time by her father + and sisters. During this time of physical suffering she underwent the + greatest grief of her life by the drowning of her beloved brother, who + with two friends went sailing in a small boat and was lost in Babbacombe + Bay. Rumours of the foundering reached the unhappy sister, who was + assured of the worst after three days, when the bodies were found. The + accident of Edward Barrett's meeting with his death through her residence + at Torquay, and the minor accident of her having parted from him on the + day of his death, as she said, "with pettish words," increased her + anguish of heart to horror. A few days before she had written, "There are + so many mercies close around me that God's being seems proved to me, + <i>demonstrated</i> to me, by His manifested love." When the blow came, + its heavy weight and closeness to her heart convinced her, she wrote, + through an awful experience of suffering, of divine action. But many + years later the mention of her brother's death was intolerable to her. At + the time she only did not die. She had to remain for nearly a year day + and night within hearing of the sea, of which the sound seemed to her the + moan of a dying man.</p> + + <p>There is here an interval of silence in the correspondence which + busied her secluded life at all ages; but with an impulse of + self-protection she went to work as soon as her strength sufficed. One of + her tasks was a part taken in the <i>Chaucer Modernized</i> (1841), a + work suggested by Wordsworth, to which he, Leigh Hunt, Horne and others + contributed. In 1841 she returned to Wimpole Street, and in that and the + <!-- Page 669 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page669"></a>[v.04 + p.0669]</span>following year she was at work on two series of articles on + the Greek Christian poets and on the English poets, written for the + <i>Athenaeum</i> under the editorship of Mr C.W. Dilke. In work she found + some interest and even some delight: "Once I wished not to live, but the + faculty of life seems to have sprung up in me again from under the + crushing foot of heavy grief. Be it all as God wills."</p> + + <p>It is in 1842 that we notice the name of Robert Browning in her + letters: "Mr Horne the poet and Mr Browning the poet were not behind in + approbation," she says in regard to her work on the poets. "Mr Browning + is said to be learned in Greek, especially the dramatists." In this year + also she declares her love for Tennyson. To Kenyon she writes, "I ought + to be thanking you for your great kindness about this divine Tennyson." + In 1842, moreover, she had the pleasure of a letter from Wordsworth, who + had twice asked Kenyon for permission to visit her. The visit was not + permitted on account of Miss Barrett's ill-health. Now Haydon sent her + his unfinished painting of the great poet musing upon Helvellyn; she + wrote her sonnet on the portrait, and Haydon sent it to Rydal Mount. + Wordsworth's commendation is rather cool. In August 1843 "The Cry of the + Children" appeared in <i>Blackwood's Magazine</i>, and during the year + she was associated with her friend Horne in a critical work, <i>The New + Spirit of the Age</i>, rather by advice than by direct contribution. Her + two volumes of poems (1844) appeared, six years after her former book, + under the title of <i>Poems, by Elizabeth Barrett Barrett</i>. The + warmest praises that greeted the new poems were H.F. Chorley's in the + <i>Athenaeum</i>, John Forster's in the <i>Examiner</i>, and those + conveyed in <i>Blackwood</i>, the <i>Dublin Review</i>, the <i>New + Quarterly</i> and the <i>Atlas</i>. Letters came from Carlyle and others. + Both he and Miss Martineau selected as their favourite poem "Lady + Geraldine's Courtship," a violent piece of work. In the beginning of the + following year came the letter from a stranger that was to be so + momentous to both. "I had a letter from Browning the poet last night," + she writes to her old friend Mrs Martin, "which threw me into + ecstasies—Browning, the author of <i>Paracelsus</i>, the king of + the mystics." She is flattered, though not to "ecstasies," at about the + same time by a letter from E.A. Poe, and by the dedication to her, as + "the noblest of her sex," of his own work. "What is to be said, I wonder, + when a man calls you the 'noblest of your sex'? 'Sir, you are the most + discerning of yours.'" America was at least as quick as England to + appreciate her poetry; among other messages thence came in the spring + letters from Lowell and from Mrs Sigourney. "She says that the sound of + my poetry is stirring the 'deep green forests of the New World'; which + sounds pleasantly, does it not?" It is in the same year that the letters + first speak of the hope of a journey to Italy. The winters in London, + with the imprisonment which—according to the medical practice of + that day—they entailed, were lowering Elizabeth's strength of + resistance against disease. She longed for the change of light, scene, + manners and language, and the longing became a hope, until her father's + prohibition put an end to it, and doomed her, as she and others thought, + to death, without any perceptible reason for the denial of so reasonable + a desire.</p> + + <p>Meanwhile the friendship with Browning had become the chief thing in + Elizabeth Barrett's life. The correspondence, once begun, had not + flagged. In the early summer they met. The allusion to his poetry in + "Lady Geraldine's Courtship" had doubtless put an edge to his already + keen wish to know her. He became her frequent visitor and kept her room + fragrant with flowers. He never lagged, whether in friendship or in love. + We have the strange privilege, since the publication of the letters + between the two, of following the whole course of this noble love-story + from beginning to end, and day by day. Browning was six years younger + than the woman he so passionately admired, and he at first believed her + to be confined by some hopeless physical injury to her sofa. But of his + own wish and resolution he never doubted. Her hesitation, in her regard + for his liberty and strength, to burden him with an ailing wife, she has + recorded in the Sonnets afterwards published under a slight disguise as + <i>Sonnets from the Portuguese</i>. She refused him once "with all her + will, but much against her heart," and yielded at last for his sake + rather than her own. Her father's will was that his children should not + marry, and, kind and affectionate father though he was, the prohibition + took a violent form and struck terror into the hearts of the three + dutiful and sensitive girls. Robert Browning's addresses were, therefore, + kept secret, for fear of scenes of anger which the most fragile of the + three could not face. Browning was reluctant to practise the deception; + Elizabeth alone knew how impossible it was to avoid it. When she was + persuaded to marry, it was she who insisted, in mental and physical + terror, upon a secret wedding. Throughout the summer of 1846 her health + improved, and on the 12th of September the two poets were married in St + Marylebone parish church. Browning visited it on his subsequent journeys + to England to give thanks for what had taken place at its altar. + Elizabeth's two sisters had been permitted to know of the engagement, but + not of the wedding, so that their father's anger might not fall on them + too heavily. For a week Mrs Browning remained in her father's house. On + the 19th of September she left it, taking her maid and her little dog, + joined her husband, and crossed to the Continent. She never entered that + home again, nor did her father ever forgive her. Her letters, written + with tears to entreat his pardon, were never answered. They were all + subsequently returned to her unopened. Among them was one she had + written, in the prospect of danger, before the birth of her child. With + her sisters her relations were, as before, most affectionate. Her + brothers, one at least of whom disapproved of her action, held for a time + aloof. All others were taken entirely by surprise. Mrs Jameson, who had + been one of the few intimate visitors to Miss Barrett's room, had offered + to take her to Italy that year, but met her instead on her way thither + with a newly-married husband. The poets' journey was full of delight. + Where she could not walk, up long staircases or across the waters of the + stream at Vaucluse, Browning carried her. In October they reached Pisa, + and there they wintered, Mrs Jameson keeping them company for a time lest + ignorance of practical things should bring them, in their poverty, to + trouble. She soon found that they were both admirable economists; not + that they gave time and thought to husbandry, but that they knew how to + enjoy life without luxuries. So they remained to the end, frugal and + content with little.</p> + + <p>For climate and cheapness they settled in Italy, choosing Florence in + the spring of 1847, and remaining there, with the interruptions of a + change to places in Italy such as Siena and Rome, and to Paris and + England, until Mrs Browning's death. It was at Pisa that Robert Browning + first saw the <i>Sonnets from the Portuguese</i>, poems which his wife + had written in secret and had no thought of publishing. He, however, + resolved to give them to the world. "I dared not," he said, "reserve to + myself the finest sonnets written in any language since Shakespeare's." + The judgment, which the existence of Wordsworth's sonnets renders + obviously absurd, may be pardoned. The sonnets were sent to Miss Mitford + and published at Reading, as <i>Sonnets by E.B.B.</i>, in 1847. In 1850 + they were included, under their final title, in a new issue of poems. + During the Pisan autumn appeared in <i>Blackwood's Magazine</i> seven + poems by Mrs Browning which she had sent some time before, and the + publication of which at that moment disturbed her as likely to hurt her + father by an apparent reference to her own story. At Pisa also she wrote + and sent to America a poem, "The Runaway Slave at Pilgrim Point," which + was published in Boston, in <i>The Liberty Bell</i>, in 1848, and + separately in England in 1849. In the summer of 1847 the Brownings left + their temporary dwelling in Florence and took the apartment in Casa + Guidi, near the Pitti Palace, which was thenceforth their chief home. + Early in their residence began that excited interest in Italian affairs + which made so great a part of Mrs Browning's emotional life. The + Florentines, under the government of the grand duke, were prosperous but + disturbed by national aspirations. Mrs Browning, by degrees, wrote Casa + Guidi Windows on their behalf and as an appeal to the always impulsive + sympathies of England. In 1849 was born <!-- Page 670 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page670"></a>[v.04 p.0670]</span>the Brownings' + only child, their beloved son Robert Wiedemann Barrett. After this event + Mrs Browning resumed her literary activities, preparing a new issue, with + some additions, of her poems (1850). A poem on the death of a friend's + child appeared in the <i>Athenaeum</i> (1849), and there the new volumes + were warmly praised. <i>Casa Guidi Windows</i> followed in 1851. Visiting + England in that year, the Brownings saw much of the Procters, and + something of Florence Nightingale, Kingsley, Ruskin, Rogers, Patmore and + Tennyson, and also of Carlyle, with whom they went to Paris, where they + saw George Sand, and where they passed the December days of the <i>coup + d'état</i>. Mrs Browning happened to take a political fancy to Napoleon + III., whom she would probably have denounced if a tithe of his tyrannies + had occurred in Italy, and the fancy became more emotional in after + years.</p> + + <p>A new edition of Mrs Browning's poems was called for in 1853, and at + about this time, in Florence, she began to work on <i>Aurora Leigh</i>. + She was still writing this poem when the Brownings were again in England, + in 1855. Tennyson there read to them his newly-written <i>Maud</i>. After + another interval in Paris they were in London again—Mrs Browning + for the last time. She was with her dear cousin Kenyon during the last + months of his life. In October 1856 the Brownings returned to their + Florentine home, Mrs Browning leaving her completed <i>Aurora Leigh</i> + for publication. The book had an immediate success; a second edition was + required in a fortnight, a third a few months later. In the fourth + edition (1859) several corrections were made. The review in + <i>Blackwood</i> was written by W.E. Aytoun, that in the <i>North + British</i> by Coventry Patmore.</p> + + <p>In 1857 Mrs Browning addressed a petition, in the form of a letter, to + the emperor Napoleon begging him to remit the sentence of exile upon + Victor Hugo. We do not hear of any reply. In 1857 Mrs Browning's father + died, unreconciled. Henrietta Barrett had married, like her sister, and + like her was unforgiven. In 1858 occurred another visit to Paris, and + another to Rome, where Hawthorne and his family were among the Brownings' + friends. In 1859 came the Italian war in which Mrs Browning's hasty + sympathies were hotly engaged. Her admiration of Italy's champion, + Napoleon III., knew no bounds, and did not give way when, by the peace of + Villafranca, Venice and Rome were left unannexed to the kingdom of Italy, + and the French frontiers were "rectified" by the withdrawal from that + kingdom of Savoy and Nice. That peace, however, was a bitter + disappointment, and her fragile health suffered. At Siena and Florence + this year the Brownings were very kind to Landor, old, solitary, and ill. + Mrs Browning's poem, "A Tale of Villafranca", was published in the + <i>Athenaeum</i> in September, and afterwards included in <i>Poems before + Congress</i> (1860). Then followed another long visit to Rome, and there + Mrs Browning prepared for the press this, her last volume. The little + book was judged with some impatience, <i>A Curse for a Nation</i> being + mistaken for a denunciation of England, whereas it was aimed at America + and her slavery. The <i>Athenaeum</i>, amongst others, committed this + error. The <i>Saturday Review</i> was hard on the volume, so was + <i>Blackwood</i>; the <i>Atlas</i> and <i>Daily News</i> favourable. In + July 1860 was published "A Musical Instrument" in the young <i>Cornhill + Magazine</i>, edited by the author's friend W.M. Thackeray. The last blow + she had to endure was the death of her sister Henrietta, in the same + year.</p> + + <p>On the 30th of June 1861 Elizabeth Barrett Browning died. Her husband, + who tended her alone on the night of her decease, wrote to Miss Blagden: + "Then came what my heart will keep till I see her again and + longer—the most perfect expression of her love to me within my + whole knowledge of her. Always smilingly, happily, and with a face like a + girl's, and in a few minutes she died in my arms, her head on my cheek. + ... There was no lingering, nor acute pain, nor consciousness of + separation, but God took her to himself as you would lift a sleeping + child from a dark uneasy bed into your arms and the light. Thank God." + Her married life had been supremely happy. Something has been said of the + difference between husband and wife in regard to "spiritualism", in which + Mrs Browning had interest and faith, but no division ever interrupted + their entirely perfect affection and happiness. Of her husband's love for + her she wrote at the time of her marriage, "He preferred ... of free and + deliberate choice, to be allowed to sit only an hour a day by my side, to + the fulfilment of the brightest dream which should exclude me in any + possible world." "I am still doubtful whether all the brightness can be + meant for <i>me</i>. It is just as if the sun rose again at 7 o'clock + <span class="scac">P.M.</span>" "I take it for pure magic, this life of + mine. Surely nobody was ever so happy before." "I must say to you [Mrs + Jameson] who saw the beginning with us, that this end of fifteen months + is just fifteen times better and brighter; the mystical 'moon' growing + larger and larger till scarcely room is left for any stars at all: the + only differences which have touched me being the more and more + happiness." Browning buried his wife in Florence, under a tomb designed + by their friend Frederick Leighton. On the wall of Casa Guidi is placed + the inscription: "Qui scrisse e mori Elisabetta Barrett Browning, che in + cuore di donna conciliava scienza di dotto e spirito di poeta, e face del + suo verso aureo annello fra Italia e Inghilterra. Pone questa lapide + Firenze grata 1861." In 1866 Robert Browning published a volume of + selections from his wife's works.</p> + + <p>The place of Elizabeth Barrett Browning in English literature is high, + if not upon the summits. She had an original genius, a fervent heart, and + an intellect that was, if not great, exceedingly active. She seldom has + composure or repose, but it is not true that her poetry is purely + emotional. It is full of abundant, and even over-abundant, thoughts. It + is intellectually restless. The impassioned peace of the greatest poetry, + such as Wordsworth's, is not hers. Nor did she apparently seek to attain + those heights. Her Greek training taught her little of the economy that + such a poetic education is held to impose; she "dashed", not by reason of + feminine weakness, but as it were to prove her possession of masculine + strength. Her gentler work, as in the <i>Sonnets from the Portuguese</i>, + is beyond praise. There is in her poetic personality a glory of + righteousness, of spirituality, and of ardour that makes her name a + splendid one in the history of an incomparable literature.</p> + + <p>See the <i>Letters of Elizabeth Barrett Browning addressed to R.H. + Horne, with Comments on Contemporaries</i>, edited by S.R. Townshend + Mayer (2 vols., 1877); <i>The Poetical Works of Elizabeth Barrett + Browning from 1826 to 1844</i>, edited with memoir by J.H. Ingram (1887); + <i>Elizabeth Barrett Browning</i> (Eminent Women series), by J.H. Ingram, + 1888); <i>Records of Tennyson, Ruskin and the Brownings</i>, by Anne + Ritchie (1892); <i>The Letters of Elizabeth Barrett Browning</i>, edited + with biographical additions by Frederick G. Kenyon (2 vols., 1897); + <i>The Letters of Robert Browning and Elizabeth Barrett Barrett</i> (2 + vols., 1899); <i>La Vie et l'œuvre d'Elizabeth Browning</i>, by + Mdlle. Germaine-Marie Merlette (Paris, 1906)</p> + + <p>(<span class="sc">A. Me.</span>)</p> + + <p><b>BROWNING, OSCAR</b> (1837- ), English writer, was born in London on + the 17th of January 1837, the son of a merchant, William Shipton + Browning. He was educated at Eton and at King's College, Cambridge, of + which he became fellow and tutor, graduating fourth in the classical + tripos of 1860. He was for fifteen years a master at Eton College, + resuming residence in 1876 at Cambridge, where he became university + lecturer in history. He soon became a prominent figure in college and + university life, encouraging especially the study of political science + and modern political history, the extension of university teaching and + the movement for the training of teachers. He is well known to Dante + students by his <i>Dante; Life and Works</i> (1891), and to the study of + Italian history he has contributed <i>Guelphs and Ghibellines</i> (1903). + His works on modern history include <i>England and Napoleon in 1803</i> + (1887), <i>History of England</i> (4 vols. 1890), <i>Wars of the + Nineteenth Century</i> (1899), <i>History of Europe 1814-1843</i> (1901), + <i>Napoleon, the first Phase</i> (1905).</p> + + <p><b>BROWNING, ROBERT</b> (1812-1889), English poet, was born at + Camberwell, London, on the 7th of May 1812. He was the son of Robert + Browning (1781-1866), who for fifty years was employed in the Bank of + England. Earlier Brownings had been settled in Wiltshire and Dorsetshire, + and there is no ground for the statement that the family was partly of + Jewish origin. The poet's mother was a daughter of William Wiedemann, a + German who had settled in Dundee and married a Scottish wife. His parents + had one other child, a daughter, Sarianna, born in 1814. They lived + quietly in Camberwell. The elder Browning <!-- Page 671 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page671"></a>[v.04 p.0671]</span>had a + sufficient income and was indifferent to money-making. He had strong + literary and artistic tastes. He was an ardent book collector, and so + good a draughtsman that paternal authority alone had prevented him from + adopting an artistic career. He had, like his son, a singular faculty for + versifying, and helped the boy's early lessons by twisting the Latin + grammar into grotesque rhymes. He lived, as his father had done, to be + 84, with unbroken health. The younger Robert inherited, along with other + characteristics, much of his father's vigour of constitution. From the + mother, who had delicate health, he probably derived his excessive + nervous irritability; and from her, too, came his passion for music. The + family was united by the strongest mutual affection, and the parents + erred, if anything, on the side of indulgence. Browning was sent to a + school in the neighbourhood, but left it when fourteen, and had little + other teaching. He had a French tutor for the next two years, and in his + eighteenth year he attended some Greek lectures at the London University. + At school he never won a prize, though it was more difficult to avoid + than to win prizes. He was more conspicuous for the love of birds and + beasts, which he always retained, than for any interest in his lessons. + He rather despised his companions and made few friends. A precocious + poetical capacity, however, showed itself in extra-scholastic ways. He + made his schoolfellows act plays, partly written by himself. He had + composed verses before he could write, and when twelve years old + completed a volume of poems called <i>Incondita</i>. His parents tried + unsuccessfully to find a publisher; but his verses were admired by Sarah + Flower, afterwards Mrs Adams, a well-known hymn-writer of the day, and by + W.J. Fox, both of whom became valuable friends. A copy made by Miss + Flower was in existence in 1871, but afterwards destroyed by the author. + Browning had the run of his father's library, and acquired a very unusual + amount of miscellaneous reading. Quarles' <i>Emblems</i> was an especial + favourite; and besides the Elizabethan dramatists and standard English + books, he had read all the works of Voltaire. Byron was his first master + in poetry, but about the age of fourteen he fell in accidentally with + Shelley and Keats. For Shelley in particular he conceived an <span + class="correction" title="'enthusiatic' in original">enthusiastic</span> + admiration which lasted for many years, though it was qualified in his + later life.</p> + + <p>The more aggressive side of Browning's character was as yet the most + prominent; and a self-willed lad, conscious of a growing ability, found + himself cramped in Camberwell circles. He rejected the ordinary careers. + He declined the offer of a clerkship in the Bank of England; and his + father, who had found the occupation uncongenial, not only approved the + refusal but cordially accepted the son's decision to take poetry for his + profession. For good or evil, Browning had been left very much to his own + guidance, and if his intellectual training suffered in some directions, + the liberty permitted the development of his marked originality. The + parental yoke, however, was too light to provoke rebellion. Browning's + mental growth led to no violent breach with the creeds of his childhood. + His parents became Dissenters in middle life, but often attended Anglican + services; and Browning, though he abandoned the dogmas, continued to + sympathize with the spirit of their creed. He never took a keen interest + in the politics of the day, but cordially accepted the general position + of contemporary Liberalism. His worship of Shelley did not mean an + acceptance of his master's hostile attitude towards Christianity, still + less did he revolt against the moral discipline under which he had been + educated. He frequented literary and artistic circles, and was + passionately fond of the theatre; but he was entirely free from a coarse + Bohemianism, and never went to bed, we are told, without kissing his + mother. He lived with his parents until his marriage. His mother lived + till 1849, and his father till 1866, and his affectionate relations to + both remained unaltered. Browning's first published poem, <i>Pauline</i>, + appeared anonymously in 1833. He always regarded it as crude, and + destroyed all the copies of this edition that came within his reach. It + was only to avoid unauthorized reprints that he consented with reluctance + to republishing it in the collected works of 1868. The indication of + genius was recognized by W.J. Fox, who hailed it in the <i>Monthly + Repository</i> as marking the advent of a true poet. <i>Pauline</i> + contains an enthusiastic invocation of Shelley, whose influence upon its + style and conception is strongly marked. It is the only one of Browning's + works which can be regarded as imitative. In the winter of 1833 he went + to St Petersburg on a visit to the Russian consul-general, Mr + Benckhausen. There he wrote the earliest of his dramatic lyrics, + "Porphyria's Lover" and "Johannes Agricola." In the spring of 1834 he + visited Italy for the first time, going to Venice and Asolo.</p> + + <p>Browning's personality was fully revealed in his next considerable + poems, <i>Paracelsus</i> (1835) and <i>Sordello</i> (1840). With + <i>Pauline</i>, however, they form a group. In an essay (prefixed to the + spurious Shelley letters of 1851), Browning describes Shelley's poetry + "as a sublime fragmentary essay towards a presentment of the + correspondency of the universe to Deity." The phrase describes his own + view of the true functions of a poet, and Browning, having accepted the + vocation, was meditating the qualifications which should fit him for his + task. The hero of <i>Pauline</i> is in a morbid state of mind which + endangers his fidelity to his duty. <i>Paracelsus</i> and <i>Sordello</i> + are studies in the psychology of genius, illustrating its besetting + temptations. Paracelsus fails from intellectual pride, not balanced by + love of his kind, and from excessive ambition, which leads him to seek + success by unworthy means. Sordello is a poet distracted between the + demands of a dreamy imagination and the desire to utter the thoughts of + mankind. He finally gives up poetry for practical politics, and gets into + perplexities only to be solved by his death. <i>Pauline</i> might in some + indefinite degree reflect Browning's own feelings, but in the later poems + he adopts his characteristic method of speaking in a quasi-dramatic mood. + They are, as he gave notice, "poems, not dramas." The interest is not in + the external events, but in the "development of a soul"; but they are + observations of other men's souls, not direct revelations of his own. + Paracelsus was based upon a study of the original narrative, and Sordello + was a historical though a very indefinite person. The background of + history is intentionally vague in both cases. There is one remarkable + difference between them. The <i>Paracelsus</i>, though full of noble + passages, is certainly diffuse. Browning heard that John Sterling had + complained of its "verbosity," and tried to remedy this failing by the + surgical expedient of cutting out the usual connecting words. Relative + pronouns henceforth become scarce in his poetry, and the grammatical + construction often a matter of conjecture. Words are forcibly jammed + together instead of being articulately combined. To the ordinary reader + many passages in his later work are both crabbed and obscure, but the + "obscurity" never afterwards reached the pitch of <i>Sordello</i>. It is + due to the vagueness with which the story is rather hinted than told, as + well as to the subtlety and intricacy of the psychological expositions. + The subtlety and vigour of the thought are indeed surprising, and may + justify the frequent comparisons to Shakespeare; and it abounds in + descriptive passages of genuine poetry.</p> + + <p>Still, Browning seems to have been misled by a fallacy. It was quite + legitimate to subordinate the external incidents to the psychological + development in which he was really interested, but to secure the + subordination by making the incidents barely intelligible was not a + logical consequence. We should not understand Hamlet's psychological + peculiarities the better if we had to infer his family troubles from + indirect hints. Browning gave more time to <i>Sordello</i> than to any + other work, and perhaps had become so familiar with the story which he + professed to tell that he failed to make allowance for his readers' + difficulties. In any case it was not surprising that the ordinary reader + should be puzzled and repelled, and the general recognition of his genius + long delayed, by his reputation for obscurity.</p> + + <p>It might, however, be expected that he would make a more successful + appeal to the public by purely dramatic work, in which he would have to + limit his psychological speculation and to place his characters in plain + situations. <i>Paracelsus</i> and <i>Sordello</i> show so great a power + of reading character and appreciating subtler springs of conduct that its + author clearly had one, at least, of the essential qualifications of a + dramatist.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 672 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page672"></a>[v.04 p.0672]</span></p> + + <p>Before <i>Sordello</i> appeared Browning had tried his hand in this + direction. He was encouraged by outward circumstances as well as by his + natural bent. He was making friends and gaining some real appreciative + admirers. John Forster had been greatly impressed by <i>Paracelsus</i>. + Browning's love of the theatre had led to an introduction to Macready in + the winter of 1835-1836; and Macready, who had been also impressed by + <i>Paracelsus</i>, asked him for a play. Browning consented and wrote + <i>Strafford</i>, which was produced at Covent Garden in May 1837, + Macready taking the principal part. Later dramas were <i>King Victor and + King Charles</i>, published in 1842; <i>The Return of the Druses</i> and + <i>A Blot on the 'Scutcheon</i> (both in 1843), <i>Colombe's Birthday</i> + (1844), <i>Luria</i> and <i>A Soul's Tragedy</i> (both in 1846), and the + fragmentary <i>In a Balcony</i> (1853). <i>Strafford</i> succeeded + fairly, though the defection of Vandenhoff, who took the part of Pym, + stopped its run after the fifth performance. The <i>Blot on the + 'Scutcheon</i>, produced by Macready as manager of Drury Lane on the 11th + of February 1843, led to an unfortunate quarrel. Browning thought that + Macready had felt unworthy jealousy of another actor, and had gratified + his spite by an inadequate presentation of the play. He remonstrated + indignantly and the friendship was broken off for years. Browning was + disgusted by his experience of the annoyances of practical play-writing, + though he was not altogether discouraged. The play had apparently such a + moderate success as was possible under the conditions, and a similar + modest result was attained by <i>Colombe's Birthday</i>, produced at + Covent Garden on the 25th of April 1853. Browning, like other eminent + writers of the day, failed to achieve the feat of attracting the British + public by dramas of high literary aims, and soon gave up the attempt. It + has been said by competent critics that some of the plays could be fitted + for the stage by judicious adaptation. The <i>Blot on the 'Scutcheon</i> + has a very clear and forcibly treated situation; and all the plays abound + in passages of high poetic power. Like the poems, they deal with + situations involving a moral probation of the characters, and often + suggesting the ethical problems which always interested him. The speeches + tend to become elaborate analyses of motive by the persons concerned, and + try the patience of an average audience. For whatever reason, Browning, + though he had given sufficient proofs of genius, had not found in these + works the most appropriate mode of utterance.</p> + + <p>The dramas, after <i>Strafford</i>, formed the greatest part of a + series of pamphlets called <i>Bells and Pomegranates</i>, eight of which + were issued from 1841 to 1846. The name, he explained, was intended to + indicate an "alternation of poetry and thought." The first number + contained the fanciful and characteristic <i>Pippa Passes</i>. The + seventh, significantly named <i>Dramatic Romances and Lyrics</i>, + contained some of his most striking shorter poems. In 1844 he contributed + six poems, among which were "The Flight of the Duchess" and "The Bishop + orders his Tomb at St Praxed's Church," to Hood's <i>Magazine</i>, in + order to help Hood, then in his last illness. These poems take the + special form in which Browning is unrivalled. He wrote very few lyrical + poems of the ordinary kind purporting to give a direct expression of his + own personal emotions. But, in the lyric which gives the essential + sentiment of some impressive dramatic situation, he has rarely been + approached. There is scarcely one of the poems published at this time + which can be read without fixing itself at once in the memory as a + forcible and pungent presentation of a characteristic mood. Their vigour + and originality failed to overcome at once the presumption against the + author of <i>Sordello</i>. Yet Browning was already known to and + appreciated by such literary celebrities of the day as Talfourd, Leigh + Hunt, Procter, Monckton Milnes, Carlyle and Landor. His fame began to + spread among sympathetic readers. The <i>Bells and Pomegranates</i> + attracted the rising school of "pre-Raphaelites," especially D.G. + Rossetti, who guessed the authorship of the anonymous <i>Pauline</i> and + made a transcript from the copy in the British Museum. But his audience + was still select.</p> + + <p>Another recognition of his genius was of incomparably more personal + importance and vitally affected his history. In 1844 Miss Barrett (see + <span class="sc">Browning, Elizabeth Barrett</span>) published a volume + of poems containing "Lady Geraldine's Courtship," with a striking phrase + about Browning's poems. He was naturally gratified, and her special + friend and cousin, John Kenyon, encouraged him to write to her. She + admitted him to a personal interview after a little diffidence, and a + hearty appreciation of literary genius on both sides was speedily ripened + into genuine and most devoted love. Miss Barrett was six years older than + Browning and a confirmed invalid with shaken nerves. She was tenderly + attached to an autocratic father who objected on principle to the + marriage of his children. The correspondence of the lovers (published in + 1899) shows not only their mutual devotion, but the chivalrous delicacy + with which Browning behaved in a most trying situation. Miss Barrett was + gradually encouraged to disobey the utterly unreasonable despotism. They + made a clandestine marriage on the 12th of September 1846. The state of + Miss Barrett's health suggested misgivings which made Browning's parents + as well as his bride's disapprove of the match. She, however, appears to + have become stronger for some time, though always fragile and incapable + of much active exertion. She had already been recommended to pass a + winter in Italy. Browning had made three previous tours there, and his + impressions had been turned to account in <i>Sordello</i> and <i>Pippa + Passes</i>, in <i>The Englishman in Italy</i> and <i>Home Thoughts from + Abroad</i>. For the next fifteen years the Brownings lived mainly in + Italy, making their headquarters at Florence in the Casa Guidi. A couple + of winters were passed in Rome. In the summer of 1849 they were at Siena, + where Browning was helpful to Landor, then in his last domestic troubles. + They also visited England and twice spent some months in Paris. Their + only child, Robert Wiedemann Browning, was born at Florence in 1849. + Browning's literary activity during his marriage seems to have been + comparatively small; <i>Christmas Eve and Easter Day</i> appeared in + 1850, while the two volumes called <i>Men and Women</i> (1855), + containing some of his best work, showed that his power was still + growing. His position involved some sacrifice and imposed limitations + upon his energies. Mrs Browning's health required a secluded life; and + Browning, it is said, never dined out during his marriage, though he + enjoyed society and made many and very warm friendships. Among their + Florence friends were Margaret Fuller Ossoli, Isa Blagden, Charles Lever + and others. The only breach of complete sympathy with his wife was due to + his contempt for "spiritualists" and "mediums," in whom she fully + believed. His portrait of Daniel Dunglas Home as "Sludge the Medium" only + appeared after her death. This domestic happiness, however, remained + essentially unbroken until she died on 29th June 1861. The whole + love-story had revealed the singular nobility of his character, and, + though crushed for a time by the blow, he bore it manfully. Browning + determined to return to England and superintend his boy's education at + home. He took a house at 19 Warwick Crescent, Paddington, and became + gradually acclimatized in London. He resumed his work and published the + <i>Dramatis Personae</i> in 1864. The publication was well enough + received to mark the growing recognition of his genius, which was + confirmed by <i>The Ring and the Book</i>, published in four volumes in + the winter of 1868-1869. In 1867 the university of Oxford gave him the + degree of M.A. "by diploma," and Balliol College elected him as an + honorary fellow. In 1868 he declined a virtual offer of the rectorship of + St Andrews. He repeated the refusal on a later occasion (1884) from a + dislike to the delivery of a public address. The rising generation was + now beginning to buy his books; and he shared the homage of thoughtful + readers with Tennyson, though in general popularity he could not approach + his friendly rival. <i>The Ring and the Book</i> has been generally + accepted as Browning's masterpiece. It was based on a copy of the + <i>procès verbal</i> of Guido Franceschini's case discovered by him at + Florence.</p> + + <p>The audacity of the scheme is surprising. To tell the story of a + hideous murder twelve times over, to versify the arguments of counsel and + the gossip of quidnuncs, and to insist upon every detail with the + minuteness of a law report, could have occurred to no one else. The poem + is so far at the opposite pole from <i>Sordello</i>. Vagueness of + environment is replaced by a photographic <!-- Page 673 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page673"></a>[v.04 p.0673]</span>distinctness, + though the psychological interest is dominant in both. Particular phrases + may be crabbed, but nothing can be more distinct and vivid in thought and + conception. If some of those "dramatic monologues" of which the book is + formed fail to be poetry at all, some of them—that of Pompilia the + victim, her champion Caponsacchi, and the pope who gives + judgment—are in Browning's highest mood, and are as impressive from + the ethical as from the poetical point of view. Pompilia was no doubt in + some respects an idealized portrait of Mrs Browning. Other pieces may be + accepted as a background of commonplace to throw the heroic into the + stronger relief. <i>The Ring and the Book</i> is as powerful as its + method is unique.</p> + + <p>Browning became gentler and more urbane as he grew older. His growing + fame made him welcome in all cultivated circles, and he accepted the + homage of his admirers with dignity and simplicity. He exerted himself to + be agreeable in private society, though his nervousness made him + invariably decline ever to make public speeches. He was an admirable + talker, and took pains to talk his best. A strong memory supplied him + with abundant anecdotes; and though occasionally pugnacious, he allowed a + fair share of the conversation to his companions. Superficial observers + sometimes fancied that the poet was too much sunk in the man of the + world; but the appearance was due to his characteristic reluctance to lay + bare his deeper feelings. When due occasion offered, the underlying + tenderness of his affections was abundantly manifest. No one could show + more delicate sympathy. He made many warm personal friendships in his + later years, especially with women, to whom he could most easily confide + his feelings. In the early years of this period he paid visits to country + houses, but afterwards preferred to retire farther from the London + atmosphere into secluded regions. He passed some holidays in remote + French villages, Pornic, Le Croisic and St Aubyn, which have left traces + in his poetry. <i>Gold Hair</i> is a legend of Pornic, and <i>Hervé + Riel</i> was written at Le Croisic. At St Aubyn he had the society of + Joseph Milsand, who had shown his warm appreciation of Browning's poetry + by an article in the <i>Revue des Deux Mondes</i>, which in 1852 had led + to a personal friendship lasting till Milsand's death in 1886. Browning + sent to him the proof-sheets of all his later works for revision. In 1877 + Browning was at La Saisiaz on the Salève, near Geneva, where an old + friend, Miss Egerton Smith, was staying. She died suddenly almost in his + presence. She had constantly accompanied him to concerts during his + London life. After her death he almost ceased to care for music. The + shock of her loss produced the singular poem called <i>La Saisiaz</i>, in + which he argues the problem of personal immortality with a rather + indefinite conclusion. In later years Browning returned to Italy, and + passed several autumns at Venice. He never visited Florence after his + wife's death there.</p> + + <p>Browning's literary activity continued till almost the end of his + life. He wrote constantly, though he composed more slowly. He considered + twenty-five or thirty lines to be a good day's work. His later writings + covered a very great variety of subjects, and were cast in many different + forms. They show the old characteristics and often the old genius. + Browning's marked peculiarity, the union of great speculative acuteness + with intense poetical insight, involved difficulties which he did not + always surmount. He does not seem to know whether he is writing poetry or + when he is versifying logic; and when the speculative impulse gets the + upper hand, his work suggests the doubt whether an imaginary dialogue in + prose would not have been a more effective medium. He is analysing at + length when he ought to be presenting a concrete type, while the + necessities of verse complicate and obscure the reasoning. A curious + example is the <i>Prince Hohenstiel-Schwangau</i> (1871), an <i>alias</i> + for Louis Napoleon. The attempt to show how a questionable hero + apologizes to himself recalls the very powerful "Bishop Blougram," and + "Sludge, the medium," of earlier works, but becomes prolix and obscure. + <i>Fifine at the Fair</i> (1872) is another curious speculation + containing a defence of versatility in lovemaking by an imaginary Don + Juan. Its occasionally cynical tone rather scandalized admirers, who + scarcely made due allowance for its dramatic character. Browning's + profound appreciation of high moral qualities is, however, always one + main source of his power. In later years he became especially interested + in stories of real life, which show character passing through some sharp + ordeal. The <i>Red Cotton Nightcap Country</i> (1873), describing a + strange tragedy which had recently taken place in France, and especially + <i>The Inn Album</i> (1875), founded on an event in modern English + society, are powerful applications of the methods already exemplified in + <i>The Ring and the Book</i>. The <i>Dramatic Idyls</i> (1879 and 1880) + are a collection of direct narratives, with less analytical disquisition, + which surprised his readers by their sustained vigour. In the last + volumes, <i>Jocoseria</i> (1883), <i>Ferishtah's Fancies</i> (1884), + <i>Parleying with Certain People</i> (1887) and <i>Asolando</i> (1889), + the old power is still apparent but the hand is beginning to fail. They + contain discussions of metaphysical problems, such as the origin of evil, + which are interesting as indications of his creed, but can scarcely be + regarded as successful either poetically or philosophically.</p> + + <p>Another group of poems showed Browning's interest in Greek literature. + <i>Balaustion's Adventure</i> (1871) includes a "transcript from + Euripides," a translation, that is, of part of the <i>Alcestis</i>. + <i>Aristophanes' Apology</i> (1875) included another translation from the + <i>Heracles</i>, and in 1877 he published a very literal translation of + the <i>Agamemnon</i>. This, it seems, was meant to disprove the doctrine + that Æschylus was a model of literary style. Browning shared his wife's + admiration for Euripides, and takes a phrase from one of her poems as a + motto for <i>Balaustion's Adventure</i>. In the <i>Aristophanes' + Apology</i> this leads characteristically to a long exposition by + Aristophanes of his unsatisfactory reasons for ridiculing Euripides. It + recalls the apologies of "Blougram" and Louis Napoleon, and contains some + interesting indications of his poetical theory. Browning was to many + readers as much prophet as poet. His religious position is most + explicitly, though still not very clearly, set forth in the <i>Christmas + Eve and Easter Day</i> (1850). Like many eminent contemporaries, he + combined a disbelief in orthodox dogma with a profound conviction of the + importance to the religious instincts of the symbols incorporated in + accepted creeds. <i>Saul</i> (1845), <i>A Death in the Desert</i> (1864), + and similar poems, show his strong sympathy with the spirit of the old + belief, though his argumentative works have a more or less sceptical + turn. It was scarcely possible, if desirable, to be original on such + topics. His admirers hold that he shows an affinity to German + metaphysicians, though he had never read their works nor made any express + study of metaphysical questions. His distinctive tendency is to be found + rather in the doctrine of life and conduct which both suggests and is + illustrated by his psychological analyses. A very characteristic thought + emphatically set forth in the <i>Rabbi Ben Ezra</i> (1864) and the + <i>Grammarian's Funeral</i> (1855) is that a man's value is to be + measured, not by the work done, but by the character which has been + moulded. He delights in exhibiting the high moral instinct which dares to + override ordinary convictions, or which is content with discharge of + obscure duties, or superior to vulgar ambition and capable of + self-sacrifice, because founded upon pure love and sympathy for human + suffering. Browning's limitations are characteristic of the poetry of + strong ethical preoccupations. His strong idiosyncrasy, his sympathy with + the heroic and hatred of the base, was hardly to be combined with the + Shakespearian capacity for sympathizing with the most varied types of + character. Though he deals with a great variety of motive with singularly + keen analysis, he takes almost exclusively the moral point of view. That + point of view, however, has its importance, and his morality is often + embodied in poetry of surpassing force. Browning's love of the grotesque, + sometimes even of the horrible, creates many most graphic and indelible + portraits. The absence of an exquisite sense for the right word is + compensated by the singular power of striking the most brilliant flashes + out of obviously wrong words, and forcing comic rhymes to express the + deepest and most serious thoughts. Though he professed to care little for + motive as apart from human interest, his incidental touches of + description are unsurpassably vivid.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 674 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page674"></a>[v.04 p.0674]</span></p> + + <p>The appreciation of Browning's genius became general in his later + years, and zeal was perhaps a little heightened by the complacency of + disciples able to penetrate a supposed mist of obscurity. The Browning + Society, founded in 1881 by Dr F.J. Furnivall and Miss E.H. Hickey, was a + product of this appreciation, and helped to extend the study of the + poems. Browning accepted the homage in a simple and friendly way, though + he avoided any action which would make him responsible for the + publications. He received various honours: LL.D. degree from Cambridge in + 1879, the D.C.L. from Oxford in 1882, and LL.D. from Edinburgh in 1884. + He became foreign correspondent to the Royal Academy in 1886. His son, + who had settled at Venice, married in 1887, and Browning moved to De Vere + Gardens. In the autumn of 1889 he went with his sister to visit his son, + and stayed on the way at Asolo, which he had first seen in 1838, when it + supplied the scenery of <i>Pippa Passes</i>. He was charmed with the + place, and proposed to buy a piece of ground and to build upon it a house + to be called "Pippa's Tower"—in memory of his early heroine. While + his proposal was under consideration he went to his son at Venice. His + health had been breaking for some time, and a cold, aggravated by + weakness of the heart, brought on a fatal attack. He died on the 12th of + December 1889. He was buried in Westminster Abbey on 31st December. It + was suggested that his wife's body should be removed from Florence to be + placed beside him; but their son rightly decided that her grave should + not be disturbed.</p> + + <p>Browning's personal characteristics are so strongly stamped upon all + his works that it is difficult to assign his place in contemporary + thought. He is unique and outside of all schools. His style is so + peculiar that he is the easiest of all poets to parody and the most + dangerous to imitate. In spite of his early Shelley worship he is in + certain respects more closely related to Wordsworth. Both of them started + by accepting the poet's mission as quasi-prophetical or ethical. In other + respects they are diametrically contrasted. Wordsworth expounded his + philosophy by writing a poetical autobiography. Browning adheres to the + dramatic method of which Wordsworth was utterly incapable. He often + protested against the supposition that he put himself into his books. Yet + there is no writer whose books seem to readers to be clearer revelations + of himself. Nothing, in fact, is more characteristic of a man than his + judgments of other men, and Browning's are keen and unequivocal. The + revolutionary impulse had died out, and Browning has little to say either + of the political questions which had moved Shelley and Byron, or of the + social problems which have lately become more prominent. He represents + the thought of a quieter epoch. He was little interested, too, in the + historical or "romantic" aspect of life. He takes his subjects from a + great variety of scenes and places—from ancient Greece, medieval + Italy and modern France and England; but the interest for him is not in + the picturesque surroundings, but in the human being who is to be found + in all periods. Like Balzac, whom he always greatly admired, he is + interested in the eternal tragedy and comedy of life. His problem is + always to show what are the really noble elements which are eternally + valuable in spite of failure to achieve tangible results. He gives, so + far, another version of Wordsworth's doctrine of the cultivation of the + "moral being." The psychological acuteness and the subtle analysis of + character are, indeed, peculiar to himself. Like Carlyle, with whom he + had certain points of affinity, he protests, though rather by implication + than direct denunciation, against the utilitarian or materialistic view + of life, and finds the divine element in the instincts which guide and + animate every noble character. When he is really inspired by sympathy for + such emotions he can make his most grotesque fancies and his most + far-fetched analyses subservient to poetry of the highest order. It can + hardly be denied that his intellectual ingenuity often tempts him to + deviate from his true function, and that his observations are not to be + excused because they result from an excess, instead of a deficiency, of + intellectual acuteness. But the variety of his interests—aesthetic, + philosophical and ethical—is astonishing, and his successes are + poems which stand out as unique and unsurpassable in the literature of + his time.</p> + + <p><i>The Life and Letters of Browning</i>, by Mrs Sutherland Orr (1891), + one of his most intimate friends in later years, and <i>The Love Letters + of Robert Browning and Elizabeth Barrett Barrett, 1845-1846</i>, + published by his son in 1899, are the main authorities. A collection of + Browning's poems in 2 vols. appeared in 1849, another in 3 vols. in 1863, + another in 6 vols. in 1868, and a revised edition in 16 vols. in + 1888-1889; in 1896 Mr Augustine Birrell and Mr F.G. Kenyon edited a + complete edition in 2 vols.; another two-volume edition was issued by + Messrs Smith, Elder in 1900. Among commentaries on Browning's works, Mrs + Sutherland Orr's <i>Handbook to the Works of Browning</i> was approved by + the poet himself. See also the Browning Society's <i>Papers</i>; and Mr + T.J. Wise's <i>Materials for a Bibliography of the Writings of Robert + Browning</i>, included in the <i>Literary Anecdotes of the Nineteenth + Century</i> (1895), by W. Robertson Nicoll and T.J. Wise; Mr. Edmund + Gosse's <i>Robert Browning: Personalia</i> (1890), from notes supplied by + Browning himself. Among biographical and critical authorities may be + mentioned: J.T. Nettleship, <i>Essays</i> (1868); Arthur Symons, <i>An + Introduction to the Study of Browning</i> (1886); Stopford Brooke, <i>The + Poetry of Robert Browning</i> (1902); G.K. Chesterton, <i>Browning</i> + (1908) in the "English Men of Letters" series.</p> + + <p>(L. S.)</p> + + <p><b>BROWN-SÉQUARD, CHARLES EDWARD</b> (1817-1894), British physiologist + and neurologist, was born at Port Louis, Mauritius, on the 8th of April + 1817. His father was an American and his mother a Frenchwoman, but he + himself always desired to be looked upon as a British subject, though in + the restlessness of his life and the enthusiasm of his disposition, + characteristics of his mother's nation were plainly visible. After + graduating in medicine at Paris in 1846 he returned to Mauritius with the + intention of practising there, but in 1852 he went to America. + Subsequently he returned to Paris, and in 1859 he migrated to London, + becoming physician to the national hospital for the paralysed and + epileptic. There he stayed for about five years, expounding his views on + the pathology of the nervous system in numerous lectures which attracted + considerable attention. In 1864 he again crossed the Atlantic, and was + appointed professor of physiology and neuro-pathology at Harvard. This + position he relinquished in 1867, and in 1869 became professor at the + École de Médecine in Paris, but in 1873 he again returned to America and + began to practise in New York. Finally, he went back to Paris to succeed + Claude Bernard in 1878 as professor of experimental medicine in the + Collège de France, and he remained there till his death, which occurred + on the 2nd of April 1894 at Sceaux. Brown-Séquard was a keen observer and + experimentalist. He contributed largely to our knowledge of the blood and + animal heat, as well as many facts of the highest importance on the + nervous system. He was the first scientist to work out the physiology of + the spinal cord, demonstrating that the decussation of the sensory fibres + is in the cord itself. He also did valuable work on the internal + secretion of organs, the results of which have been applied with the most + satisfactory results in the treatment of myxoedema. Unfortunately in his + extreme old age, he advocated the hypodermic injection of a fluid + prepared from the testicles of sheep, as a means of prolonging human + life. It was known, among scientists, derisively, as the Brown-Séquard + Elixir. His researches, published in about 500 essays and papers, + especially in the <i>Archives de Physiologie</i>, which he helped to + found in 1868, cover a very wide range of physiological and pathological + subjects.</p> + + <p><b>BROWNSON, ORESTES AUGUSTUS</b> (1803-1876), American theological, + philosophical and sociological writer, was born in Stockbridge, Vermont, + on the 16th of September 1803. Having spent some time in active + religious, reformatory and political (Democratic) work in the interior of + New York state, and at Walpole, New Hampshire, and Canton, Massachusetts, + Brownson removed in 1839 to Chelsea, Mass. He at once began to take an + independent part in the movements then agitating New England, which + between 1830 and 1850 was stirred by discussions pertaining to + Unitarianism, transcendentalism, spiritualism, abolitionism and various + schemes for communistic living. He was one of the founders, in New York, + of the short-lived Workingman's party in 1828, and established the + <i>Boston Quarterly Review</i>, mainly written by himself, in 1838. This + periodical was merged in the <i>U.S. Democratic Review</i> of New York in + 1842. <!-- Page 675 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page675"></a>[v.04 + p.0675]</span>In religion he first became a Presbyterian (1822); was a + Universalist minister from 1826 to 1831, editing for some time the chief + journal of this church, the <i>Gospel Advocate</i>; was an independent + preacher at Ithaca, N.Y., in 1831; became a Unitarian minister in 1832, + and in 1836 organized in Boston the Society for Christian Union and + Progress, of which he was the pastor for seven years. In 1844 he became a + Roman Catholic and so remained, though the question of the orthodoxy of + his writings was at one time submitted by the pope to Cardinal Franzelin, + who recommended Brownson, to little purpose, to express his views with + more moderation. In his philosophy Brownson was a more or less + independent follower of Comte for a short time, and of Victor Cousin, + who, in his <i>Fragmens philosophiques</i>, praised him; he may be said + to have taught a modified intuitionalism. In his schemes for social + reform he was at first a student of Robert Owen, until his later views + led him to accept Roman Catholicism. His first quarterly was followed, in + 1844, by <i>Brownson's Quarterly Review</i> (first published in Boston + and after 1855 in New York), in which he expressed his opinions on many + themes until its suspension in 1864, and after its revival for a brief + period in 1873-1875. Of his numerous publications in book form, the chief + during his lifetime were <i>Charles Elwood, or the Infidel Converted</i> + (1840, autobiographical), in which he strongly favoured the Roman + Catholic Church; and <i>The American Republic: its Constitution, + Tendencies and Destiny</i> (1865), in which he based government on + ethics, declaring the national existence to be a moral and even a + theocratic entity, not depending for validity upon the sovereignty of the + people. Brownson died in Detroit, Michigan, on the 17th of April + 1876.</p> + + <p>After his death, his son, Henry F. Brownson, collected and published + his various political, religious, philosophical, scientific and literary + writings, in twenty octavo volumes (Detroit, 1883-1887), of which a + condensed summary appeared in a single volume, also prepared by his son, + entitled <i>Literary and Political Views</i> (New York, 1893). The son + also published a biography in three volumes (Detroit, 1898-1900).</p> + + <p>His daughter, Sarah M. Brownson (1839-1876), who married in 1873 + William J. Tenney, was the author of several novels, and wrote a <i>Life + of Demetrius Augustine Gallitzin, Prince and Priest</i> (1873).</p> + + <p><b>BROWNSVILLE,</b> a city and the county-seat of Cameron county, + Texas, U.S.A., situated near the S. extremity of the state, on the Rio + Grande river about 22 m. above its mouth, and opposite Matamoras, Mexico. + Pop. (1890) 6134; (1900) 6305, including 2462 foreign-born and 18 + negroes; (1910) 10,517. It is served by the St Louis, Brownsville & + Mexico, and the Rio Grande railways, being connected by the former with + Houston and Galveston and by the latter with Point Isabel on the Gulf + coast. Its chief importance lies in its being the commercial and + distributing centre for a rich and extensive agricultural region in + southern Texas and northern Mexico, and an important market for rice, + sugar-cane, fruit, vegetables and live-stock. It has a United States + custom house, the Cameron county court house, a Roman Catholic cathedral, + St Joseph's College (Roman Catholic), and the Incarnate Word Academy + (Roman Catholic). Before the Mexican War there was a small Mexican + settlement on the site of Brownsville. In March 1846 General Zachary + Taylor erected fortifications here, and upon his withdrawal to Point + Isabel, left a small garrison in command of Major Jacob Brown. The fort + was assaulted by General Arista and shelled by batteries from the Mexican + shore, and at last on the 10th of May was relieved by General Taylor, who + in advancing to its aid had won the battles of Palo Alto (8th of May) and + Resaca de la Palma (9th of May). The fort, originally named Fort Taylor, + was renamed Fort Brown, by order of General Taylor, in memory of Major + Brown, who was mortally wounded during the bombardment. In 1859 + Brownsville was captured by a band of Mexican raiders under Juan + Nepomuceno Cortina. During the Civil War, until its temporary occupation + by Federal forces in 1863, and subsequent effective blockade, it was an + active centre of operations of Confederate blockade runners. At Palmetto + Ranch, near the battlefield of Palo Alto, took place (13th of May 1865), + more than a month after General Lee's surrender, the last engagement + between Federal and Confederate troops in the Civil War. In Brownsville, + on the night of the 13th of August 1906, certain persons unknown fired + into houses and at citizens on the streets, killing one man and injuring + two. Suspicion pointed to negro soldiers of Companies B, C and D of the + 25th Infantry, stationed at Fort Brown, and as it appeared that the + culprits were being shielded by their comrades by a "conspiracy of + silence," President Roosevelt dismissed the 170 men of the three + companies "without honor." Both in Congress and in the press a bitter + attack was made on the president for his action. In 1907 the military + reservation of Fort Brown was transferred to the Department of + Agriculture. In March 1909 Congress provided for a commission of army + officers to report as to the eligibility of members of the negro + regiments for re-enlistment.</p> + + <p><b>BRUAY,</b> a town of northern France, in the department of + Pas-de-Calais, on the Lawe, 19 m. N.N.W. of Arras by road. Pop. (1906) + 16,169. The town is situated in a rich coal-mining district. Brewing is + also a leading industry.</p> + + <p><b>BRUCE,</b> the name of an old Scottish family of Norman descent, + taken from Bruis between Cherbourg and Vallonges. Variations of the name + are Braose, Breaux and Brus. The first Robert de Brus, a follower of + William the Conqueror, was rewarded by the gift of many manors, chiefly + in Yorkshire, of which Skelton was the principal. His son, the second + Robert, received from David I., his comrade at the court of Henry I., a + grant of the lordship of Annandale. The fourth Robert married Isabel, + natural daughter of William the Lion, and their son, the fifth Robert, + married Isabel, second daughter of David, earl of Huntingdon, niece of + the same Scottish king. The most famous member of the family is the + eighth Robert, "the Bruce," who became king of Scotland in 1306. (See + <span class="sc">Robert the Bruce</span>.)</p> + + <p><b>BRUCE, ALEXANDER BALMAIN</b> (1831-1899), Scottish divine, was born + at Aberargie near Perth on the 31st of January 1831. His father suffered + for his adherence to the Free Church at the Disruption in 1843, and + removed to Edinburgh, where the son was educated, showing exceptional + ability from the first. His early religious doubts, awakened especially + by Strauss's <i>Life of Jesus</i>, made him throughout life sympathetic + with those who underwent a similar stress. After serving as assistant + first at Ancrum, then at Lochwinnoch, he was called to Cardross in + Dumbartonshire in 1859, and to Broughty Ferry in 1868. There he published + his first considerable exegetical work, the <i>Training of the + Twelve</i>. In 1874 he delivered his Cunningham Lectures, afterwards + published as <i>The Humiliation of Christ</i>, and in the following year + was appointed to the chair of Apologetics and New Testament exegesis at + the Free Church College, Glasgow. This post he held for twenty-four + years. He was one of the first British New Testament students whose work + was received with consideration by German scholars of repute. The + character and work of Christ were, he held, the ultimate proof and the + best defence of Christianity; and his tendency was to concentrate + attention somewhat narrowly on the historic Jesus. In <i>The Kingdom of + God</i> (1889), which first encountered serious hostile criticism in his + own communion, he accounted for some of the differences between the first + and third evangelists on the principle of accommodation—maintaining + that Luke had altered both the text and the spirit of his sources to suit + the needs of those for whom he wrote. It was held that these admissions + were not consistent with the views of inspiration professed by the Free + Church. When the case was tried, the assembly held that the charge of + heresy was based on a misunderstanding, but that "by want of due care in + his mode of statement he had given some ground for the painful + impressions which had existed."</p> + + <p>Bruce rendered signal service to his own communion in connexion with + its service of praise. He was convener of the committee which issued the + Free Church hymn book, and he threw into this work the same energy and + catholicity of mind which marked the rest of his activities. He died on + the 7th of August 1899, and was buried at Broughty Ferry. His chief + works, beside the above, are: <i>The Chief End of Revelation</i> (Lond., + 1881); <i>The Parabolic Teaching of Christ</i> (Lond., 1882); <i>F.C. + Baur and his Theory of the Origin of Christianity and of the <!-- Page + 676 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page676"></a>[v.04 + p.0676]</span>New Testament Writings</i> in "Present Day Tracts" (Lond., + 1885); <i>Apologetics, or Christianity Defensively Stated</i> (Edin., + 1892); <i>St Paul's Conception of Christianity</i> (Lond., 1894); + <i>Expos. Gk. Test.</i> (the Synoptic Gospels, Lond., 1897). <i>With Open + Face</i> (Lond., 1896); <i>The Epistle to the Hebrews</i> (Edin., 1899); + <i>The Providential Order of the World</i>, and the <i>Moral Order of the + World in Ancient and Modern Thought</i> (Gifford Lectures, 1896-1897; + Lond., 1897, 1899).</p> + + <p>(<span class="sc">D. Mn.</span>)</p> + + <p><b>BRUCE, JAMES</b> (1730-1794), Scottish explorer in Africa, was born + at Kinnaird House, Stirlingshire, on the 14th of December 1730. He was + educated at Harrow and Edinburgh University, and began to study for the + bar; but his marriage to the daughter of a wine merchant resulted in his + entering that business. His wife died in October 1754, within nine months + of marriage, and Bruce thereafter travelled in Portugal and Spain. The + examination of oriental MSS. at the Escurial led him to the study of + Arabic and Geez and determined his future career. In 1758 his father's + death placed him in possession of the estate of Kinnaird. On the outbreak + of war with Spain in 1762 he submitted to the British government a plan + for an attack on Ferrol. His suggestion was not adopted, but it led to + his selection by the 2nd earl of Halifax for the post of British consul + at Algiers, with a commission to study the ancient ruins in that country, + in which interest had been excited by the descriptions sent home by + Thomas Shaw<a name="FnAnchor_201" href="#Footnote_201"><sup>[1]</sup></a> + (1694-1751), consular chaplain at Algiers, 1719-1731. Having spent six + months in Italy studying antiquities, Bruce reached Algiers in March + 1763. The whole of his time was taken up with his consular duties at the + piratical court of the dey, and he was kept without the assistance + promised. But in August 1765, a successor in the consulate having + arrived, Bruce began his exploration of the Roman ruins in Barbary. + Having examined many ruins in eastern Algeria, he travelled by land from + Tunis to Tripoli, and at Ptolemeta took passage for Candia; but was + shipwrecked near Bengazi and had to swim ashore. He eventually reached + Crete, and sailing thence to Sidon, travelled through Syria, visiting + Palmyra and Baalbek. Throughout his journeyings in Barbary and the + Levant, Bruce made careful drawings of the many ruins he examined. He + also acquired a sufficient knowledge of medicine to enable him to pass in + the East as a physician.</p> + + <p>In June 1768 he arrived at Alexandria, having resolved to endeavour to + discover the source of the Nile, which he believed to rise in Abyssinia. + At Cairo he gained the support of the Mameluke ruler, Ali Bey; after + visiting Thebes he crossed the desert to Kosseir, where he embarked in + the dress of a Turkish sailor. He reached Jidda in May 1769, and after + some stay in Arabia he recrossed the Red Sea and landed at Massawa, then + in possession of the Turks, on the 19th of September. He reached Gondar, + then the capital of Abyssinia, on the 14th of February 1770, where he was + well received by the negus Tekla Haimanot II., by Ras Michael, the real + ruler of the country, by the ras's wife, Ozoro Esther, and by the + Abyssinians generally. His fine presence (he was 6 ft. 4 in. high), his + knowledge of Geez, his excellence in sports, his courage, resource and + self-esteem, all told in his favour among a people who were in general + distrustful of all foreigners. He stayed in Abyssinia for two years, + gaining knowledge which enabled him subsequently to present a perfect + picture of Abyssinian life. On the 14th of November 1770 he reached the + long-sought source of the Blue Nile. Though admitting that the White Nile + was the larger stream, Bruce claimed that the Blue Nile was the Nile of + the ancients and that he was thus the discoverer of its source. The + claim, however, was not well founded (see <span class="sc">Nile</span>: + <i>Story of Exploration</i>). Setting out from Gondar in December 1771, + Bruce made his way, in spite of enormous difficulties, by Sennar to + Nubia, being the first to trace the Blue Nile to its confluence with the + White Nile. On the 29th of November 1772 he reached Assuan, presently + returning to the desert to recover his journals and his baggage, which + had been abandoned in consequence of the death of all his camels. Cairo + was reached in January 1773, and in March Bruce arrived in France, where + he was welcomed by Buffon and other <i>savants</i>. He came to London in + 1774, but, offended by the incredulity with which his story was received, + retired to his home at Kinnaird. It was not until 1790 that, urged by his + friend Daines Barrington, he published his <i>Travels to Discover the + Source of the Nile in the Years 1768-73</i>, in five octavo volumes, + lavishly illustrated. The work was very popular, but was assailed by + other travellers as being unworthy of credence. The manner in which the + book was written—twelve years after Bruce's return from Africa and + without reference to his journals—gave some handle to his critics, + but the substantial accuracy of every statement concerning his Abyssinian + travels has since been amply demonstrated. He died on the 27th of April + 1794.</p> + + <p>Bruce wrote an autobiography, part of which is printed in editions of + his <i>Travels</i>, published in 1805 and 1813, accompanied by a + biographical notice by the editor, Alexander Murray. The best edition of + the <i>Travels</i> is the third (Edinburgh, 1813, 8 vols.). Of the + abridgments the best is that of Major (afterwards Sir Francis) Head, the + author of a well-informed <i>Life of Bruce</i> (London, 1830). The best + account of Bruce's travels in Barbary is contained in Sir R. Lambert + Playfair's <i>Travels in the Footsteps of Bruce</i> (London, 1877), in + which a selection of his drawings was published for the first time. + Several of Bruce's drawings were presented to George III. and are in the + royal collection at Windsor.</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_201" href="#FnAnchor_201">[1]</a> Dr Shaw's + <i>Travels relating to Several Parts of Barbary ...</i> was first printed + at Oxford (1738).</p> + +</div> + <p><b>BRUCE, MICHAEL</b> (1746-1767), Scottish poet, was born at + Kinnesswood in the parish of Portmoak, Kinross-shire, on the 27th of + March 1746. His father, Alexander Bruce, was a weaver, and a man of + exceptional ability. Michael was taught to read before he was four years + old, and one of his favourite books was a copy of Sir David Lyndsay's + works. He was early sent to school, but his attendance was often + interrupted. He had frequently to herd cattle on the Lomond Hills in + summer, and this early companionship with nature greatly influenced his + poetic genius. He was a delicate child, and grew up contemplative, + devotional and humorous, the pet of his family and his friends. His + parents gave him an education superior to their position; he studied + Latin and Greek, and at fifteen, when his school education was completed, + a small legacy left to his mother, with some additions from kindly + neighbours, provided means to send Michael to Edinburgh University, which + he attended during the four winter sessions 1762-1765. In 1765 he taught + during the summer months at Gairney Bridge, receiving about £11 a year in + fees and free board in one or other of the homes of his pupils. He became + a divinity student at Kinross of a Scottish sect known as the Burghers, + and in the first summer (1766) of his divinity course accepted the charge + of a new school at Forest Hill, near Clackmannan, where he led a + melancholy life. Poverty, disease and want of companions depressed his + spirits, but there he wrote "Lochleven," a poem inspired by the memories + of his childhood. He had before been threatened with consumption, and now + became seriously ill. During the winter he returned on foot to his + father's house, where he wrote his last and finest poem, "Elegy written + in Spring," and died on the 5th of July 1767.</p> + + <p>As a poet his reputation has been spread, first, through sympathy for + his early death; and secondly, through the alleged theft by John Logan + (<i>q.v.</i>) of several of his poems. Logan, who had been a + fellow-student of Bruce, obtained Bruce's MSS. from his father, shortly + after the poet's death. For the letters, poems, &c., that he allowed + to pass out of his hands, Alexander Bruce took no receipt, nor did he + keep any list of the titles. Logan edited in 1770 <i>Poems on Several + Occasions, by Michael Bruce</i>, in which the "Ode to the Cuckoo" + appeared. In the preface he stated that "to make up a miscellany, some + poems written by different authors are inserted." In a collection of his + own poems in 1781, Logan printed the "Ode to the Cuckoo" as his own; of + this the friends of Bruce were aware, but did not challenge its + appropriation publicly. In a MS. <i>Pious Memorials of Portmoak</i>, + drawn up by Bruce's friend, David Pearson, Bruce's authorship of the "Ode + to the Cuckoo" is emphatically asserted. This book was in the possession + of the Birrell family, and John Birrell, another friend of the poet, adds + a testimony to the same effect. Pearson and Birrell also wrote to Dr + Robert Anderson while he was publishing his <i>British Poets</i>, + pointing out Bruce's claims. Their <!-- Page 677 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page677"></a>[v.04 p.0677]</span>communications + were used by Anderson in the "Life" prefixed to Logan's works in the + <i>British Poets</i> (vol. ii. p. 1029). The volume of 1770 had struck + Bruce's friends as being incomplete, and his father missed his son's + "Gospel Sonnets," which are supposed by the partisans of Bruce against + Logan to have been the hymns printed in the 1781 edition of Logan's + poems. Logan tried to prevent by law the reprinting of Bruce's poems (see + James Mackenzie's <i>Life of Michael Bruce</i>, 1905, chap. xii.), but + the book was printed in 1782, 1784, 1796 and 1807. Dr William + M<sup>c</sup>Kelvie revived Bruce's claims in <i>Lochleven and Other + Poems, by Michael Bruce, with a Life of the Author from Original + Sources</i> (1837). Logan's authorship rests on the publication of the + poems under his own name, and his reputation as author during his + lifetime. His failure to produce the "poem book" of Bruce entrusted to + him, and the fact that no copy of the "Ode to the Cuckoo" in his + handwriting was known to exist during Bruce's lifetime, make it difficult + to relieve him of the charge of plagiarism. Prof. John Veitch, in <i>The + Feeling for Nature in Scottish Poetry</i> (1887, vol. ii. pp. 89-91), + points out that the stanza known to be Logan's addition to this ode is + out of keeping with the rest of the poem, and is in the manner of Logan's + established compositions, in which there is nothing to suggest the direct + simplicity of the little poem on the cuckoo.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—Additions to <i>Poems on + Several Occasions</i> (1770) were made by Dr M<sup>c</sup>Kelvie in his + 1837 edition. He gives (p. 97) a list of the poems not printed in Logan's + selection, and of those that are lost. See the "Lives" of Bruce and of + Logan in Anderson's <i>British Poets</i> (1795); an admirable paper on + Bruce in <i>The Mirror</i> (No. 36, 1779), said to be by William Craig, + one of the lords of session; <i>The Poetical Works of Michael Bruce, with + Life and Writings</i> (1895), by William Stephen, who, like Dr A.B. + Grosart in his edition (1865) of <i>The Works of Michael Bruce</i>, + adopts M<sup>c</sup>Kelvie's view. A restatement of the case for Bruce's + authorship, coupled with a rather violent attack on Logan, is to be found + in the <i>Life of Michael Bruce, Poet of Loch Leven, with Vindication of + his Authorship of the "Ode to the Cuckoo" and other Poems, also Copies of + Letters written by John Logan now first published</i> (1905), by James + Mackenzie.</p> + + <p><b>BRUCH, MAX</b> (1838- ), German musical composer, son of a city + official and grandson of the famous Evangelical cleric, Dr Christian + Bruch, was born at Cologne on the 6th of January 1838. From his mother + (<i>née</i> Almenräder), a well-known musician of her time, he learnt the + elements of music, but under Breidenstein he made his first serious + effort at composition at the age of fourteen, by the production of a + symphony. In 1853 Bruch gained the Mozart Stipendium of 400 gulden per + annum for four years at Frankfort-on-Main, and for the following few + years studied under Hiller, Reinecke and Breunung. Subsequently he lived + from 1858 to 1861 as pianoforte teacher at Cologne, in which city his + first opera (in one act), <i>Scherz, List und Roche</i>, was produced in + 1858. On his father's death in 1861, Bruch began a tour of study at + Berlin, Leipzig, Vienna, Munich, Dresden and Mannheim, where his opera + <i>Lorelei</i> was brought out in 1863. At Mannheim he lived till 1864, + and there he wrote some of his best-known works, including the beautiful + <i>Frithjof</i>. After a further period of travel he became + musical-director at Coblenz (1865-1867), Hofkapellmeister at + Sondershausen (1867-1870), and lived in Berlin (1871-1873), where he + wrote his <i>Odysseus</i>, his first violin concerto and two symphonies + being composed at Sondershausen. After five years at Bonn (1873-1878), + during which he made two visits to England, Bruch, in 1878, became + conductor of the Stern Choral Union; and in 1880 of the Liverpool + Philharmonic. In 1892 he was appointed director of the Berlin Hochschule. + In 1893 he was given the honorary degree of Mus. Doc. by Cambridge + University. Max Bruch has written in almost every conceivable musical + form, invariably with straight-forward honest simplicity of design. He + has a gift of refined melody beyond the common, his melodies being broad + and suave and often exceptionally beautiful.</p> + + <p><b>BRUCHSAL,</b> a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of Baden, + prettily situated on the Saalbach, 14 m. N. from Karlsruhe, and an + important junction on the main railway from Mannheim to Constance. Pop. + (1900), including a small garrison, 13,555. There are an Evangelical and + four Roman Catholic churches, among the latter that of St Peter, the + burial-place of the bishops of Spires, whose princely residence (now used + as a prison) lies in the vicinity. Bruchsal has a fine palace, with + beautiful grounds attached, a town hall, a classical, a modern and a + commercial school, and manufactures of machinery, paper, tobacco, soap + and beer, and does a considerable trade in wine. Bruchsal (mentioned in + 937 as <i>Bruxolegum</i>) was originally a royal villa (<i>Königshof</i>) + belonging to the emperors and German kings. Given in 1002 to Otto, duke + of Franconia, it was inherited by the cadet line of Spires, the head of + which, the emperor Henry III., gave it to the see of Spires in 1095. From + 1105 onward it became the summer residence of the bishops, who in 1190 + bought the <i>Vogtei</i> (advocateship) from the counts of Calw, and the + place rapidly developed into a town. It remained in the possession of the + bishops till 1802, when by the treaty of Lunéville it was ceded, with + other lands of the bishopric on the right bank of the Rhine, to Baden. + The Peasants' War during the Reformation period first broke out in + Bruchsal. In 1609 it was captured by the elector palatine, and in 1676 + and 1698 it was burnt down by the French. In 1849 it was the scene of an + engagement between the Prussians and the Baden revolutionists.</p> + + <p>See <i>Rössler,Geschichte der Stadt Bruchsal</i> (2nd ed., Bruchsal, + 1894).</p> + + <p><b>BRUCINE,</b> + C<sub>23</sub>H<sub>26</sub>N<sub>2</sub>O<sub>4</sub>, an alkaloid + isolated in 1819 by J. Pelletier and J.B. Caventou from "false Angustura + bark." It crystallizes in prisms with four molecules of water; when + anhydrous it melts at 178°. It is very similar to strychnine + (<i>q.v.</i>), both chemically and physiologically.</p> + + <p><b>BRUCITE,</b> a mineral consisting of magnesium hydroxide, + Mg(OH)<sub>2</sub>, and crystallizing in the rhombohedral system. It was + first described in 1814 as "native magnesia" from New Jersey by A. Bruce, + an American mineralogist, after whom the species was named by F.S. + Beudant in 1824; the same name had, however, been earlier applied to the + mineral now known as chondrodite. Brucite is usually found as platy + masses, sometimes of considerable size, which have a perfect cleavage + parallel to the surface of the plates. It is white, sometimes with a + tinge of grey, blue or green, varies from transparent to translucent, and + on the cleavage surfaces has a pronounced pearly lustre. In general + appearance and softness (H = 2½) it is thus not unlike gypsum or talc, + but it may be readily distinguished from these by its optical character, + being uniaxial with positive birefringence, whilst gypsum is biaxial and + talc has negative birefringence. The specific gravity is 2.38-2.40. In + the variety known as nemalite the structure is finely fibrous and the + lustre silky: this variety contains 5 to 8% of ferrous oxide replacing + magnesia, and has consequently a rather higher specific gravity, viz. + 2.45. Another variety, manganbrucite, has the magnesia partly replaced by + manganous oxide (14%), and thus forms a passage to the isomorphous + mineral pyrochroite, Mn(OH)<sub>2</sub>.</p> + + <p>Brucite is generally associated with other magnesian minerals, such as + magnesite and dolomite, and is commonly found in serpentine, or sometimes + as small scales in phyllites and crystalline schists; it has also been + observed in metamorphosed magnesian limestone, such as the rock known as + predazzite from Predazzo in Tirol. The best crystals and foliated masses + are from Texas in Pennsylvania, U.S.A., and from Swinaness in Unst, one + of the Shetland Isles. Nemalite is from Hoboken, New Jersey, and from + Afghanistan. At all these localities the mineral forms veins in + serpentine.</p> + + <p>(L. J. S.)</p> + + <p><b>BRÜCKENAU,</b> a town and fashionable watering-place of Germany, in + the kingdom of Bavaria, on the Sinn, 16 m. N.W. of Kissingen. The mineral + springs, five in number, situated in the pleasant valley of the Sinn, 2 + m. from the town, were a favourite resort of Louis I. of Bavaria. Pop. + 1700.</p> + + <p><b>BRUCKER, JOHANN JAKOB</b> (1696-1770), German historian of + philosophy, was born at Augsburg. He was destined for the church, and + graduated at the university of Jena in 1718. He returned to Augsburg in + 1720, but became parish minister of Kaufbeuren in 1723. In 1731 he was + elected a member of the Academy of Sciences at Berlin, and was invited to + Augsburg as pastor and senior minister of the church of St Ulrich. His + chief work, <i>Historia Critica Philosophiae</i>, appeared at Leipzig (5 + vols., 1742-1744). Its success was such that a new edition <!-- Page 678 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page678"></a>[v.04 p.0678]</span>was + published in six volumes (1766-1767; English translation by W. Enfield, + 1791). It is by this work alone that Brucker is now known. Its merit + consists entirely in the ample collection of materials. He also wrote + <i>Tentamen Introductionis in Historiam Doctrinae de Ideis</i>, + afterwards completed and republished under the title of <i>Historia + Philosophicae Doctrinae de Ideis</i> (Augsburg, 1723); <i>Otium + Vindelicum</i> (1731); <i>Kurze Fragen aus der philosophischen + Historie</i> (7 vols., Ulm, 1731-1736), a history of philosophy in + question and answer, containing many details, especially in the + department of literary history, which he omitted in his chief work; + <i>Pinacotheca Scriptorum nostra aetate literis illustrium, &c.</i> + (Augsburg, 1741-1755); <i>Ehrentempel der deutschen Gelehrsamkeit</i> + (Augsburg, 1747-1749); <i>Institutiones Historiae Philosophicae</i> + (Leipzig, 1747 and 1756; 3rd ed. with a continuation by F.G.B. Born + (1743-1807) of Leipzig, in 1790); <i>Miscellanea Historiae Philosophicae + Literariae Criticae olim sparsim edita</i> (Augsburg, 1748); <i>Erste + Anfangsgrunde der philosophischen Geschichte</i> (Ulm, 1751). He + superintended an edition of Luther's translation of the Old and New + Testament, with a commentary extracted from the writings of the English + theologians (Leipzig, 1758-1770, completed by W.A. Teller). He died at + Augsburg in 1770.</p> + + <p><b>BRÜCKMANN, FRANZ ERNST</b> (1697-1753), German mineralogist, was + born on the 27th of September 1697 at Marienthal near Helmstädt. Having + qualified as a medical man in 1721, he practised at Brunswick and + afterwards at Wolfenbüttel. His leisure time was given up to natural + history, and especially to mineralogy and botany. He appears to have been + the first to introduce the term <i>oolithus</i> to rocks that resemble in + structure the roe of a fish; whence the terms oolite and oolitic. He died + at Wolfenbüttel on the 21st of March 1753. He published <i>Magnalia Dei + in locis subterraneis</i> (Brunswick, 1727), <i>Historia naturalis + curiosa lapidis</i> (1727), and <i>Thesaurus subterraneus Ducatus + Brunsvigii</i> (1728).</p> + + <p><b>BRUCKNER, ANTON</b> (1824-1896), Austrian musical composer, was + born on the 4th of September 1824 at Ansfelden in upper Austria. He + successfully competed for the organistship for Linz Cathedral in 1855. In + 1867 he succeeded his former master of counterpoint, Sechter, as organist + of the <i>Hofkapelle</i> in Vienna, and also became professor in the + conservatorium. In 1875 he was appointed to a lectureship in the + university. His most striking talent was shown in his extemporizations on + the organ. His success in an organ competition at Nancy in 1869 led to + his playing in Paris and London (six recitals at the Albert Hall, 1871). + His permanent reputation, however, rests on his compositions, especially + his nine symphonies. In these gigantic efforts the influence of Wagner is + paramount in almost every feature of harmony and orchestration; and if + sustained seriousness of purpose and style were all that was necessary to + give coherence to works in which these influences are stultified by the + rhythmic uniformities of an experienced <i>improvisatore</i> and the + impressions of classical form as taught in schools, then Bruckner would + certainly have been what the extreme Wagnerian party called him, the + symphonic successor of Beethoven, or the Wagner of the symphony. But + their lack of organization and proportion, to say nothing of humour, will + always make their revival a somewhat severe task. No composer has ever + been more consistent to lofty ideals, though few who have ever had an + ideal have shown less adroitness in their methods of embodying it. The + most poetic and admired feature of his style is a slow growth to a + gigantic climax, slow enough and gigantic enough for any situation in + Wagner's <i>Nibelungen</i> tetralogy. The symphonies in which these + climaxes occur are in obviously unskilful classical form, with only an + outward appearance of freedom; and the Great Pyramid would hardly be more + out of place in an Oxford quadrangle than Bruckner's climaxes in his + four-movement symphonies with their "second subjects" and + recapitulations. Nor is it likely that Bruckner would have been much more + successful in handling these gigantic things in their legitimate + Wagnerian dramatic environment, for even in his last three symphonies he + hardly ever frees himself from the trammels of square rhythm; and, as he + accepts the classical sonata-forms without inquiry into their meaning or + relevance, so he accepts the Wagnerian stage orchestra in its minutest + details, without inquiry as to its relevance for the purposes and + acoustics of the concert-room, and with the same lack of sense of relief + that ruins the balance of his rhythmic periods. So unsophisticated a + temperament may be not unpoetical, but it is eminently undramatic, as + well as unsymphonic. Of Bruckner's choral works, which include three + masses and several psalms and motets, the most famous is the <i>Te + Deum</i> (1885?),<a name="FnAnchor_211" + href="#Footnote_211"><sup>[1]</sup></a> which shows his characteristic + power in massive effect. Bruckner wished this to be appended to the three + complete movements of his 9th symphony, which his last illness (ending in + his death at Vienna on the 11th of October 1896) prevented him from + finishing. This 9th symphony is designed, with characteristic + tactlessness and simplicity, to follow Beethoven's 9th symphony in every + possible point which could challenge comparison; in key (D minor), + opening (mysterious tremolo leading to tremendous unison <i>tutti</i>), + contrasts (return in first movement) and choral finale. The three + complete movements were first performed in Vienna in 1903, and have done + more for Bruckner's fame than anything since the production in 1884 of + his 7th symphony (of which the slow movement is an elegy on the death of + Wagner). It is probable that the impression produced by this 9th symphony + is the deeper as owing little or nothing to the musical politics which + had gone far to prevent the 7th symphony from standing on its own + unmistakable merits. It does not, however, seem likely that Bruckner's + work will have much influence on musical progress; for the modern + characteristics in which its strength lies are obviously better realized + in other forms which have often been handled successfully by composers + greatly Bruckner's inferiors both in invention and sincerity.</p> + + <p>(D. F. T.)</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_211" href="#FnAnchor_211">[1]</a> This date is given + in Grove (new ed.), but the style of the work is far earlier than that of + the 7th symphony (1884) which quotes it in the slow movement.</p> + +</div> + <p><b>BRUGES</b> (Flemish <i>Brugge</i>, a name signifying the bridge or + place of bridges), the capital of West Flanders, Belgium. Pop. (1904) + 53,728. The city contains some of the finest monuments of the great + period of the Flemish communes, while its medieval appearance is better + preserved, as a whole, than in the case of any other Belgian city. The + cathedral of St Sauveur and the church of Notre-Dame, both specimens of + early Pointed Gothic, date from the 13th and 14th centuries. Both are + full of interest, but the cathedral was much injured by fire in 1839. The + interior, however, is finely proportioned and exhibits beautiful modern + polychrome decorations, numerous pictures and interesting monumental + brasses. The church of Notre-Dame contains a fine De Crayer (The + Adoration of the Magi), Michelangelo's marble group of the Virgin and + Child, and the fine monuments with gilded copper effigies of Charles the + Bold and his daughter, Mary of Burgundy. The hospital of St Jean, where + the sick have been cared for since the 12th century, contains the chief + works of Memling, including the famous reliquary of St Ursula. The + market-hall was built in 1561-1566 on the site of an older building, some + portions of which were utilized in its successor. The belfry which rises + in the centre of the façade dates from the end of the 13th century; it + has long been famous for its chime of bells, but the civic fathers have + caused modern airs to be substituted for the old hymn. The hôtel de + ville, the Chapelle du Saint-Sang and the church of St Jacques are all of + interest. The first is Gothic and was begun about 1376. The second is a + chapel of two storeys, the lower dating from 1150, while the upper was + rebuilt in the 15th century, and there is a rich Flamboyant entrance with + a stairway (1533). St Jacques' church is a foundation of the 13th + century, but has extensive additions of the close of the 15th and 17th + centuries. The Palais de Justice, of the 18th century, on the site of the + House of the Franc—the outside burghers of the Franc district + admitted to the full privileges of citizenship—contains a fine + carved chimney-piece (1530). The house is supposed to have formed part of + the residence of the counts of Flanders. There are numerous other + buildings of minor antiquarian interest; the fine museum contains a + representative gallery of early Flemish paintings; and of the old + fortifications three gates remain. The <!-- Page 679 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page679"></a>[v.04 p.0679]</span>manufacture of + lace now gives employment to at least 6000 persons in the town, and + horticulture is carried on extensively in the suburbs. Commercial + activity has been assisted by the new ship-canal to Zeebrugge, and by + direct steamship service from Hull to Bruges. The steady growth of the + population is evidence of increased prosperity. In 1880 the population + was only 44,500, but it had risen in 1900 to 51,657 and in 1904 it was + 53,728.</p> + + <p>Bruges is said to have been a city in the 7th century, and the name + Flanders was originally applied to it and not to the district. Baldwin + II., count of Flanders, who married Elstrud, daughter of Alfred the + Great, first fortified it, and made it his chief residence. Before the + year 1180 Bruges was the recognized capital of Flanders, and the + formality of proclaiming the new counts was always performed on the + <i>marché du vendredi</i>, where the railway station is to-day. After + 1180 the premier position was assumed by Ghent, but until access by sea + was stopped by the silting up of the Zwyn, which was complete by the year + 1490, Bruges was the equal in wealth and power of its neighbour. Proof of + this is supplied by the marriage festivities in 1430, when Philip the + Good, duke of Burgundy, wedded Isabel of Portugal, and founded the famous + order of the Golden Fleece out of compliment to the staple industry of + Bruges. Bruges was at the height of its prosperity in the 14th century, + when it was the northern counterpart of Venice and its Bourse regulated + the rate of exchange in Europe.</p> + + <p>(D. C. B.)</p> + + <p><b>BRUGSCH, HEINRICH KARL</b> (1827-1894), German Egyptologist, was + the son of a Prussian cavalry officer, and was born in the barracks at + Berlin, on the 18th of February 1827. He early manifested a great + inclination to Egyptian studies, in which, though encouraged by Humboldt, + he was almost entirely self-taught. After completing his university + course and visiting foreign museums he was sent to Egypt by the Prussian + government in 1853, and contracted an intimate friendship with Mariette. + On his return he received an appointment in the Berlin museum. In 1860 he + was sent to Persia on a special mission under Baron Minutoli, travelled + over the country, and after Minutoli's death discharged the functions of + ambassador. In 1864 he was consul at Cairo, in 1868 professor at + Gõttingen, and in 1870 director of the school of Egyptology, founded at + Cairo by the khedive. From this post he was unceremoniously dismissed in + 1879 by the European controllers of the public revenues, determined to + economize at all hazards; and French influence prevented his succeeding + his friend Mariette at the Bulaq Museum in 1883. He afterwards resided + principally in Germany until his death on the 9th of September 1894, but + frequently visited Egypt, took part in another official mission to + Persia, and organized an Egyptian exhibit at the Philadelphia Exposition + in 1876. He had been made a pasha by the khedive in 1881. He published + his autobiography in 1894, concluding with a warm panegyric upon British + rule in Egypt. Brugsch's services to Egyptology are most important, + particularly in the decipherment of demotic and the making of a vast + hieroglyphic-demotic dictionary (1867-1882).</p> + + <p>See H. Brugsch, <i>Mein Leben und mein Wandern</i>, also art. <span + class="sc">Egypt</span>, section <i>Language and Writing</i>.</p> + + <p><b>BRÜHL, HEINRICH,</b> <span class="sc">Count von</span> (1700-1763), + German statesman at the court of Saxony, was born on the 13th of August + 1700. He was the son of Johann Moritz von Brühl, a noble who held the + office of <i>Oberhofmarschall</i> at the small court of + Sachsen-Weissenfels. The father was ruined and compelled to part with his + family estate, which passed into the hands of the prince. The son was + first placed as page with the dowager duchess of Weissenfels, and was + then received at her recommendation into the court of the elector of + Saxony as <i>Silberpage</i> on the 16th of April 1719. He rapidly + acquired the favour of the elector Frederick Augustus, surnamed the + Strong, who had been elected to the throne of Poland in 1697. Brühl, who + began as page and chamberlain, was largely employed in procuring money + for his profuse master. He made himself useful in muzzling the Saxon + states and was successively chief receiver of taxes and minister for the + interior in 1731. He was at Warsaw when his master died in 1733, and he + secured a hold on the confidence of the electoral prince, Frederick + Augustus, who was at Dresden, by laying hands on the papers and jewels of + the late ruler and bringing them promptly to his successor. During the + whole of the thirty years of the reign of Frederick Augustus II. he was + the real inspirer of his master and the practical chief of the Saxon + court. He had for a time to put up with the presence of old servants of + the electoral house, but after 1738 he was in effect sole minister. The + title of prime minister was created for him in 1746, but he was not only + a prime minister—he filled all the offices. His titles spread over + several lines of print, and he drew the combined pay of the places + besides securing huge grants of land. Brühl must therefore be held wholly + responsible for the ruinous policy which destroyed the position of Saxony + in Germany between 1733 and 1763; for the mistaken ambition which led + Frederick Augustus II. to become a candidate for the throne of Poland; + for the engagements into which he entered in order to secure the support + of the emperor Charles VI.; for the shameless and ill-timed + tergiversations of Saxony during the wars of the Austrian Succession; for + the intrigues which entangled the electorate in the alliance against + Frederick the Great, which led to the Seven Years' War; and for the waste + and want of foresight which left the country utterly unprepared to resist + the attack of the king of Prussia. He was not only without political or + military capacity, but was so garrulous that he could not keep a secret. + His indiscretion was repeatedly responsible for the king of Prussia's + discoveries of the plans laid against him. Nothing could shake the + confidence of his master, which survived the ignominious flight into + Bohemia, into which he was trapped by Brühl at the time of the battle of + Kesseldorf, and all the miseries of the Seven Years' War. The favourite + abused the confidence of his master shamelessly. Not content with the + 67,000 talers a month which he drew as salary for his innumerable + offices, he was found when an inquiry was held in the next reign to have + abstracted more than five million talers of public money for his private + use. He left the work of the government offices to be done by his + lackeys, whom he did not even supervise. His profusion was boundless. + Twelve tailors, it is said, were continually employed in making clothes + for him, and he wore a new suit every day. His library of 70,000 volumes + was one of his forms of ostentation, and so was his gallery of pictures. + He died on the 28th of October 1763, having survived his master only for + a few weeks. The new elector, Frederick Christian, dismissed him from + office and caused an inquiry to be held into his administration. His + fortune was found to amount to a million and a half of talers, and was + sequestered but afterwards restored to his family. In 1736 he had been + made a count of the Empire and had married the countess Franziska von + Kolowrat-Kradowska, a favourite of the wife of Frederick Augustus. Four + sons and a daughter survived him.</p> + + <p>His youngest son, Hans Moritz von Brühl (d. 1811), was before the + Revolution of 1789 a colonel in the French service, and afterwards + general inspector of roads in Brandenburg and Pomerania. By his wife + Margarethe Schleierweber, the daughter of a French corporal, but renowned + for her beauty and intellectual gifts, he was the father of Karl + Friedrich Moritz Paul von Brühl (1772-1837), the friend of Goethe, who as + intendant-general of the Prussian royal theatres was of some importance + in the history of the development of the drama in Germany. In 1830 he was + appointed intendant-general of the royal museums.</p> + + <p>See J. G. H. von Justi, <i>Leben und Charakter des Grafen von + Brühl</i> (Göttingen, 1760-1761).</p> + + <p><b>BRÜHL,</b> a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, 8 m. + S.W. from Cologne on the main railway to Coblenz. Pop. (1900) 5000. Its + pleasant situation at the foot of one of the spurs of the Eifel range and + the beautiful grounds surrounding the royal palace render it a favourite + resort of the inhabitants of Cologne. The palace, in Renaissance style, + built in 1728 by Clement Augustus, elector of Cologne (1700-1761), was + from 1809 until 1813 in the possession of the French marshal Davout, and + in 1842 was restored by King Frederick William IV. of Prussia.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 680 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page680"></a>[v.04 p.0680]</span></p> + + <p><b>BRUMAIRE,</b> the name of the second month in the republican + calendar which was established in France by a decree of the National + Convention on the 5th of October in the year II. (1793), completed with + regard to nomenclature by Fabre d'Églantine, and promulgated in its new + form on the 4th of Frimaire in the year II. (the 24th of November 1793). + The month of Brumaire began on the day which corresponded, according to + the year, to the 22nd or to the 23rd of October of the old calendar, and + ended on the 20th or 21st of November, It was divided into "decades" like + the other months of the republican calendar. Its name alludes to the fogs + and mists frequent at that time of the year. The most important event in + French history which took place during that month was the <i>coup + d'état</i> of the 18th Brumaire in the year VIII. (the 9th of November + 1799), by which General Bonaparte overthrew the government of the + Directory to replace it by the Consulate.</p> + + <p>On the republican calendar, see G. Villain, "Le Calendrier + républicain," in <i>La Révolution française</i> for 1884-1885.</p> + + <p><b>BRUMATH,</b> or <span class="sc">Brumpt</span>, a town of Germany, + in the imperial territory of Alsace-Lorraine, on the Zorn and the + Strassburg-Avricourt railway. Pop. 5500. It has a Roman Catholic and a + Protestant church, and occupies the site of the Roman Brocomagus. Its + industries comprise tanning and saw-milling, and it has some trade in + wine and tobacco and hops.</p> + + <p><b>BRUMMAGEM</b> (an old local form of "Birmingham"), a name first + applied to a counterfeit coin made in the city of Birmingham, England, in + the I7th century, and later to the plated and imitation articles made + there; hence cheap, showy or tawdry. The name was particularly used of + the supporters of the Exclusion Bill in 1680, with the meaning of "sham + Protestant." Similarly the Tory opponents of the Bill were nicknamed + "Anti-Birminghams" or "Brummagems."</p> + + <p><b>BRUMMELL, GEORGE BRYAN</b> (1778-1840), English man of fashion, + known as "<span class="sc">Beau Brummell</span>," was born in London on + the 7th of June 1778. His father was private secretary to Lord North from + 1770 to 1782, and subsequently high sheriff of Berkshire; his grandfather + was a shopkeeper in the parish of St James, who supplemented his income + by letting lodgings to the aristocracy. From his early years George + Brummell paid great attention to his dress. At Eton, where he was sent to + school in 1790, and was extremely popular, he was known as Buck Brummell, + and at Oxford, where he spent a brief period as an undergraduate of Oriel + College, he preserved this reputation, and added to it that of a wit and + good story-teller, while the fact that he was second for the Newdigate + prize is evidence of his literary capacity. Before he was sixteen, + however, he left Oxford, for London, where the prince of Wales + (afterwards George IV.), to whom he had been presented at Eton, and who + had been told that Brummell was a highly amusing fellow, gave him a + commission in his own regiment (1794). Brummell soon became intimate with + his patron—indeed he was so constantly in the prince's company that + he is reported not to have known his own regimental troop. In 1798, + having then reached the rank of captain, he left the service, and next + year succeeded to a fortune of about £30,000. Setting up a bachelor + establishment in Mayfair, he became, thanks to the prince of Wales's + friendship and his own good taste in dress, the recognized <i>arbiter + elegantiarum</i>. His social success was instant and complete, his + repartees were the talk of the town, and, if not accurately speaking a + wit, he had a remarkable talent for presenting the most ordinary + circumstances in an amusing light. Though he always dressed well, he was + no mere fop—Lord Byron is credited with the remark that there was + nothing remarkable about his dress save "a certain exquisite propriety." + For a time Brummell's sway was undisputed. But eventually gambling and + extravagance exhausted his fortune, while his tongue proved too sharp for + his royal patron. They quarrelled, and though for a time Brummell + continued to hold his place in society, his popularity began to decline. + In 1816 he fled to Calais to avoid his creditors. Here he struggled on + for fourteen years, receiving help from time to time from his friends in + England, but always hopelessly in debt. In 1830 the interest of these + friends secured him the post of British consul at Caen, to which a + moderate salary was attached, but two years later the office was + abolished. In 1835 Brummell's French creditors in Calais and Caen lost + patience and he was imprisoned, but his friends once more came to the + rescue, paid his debts and provided him with a small income. He had now + lost all his interest in dress; his personal appearance was slovenly and + dirty. In 1837, after two attacks of paralysis, shelter was found for him + in the charitable asylum of Bon Sauveur, Caen, where he died on the 30th + of March 1840.</p> + + <p>See Captain William Jesse, <i>Life of Brummell</i> (London, 1844, + revised edition 1886); Percy H. Fitzgerald, <i>Life of George IV</i>. + (London, 1881); R. Boutet de Monvel, <i>Beau Brummel</i> (trans. + 1908).</p> + + <p><b>BRUNCK, RICHARD FRANÇOIS PHILIPPE</b> (1729-1803), French classical + scholar, was born at Strassburg on the 30th of December 1729. He was + educated at the Jesuits' College at Paris, and took part in the Seven + Years' War as military commissary. At the age of thirty he returned to + his native town and resumed his studies, paying special attention to + Greek. He spent considerable sums of money in publishing editions of the + Greek classics. The first work which he edited was the <i>Anthologia + Graeca</i> or <i>Analecta veterum Poetarum Graecorum</i> (1772-1776), in + which his innovations on the established mode of criticism startled + European scholars; for wherever it seemed to him that an obscure or + difficult passage might be made intelligible and easy by a change of + text, he did not scruple to make the necessary alterations, whether the + new reading were supported by manuscript authority or not. Other works by + him are:—Editions of Anacreon (1778), several plays of the Greek + tragedians, Apollonius Rhodius (1780), Aristophanes, with an excellent + Latin translation (1781-1783), <i>Gnomici poetae Graeci</i> (1784), + Sophocles (1786), with Latin translation, his best work, for which he + received a pension of 2000 francs from the king. He also published + editions of Virgil (1785), Plautus (1788) and Terence (1797). At the + outbreak of the French Revolution, in which he took an active part, he + was imprisoned at Besançon, and lost his pension, being reduced to such + extremities that he was obliged to sell a portion of his library. In 1802 + his pension was restored to him, but too late to prevent the sale of the + remainder of his books. He died on the 12th of June 1803.</p> + + <p><b>BRUNDISIUM</b> (Gr. <span title="Brentesion" class="grk" + >Βρεντέσιον</span>, + mod. <i>Brindisi</i>), an important harbour town of Calabria (in the + ancient sense), Italy, on the E.S.E. coast. The name is said to mean + "stag's head" in the Messapian dialect, in allusion to the shape of the + harbour. Tradition varies as to its founders; but we find it hostile to + Tarentum, and in friendly relations with Thurii. With a fertile territory + round it, it became the most important city of the Messapians, but it was + developed by the Romans, into whose hands it only came after the conquest + of the Sallentini in 266 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> They founded a + colony there in 245 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, and the Via Appia was + perhaps extended through Tarentum as far as Brundisium at this period. + Pacuvius was born here about 220 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> After the + Punic Wars it became the chief point of embarkation for Greece and the + East, via Dyrrachium or Corcyra. In the Social War it received Roman + citizenship, and was made a free port by Sulla. It suffered, however, + from a siege conducted by Caesar in 49 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> + (<i>Bell. Civ.</i> i.) and was again attacked in 42 and 40 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> Virgil died here in 19 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> on his return from Greece. Trajan constructed + the Via Trajana, a more direct route from Beneventum to Brundisium. The + remains of ancient buildings are unimportant, though a considerable + number of antiquities, especially inscriptions, have been discovered + here: one column 62 ft. in height, with an ornate capital, still stands, + and near it is the base of another, the column itself having been removed + to Lecce. They are said to have marked the termination of the Via + Appia.</p> + + <p>See Ch. Hülsen in Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Realencyclopädie</i>, iii. (1899), + 902; <i>Notizie degli Scavi</i>, passim. Also <span + class="sc">Brindisi</span>.</p> + + <p>(<span class="sc">T. As.</span>)</p> + + <p><b>BRUNE, GUILLAUME MARIE ANNE</b> (1763-1815), marshal of France, the + son of an advocate, was born at Brives-la-Gaillarde (Corrèze), on the + 13th of March 1763. Before the Revolution he went to Paris to study law, + and here he became a political journalist, a Jacobin and a friend of + Danton. He was appointed <!-- Page 681 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page681"></a>[v.04 p.0681]</span>in 1793 to a superior command in + the army direct from civil life, and as a general of brigade he took part + in the fighting of the 13th Vendémiaire. In 1796 he fought under + Bonaparte in Italy, and was promoted general of division for good service + in the field. In 1798 he commanded the French army which occupied + Switzerland, and in the following year he was in command of the French + troops in Holland. His defence of Amsterdam against the Anglo-Russian + expedition under the duke of York was completely successful; the invaders + were defeated, and compelled, after a miserable retreat, to re-embark. He + rendered further good service in Vendée and in Italy, and was made a + marshal by Napoleon on the assumption by the latter of the imperial title + in 1804. In 1807 Brune held a command in North Germany, but he was not + afterwards employed during the First Empire. It is said that he was + accused of venality, and on that account disgraced, but of this there is + no proof. He was recalled to active service during the Hundred Days, and + as commander of the army of the Var he defended the south of France + against the Austrians. He was murdered by royalists during the White + Terror at Avignon on the 2nd of August 1815.</p> + + <p>See <i>Notice historique sur la vie politique et militaire du maréchal + Brune</i> (Paris, 1821), and Vermeil de Conchard, <i>L'Assassinat du + maréchal Brune</i> (Paris, 1887).</p> + + <p><b>BRUNEAU, ALFRED</b> (1857- ), French musical composer, was born in + Paris. His parents were devoted to music, and he was brought up to play + the 'cello, being educated at the Paris Conservatoire. He played in + Pasdeloup's orchestra, and soon began to compose, writing a cantata, + <i>Geneviève de Paris</i>, at an early age. In 1884 his <i>Ouverture + héroïque</i> was performed, followed by the choral symphonies, + <i>Léda</i> (1884), <i>La Belle au bois dormant</i> (1886) and + <i>Penthésilée</i>. But he is best known as a dramatic composer. In 1887 + his first opera, <i>Kérim</i>, was produced; and in 1891 his successful + opera <i>Le Rêve</i>, with a libretto founded on Zola's story. Another + subject from Zola resulted in the opera <i>L'Attaque du moulin</i> + (1893), and libretti by Zola himself were written for his next operas + <i>Messidor</i> (1897) and <i>L'Ouragan</i> (1901). Among Bruneau's other + works may be mentioned his <i>Requiem</i> (1896), and his two collections + of songs, <i>Lieds de France</i> and <i>Chansons à danser</i>. He was + decorated with the Legion of Honour in 1895. His musical criticisms, + published in several volumes, are remarkable for literary quality and + vigour.</p> + + <p>See Arthur Hervey's volume on Bruneau (1907).</p> + + <p><b>BRUNEI,</b> a state situated in the north-west of Borneo. It has + been so diminished in area since the beginning of the 19th century as to + have become in comparison with the other states of Borneo territorially + insignificant. It formerly included the whole of northern Borneo and + southern Palawan, and stretched down the west coast as far as Sambas. + What remains of this once powerful sultanate is a triangular-shaped + territory, the base of the triangle being represented by 80 m. of + coast-line, and the two sides by the frontiers of Sarawak. The area is + calculated to be about 1700 sq. m. This great reduction of the extent of + the territory has been brought about by the cession on successive + occasions of strips of territory to Sarawak and to the British North + Borneo Company on condition of annual payments of money. In 1888 the + state was placed under British protection. On the 2nd of January 1906 a + treaty was made whereby the sultan of Brunei agreed to hand over the + general administration of his state to a British resident. The sultan + Mahommed Jomal-ul-alam, born in 1889, succeeded his father in May 1906. + He receives an allowance of 12,000 dollars a year from state funds, and + his two principal ministers receive allowances of 6000 dollars a year + each. The interior people have for centuries been subject to petty + oppression, and there is too much of the old spirit left among the Malays + to avoid acrimonious dispute and rebellion.</p> + + <p>The bulk of the inhabitants, who consist of Malays, Kadayans, Orang + Bukits and a few Muruts, are to be found in and about the + capital—also called Brunei—the population of the city being + estimated at about 15,000, and the population of the whole territory + being about 25,000. The city is prettily situated on the river, with a + background of cleared hills, and in the distance heights clothed with + magnificent forest. The dwelling-houses are built over the river on + slender piles obtained from the Nibong palm which resists the action of + the water for several years. Though there are practically no exports and + imports, there is a certain amount of inland commerce, the Brunei Malay + usually earning a living by trading with the interior tribes of Sarawak + and British North Borneo. Some of them are skilled workers of brass, and + the Brunei women make very beautiful cloth, interwoven and embroidered + with gold thread. Sago is worked in the important river-valleys of the + Tutong and the Balait, but only a small quantity of rice is + cultivated.</p> + + <p>The history of this ancient and decaying sultanate is of some + interest. Brunei, or, as it is called by the natives Bruni or + Dar-ul-Salam (city of peace), possesses a historic tablet of stone upon + which, in <span class="scac">A.H.</span> 1221 (1804), was engraved in + Malay characters the genealogy of the sovereigns who have ruled over the + country. The engraving was the work of Datu Imaum Yakub, the high priest + at the time, who received the genealogy from the lips of Merhoum Bongsu, + otherwise Sultan Muadin, and Sultan Kemal-Udin, who ordered this record + of their forefathers to be written. This stone tablet now stands on the + tomb of Sultan Mahommed Jemal-ul-Alam at the foot of Panggal hill, in the + city of Brunei. The Selesilah, or book of descent, is kept in the palace + by the sultan. The other heirlooms, which are also kept in the sultan's + palace, and which descend to each sultan in turn, are the "Nobab Nagara" + (two royal drums) from Johore and Menang-Kabau, and the "Gunta Alamat" + (bells), the gift of Sultan Bahkei of Johore or Malacca. The first sultan + of Brunei was Alak-ber-Tata, who was probably of Bisaya stock, and + governed the country before the introduction of Islam, in the 15th + century. He assumed the name of Mahommed on his conversion to Islam, + which was brought about during a visit to the Malay peninsula. Brunei, at + this time, was a dependency of Majapahit (Java), and paid a yearly + tribute of a jar of areca juice obtained from the young green nuts of the + areca palm, and of no monetary value. The Hindu kingdom of Menjapahit was + destroyed by the Mahommedans in 1478, and Brunei is mentioned in the + history of Java as one of the countries conquered by Adaya Mingrat, the + general of Angka Wijaya. Sultan Mahommed's only child was a daughter. His + brother Akhmed married the daughter of Ong Chum Ping, a Chinese officer + said to have been sent by his emperor to obtain a jewel from Mount + Kinabalu in North Borneo, and was the successor of Sultan Mahommed in the + sovereignty of Brunei. He was succeeded by Sultan Berkat, an Arab sherif + of high rank, from the country of Taif in Arabia, who had married Sultan + Akhmed's only child. Sultan Berkat built a mosque and enforced Mahommedan + law, and with the assistance of the Chinese built the stone wall, which + is still in existence between the islands of Kaya Orang and Chermin, by + sinking forty junks filled with rock across the mouth of the Brunei + river. This work was completed before the arrival of Pigafetta in 1521. + In the reign of Sultan Bulkeiah Magellan's squadron anchored off the + mouth of Brunei river in August 1521, and Pigafetta makes mention of the + splendid court and the imperial magnificence of the Borneo capital. + Sultan Bulkeiah was otherwise known as Nakoda Ragam; he was the greatest + warrior of Brunei and made military expeditions to Java, Malacca, Luzon + and all the coasts of Borneo. His tomb, which is handsomely built of + stone, is still to be seen in Brunei, and is constantly visited by + Malays, who leave money and various articles on the tomb as offerings to + his memory. Others, again, come and take away anything they can find, + which they keep as charms and mementoes. The Spaniards captured Brunei in + 1580, the reigning sultan and his court retiring to Suai in the Baram + district. The invaders were compelled to evacuate the place, however, in + consequence of the heavy losses they sustained in the numerous attempts + made for its recovery. The golden age of Brunei was nevertheless at an + end, and there is little more of importance to record. Disputed + successions and civil war, maladministration and the untrustworthiness of + the Malay character, caused a steady decline in prosperity. The East + India Company started a factory in the town in the 18th century, but + commerce had already decayed and the establishment was abandoned. In the + early part of the 19th centuiy Brunei was but <!-- Page 682 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page682"></a>[v.04 p.0682]</span>a resort for + pirates and a market for the slave trade. During the 'forties Admiral + (then Captain) Keppel and other officers of the British navy suppressed + piracy in the neighbourhood. Sarawak was handed over to Raja Brooke, and, + after the capture and temporary occupation of Brunei by Sir Thomas + Cochrane, Labuan was ceded to the British empire. From this island it was + possible to exercise a certain control over the townspeople, and a consul + was stationed there to watch affairs. Nowadays the political consequence + of Brunei largely arises from the existence there of valuable seams of + coal, leased to the Sarawak government.</p> + + <p>(C. H.)</p> + + <p><b>BRUNEL, ISAMBARD KINGDOM</b> (1806-1859), English engineer, only + son of Sir M.I. Brunel, was born at Portsmouth on the 9th of April 1806. + He displayed in childhood singular powers of mental calculation, great + skill and rapidity as a draughtsman, and a true feeling for art. At the + age of fourteen he was sent to Paris, to study at the Collège Henri + Quatre. In 1823 he entered his father's office as assistant-engineer, + just at the time when the project of the Thames Tunnel was beginning to + take shape; and during the later portion of the time, from 1825, when the + work was begun, till 1828, when it was stopped by an irruption of the + river, he was both nominal and actual resident engineer. In November 1829 + he sent in designs and plans for the projected suspension bridge over the + Avon at Clifton, but in consequence of objections raised by Thomas + Telford, the referee of the bridge committee, his plans were rejected. + But a new design which he sent in on a second competition in 1831 was + accepted, and he was appointed engineer. The works were begun in 1836, + but owing to lack of funds were not completed until 1864, after Brunel's + death; his design, however, was closely adhered to, and the chains + employed came from the old Hungerford suspension bridge (London), which + he had built in 1841-1845, but which was displaced in 1862 by the Charing + Cross railway bridge.</p> + + <p>In March 1833 Brunel, at the age of twenty-seven, was appointed + engineer of the newly-projected Great Western railway. For several years + his energies were taxed to the utmost by the conflict with obstructive + landowners and short-sighted critics; but he showed himself equal to the + occasion, not only as a professional man, but as a persuasive negotiator. + Among the engineering triumphs on that railway are the Hanwell viaduct, + the Maidenhead bridge and the Box tunnel, at the time the longest in the + world. The famous "battle of the gauges" took its rise from his + introduction of the broad (7 ft.) gauge on that line. In 1846 he resigned + his office as engineer of the Great Western railway. In 1844 he had + recommended the adoption of the atmospheric system on the South Devon + railway, but after a year's trial the system was abandoned. The last and + greatest of Brunel's railway works was the Royal Albert bridge over the + river Tamar at Saltash. This work, sanctioned by parliament in 1845, was + constructed between 1853 and 1859.</p> + + <p>In addition to the arduous labours of railway engineering Brunel took + a leading part in the systematic development of ocean steam navigation. + As early as October 1835 he had suggested to the directors of the Great + Western railway, that they should "make it longer, and have a steamboat + to go from Bristol to New York, and call it the 'Great Western.'" The + project was taken up, and the "Great Western" steamship was designed by + Brunel, and built at Bristol under his superintendence. It was much + longer than any steamer of the day, and was the first steamship built to + make regular voyages across the Atlantic. While the vessel was building a + controversy was raised about the practicability of Brunel's scheme, Dr D. + Lardner asserting dogmatically that the voyage could not be made, and + backing his assertion with an array of figures. His view was widely + accepted, but the work went on, and the voyage was accomplished in 1838. + Brunel at once undertook a still larger design in the "Great Britain," + which was the first large iron steamship, the largest ship afloat at that + time, and the first large ship in which the screw-propeller was used. She + made her first voyage from Liverpool to New York in August and September + 1845; but in the following year was carelessly run upon the rocks in + Dundrum Bay on the coast of Ireland. After lying there nearly a year + without material damage she was got off and was employed in the + Australian trade. Brunel soon after began to meditate a still vaster + project, the construction of a vessel large enough to carry all the coal + required for a long voyage out, and if coal could not be had at the out + port, then to carry enough also for the return voyage. It seemed to him, + further, that a great increase of size would give many advantages for + navigation. During his connexion as engineer with the Australian Mail + Company he worked out into a practical shape his conception of a "great + ship"; and in 1852 his scheme was laid before the directors of the + Eastern Steam Navigation Company. It was adopted, the projector being + appointed engineer, and after much time occupied about contracts and + specifications the work was begun in December 1853. Immense difficulties + in the progress of construction caused delays from time to time. The + operation of launching was several times attempted in vain; but at length + the gigantic vessel, the "Great Eastern," was got afloat on the 31st of + January 1858. Much remained to be done to complete the ship; and her + engineer, overworked and worn out with worry, broke down and did not see + her begin her first voyage on the 7th of September 1859. On the 5th he + was brought home from the ship suffering from a paralytic stroke, and on + the 15th he died at his house in Westminster.</p> + + <p>In addition to the great works already described, Brunel was employed + in the construction of many docks and piers, as at Monkwearmouth, + Bristol, Plymouth, Briton Ferry, Brentford and Milford Haven. He was a + zealous promoter of the Great Exhibition of 1851, and was a member of the + committee on the section of machinery and of the building committee. He + paid much attention to the improvement of large guns, and designed a + floating gun-carriage for the attack on Kronstadt in the Russian War + (1854); he also designed and superintended the construction of the + hospital buildings at Erenkeni on the Dardanelles (1855). He was elected + a fellow of the Royal Society in 1830, and in 1858 declined the + presidency of the Institution of Civil Engineers through ill-health. He + received the degree of D.C.L. from Oxford in 1857. In his work he was + singularly free from professional jealousy, and was always ready to + commend and help others, though, himself a man of remarkable industry and + energy, he demanded a high standard of faithful service from his + subordinates.</p> + + <p>See <i>The Life of I.K. Brunel, C.E.</i> (1870), by his son, Isambard + Brunel.</p> + + <p><b>BRUNEL, SIR MARC ISAMBARD</b> (1769-1849), British inventor and + engineer, was born at Hacqueville in Normandy on the 25th of April 1769. + His father, a small landowner and farmer, intended him for the church, + but his taste for mathematics and mechanics inclined him to another + career, and he obtained a nomination for the navy, in which he served for + six years. When his ship was paid off in 1792 and he returned to France, + he found the Revolution at its height, and owing to his pronounced + royalist opinions he was obliged to leave the country. Reaching New York + in September 1793 he began to practise as an architect and civil + engineer. His first employment was in land-surveying and + canal-engineering. Later he submitted a highly ornamental design for the + National Capitol at Washington, which, however, was not accepted, and was + engaged to design and superintend the construction of the Bowery theatre, + New York, burnt down in 1821. He fitted novel and ingenious machinery in + the arsenal and cannon factory which he was commissioned to erect in New + York, and he was asked to supply plans for the defences of the Narrows + between the upper and lower bays of that port. Early in 1799 he sailed + for England in order to submit to the British government his plans for + the mechanical production of ships' blocks, in substitution for the + manual processes then employed. After the usual difficulties and delays + his proposals were adopted, largely through the recommendation of Sir + Samuel Bentham, and about 1803 the erection of his machines was begun at + Portsmouth dockyard. They were constructed by Henry Maudslay, and formed + one of the earliest examples of a complete range of machine tools, each + <!-- Page 683 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page683"></a>[v.04 + p.0683]</span>performing its part in a long series of operations. Not + only was the quality of the product much improved but the cost was + greatly diminished, and the saving effected in the first year in which + the machines were in full work was estimated at £24,000, of which about + two-thirds was awarded to Brunel. A little later he was occupied in + devising improved machines for sawing and bending timber, and in 1811 and + 1812 he was employed by the government in erecting saw-mills at Woolwich + and Chatham, carrying out at the latter dockyard a complete + reorganization of the system for handling timber. About 1812 he devised + machinery for making boots which was adopted for the purposes of the + army, but abandoned a few years later when, owing to the cessation of + war, the demand became less and the supply of manual labour cheaper. At + the same time he interested himself in the establishment of steam + navigation on the Thames between London and Ramsgate. In 1814 he + succeeded in persuading the admiralty to try steam-tugs for towing + warships out to sea. The experiments were made at his own expense, for a + few months after undertaking to contribute to the cost the admiralty + revoked its promise on the ground that the attempt was "too chimerical to + be seriously entertained." Another vain enterprise on which he wasted + much time and money was an attempt to use liquefied gases as a source of + motive power. His round stocking-frame or <i>tricoteur</i> was patented + in 1816, and among his other inventions were machines for winding + cotton-thread into balls, for copying drawings, for making small wooden + boxes such as are used by druggists, and for the manufacture of nails, + together with processes of preparing tinfoil for decorative purposes and + improvements in stereotype plates for printing.</p> + + <p>In 1821, partly as the result of the damage done by fire in 1814 to + the saw-mills he owned at Battersea, and partly because his commercial + abilities were far from equal to his mechanical genius, he got into + financial difficulties and was thrown into prison for debt, only + regaining his freedom through a grant of £5000 which his friends obtained + for him from the government. Subsequently his attention was mainly + devoted to projects of civil engineering, the most noteworthy being the + Thames Tunnel. In 1820 he had prepared plans of bridges for erection in + Rouen and St Petersburg and in the island of Bourbon. In 1823 he designed + swing-bridges, and in 1826 floating landing-stages, for the port of + Liverpool. A company, which was supported by the duke of Wellington, was + formed in 1824 to carry out his scheme for boring a tunnel under the + Thames between Wapping and Rotherhithe. The work was begun at the + beginning of 1825, the excavation being accomplished by the aid of a + "shield," which he had patented in 1818. Many difficulties were + encountered. The river broke through the roof of the tunnel in 1827, and + after a second irruption in 1828 work was discontinued for lack of funds. + Seven years later it was resumed with the aid of money advanced by the + government, and after three more irruptions the tunnel was completed and + opened in 1843. Aided by his son, Brunel displayed extraordinary skill + and resource in the various emergencies with which he had to deal, but + the anxiety broke down his health. He recovered sufficiently from one + paralytic stroke to attend the opening ceremony, but he was able to + undertake little more professional work. A second stroke followed in + 1845, and four years later he died in London on the 12th of December + 1849. He received the order of the Legion of Honour in 1829 and was + knighted in 1841.</p> + + <p>See Richard Beamish, <i>Memoirs of Sir Marc Isambard Brunel</i> + (1862).</p> + + <p><b>BRUNELLESCHI</b> (or <span class="sc">Brunellesco</span>), + <b>FILIPPO</b> (1379-1446), Italian architect, the reviver in Italy of + the Roman or Classic style, was born at Florence in 1379. His father, a + notary, had destined him for his own profession, but observing the boy's + talent for all sorts of mechanism, placed him in the gild of goldsmiths. + Filippo quickly became a skilled workman, and perfected himself in the + knowledge of sculpture, perspective and geometry. He designed some + portions of houses in Florence, and in 1401 he was one of the competitors + for the design of the gates of the baptistery of San Giovanni. He was + unsuccessful, though his work obtained praise, and he soon afterwards set + out for Rome. He studied hard, and resolved to do what he could to revive + the older classical style, which had died out in Italy. Moreover, he was + one of the first to apply the scientific laws of perspective to his work. + In 1407 he returned to Florence, just at the time when it was resolved to + attempt the completion of the cathedral church of Santa Maria del Fiore. + Brunelleschi's plan for effecting this by a cupola was approved, but it + was not till 1419, and after innumerable disputes, that the work was + finally entrusted to him. At first he was hampered by his colleague + Ghiberti, of whom he skilfully got rid. He did not live to see the + completion of his great work, and the lantern on the summit was put up + not altogether in accordance with the instructions and plans left by him. + The great cupola, one of the triumphs of architecture, exceeds in some + measurements that of St Peter's at Rome, and has a more massive and + striking appearance. Besides this masterpiece Brunelleschi executed + numerous other works, among the most remarkable of which are the Pitti + palace at Florence, on the pattern of which are based the Tuscan palaces + of the 15th century, the churches of San Lorenzo and Spirito Santo, and + the still more elegant Capella del Pazza. The beautiful carved crucifix + in the church of Santa Maria Novella in Florence is also the work of + Brunelleschi. He died in Florence on the 16th of April 1446, and was + buried in the cathedral church of his native city.</p> + + <p>See Manetti, <i>Vita di Brunelleschi</i> (Florence, 1812); Guasti, + <i>La cupola di Santa Maria del Fiore</i> (Florence, 1857); von Fabriczy, + <i>Filippo Brunelleschi</i> (Stuttgart, 1892).</p> + + <p><b>BRUNET, JACQUES CHARLES</b> (1780-1867), French bibliographer, was + born in Paris on the 2nd of November 1780. He was the son of a + bookseller, and in 1802 he printed a supplement to the <i>Dictionnaire + bibiographique de livres rares</i> (1790) of Duclos and Cailleau. In 1810 + there appeared the first edition of his <i>Manuel du libraire et de + l'amateur des livres</i> (3 vols.). Brunet published successive editions + of his great bibliographical dictionary, which rapidly came to be + recognized as the first book of its class in European literature. He died + on the 14th of November 1867. Among his other works are <i>Nouvelles + Recherches bibliographiques</i> (1834), <i>Recherches ... sur les + éditions originales ... de Rabelais</i> (1852), and an edition of the + French poems of J.G. Alione d'Asti, dating from the beginning of the 16th + century (1836).</p> + + <p>See also a notice by Le Roux de Lincy, prefixed to the catalogue + (1868) of his own valuable library. A supplement to the 5th edition + (1860-1865) of the <i>Manuel du libraire</i> was published (1878-1880) by + P. Deschamps and G. Brunet.</p> + + <p><b>BRUNETIÈRE, FERDINAND</b> (1849-1906), French critic and man of + letters, was born at Toulon on the 19th July 1849. After attending a + school at Marseilles, he studied in Paris at the Lycée Louis-le-Grand. + Desiring to follow the profession of teaching, he entered for examination + at the École Normale Supérieure, but failed, and the outbreak of war in + 1870 debarred him from a second attempt. He turned to private tuition and + to literary criticism. After the publication of successful articles in + the <i>Revue Bleue</i>, he became connected with the <i>Revue des Deux + Mondes</i>, first as contributor, then as secretary and sub-editor, and + finally, in 1893, as principal editor. In 1886 he was appointed professor + of French language and literature at the École Normale, a singular honour + for one who had not passed through the academic mill; and later he + presided with distinction over various <i>conférences</i> at the Sorbonne + and elsewhere. He was decorated with the Legion of Honour in 1887, and + became a member of the Academy in 1893. The published works of M. + Brunetière consist largely of reprinted papers and lectures. They include + six series of <i>Études critiques</i> (1880-1898) on French history and + literature; <i>Le Roman naturaliste</i> (1883); <i>Histoire et + Littérature</i>, three series (1884-1886); <i>Questions de critique</i> + (1888; second series, 1890). The first volume of <i>L'Évolution de genres + dans l'histoire de la littérature</i>, lectures in which a formal + classification, founded on the Darwinian theory, is applied to the + phenomena of literature, appeared in 1890; and his later works include a + series of studies (2 vols., 1894) on the evolution of French lyrical + poetry during the 19th century, a history of <!-- Page 684 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page684"></a>[v.04 p.0684]</span>French classic + literature begun in 1904, a monograph on Balzac (1906), and various + pamphlets of a polemical nature dealing with questions of education, + science and religion. Among these may be mentioned <i>Discours + académiques</i> (1901), <i>Discours de combat</i> (1900, 1903), + <i>L'Action sociale du christianisme</i> (1904), <i>Sur les chemins de la + croyance</i> (1905). M. Brunetière was an orthodox Roman Catholic, and + his political sympathies were in the main reactionary. He possessed two + prime qualifications of a great critic, vast erudition and unflinching + courage. He was never afraid to diverge from the established critical + view, his mind was closely logical and intensely accurate, and he rarely + made a trip in the wide field of study over which it ranged. The most + honest, if not the most impartial, of magisterial writers, he had a + hatred of the unreal, and a contempt for the trivial; nobody was more + merciless towards those who affected effete and decadent literary forms, + or maintained a vicious standard of art. On the other hand, his + intolerance, his sledge-hammer methods of attack and a certain dry + pedantry alienated the sympathies of many who recognized the remarkable + qualities of his mind. The application of universal principles to every + question of letters is a check to dilettante habits of thought, but it is + apt to detain the critic in a somewhat narrow and dusty path. M. + Brunetière's influence, however, cannot be disputed, and it was in the + main thoroughly sound and wholesome. He died on the 9th of December + 1906.</p> + + <p>His <i>Manual of the History of French Literature</i> was translated + into English in 1898 by R. Derechef. Among critics of Brunetière see J. + Lemaître, <i>Les Contemporains</i> (1887, &c.), and J. Sargeret, + <i>Les Grands Corvertis</i> (1906).</p> + + <p><b>BRUNHILD</b> (M.H. Ger. <i>Brünhilt</i> or <i>Prünhilt</i>, Nor. + <i>Brynhildr</i>), the name of a mythical heroine of various versions of + the legend of the Nibelungs. The name means "the warrior woman in armour" + (from O.H. Ger. <i>brunjô</i>, <i>brunja</i>, M.H. Ger. <i>brunige</i>, + <i>brünje</i>, <i>brünne</i>, a cuirass or coat of mail, O. Eng. + <i>byrnie</i>, and O.H. Ger. <i>hiltja</i>, <i>hilta</i>, war), and in + the Norse versions of the Nibelung myth, which preserves more of the + primitive traditions than the <i>Nibelungenlied</i>, Brunhild is a + valkyrie, the daughter of Odin, by whom, as a punishment for having + against his orders helped a warrior to victory, she has been cast under a + spell of sleep on Hindarfjell, a lonely rock summit, until the destined + hero shall penetrate the wall of fire by which she is surrounded, and + wake her. This is a variant of the widespread myth which survives in the + popular fairy-story of "the sleeping beauty." The ingenuity of some + German scholars has made of Brunhild a personification of the day, held + prisoner upon the hill-tops till in the morning the sun-god comes to her + rescue, then triumphing with him awhile, only to pass once more under the + spell of the powers of mist and darkness. She is thus by some + commentators contrasted with "the masked warrior woman" Kriemhild + (<i>q.v.</i>), a personification of the power of night and death. But + whatever be the dim original of the character of Brunhild—as to + which authorities are by no means agreed—even in the northern + versions its mythical interest is quite subordinate to its purely human + interest. In the <i>Volsungasaga</i> she is the heroine of a tragedy of + passion and wounded pride; it is she who compasses the death of Sigurd, + who has broken his troth plighted to her, and then immolates herself on + his funeral pyre in order that in the world of the dead he may be wholly + hers. In the <i>Nibelungenlied</i>, on the other hand, she plays a + comparatively colourless rôle. She still possesses superhuman attributes: + like Atalanta, she can only be won by the man who is able to overcome her + in trials of speed and strength; but, instead of a valkyrie sleeping on a + lonely rock, she is, when Sigfrid goes to woo her on behalf of Gunther, + queen of Îslant (Îsenlant), living in a castle called the Isenstein. In + the tragedy of the death of Sigfrid her part is completely overshadowed + by that of "the grim Hagen," and from the moment that the murder is + decided on she drops almost completely out of the story. The poet of the + <i>Nibelungenlied</i> evidently knew nothing of the tale of her + self-immolation; for, though he has nothing definite to say about her + after Sigfrid's death, he keeps her alive in a sort of dignified + retirement. In the last 5000 lines or so of the poem Brunhild is only + mentioned four times and takes no active part in the story. (See further + under <span class="sc">Nibelungenlied</span>.)</p> + + <p>(W. A. P.)</p> + + <p><b>BRUNHILDA</b> (Brunechildis), queen of Austrasia (d. 613), was a + daughter of Athanagild, king of the Visigoths. In 567 she was asked in + marriage by Sigebert, who was reigning at Metz. She now abjured Arianism + and was converted to the orthodox faith, and the union was celebrated at + Metz; on which occasion Fortunatus, an Italian poet, who was then at the + Frankish court, composed the epithalamium. Chilperic, brother of + Sigebert, and king of the west Frankish kingdom, jealous of the renown + which this marriage brought to his elder brother, hastened to ask the + hand of Galswintha, sister of Brunhilda; but at the instigation of his + mistress Fredegond, he assassinated his wife. Sigebert was anxious to + avenge his sister-in-law, but on the intervention of Guntram, he accepted + the compensation offered by Chilperic, namely the cities of Bordeaux, + Cahors and Limoges, with Béarn and Bigorre.</p> + + <p>This treaty did not prevent war soon again breaking out between + Sigebert and Chilperic. So long as her husband lived, Brunhilda played a + secondary part, but having been made captive by Chilperic after her + husband's assassination (575), she succeeded in escaping from her prison + at Rouen, after a series of extraordinary adventures, by means of a + marriage with Merovech, the son of her conqueror. From this time on, she + took the lead; in Austrasia she engaged in a desperate struggle against + the nobles, who wished to govern in the name of her son Childebert II.; + but she was worsted in the conflict and for some time had to seek refuge + in Burgundy. After the death of Childebert II. (597) she aspired to + govern Austrasia and Burgundy in the name of her grandsons Theudebert and + Theuderich II. She was expelled from Austrasia, and then stirred up + Theuderich II. against his brother, whom he defeated at Toul and Tolbiac, + and put to death. Theuderich II. died shortly after this victory, and + Brunhilda caused one of her great-grandchildren to be proclaimed king. + The nobles of Austrasia and Burgundy, however, now summoned Clotaire II., + son of Fredegond, and king of Neustria, to help them against the queen. + Brunhilda was given up to him, and died a terrible death, being dragged + at the heels of a wild horse (613).</p> + + <p>Brunhilda seems to have had political ideas, and to have wished to + attain to the royal power. She was a protectress of the Church, and Pope + Gregory I. (590-604) addressed a series of letters to her, in which he + showered praises upon her. She took it upon herself, however, to + supervise the bishoprics and monasteries, and came into conflict with + Columban (Columbanus), abbot of Luxeuil. As Brunhilda was a great queen, + tradition ascribes to her the construction of many old castles, and a + number of old Roman roads are also known by the name of <i>Chaussées de + Brunehaut</i>.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—Gregory of Tours, + <i>Historia Francorum</i>, bks. iv.-x.; the so-called <i>Chronicle of + Fredegarius</i>; Aug. Thierry, <i>Récits des temps mérovingiens</i> (2 + vols., Paris, 8th ed., 1864); G. Kurth, "La Reine Brunehaut," in the + <i>Revue des questions historiques</i>, vol. xxvi. (1891).</p> + + <p>(<span class="sc">C. Pf.</span>)</p> + + <p><b>BRUNI, LEONARDO</b> (1369-1444), Italian scholar, author of the + <i>History of Florence</i>, was born at Arezzo, and is generally known as + Leonardo Aretino. He was secretary to the papal chancery under Innocent + VII. and John XXII. From 1427 to his death in 1444 he was chancellor to + the republic of Florence. He was buried at the expense of the state in + Sta Croce, where his laurelled statue is still to be seen. He was the + first to free the history of Florence from its fabulous elements, but his + book, though not unintelligent, only repays very laborious study. The + only Latin edition is <i>Historiarum Florentinarum libri xii ... exempto + in lucem edit. stud, et op. Sixti Brunonis</i> (Argentor. 1610, fol.). A + translation into Tuscan was published by Donato Acciajuoli in 1476 at + Venice, was republished at Florence in 1492, and again, with Sansovino's + continuation, at Venice in 1561.</p> + + <p><b>BRÜNN</b> (Czech <i>Brno</i>), the capital of the Austrian + margraviate and crownland of Moravia, 89 m. N. of Vienna by rail. Pop. + (1900) 108,944, of whom 70% are Germans and 30% are Czechs. Brünn is + situated for the most part between two hills at the confluence of the + Schwarzawa and the Zwittawa, and consists of <!-- Page 685 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page685"></a>[v.04 p.0685]</span>the old town + and extensive suburbs. On one of the hills, known as the Spielberg (945 + ft.), stands a castle which has long been used as a prison, famous for + its connexion with Silvio Pellico, who was confined within its walls from + 1822 to 1830. The fortifications of the old town have now been entirely + removed, giving place to handsome gardens and well-built streets, which + put it in communication with its adjoining suburbs. The old town, + although comparatively small, with narrow and crooked but well-paved + streets, contains the most important buildings in the city. The Rathaus, + which dates from 1511, has a fine Gothic portal, and contains several + interesting antiquities. The ecclesiastical buildings comprise the + cathedral of St Peter, situated on the lower hill; the fine Gothic church + of St Jacob, built in the 15th century, with its iron tower added in + 1845, and a remarkable collection of early prints; the church of the + Augustinian friars, dating from the 14th century; and that of the + Minorites, with its frescoes, its holy stair and its Loretto-house. + Amongst the new buildings are the hall of the provincial diet, opened in + 1881; a handsome new synagogue; the national museum of Moravia and + Silesia and several high educational establishments, including a + technical academy and a theological seminary, which are the remnants of + the former university of Brünn. It is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop + and of a Protestant consistory. Brünn, which is sometimes styled "the + Austrian Manchester," is one of the most industrial towns of Austria and + the chief seat of the cloth industry in the whole empire. Other important + branches of industry are: the manufacture of various woollen, cotton and + silk goods, leather, the machinery required in the textile factories, + brewing, distilling and milling, and the production of sugar, oil, gloves + and hardware. It is also an important railway junction and carries on a + very active trade.</p> + + <p>Brünn probably dates from the 9th century. In the 11th century it was + bestowed by Duke Wratislas II. on his son Otto. A place of great + strength, it held out successfully against sieges—in 1428 by the + Hussites, in 1467 by King George of Bohemia, in 1645 by the Swedish + general Torstenson, and in 1742 by the Prussians. In 1805 it was the + headquarters of Napoleon before the battle of Austerlitz.</p> + + <p>See Trautenberger, <i>Die Chronik der Landeshauptstadt Brünn</i> + (Brünn, 1893-1897, 5 vols.).</p> + + <p><b>BRUNNER, HENRY</b> (1840- ), German historian, was born at Wels in + Upper Austria on the 22nd of June 1840. After studying at the + universities of Vienna, Göttingen and Berlin, he became professor at the + university of Lemberg in 1866, and in quick succession held similar + positions at Prague, Strassburg and Berlin. From 1872 Brunner devoted + himself especially to studying the early laws and institutions of the + Franks and kindred peoples of western Europe, and on these subjects his + researches have been of supreme value. He also became a leading authority + on modern German law. He became a member of the Berlin Academy of + Sciences in 1884, and in 1886, after the death of G. Waitz, undertook the + supervision of the <i>Leges</i> section of the <i>Monumenta Germaniae + historica</i>. His chief works are: <i>Die Entstehung der + Schwurgerichte</i> (Berlin, 1872); <i>Zeugen und Inquisitionsbeweis der + karolingischen Zeit</i> (Vienna, 1866); <i>Das anglonormännische + Erbfolgesystem, nebst einem Excurs über die älteren normännischen + Coutumes</i> (Leipzig, 1869); <i>Zur Rechtsgeschichte der römischen und + germanischen Urkunde</i> (Berlin, 1880); <i>Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte</i> + (Leipzig, 1887-1892); <i>Mithio und Sperantes</i> (Berlin, 1885); <i>Die + Landschenkungen der Merowinger und Agilolfinger</i> (Berlin, 1885); + <i>Das Gerichtszeugnis und die fränkische Königsurkunde</i> (Berlin, + 1873); <i>Forschungen zur Geschichte des deutschen und französischen + Rechts</i> (Stuttgart, 1894); <i>Grundzüge der deutschen + Rechtsgeschichte</i> (Leipzig, 1901).</p> + + <p><b>BRÜNNOW, FRANZ FRIEDRICH ERNST</b> (1821-1891), German astronomer, + was born in Berlin on the 18th of November 1821. Between the ages of + eight and eighteen he attended the Friedrich-Wilhelm gymnasium. In 1839 + he entered the university of Berlin, where he studied mathematics, + astronomy and physics, as well as chemistry, philosophy and philology. + After graduating as Ph.D. in 1843, he took an active part in astronomical + work at the Berlin observatory, under the direction of J. F. Encke, + contributing numerous important papers on the orbits of comets and minor + planets to the <i>Astronomische Nachrichten</i>. In 1847 he was appointed + director of the Bilk observatory, near Düsseldorf, and in the following + year published the well-known <i>Mémoire sur la comète elliptique de De + Vico</i>, for which he received the gold medal of the Amsterdam Academy. + In 1851 he succeeded J. G. Galle as first assistant at the Berlin + observatory, and accepted in 1854 the post of director of the new + observatory at Ann Arbor, Michigan, U.S.A. Here he published, 1858-1862, + a journal entitled <i>Astronomical Notices</i>, while his tables of the + minor planets Flora, Victoria and Iris were severally issued in 1857, + 1859 and 1869. In 1860 he went, as associate director of the observatory, + to Albany, N. Y.; but returned in 1861 to Michigan, and threw himself + with vigour into the work of studying the astronomical and physical + constants of the observatory and its instruments. In 1863 he resigned its + direction and returned to Germany; then, on the death of Sir W. R. + Hamilton in 1865, he accepted the post of Andrews professor of astronomy + in the university of Dublin and astronomer-royal of Ireland. His first + undertaking at the Dublin observatory was the erection of an equatorial + telescope to carry the fine object-glass presented to the university by + Sir James South; and on its completion he began an important series of + researches on stellar parallax. The first, second and third parts of the + <i>Astronomical Observations and Researches made at Dunsink</i> contain + the results of these labours, and include discussions of the distances of + the stars <span class="grk">α</span> Lyrae, <span + class="grk">σ</span> Draconis, Groombridge 1830, 85 Pegasi, and + Bradley 3077, and of the planetary nebula H. iv. 37. In 1873 the + observatory, on Dr Brünnow's recommendation, was provided with a + first-class transit-circle, which he proceeded to test as a preliminary + to commencing an extended programme of work with it, but in the following + year, in consequence of failing health and eyesight, he resigned the post + and retired to Basel. In 1880 he removed to Vevey, and in 1889 to + Heidelberg, where he died on the 20th of August 1891. The permanence of + his reputation was secured by the merits of his <i>Lehrbuch der + sphärischen Astronomie</i>, which were at once and widely appreciated. In + 1860 part i. was translated into English by Robert Main, the Radcliffe + observer at Oxford; Brünnow himself published an English version in 1865; + it reached in the original a 5th edition in 1881, and was also translated + into French, Russian, Italian and Spanish.</p> + + <p>See <i>Month. Notices Roy. Astr. Society</i>, lii. 230; J. C. + Poggendorff's <i>Biog. Lit. Handwörterbuch</i>, Bd. iii.; <i>Nature</i>, + xliv. 449.</p> + + <p><b>BRUNO, SAINT,</b> founder of the Carthusians, was born in Cologne + about 1030; he was educated there and afterwards at Reims and Tours, + where he studied under Berengar. He was ordained at Cologne, and thence, + in 1057, he was recalled to Reims to become <i>scholasticus</i>, or head + of the cathedral school, and overseer of the schools of the diocese. He + was made also canon and diocesan chancellor. Having protested against the + misdoings of a new archbishop, he was deprived of all his offices and had + to fly for safety (1076). On the deposition of the archbishop in 1080, + Bruno was presented by the ecclesiastical authorities to the pope for the + see, but Philip I. of France successfully opposed the appointment. After + this Bruno left Reims and retired, with six companions, to a desert among + the mountains near Grenoble, and there founded the Carthusian order + (1084). After six years Urban II. called him to Rome and offered him the + archbishopric of Reggio; but he refused it, and withdrew to a desert in + Calabria, where he established two other monasteries, and died in 1101. + He wrote Commentaries on the Psalms and the Pauline Epistles, to be found + in Migne, <i>Patr. Lat.</i> clii. and cliii.; some works by namesakes + have been attributed to him.</p> + + <p>His Life will be found in the Bollandists' <i>Acta Sanctorum</i> (6th + of October). The best study on St Bruno's life and works is Hermann + Löbbel, <i>Der Stifter des Karthäuser-Ordens</i>, 1899 (vol. v. No. 1 of + "Kirchengeschichtliche Studien," Münster).</p> + + <p>(E. C. B.)</p> + + <p><b>BRUNO,</b> or <span class="sc">Brun</span> (925-965), archbishop of + Cologne, third son of the German king, Henry I., the Fowler, by his + second wife Matilda, was educated for the church at Utrecht, where he + <!-- Page 686 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page686"></a>[v.04 + p.0686]</span>distinguished himself by his studious zeal. In 940 his + brother, King Otto, afterwards the emperor Otto the Great, appointed him + chancellor, and some years later arch-chaplain, and under his leadership + the chancery was reformed and became a training ground for capable + administrators. He rendered valuable assistance to his brother Otto in + his efforts to suppress the risings which marked the earlier part of his + reign, services which were rewarded in 953 when Bruno was made archbishop + of Cologne, and about the same time duke of Lorraine. Bruno is chiefly + renowned as a scholar and a patron of learning. He consorted eagerly with + learned foreigners, tried to secure a better education for the clergy, + and was mainly instrumental in making his brother's court a centre of + intellectual life. He built many churches, and, aided by the tendency of + the time, sought to purify monastic life. He died at Reims on the 11th of + October 965, and was buried in the church of St Pantaleon at Cologne.</p> + + <p>See Ruotger, "Vita Brunonis archiepiscopi Coloniensis," in the + <i>Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Scriptures</i>, Band iv. (Hanover and + Berlin, 1826-1892); E. Meyer, <i>De Brunone I. Archiepiscopo + Coloniensi</i> (Berlin, 1867); J.P. Pfeiffer, <i>Historisch-Kritische + Beitrage zur Geschichte Bruns I.</i> (Cologne, 1870); K. Martin, + <i>Beitrage zur Geschichte Brunos I. von Koln</i> (Jena, 1878).</p> + + <p><b>BRUNO, GIORDANO</b> (c. 1548-1600), Italian philosopher of the + Renaissance, was born near Nola in the village of Cicala. Little is known + of his life. He was christened Filippo, and took the name Giordano only + on entering a religious order. In his fifteenth year he entered the order + of the Dominicans at Naples, and is said to have composed a treatise on + the ark of Noah. Why he submitted to a discipline palpably unsuited to + his fiery spirit we cannot tell. In consequence of his views on + transubstantiation and the immaculate conception he was accused of + impiety, and after enduring persecution for some years, he fled from Rome + about 1576, and wandered through various cities, reaching Geneva in 1579. + The home of Calvinism was no resting-place for him (T. Dufour, + <i>Giordano Bruno à Genève</i>, Geneva, 1884), and he travelled on + through Lyons, Toulouse and Montpellier, arriving at Paris in 1581. + Everywhere he bent his energies to the exposition of the new thoughts + which were beginning to effect a revolution in the thinking world. He had + drunk deeply of the spirit of the Renaissance, the determination to see + for himself the noble universe, unclouded by the mists of authoritative + philosophy and church tradition. The discoveries of Copernicus were + eagerly accepted by him, and he used them as the lever by which to push + aside the antiquated system that had come down from Aristotle, for whom, + indeed, he had a perfect hatred. Like Bacon and Telesio he preferred the + older Greek philosophers, who had looked at nature for themselves, and + whose speculations had more of reality in them. He had read widely and + deeply, and in his own writings we come across many expressions familiar + to us in earlier systems. Yet his philosophy is no eclecticism. He owed + something to Lucretius, something to the Stoic nature-pantheism, + something to Anaxagoras, to Heraclitus, to the Pythagoreans, and to the + Neoplatonists, who were partially known to him; above all, he was a + profound student of Nicolas of Cusa, who was indeed a speculative + Copernicus. But his own system has a distinct unity and originality; it + breathes throughout the fiery spirit of Bruno himself.</p> + + <p>Bruno had been well received at Toulouse, where he had lectured on + astronomy; even better fortune awaited him at Paris, especially at the + hands of Henry III. He was offered a chair of philosophy, provided he + would receive the Mass. He at once refused, but was permitted to deliver + lectures. These seem to have been altogether devoted to expositions of a + certain logical system which Bruno had taken up with great eagerness, the + <i>Ars Magna</i> of Raimon Lull. With the exception of a satiric comedy, + <i>Il Candelajo</i>, all the works of this period are devoted to this + logic—<i>De Umbris Idearum, Ars Memoriae, De compendiosa + architectura et complemento artis Lullii</i>, and <i>Cantus Circaeus</i>. + To many it has seemed a curious freak of Bruno's that he should have so + eagerly adopted a view of thought like that of Lull, but in reality it is + in strict accordance with the principles of his philosophy. Like the + Arabian logicians, and some of the scholastics, who held that ideas + existed in a threefold form—<i>ante res</i>, <i>in rebus</i> and + <i>post res</i>—he laid down the principle that the archetypal + ideas existed metaphysically in the ultimate unity or intelligence, + physically in the world of things, and logically in signs, symbols or + notions. These notions were shadows of the ideas, and the <i>Ars + Magna</i> furnished him with a general scheme, according to which their + relations and correspondences should be exhibited. It supplied not only a + <i>memoria technica</i>, but an <i>organon</i>, or method by which the + genesis of all ideas from unity might be represented intelligibly and + easily. It provided also a substitute for either the Aristotelian or the + Ramist logic, which was an additional element in its favour.</p> + + <p>Under the protection of the French ambassador, Michel de Castelnau, + sieur de Mauvissière, Bruno passed over in 1583 to England, where he + resided for about two years. He was disgusted with the brutality of + English manners, which he paints in no flattering colours, and he found + pedantry and superstition as rampant in Oxford as in Geneva. Indeed, + there still existed on the statute a provision that "Masters and + Bachelors who did not follow Aristotle faithfully were liable to a fine + of five shillings for every point of divergence, and for every fault + committed against the logic of the Organon." But he indulges in + extravagant eulogies of Elizabeth. He is generally said to have formed + the acquaintance of Sir Philip Sidney, Fulke Greville and other eminent + Englishmen, but there has been much controversy as to the facts of his + life in London. It seems probable that he lived in the French embassy in + some secretarial or tutorial position. He may conceivably have met Bacon, + but it is quite incredible that he met Shakespeare in the printing shop + of Thomas Vautrollier. In Oxford he was allowed to hold a disputation + with some learned doctors on the rival merits of the Copernican and + so-called Aristotelian systems of the universe, and, according to his own + report, had an easy victory. The best of his works were written in the + freedom of English social life. The <i>Cena de le Ceneri</i>, or Ash + Wednesday conversation, devoted to an exposition of the Copernican + theory, was printed in 1584. In the same year appeared his two great + metaphysical works, <i>De la Causa, Principio, ed Uno</i>, and <i>De + l'Infinito, Universo, e Mondi</i>; in the year following the <i>Eroici + Furori</i> and <i>Cabala del Cavallo Pegaseo</i>. In 1584 also appeared + the strange dialogue, <i>Spaccio della Bestia Trionfante</i> + (<i>Expulsion of the Triumphant Beast</i>), an allegory treating chiefly + of moral philosophy, but giving the essence of Bruno's philosophy. The + gods are represented as resolving to banish from the heavens the + constellations, which served to remind them of their evil deeds. In their + places are put the moral virtues. The first of the three dialogues + contains the substance of the allegory, which, under the disguise of an + assault on heathen mythology, is a direct attack on all forms of + anthropomorphic religion. But in a philosophical point of view the first + part of the second dialogue is the most important. Among the moral + virtues which take the place of the beasts are Truth, Prudence, Wisdom, + Law and Universal Judgment, and in the explanation of what these mean + Bruno unfolds the inner essence of his system. Truth is the unity and + substance which underlies all things; Prudence or Providence is the + regulating power of truth, and comprehends both liberty and necessity; + Wisdom is providence itself in its supersensible aspect—in man it + is reason which grasps the truth of things; Law results from wisdom, for + no good law is irrational, and its sole end and aim is the good of + mankind; Universal Judgment is the principle whereby men are judged + according to their deeds, and not according to their belief in this or + that catechism. Mingled with his allegorical philosophy are the most + vehement attacks upon the established religion. The monks are stigmatized + as pedants who would destroy the joy of life on earth, who are + avaricious, dissolute and the breeders of eternal dissensions and + squabbles. The mysteries of faith are scoffed at. The Jewish records are + put on a level with the Greek myths, and miracles are laughed at as + magical tricks. Through all this runs the train of thought resulting + naturally from Bruno's fundamental principles, and familiar in modern + philosophy as Spinozism, the denial of particular providence, the + doctrine of the uselessness of prayer, the identification in a sense of + liberty and necessity, and the peculiar definition of good and evil.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 687 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page687"></a>[v.04 p.0687]</span></p> + + <p>In 1585-1586 he returned with Castelnau to Paris, where his + anti-Aristotelian views were taken up by the college of Cambrai, but was + soon driven from his refuge, and we next find him at Marburg and + Wittenberg, the headquarters of Lutheranism. There is a tradition that + here or in England he embraced the Protestant faith; nothing in his + writings would lead one to suppose so. Several works, chiefly logical, + appeared during his stay at Wittenberg (<i>De Lampade combinatoria + Lulliana</i>, 1587, and <i>De Progressu et Lampade venatoria + logicorum</i>, 1587). In 1588 he went to Prague, then to Helmstadt. In + 1591 he was at Frankfort, and published three important metaphysical + works, <i>De Triplici Minimo et Mensura</i>; <i>De Monade, Numero, et + Figura</i>; <i>De Immenso et Innumerabilibus</i>. He did not stay long at + Prague, and we find him next at Zürich, whence he accepted an invitation + to Venice from a young patrician, Giovanni Mocenigo. It was a rash step. + The emissaries of the Inquisition were on his track; he was thrown into + prison, and in 1593 was brought to Rome. Seven years were spent in + confinement. On the 9th of February 1600 he was excommunicated, and on + the 17th was burned at the stake.</p> + + <p>For more than two centuries Bruno received scarcely the consideration + he deserved. On the 9th of June 1889, however, as a result of a strong + popular movement, a statue to him was unveiled in Rome in the Campo dei + Fiori, the place of his execution.</p> + + <p>To Bruno, as to all great thinkers, philosophy is the search for + unity. Amid all the varying and contradictory phenomena of the universe + there is something which gives coherence and intelligibility to them. Nor + can this unity be something apart from the things; it must contain in + itself the universe, which develops from it; it must be at once all and + one. This unity is God, the universal substance,—the one and only + principle, or <i>causa immanens</i>,—that which is in things and + yet is distinct from them as the universal is distinct from the + particular. He is the efficient and final cause of all, the beginning, + middle, and end, eternal and infinite. By his action the world is + produced, and his action is the law of his nature, his necessity is true + freedom. He is living, active intelligence, the principle of motion and + creation, realizing himself in the infinitely various forms of activity + that constitute individual things. To the infinitely actual there is + necessary the possible; that which determines involves somewhat in which + its determinations can have existence. This other of God, which is in + truth one with him, is matter. The universe, then, is a living cosmos, an + infinitely animated system, whose end is the perfect realization of the + variously graduated forms. The unity which sunders itself into the + multiplicity of things may be called the <i>monas monadum</i>, each thing + being a <i>monas</i> or self-existent, living being, a universe in + itself. Of these monads the number is infinite. The soul of man is a + thinking monad, and stands mid-way between the divine intelligence and + the world of external things. As a portion of the divine life, the soul + is immortal. Its highest function is the contemplation of the divine + unity, discoverable under the manifold of objects.</p> + + <p>Such is a brief summary of the principal positions of Bruno's + philosophy. It seems quite clear that in the earlier works, particularly + the two Italian dialogues, he approached more nearly to the pantheistic + view of things than in his later Latin treatises. The unity expounded at + first is simply an <i>anima mundi</i>, a living universe, but not + intelligent. There is a distinct development traceable towards the later + and final form of his doctrine, in which the universe appears as the + realization of the divine mind.</p> + + <p>Bruno's writings had been much neglected when Jacobi brought them into + notice in his <i>Briefe über die Lehre Spinozas</i> (2nd ed., 1879). + Since then many have held that Descartes, Spinoza and Leibnitz were + indebted to him for their main principles. So far as Descartes is + concerned, it is highly improbable that he had seen any of Bruno's works. + Schelling, however, called one of his works after him, <i>Bruno</i>.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—The chief edition of the + Latin works is that published at the public expense by F. Fiorentino, F. + Tocco and H. Vitelli (Naples, 1879-1891), which superseded that of A.F. + Gfrörer (Stuttgart, 1834, incomplete). The Italian works were collected + by A. Wagner (Leipzig, 1830), and a new edition was published by P. de + Lagarde (Göttingen, 1888-1889); also <i>Opere Italiane</i>, ed. Croce and + G. Gentile (1907 foll.), with notes by the latter. In Germany, + <i>Gesammelte Werke</i>, trans. L. Kuhlenbeck (1904 foll.). English + translations:—The <i>Spaccio</i>, by Morehead, not as has been + supposed by J. Toland (dated 1713, but probably printed earlier and very + rare); of the preface to <i>De l' Infinito</i> (J. Toland in posthumous + works); <i>Eroici Furores</i>, L. Williams (1888). There are also French + and German translations.</p> + + <p>The chief English work on Giordano Bruno is that of J. Lewis + M<sup>c</sup>Intyre (London, 1903), containing life, commentary and + bibliography. See also C. Bartholmess, <i>J. Bruno</i> (Paris, + 1846-1847); Domenico Berti, <i>Giordano Bruno da Nola</i> (2nd ed., + 1889); H. Brunnhofer, <i>Giordano Brunos Weltanschauung</i> (Leipzig, + 1883); M. Carrière, <i>Philosophische Weltanschauung der + Reformationszeit</i>, pp. 411-494 (2nd ed., 1887); F.J. Clemens, + <i>Giordano Bruno und Nicolaus von Cusa</i> (Bonn, 1847); Miss I. Frith, + <i>Life of Giordano Bruno the Nolan</i> (London, 1887); C.E. Plumptre, + <i>Life and Works of Giordano Bruno</i> (London, 1884); Chr. Sigwart, in + <i>Kleine Schriften</i>, 1st series, pp. 49-124, 293-304; A. Riehl, <i>G. + Bruno</i> (1889, ed. 1900; Eng. trans. Agnes Fry, 1905); Landsbeck, + <i>Bruno, der Martyrer der neuen Weltanschauung</i> (1890); Owen, in + <i>Sceptics of the Italian Renaissance</i> (London, 1893); C.H. von + Stein, <i>G. Bruno</i> (1900); R. Adamson, <i>Development of Modern + Philosophy</i> (Edinburgh and London, 1903); G. Louis, <i>G. Bruno, seine + Weltanschauung und Lebensauffassung</i> (1900); O. Juliusberger, <i>G. + Bruno und die Gegenwart</i> (1902); J. Reiner, <i>G. Bruno und seine + Weltanschauung</i> (1907). The most important critical works are perhaps + those of Felice Tocco, <i>Le Opere Latine di Giordano Bruno</i> + (Florence, 1889), <i>Le Opere Inedite di Giordano Bruno</i> (Naples, + 1891), <i>Le Fonti piu recenti della filos. del Bruno</i> (Rome, 1892). + See also H. Höffding, <i>History of Modern Philosophy</i> (Eng. trans., + 1900); J.M. Robertson, <i>Short History of Freethought</i> (London, + 1906); G. Gentile, <i>Giordano Bruno nella Storia della cultura</i> + (1907). For other works see G. Graziano, <i>Bibliografia Bruniana</i> + (1900).</p> + + <p>(<span class="sc">R. Ad.;</span> J. M. M.)</p> + + <p><b>BRUNO</b> (<span class="sc">Brun, Bruns</span>) <b>OF QUERFURT, + SAINT</b> (c. 975-1009), German missionary bishop and martyr, belonged to + the family of the lords of Querfurt in Saxony. He was educated at the + famous cathedral school at Magdeburg, and at the age of twenty was + attached to the clerical household of the emperor Otto III. In 996 he + accompanied the emperor to Rome, and there gave up his post and entered + the monastery of SS. Alexius and Bonifacius on the Aventine, taking "in + religion" the name of Bonifacius. When the news reached Rome of the + martyrdom of Adalbert, bishop of Prague (997), Bruno determined to take + his place, and in 1004, after being consecrated by the pope as archbishop + of the eastern heathen, he set out for Germany to seek aid of the emperor + Henry II. The emperor, however, being at war with Boleslaus of Poland, + opposed his enterprise, and he went first to the court of St Stephen of + Hungary, and, finding but slight encouragement there, to that of the + grand prince Vladimir at Kiev. He made no effort to win over Vladimir to + the Roman obedience, but devoted himself to the conversion of the pagan + Pechenegs who inhabited the country between the Don and the Danube. In + this he was so far successful that they made peace with the grand prince + and were for a while nominally Christians. In 1008 Bruno went to the + court of Boleslaus, and, after a vain effort to persuade the emperor to + end the war between Germans and Poles, determined at all hazards to + proceed with his mission to the Prussians. With eighteen companions he + set out; but on the borders of the Russian (Lithuanian) country he and + all his company were massacred by the heathens (February 14, 1009).</p> + + <p>During his stay in Hungary (1004) Bruno wrote a life of St Adalbert, + the best of the three extant biographies of the saint (in Pertz, <i>Mon. + Germ. Hist. Scriptores</i>, iv. pp. 577, 596-612), described by A. + Potthast (<i>Bibliotheca hist. med. aev.</i>) as "in the highest degree + attractive both in manner and matter."</p> + + <p>A life of St Bruno was written by Dietmar, bishop of Merseburg + (976-1019). This, with additions from the life of St Romuald, is + published in the Bollandist <i>Acta Sanctorum</i> (June 19), vi. 1, pp. + 223-225. See further U. Chevalier, <i>Répertoire des sources historiques, + Bio-Bibliographie</i> (Paris, 1904), s.v. "Brunon de Querfurt."</p> + + <p><b>BRUNSBÜTTEL,</b> a seaport town of Germany, in the Prussian + province of Schleswig-Holstein, on the N. bank of the Elbe, 60 m. N.W. + from Hamburg. Pop. (1905) 2500. Brunsbüttel is the west terminus of the + Kaiser Wilhelm Canal, which is closed there by double locks. Here also + are an inner harbour, 1640 ft. long and 656 ft. wide, a coaling station, + and a small harbour for the tugs and other vessels belonging to the canal + company.</p> + + <p><b>BRUNSWICK, KARL WILHELM FERDINAND,</b> <span class="sc">Duke + of</span> (1735-1806), German general, was born on the 9th of October + 1735 at Wolfenbüttel. He received an unusually wide and thorough + education, and travelled in his youth in Holland, France and various + parts of Germany. His first military experience was in the North German + campaign of 1757, under the duke of Cumberland. At the battle of + Hastenbeck he won great renown by a gallant charge at the head of an + infantry brigade; <!-- Page 688 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page688"></a>[v.04 p.0688]</span>and upon the capitulation of + Kloster Zeven he was easily persuaded by his uncle Ferdinand of + Brunswick, who succeeded Cumberland, to continue in the war as a general + officer. The exploits of the hereditary prince, as he was called, soon + gained him further reputation, and he became an acknowledged master of + irregular warfare. In pitched battles, and in particular at Minden and + Warburg, he proved himself an excellent subordinate. After the close of + the Seven Years' War, the prince visited England with his bride, the + daughter of Frederick, prince of Wales, and in 1766 he went to France, + being received both by his allies and his late enemies with every token + of respect. In Paris he made the acquaintance of Marmontel; in + Switzerland, whither he continued his tour, that of Voltaire; and in Rome + , where he remained for a long time, he explored the antiquities of the + city under the guidance of Winckelmann. After a visit to Naples he + returned to Paris, and thence, with his wife, to Brunswick. His services + to the dukedom during the next few years were of the greatest value; with + the assistance of the minister Féronce von Rotenkreuz he rescued the + state from the bankruptcy into which the war had brought it. His + popularity was unbounded, and when he succeeded his father, Duke Karl I., + in 1780, he soon became known as a model to sovereigns. He was perhaps + the best representative of the benevolent despot of the 18th + century—wise, economical, prudent and kindly. His habitual caution, + if it induced him on some occasions to leave reforms uncompleted, at any + rate saved him from the failures which marred the efforts of so many + liberal princes of his time. He strove to keep his duchy from all foreign + entanglements. At the same time he continued to render important services + to the king of Prussia, for whom he had fought in the Seven Years' War; + he was a Prussian field marshal, and was at pains to make the regiment of + which he was colonel a model one, and he was frequently engaged in + diplomatic and other state affairs. He resembled his uncle Frederick the + Great in many ways, but he lacked the supreme resolution of the king, and + in civil as in military affairs was prone to excessive caution. As an + enthusiastic adherent of the Germanic and anti-Austrian policy of Prussia + he joined the <i>Fürstenbund</i>, in which, as he now had the reputation + of being the best soldier of his time, he was the destined + commander-in-chief of the federal army.</p> + + <p>Between 1763 and 1787 his only military service had been in the brief + War of the Bavarian Succession; in the latter year, however, the Duke, as + a Prussian field marshal, led the army which invaded Holland. His success + was rapid, complete and almost bloodless, and in the eyes of + contemporaires the campaign appeared as an example of perfect + generalship. Five years later Brunswick was appointed to the command of + the allied Austrian and German army assembled to invade France and crush + the Revolution. In this task he knew that he must encounter more than a + formal resistance. He was so far in acknowledged sympathy with French + hopes of reform, that when he gave an asylum in his duchy to the "comte + de Lille" (Louis XVIII.) the revolutionary government made no protest. + Indeed, earlier this year (1792) he had been offered supreme command of + the French army. As the king of Prussia took the field with Brunswick's + army, the duke felt bound as a soldier to treat his wishes as actual + orders. (For the events of the Valmy campaign see <span class="sc">French + Revolutionary Wars</span>). The result of Brunswick's cautious advance on + Paris was the cannonade of Valmy followed by a retreat of the allies. The + following campaign of 1793 showed his perhaps at his best as a careful + and exact general; even the fiery Hoche, with the "nation in arms" behind + him, failed to make any impression on the veteran leader of the allies. + But difficulties and disagreements at headquarters multiplied, and when + Brunswick found himself unable to move or direct his army without + interference from the king, he laid down his command and returned to + govern his duchy. He did not, however, withdraw entirely from Prussian + service, and in 1803 he carried out a successful and diplomatic mission + to Russia. In 1806, at the personal request of Queen Louise of Prussia, + he consented to command the Prussian army, but here again the presence of + the king of Prussia and the conflicting views of numerous advisers of + high rank proved fatal. At the battle of Auerstadt the old duke was + mortally wounded. Carried for nearly a month in the midst of the routed + Prussian army he died at last on the 10th of November 1806 at Ottensen + near Hamburg.</p> + + <p>His son and successor, <span class="sc">Friedrich Wilhelm</span> + (1771-1815), who was one of the bitterest opponents of Napoleonic + domination in Germany, took part in the war of 1809 at the head of a + corps of partisans; fled to England after the battle of Wagram, and + returned to Brunswick in 1813, where he raised fresh troops. He was + killed at the battle of Quatre Bras on the 16th of June 1815.</p> + + <p>See Lord Fitzmaurice, <i>Charles W.F., duke of Brunswick</i> (London, + 1901); memoir in <i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i>, vol. ii. + (Leipzig, 1882); and, for an interesting sketch of his military + character, A. Chuquet, <i>Les Guerres de la Révolution—La Premiére + Invasion prussienne</i> (Paris, N.D.).</p> + + <p><b>BRUNSWICK,</b> a city and the county-seat of Glynn county, Georgia, + U.S.A., and a port of entry, on St Simon Sound, about 12 m. from the + Atlantic Ocean, and about 100 m. S. of Savannah. Pop. (1890) 8459; (1900) + 9081, of whom 5184 were of negro descent; (1910 U.S. census) 10,182. It + is one of the seaports of Georgia, the Federal government having dredged + a channel in the inner harbour 21 ft. deep at mean low water and a + channel across the outer bar 19.3 ft. deep at mean low water—there + is a rise of 7.2 ft. at high tide. St Simon Island and Jekyl Island (a + winter resort of wealthy men), lying between the ocean and the mainland, + protect the harbour. The city is served by the Southern, the Atlanta, + Birmingham & Atlantic, and the Atlantic Coast Line railways; it is + also connected by lines of steamboats with various ports along the coast, + including New York and Boston. Brunswick's growth has been retarded by + the successful rivalry of other cities, notably Savannah; but it has a + considerable export trade, principally in lumber, cross-ties and naval + stores—its exports were valued at $13,387,838 in 1908—and + various manufactories, including planing mills, cooperage works and + oyster canneries. It was settled about 1772, and received a city charter + in 1856.</p> + + <p><b>BRUNSWICK</b> (Ger. <i>Braunschweig</i>), a sovereign duchy of + northern Germany, and a constituent state of the German empire, + comprising three larger and six smaller portions of territory. The + principal or northern part, containing the towns of Brunswick, + Wolfenbüttel and Helmstedt, is situated between the Prussian provinces of + Hanover and Saxony to the south-east of the former. The western part, + containing Holzminden and Gandersheim, extends eastward from the river + Weser to Goslar. The Blankenburg, or eastern portion, lies to the + south-east of the two former, between Prussia, the duchy of Anhalt and + the Prussian province of Hanover. The six small enclaves, lying in the + Prussian provinces of Hanover and Saxony, are the districts + Thedinghausen, Harzburg and Kalvörde, and the three demesnes of + Bodenburg, Olsburg and Ostharingen. A portion of the Harz mountains was, + down to 1874, common to Brunswick and Prussia (Hanover) and known as the + Communion Harz. In 1874 a partition was effected, but the mines are still + worked in common, four-sevenths of the revenues derived from them falling + to Prussia and the remaining three-sevenths to Brunswick.</p> + + <p>The northern portion of the duchy has its surface diversified by hill + and plain; it is mostly arable and has little forest. The other two + principal portions are intersected by the Harz mountains, and its spurs + and the higher parts are covered with forests of fir, oak and beech. The + greatest elevations are the Wurmberg (3230 ft.), and the Achtermannshöhe + (3100 ft.), lying south of the Brocken. Brunswick belongs almost entirely + to the basin of the river Weser, into which the Oker, the Aller and the + Leine, having their sources in the Harz, discharge their waters. The + climate is mild in the north, but in the hilly country raw and cold in + winter, and in autumn and spring damp. The area of the duchy is 1424 sq. + m., and of this total fully one-half is arable land, 10% meadow and + pasture, and 33% under forest. The population in 1905 was 485,655. The + religion is, in the main, that of the Lutheran Evangelical church; but + there is a large Roman Catholic community centred in and round + Hildesheim, <!-- Page 689 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page689"></a>[v.04 p.0689]</span>the seat of the bishopric of North + Germany. The Jews have several synagogues, with a rabbinate in Brunswick. + The birth-rate is 35.3, and the death-rate 21.6 per thousand inhabitants. + In the rural districts, broad Low German is spoken; but the language of + the upper and educated classes is distinguished by its purity of style + and pronunciation.</p> + + <p>The land devoted to agriculture is excellently farmed, and cereals, + beet (for sugar), potatoes and garden produce of all kinds, particularly + fruit, obtain the best market prices. The pasture land rears cattle and + sheep of first-rate quality, and great attention is paid to the breeding + of horses, in which the famous stud farm at Harzburg has of late years + been eminently conspicuous. Timber cutting, in the forests of the Harz, + employs a large number of hands. But agriculture, which, until recently, + formed the chief wealth of the duchy, has now given way to the mining + industry, both in point of the numbers of inhabitants employed and in the + general prosperity distributed by it. The chief seat of the mining + industry is the Harz, and its development annually increases in extent + and importance. Coal (bituminous), iron, lead, copper, sulphur, alum, + marble, alabaster, lime and salt are produced in large quantities, and + the by-products of some of these, particularly chemicals and asphalt, + constitute a great source of revenue. The manufactures embrace sugar + (from beet), spinning, tobacco, paper, soap machines, glass, china, beer + and sausages. The last are famous throughout Germany. The principal + articles of export are thread, dyes, cement, chicory, beer, timber, + preserves, chemicals and sausages. The railways, formerly belonging to + the state, were, in 1870, leased to private companies and in 1884 + purchased by Prussia, and have a length of about 320 m. The roads, of + which one quarter are in the hands of the state, are excellently kept, + and vie with those of any European country.</p> + + <p>The constitution is that of a limited monarchy, and dates from a + revision of the fundamental law on the 12th of October 1832. The throne + is hereditary in the house of Brunswick-Lüneburg, according to the law of + primogeniture, and in the male line of succession, but the rightful heir, + Ernest, duke of Cumberland, was not allowed to take possession. The + parliament of the duchy (<i>Landes-</i> or <i>Ständeversammlung</i>) is + an assembly of estates forming one house of 48 deputies, of whom 30 are + elected by municipal and rural communities, while the remainder represent + the Evangelical church, the large landed proprietors, manufacturers and + the professions. The house, however, has little power in initiating + legislation, but it can refuse taxation, impeach ministers and receive + petitions. The executive functions of the administration and government + reside in the ministry (<i>Staatsministerium</i>) consisting of three + responsible ministers, assisted by a council of the holders of the other + chief offices of state. The public debt amounts to about 3¼ millions + sterling, and the civil list to about £56,000 a year, mostly derived from + the revenues of the state domains. By virtue of a convention with + Prussia, of March 1886, the Brunswick contingent to the imperial forces + forms a part of the Prussian army and is attached to the X. army corps. + The convention can be rescinded only after a two years' notice.</p> + + <p><i>History.</i>—The lands which comprise the modern duchy of + Brunswick belonged in the 10th century to the family of the Brunos, + whence the name Brunswick is derived, of the counts of Nordheim, and the + counts of Supplinburg. Inherited during the 12th century by Henry the + Proud, duke of Saxony and Bavaria, and a member of the family of Welf, + they subsequently formed part of the extensive Saxon duchy ruled by his + son, Henry the Lion.</p> + + <p>When Henry was placed under the imperial ban and his duchy dismembered + in 1181, he was allowed to retain his hereditary possessions, which + consisted of a large part of Brunswick and Lüneburg. The bulk of these + lands came subsequently to Henry's grandson, Otto, and in 1235 the + emperor Frederick II., anxious to be reconciled with the Welfs, + recognized Otto's title and created him duke of Brunswick and Lüneburg. + Otto added several counties and the town of Hanover to his possessions, + and when he died in 1252 was succeeded by his sons Albert and John. In + 1267 these princes divided the duchy, Albert becoming duke of Brunswick, + and John duke of Lüneburg. The dukes of Lüneburg increased the area of + their duchy, and when the family died out in 1369 a stubborn contest took + place for its possession. Claimed by Magnus II., duke of + Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, this prince was forced by the emperor Charles IV. + to abandon his pretensions, but in 1388 his sons succeeded in + incorporating Lüneburg with Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. In 1285 the duchy of + Brunswick had been divided between Duke Albert's three sons, whose + relations with each other were far from harmonious, and the lines of + Wolfenbüttel, Göttingen and Grubenhagen had been established. The + Wolfenbüttel branch died out in 1292, but was refounded in 1345 by Magnus + I., a younger member of the Göttingen family; the elder Göttingen branch + died out in 1463, and the Grubenhagen branch in 1596. Magnus I., duke of + Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel from 1345 to 1369, was the ancestor of the later + dukes of Brunswick. His grandsons, Frederick, Bernard and Henry, secured + Lüneburg in 1388, but in 1428 Bernard, the only survivor of the three, + was forced to make a division of the duchy, by which he received + Lüneburg, while his nephews, William and Henry, obtained Brunswick, which + in 1432 they divided into Calenberg and Wolfenbüttel. In 1473, however, + William, who had added Göttingen to his possessions in 1463, united these + lands; but they were again divided from 1495 to 1584. In 1584 Brunswick + was united by Duke Julius, and in 1596 Grubenhagen was added to it. Duke + Frederick Ulrich, however, was obliged to cede this territory to Lüneburg + in 1617, and when he died in 1634 his family became extinct, and + Brunswick was divided between the two branches of the Lüneburg + family.</p> + + <p>The duchy of Lüneburg, founded by Bernard in 1428, remained undivided + until 1520, when Duke Henry abdicated and his three sons divided the + duchy. Two of the branches founded at this time soon died out; and in + 1569, after the death of Ernest I., the representative of the third + branch, his two sons agreed upon a partition which is of considerable + importance in the history of Brunswick, since it established the lines of + Dannenberg and of Lüneburg-Celle, and these two families divided the + duchy of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel in 1635. The dukes of Lüneburg-Celle + subsequently took the name of Hanover, and were the ancestors of the + later kings of Hanover (<i>q.v.</i>). After the acquisition of 1635 the + family of Dannenberg took the title of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, and ruled + in the direct line until 1735. It was then followed by the family of + Brunswick-Bevern, which had split off from the parent line in 1666 and + ruled until 1884.</p> + + <p>Brunswick has not played a very important part in German politics. + Many counties were added to its area, but it was weakened by constant + divisions of territory, and during the period of the Reformation some of + the princes took one side and some the other. The treaty of Westphalia in + 1648 made little difference to its prestige, but its subsequent position + was greatly affected by the growth of Prussia. During the Seven Years' + War Brunswick supported Frederick the Great, and in return was severely + ravaged by the French. Duke Charles I., who accumulated a large amount of + debt, sought to discharge his liabilities by sending his soldiers as + mercenaries to assist England during the American War of Independence. + The succeeding duke, Charles William Ferdinand, brought order into the + finances, led the Prussian troops against Napoleon, and died in 1806 from + wounds received at the battle of Auerstadt. Napoleon then declared the + ducal family deposed and included Brunswick in the kingdom of Westphalia. + In 1813 it was restored to Duke Frederick William, who was killed in 1815 + at the battle of Quatre Bras. His son, Charles II., while a minor, was + under the regency of George, afterwards the English king George IV., who + ruled the duchy through Ernest, Count Münster-Ledenburg (1766-1839), + assisted by Justus von Schmidt-Phiseldeck (1769-1851). A new constitution + was granted in 1820, but after Charles came of age in 1823 a period of + disorder ensued. The duke, who was very unpopular with his subjects, + quarrelled with his relatives, and in 1830 a revolution drove him from + the country. The government was undertaken by his brother William, and in + <!-- Page 690 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page690"></a>[v.04 + p.0690]</span>1831 Charles was declared incapable of ruling, and William + was appointed as his successor. The ex-duke, who made a fine collection + of diamonds, died childless at Geneva in August 1873. William's long + reign witnessed many excellent and necessary reforms. A new constitution + was granted in 1832, and in 1844 Brunswick joined the Prussian + Zollverein. Trial by jury and freedom of the press were established, many + religious disabilities were removed, and measures were taken towards the + freedom of trade.</p> + + <p>Brunswick took very little part in the war between Prussia and Austria + in 1866, but her troops fought for Prussia during the Franco-German War + of 1870-71. The duchy joined the German Confederation in 1815, the North + German Confederation in 1866, and became a state of the German empire in + 1871.</p> + + <p>In 1866 the question of the succession to Brunswick became acute. Duke + William was unmarried, and according to the existing conventions it would + pass to George, king of Hanover, who had just been deprived of his + kingdom by the king of Prussia. In 1879, however, the duke and the + estates, with the active support of Prussia, concluded an arrangement for + a temporary council of regency to take over the government on William's + death. Moreover, if in this event the rightful heir was unable to take + possession of the duchy, the council was empowered to appoint a regent. + William died on the 18th of October 1884, and George's son, Ernest, duke + of Cumberland, claimed Brunswick and promised to respect the German + constitution. This claim was disregarded by the council of regency, and + the Bundesrat declared that the accession of the duke of Cumberland would + be inimical to the peace and security of the empire on account of his + attitude towards Prussia. In the following year the council chose Albert, + prince of Prussia, as regent, a step which brought Brunswick still more + under the influence of her powerful neighbour. Albert died in September + 1906, and after some futile negotiations with the duke of Cumberland, the + Brunswick diet chose Duke John Albert of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (b. 1857) + as regent in May 1907.</p> + + <p>See O. von Heinemann, <i>Geschichte Braunschweigs und Hannovers</i> + (Gotha, 1882-1892); W. Havemann, <i>Geschichte der Lande Braunschweig und + Lüneburg</i> (Göttingen, 1853-1857); H. Sudendorf, <i>Urkundenbuch zur + Geschichte der Herzöge von Braunschweig und Lüneburg und ihrer Lande</i> + (Hanover, 1859-1883); H. Guthe, <i>Die Lande Braunschweig und + Hannover</i> (Hanover, 1890); J. Beste, <i>Geschichte der + braunschweigischen Landeskirche von der Reformation bis auf unsere + Tage</i> (Wolfenbüttel, 1889); A. Köcher, <i>Geschichte von Hannover und + Braunschweig 1648-1714</i> (Leipzig, 1884).</p> + + <p><b>BRUNSWICK,</b> a city of Germany, capital of the duchy of that + name, situated in a fertile and undulating country, on the Oker, 37 m. + S.E. from Hanover and 53 N.W. from Magdeburg, on the main line of railway + from Berlin. Pop. (1900) 128,226; (1905) 136,423, of which number about + 9000 were Roman Catholics and 1000 Jews. Brunswick is an interesting + place and retains much of its medieval character. The fortifications + which formerly environed it were dismantled in 1797, and have given place + to a regular circle of gardens and promenades, which rank among the + finest in Germany. Within them lies the old town, with somewhat narrow + and crooked streets, remarkable for its numerous ancient houses, with + high gables and quaintly carved exteriors. In picturesqueness it vies + with Lübeck and Lüneburg among North German towns. Among its churches, + the cathedral, St Blasius, or Burgkirche, a Romanesque structure begun by + Henry the Lion about 1173 and finished in 1194, is of interest. The + chancel is decorated with 12th-century frescoes by Johannes Gallicus, and + contains the tombs of the founder and his consort, with beautiful + effigies in relief, and also that of the emperor Otto IV. In the vault + beneath rest the remains of the Guelphs of the Brunswick line (since + 1681). Remarkable among other churches are the Magnikirche (consecrated + in 1031; the present edifice being built between the 13th and 15th + centuries and restored in 1877); the Martinikirche, with Romanesque + towers, originally a Romanesque basilica (1180-1190), enlarged in the + 13th century in early Gothic by the addition of vaulted aisles and a + choir (1490-1500), and remarkable further for the splendid late Gothic + Annenkapelle (1434) and three magnificent portals; the Katharinenkirche, + with a fine tower, begun by Henry the Lion in 1172, added to in 1252 and + finished (choir) in 1500; the Brüderkirche (1361-1451, restored + 1869-1870), formerly the church of a Franciscan house, the refectory of + which (1486) is now used for military stores; the Andreaskirche (1200, + 1360-1420), partly transitional, partly late Gothic, with a tower 318 ft. + high; and the Aegidienkirche (1278-1434), now used for exhibitions and + concerts.</p> + + <p>In secular buildings, both ancient and modern, Brunswick is also rich. + The most noticeable of these is the town hall (14th and 15th centuries), + a gem of Gothic architecture. In front of it is a beautiful Gothic leaden + fountain of the early 15th century. Close by the cathedral is the + Dankwarderode, a two-storeyed Romanesque building, erected in 1884 on the + site of the ancient citadel of the same name which was destroyed by fire + in 1873; the cloth merchants' hall (Gewandhaus) of the 13th century, with + a richly ornamented facade in Renaissance style, now occupied by the + chamber of commerce; the restored Huneborstelsche Haus with its curious + and beautiful oak carving of the 16th century. The ducal palace is a fine + modern structure, erected since 1865, when most of the previous building, + which dated only from 1831, was destroyed by fire. The famous Quadriga of + Rietschel, which perished at the same time, has been replaced by a copy + by Georg Howaldt (1802-1883). The theatre lies on a spacious square close + to the ducal gardens, and immediately outside the promenades; to the + south is the handsome railway station. Among other numerous buildings of + modern erection may be mentioned the new town hall (1895-1900) and the + ministry of finance, both in early Gothic style. The scientific and art + collections of Brunswick are numerous. The ducal museum contains a rich + collection of antique and medieval curiosities, engravings and pictures. + There are also a municipal museum, a museum of natural history, a + mineralogical collection, a botanical garden and two libraries. The + educational and charitable institutions of Brunswick are many. Of the + former may be mentioned the Collegium Carolinum, founded in 1745, the + technical high school, two gymnasia and an academy of forestry. Among the + latter are a deaf and dumb institution, a blind asylum, an orphanage and + various hospitals and infirmaries. A monument, 60 ft. high, to Duke + Frederick William, who was slain at Quatre Bras, gives its name to the + Monumentsplatz. Another to the south-east of the town perpetuates the + memory of Schill Ferdinand (1776-1809) and his companions. There are also + statues of Franz Abt, the composer, of Lessing and of the astronomer K.F. + Gauss.</p> + + <p>The industries of the town are considerable. Especially important are + the manufacture of machinery, boilers, gasometers, pianos, preserves, + chemicals, beer and sausages. Brunswick is also a leading centre of the + book trade. The communications between the inner town and the extensive + suburbs are maintained by an excellent service of electric tramways.</p> + + <p>Brunswick is said to have been founded about 861 by Bruno, son of Duke + Ludolf of Saxony, from whom it was named Brunswick (from the Old High + German <i>Wich</i>, hamlet). Afterwards fortified and improved by Henry + the Lion, it became one of the most important cities of northern Germany. + For a long time its constitution was rather peculiar, as it consisted of + five separate townlets, each with its own walls and gates, its own + council and Rathaus—a condition traces of which are still evident. + In the 13th century it ranked among the first cities of the Hanseatic + League. After this era, however, it declined in prosperity, in + consequence of the divisions of territory among the branches of the + reigning house, the jealousy of the neighbouring states, the Thirty + Years' War, and more recently the French occupation, under which it was + assigned to the kingdom of Westphalia. During the time of the Reformation + the sympathies of the citizens were with the new teaching, and the city + was a member of the League of Schmalkalden. In 1830 it was the scene of a + violent revolution, which led to the removal of the reigning duke. In + 1834 it attained municipal self-government.</p> + + <p>See F. Knoll, <i>Braunschweig und Umgebung</i> (1882); Sack, <i>Kurze + Geschichte der Stadt Braunschweig</i> (1861); and H. Dürre, <i>Geschichte + der Stadt Braunschweig im Mittelalter</i> (1875).</p> + +<p><!-- Page 691 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page691"></a>[v.04 p.0691]</span></p> + + <p><b>BRUNSWICK,</b> a village of Cumberland county, Maine, U.S.A., in + the township of Brunswick, on the Androscoggin river, 9 m. W. of Bath, + and 27 m. N.N.E. of Portland. Pop. of the township (1900) 6806; (1910) + 6621; of the village (1900) 5210 (1704 foreign-born); (1910) 5341. + Brunswick is served by the Maine Central railway, and by the Lewiston, + Brunswick & Bath, and the Portland & Brunswick electric railways. + Opposite Brunswick and connected with it by a bridge is the township of + Topsham (pop. in 1910, 2016). The village of Brunswick lies only 63 ft. + above sea-level, shut within rather narrow bounds by hills or bluffs, + from which good views may be obtained of the island-dotted sea and + deeply-indented coast to the south and east and of the White Mountains to + the west. The river falls in three successive stages for a total distance + of 41 ft., furnishing good water-power for paper and cotton mills and + other manufactories; the first cotton-mill in Maine was built here about + 1809. The settlement of the site of Brunswick was begun by fishermen in + 1628 and the place was called Pejepscot; in 1717 Brunswick was + constituted a township under its present name by the Massachusetts + general court, and in 1739 the township was regularly incorporated. The + village was incorporated in 1836.</p> + + <p>Brunswick is best known as the seat of Bowdoin College, a small + institution of high educational rank. There are eleven buildings on a + campus of about 40 acres, 1 m. from the riverbank at the end of the + principal village thoroughfare. The chapel (King Chapel, named in honour + of William King, the first governor of Maine), built of undressed + granite, is of Romanesque style, and has twin towers and spires rising to + a height of 120 ft.; the interior walls are beautifully decorated with + frescoes and mural paintings. The Walker Art Building (built as a + memorial to Theophilus W. Walker) is of Italian Renaissance style, has + mural decorations by John la Farge, Elihu Vedder, Abbott H. Thayer and + Kenyon Cox, and contains a good collection of paintings and other works + of art. Among the paintings, many of which were given by the younger + James Bowdoin, are examples of van Dyck, Titian, Poussin and Rembrandt. + The library building is of Gothic style, and in 1908 contained 88,000 + volumes (including the private library of the younger James Bowdoin). + Among the other buildings are an astronomical observatory, a science + building, a memorial hall, a gymnasium and three dormitories. The + building of the Medical School of Maine (1820), which is a department of + the college, is on the same campus. Bowdoin was incorporated by the + general court of Massachusetts in 1794, but was not opened until 1802. It + was named in honour of James Bowdoin (1726-1790), whose son was a liberal + benefactor. The college has been maintained as a non-sectarian + institution largely by Congregationalists, and is governed by a board of + trustees and a board of overseers. Among the distinguished alumni have + been Nathaniel Hawthorne, Franklin Pierce, Henry W. Longfellow, John P. + Hale, William P. Fessenden, Melville W. Fuller, and Thomas B. Reed.</p> + + <p><b>BRUNSWICK-BEVERN, AUGUST WILHELM,</b> <span class="sc">Duke + of</span> (1715-1781), Prussian soldier, son of Ernst Ferdinand, duke of + Brunswick-Bevern, was born at Brunswick in 1715, and entered the Prussian + army in 1731, becoming colonel of an infantry regiment in 1739. He won + great distinction at Hohenfriedeberg as a major-general, and was promoted + lieutenant-general in 1750. He was one of the most experienced and exact + soldiers in the army of Frederick the Great. He commanded a wing in the + battle of Lobositz in 1756, and defeated the Austrians under Marshal + Konigsegg in a well-fought battle at Reichenberg on the 21st of April + 1757. He took part in the battles of Prague and Kolin and the retreat to + Görlitz, and subsequently commanded the Prussians left behind by + Frederick in the autumn of 1757 when he marched against the French. + Bevern conducted a defensive campaign against overwhelming numbers with + great skill, but he soon lost the valuable assistance of General + Winterfeld, who was killed in a skirmish at Moys; and he was eventually + brought to battle and suffered a heavy defeat at Breslau on the 22nd of + November. He fell into the hands of the Austrians on the following + morning, and remained prisoner for a year. He was made general of + infantry in 1759, and on the 11th of August 1762 inflicted a severe + defeat at Reichenbach on an Austrian army endeavouring to relieve + Schweidnitz. Bevern retired, after the peace of Hubertusburg, to his + government of Stettin, where he died in 1781.</p> + + <p><b>BRUNTON, MARY</b> (1778-1818), Scottish novelist, was born on the + 1st of November 1778 in the island of Varra, Orkney. She was the daughter + of Captain Thomas Balfour of Elwick. At the age of twenty she married + Alexander Brunton, minister of Bolton in Haddingtonshire, and afterwards + professor of oriental languages at Edinburgh. Mrs Brunton died on the + 19th of December 1818. She was the author of two novels, popular in their + day, <i>Self-control</i> (1810), and <i>Discipline</i> (1814; 1832 + edition with memoir); and of a posthumous fragment, <i>Emmeline</i> + (1819).</p> + + <p><b>BRUSA,</b> or <span class="sc">Broussa</span> (anc. <i>Prusa</i>), + the capital of the Brusa (Khudavendikiar) vilayet of Asia Minor, which + includes parts of ancient Mysia, Bithynia, and Phrygia, and extends in a + southeasterly direction from Mudania, on the Sea of Marmora, to + Afium-Kara-Hissar on the Smyrna-Konia railway. The vilayet is one of the + most important in Asiatic Turkey, has great mineral and agricultural + wealth, many mineral springs, large forests, and valuable industries. It + exports cereals, silk, cotton, opium, tobacco, olive-oil, meerschaum, + boracite, &c. The Ismid-Angora and Eskishehr-Konia railways pass + through the province. Population of the province, 1,600,000 (Moslems, + 1,280,000; Christians, 317,000; Jews, 3000).</p> + + <p>The city stretches along the lower slopes of the Mysian Olympus or + Kechish Dagh, occupying a position above the valley of the Nilufer + (<i>Odrysses</i>) not unlike that of Great Malvern above the vale of the + Severn. It is divided by ravines into three quarters, and in the centre, + on a bold terrace of rock, stood the ancient <i>Prusa</i>. The modern + town has clean streets and good roads made by Ahmed Vefyk Pasha when + Vali, and it contains mosques and tombs of great historic and + architectural interest; the more important are those of the sultans Murad + I., Bayezid (Bajazet) I., Mahommed I., and Murad II., 1403-1451, and the + Ulu Jami'. The mosques show traces of Byzantine, Persian and Arab + influence in their plan, architecture and decorative details. The + circular church of St Elias, in which the first two sultans, Osman and + Orkhan, were buried, was destroyed by fire and earthquake, and rebuilt by + Ahmed Vefyk Pasha. There are in the town an American mission and school, + and a British orphanage. Silk-spinning is an important industry, the + export of silk in 1902 being valued at £620,000. There are also + manufactories of silk stuffs, towels, burnús, carpets, felt + prayer-carpets embroidered in silk and gold. The hot iron and sulphur + springs near Brusa, varying in temperature from 112° to 178° F., are + still much used. The town is connected with its port, Mudania, by a + railway and a road. There is a British vice-consul. Pop. 75,000 (Moslems, + 40,000; Christians, 33,000; Jews, 2000).</p> + + <p><i>Prusa</i>, founded, it is said, at the suggestion of Hannibal, was + for a long time the seat of the Bithynian kings. It continued to flourish + under the Roman and Byzantine emperors till the 10th century, when it was + captured and destroyed by Saif-addaula of Aleppo. Restored by the + Byzantines, it was again taken in 1327 by the Ottomans after a siege of + ten years, and continued to be their capital till Murad I. removed to + Adrianople. In 1402 it was pillaged by the Tatars; in 1413 it resisted an + attack of the Karamanians; in 1512 it fell into the power of Ala ed-Din; + and in 1607 it was burnt by the rebellious Kalenderogli. In 1883 it was + occupied by the Egyptians under Ibrahim Pasha, and from 1852-1855 + afforded an asylum to Abd-el-Kader.</p> + + <p>See L. de Laborde, <i>Voyage de l'Asie Mineure</i> (Paris, 1838); C. + Texier, <i>Asie Mineure</i> (Paris, 1839).</p> + + <p><b>BRUSH, GEORGE DE FOREST</b> (1855- ), American painter, was born at + Shelbyville, Tennessee, on the 28th of September 1855. He was a pupil of + J.L. Gérôme at Paris, and became a member of the National Academy of + Design, New York. From 1883 onwards, he attracted much attention by his + paintings of North American Indians, his "Moose Hunt," "Aztec King" and + "Mourning her Brave" achieving great popularity and showing the strong + influence of Gérôme. These <!-- Page 692 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page692"></a>[v.04 p.0692]</span>were followed by picture + portraits, particularly of mother and child, largely suggestive of the + work of the Dutch, Flemish and German masters, carefully arranged as to + line and mass, and worked out in great detail with consummate technical + skill. Several of his paintings have for subject his own children and his + wife; one of these is in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts.</p> + + <p><b>BRUSH</b> (from Fr. <i>brosse</i>, which, like the English word, + means both the undergrowth of a wood and the instrument; if the word in + both these meanings is ultimately the same, then the origin is from a + bundle of brushwood used as a brush or broom, but this is historically + doubtful, and others connect it with the Ger. <i>Borste</i>, bristle), an + instrument for removing dust or dirt from surfaces or for applying paint, + whitewash, &c., composed of a tuft or tufts of some fibrous or + flexible material secured to a solid basis or stock. Brushes made of the + twigs of trees like the birch and provided with long handles are often + called brooms, and the same term is applied to some brushes used in the + household for removing dust (<i>e.g.</i> carpet-broom, whisk-broom) but + not to those used for applying paint. Among the numerous materials + employed for the manufacture of brushes of various kinds are feathers, + pig's bristles, the hair of certain animals, whalebone, rubber, + split-cane, broom-corn (a variety of sorghum) and coir.</p> + + <p>Brushes are of two kinds, simple and compound. The former consist of + but one tuft, as hair pencils and painters' tools. The latter have more + than one tuft. Brushes with the tufts placed side by side on flat boards, + as plasterers' brushes, are called stock-brushes. The single tuft + brushes, or pencils for artists, are made of the hair of the camel, + badger, goat and other animals for the smaller kind, and pig's bristles + for the larger. The hairs for pencils are carefully arranged so as to + form a point in the centre, and, when tied together, are passed into the + wide end of the quill or metal tube and drawn out at the other end to the + extent required. The small ends of the quills, having been previously + moistened, contract as they dry and bind the hair. A similar effect is + produced with metal tubes by compression. Compound brushes + are—first, set or pan-work; second, drawn-work. Of the former, an + example is the common house-broom, into the stock of which holes are + drilled of the size wanted. The necessary quantity of bristles, hair, or + fibre to fill each hole being collected together, the thick ends are + dipped into molten cement chiefly composed of pitch, bound round with + thread, dipped again, and then set into a hole of the stock with a + peculiar twisting motion. In drawn-brushes, of which those for shoes, + teeth, nails and clothes are examples, the holes are more neatly bored, + and have smaller ones at the top communicating with the back of the + brush, through which a bight or loop of wire passes from the back of the + stock. Half the number of hairs of fibres needed for the tufts to fill + the holes are passed into the bight of the wire, which is then pulled + smartly so as to double the hairs and force them into the loop-hole as + far as possible. With all brushes, when the holes have been properly + filled, the ends of the fibres outside are cut with shears, either to an + even length or such form as may be desired. The backs are then covered + with veneer or other material to conceal the wire and other crudities of + the work. In trepanned brushes the bristles are inserted in holes that do + not pass right through the stock, and are secured by threads or wires + running in drawholes which are drilled through the stock at right angles + to them. The ends of these drawholes are plugged so as to be as + inconspicuous as possible, and the method avoids the necessity of a + veneer on the back. The Woodbury machine, one of the earliest mechanical + devices for the manufacture of brushes, which was invented in America + about 1870, produced brushes of this kind. One of the most important + purposes to which brushes have been applied is that of sweeping chimneys, + and so far back as 1789 John Elin patented an arrangement of brushes for + this purpose. Revolving brushes for sweeping rooms were patented in 1811, + and the first patent in which they were applied to hair-dressing appears + in 1862. Many inventions for sweeping and cleaning roads by means of + revolving brushes and other contrivances have been introduced, one of the + first being that of Edmund Henning in 1699 for "a new engine for sweeping + the streets of London, or any city or town."</p> + + <p>Brushes with tufts formed of steel wire are used for cleaning tubes + and flues of steam boilers, for the purpose of removing the scale formed + by the products of combustion. Steel-wire brushes are also used for + cleaning scale from the interior surfaces of a boiler, and for removing + the sand from the surface of a casting. Occasionally such brushes are + revolved in a machine, for more convenient use on the article to be + cleaned or polished. Snyer's patent elastic clutch or coupling, used for + such purposes as coupling up or disconnecting a steam-engine from a line + of shafting or dynamo, consists essentially of two disks, the adjacent + faces of which are provided, one with a ring of brushes made of flat + steel wire, the other with a number of finely serrated teeth. One of the + disks is movable longitudinally on its shaft, and with the brushes clear + of the serrations the clutch is free. On bringing the disks together, + which may be done with the engine running at speed, the elasticity of the + brush permits the motion to be imparted gradually and without shock to + the standing part, until both rotate and are locked together. These + clutches are very powerful, and are capable of transmitting as much as + 3000 horse-power.</p> + + <p>In dynamo-electric machinery the device used to conduct current into + or out of the rotating armature is termed a "brush." There are usually + two brushes to each dynamo or motor, and they are placed diametrically + opposite, lightly touching the commutator of the armature. It is + important that there should be good metallic contact between the brushes + and the commutator, and at the same time the frictional resistance + resulting from the contact must be a minimum. To effect this result + brushes are variously made. A kind of brush frequently used consists of a + number of copper wires laid side by side and soldered together at one + end, where the brush is held. Brushes are also made of strips of spongy + copper cut like a comb, which give a number of bearing points on the + commutator. Very good results are obtained from brushes made of copper + gauze wound closely until it takes the exterior form of a rectangular + block, which is held radially in a spring holder, and bears at the end on + the commutator. In place of the gauze block "brushes" of hard carbon + blocks are frequently used (see <span class="sc">Dynamo</span>).</p> + + <p><b>BRUSSELS</b> (Fr. <i>Bruxelles</i>, Flem. <i>Brussel</i>), the + capital of the kingdom of Belgium, and of the province of Brabant, + situated in 50° 51′ N., 4° 22′ E., about 70 m. from the sea + at Ostend. It occupies the plain or valley of the Senne, and the sides + and crest of the hill lying to the east and south-east of that valley. It + is now extending over the hills west of the valley, and to the north is + the town or commune of Laeken, which is practically part of the city. + Brussels suffered severely in 1695 from the bombardment of the French + under Villeroi, who fired into the town with red-hot shot. Sixteen + churches and 4000 houses were burnt down, and the historic buildings on + the Grand Place were seriously injured, the houses of the Nine Nations on + the eastern side being completely destroyed. In 1731 the famous palace of + the Netherlands was destroyed by fire, and the only remains of this + edifice are some ruined arches and walls in a remote comer of the grounds + of the king's palace. The Porte de Hal is the only one of the eight gates + in the old wall left standing. It dates from 1381, and is well worth more + careful examination than it receives. In the latter half of the 18th + century it served as a kind of bastille for political prisoners, and is + now used as a museum in which a rather nondescript collection of + articles, some from Mexico, has been allowed to accumulate. With regard + to the fine boulevards of the Upper Town, it may be mentioned that about + 1765 they were planted with the double row of lime trees which still + constitute their chief ornament by Prince Charles of Lorraine while + governing the Netherlands for his sister-in-law, the empress Maria + Theresa. The residence of this prince was the palace of William the + Silent, before he declared against Spam, and it is now used partly for + the royal library, which contains the famous <i>librairie de + Bourgogne</i>, and partly for the museum <!-- Page 693 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page693"></a>[v.04 p.0693]</span>of modern + pictures. The only other "hotel" or palace in Brussels is that of the + duke d'Arenberg. In the 16th century this was the residence of Count + Egmont, but very little of the building of his day remains. In the same + street, the rue des Petits Carmes, was the Hôtel Culembourg in which the + famous oath of the beggars was taken. It has long been demolished and the + new barracks of the Grenadier regiment have been erected on the site.</p> + + <p>The only other buildings of importance dating from medieval times are + the three churches of Ste Gudule (often erroneously called the + cathedral), Notre-Dame des Victoires or Church of the Sablon, and + Notre-Dame de la Chapelle, or simply la Chapelle, and the hotel de ville + and the Maison du Roi on the Grand Place. The church of Ste Gudule, also + dedicated to St Michael, is built on the side of the hill originally + called St Michael's Mount, and now covered by the fashionable quarters + which are included under the comprehensive description, of the Upper + Town. It was begun about the year 1220, and is considered one of the + finest specimens left of pointed Gothic. It is said to have been + completed in 1273, with the exception of the two towers which were added + in the 14th or 15th century. Some of the stained glass is very rich, + dating from the 13th to the 15th century. In many of the windows there + are figures of leading members of the houses of Burgundy and Habsburg. + The curious oak pulpit representing Adam and Eve expelled from the Garden + of Eden came originally from the Jesuit church at Louvain, and is + considered the masterpiece of Verbruggen. The church of the Sablon is + said to have been founded in 1304 by the gild of Crossbowmen to celebrate + the battle of Woeringen. In a side chapel is a fine monument to the + princely family of Thurn and Taxis, which had the monopoly of the postal + service in the old empire. La Chapelle is still older, dating nominally + from 1210, the choir and transept being considered to date from about + fifty years later. There are some fine monuments, especially one to the + duke de Croy who died in 1624. The two churches last named have undergone + much renovation both outside and inside.</p> + + <p>The Grand Place is by its associations one of the most interesting + public squares in Europe. On its flags were fought out many feuds between + rival gilds; Egmont and Horn, and many other gallant men whose names have + been forgotten, were executed here under the shadow of its ancient + buildings, and in more recent times Dumouriez proclaimed the French + Republic where the dukes of Brabant and Burgundy were wont to hold their + jousts. Apart from its associations the Grand Place contains two of the + finest and most ornate buildings not merely in the capital but in + Belgium. Of these the hôtel de ville, which is far the larger of the two, + occupies the greater part of the south side of the square. Its facade has + the disadvantage of having had one half begun about half a century before + the other. The older, which is the richer in design, forms the left side + of the building and dates from 1410, while the right, less rich and + shorter, was begun in 1443. The fine tower, 360 ft. in height, is crowned + by the golden copper figure of St Michael, 16 ft. in height, erected here + as early as 1454. This tower lies behind the extremity of the left wing + of the building. Opposite the town-hall is the smaller but extremely + ornate Maison du Roi. This was never a royal residence as the name would + seem to imply, but its description appears to have been derived from the + fact that it was usually in this building that the royal address was read + to the states-general. As this building was almost destroyed by + Villeroi's bombardment it possesses no claim to antiquity, indeed the + existing building was only completed in 1877. Egmont and Horn were + sentenced in the hôtel de ville, and passed their last night in the + Maison du Roi.</p> + + <p>Among the principal buildings erected in the city during the 18th + century are the king's palace and the house of parliament or Palais de la + Nation, which face the south and north sides of the park respectively. + The palace occupies part of the site covered by the old palace burnt down + in 1731, and it was built in the reign of the empress Maria Theresa. It + originally consisted of two detached buildings, but in 1826-1827 King + William I. of the Netherlands caused them to be connected. The palace + contains two fine rooms used for court ceremonies, and a considerable + number of pictures. In 1904 a bill was passed in the chambers for the + enlargement and embellishment of the palace. The adjacent buildings, viz. + the department of the civil list, formerly the residence of the marquis + d'Assche, and the Hôtel de Bellevue, held under a kind of perpetual lease + granted by the empress Maria Theresa, were absorbed in the palace, and a + new façade was constructed which occupies the entire length of the Place + du Palais. At the same time a piece was cut off the park to prevent the + undue contraction of the Place by the necessary bringing forward of the + palace, and the pits which played a certain part in the revolution of + 1830 when the Dutch defended the park for a few days against the Belgians + were filled up. The Palais de la Nation was constructed between 1779 and + 1783, also during the Austrian period. It was intended for the + states-general and government offices. During the French occupation the + law courts sat there, and from 1817 to 1830 it was assigned for the + sittings of the states-general. It is now divided between the senate and + the chamber of representatives. In 1833 the part assigned to the latter + was burnt out, and has since been reconstructed. The buildings flanking + the chambers and nearer the park are government offices with residences + for the ministers attached.</p> + + <p>The improvements effected in Brussels during the 19th century were + enormous, and completely transformed the city. The removal of the old + wall was followed by the creation of the quartier Léopold, and at a later + period of the quartier Louis in the Upper Town. In the lower, under the + energetic direction of two burgomasters, De Brouckere and Anspach, not + less sweeping changes were effected. The Senne was bricked in, and the + fine boulevards du Nord, Anspach, Hainaut and Midi took the place of + slums. The Bourse and the post-office are two fine modern buildings in + this quarter of the city. The Column of the Congress—<i>i.e.</i> of + the Belgian representatives who founded the kingdom of + Belgium—surmounted by a statue of King Leopold I., was erected in + 1859, and in 1866 the foundation-stone was laid of the Palais de Justice, + which was not finished till 1883, at a cost of sixty million francs. This + edifice, the design of the architect Poelaert, is in the style of Karnak + and Nineveh, but surmounted with a dome, and impresses by its grandiose + proportions (see <span class="sc">Architecture</span>, Plate XI. fig. + 121). It is well placed on the brow of the hill at the southern extremity + of the rue de la Régence (the prolongation of the rue Royale), and can be + seen from great distances. In the rue de la Régence are the new picture + gallery, a fine building with an exceedingly good collection of pictures, + the palace of the count of Flanders, and the garden of the Petit Sablon, + which contains statues of Egmont and Horn, and a large number of + statuettes representing the various gilds and handicrafts. Immediately + above this garden is the Palais d'Arenberg. Perhaps the memorial that + attracts the greatest amount of public interest in Brussels is that to + the Belgians who were killed during the fighting with the Dutch in + September 1830. This has been erected in a little square called the Place + des Martyrs, not far from the Monnaie theatre. Outside Brussels at Evere + is the chief cemetery, with fine monuments to the British officers killed + at Waterloo (removed from the church in that village), to the French + soldiers who died on Belgian soil in 1870-71, and another to the + Prussians.</p> + + <p>Many as were the changes in Brussels during the 19th century, those in + progress at its close and at the beginning of the 20th have effected a + marked alteration in the town. These have been rendered possible only by + the excellent system of electric tramways which have brought districts + formerly classed as pure country within reach of the citizens. The + construction of the fine Avenue de Louise (1½ m. long) from the Boulevard + de Waterloo to the Bois de la Cambre was the first of these efforts to + bring the remote suburbs within easy reach, at the same time furnishing + an approach to the "bois" of Brussels that might in some degree be + compared with the Champs Élysées in Paris. Another avenue of later + construction (6½ m. in length) connects the park of the Cinquantenaire + with Tervueren. This route is extremely <!-- Page 694 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page694"></a>[v.04 p.0694]</span>picturesque, + traverses part of the forest of Soignies, and is lined by many + fashionable villas and country houses. Other improvements projected in + 1908 on the slope of the hill immediately below the Place Royale included + the removal of the old tortuous and steep street called the "Montagne de + la Cour" to give place to a Mont des Arts. A little lower down and not + far from the university (which occupies the house of the famous cardinal + Granvelle of the 16th century) a central railway terminus was designed on + a vast scale. These improvements connote the obliteration of the + insanitary and overcrowded courts and alleys which were to be found + between all the main streets, few in number, connecting the upper and the + lower towns. The ridge on the west and north-west of the Senne valley + never formed part of the town, and it was from it that Villeroi bombarded + the city. The suburbs on this ridge, from south to north, are Anderlecht, + Molenbeek and Koekelberg, and Laeken with its royal château and park + forms the northern part of the Brussels conglomeration. Brussels has been + growing at such a rapid rate that the inclusion of this ridge, and more + particularly at Koekelberg, within the town limits, was contemplated in + 1908.</p> + + <p>The completion of the harbour works, making Brussels a seaport by + giving sea-going vessels access thereto, was taken in hand in 1897. The + completed work provides for a waterway for steamers drawing 24 ft. by the + Willibroek Canal into the Ruppel and the Scheldt. There are steamers + plying direct from Brussels to London, and 372 vessels of a total tonnage + of 76,000 entered and left the port in 1905. The Willibroek Canal was + made in the 16th century, and William I. of the Netherlands is entitled + to the credit of having first thought of converting it into a ship canal + from Brussels to the Scheldt. Nothing was done, however, in his time to + carry out the scheme. The distance from Brussels to the Ruppel is only 20 + m., and thus Brussels is only about 33 m. farther from the sea than + Antwerp.</p> + + <p>In addition to the advantages it enjoys from being the seat of the + court and the government, Brussels is the centre of many prosperous + industries. The manufactures of lace, carpets and curtains, furniture and + carriages may be particularly mentioned, but it is chiefly as a place of + residence for the well-to-do that the city has increased in size and + population. Schools of all kinds are abundant. At the École Militaire + youths are trained nominally for the army, but many go there who intend + to enter one of the professions or the public service. This school used + to occupy part of the old abbey of the Cambre, situated in a hollow near + the bois and the avenue Louise, but owing to its insanitary position it + has been removed to a new building near the Cinquantenaire. There is a + university, to which admission is easy and where the fees are moderate, + and the Conservatoire provides as good musical teaching as can be found + in Europe. Music can be enjoyed every day in the year either out of doors + or under cover. During the winter and spring the opera continues without + a break at the Théâtre de la Monnaie, which may be called the national + theatre. Concerts are held frequently, as the Belgians are a musical + people. Of late years sport has taken a prominent part in Belgian life. + There are athletic institutions, and football is quite a popular game. + Horse-racing has also come into vogue, and Boitsfort, in the bois, and + Groenendael, farther off in the Forêt de Soignies, are fashionable places + of reunion for society.</p> + + <p>The town of Brussels has a separate administration, which is directed + by a burgomaster and sheriffs at the head of a town council, whose + headquarters are in the hôtel de ville. In the Brussels agglomeration are + nine suburbs or communes, each self-governing with burgomaster and + sheriffs located in a Maison Communale. These suburbs (beginning on the + north and following the circumference eastward) are Schaerbeek, St + Josse-ten-Noode, Etterbeek, Ixelles, St Gilles, Cureghem, Anderlecht, + Molenbeek and Koekelberg. Laeken, which is really a tenth suburb, is + classified as a town. In 1856 the population of Brussels alone was + 152,828, and by 1880 it had only increased to 162,498. In 1890 the + figures were 176,138; in 1900, 183,686; and in December 1904, 194,196. + The great increase has been in the suburbs, amounting to nearly 80% in + twenty-five years. In 1880 the population of the ten suburbs including + Laeken was 248,079. In 1904 the total was 436,453, thus giving for the + whole of Brussels a grand total of 630,649.</p> + + <p><i>History.</i>—The name Brussel seems to have been derived from + Broeksele, the village on the marsh or brook, and probably it was the + most used point for crossing the Senne on the main Roman and Frank road + between Tournai and Cologne. The Senne, a small tributary of the Scheldt, + flows through the lower town, but since 1868 it has been covered in, and + some of the finest boulevards in the lower town have been constructed + over the course of the little river. The name Broeksele is mentioned by + the chroniclers in the 8th century, and in the 10th the church of Ste + Gudule is said to have been endowed by the emperor Otto I. In the next + two centuries Brussels grew in size and importance, and its trade gilds + were formed on lines similar to those of Ghent. In 1312 Duke John II. of + Brabant granted the citizens their charter, distinguished from others as + that of Cortenberg. In 1356 Duke Wenceslas confirmed this charter and + also the Golden Bull of the emperor Charles IV. of 1349 by his famous + "Joyous Entry" into Louvain, the capital of the duchy. These three deeds + or enactments constituted the early constitution of the South + Netherlands, which, with one important modification in the time of + Charles V., remained intact till the Brabant revolution in the reign of + Joseph II. In 1357 Wenceslas ordered a new wall embracing a greater area + than the earlier one to be constructed round Brussels, and this was + practically intact until after the Belgian revolution in 1830-1831. It + took twelve, or, according to others, twenty-two years to build. In 1383 + the dukes of Brabant transferred their capital from Louvain to Brussels, + although for some time they did not trust themselves out of the strong + castle which they had erected at Vilvorde, half-way between the two + turbulent cities. During this period the population of Brussels is + supposed to have been 50,000, or one-fifth of that of Ghent. In 1420 the + gilds of Brussels obtained a further charter recognizing their status as + the Nine Nations, a division still existing. Having fixed their seat of + government at Brussels the dukes of Brabant proceeded to build a castle + and place of residence on the Caudenberg hill, which is practically the + site of the Place Royale and the king's palace to-day. This ducal + residence, enlarged and embellished by its subsequent occupants, became + eventually the famous palace of the Netherlands which witnessed the + abdication of Charles V. in 1555, and was destroyed by fire in 1731. In + 1430 died Philip, last duke of Brabant as a separate ruler, and the duchy + was merged in the possessions of the duke of Burgundy.</p> + + <p>In the 17th century Brussels was described (Comte de Ségur, quoting + the memoirs of M. de la Serre) as "one of the finest, largest and + best-situated cities not only of Brabant but of the whole of Europe. The + old quarters which preserve in our time an aspect so singularly + picturesque with their sloping and tortuous streets, the fine hotels of + darkened stone sculptured in the Spanish fashion, and the magnificence of + the Place of the hôtel de ville were buried behind an enceinte of walls + pierced by eight lofty gates flanked with one hundred and twenty-seven + round towers at almost equal distance from each other like the balls of a + crown. At a distance of less than a mile was the forest of Soignies with + great numbers of stags, red and roe deer, that were hunted on horseback + even under the ramparts of the town. On the promenade of the court there + circulated in a long file ceaselessly during fashionable hours five or + six hundred carriages, the servants in showy liveries. In the numerous + churches the music was renowned, the archduke Leopold being passionately + given to the art, maintaining at his own cost forty or fifty musicians, + the best of Italy and Germany. Under the windows of the palace stretched + the same park that we admire to-day, open all the year to privileged + persons and twice a year to the public, a park filled with trees of rare + essences and the most delicious flowers so artistically disposed, and so + refreshing to the eyes, that M. de la Serre declared that if he had seen + there an apple tree he would assuredly have taken it for an earthly + Paradise."</p> + + <p>(D. C. B.)</p> + + <p><b>BRUT</b>, <span class="sc">Brute</span>, or <span class="sc">Brutus + the Trojan</span>, a legendary British character, who, according to + Geoffrey of Monmouth and others, <!-- Page 695 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page695"></a>[v.04 p.0695]</span>was the + eponymous hero of Britain. He was reputed to be grandson of Aeneas, and + the legend was that he was banished from Italy and made his way to + Britain, where he founded New Troy (London). The name is an obvious + confusion between Bryt (a Briton) and the classical name Brutus.</p> + + <p>For the romance literature of the subject see <span + class="sc">Wace</span>; and <span class="sc">Barbour</span>.</p> + + <p><b>BRUTÉ, SIMON WILLIAM GABRIEL</b> (1779-1839), American prelate, + first Roman Catholic bishop of the diocese of Vincennes, Indiana, U.S.A., + was born at Rennes, France, on the 20th of March 1779, his father, Simon + Gabriel Guillaume Bruté de Remur (1729-1786), being superintendent of the + crown lands in Brittany. He was educated for the medical profession, but + entered the Sulpician Seminary of Paris in November 1803, was ordained + priest in 1808, refused the post of chaplain to Napoleon, was professor + of theology in the Diocesan Seminary at Rennes in 1808-1810, and in + August 1810 settled in Baltimore, Maryland, whither his long general + interest in missions, and particularly his acquaintance with Bishop + Flaget of Kentucky, had drawn him. After teaching for two years + (1810-1812) in Baltimore, he was sent to Mount St Mary's College, + Emmitsburg, Maryland, where he remained until 1815, acting both as + teacher and as pastor. He next visited France in the interest of American + missions, and on his return in November 1815, became president of St + Mary's College, Baltimore. In 1818 he resumed his labours at Emmitsburg, + and from this time until 1834 he held an almost unparalleled place in the + American church, being constantly consulted by clergy throughout the + country, besides lecturing, teaching, preaching and caring for his + parish. The see of Vincennes was created in 1834; and Bruté, nominated + its first bishop and consecrated in the same year, went to France for + financial aid, with which he built his cathedral and several useful + institutions. Here, too, he was professor of theology in his seminary, + teacher in one of his academies, as well as pastor and bishop. + Interesting stories are told of the high respect in which he was held by + the neighbouring Indians, who called him "chief of the Black robes" and + "man of the true prayer." He died in Vincennes, Indiana, on the 26th of + June 1839. His great influence on the entire church, his wonderful + success in planning, financing, and carrying out necessary ecclesiastical + reforms, and the constructive and executive ability he displayed in his + diocese, make him one of the foremost Catholic emigrants to the United + States. He wrote <i>Brief Notes</i> on his experiences in France in 1793, + in which he describes state persecution of Catholic priests.</p> + + <p>See James Roosevelt Bayley, <i>The Memoirs of the Rt. Rev. Simon + William Gabriel Bruté, First Bishop of Vincennes</i> (New York, 1861), + containing much autobiographical matter.</p> + + <p><b>BRUTTII,</b> an ancient tribe of lower Italy. This tribe, called + Bruttii and Brittii in Latin inscriptions, and <span title="Brettioi" class="grk" + >Βρέττιοι</span> on Greek coins + and by Greek authors, occupied the south-western peninsula of Italy in + historical times, the <i>ager Bruttius</i> (wrongly called + <i>Bruttium</i>) corresponding almost exactly to the modern Calabria. It + was separated from Lucania on the north by a line drawn from the mouth of + the river Lāus on the west to a point a little south of the river + Crathis on the east. To part or the whole of this peninsula the name + <i>Italia</i> was first applied. In alliance with the Lucanians the + Bruttii made war on the Greek colonies of the coast and seized on Vibo in + 356 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, and, though for a time overcome by + the Greeks who were aided by Alexander of Epirus and Agathocles of + Syracuse, they reasserted their mastery of the town from about the + beginning of the 3rd century <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, and held it + until it became a Latin colony at the end of the same century (see + <i>Corp. Inscr. Lat.</i> x. p. 7, and the references there given). At + this time they were speaking Oscan as well as Greek, and two of three + Oscan inscriptions in Greek alphabet still testify to the language spoken + in the town in the 3rd century <span class="scac">B.C.</span> We know, + however, that the Bruttians, though at this date speaking the same + language (Oscan) as the Samnite tribe of the Lucani, were not actually + akin to them. The name <i>Bruttii</i> was used by the Lucanians to mean + "runaway slaves," but it is considerably more likely that this + signification was attached to the tribal name of the Bruttii from the + historical fact that they had been conquered and expelled by the Samnite + invaders (cf. the use of <span title="Skuthai" class="grk" + >Σκύθαι</span> to mean "policemen" at + Athens, and still more closely the German, French and English word + "slave" derived from "Slav"), than that the tribe when living in + territory it could call its own should have adopted an opprobrious name + taken from the language of hostile neighbours (see Strabo vi. I, 4; Diod. + Sic. xvi. 15). Mommsen pointed out (<i>Unterital. Dialekte</i>, p. 97) + the evidence of tradition (especially Aristotle, <i>Pol</i>. 4 [7] 10) + showing that the customs of the Bruttii had a certain affinity with those + of the pre-Hellenic inhabitants of Greece, and it has been argued + (Ridgeway <i>apud</i> Conway, <i>Ital. Dialects</i>, p. 16) that a + tradition (preserved in Stephanus of Byzantium, <i>s.v.</i> <span + title="Chioi" class="grk">Χῖοι</span>) made it + probable that they were called <span title="Pelasgoi" class="grk" + >Πέλασγοι</span>. This + evidence points to the conjecture that they were part of what is now + generally called the Mediterranean race (see, <i>e.g.</i> G. Sergi, + <i>The Mediterranean Race</i>, Eng. trans., 1901; W.Z. Ripley, <i>Races + of Europe</i>, p. 128). Many Indo-European elements appear in their + place-names (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Sila</i>=Latin <i>silva</i>, Greek <span + title="hulê" class="grk">ὕλη</span>; <i>Temesa</i>, cf. + Gr. <span title="temenos" class="grk" + >τέμενος</span> or Sanskrit + <i>tamas</i>, darkness, shadow), and none that suggest a + non-Indo-European origin. <i>A priori</i> considerations suggest that + they may have been akin to the Siceli, but of this at present no positive + evidence can be given.</p> + + <p>As we have seen, the Bruttii were at the height of their power during + the 3rd century <span class="scac">B.C.</span> Their chief towns were + Consentia (Cosenza), Petelia (near Strongoli), and Clampetia (Amantea). + To this period (about the time of the Roman War against Pyrrhus) is to be + assigned the series of their coins, and they appear to have retained the + right of coinage even after their final subjugation by the Romans (see + B.V. Head, <i>Historia Numorum</i>, p. 77). The influence of Hellenism + over them is shown by finds in the tombs and the fact that they spoke the + Greek language as well as their own (<i>bilingues</i> in Ennius). The + mountainous country, ill-suited for agricultural purposes, was well + adapted for these hardy warriors, whose training was Spartan in its + simplicity and severity.</p> + + <p>The Bruttii first came into collision with the Romans during the war + with Pyrrhus, to whom they sent auxiliaries; after his defeat, they + submitted, and were deprived of half their territory in the Sila forest, + which was declared state property. In the war with Hannibal, they were + among the first to declare in his favour after the battle of Cannae, and + it was in their country that Hannibal held his ground during the last + stage of the war (at Castrum Hannibalis on the gulf of Scylacium).</p> + + <p>(R. S. C.)</p> + + <p>The Bruttii entirely lost their freedom at the end of the Hannibalic + war; in 194 colonies of Roman citizens were founded at Tempsa and Croton, + and a colony with Latin rights at Hipponium called henceforward Vibo + Valentia. In 132 the consul P. Popillius built the great inland road from + Capua through Vibo and Consentia to Rhegium, while the date of the + construction of the east and west coast roads is uncertain. Neither in + the Social War, nor in the rising of Spartacus, who held out a long time + in the Sila (71 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>), do the Bruttii play a + part as a people. Vibo was the naval base of Octavian in the conflict + with Sextus Pompeius (42-36 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>).</p> + + <p>The most important product of the district was the wood from the + forests of the Sila, and the pitch produced from it. The Sila also + contained minerals, which were worked out in very early times. The coast + plains were in parts very fertile, especially the (now malarious) lower + valley of the Crathis. Under the empire, however, the whole district + remained backward and was remarkable for the absence of important towns, + as the scarcity of ancient inscriptions, both Greek and Latin, shows: the + Sila was state domain, and most of the rest in the hands of large + proprietors. Augustus joined it with Lucania (from which it was divided + by the rivers Laus and Crathis) to form the third region of Italy. In the + 2nd and 3rd centuries, for administrative and juridical purposes, it was + sometimes (with Lucania) joined to Apulia and Calabria. Diocletian placed + Lucania and Brittii (as the name was then spelt) under a + <i>corrector</i>, whose residence was at Rhegium. The boundaries of the + original third Augustan region had by that time become somewhat altered, + Metapontum belonging to Calabria, and Salernum and the territory of the + Picentini to the third region instead of the first (Campania). From the + 6th century, after the fall of <!-- Page 696 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page696"></a>[v.04 p.0696]</span>the Ostrogothic power, and the + establishment of that of Byzantium in its place in south Italy, the name + Calabria was applied to the whole of the south Italian possessions of the + Eastern empire, and the name of the Brittii entirely disappeared; and + after the eastern peninsula (the ancient Calabria) had been taken by the + Lombards about <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 668, the western retained + the name, and has kept it till the present day.</p> + + <p>(<span class="sc">T. As.</span>)</p> + + <p>See Strabo vi. p. 253-265; Dion. Halic. xx. I, 4, 15; Pliny, <i>Nat. + Hist.</i> iii. 71-74; Justin xii. 2, xxiii. 1; F. Lenormant, <i>La + Grande-Grèce</i>, i. (1881-1884); H. Nissen, <i>Italische Landeskunde</i> + (1883-1902); C. Hulsen in Pauly-Wissowa's <i>Realencyclopädie</i>, iii. + pt. i. (1897); E.H. Bunbury in Smith's <i>Dictionary of Greek and Roman + Geography</i>; R.S. Conway, <i>The Italic Dialects</i> (1897), for + Bruttian inscriptions and local and personal names; P. Orsi in <i>Atti + del congresso storico</i> (Rome, 1904), v. 193 seq.; M. Schipa, <i>La + Migrazione del nome Calabria</i> (1895), whose conclusions are summarized + in J.B. Bury's edition of Gibbon's <i>Decline and Fall</i>, v. p. 24, + note; other authorities in J. Jung, "Geographie von Italien" (1897) in I. + Müller's <i>Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft</i>, iii. + Abteilung 3.</p> + + <p><b>BRUTUS</b> (originally an adjective meaning "heavy," "stupid," + kindred with Gr. <span title="barus" class="grk" + >βαρύς</span>, cf. Eng. "brute," "brutal"), + the surname of several distinguished Romans belonging to the Junian + gens.</p> + + <p>I. <span class="sc">Lucius Junius Brutus</span>, one of the first two + consuls, 509 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> According to the legends, his + mother was the sister of Tarquinius Superbus, the last of the Roman + kings, and his father and his elder brother had been put to death by the + reigning family in order to get possession of his wealth. Junius, the + younger, owed his safety to his reputed dullness of intellect (whence his + surname), which character, however, he had only assumed for prudential + reasons (Dion. Halic. iv. 67, 77). The story is probably an invention to + account for his name; in any case his dullness did not prevent his + appointment as master of the horse. When Lucretia, wife of Collatinus, + was outraged by Sextus Tarquinius (the incident which inspired + Shakespeare's <i>Rape of Lucrece</i>), Brutus, together with her husband + and father, took a leading part in expelling the Tarquinii from Rome. He + and Collatinus were therefore elected consuls—or rather praetors, + which was the original title (Livy i. 59). In a conspiracy formed for the + restoration of the dynasty, the two sons of Brutus were deeply + implicated, and were executed by sentence of their father, and in his + sight (Livy ii. 3). The Etruscans of Veii and Tarquinii making an attempt + to restore Tarquinius, a battle took place between them and the Romans, + in which Junius Brutus engaged Aruns, son of the deposed king, in single + combat on horseback, and each fell by the other's hand (Livy ii. 6; Dion. + Halic. v. 14). The Roman matrons mourned a year for him, as "the avenger + of woman's honour," and a statue was erected to him on the Capitol. The + conspiracy of his sons is the subject of a tragedy by Voltaire.</p> + + <p>The patrician branch of the family appears to have become extinct with + L. Junius Brutus; the chief representatives of the plebeian branch in + later times are dealt with below.</p> + + <p>II. <span class="sc">Decimus Junius Brutus</span>, consul 138, + surnamed Gallaecus from his victory over the Gallaeci (136) in the + north-west of Spain (Plutarch, <i>Tib. Gracchus</i>, 21). He was a highly + educated man, a patron of literature, and a friend of the poet Accius + (Livy, <i>Epit.</i> 55; Appian, <i>Hisp.</i> 71-73; Vell. Pat. ii. 5; + Cicero, <i>Brutus</i>, 28).</p> + + <p>III. <span class="sc">Marcus Junius Brutus</span>, a jurist of high + authority, was considered as one of the founders of Roman civil law + (Cicero, <i>De Oratore</i>, ii. 33, 55).</p> + + <p>IV. His son, of the same name, made a great reputation at the bar, and + from the vehemence and bitterness of his speeches became known as "the + Accuser" (Cicero, <i>De Officiis</i>, ii. 15).</p> + + <p>V. <span class="sc">Decimus Junius Brutus</span> (Albinus), born about + 84 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, first served under Caesar in Gaul, and + afterwards commanded his fleet. Caesar, who esteemed him very highly, + made him his master of the horse and governor of Gaul, and, in case of + Octavian's death, nominated him as one of his heirs. Nevertheless he + joined in the conspiracy against his patron, and, like his relative + Marcus Junius Brutus (see below), was one of his assassins. He afterwards + resisted the attempt of Antony to obtain absolute power; and after + heading the republican armies against him for some time with success, was + deserted by his soldiers in Gaul, betrayed by one of the native chiefs, + and put to death by order of Antony (43), while attempting to escape to + Brutus and Cassius in Macedonia. He figures in Cicero's correspondence. + (See Appian, <i>B.C.</i> iii. 97; Dio Cassius xlvi. 53; Caesar, + <i>B.G.</i> iii. 11, <i>B.C.</i> i. 36, 45.)</p> + + <p>VI. <span class="sc">Marcus Junius Brutus</span> (85, according to + some, 79 or 78-42 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>), son of a father of the + same name and of Servilia, half-sister of Cato of Utica, is the most + famous of the name, and is the real hero of Shakespeare's <i>Julius + Caesar.</i> His father had been treacherously put to death by order of + Pompey during the civil wars. At that time young Marcus was only eight + years old, and was educated with great care by his mother and uncles. He + at first practised as an advocate. In spite of his father's fate, he + supported the cause of Pompey against Caesar, but was pardoned by the + latter after the victory of Pharsalus, and subsequently appointed by him + to the government of Cisalpine Gaul (46). His justice and moderation won + him great honour from the provincials under his rule. In 44 he was city + praetor, and Caesar promised him the governorship of Macedonia at the + expiration of his term of office. Influenced probably by his friend Gaius + Cassius, he afterwards joined in the conspiracy against the great + dictator, and was one of the foremost in his assassination. He maintained + the cause of the republic by seizing and holding against Antony's forces + the province of Macedonia, where he was joined by Cassius. But at + Philippi (42) they were defeated by Antony and Octavian, and, rather than + be taken prisoner, he fell on his sword. His wife Porcia, daughter of + Cato of Utica, afterwards committed suicide, it is said, by swallowing + red-hot coals (Dio Cassius xlvii. 20-49; Plutarch, <i>Brutus</i>; Appian, + <i>B.C.</i> iv.; Vell. Paterculus ii. 72).</p> + + <p>Brutus was an earnest student through all his active life, and is said + to have been working on an abridgment of Pausanias the night before + Pharsalus. He was generally friendly with Cicero, who dedicated several + of his works to him (amongst them his <i>Orator</i>), and gave the name + of <i>Brutus</i> to his dialogue on famous orators; but there were + frequent disagreements between them, and Cicero frequently speaks of his + coldness and lack of enthusiasm. It is difficult to understand his great + influence over the Romans (he was only forty-three when he died); + probably they admired him for his respectability, the old-fashioned + <i>gravitas</i>. He was slow in decision, amazingly obstinate, lacking in + sympathy save towards his womenkind—who unduly influenced + him—and in his financial dealings with the provincials both + extortionate and cruel (Cic. <i>ad Att.</i> vi. 1. 7). Shakespeare's + portrait of him is far too flattering. It has been held that he was + really an illegitimate son of Julius Caesar. If so we may find an + explanation of his joining the conspirators by the fact that in 45 Caesar + had appointed Octavian as his heir. He wrote several philosophical + treatises (<i>de Virtute</i>, <i>de Officiis</i>, <i>de Patientia</i>) + and some poetry, but nothing has survived. On the other hand, we possess + part of his correspondence with Cicero (two books out of an original + nine), the authenticity of which, though formerly disputed, is now + regarded as firmly established, with the possible exception of two of the + letters. The letters of Brutus written in Greek are probably the + composition of some rhetorician.</p> + + <p>See E.T. Bynum, <i>Das Leben des M.J. Brutus</i> (Halle a/S., 1898); + Tyrrell and Purser's edition of Cicero's <i>Letters</i> (refs. in index + vol. <i>s.v.</i>, "Iunius Brutus," especially introductions to vols. iii. + and v.); G. Boissier, <i>Cicero and his Friends</i> (Eng. trans. 1897); + J.L. Strachan-Davidson, <i>Cicero</i> (1894); other authorities under + <span class="sc">Caesar; Cicero</span>.</p> + + <p><b>BRÜX,</b> a town of Bohemia, Austria, 93 m. N.N.W. of Prague by + rail. Pop. (1900) 21,525. It is dominated by the Schlossberg (1307 ft.), + on which is situated the ruins of an old castle, demolished in 1651, and + possesses a very interesting church, in late-Gothic style, built in 1517. + Brüx is situated in the centre of a region very rich in lignite deposits + and has, besides, important sugar, iron and hardware, distilling, brewing + and milling industries. To the south of Brüx are the villages of Püllna, + Seidlitz and Seidschutz with well-known saline springs. Brüx is mentioned + in documents of the early 11th century. It fell to the crown under + Přemysl I. or Wenceslaus II. <!-- Page 697 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page697"></a>[v.04 p.0697]</span>and was made a + royal city by Ottakar II. in the 13th century. In 1421 the Hussites were + defeated here by King Sigismund and the Saxons, and in 1426 besieged the + town in vain. In 1456 George of Poděbrad captured the town and + castle, which had for some time been occupied by the Saxon princes.</p> + + <p><b>BRY, THEODORUS</b> [<span class="sc">Dirk</span>] <b>DE</b> + (1528-1598), German engraver and publisher, was born at Liége in 1528. In + the earlier years of his career he worked at Strassburg. Later he + established an engraving and publishing business at Frankfort-On-Main, + and also visited London in or before 1587. Here he became acquainted with + the geographer Richard Hakluyt, with whose assistance he collected + materials for a finely illustrated collection of voyages and travels, + <i>Collectiones Peregrinationum in Indiam Orientalem et Indiam + Occidentalem</i> (25 parts, 1590-1634). Among other works he engraved a + set of 12 plates illustrating the Procession of the Knights of the Garter + in 1576, and a set of 34 plates illustrating the Procession at the + Obsequies of Sir Philip Sidney; plates for T. Hariot's <i>Briefe and True + Report of the new found Land of Virginia</i> (Frankfort, 1595); the + plates for the first four volumes of J.J. Boissard's <i>Romanae Urbis + Topographia et Antiquitates</i> (1597-1598), and a series of portraits + entitled <i>Icones Virorum Illustrium</i> (1597-1599). De Bry died at + Frankfort on the 27th of March 1598. He had been assisted by his eldest + son Johannes Theodorus de Bry (1561-1623), who after his father's death + carried on the <i>Collectiones</i> and the illustration of Boissard's + work, and also added to the <i>Icones.</i> His brother Johannes Israel de + Bry (d. 1611) collaborated with him.</p> + + <p><b>BRYAN, WILLIAM JENNINGS</b> (1860- ), American political leader, + son of Silas Lillard Bryan, a native of Culpeper county, Virginia, who + was a lawyer and from 1860 to 1897 a state circuit judge, was born at + Salem, Marion county, Illinois, on the 19th of March 1860. He graduated + from Illinois College as valedictorian in 1881, and from the Union + College of Law, Chicago, in 1883; during his course he studied in the law + office of Lyman Trumbull. He practised law at Jacksonville from 1883 to + 1887, when he removed to Lincoln, Nebraska. There he soon became + conspicuous both as a lawyer and as a politician, attracting particular + attention by his speeches during the presidential campaign of 1888 on + behalf of the candidates of the Democratic party. From 1891 to 1895 he + represented the First Congressional District of Nebraska, normally + Republican, in the national House of Representatives, and received the + unusual honour of being placed on the important Committee on Ways and + Means during his first term. He was a hard and conscientious worker and + became widely known for his ability in debate. Two of his speeches in + particular attracted attention, one against the policy of protection + (16th of March 1892), and the other against the repeal of the silver + purchase clause of the Sherman Act (16th of August 1893). In the latter + he advocated the unlimited coinage of silver, irrespective of + international agreement, at a ratio of 16 to 1, a policy with which his + name was afterwards most prominently associated. In a campaign largely + restricted to the question of free-silver coinage he was defeated for + re-election in 1894, and subsequently was also defeated as the Democratic + candidate for the United States Senate. As editor of the <i>Omaha + World-Herald</i> he then championed the cause of bimetallism in the press + as vigorously as he had in Congress and on the platform, his articles + being widely quoted and discussed.</p> + + <p>The Democratic party was even more radically divided on the question + of monetary policy than the Republican; and President Cleveland, by + securing the repeal of the silver purchase clause in the Sherman Act by + Republican votes, had alienated a great majority of his party. In the + Democratic national convention at Chicago in 1896, during a long and + heated debate with regard to the party platform, Bryan, in advocating the + "plank" declaring for the free coinage of silver, of which he was the + author, delivered a celebrated speech containing the passage, "You shall + not press down upon the brow of labour this crown of thorns; you shall + not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold." This speech made him the idol + of the "silver" majority of the convention and brought him the Democratic + nomination for the presidency on the following day. Subsequently he + received the nominations of the People's and National Silver parties. In + the ensuing presidential campaign he travelled over 18,000 m. and made + altogether 600 speeches in 27 different states—an unprecedented + number. In the election, however, he was defeated by William McKinley, + the Republican candidate, receiving 176 electoral votes to 271. But + though defeated, he remained the leader of his party. Between 1896 and + 1900, except during the Spanish-American War when he was colonel of the + 3rd Nebraska Volunteers, though he saw no active service, he devoted his + time to the interest of his party. His ability, sincerity of character, + and wide information, and his attitude towards the new issues arising + from the war, in which he took the side opposed to "imperialism," + increased his following. Although he had advised the ratification of the + Peace Treaty, he opposed the permanent acquisition of the Philippine + Islands. In 1900 he was nominated for the presidency by the Democratic, + Silver Republican, and Populist party conventions; but although + "imperialism" was declared to be the paramount issue, he had insisted + that the "platforms" should contain explicit advocacy of free-coinage, + and this declaration, combined with the popularity of President McKinley, + the Republican candidate for re-election, again turned the scales against + him. In the November election after a canvass that almost equalled in + activity that of 1896 he was again defeated, receiving only 155 electoral + votes to 292.</p> + + <p>After the 1900 election he established and edited at Lincoln a weekly + political journal, <i>The Commoner</i>, which attained a wide + circulation. In 1904 although not actively a candidate for the Democratic + nomination (which eventually went to Judge Parker), he was to the very + last considered a possible nominee; and he strenuously opposed in the + convention the repudiation by the conservative element of the stand taken + in the two previous campaigns. The decisive defeat of Parker by President + Roosevelt did much to bring back the Democrats to Mr Bryan's banner. In + 1905-1906 he made a trip round the world, and in London was cordially + received as a great American orator. He was again nominated for the + presidency by the Democratic party in 1908. The free-silver theory was + now dead, and while the main question was that of the attitude to be + taken towards the Trusts it was much confused by personal issues, Mr + Roosevelt himself intervening strongly in favour of the Republican + nominee, Mr Taft. After a heated contest Mr Bryan again suffered a + decisive defeat, President Taft securing 321 electoral votes to Mr + Bryan's 162.</p> + + <p><b>BRYANSK,</b> a town of Russia, in the government of Orel, 83 m. by + rail W.N.W. of the city of that name, in 53° 15′ N. and 34° + 10′ E. on the river Desna. It is mentioned in 1146, being then also + known as Debryansk. It afterwards formed a separate principality, which + came to an end in 1356 with the death of the prince. After the Mongol + invasion of 1241, Bryansk fell into the power of the Lithuanians; and + finally became incorporated with the Russian empire in the beginning of + the 17th century. Bryansk was taken by the followers of the first false + Demetrius, but it successfully resisted the attacks of the second + impostor of that name. Under the empress Anne a dock was constructed for + the building of ships, but it was closed in 1739. In 1783 an arsenal was + established for the founding of cannon. The cathedral was built in 1526, + and restored in the end of the 17th century. There are two high schools; + and the industrial establishments include iron, rope, brick and + tallow-boiling works, saw-mills and flour-mills, tobacco-factories and a + brewery. Some distance north of the town are the Maltsov iron-works, with + glass factories and rope-walks, employing 20,000 men. A considerable + trade is carried on, especially in wood, tar, hemp, pitch, hemp-seed-oil + and cattle. In 1867 the population numbered 13,881, and in 1897 + 23,520.</p> + + <p><b>BRYANT, JACOB</b> (1715-1804), English antiquarian and writer on + mythological subjects, was born at Plymouth. His father had a place in + the customs there, but was afterwards stationed at Chatham. The son was + first sent to a school near <!-- Page 698 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page698"></a>[v.04 p.0698]</span>Rochester, whence he was removed + to Eton. In 1736 he was elected to a scholarship at King's College, + Cambridge, where he took his degrees of B.A. (1740) and M.A. (1744), + subsequently being elected a fellow. He returned to Eton as private tutor + to the duke of Marlborough, then marquess of Blandford; and in 1756 he + accompanied the duke, then master-general of ordnance and + commander-in-chief of the forces in Germany, to the continent as private + secretary. He was rewarded by a lucrative appointment in the ordnance + department, which allowed him ample leisure to indulge his literary + tastes. He twice refused the mastership of the Charterhouse. Bryant died + on the 14th of November 1804 at Cippenham near Windsor. He left his + library to King's College, having, however, previously made some valuable + presents from it to the king and the duke of Marlborough. He bequeathed + £2000 to the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, and £1000 for the + use of the superannuated collegers of Eton.</p> + + <p>His principal works are: <i>Observations and Inquiries relating to + various Parts of Ancient History</i> (1767); <i>A New System, or an + Analysis, of Ancient Mythology, wherein an attempt is made to divest + Tradition of Fable, and to reduce Truth to its original Purity</i> + (1774-1776), which is fantastic and now wholly valueless; <i>Vindication + of the Apamean Medal</i> (1775), which obtained the support of the great + numismatist Eckhel; <i>An Address to Dr Priestley upon his Doctrine of + Philosophical Necessity</i> (1780); <i>Vindiciae Flavianae, a Vindication + of the Testimony of Josephus concerning Jesus Christ</i> (1780); + <i>Observations on the Poems of Thomas Rowley, in which the Authenticity + of those Poems is ascertained</i> (1781); <i>Treatise upon the + Authenticity of the Scriptures, and the Truth of the Christian + Religion</i> (1792); <i>Observations upon the Plagues inflicted upon the + Egyptians</i> (1794); <i>Observations on a Treatise, entitled Description + of the Plain of Troy, by Mr de Chevalier</i> (1795); <i>A Dissertation + concerning the War of Troy, and the Expedition of the Grecians, as + described by Homer, with the view of showing that no such expedition was + ever undertaken, and that no such city as Phrygia existed</i> (1796); + <i>The Sentiments of Philo Judaeus concerning the <span title="Logos" class="grk" + >Λόγος</span> or Word of God</i> + (1797).</p> + + <p><b>BRYANT, WILLIAM CULLEN</b> (1794-1878), American poet and + journalist, was born at Cummington, a farming village in the Hampshire + hills of western Massachusetts, on the 3rd of November 1794. He was the + second son of Peter Bryant, a physician and surgeon of no mean + scholarship, refined in all his tastes, and a public-spirited citizen. + Peter Bryant was the great-grandson of Stephen Bryant, an English Puritan + emigrant to Massachusetts Bay about the year 1632. The poet's mother, + Sarah Snell, was a descendant of "Mayflower" pilgrims. He was born in the + log farmhouse built by his father two years before, at the edge of the + pioneer settlement among those boundless forests, the deep stamp of whose + beauty and majesty he carried on his own mind and reprinted upon the + emotions of others throughout a long life spent mainly amid the + activities of his country's growing metropolis. By parentage, by + religious and political faith, and by hardness of fortune, the earliest + of important American poets was appointed to a life typical of the first + century of American national existence, and of the strongest single + racial element by which that nation's social order has been moulded and + promoted. Rated by the amount of time given to school books and college + classes, Bryant's early education was limited. After the village school + he received a year of exceptionally good training in Latin under his + mother's brother, the Rev. Dr Thomas Snell, of Brookfield, followed by a + year of Greek under the Rev. Moses Hallock, of Plainfield, and at sixteen + entered the sophomore class of Williams College. Here he was an apt and + diligent student through two sessions, and then, owing to the straitness + of his father's means, he withdrew without graduating, and studied + classics and mathematics for a year, in the vain hope that his father + might yet be able to send him to Yale College. But the length of his + school and college days would be a very misleading measure of his + training. He was endowed by nature with many of those traits which it is + often only the final triumph of books and institutional regimen to + establish in character, and a double impulse toward scholarship and + citizenship showed its ruling influence with a precocity and an ardour + which gave every day of systematic schooling many times its ordinary + value. It is his own word that, two months after beginning with the Greek + alphabet, he had read the New Testament through. On abandoning his hope + to enter Yale, the poet turned to and pursued, under private guidance at + Worthington and at Bridgewater, the study of law. At twenty-one he was + admitted to the bar, opened an office in Plainfield, presently withdrew + from there, and at Great Barrington settled for nine years in the + attorney's calling, with an aversion for it which he never lost. His + first book of verse, <i>The Embargo, or Sketches of the Times; A Satire + by a Youth of thirteen</i>, had been printed at Boston in 1808.</p> + + <p>At the age of twenty-six Bryant married, at Great Barrington, Miss + Frances Fairchild, with whom he enjoyed a happy union until her death + nearly half a century later. In the year of his marriage he suffered the + bereavement of his father's death. In 1825 he ventured to lay aside the + practice of law, and removed to New York City to assume a literary + editorship. Here for some months his fortunes were precarious, until in + the next year he became one of the editors of the <i>Evening Post</i>. In + the third year following, 1829, he came into undivided editorial control, + and became also chief owner. He enjoyed his occupation, fulfilling its + duties with an unflagging devotion to every worthy public interest till + he died in 1878, in the month of his choice, as indicated in his + beautiful poem entitled "June."</p> + + <p>Though Bryant's retiring and contemplative nature could not overpower + his warm human sympathies, it yet dominated them to an extent that made + him always, even in his journalistic capacity and in the strenuous prose + of daily debate, a councillor rather than a leader. It was after the + manner of the poet, the seer, that he was a patriot, standing for + principles much more than for measures, and, with an exquisite + correctness which belonged to every phase of his being, never prevailing + by the accommodation of himself to inferiors in foresight, insight or + rectitude. His vigorous and stately mind found voice in one of the most + admirable models of journalistic style known in America. He was founder + of a distinct school of American journalism, characterized by an equal + fidelity and temperance, energy and dignity. Though it is as a poet that + he most emphatically belongs to history, his verse was the expression of + only the gentler motions of his mind; and it gathers influence, if not + lustre, when behind it is seen a life intrepid, upright, glad, and ever + potent for the nobler choice in all the largest affairs of his time. His + renown as a poet antedated the appearance of his first volume by some + four or five years. "American poetry," says Richard Henry Stoddard, "may + be said to have commenced in 1817 with ... (Bryant's) 'Thanatopsis' and + 'Inscription for the entrance of a wood.'" "Thanatopsis," which revealed + a voice at once as new and as old as the wilderness out of which it + reverberated, had been written at Cummington in the poet's eighteenth + year, and was printed in 1817 in the <i>North American Review</i>; the + "Inscription" was written in his nineteenth, and in his twenty-first, + while a student of law at Bridgewater, he had composed his lines "To a + Water-fowl," whose exquisite beauty and exalted faith his own pen rarely, + if ever, surpassed. The poet's gift for language made him a frequent + translator, and among his works of this sort his rendering of Homer is + the most noted and most valuable. But the muse of Bryant, at her very + best, is always brief-spoken and an interpreter initially of his own + spirit. Much of the charm of his poems lies in the equal purity of their + artistic and their moral beauty. On the ethical side they are more than + pure, they are—it may be said without derogation—Puritan. He + never commerces with unloveliness for any loveliness that may be plucked + out of it, and rarely or never discovers moral beauty under any sort of + mask. As free from effeminacy as from indelicacy, his highest and his + deepest emotions are so dominated by a perfect self-restraint that they + never rise (or stoop) to transports. There is scarcely a distempered + utterance in the whole body of his poetical works, scarcely one + passionate exaggeration. He faces life with an invincible courage, an + inextinguishable hope and heavenward trust, and the dignity of a + benevolent will which no compulsion can break or bend. The billows of his + soul are not waves, but hills which tempests ruffle but can never heave. + Even when he essays to speak for spirits unlike his own—characters + of history or conceptions of his own imagination—he never with + signal success portrays <!-- Page 699 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page699"></a>[v.04 p.0699]</span>them in the bonds, however + transient, of any overmastering passion. For merriment he has a generous + smile, for sorrow a royal one; but the nearest he ever comes to mirth is + in his dainty rhyme, "Robert of Lincoln," and the nearest to a wail in + those exquisite notes of grief for the loss of his young sister, "The + Death of the Flowers," which only draw the tear to fill it with the light + of a perfect resignation. As a seer of large and noble contemplation, in + whose pictures of earth and sky the presence and care of the Divine mind, + and every tender and beautiful relation of man to his Creator and to his + fellow, are melodiously celebrated, his rank is among the master poets of + America, of whom he is historically the first.</p> + + <p>Bryant published volumes of <i>Poems</i> in 1821 (Cambridge) and 1832 + (New York), and many other collections were issued under his supervision, + the last being the <i>Poetical Works</i> (New York, 1876). Among his + volumes of verse were "The Fountain" and other poems (New York, 1842); + <i>The White-Footed Deer and Other Poems</i> (New York, 1844); <i>Thirty + Poems</i> (New York, 1864); and blank-verse translations of <i>The Iliad + of Homer</i> (Boston, 1870) and of <i>The Odyssey of Homer</i> (Boston, + 1871). His <i>Poetical Works</i> and his <i>Complete Prose Writings</i> + (New York, 1883 and 1884) were edited by Parke Godwin, who also wrote + <i>A Biography of William Cullen Bryant, with Extracts from his private + Correspondence</i> (New York, 1883). See also J. Grant Wilson, <i>Bryant + and his Friends</i> (New York, 1886); John Bigelow, <i>William Cullen + Bryant</i> (Boston, 1890), in the "American Men of Letters" series; W.A. + Bradley, <i>Bryant</i>, in the "English Men of Letters" series (1905); + E.C. Stedman, <i>Poets of America</i> (1885); and biographical and + bibliographical introductions by Henry C. Sturges and Richard Henry + Stoddard to the "Roslyn edition" of his <i>Poetical Works</i> (New York, + 1903).</p> + + <p>(G. W. <span class="sc">Ca</span>.)</p> + + <p><b>BRYAXIS,</b> one of the four great sculptors who worked on the + mausoleum at Halicarnassus, about 350 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> His + work on that monument cannot be separated from that of his companions, + but a basis has been discovered at Athens bearing his signature, and + adorned with figures of horsemen in relief. He is said to have made a + great statue of Serapis for Sinope, but as to this there are grave + historic difficulties. He also made a great statue of Apollo, set up at + Daphne near Antioch (see E.A. Gardner, <i>Handbook of Greek + Sculpture</i>, ii. 374).</p> + + <p><b>BRYCE, JAMES</b> (1838- ), British jurist, historian and + politician, son of James Bryce (LL.D. of Glasgow, who had a school in + Belfast for many years), was born at Belfast, Ireland, on the 10th of May + 1838. After going through the high school and university courses at + Glasgow, he went to Trinity College, Oxford, and in 1862 was elected a + fellow of Oriel. He went to the bar and practised in London for a few + years, but he was soon called back to Oxford as regius professor of civil + law (1870-1893). His reputation as a historian had been made as early as + 1864 by his <i>Holy Roman Empire</i>. He was an ardent Liberal in + politics, and in 1880 he was elected to parliament for the Tower Hamlets + division of London; in 1885 he was returned for South Aberdeen, where he + was re-elected on succeeding occasions. His intellectual distinction and + political industry made him a valuable member of the Liberal party. In + 1886 he was made under secretary for foreign affairs; in 1892 he joined + the cabinet as chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster; in 1894 he was + president of the Board of Trade, and acted as chairman of the royal + commission on secondary education; and in Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman's + cabinet (1905) he was made chief secretary for Ireland; but in February + 1907 he was appointed British ambassador at Washington, and took leave of + party politics, his last political act being a speech outlining what was + then the government scheme for university reform in Dublin—a scheme + which was promptly discarded by his successor Mr Birrell. As a man of + letters Mr Bryce was already well known in America. His great work <i>The + American Commonwealth</i> (1888; revised edition, 1910) was the first in + which the institutions of the United States had been thoroughly discussed + from the point of view of a historian and a constitutional lawyer, and it + at once became a classic. His <i>Studies in History and Jurisprudence</i> + (1901) and <i>Studies in Contemporary Biography</i> (1903) were + republications of essays, and in 1897, after a visit to South Africa, he + published a volume of <i>Impressions</i> of that country, which had + considerable weight in Liberal circles when the Boer War was being + discussed. Meanwhile his academic honours from home and foreign + universities multiplied, and he became a fellow of the Royal Society in + 1894. In earlier life he was a notable mountain-climber, ascending Mount + Ararat in 1876, and publishing a volume on <i>Transcaucasia and + Ararat</i> in 1877; in 1899-1901 he was president of the Alpine Club.</p> + + <p><b>BRYDGES, SIR SAMUEL EGERTON</b> (1762-1837), English genealogist + and miscellaneous writer, was born on the 30th of November 1762. He + studied at Queens' College, Cambridge, and was entered at the Middle + Temple in 1782, being called to the bar in 1787. In 1789 he persuaded his + elder brother that their family were the heirs to the barony of Chandos, + being descended from a younger branch of the Brydges who first held the + title. The case was tried and lost, but Brydges never gave up his claim, + and used to sign himself <i>Per legem terrae</i> B.C. of S. (<i>i.e.</i> + Baron Chandos of Sudeley). He re-edited Collins's <i>Peerage</i>, + inserting a statement about his supposed right. In 1814 he was made a + baronet, and in 1818 he left England. He died at Geneva on the 8th of + September 1837. Sir Egerton was a most prolific author; he is said to + have written 2000 sonnets in one year. His numerous works include + <i>Poems</i> (1785); <i>Centura Literaria</i> (1805-1809); <i>The British + Bibliographer</i> (4 vols., 1810-1814), with J. Haslewood; + <i>Restituta</i> (4 vols., 1814-1816), containing accounts of old books; + and <i>Autobiography, Times, Opinions and Contemporaries of Sir S.E. + Brydges</i> (1834). In 1813 Brydges began to supply material to a private + printing press established at Lee Priory, Kent, by a compositor and a + pressman, who were to receive any profits which might arise from the sale + of the works published. In this way Brydges published various Elizabethan + texts, at considerable expense to himself, which increased the services + he had already rendered to the study of Elizabethan literature by his + bibliographical works.</p> + + <p>For a full list of his works see W.T. Lowndes, <i>Bibliographer's + Manual</i> (ed. H.G. Bohn, 1857-1864).</p> + + <p><b>BRYENNIUS, NICEPHORUS</b> (1062-1137), Byzantine soldier, statesman + and historian, was born at Orestias (Adrianople). His father, of the same + name, had revolted against the feeble Michael VII., but had been defeated + and deprived of his eyesight. The son, who was distinguished for his + learning, personal beauty and engaging qualities, gained the favour of + Alexius I. (Comnenus) and the hand of his daughter Anna, with the titles + of Caesar (then ranking third) and Panhypersebastos (one of the new + dignities introduced by Alexius). Bryennius successfully defended the + walls of Constantinople against the attacks of Godfrey of Bouillon + (1097); conducted the peace negotiations between Alexius and Bohemund, + prince of Antioch (1108); and played an important part in the defeat of + Malik-Shah, the Seljuk sultan of Iconium (1116). After the death of + Alexius, he refused to enter into the conspiracy set on foot by his + mother-in-law and wife to depose John, the son of Alexius, and raise + himself to the throne. His wife attributed his refusal to cowardice, but + it seems from certain passages in his own work that he really regarded it + as a crime to revolt against the rightful heir; the only reproach that + can be brought against him is that he did not nip the conspiracy in the + bud. He was on very friendly terms with the new emperor John, whom he + accompanied on his Syrian campaign (1137), but was forced by illness to + return to Byzantium, where he died in the same year. At the suggestion of + his mother-in-law he wrote a history (called by him <span title="Hulê Historias" class="grk" + >Ὕλη + Ἱστορίας</span>, + materials for a history) of the period from 1057 to 1081, from the + victory of Isaac I. (Comnenus) over Michael VI. to the dethronement of + Nicephorus Botaneiates by Alexius. The work has been described as rather + a family chronicle than a history, the object of which was the + glorification of the house of Comnenus. Part of the introduction is + probably a later addition. In addition to information derived from older + contemporaries (such as his father and father-in-law) Bryennius made use + of the works of Michael Psellus, John Scylitza and Michael Attaliota. As + might be expected, his views are biased by personal considerations and + his intimacy with the royal family, which at the same time, however, + afforded him unusual facilities for obtaining material. His model was + Xenophon, whom he has imitated with <!-- Page 700 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page700"></a>[v.04 p.0700]</span>a tolerable + measure of success; he abstains from an excessive use of simile and + metaphor, and his style is concise and simple.</p> + + <p>Editio princeps, P. Possinus, 1661; in Bonn <i>Corpus Scriptorum Hist. + Byz.</i>, by E. Meincke (1836), with du Cange's valuable commentary; + Migne, <i>Patrologia Graeca</i>, cxxvii.; see also J. Seger, + <i>Byzantinische Historiker des 10. und 11. Jahrhunderts</i> (1888), and + C. Krumbacher, <i>Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur</i> (1897). + The estimate of his work in R. Nicolai, <i>Griechische + Literaturgeschichte</i>, iii. p. 76 (1878), is too unfavourable.</p> + + <p><b>BRYNMAWR,</b> a market town of Brecknockshire, Wales, 14½ m. S.E. + of Brecknock and 156 m. from London by rail. Pop. of urban district + (1901) 6833. It is on the London & North-Western and Rhymney joint + railway connecting Rhymney and Abergavenny, being also a junction for a + branch line to Pontypool via Blaenavon, and the terminus of the Great + Western line from Newport via Nantyglo. The town owes its origin to the + development during the first half of the 19th century of ironworks at the + upper ends of the valleys that converge in its neighbourhood, its site + being previously known as Waun Helygen (Willow-tree Common). The Nantyglo + ironworks afford occupation to large numbers of the inhabitants of + Brynmawr. Both coal and iron ore were formerly worked, but the coal is + exhausted and the ore unsuitable for modern processes. Brynmawr was + formed into an ecclesiastical parish in 1875 out of portions of the civil + parishes of Llanelly and Llangattock. In 1894 this was formed into an + urban district, which was enlarged in 1900 by the addition of a portion + of the parish of Aberystruth in Monmouthshire, the whole being at the + same time consolidated into a civil parish.</p> + + <p><b>BRYN MAWR COLLEGE,</b> an institution of advanced learning for + women, at Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., 5 m. W. of Philadelphia. The + site occupies 52 acres and overlooks a broad expanse of rolling country. + The buildings are of grey stone in the Jacobean Gothic style, and consist + of an administration and lecture hall, a science hall, a library + containing in 1908 about 55,000 volumes mostly for special study, a + gymnasium, a hospital and six halls of residence. The requirements for + matriculation are high; students are required to choose their studies + according to the "group system," which permits them to specialize in two + or more subjects; and instruction is given largely by means of lectures. + The college is open to "hearers" who are not required to matriculate, to + undergraduate matriculated students who are not studying for a degree, to + undergraduate matriculated students who are candidates for the degree of + B.A., and to graduate students who are candidates for the degree of M.A. + or Ph.D. The government rests in a board of thirteen trustees and sixteen + directors, all the trustees being members of the board of directors. The + president of the college is a trustee and director. The institution was + founded by Dr Joseph W. Taylor (1810-1880), a member of the Society of + Orthodox Friends, and he provided that the trustees also should be + members, but otherwise Bryn Mawr College is non-sectarian. It was + incorporated in 1880, and was opened for instruction in 1885. In 1908 it + had 419 students.</p> + + <p><b>BRYOPHYTA,</b> the botanical name of the second great subdivision + of the vegetable kingdom, which includes the mosses and liverworts. They + are all plants of small, often minute, size, and, as the absence of + popular names indicates, the different kinds are not commonly recognized. + Even the distinction between liverworts and mosses is not clearly made, + not only the former but other small plants of higher groups being + popularly called mosses. A little careful observation soon shows, + however, that the Bryophytes form a well-defined class, including several + subordinate groups. Though their study necessarily involves minute + observation they possess many features of interest. The adaptations they + show to their conditions of life are often very perfect and present + interesting analogies with the adaptive characters of the higher plants. + They are of great scientific interest not only as representing a special + type of life-history and organization, but because in several of the + subordinate groups series of forms can be traced, which enable the + general course of their evolution to be inferred even in the practical + absence of fossil remains of any antiquity.</p> + + <p>Bryophytes are very generally distributed over the earth, and those of + a single country, such as Britain, afford examples of all the chief + natural groups. Sometimes, as is the case with the bog-mosses and some + arctic mosses, they may cover considerable tracts. As a rule, however, + they occupy a subordinate place in the vegetation, and the different + kinds require to be carefully looked for. Covering, as they often do, + what would otherwise be bare ground, they are of value in assisting to + retain moisture in the soil and in preparing the way for its colonization + by higher plants. Although many forms are capable of withstanding periods + of drought they succeed best in relatively moist climates and localities. + This is shown both by their unequal abundance in different localities of + one country and in their scarcity in certain geographical regions as + compared with their luxuriance in others.</p> + + <p>The external appearance and general organization show great variety. + In all mosses and many liverworts (figs. 8, 11) the plant consists of a + stem bearing small leaves. In a number of liverworts (figs. 2, 7), on the + other hand, it presents no distinction of stem and leaf, but is a flat, + dorsiventral body usually closely applied to the substratum on which it + grows. This, in contradistinction to the leafy shoot, is termed a + <i>thallus</i>. True roots are never present, the plants being attached + to the soil by <i>rhizoids</i>, which resemble the root-hairs of higher + plants.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:40%;"> + <a href="images/bryophyta_1.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bryophyta_1.png" + alt="Fig. 1.--Archegonia of Marchantia polymorpha." title="Fig. 1.--Archegonia of Marchantia polymorpha." /></a> + <p class="poem"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.—Archegonia of + <i>Marchantia polymorpha</i>. (After Sachs.)</p> + + <p class="poem">1. Mature but unopened archegonium. <i>e</i>, Ovum; + <i>b</i>, ventral-canal cell; <i>d</i>, lid-cells of neck.</p> + + <p class="poem">2. Archegonium ready for fertilization; a passage leads + down to the rounded ovum <i>e</i>.</p> + + <p class="poem">3. Archegonium after fertilization; the fertilized ovum + is developing into a sporogonium <i>f</i>; <i>d</i>, perianth.</p> + </div> + <p>The reproductive organs borne by the thallus or plant are called + antheridia and archegonia, and serve for sexual reproduction. The + <i>antheridium</i> (figs. 5, 15) has a longer or shorter stalk and + consists of a wall formed of a single layer of flat cells enclosing a + mass of minute cells from which the spermatozoids are developed. In the + cases which have been most carefully investigated two spermatozoids have + been found to arise from each of the small cubical cells of the central + tissue. When mature the antheridium opens on being moistened and the + spermatozoids become free in the water by the dissolution of the + mucilaginous cell-walls enclosing them. Each has the form (fig. 5, D) of + a more or less spirally twisted, club-shaped body, bearing at the pointed + anterior end two long cilia by means of which it moves through the water. + The <i>archegonium</i> (fig. 1) has the form of a narrow flask with a + long neck. It usually has a short stalk and consists of a central row of + cells enclosed by a layer of cells forming the wall. The egg-cell or ovum + lies within the wider basal region or venter, and above it come the + ventral canal-cell and canal-cells within the neck of the archegonium. + When the archegonium opens by the separation of the cells at the tip, the + disorganized canal-cells escape, leaving a narrow tubular passage leading + down to the ovum. Each antheridium or archegonium arises from a single + cell, and while the mature structure is similar in the two groups, the + development presents differences in liverworts and mosses. Without + entering into details it may be mentioned that in the mosses it proceeds + both in the archegonium and antheridium by the segmentation of an apical + cell, while this is not the case in the liverworts. Fertilization is + effected by the passage of a spermatozoid, attracted probably by means of + a chemical stimulus, down the passage of the archegonial neck and its + fusion with the ovum. It thus, as in other cases of sexual reproduction, + involves the union of <!-- Page 701 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page701"></a>[v.04 p.0701]</span>two cells, and the vegetative + plant, since it bears the sexual organs, is called the sexual generation + or <i>gametophyte</i>.</p> + + <p>From the fertilized ovum another and very different stage arises, + which remains attached to the sexual plant and has thus the appearance of + a fruit borne on it. It consists of a capsule usually borne on a longer + or shorter stalk or seta, the base of which is inserted into the tissues + of the gametophyte. This basal region, which serves to absorb + nourishment, is called the foot. Within the capsule numerous reproductive + cells, the spores, are developed. In contrast to the sexual generation + this stage is called the spore-bearing generation (<i>sporogonium</i>, + <i>sporophyte</i>). The examination of any moss "in fruit" (fig. 11, B) + will show the readily detachable sporogonium borne on the leafy sexual + plant, and the relation existing between the two generations will be + evident from figs. 2, 3, 9, and 16. In liverworts (with one or two + exceptions) the mature capsule is filled with spores mingled with sterile + cells or elaters and opens by splitting into valves. In mosses (fig. 11, + C) the sporogonium is more highly organized; a central column of sterile + tissue (the columella) is found in the capsule, which opens by the + removal of a lid or operculum, and there are no elaters among the spores. + By the opening of the capsule the spores are set free, and under suitable + conditions germinate and give rise to the sexual generation. In mosses + (fig. 12) a filamentous growth, the protonema, is first formed, and the + leafy plants arise upon this. In liverworts this preliminary phase of the + sexual generation is as a rule ill-marked or absent, and the plant may be + said to develop directly from the spore.</p> + + <p>It will be evident that the two generations exhibit a regular + succession or alternation in the life-history of all Bryophytes. The + gametophyte is developed from the spore and bears the sexual organs; the + sporogonium is developed from the fertilized egg and produces spores. An + important cytological difference between the two generations can only be + mentioned here. By the union of the nuclei of the spermatozoid and ovum + in fertilization the number of chromosomes in the resulting nucleus is + doubled, and this double number is maintained throughout all the + cell-divisions of the sporogonium. On the development of the spores, + which takes place by the division of each spore-mother-cell into four, + the number of chromosomes becomes one half of what it has been in all the + nuclei of the sporogonium. This reduced number is maintained throughout + the development of the sexual generation. Thus in <i>Pellia</i> the + nuclei of the gametophyte have eight chromosomes and those of the + sporophyte sixteen. The relation in which the two generations stand to + one another is the most important common characteristic of the Bryophyta. + The gametophyte is always the independently living individual upon which + the spore-bearing generation is throughout its life dependent. In all + plants higher than the Bryophyta the sporophyte becomes an independently + rooted plant and is the conspicuous stage in the life-history. Thus in + the fern the sexual generation is the small prothallus developed from the + spore, while the familiar fern-plant is the spore-bearing generation (see + <span class="sc">Pteridophyta</span>). On the other hand a corresponding + alternation of generations is only indicated in the lower plants + (Thallophyta).</p> + + <p>The Bryophyta are divided into the Hepaticae (liverworts) and Musci + (mosses). In the Hepaticae we can recognize three subordinate + groups—the Marchantiales, Jungermanniales and Anthocerotales; and + in the Musci also three groups—the Sphagnales, Andreaeales and + Bryales. Since these series of forms differ considerably among + themselves, it is difficult to express in a definition the distinction + between a liverwort and a moss which is readily made in practice. We may + therefore leave it to the description of the several groups of Hepaticae + and Musci to supplement the differences mentioned above and to bring out + the exceptions which exist.</p> + +<h4><i>Hepaticae</i> (Liverworts).</h4> + + <p>The range of form and structure of both generations in the liverworts + is so great that no one form can be taken as a satisfactory type. It + will, however, be of use to preface the more general description by a + brief account of a particular example, and we may take for this purpose a + very common and easily recognized thalloid liverwort belonging to the + Jungermanniales.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:42%;"> + <a href="images/bryophyta_3.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bryophyta_3.png" + alt="Fig. 3.--Pellia epiphylla." title="Fig. 3.--Pellia epiphylla." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.—<i>Pellia epiphylla</i>. + + <p class="poem">A, Longitudinal section of thallus at the time of + fertilization. <i>an</i>, Antheridia; <i>ar</i>, archegonia; <i>in</i>, + involucre.</p> + + <p class="poem">B, Longitudinal section of almost mature sporogonium + attached to the thallus. <i>in</i>, Involucre; <i>cal</i>, calyptra; + <i>f</i>, foot; <i>s</i>, seta; <i>caps</i>, capsule + (semi-diagrammatic).</p> + </div> + <div class="figright" style="width:20%;"> + <a href="images/bryophyta_2.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bryophyta_2.png" + alt="Fig. 2.--Pellia epiphylla." title="Fig. 2.--Pellia epiphylla." /></a> + <p class="poem"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.—<i>Pellia + epiphylla</i>. Group of plants bearing mature sporogonia.</p> + + <p class="poem">From Cooke, <i>Handbook of British Hepaticae</i>.</p> + </div> + <p><i>Pellia epiphylla</i> (fig. 2) can be found at any season growing in + large patches on the damp soil of woods, banks, &c. The broad flat + thallus is green and may be a couple of inches long. It is sparingly + branched, the branching being apparently dichotomous; the growing point + is situated in a depression at the anterior end of each branch. The + wing-like lateral portions of the thallus gradually thin out from the + midrib; from the projecting lower surface of this numerous rhizoids + spring. These are elongated superficial cells, and serve to fix the + thallus to the soil and obtain water and salts from it. No leaf-like + appendages are borne on the thallus, but short glandular hairs occur + behind the apex. The plant is composed throughout of very similar living + cells, the more superficial ones containing numerous chlorophyll grains, + while starch is stored in the internal cells of the midrib. The cells + contain a number of oil-bodies the function of which is imperfectly + understood. The growth of the thallus proceeds by the regular + segmentation of a single apical cell. The sexual organs are borne on the + upper surface, and both antheridia and archegonia occur on the same + branch (fig. 3, A). The antheridia (<i>an</i>) are scattered over the + middle region of the thallus, and each is surrounded by a tubular + upgrowth from the surface. The archegonia (<i>ar</i>) are developed in a + group behind the apex, and the latter continues to grow for a time after + their formation, so that they come to be seated in a depression of the + upper surface. They are further protected by the growth of the hinder + margin of the depression to form a scale-like involucre (<i>in</i>). + Fertilization takes place about June, and the sporogonium is fully + developed by the winter. The embryo developed from the fertilized ovum + consists at first of a number of tiers of cells. Its terminal tier gives + rise to the capsule, the first divisions in the four cells of the tier + marking off the wall of the capsule from the cells destined to produce + the spores. In fig. 4, C, which represents a longitudinal section of a + young embryo of <i>Pellia</i>, these archesporial cells are shaded. The + tiers below give rise to the seta and foot. The mature sporogonium (fig. + 3, B) consists of the foot embedded in the tissue of the thallus, the + seta, which remains short until just before the shedding of the spores, + and the spherical capsule. It remains for long enclosed within the + calyptra formed by the further development of the archegonial wall and + surmounted by the neck of the archegonium. The calyptra is ultimately + burst through, and in early spring the seta elongates rapidly, raising + the dark-coloured capsule (fig. 2). In the young condition the wall of + the capsule, which consists of two layers of cells, encloses a mass of + similar cells developed from the archesporium. Some of these become + spore-mother-cells and give rise by cell division to four spores, while + others remain undivided and become the elaters. The latter are elongated + spindle-shaped cells with thick brown spiral bands on the inside of their + thin walls. They radiate out from a small plug of sterile cells + projecting into the base of the capsule, and some are attached to this, + while others lie free among the spores. The latter are large, and at + first are unicellular; but in <i>Pellia</i>, which in this respect is + exceptional, they commence their further development within the capsule, + and thus consist of several cells when shed. <!-- Page 702 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page702"></a>[v.04 p.0702]</span>The cells of + the capsule wall have incomplete, brown, thickened rings on their walls, + and the capsule opens by splitting into four valves, which bend away from + one another, allowing the loose spores to be readily dispersed by the + wind, assisted by the hygroscopic movements of the elaters. On falling + upon damp soil the spores germinate, growing into a thallus, which + gradually attains its full size and bears sexual organs.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:36%;"> + <a href="images/bryophyta_4.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bryophyta_4.png" + alt="Fig. 4.--Young embryos of Liverworts." title="Fig. 4.--Young embryos of Liverworts." /></a> + <p class="poem"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4.—Semi-diagrammatic + figures of young embryos of Liverworts in longitudinal section. The + cells which will produce the sporogenous tissue are shaded. (After + Kienitz-Gerloff and Leitgeb.)</p> + + <p class="poem">A, <i>Riccia</i>.</p> + + <p class="poem">B, <i>Marchantia polymorpha</i>.</p> + + <p class="poem">C, <i>Pellia epiphylla</i>.</p> + + <p class="poem">D, <i>Anthoceros laevis</i>.</p> + + <p class="poem">E, <i>Cephalozia bicuspidata</i>.</p> + + <p class="poem">F, <i>Radula complanata</i>.</p> + </div> + <p>While the general course of the life-history of all liverworts + resembles that of <i>Pellia</i>, the three great groups into which they + are divided differ from one another in the characters of both + generations. Each group exhibits a series leading from more simple to + more highly organized forms, and the differentiation has proceeded on + distinct and to some extent divergent lines in the three groups. The + Marchantiales are a series of thalloid forms, in which the structure of + the thallus is specialized to enable them to live in more exposed + situations. The lowest members of the series (<i>Riccia</i>) possess the + simplest sporogonia known, consisting of a wall of one layer of cells + enclosing the spores. In the higher forms a sterile foot and seta is + present, and sterile cells or elaters occur with the spores. The lower + members of the Jungermanniales are also thalloid, but the thallus never + has the complicated structure characteristic of the Marchantiales, and + progress is in the direction of the differentiation of the plant into + stem and leaf. Indications of how this may have come about are afforded + by the lower group of the Anacrogynous Jungermanniaceae, and throughout + the Acrogynous Jungermanniacae the plant has well-marked stem and leaves. + The sporogonium even in the simplest forms has a sterile foot, but in + this series also the origin of elaters from sterile cells can be traced. + The Anthocerotales are a small and very distinct group, in which the + gametophyte is a thallus, while the sporogonium possesses a sterile + columella and is capable of long-continued growth and spore production. + The mode of development of the sporogonium presents important differences + in the three series that may be briefly referred to here. In fig. 4 young + sporogonia of a number of liverworts are shown in longitudinal section, + and the archesporial cells from which the spores and elaters will arise + are shaded. In <i>Riccia</i> (fig. 4, A) the whole mass of cells derived + from the ovum forms a spherical capsule, the only sterile tissue being + the single layer of peripheral cells forming the wall. In other + Marchantiales (fig. 4, B) the lower half of the embryo separated by the + first transverse wall (1, I) forms the sterile foot and seta, while in + the upper half (<i>ka</i>) the peripheral layer forms the wall of the + capsule, enclosing the archesporial cells from which spores and elaters + arise. In the Jungermanniales (fig. 4, C, E, F) the embryo is formed of a + number of tiers of cells, and the archesporium is defined by the first + divisions parallel to the surface in the cells of one or more of the + upper tiers; a number of tiers go to form the seta and foot, while the + lowest segment (<i>a</i>) usually forms a small appendage of the latter. + In the Anthocerotales (fig. 4, D) the lowest tiers form the foot, and the + terminal tier the capsule. The first periclinal divisions in the cells of + the terminal tier separate a central group of cells which form the + sterile columella (<i>col</i>). The archesporium arises by the next + divisions in the outer layer of cells, and thus extends over the summit + of the columella. In none of the liverworts does the sporogonium develop + by means of an apical cell, as is the rule in mosses.</p> + + <p>Leaving details of form and structure to be considered under the + several groups, some general features of the Hepaticae may be looked at + here in relation to the conditions under which the plants live. The + organization of the gametophyte stands in the closest relation to the + factors of light and moisture in the environment. With hardly an + exception the liverworts are dorsiventral, and usually one side is turned + to the substratum and the other exposed to the light. In thalloid forms a + thinner marginal expansion or a definite wing increasing the surface + exposed to the light can be distinguished from a thicker midrib serving + for storage and conduction. The leaves and stem of the foliose forms + effect the same division of labour in another way. The relation of the + plant to its water supply varies within the group. In the Marchantiales + the chief supply is obtained from the soil by the rhizoids, and its loss + in transpiration is regulated and controlled. In most liverworts, on the + other hand, water is absorbed directly by the whole general surface, and + the rhizoids are of subordinate importance. Many forms only succeed in a + constantly humid atmosphere, while others sustain drying for a period, + though their powers of assimilation and growth are suspended in the dry + state. The cell-walls are capable of imbibing water rapidly, and their + thickness stands in relation to this rather than to the prevention of + loss of water from the plant. The large surface presented by the leafy + forms facilitates the retention and absorption of water. The importance + of prolonging the moistened condition as long as possible is further + shown by special adaptations to retain water either between the appressed + lobes of the leaves or in special pitcher-like sacs. In thalloid forms + fimbriate or lobed margins or outgrowths from the surface lead to the + same result. Sometimes adaptations to protect the plant during seasons of + drought, such as the rolling up of the thallus in many xerophytic + Marchantiales, can be recognized, but more often a prolonged dry season + is survived in some resting state. The formation of subterranean tubers, + which persist when the rest of the plant is killed by drought, is an + interesting adaptation to this end, and is found in all three groups + (<i>e.g.</i> in species of <i>Riccia</i>, <i>Fossombronia</i> and + <i>Anthoceros</i>). No examples of total saprophytism or of parasitism + are known, but two interesting cases of a symbiosis with other organisms + which is probably a mutually beneficial one, though the nature of the + physiological relation between the organisms is not clearly established, + may be mentioned. Fungal hyphae occur in the rhizoids and in the cells of + the lower region of the thallus of many liverworts, as in the endotrophic + mycorhiza of higher plants. Colonies of <i>Nostoc</i> are constantly + found in the Anthocerotaceae and in <i>Blasia</i>. In the latter they are + protected by special concave scales, while in the Anthocerotaceae they + occupy some of the mucilage slits between the cells of the lower surface + of the thallus.</p> + + <p>Other adaptations concern the protection of the sexual organs and + sporogonia, and the retention of water in the neighbourhood of the + archegonia to enable the spermatozoid to reach the ovum. In thalloid + forms the sexual organs are often sunk in depressions, while in the + foliose forms protection is afforded by the surrounding leaves. In + addition special involucres around the archegonia have arisen + independently in several series. The characters of the sporogonium have + as their object the nutrition and effective distribution of the spores, + and only exceptionally, as in the Anthocerotaceae, are concerned with + independent assimilation. In most forms the capsule is raised above the + general surface at the time of opening, usually by the rapid growth of + the seta, but in the Marchantiaceae by the sporogonia being raised on a + special archegoniophore. The elaters serve as lines of conduction of + plastic material to the developing spores, and later usually assist in + their dispersal. The spores, with few exceptions, are unicellular when + shed, and may develop at once or after a resting period. In their + germination a short filament of a few cells is usually developed, and the + apical cell of the plant is established in the terminal cell. In other + cases a small plate or mass of cells is formed. With one or two + exceptions, however, this preliminary <!-- Page 703 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page703"></a>[v.04 p.0703]</span>phase, which + may be compared with the protonema of mosses, is of short duration.</p> + + <p>The power of vegetative propagation is widely spread. When + artificially divided small fragments of the gametophyte are found to be + capable of growing into new individuals. Apart from the separation of + branches by the decay of older portions, special gemmae are found in many + species. In <i>Aneura</i> the contents of superficial cells, after + becoming surrounded by a new wall and dividing, escape as bi-cellular + gemmae. Usually the gemmae arise by the outgrowth of superficial cells, + and become free by breaking away from their stalk. When separated they + may be single cells or consist of two or numerous cells. In <i>Blasia</i> + and <i>Marchantia</i> the gemmae are formed within tubular or cup-shaped + receptacles, out of which they are forced by the swelling of mucilage + secreted by special hairs.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:50%;"> + <a href="images/bryophyta_5.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bryophyta_5.png" + alt="Fig. 5.--Marchantia polymorpha." title="Fig. 5.--Marchantia polymorpha." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5.—<i>Marchantia polymorpha</i>. + (After Sachs.) + + <p class="poem">A. Portion of thallus (<i>t</i>) bearing two stalked + antheridiophores (<i>hu</i>).</p> + + <p class="poem">B. Longitudinal section through a young + antheridiophore. The antheridia (<i>a</i>) are seated in depressions of + the upper surface (<i>o</i>); <i>b</i>, scales; <i>h</i>, rhizoids.</p> + + <p class="poem">C. Longitudinal section of antheridium; <i>st</i>, + stalk; <i>w</i>, wall.</p> + + <p class="poem">D. Two spermatozoids.</p> + </div> + <p><i>Marchantiales.</i>—The plants of this group are most abundant + in warm sunny localities, and grow for the most part on soil or rocks + often in exposed situations. Nine genera are represented in Britain. + <i>Targionia</i> is found on exposed rocks, but the other forms are less + strikingly xerophytic; <span class="correction" title="'Marchantia, polymorpha' in original" + ><i>Marchantia polymorpha</i></span> and <i>Lunularia</i> spread largely + by the gemmae formed in the special gemma-cups on the thallus, and occur + commonly in greenhouses. The large thallus of <i>Conocephalus</i> covers + stones by the waterside, while <i>Dumortiera</i> is a hygrophyte confined + to damp and shady situations. Among the Ricciaceae, most of which grow on + soil, <i>Ricciocarpus</i> and <i>Riccia natans</i> occur floating on + still water. The dorsiventral thallus is constructed on the same plan + throughout the group, and shows a lower region composed of cells + containing little chlorophyll and an upper stratum specialized for + assimilation and transpiration. The lower region usually forms a more or + less clearly marked midrib, and consists of parenchymatous cells, some of + which may contain oil-bodies or be differentiated as mucilage cells or + sclerenchyma fibres. Behind the apex, which has a number of initial + cells, a series of amphigastria or ventral scales is formed. These + consist of a single layer of cells, and their terminal appendages often + fold over the apex and protect it. Usually they stand in two rows, but + sometimes accessory rows occur, and in <i>Riccia</i> only a single median + row is present. The thallus bears two sorts of rhizoids, wider ones with + smooth walls which grow directly down into the soil, and longer, narrower + ones, with peg-like thickenings of the wall projecting into the + cell-cavity. The peg-rhizoids, which are peculiar to the group, converge + under shelter of the amphigastria to the midrib, beneath which they form + a wick-like strand. Through this water is conducted by capillarity as + well as in the cell cavities. The upper stratum of the thallus is + constructed to regulate the giving off of the water thus absorbed. It + consists of a series of air-chambers (fig. 6, B) formed by certain lines + of the superficial cells growing up from the surface, and as the thallus + increases in area continuing to divide so as to roof in the chamber. The + layer forming the roof is called the "epidermis," and the small opening + left leading into the chamber is bounded by a special ring of cells and + forms the "stoma" or air-pore. In most species of <i>Riccia</i> the + air-chambers are only narrow passages, but in the other Marchantiales + they are more extended. In the simplest cases the sides and base of the + chambers perform the work of assimilation (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Corsinia</i>). + Usually the surface is extended by the development of partitions in the + chambers (<i>Reboulia</i>), or by the growth from the floor of the + chamber of short filaments of chlorophyllous cells (<i>Targionia</i>. + <i>Marchantia</i>, fig. 6). The stomata may be simply surrounded by one + or more series of narrower cells, or, as in the thallus of + <i>Marchantia</i> and on the archegoniophores of other forms, may become + barrel-shaped structures by the division of the ring of cells bounding + the pore. In some cases the lowermost circle of cells can be approximated + so as to close the pore. In <i>Dumortiera</i> the air-chambers are + absent, their formation being only indicated at the apex.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:50%;"> + <a href="images/bryophyta_6.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bryophyta_6.png" + alt="Fig. 6.--Marchantia polymorpha." title="Fig. 6.--Marchantia polymorpha." /></a> + <p class="poem"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 6.—<i>Marchantia + polymorpha.</i> A, Stoma in surface view. B, Air-chamber with the + filaments of assimilating cells and stoma in vertical section.</p> + + <p class="poem">From Strasburger's <i>Text-book of Botany</i>.</p> + </div> + <p>The sexual organs are always situated on the morphologically upper + surface of the thallus. In <i>Riccia</i> they are scattered singly and + protected by the air-chamber layer. The scattered position of the + antheridia is also found in some of the higher forms, but usually they + are grouped on special antheridiophores which in <i>Marchantia</i> are + stalked, disk-shaped branch-systems (fig. 5). The individual antheridia + are sunk in depressions from which the spermatozoids are in some cases + forcibly ejected. The archegonial groups in <i>Corsinia</i> are sunk in a + depression of the upper surface, while in <i>Targionia</i> they are + displaced to the lower side of the anterior end of a branch. In all the + other forms they are borne on special archegoniophores which have the + form of a disk-shaped head borne on a stalk. The archegoniophore may be + an upgrowth from the dorsal surface of the thallus (<i>e.g.</i> + <i>Plagiochasma</i>), or the apex of the branch may take part in its + formation. When the disk, around which archegonia are developed at + intervals, is simply raised on a stalk-like continuation of the branch, a + single groove protecting a strand of peg-rhizoids is found on the ventral + face of the stalk (<i>Reboulia</i>). In the highest forms (<i>e.g.</i> + <i>Marchantia</i>) the archegoniophore corresponds to the repeatedly + branched continuation of the thallus, and the archegonia arise in + relation to the growing points which are displaced to the lower surface + of the disk. In this case two grooves are found in the stalk. The + archegonia are protected by being sunk in depressions of the disk or by a + special two-lipped involucre. In <i>Marchantia</i> and <i>Fimbriaria</i> + an additional investment termed in descriptive works the perianth, grows + up around each fertilized archegonium (fig. 1, 3, <i>d</i>). The simple + sporogonium found in the Ricciaceae (fig. 4, A) has been described above; + as the spores develop, the wall of the spherical capsule is absorbed and + the spores lie free in the calyptra, by the decay of which they are set + free. In <i>Corsinia</i> the capsule has a well-developed foot, but the + sterile cells found among the spore-mother-cells do not become elaters, + but remain thin-walled and simply contribute to the nutrition of the + spores. In all other forms elaters with spirally thickened walls are + found. The seta is short, the capsule being usually raised upon the + archegoniophore. Dehiscence takes place either by the upper portion of + the capsule splitting into short teeth or falling away as a whole or in + fragments as a sort of operculum. The spores on germination form a short + germ-tube, in the terminal cell of which the apical cell is established, + but the direction of growth of the young thallus is usually not in the + same straight line as the germ-tube. The Marchantiales are divided into a + number of groups which represent distinct lines of advance from forms + like the Ricciaceae, but the details of their classification cannot be + entered upon here. The general nature of the progression exhibited by the + group as a whole will, however, be evident from the above account.</p> + + <p><i>Jungermanniales.</i>—This large series of liverworts, which + presents great variety in the organization of the sexual generation, is + divided into two main groups according to whether the formation of + archegonia terminates the growth of the branch or does not utilize the + apex. The latter condition is characteristic of the more primitive group + of the Anacrogynous Jungermanniaceae, in which the branch continues its + growth after the formation of archegonia so that they (and later the + sporogonia) stand on the dorsal surface of the thallus or leafy plant. In + the Acrogynous Jungermanniaceae the plant is throughout foliose, and the + archegonia occupy the ends of the main shoot or of its branches. The + antheridia are usually globular and long-stalked. The capsule opens by + splitting into four halves.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:25%;"> + <a href="images/bryophyta_7.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bryophyta_7.png" + alt="Fig. 7.--Blasia pusilla." title="Fig. 7.--Blasia pusilla." /></a> + <p class="poem"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 7.—<i>Blasia + pusilla.</i> The margin of the thallus bears leaf-life lobes. <i>r</i>, + Rhizoids; <i>s</i>, sporogonium.</p> + + <p class="poem">From Strasburger's <i>Text-book of Botany</i>.</p> + </div> + <p><i>Jungermanniaceae Anacrogynae.</i>—The great range of form in + the sexual plant is well illustrated by the nine genera of this group + <!-- Page 704 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page704"></a>[v.04 + p.0704]</span>which occur in Britain. One thalloid form has already been + described in <i>Pellia</i> (fig. 2). <i>Sphaerocarpus</i>, which occurs + rarely in stubble fields, is in many respects one of the simplest of the + liverworts. The small thallus bears the antheridia and archegonia, each + of which is surrounded by a tubular involucre, on the upper surface of + distinct individuals. The sporogonium has a small foot, but the sterile + cells among the spores do not develop into elaters. The same is true of + the capsule of <i>Riella</i>. The plants of this genus, none of the + species of which are British, grow in shallow water rooted in the mud, + and are unlike all other liverworts in appearance. The usually erect + thallus has a broad wing-like outgrowth from the dorsal surface and two + rows of rather large scales below. No provision for the opening of the + capsule exists in either of these genera. In <i>Aneura</i> the form of + the plant may be complicated by a division of labour between root-like, + stem-like and assimilating branches of the thallus. The sexual organs are + borne on short lateral branches, while in the related genus + <i>Metzgeria</i>, which occurs on rocks and tree trunks, the small sexual + branches spring from the lower surface of the midrib of the narrow + thallus. In these two genera the elaters are attached to a sterile group + of cells projecting into the upper end of the capsule, and on dehiscence + remain connected with the tips of the valves. <i>Pallavicinia</i> and + some related genera have a definite midrib and broad wings formed of one + layer of cells, and are of interest owing to the presence of a special + water-conducting strand in the midrib. This consists of elongated + lignified cells with pitted walls. <i>Blasia pusilla</i>, which occurs + commonly by ditches and streams, affords a transition to the foliose + types. Its thallus (fig. 7) has thin marginal lobes of limited growth, + which are comparable to the more definite leaves of other anacrogynous + forms. The ventral surface bears flat scales in addition to the concave + scales which, as mentioned above, are inhabited by <i>Nostoc</i>. This + interesting liverwort produces two kinds of gemmae, and in the localities + in which it grows is largely reproduced by their means. In + <i>Fossombronia</i>, of which there are a number of British species, the + plant consists of a flattened stem creeping on muddy soil and bearing two + rows of large obliquely-placed leaves. The sexual organs are borne on the + upper surface of the midrib, and the sporogonium is surrounded by a + bell-shaped involucre which grows up after fertilization. <i>Treubia</i>, + which grows on rotting wood in the mountain forests of Java, is similarly + differentiated into stem and leaf, and is the largest liverwort known, + reaching a length of thirty centimetres. Lastly <i>Haplomitrium</i>, a + rare British genus, forms with the exotic <i>Calobryum</i>, an isolated + group which is most naturally placed among the anacrogynous forms + although the archegonia are in terminal groups. The erect branches bear + three rows of leaves, and spring from a creeping axis from which + root-like branches destitute of rhizoids extend into the substratum.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:50%;"> + <a href="images/bryophyta_8.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bryophyta_8.png" + alt="Fig. 8.--Chiloscyphus polyanthos." title="Fig. 8.--Chiloscyphus polyanthos." /></a> + <p class="poem"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 8.—<i>Chiloscyphus + polyanthos.</i> The plant bears three mature sporogonia which show the + elongation of the seta. One of the sporogonia has opened. B, The + "perianth" with the small perichaetial leaves below it. (After + Goebel.)</p> + </div> + <p><i>Jungermanniaceae Acrogynae.</i>—The plant consists of leafy + shoots, the origin of which can be understood in the light of the foliose + forms described above. The great majority of existing liverworts belong + to this group, the general plan of construction of which is throughout + very similar. In Britain thirty-nine genera with numerous species are + found. With few exceptions the stem grows by means of a pyramidal apical + cell cutting off three rows of segments. Each segment gives rise to a + leaf, but usually the leaves of the ventral row (amphigastria) are + smaller and differently shaped from those of the two lateral rows; in a + number of genera they are wanting altogether. Sometimes the leaves retain + their transverse insertion on the stem, and the two lobes of which they + consist are developed equally. More often they come to be obliquely + inserted, the anterior edge of each leaf lying under or over the edge of + the leaf in front. The two lobes are often unequally developed. In + <i>Scapania</i> the upper lobe is the smaller, while in <i>Radula</i>, + <i>Poretta</i> and the <i>Lejeuneae</i> this is the case with the lower + lobe. The folding of one lobe against another assists in the retention of + water. Pitcher-like structures have arisen in different ways in a number + of genera, and are especially common in epiphytic forms + (<i>Frullania</i>, <i>Lepidolaena</i>, <i>Pleurozia</i>). In some forms + the leaves are finely divided, and along with the hair-like paraphyllia + form a loose weft around the stem (<i>Trichocolea</i>). The rhizoids + spring from the lower surface of the stem, and sometimes from the bases + of the leaves. The branches arise below and by the side of the + leaves.</p> + + <div class="figleft" style="width:30%;"> + <a href="images/bryophyta_9.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bryophyta_9.png" + alt="Fig. 9.--Cephalozia bicuspidata." title="Fig. 9.--Cephalozia bicuspidata." /></a> + <p class="poem"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 9.—<i>Cephalozia + bicuspidata.</i> Longitudinal section of the summit of a shoot bearing + a nearly mature sporogonium, <i>sg</i>, still enclosed in the calyptra; + <i>ar</i>′, archegonia which have remained unfertilized; + <i>st</i>, stem; <i>b</i>, leaf; <i>p</i>, perianth. (After + Hofmeister.)</p> + </div> + <p>The sexual organs may occur on the same or on distinct individuals. + The antheridia are protected by leaves which are often modified in shape. + The archegonia are borne at the apex of the main stem or of a lateral + branch. A single archegonium may arise from the apical cell + (<i>Lejeunea</i>); more commonly a number of others are formed from the + surrounding segments. The leaves below the archegonial group are + frequently modified in size and shape, but the chief protection is + afforded by a tubular perianth, which corresponds to a coherent whorl of + leaves and grows up independently of fertilization. The perianth serves + also to enclose and protect the sporogonium during its development. In a + number of forms belonging to different groups the end of the stem on + which the sporogonium is borne grows downwards so as to form a hollow + tubular sac enclosing the sporogonium; in other cases this marsupial sac + is formed by the base of the sporogonium boring into the thickened end of + the stem. The sac usually penetrates into the soil and bears rhizoids on + its outer surface. <i>Kantia</i>, <i>Calypogeia</i> and <i>Saccogyna</i> + are British forms, which have their sporogonia protected in this way. The + sporogonium is very similar throughout the group (figs. 8, 9). At + maturity the seta elongates rapidly, and the wall of the capsule splits + more or less completely into four valves, allowing the elaters and spores + to escape. In the Jubuloideae, which in other respects form a well-marked + group, the seta is short and the elaters extend from the upper part of + the capsule to the base; at dehiscence they remain fixed to the valves + into which the capsule splits. The germinating spore usually forms a + short filament, but in other cases a flat plate of cells growing by a + two-sided apical cell is first formed (<i>Radula</i>, <i>Lejeunea</i>). + In one or two tropical forms the pro-embryonic stage is prolonged, and + leafy shoots only arise in connexion with the sexual organs. In + <i>Protocephalozia</i>, which grows on bare earth in South America, this + pro-embryo is filamentous, while in <i>Lejeunea Metzgeriopsis</i>, which + grows on the leaves of living plants, it is a flat branched thallus + closely applied to the substratum. Other cases of the plant being, with + the exception of the sexual branches, apparently thalloid, are on the + other hand to be explained as due to the reduction of the leaves and + flattening of the stem of a shoot (<i>Pteropsiella</i>, + <i>Zoopsis</i>).</p> + + <p>The Acrogynous Jungermanniaceae fall into a number of natural groups, + which cannot, however, be followed out here. They occur in very various + situations, on the ground, on rocks and stones, on tree trunks, and, in + the damp tropics, on leaves. Usually they form larger or smaller tufts of + a green colour, but some forms have a reddish tint.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:20%;"> + <a href="images/bryophyta_10.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bryophyta_10.png" + alt="Fig. 10.--Anthoceros laevis." title="Fig. 10.--Anthoceros laevis." /></a> + <p class="poem"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 10.—<i>Anthoceros + laevis.</i> <i>sp</i>, Sporogonium; <i>c</i>, columella.</p> + + <p class="poem">From Strasburger's <i>Text-book of Botany</i>.</p> + </div> + <p><i>Anthocerotales.</i>—This small and very natural group + includes the three genera <i>Anthoceros</i>, <i>Dendroceros</i> and + <i>Notothylas</i>, and stands in <!-- Page 705 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page705"></a>[v.04 p.0705]</span>many respects + in an isolated position among the Bryophyta. Three species of + <i>Anthoceros</i> occur in Britain, growing on the damp soil of fields, + ditches, &c. The dark green thallus has an ill-defined midrib, and is + composed of parenchymatous cells. In each assimilating cell there is + usually a single large chloroplast. The apical region, which has a single + initial cell, is protected by mucilage secreted by the mucilage slits, + which are small pit-like depressions between superficial cells of the + lower surface. Mucilage is also often formed in intercellular spaces + within the thallus. Colonies of <i>Nostoc</i> are constantly found living + in some of the mucilage slits which then become enlarged. The sexual + organs are scattered over the upper surface. The stalked globular + antheridia are exceptional in being formed endogenously, and are situated + in groups in special intercellular spaces. The superficial layer of cells + bounding the cavity does not break down until the antheridia are nearly + mature. Occasionally antheridia develop on the surface of shaded portions + of the thallus. The necks of the archegonia hardly project above the + general surface of the thallus. In structure and development they agree + with other Hepaticae, though differences of detail exist. The young + sporogonium is protected by a thick calyptra derived from the tissue of + the thallus around the archegonium. The sporogonium consists of a large + bulbous foot, the superficial cells of which grow out into processes, and + a long capsule, which continues to grow for months by the activity of a + zone of cells between it and the foot, and may attain the length of an + inch and a half. The wall of the capsule is several layers of cells + thick, and since the epidermis contains functional stomata and the + underlying cells possess chlorophyll it is capable of assimilation. In + the centre of the capsule is a strand of narrow elongated cells forming + the columella, and between this and the wall spores mixed with elaters + are formed from the dome-shaped archesporium, the origin of which has + already been described (fig. 4, D). The capsule opens by splitting into + two valves from the apex downwards, and the mature spores escape while + others are developing in succession below. In <i>Dendroceros</i>, which + grows as an epiphyte in the tropics, the thallus has a well-defined + midrib and broad wings composed of a single layer of cells. The capsule + is similar to that of <i>Anthoceros</i>, but has no stomata, and the + elaters have spirally thickened walls. Some species of <i>Anthoceros</i> + agree with it in these respects. <i>Notothylas</i> resembles + <i>Anthoceros</i> in its thallus, but the sporogonium is much smaller. In + some species, although the columella and archesporium arise in the usual + way, both give rise to mingled spores and elaters, and no sterile + columella is developed.</p> + +<h4><i>Musci</i> (Mosses).</h4> + + <p>Though the number of species of mosses is far greater than of + liverworts, the group offers much less diversity of form. The sexual + generation is always a leafy plant, which is not developed directly from + the spore but is borne on a well-marked and usually filamentous + protonema. The general course of the life-history and the main features + of form and structure will be best understood by a brief account of a + particular example.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:30%;"> + <a href="images/bryophyta_11.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bryophyta_11.png" + alt="Fig. 11.--Funaria hygrometrica." title="Fig. 11.--Funaria hygrometrica." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 11.—<i>Funaria hygrometrica.</i> + + <p class="poem">A, Leafy shoot (<i>g</i>) bearing a young sporogonium + enclosed in the calyptra (<i>c</i>).</p> + + <p class="poem">B, Similar plant with an almost mature sporogonium; + <i>s</i>, seta; <i>f</i>, capsule; <i>c</i>, calyptra.</p> + + <p class="poem">C, Median longitudinal section of a capsule, with the + seta gradually widening into the apophysis at its base; <i>d</i>, + operculum; <i>p</i>, peristome; <i>a</i>, annulus; <i>c</i>, columella; + <i>s</i>, archesporium; <i>h</i>, air-space between the spore-sac and + the wall of the capsule.</p> + + <p class="poem">(From Goebel's <i>Pflanzenmorphologie</i>, by + permission of W Engelmann)</p> + </div> + <p><i>Funaria hygrometrica</i> is a moss of very common occurrence even + in towns on the soil of paths, at the foot of walls and in similar + places. The small plants grow closely crowded in tufts, and consist of + short leafy shoots attached to the soil by numerous fine rhizoids. The + latter, in contrast to the rhizoids of liverworts, are composed of rows + of elongated cells and are branched. The leaves are simple, and except + for the midrib are only one layer of cells thick. The structure of the + stem though simple is more complicated than in any liverwort. The + superficial cells are thick-walled, and there is a central strand of + narrow cells forming a water-conducting tissue. The small strand of + elongated cells in the midrib of the leaf runs down into the stem, but is + not usually connected with the central strand. The sexual organs are + developed in groups at the apices, the antheridial group usually + terminating the main axis while the archegonia are borne on a lateral + branch. The brown tint of the hair-like paraphyses mixed with antheridia + (fig. 15) makes the male branch conspicuous, while the archegonia have to + be carefully looked for enclosed by the surrounding leaves (fig. 16, B). + The sporogonium developed from the fertilized ovum grows by means of a + two-sided apical cell (fig. 16 A), and is at first of uniform thickness. + After a time the upper region increases in diameter and forms the + capsule, while the lower portion forms the long seta and the foot which + is embedded in the end of the stem. With the growth of the sporogonium + the archegonial wall, which for a time kept pace with it, is broken + through, the larger upper part terminated by the neck being carried up on + the capsule as the calyptra, while the basal portion remains as a tubular + sheath round the lower end of the seta (cf. figs. 16, C, and fig. 11, A, + B). The seta widens out at the base of the capsule into a region known as + the apophysis. The peripheral cells of the seta are thick-walled, and it + has a central strand of elongated conducting cells. In the epidermis of + the apophysis functional stomata, similar to those of the higher plants, + are present and, since cells containing chlorophyll are present below the + superficial layers of the apophysis and capsule, the sporogonium is + capable of independent assimilation. The construction of the capsule will + be best understood from the median longitudinal section (fig. 11, C). The + central region extending between the apophysis and the operculum is + composed of sterile tissue and forms the columella (<i>c</i>). + Immediately around this is the layer of cells from which the spores will + be developed (<i>s</i>), and the layers of cells on either side of this + form the walls of the spore-sac, which will contain the spores. Between + the wall of the capsule, which is composed of several layers of cells, + and the spore-sac is a wide intercellular space (<i>h</i>) bridged across + by trabeculae consisting of rows of chlorophyll-containing cells. At the + junction of the operculum (<i>d</i>) with the rest of the capsule is a + circle of cells forming the annulus (<i>a</i>), by help of which the + operculum is detached at maturity as a small lid. Its removal does not, + however, leave the mouth of the capsule wide open, for around the margin + are two circles of pointed teeth forming the peristome. These are the + thickened cell-walls of a definite layer of cells (<i>p</i>), and appear + <!-- Page 706 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page706"></a>[v.04 + p.0706]</span>as separate teeth owing to the breaking down of the + unthickened cell-walls. The numerous spores which have been developed in + the spore sac can thus only escape from the pendulous capsule through + narrow slits between the teeth, and these are closed in damp air. The + unicellular spores when supplied with moisture germinate (fig. 12) and + give rise to the sexual generation. A filamentous protonema is first + developed, some of the branches of which are exposed to the light and + contain abundant chlorophyll, while others penetrate the substratum as + brown or colourless rhizoids. The moss-plants arise from single + projecting cells, and numerous plants may spring from the protonema + developed from a single spore.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:50%;"> + <a href="images/bryophyta_12.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bryophyta_12.png" + alt="Fig. 12.--Funaria hygrometrica." title="Fig. 12.--Funaria hygrometrica." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 12.—<i>Funaria hygrometrica.</i> + (After Goebel.) + + <p class="poem">A, Germinating spores. <i>s</i>, Wall of spore; + <i>v</i>, vacuole; <i>w</i>, rhizoid.</p> + + <p class="poem">B, Part of a developed protonema. <i>h</i>, Creeping + filament with brown walls from which the filaments of + chlorophyll-containing cells (<i>b</i>) arise; <i>k</i>, young + moss-plant; <i>w</i>, its first rhizoid.</p> + </div> + <p>The majority of the mosses belong to the same great group as + <i>Funaria</i>, the Bryales. The other two subdivisions of the Musci are + each represented by a single genus. In the Andreaeales the columella does + not extend to the upper end of the capsule, and the latter opens by a + number of lateral slits. The Sphagnales also have a dome-shaped spore-sac + continued over the columella, and, though their capsule opens by an + operculum, they differ widely from other mosses in the development of the + sporogonium as well as in the characters of the sexual generation. The + three groups are described separately below, but some more general + features of the mosses may be considered here.</p> + + <p>On the whole mosses grow in drier situations than the liverworts, and + the arrangements they present for the conduction of water in the plant + are also more complete and suggest in some cases comparisons with the + higher plants. In spite of this, however, they are in great part + dependent on the absorption of water through the general surface of the + shoot, and the power of rapid imbibition possessed by their cell-walls, + the crowded position of the small leaves on the stem, and special + adaptations for the retention of water on the surface, have the same + significance as in the foliose liverworts. The different appearance of + exposed mosses in dry weather and after a shower illustrates this + relation to the water supply. The protonema is always a well-marked stage + in the life-history. Not only does a moss-plant never arise directly from + the spore, but in all cases of vegetative reproduction, apart from the + separation of branches by decay of older regions of the plant, a + protonema is found. Usually the protonema is filamentous and ceases to be + evident after the plants have developed. But in some small mosses (e.g. + <i>Ephemerum</i>) it plays the chief part in assimilation and lives on + from year to year. In <i>Sphagnum</i>, <i>Andreaea</i> and some genera of + the Bryales the protonema or some of its branches have the form of flat + plates or masses of cells. The formation of the moss-plant on the + protonema is always from a single cell and is similar in all mosses. The + first three walls in this cell intersect one another, and define the + three-sided pyramidal apical cell by means of which the shoot continues + to grow. In <i>Fissidens</i> and a few other mosses the apical cell is + two-sided. The leaves formed by the successive segments gradually attain + their normal size and structure. Each segment of the initial cell gives + rise to a leaf and a portion of the stem; the branches arise from the + lower portion of a segment and stand immediately below a leaf. The leaves + may form three vertical rows, but usually their arrangement, owing to the + direction of the segment walls at the apex, becomes more complicated. + Their growth proceeds by means of a two-sided apical cell, and the midrib + does not become more than one cell thick until later. In addition to the + leaves the stem often bears hair-like structures of different kinds, some + of which correspond to modified branches of protonema. The branched + filamentous rhizoids which spring from the lower region of the stem also + correspond to protonemal branches. The structure of both stem and leaf + reaches a high grade of organization in some mosses. Not only are + thick-walled sclerenchymatous cells developed to give rigidity to the + periphery of the stem and the midrib of the leaf, but in many cases a + special water-conducting tissue, consisting of elongated cells, the end + walls of which are thin and oblique, forms a definite central strand in + the stem. In the forms in which it is most highly developed + (Polytrichaceae) this tissue, which is comparable with the xylem of + higher plants, is surrounded by a zone of tissue physiologically + comparable to phloem, and in the rhizome may be limited by an endodermis. + The conducting strands in the leaves show the same tissues as in the + central strand of the stem, and in the Polytrichaceae and some other + mosses are in continuity with it. The independent origin of this + conducting system is of great interest for comparison with the vascular + system of the sporophyte of the higher plants.</p> + + <p>The sexual organs, with the exception of the antheridia of + <i>Sphagnum</i>, are borne at the apices of the main shoot or of + branches. Their general similarity to the mature antheridia and + archegonia of liverworts and the main difference in their development + have been referred to. The antheridia open by means of a cap cell or + groups of cells with mucilaginous contents. The details of construction + of the sporogonium are referred to below. In all cases (except + <i>Archidium</i>) a columella is present, and all the cells derived from + the archesporium produce spores, no elaters being formed. In a few cases + the germination of the spore commences within the capsule. The + development of the sporogonium proceeds in all cases (except in + <i>Sphagnum</i>) by means of an apical cell cutting off two rows of + segments. The first periclinal division in the region forming the capsule + separates an inner group of cells (the endothecium) form the peripheral + layer (amphithecium). In <i>Sphagnum</i>, as in <i>Anthoceros</i>, the + archesporium is derived from the amphithecium; in all other mosses it is + the outermost layer of the endothecium.</p> + + <p>Vegetative propagation is widely spread in the mosses, and, as + mentioned above, a protonema is always formed in the development of the + new plant. The social growth of the plants characteristic of many mosses + is a result of the formation of numerous plants on the original protonema + and on developments from the rhizoids. Besides this, gemmae may be formed + on the protonema, on the leaves or at the apex, and some mosses have + specialized shoots for their better protection or distribution. Thus in + <i>Georgia</i> the stalked, multicellular gemmae are borne at the ends of + shoots surrounded by a rosette of larger leaves, and in <i>Aulacomnium + androgynum</i> they are raised on an elongated leafless region of the + shoot. In other cases detached leaves or shoots may give rise to new + plants, and when a moss is artificially divided almost any fragment may + serve for reproduction.</p> + + <p>Even in those rare cases in which the sexual generation can be + developed without the intervention of spore production from the tissues + of the sporogonium, a protonema is formed from cut pieces of the seta or + in some cases from intact sporogonia still attached to the plant. This + phenomenon of <i>apospory</i> was first discovered in mosses, but is now + also known in a number of ferns (see <span + class="sc">Pteridophyta</span>).</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:25%;"> + <a href="images/bryophyta_13.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bryophyta_13.png" + alt="Fig. 13.--Sphagnum acutifolium." title="Fig. 13.--Sphagnum acutifolium." /></a> + <p class="poem"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 13.—<i>Sphagnum + acutifolium.</i> (After Schimper.)</p> + + <p class="poem">A. Longitudinal section of apex of a bud bearing + archegonia (<i>ar</i>), enclosed by the large leaves (<i>y</i>); + <i>ch</i>, small perichaetial leaves.</p> + + <p class="poem">B. Longitudinal section of the sporogonium borne on the + pseudopodium (<i>ps</i>); <i>c</i>, calyptra; <i>ar</i>, neck of + archegonium; <i>sg</i>′, foot; <i>sg</i>, capsule.</p> + + <p class="poem">C. <i>S. squarrosum.</i> Ripe sporogonium raised on the + pseudopodium (<i>qs</i>) above the enclosing leaves (<i>ch</i>); + <i>c</i>, the ruptured calyptra; <i>sg</i>, capsule; <i>d</i>, + operculum.</p> + </div> + <p><i>Sphagnales.</i>—The single genus <i>Sphagnum</i> occupies a + very distinct and isolated position among mosses. The numerous species, + which are familiar as the bog-mosses, are so similar that minute + structural characters have to be relied on in their identification. The + plants occur in large patches of a pale green or reddish colour on moors, + and, when filling up small lakes or pools, may attain a length of some + feet. Their growth has played a large part in the formation of peat. The + species are distributed in temperate and arctic climates, but in the + tropics only occur at high levels. The protonema forms a flat, lobed, + thalloid structure attached to the soil by rhizoids, and the plants arise + from marginal cells. The main shoot bears numerous branches which appear + to stand in whorls; some of them bend down and become applied to the + surface of the main axis. The structure of the stem and leaves is + peculiar. The former shows on cross-section a thin-walled central tissue + surrounded by a zone of thick-walled cells. Outside this come one to five + layers of large clear cells, which when mature are dead and empty; their + walls are strengthened with a spiral thickening and perforated with round + pores. They serve to absorb and conduct water by capillarity. The leaves + have no midrib and similar empty cells occur regularly among the narrow + chlorophyll-containing cells, which thus appear as a green network. The + antheridia are globular and have long stalks. They stand by the side of + leaves of special club-shaped branches. The archegonial groups occupy the + apices of short branches (fig. 13, A.). The mature sporogonium consists + of a wide foot separated by a constriction from the globular capsule (B). + There is no distinct seta, but the capsule is raised on a leafless + outgrowth of the end of the branch called a pseudopodium (C, <i>qs</i>). + The capsule, the wall of which bears rudimentary stomata, has a small + operculum but no peristome. There is a short, wide columella, over which + the dome-shaped spore-sac extends, and no air-space is present between + the spore-sac and the wall. In the embryo a number of tiers of cells are + first formed. The lower tiers <!-- Page 707 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page707"></a>[v.04 p.0707]</span>form the foot, while in the upper + part the first divisions mark off the columella, around which the + archesporium, derived from the amphithecium, extends. The sporogonium + when nearly mature bursts the calyptra irregularly. The capsule opens + explosively in dry weather, the operculum and spores being thrown to a + distance. The spore on germination forms a short filament which soon + broadens out into the thalloid protonema. Some twelve species of + <i>Sphagnum</i> are found in Britain.</p> + + <div class="figleft" style="width:25%;"> + <a href="images/bryophyta_14.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bryophyta_14.png" + alt="Fig. 14.--Andreaea petrophila." title="Fig. 14.--Andreaea petrophila." /></a> + <p class="poem"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 14.—<i>Andreaea + <span class="correction" title="'pelrophila' in original" + >petrophila</span></i>. Plant bearing opened capsule.</p> + + <p class="poem">(<i>k</i>) <i>ps</i>, Pseudopodium.</p> + + <p class="poem"><i>c</i>, Calyptra.</p> + + <p class="poem"><i>spf</i>, Foot of sporogonium.</p> + + <p class="poem">From Strasburger's <i>Textbook of Botany</i></p> + </div> + <p><i>Andreaeales.</i>—The species of the single genus + <i>Andreaea</i> (fig. 14) are small, dark-coloured mosses growing for the + most part in tufts on bare rocks in alpine and arctic regions. Four + species occur on alpine rocks in Britain. The spore on germination gives + rise to a small mass of cells from which one or more short filaments + grow. The filament soon broadens into a ribbon-shaped thallus, several + cells thick, which is closely applied to the rock. Erect branches may + arise from the protonema, and gemmae may be developed on it. The stem of + the plant, which arises in the usual way, has no conducting strand and + the leaves may or may not have midribs. The leaf grows by a dome-shaped + instead of by the usual two-sided initial cell. The antheridia are + long-stalked. The upper portion of the archegonial wall is carried up as + a calyptra on the sporogonium, which, as in <i>Sphagnum</i>, has no seta + and is raised on a pseudopodium. The development of the sporogonium + proceeds as in the Bryales, but the dome-shaped archesporium extends over + the summit of the columella and an air-space is wanting. The capsule does + not open by an operculum but by four or six longitudinal slits, which do + not reach either the base or apex. In one exotic species the splits occur + only at the upper part of the capsule, and the terminal cap breaks away. + This isolated example thus appears to approach the Bryales in its mode of + dehiscence.</p> + + <p><i>Bryales.</i>—In contrast to the preceding two this group + includes a very large number of genera and species. Thus even in Britain + between five and six hundred species belonging to more than one hundred + genera are found. They occur in the most varied situations, on soil, on + rocks and trees, and, in a few instances (<i>Fontinalis</i>), in water. + Although exhibiting a wide range in size and in the structural complexity + of both generations, they all conform to a general type, so that + <i>Funaria</i>, described above, will serve as a fair example of the + group. The protonema is usually filamentous, and in some of the simplest + forms is long-lived, while the small plants borne on it serve mainly to + protect the sexual organs and sporogonia. This is the case in + <i>Ephemerum</i>, which grows on the damp soil of clayey fields, and the + plants are even more simply constructed in <i>Buxbaumia</i>, which occurs + on soil rich in humus and is possibly partially saprophytic. In this moss + the filamentous protonema is capable of assimilation, but the leaves of + the small plants are destitute of chlorophyll, so that they are dependent + on the protonema. The male plant has no definite stem, and consists of a + single concave leaf protecting the antheridium. The female plant is + rather more highly organized, consisting of a short stem bearing a few + leaves around the group of archegonia. The sporogonium is of large size + and highly organized, though it presents peculiar features in the + peristome. <i>Buxbaumia</i> has been regarded by Goebel as representing a + stage which other mosses have passed, and has been described by him as + the simplest type of moss. In <i>Ephemerum</i> also we may probably + regard the relation of the small plants to the protonema as a primitive + one. On the other hand, in the case of <i>Ephemeropsis</i>, which grows + on the leaves of living plants in Java, the high organization of the + sporogonium makes it probable that the persistent protonema is an + adaptation to the peculiar conditions of life. A highly developed + protonema provided with leaf-like assimilating organs is found in + <i>Georgia</i>, <i>Diphyscium</i> and <i>Oedipodium</i>, all of which + show peculiarities in the sporogonium as well. The cells of the protonema + of <i>Schistostega</i>, which lives in the shade of caves, are so + constructed as to concentrate the feeble available light on the + chloroplasts.</p> + + <p>We may perhaps regard the persistent protonema bearing small leafy + plants as a primitive condition, and look upon those larger plants which + remain unbranched and bear the sexual organs at the apex (e.g. + <i>Schistostega</i>) as representing the next stage. From this condition + different lines of specialization in the form and structure of the plant + can be recognized. A large number of mosses stand at about the same grade + as <i>Funaria</i>, in that the plants are small, sparingly branched, + usually radial, and do not show a very highly differentiated internal + structure. In others the form of the plant becomes more complex by + copious branching and the differentiation of shoots of different orders. + In these cases the shoot system is often more or less dorsiventral, and + the sexual organs are borne on short lateral branches (e.g. <i>Thuidium + tamariscinum</i>). The Polytrichaceae, on the other hand, show a + specialization in structure rather than in form. The high organization of + their conducting system has been referred to above, but though many + species are able to exist in relatively dry situations, the plants are + still dependent on the absorption of water by the general surface. The + parallel lamellae of assimilating cells which grow from the upper surface + of the leaf in these and some other mosses probably serve to retain water + in the neighbourhood of the assimilating cells and so prolong their + activity. As common adaptive features in the leaves the occurrence of + papillae or outgrowths of the cell-walls to retain water, and the white + hairlike leaf tips, which assist in protecting the young parts at the + apex of many xerophytic mosses, may be mentioned. The leaves of + <i>Leucobryum</i>, which occurs in pale green tufts in shaded woods, show + a parallel adaptation to that found in <i>Sphagnum</i>. They are several + cells thick, and the small assimilating cells lie between two layers of + empty water-storage cells, the walls of which are perforated by + pores.</p> + + <p>With the possible exception of <i>Archidium</i>, the sporogonium is + throughout the Bryales constructed on one plan. <i>Archidium</i> is a + small moss occurring occasionally on the soil of wet fields. The + protonema is not persistent, and the plants are well developed, + resembling those of <i>Pleuridium</i>. The sporogonium has a small foot + and practically no seta, and differs in the development and structure of + its capsule from all other mosses. The spores are derived from the + endothecium, but no distinction of a sterile columella and an + archesporium is established in this, a variable number of its cells + becoming spore-mother-cells while the rest serve to nourish the spores. + The layer of cells immediately around the endothecium becomes the + spore-sac, and an air-space forms between this and the wall of the + capsule. The very large, thin-walled spores escape on the decay of the + capsule, which ruptures the archegonial wall irregularly. On account of + the absence of a columella <i>Archidium</i> is sometimes placed in a + distinct group, but since its peculiarities have possibly arisen by + reduction it seems at present best retained among the Bryales. In all + other Bryales there is a definite columella extending from the base to + the apex of the capsule, the archesporium is derived from the outermost + layer of cells of the endothecium, and an air space is formed between the + spore-sac and the wall. In the Polytrichaceae another air space separates + the spore-sac from the columella. There is great variety in the length of + the seta, which is sometimes practically absent. The apophysis, which may + be a more or less distinct region, usually bears stomata and is the main + organ of assimilation. In the Splachnaceae it is expanded for this + purpose, while in <i>Oedipodium</i> it constitutes most of the long pale + stalk which supports the capsule. A distinct operculum is usually + detached by the help of the annulus, and its removal may leave the mouth + of the capsule widely open. More usually there is a peristome, consisting + of one or two series of teeth, which serves to narrow the opening and in + various ways to ensure the gradual shedding of the spores in dry weather. + In most mosses the teeth are portions of thickened cell-walls but in the + Polytrichaceae they are formed of a number of sclerenchymatous cells. In + <i>Polytrichum</i> a membranous epiphragm stretches across the wide mouth + of the capsule between the tips of the short peristome teeth, and closes + the opening except for the interspaces of the peristome.</p> + + <p>In a number of forms, which were formerly grouped together, the + capsule does not open to liberate the spores. These cleistocarpous forms + are now recognized as related to various natural groups, in which the + majority of the species possess an operculum. In such forms as + <i>Phascum</i> the columella persists, and the only peculiarity is in the + absence of arrangements for dehiscence. In <i>Ephemerum</i> <!-- Page 708 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page708"></a>[v.04 p.0708]</span>(and + the closely related <i>Nanomitrium</i> which has a small operculum) the + columella becomes absorbed during the development of the spores. Stomata + are present on the wall of the small capsule. Such facts as these suggest + that in many cases the cleistocarpous condition is the result of + reduction rather than primitive, and that possibly the same holds for + <i>Archidium</i>.</p> + + <p>The former subdivision of the Bryales into Musci Cleistocarpi and + Musci Stegocarpi according to the absence or presence of an operculum is + thus clearly artificial. The same holds even more obviously for the + grouping of the stegocarpous forms into those in which the archegonial + group terminates a main axis (acrocarpi) and those in which it is borne + on a more or less developed lateral branch (pleurocarpi). Modern + classifications of the Bryales depend mainly on the construction of the + peristome.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:50%;"> + <a href="images/zbryophyta_15.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bryophyta_15.png" + alt="Fig. 15.--Funaria hygrometrica." title="Fig. 15.--Funaria hygrometrica." /></a> + <p class="poem"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 15.—<i>Funaria + hygrometrica.</i> Longitudinal section through the summit of a male + branch. (After Sachs.)</p> + + <p class="poem"><i>e</i>, Leaves.</p> + + <p class="poem"><i>d</i>, Leaves cut through the mid-ribs.</p> + + <p class="poem"><i>c</i>, Paraphyses.</p> + + <p class="poem"><i>b</i>, Antheridia.</p> + </div> + <p>It remains to be considered to what extent the several natural groups + of plants classed together in the Bryophyta can be placed in a + phylogenetic relation to one another. Practically no help is afforded by + palaeobotany, and only the comparison of existing forms can be depended + on. The indications of probable lines of evolution are clearest in the + Hepaticae. The Marchantiales form an obviously natural evolutionary + group, and the same is probably true of the Jungermanniales, although in + neither case can the partial lines of progression within the main groups + be said to be quite clear. Such a form as <i>Sphaerocarpus</i>, which has + features in common with the lower Marchantiales, enables us to form an + idea of the divergence of the two groups from a common ancestry. The + Anthocerotales, on the other hand, stand in an isolated position, and + recent researches have served to emphasize this rather than to confirm + the relationship with the Jungermanniales suggested by Leitgeb. The + indications of a serial progression are not so clear in the mosses, but + the majority of the forms may be regarded as forming a great phylogenetic + group in the evolution of which the elaboration of the moss-plant has + proceeded until the protonema appears as a mere preliminary stage to the + formation of the plants. Parallel with the evolution of the gametophyte + in form and structure, a progression can be traced in the sporogonium, + although the simplest sporogonia available for study may owe much of + their simplicity to reduction. The Andreaeales may perhaps be looked on + as a divergent primitive branch of the same stock. On the other hand, the + Sphagnales show such considerable and important differences from the rest + of the mosses, that like the Anthocerotales among the liverworts, they + may be regarded as a group, the relationship of which to the main stem is + at least problematical. Between the Hepaticae, Anthocerotales, Sphagnales + and Musci, there are no connecting forms known, and it must be left as an + open question whether the Bryophyta are a monophyletic or polyphyletic + group.</p> + + <p>The question of the relationship of the Bryophyta on the one hand to + the Thallophyta and on the other to the Pteridophyta lies even more in + the region of speculation, on slender grounds without much hope of + decisive evidence. In a general sense we may regard the Bryophyta as + derived from an algal ancestry, without being able to suggest the nature + of the ancestral forms or the geological period at which they arose. + Recent researches on those Algae such as <i>Coleochaete</i> which + appeared to afford a close comparison in their alternation of generations + with <i>Riccia</i>, have shown that the body resulting from the + segmentation of the fertilized ovum is not so strictly comparable in the + two cases as had been supposed. The series of increasingly complex + sporogonia among Bryophytes appears to be most naturally explained on an + hypothesis of progressive sterilization of sporogenous tissue, such as + has been advanced by Bower. On the other hand there are not wanting + indications of reduction in the Bryophyte sporogonium which make an + alternative view of its origin at least possible. With regard to the + relationship of the Bryophyta and Pteridophyta the article on the latter + group should be consulted. It will be sufficient to say in conclusion + that while the alternating generations in the two groups are strictly + comparable, no evidence of actual relationship is yet forthcoming.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:32%;"> + <a href="images/bryophyta_16.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bryophyta_16.png" + alt="Fig. 16.--Funaria hygrometrica." title="Fig. 16.--Funaria hygrometrica." /></a> + <p class="poem"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 16.—<i>Funaria + hygrometrica.</i> (After Goebel.)</p> + + <p class="poem">A. Longitudinal section of the very young sporogonium + (<i>f</i>, <i>f</i>′) enclosed in the archegonial wall (<i>b</i>, + <i>h</i>).</p> + + <p class="poem">B, C. Further stages of the development of the + sporogonium (<i>f</i>) enclosed in the calyptra formed from the + archegonial wall (<i>c</i>) and still bearing the neck (<i>h</i>). The + foot of the sporogonium has penetrated into the underlying tissue of + the stem of the moss-plant.</p> + </div> + <p>For further information consult: Campbell, <i>Mosses and Ferns</i> + (London, 1906); Engler and Prantl, <i>Die naturlichen + Pflanzenfamilien</i>, Teil i. Abt. 3 (Leipzig, 1893-1907); Goebel, + <i>Organography of Plants</i> (Oxford, 1905). Full references to the + literature of the subject will be found in these works. For the + identification of the British species of liverworts and mosses the + following recent works will be of use: Pearson, <i>The Hepaticae of the + British Isles</i> (London, 1902); Dixon and Jameson, <i>The Student's + Handbook of British Mosses</i> (London, 1896); Braithwaite, <i>British + Moss Flora</i> (London, 1887-1905).</p> + + <p>(W. H. L.)</p> + + <p><b>BRZOZOWSKI, THADDEUS</b> (d. 1820), nineteenth general of the + Jesuits, was appointed in succession to Gabriel Gruber on the 2nd of + September 1805. In 1801 Pius VII. had given the Jesuits liberty to + reconstitute themselves in north Russia (see <span + class="sc">Jesuits</span>: <i>History</i>), and in 1812 Brzozowski + secured the recognition of the Jesuit college of Polotsk as a university, + though he could not obtain permission to go to Spain to agitate for the + recognition <!-- Page 709 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page709"></a>[v.04 p.0709]</span>of the Spanish Jesuits. In 1814 + Pius VII., in accordance with the bull <i>Sollicitudo omnium + ecclesiarum</i>, gave to Brzozowski among others full authority to + receive those who desired to enter the society. The Russian government, + however, soon began to be alarmed at the growth of the Jesuits, and on + the 20th of December 1815 published an edict expelling them from St + Petersburg. Brzozowski, having vainly requested to be allowed to retire + to Rome, died on the 5th of February 1820. He is interesting mainly from + the fact that he was general of the Society at the time of its + restoration throughout Europe.</p> + + <p><b>BUBASTIS,</b> the Graecized name of the Egyptian goddess Ubasti, + meaning "she of [the city] Bast" (B;s-t), a city better known by its + later name, P-ubasti, "place of Ubasti"; thus the goddess derived her + name Ubasti from her city (Bast), and in turn the city derived its name + P-ubasti from that of the goddess; the Greeks, confusing the name of the + city with that of the goddess, called the latter Bubastis, and the former + also Bubastis (later Bubastos). Bubastis, capital of the 19th nome of + Lower Egypt, is now represented by a great mound of ruins called Tell + Basta, near Zagazig, including the site of a large temple (described by + Herodotus) strewn with blocks of granite. The monuments discovered there, + although only those in hard stone have survived, are more important than + at any other site in the Delta except Tanis and cover a wider range, + commencing with Khufu (Cheops) and continuing to the thirtieth + dynasty.</p> + + <p>Ubasti was one of many feline goddesses, figured with the head of a + lioness. In the great development of reverence for sacred animals which + took place after the New Kingdom, the domestic cat was especially the + animal of Bubastis, although it had also to serve for all the other + feline goddesses, owing no doubt to the scarcity and intractability of + its congeners. Her hieratic and most general form was still + lioness-headed, but a popular form, especially in bronze, was a + cat-headed women, often holding in her right hand a lion aegis, i.e. a + broad semicircular pectoral surmounted by the head of a lioness, and on + the left arm a basket. The cat cemetery on the west side of the town + consisted of numbers of large brick chambers, crammed with burnt and + decayed mummies, many of which had been enclosed in cat-shaped cases of + wood and bronze. Herodotus describes the festival of Bubastis, which was + attended by thousands from all parts of Egypt and was a very riotous + affair; it has its modern equivalent in the Moslem festival of the sheikh + Said el Badawi at Tanta. The tablet of Canopus shows that there were two + festivals of Bubastis, the great and the lesser: perhaps the lesser + festival was held at Memphis, where the quarter called Ankhto contained a + temple to this goddess. Her name is found on monuments from the third + dynasty onwards, but a great stimulus was given to her worship by the + twenty-second (Bubastite) dynasty and generally by the increased + importance of Lower Egypt in later times. Her character seems to have + been essentially mild and playful, in contrast to Sokhmi and other feline + goddesses. The Greeks equated Ubasti with their Artemis, confusing her + with the leonine Tafne, sister of Shöou (Apollo). The Egyptians + themselves delighted in identifying together goddesses of the most + diverse forms and attributes; but Ubasti was almost indistinguishable in + form from Tafne. The name of her son Iphthimis (Nfr-tm), pronounced + Eftem, may mean "All-good," and, in the absence of other information + about him, suggests a reason why he was identified with Prometheus.</p> + + <p>See K. Sethe in Pauly-Wissowa's <i>Realencyclopädie</i>; E. Naville, + <i>Bubastis</i>, and <i>Festival Hall of Osorkon II.</i>; Herodotus ii. + 67, 137-156; Grenfell and Hunt, <i>Hibeh Papyri</i>, i.</p> + + <p>(<span class="sc">F. Ll. G.</span>)</p> + + <p><b>BUCARAMANGA,</b> a city of Colombia, capital of the department of + Santandér, about 185 m. N.N.E. of Bogotá. Pop. (estimate, 1902) 25,000. + It is situated on the Lebrija river, 3248 ft. above sea-level, in a + mountainous country rich in gold, silver and iron mines, and having + superior coffee-producing lands in the valleys and on the lower slopes. + The city is laid out with wide, straight streets, is well built, and has + many public buildings of a substantial character.</p> + + <p><b>BUCCANEERS,</b> the name given to piratical adventurers of + different nationalities united in their opposition to Spain, who + maintained themselves chiefly in the Caribbean Sea during the 17th + century.</p> + + <p>The island of Santo Domingo was one of several in the West Indies + which had early in the 16th century been almost depopulated by the + oppressive colonial policy of Spain. Along its coast there were several + isolated establishments presided over by Spaniards, who were deprived of + a convenient market for the produce of the soil by the monopolies imposed + by the mother country. Accordingly English, Dutch and French vessels were + welcomed and their cargoes readily bought. The island, thinned of its + former inhabitants, had become the home of immense herds of wild cattle; + and it became the habit of smugglers to provision at Santo Domingo. The + natives still left were skilled in preserving flesh at their little + establishments called <i>boucans</i>. The adventurers learned + "boucanning" from the natives; and gradually Hispaniola became the scene + of an extensive and illicit butcher trade. Spanish monopolies filled the + seamen who sailed the Caribbean with a natural hate of everything + Spanish. The pleasures of a roving life, enlivened by occasional + skirmishes with forces organized and led by Spanish officials, gained + upon them. Out of such conditions arose the buccaneer, alternately sailor + and hunter, even occasionally a planter—roving, bold, unscrupulous, + often savage, with an intense detestation of Spain. As the Spaniards + would not recognize the right of other races to make settlements, or even + to trade in the West Indies, the governments of France, England and + Holland would do nothing to control their subjects who invaded the + islands. They left them free to make settlements at their own risk. Each + nation contributed a band of colonists, who selected the island of St + Kitts or St Christopher, in the West Indies, where the settlers of both + nations were simultaneously planted. The English and French were, + however, not very friendly; and in 1629, after the retirement of several + of the former to an adjoining island, the remaining colonists were + surprised and partly dispersed by the arrival of a Spanish fleet of + thirty-nine sail. But on the departure of the fleet the scattered bands + returned, and encouragement was given to their countrymen in Santo + Domingo. For buccaneering had now become a most profitable employment, + operations were extended, and a storehouse secure from the attacks of the + Spaniards was required. The small island of Tortuga (north-west of + Hispaniola) was seized for this purpose in 1630, converted into a + magazine for the goods of the rivals, and made their headquarters, Santo + Domingo itself still continuing their hunting ground. A purely English + settlement directed by a company in London was made at Old Providence, an + island in the Caribbean Sea, now belonging to Colombia. It began a little + before 1630, and was suppressed by the Spaniards in 1641.</p> + + <p>Spain was unable to take immediate action. Eight years later, however, + watching their opportunity when many buccaneers were absent in the larger + island, the Spaniards attacked Tortuga, and massacred every settler they + could seize. But the others returned; and the buccaneers, now in open + hostility to the Spanish arms, began to receive recruits from every + European trading nation, and for three-quarters of a century became the + scourge of the Spanish-American trade and dominions.</p> + + <p>France, throughout all this, had not been idle. She had named the + governor of St Kitts "Governor-General for the French West India + Islands," and in 1641 he took possession of Tortuga, expelled all English + from the island, and attempted the same with less success in Santo + Domingo. England was absorbed in the Civil War, and the buccaneers had to + maintain themselves as best they could,—now mainly on the sea.</p> + + <p>In 1654 the Spaniards regained Tortuga from the French, into whose + hands it again, however, fell after six years. But this state of affairs + was too insecure even for these rovers, and they would speedily have + succumbed had not a refuge been found for them by the fortunate conquest + of Jamaica in 1655 by the navy of the English Commonwealth. These + conquests were not made without the aid of the buccaneers themselves. The + taking and re-taking of Tortuga by the French was always with the + assistance of the roving community; and at the conquest of Jamaica the + English navy had the same influence in its favour. The <!-- Page 710 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page710"></a>[v.04 + p.0710]</span>buccaneers, in fact, constituted a mercenary navy, ready + for employment against the power of Spain by any other nation, on + condition of sharing the plunder; and they were noted for their daring, + their cruelty and their extraordinary skill in seamanship.</p> + + <p>Their history now divides itself into three epochs. The first of these + extends from the period of their rise to the capture of Panama by Morgan + in 1671, during which time they were hampered neither by government aid + nor, till near its close, by government restriction. The second, from + 1671 to the time of their greatest power, 1685, when the scene of their + operations was no longer merely the Caribbean, but principally the whole + range of the Pacific from California to Chile. The third and last period + extends from that year onwards; it was a time of disunion and + disintegration, when the independence and rude honour of the previous + periods had degenerated into unmitigated vice and brutality.</p> + + <p>It is chiefly during the first period that those leaders flourished + whose names and doings have been associated with all that was really + influential in the exploits of the buccaneers—the most prominent + being Mansfield and Morgan. The floating commerce of Spain had by the + middle of the 17th century become utterly insignificant. But Spanish + settlements remained; and in 1654 the first great expedition on land made + by the buccaneers, though attended by considerable difficulties, was + completed by the capture and sack of New Segovia, on the mainland of + America. The Gulf of Venezuela, with its towns of Maracaibo and + Gibraltar, were attacked and plundered under the command of a Frenchman + named L'Ollonois, who performed, it is said, the office of executioner + upon the whole crew of a Spanish vessel manned with ninety seamen. Such + successes removed the buccaneers further and further from the pale of + civilized society, fed their revenge, and inspired them with an avarice + almost equal to that of the original settlers from Spain. Mansfield + indeed, in 1664, conceived the idea of a permanent settlement upon a + small island of the Bahamas, named New Providence, and Henry Morgan, a + Welshman, intrepid and unscrupulous, joined him. But the untimely death + of Mansfield nipped in the bud the only rational scheme of settlement + which seems at any time to have animated this wild community; and Morgan, + now elected commander, swept the whole Caribbean, and from his + headquarters in Jamaica led triumphant expeditions to Cuba and the + mainland. He was leader of the expedition wherein Porto Bello, one of the + best-fortified ports in the West Indies, was surprised and plundered.</p> + + <p>This was too much for even the adverse European powers; and in 1670 a + treaty was concluded between England and Spain, proclaiming peace and + friendship among the subjects of the two sovereigns in the New World, + formally renouncing hostilities of every kind. Great Britain was to hold + all her possessions in the New World as her own property (a remarkable + concession on the part of Spain), and consented, on behalf of her + subjects, to forbear trading with any Spanish port without licence + obtained.</p> + + <p>The treaty was very ill observed in Jamaica, where the governor, + Thomas Modyford (1620-1679), was in close alliance with the "privateers," + which was the official title of the buccaneers. He had already granted + commissions to Morgan and others for a great attack on the Isthmus of + Panama, the route by which the bullion of the South American mines was + carried to Porto Bello, to be shipped to Spain. The buccaneers to the + number of 2000 began by seizing Chagres, and then marched to Panama in + 1671. After a difficult journey on foot and in canoes, they found + themselves nearing the shores of the South Sea and in view of the city. + On the morning of the tenth day they commenced an engagement which ended + in the rout of the defenders of the town. It was taken, and, accidentally + or not, it was burnt. The sack of Panama was accompanied by great + barbarities. The Spaniards had, however, removed the treasure before the + city was taken. When the booty was divided, Morgan is accused of having + defrauded his followers. It is certain that the share per man was small, + and that many of the buccaneers died of starvation while trying to return + to Jamaica. Modyford was recalled, and in 1672 Morgan was called home and + imprisoned in the Tower. In 1674 he was allowed to come back to the + island as lieutenant-governor with Lord Vaughan. He had become so + unpopular after the expedition of 1671 that he was followed in the + streets and threatened by the relations of those who had perished. During + his later years he was active in suppressing the buccaneers who had now + inconvenient claims on him.</p> + + <p>From 1671 to 1685 is the time of the greatest daring, prosperity and + power of the buccaneers. The expedition against Panama had not been + without its influence. Notwithstanding their many successes in the + Caribbean and on land, including a second plunder of Porto Bello, their + thoughts ran frequently on the great expedition across the isthmus, and + they pictured the South Sea as a far wider and more lucrative field for + the display of their united power.</p> + + <p>In 1680 a body of marauders over 300 strong, well armed and + provisioned, landed on the shore of Darien and struck across the country; + and the cruelty and mismanagement displayed in the policy of the + Spaniards towards the Indians were now revenged by the assistance which + the natives eagerly rendered to the adventurers. They acted as guides + during a difficult journey of nine days, kept the invaders well supplied + with food, provided them with canoes, and only left them after the taking + of the fort of Santa Maria, when the buccaneers were fairly embarked on a + broad and safe river which emptied itself into the South Sea. With John + Coxon as commander they entered the Bay of Panama, where rumour had been + before them, and where the Spaniards had hastily prepared a small fleet + to meet them. But the valour of the buccaneers won for them another + victory; within a week they took possession of four Spanish ships, and + now successes flowed upon them. The Pacific, hitherto free from their + intrusion, showed many sail of merchant vessels, while on land opposition + south of the Bay of Panama was of little avail, since few were acquainted + with the use of fire-arms. Coxon and seventy men returned as they had + gone, but the others, under Sawkins, Sharp and Watling, roamed north and + south on islands and mainland, and remained for long ravaging the coast + of Peru. Never short of silver and gold, but often in want of the + necessaries of life, they continued their practices for a little longer; + then, evading the risk of recrossing the isthmus, they boldly cleared + Cape Horn, and arrived in the Indies. Again, in 1683, numbers of them + under John Cook departed for the South Sea by way of Cape Horn. On Cook's + death his successor, Edward Davis, undoubtedly the greatest and most + prudent commander who ever led the forces of the buccaneers at sea, met + with a certain Captain Swan from England, and the two captains began a + cruise which was disastrous to the Spanish trade in the Pacific.</p> + + <p>In 1685 they were joined in the Bay of Panama by large numbers of + buccaneers who had crossed the isthmus under Townley and others. This + increased body of men required an enlarged measure of adventure, and this + in a few months was supplied by the viceroy of Peru. That officer, seeing + the trade of the colony cut off, supplies stopped, towns burned and + raided, and property harassed by continual raids, resolved by vigorous + means to put an end to it. But his aim was not easily accomplished. In + this same year a Spanish fleet of fourteen sail met, but did not engage, + ten buccaneer vessels which were found in the Bay of Panama.</p> + + <p>At this period the power of the buccaneers was at its height. But the + combination was too extensive for its work, and the different nationality + of those who composed it was a source of growing discord. Nor was the + dream of equality ever realized for any length of time. The immense spoil + obtained on the capture of wealthy cities was indeed divided equally. But + in the gambling and debauchery which followed, nothing was more common + than that one-half of the conquerors should find themselves on the morrow + in most pressing want; and while those who had retained or increased + their share would willingly have gone home, the others clamoured for + renewed attacks. The separation of the English and French buccaneers, who + together presented a united front to the Spanish fleet in 1685, marks the + beginning of the third and last epoch in their history.</p> + + <p>The brilliant exploits begun by the sack of Leon and Realejo <!-- Page + 711 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page711"></a>[v.04 p.0711]</span>by + the English under Davis have, even in their variety and daring, a + sameness which deprives them of interest, and the wonderful confederacy + is now seen to be falling gradually to pieces. The skill of Davis at sea + was on one occasion displayed in a seven days' engagement with two large + Spanish vessels, and the interest undoubtedly centres in him. Townley and + Swan had, however, by this time left him, and after cruising together for + some time, they, too, parted. In 1688 Davis cleared Cape Horn and arrived + in the West Indies, while Swan's ship, the "Cygnet," was abandoned as + unseaworthy, after sailing as far as Madagascar. Townley had hardly + joined the French buccaneers remaining in the South Sea ere he died, and + the Frenchmen with their companions crossed New Spain to the West Indies. + And thus the Pacific, ravaged so long by this powerful and mysterious + band of corsairs, was at length at peace.</p> + + <p>The West Indies had by this time become hot enough even for the banded + pirates. They hung doggedly along the coasts of Jamaica and Santo + Domingo, but their day was nearly over. Only once again—at the + siege of Carthagena—did they appear great; but even then the + expedition was not of their making, and they were mere auxiliaries of the + French regular forces. After the treachery of the French commander of + this expedition a spirit of unity and despairing energy seemed reawakened + in them; but this could not avert and scarcely delayed the rapidly + approaching extinction of the community.</p> + + <p>The French and English buccaneers could not but take sides in the war + which had arisen between their respective countries in 1689. Thus was + broken the bond of unity which had for three-quarters of a century kept + the subjects of the two nations together in schemes of aggression upon a + common foe. In the short peace of 1697-1700 England and France were using + all their influence, both in the Old World and in the New, to ingratiate + themselves into the favour of the king of Spain. With the resumption of + hostilities in 1700 and the rise of Spain consequent upon the accession + of the French claimant to the throne the career of the buccaneers was + effectually closed.</p> + + <p>But the fall of the buccaneers is no more accounted for fully by these + circumstances than is their rise by the massacre of the islanders of + Santo Domingo. There was that in the very nature of the community which, + from its birth, marked it as liable to speedy decline.</p> + + <p>The principles which bound the buccaneers together were, first the + desire for adventure and gain, and, in the second place, hatred of the + Spaniard. The first was hardly a sufficient bond of union, among men of + different nationalities, when booty could be had nearly always by private + venture under the colours of the separate European powers. Of greater + validity was their second and great principle of union, namely, that they + warred not with one another, nor with every one, but with a single and a + common foe. For while the buccaneer forces included English, French and + Dutch sailors, and were complemented occasionally by bands of native + Indians, there are few instances during the time of their prosperity and + growth of their falling upon one another, and treating their fellows with + the savagery which they exulted in displaying against the subjects of + Spain. The exigencies, moreover, of their perilous career readily wasted + their suddenly acquired gains.</p> + + <p>Settled labour, the warrant of real wealth, was unacceptable to those + who lived by promoting its insecurity. Regular trade—though + rendered attractive by smuggling—and pearl gathering and similar + operations which were spiced with risk, were open in vain to them, and in + the absence of any domestic life, a hand-to-mouth system of supply and + demand rooted out gradually the prudence which accompanies any mode of + settled existence. In everything the policy of the buccaneers, from the + beginning to the end of their career, was one of pure destruction, and + was, therefore, ultimately suicidal.</p> + + <p>Their great importance in history lies in the fact that they opened + the eyes of the world, and specially of the nations from whom these + buccaneers had sprung, to the whole system of Spanish-American government + and commerce—the former in its rottenness, and the latter in its + possibilities in other hands. From this, then, along with other causes, + dating primarily from the helplessness and presumption of Spain, there + arose the West Indian possessions of Holland, England and France.</p> + + <p>A work published at Amsterdam in 1678, entitled <i>De Americaensche + Zee Roovers</i>, from the pen of a buccaneer named Exquemelin, was + translated into several European languages, receiving additions at the + hands of the different translators. The French translation by + Frontignières is named <i>Histoire des avanturiers qui se sont signalez + dans les Indes</i>; the English edition is entitled <i>The Bucaniers of + America.</i> Other works are Raynal's <i>History of the Settlements and + Trade of the Europeans in the East and West Indies</i>, book x., English + translation 1782; Dampier's <i>Voyages</i>; Geo. W. Thornbury's + <i>Monarchs of the Main, &c.</i> (1855); Lionel Wafer's <i>Voyage and + Description of the Isthmus of America</i> (1699); and the <i>Histoire de + l'isle Espagnole, &c.</i>, and <i>Histoire et description générale de + la Nouvelle France</i> of Père Charlevoix. The statements in these works + are to be received with caution. A really authentic narrative, however, + is Captain James Burney's <i>History of the Buccaneers of America</i> + (London, 1816). The <i>Calendar of State Papers</i>, Colonial Series + (London, 1860 et seq.), contains much evidence for the history of the + buccaneers in the West Indies.</p> + + <p>(D. H.)</p> + + <p><b>BUCCARI</b> (Serbo-Croatian <i>Bakar</i>), a royal free town of + Croatia-Slavonia, Hungary; situated in the county of Modruš-Fiume, + 7 m. S.E. of Fiume, on a small bay of the Adriatic Sea. Pop. (1900) 1870. + The Hungarian state railway from Zákány and Agram terminates 2½ m. from + Buccari. The harbour, though sometimes dangerous to approach, affords + good anchorage to small vessels. Owing to competition from Fiume, Buccari + lost the greater part of its trade during the 19th century. The staple + industry is boatbuilding, and there is an active coasting trade in fish, + wine, wood and coal. The tunny-fishery is of some importance. In the + neighbourhood of the town is the old castle of Buccarica, and farther + south the flourishing little port of Porto Ré or Kraljevica.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:30%;"> + <a href="images/buccina_1.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/buccina_1.png" + alt="Fig. 1.--Buccina in the National Museum, Naples." title="Fig. 1.--Buccina in the National Museum, Naples." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.—Buccina in the National Museum, + Naples. + + <p class="poem">From a photo by Brogi.</p> + </div> + <p><b>BUCCINA</b> (more correctly <i>Būcĭna</i>, Gr. <span + title="Bukanê" class="grk" + >Βυκάνη</span>, connected with + <i>bucca</i>, cheek, and Gr. <span title="Buzô" class="grk" + >Βύζω</span>, a brass wind instrument extensively + used in the ancient Roman army. The Roman instrument consisted of a brass + tube measuring some 11 to 12 ft. in length, of narrow cylindrical bore, + and played by means of a cup-shaped mouthpiece. The tube is bent round + upon itself from the mouthpiece to the bell in the shape of a broad C and + is strengthened by means of a bar across the curve, which the performer + grasps while playing, in order to steady the instrument; the bell curves + over his head or shoulder as in the modern helicon. Three Roman buccinas + were found among the ruins of Pompeii and are now deposited in the museum + at Naples. V. C. Mahillon, of Brussels<a name="FnAnchor_221" + href="#Footnote_221"><sup>[1]</sup></a> has made a facsimile of one of + these instruments; it is in G and has almost the same harmonic series as + the French horn and the trumpet. The buccina, the cornu (see <span + class="sc">Horn</span>), and the tuba were used as signal instruments in + the Roman army and camp to sound the four night watches (hence known as + <i>buccina prima, secunda, &c.</i>), to summon them by means of the + special signal known as <i>classicum</i>, and to give orders.<a + name="FnAnchor_222" href="#Footnote_222"><sup>[2]</sup></a> Frontinus + relates<a name="FnAnchor_223" href="#Footnote_223"><sup>[3]</sup></a> + that a Roman general, who had been surrounded by the enemy, escaped + during the night by means of the stratagem of leaving behind him a + <i>buccinator</i> (trumpeter), who sounded <!-- Page 712 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page712"></a>[v.04 p.0712]</span>the watches + throughout the night.<a name="FnAnchor_224" + href="#Footnote_224"><sup>[4]</sup></a> Vegetius gives brief descriptions + of the three instruments, which suffice to establish their identity; the + tuba, he says, is straight; the buccina is of bronze bent in the form of + a circle.<a name="FnAnchor_225" + href="#Footnote_225"><sup>[5]</sup></a></p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:25%;"> + <a href="images/buccina_3.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/buccina_3.png" + alt="Fig. 3.--Busine, 14th century." title="Fig. 3.--Busine, 14th century." /></a> + <p class="poem"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.—Busine, 14th + century. (From MS. R. 10 E. IV. Brit. Mus.)</p> + </div> + <div class="figright" style="width:25%;"> + <a href="images/buccina_2.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/buccina_2.png" + alt="Fig. 2.--Busine, 14th century." title="Fig. 2.--Busine, 14th century." /></a> + <p class="poem"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.—Busine, 14th + century. (From MS. R. 10 E. IV. Brit. Mus.)</p> + </div> + <p>The buccina, in respect of its technical construction and acoustic + properties, was the ancestor of both trumpet and trombone; the connexion + is further established by the derivation of the words Sackbut and + <i>Posaune</i> (the German for trombone) from buccina. The relation was + fully recognized in Germany during the 15th and 16th centuries, as two + translations of Vegetius, published at Ulm in 1470, and at Augsburg in + 1534, clearly demonstrate: "Bucina das ist die trumet oder pusan"<a + name="FnAnchor_226" href="#Footnote_226"><sup>[6]</sup></a> ("the bucina + is the trumpet or trombone") and ("Bucina ist die trummet die wirt ausz + und eingezogen"<a name="FnAnchor_227" + href="#Footnote_227"><sup>[7]</sup></a> ("the bucina is the trumpet which + is drawn out and in"). A French translation by Jean de Meung (Paris, + 1488),<a name="FnAnchor_228" href="#Footnote_228"><sup>[8]</sup></a> + renders the passage (chap. iii. 5) thus: "Trompe est longue et droite; + buisine est courte et reflechist en li meisme si comme partie de cercle." + On Trajan's column<a name="FnAnchor_229" + href="#Footnote_229"><sup>[9]</sup></a> the tuba, the cornu and the + buccina are distinguishable. Other illustrations of the buccina may be + seen in François Mazois' <i>Les Ruines de Pompéi</i> (Paris, 1824-1838), + pt. iv, pl. xlviii. fig. 1, and in J.N. von Wilmowsky's <i>Eine römische + Villa zu Nennig</i> (Bonn, 1865), pl. xii. (mosaics), where the + buccinator is accompanied on the hydraulus. The military buccina + described is a much more advanced instrument than its prototype the + <i>buccina marina</i>, a primitive trumpet in the shape of a conical + shell, often having a spiral twist, which in poetry is often called + <i>concha</i>. The buccina marina is frequently depicted in the hands of + Tritons (Macrobius i. 8), or of sailors, as for instance on terra-cotta + lamp shown by G.P. Bellori (<i>Lucernae veterum sepulcrales iconicae</i>, + 1702, iii. 12). The highly imaginative writer of the apocryphal letter of + St Jerome to Dardanus also has a word to say concerning the buccina among + the Semitic races: "Bucca vocatur tuba apud Hebreos: deinde per + diminutionem buccina dicitur." After the fall of the Roman empire the art + of bending metal tubes was gradually lost, and although the buccina + survived in Europe both in name and in principle of construction during + the middle ages, it lost for ever the characteristic curve like a "C" + which it possessed in common with the cornu, an instrument having a + conical bore of wider calibre. Although we regard the buccina as + essentially Roman, an instrument of the same type, but probably straight + and of kindred name, was widely known and used in the East, in Persia, + Arabia and among the Semitic races. After a lapse of years during which + records are almost wanting, the buccina reappeared all over Europe as the + busine, buisine, pusin, busaun, pusun, posaun, busna (Slav), &c.; + whether it was a Roman survival or a re-introduction through the Moors of + Spain in the West and the Byzantine empire in the East, we have no + records to show. An 11th-century mural painting representing the Last + Judgment in the cathedral of S. Angelo in Formis (near Capua), shows the + angels blowing the last trump on busines.<a name="FnAnchor_2210" + href="#Footnote_2210"><sup>[10]</sup></a></p> + + <p>There are two distinct forms of the busine which may be traced during + the middle ages:—(i) a long straight tube (fig. 2) consisting of 3 + to 5 joints of narrow cylindrical bore, the last joint alone being + conical and ending in a pommel-shaped bell, precisely as in the curved + buccina (fig. 1); (2) a long straight cylindrical tube of somewhat wider + bore than the busine, ending in a wide bell curving out abruptly from the + cylindrical tube (fig. 3).</p> + + <p>The history of the development of the trumpet, the sackbut and the + trombone from the buccina will be found more fully treated under those + headings; for the part played by the buccina in the evolution of the + French horn see <span class="sc">Horn</span>.</p> + + <p>(K. S.)</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_221" href="#FnAnchor_221">[1]</a> See <i>Catalogue + descriptif</i> (Ghent, 1880), p. 330, and illustration, vol. ii. (1896), + p. 30.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_222" href="#FnAnchor_222">[2]</a> Livy vii. 35, + xxvi. 15; Prop. v. 4, 63; Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xv. 30; Vegetius, <i>De re + militari</i>, ii. 22, iii. 5; Polyb. vi. 365, xiv. 3, 7.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_223" href="#FnAnchor_223">[3]</a> + <i>Stratagematicon</i>, i. 5, § 17.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_224" href="#FnAnchor_224">[4]</a> For another + instance see Caesar, <i>Comm. Bell. Civ.</i> ii. 35.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_225" href="#FnAnchor_225">[5]</a> Vegetius, op. cit. + iii. 5.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_226" href="#FnAnchor_226">[6]</a> Idem, ii. 7.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_227" href="#FnAnchor_227">[7]</a> Idem, iii. 5.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_228" href="#FnAnchor_228">[8]</a> A reprint edited + by Ulysse Robert has been published by the Soc. des Anciens Textes + Français (Paris, 1897).</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_229" href="#FnAnchor_229">[9]</a> See Conrad + Cichorius, <i>Die Reliefs der Traiansaule</i>, 3 vols. of text and 2 + portfolios of heliogravures (Berlin, 1896, &c.), Bd. i. pl. x. + buccina and tubae; pl. viii. buccina; pl. lxxvi. buccina and two cornua; + pl. xx. cornu, &c.; or W. Froehner, <i>La Colonne de Trajan</i> + (Paris, 1872), vol. i. pl. xxxii., xxxvi., li., tome ii. pl. lxvi., tome + iii. pl. cxxxiv., &c.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_2210" href="#FnAnchor_2210">[10]</a> See F.X. Kraus, + "Die Wandgemälde von San Angelo in Formis," in <i>Jahrbuch der kgl. + preuss. Kunstsamml.</i> (1893), pl. i.</p> + +</div> + <p><b>BUCCLEUCH, DUKES OF.</b> The substantial origin of the ducal house + of the Scotts of Buccleuch dates back to the large grants of lands in + Scotland to Sir Walter Scott of Kirkurd and Buccleuch, a border chief, by + James II., in consequence of the fall of the 8th earl of Douglas (1452); + but the family traced their descent back to a Sir Richard le Scott + (1240-1285). The estate of Buccleuch is in Selkirkshire. Sir Walter Scott + of Branxholm and Buccleuch (d. 1552) distinguished himself at the battle + of Pinkie (1547), and furnished material for his later namesake's famous + poem, <i>The Lay of the Last Minstrel</i>; and his great-grandson Sir + Walter (1565-1611) was created Lord Scott of Buccleuch in 1606. An + earldom followed in 1619. The second earl's daughter Anne (1651-1732), + who succeeded him as a countess in her own right, married in 1663 the + famous duke of Monmouth (<i>q.v.</i>), who was then created 1st duke of + Buccleuch; and her grandson Francis became 2nd duke. The latter's son + Henry (1746-1812) became 3rd duke, and in 1810 succeeded also, on the + death of William Douglas, 4th duke of Queensberry, to that dukedom as + well as its estates and other honours, according to the entail executed + by his own great-grandfather, the 2nd duke of Queensberry, in 1706; he + married the duke of Montagu's daughter, and was famous for his generosity + and benefactions. His son Charles William Henry (d. 1819), grandson + Walter Francis Scott (1806-1884), and great-grandson William Henry Walter + Montagu Douglas Scott (b. 1831), succeeded in turn as 4th, 5th and 6th + dukes of Buccleuch and 6th, 7th, and 8th dukes of Queensberry. The 5th + duke was lord privy seal 1842-1846, and president of the council 1846. It + was he who at a cost of over £500,000 made the harbour at Granton, near + Edinburgh. He was president of the Highland and Agricultural Society, the + Society of Antiquaries and of the British Association. The 6th duke sat + in the House of Commons as Conservative M.P. for Midlothian, 1853-1868 + and 1874-1880; his wife, a daughter of the 1st duke of Abercorn, held the + office of mistress of the robes.</p> + + <p>See Sir W. Fraser, <i>The Scotts of Buccleuch</i> (1878).</p> + + <p><b>BUCENTAUR</b> (Ital. <i>bucintoro</i>), the state gallery of the + doges of Venice, on which, every year on Ascension day up to 1789, they + put into the Adriatic in order to perform the ceremony of "wedding the + sea." The name <i>bucintoro</i> is derived from the Ital. <i>buzino d' + oro</i>, "golden bark," latinized in the middle ages as + <i>bucentaurus</i> on the analogy of a supposed Gr. <span + title="boukentauros" class="grk" + >βουκένταυρος</span>, + ox-centaur (from <span title="bous" class="grk" + >βοῦς</span> and <span title="Kentauros" class="grk" + >Κένταυρος</span>). + This led to the explanation of the name as derived from the head of an ox + having served as the galley's figurehead. This derivation is, however, + fanciful; the name <i>bucentaurus</i> is unknown in ancient mythology, + and the figurehead of the bucentaurs, of which representations have come + down to us, is the lion of St Mark. <!-- Page 713 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page713"></a>[v.04 p.0713]</span>The name + bucentaur seems, indeed, to have been given to any great and sumptuous + Venetian galley. Du Cange (<i>Gloss.</i>, <i>s.v.</i> "Bucentaurus") + quotes from the chronicle of the doge Andrea Dandolo (d. 1354): <i>cum + uno artificioso et solemni Bucentauro, super quo venit usque ad S. + Clementem, quo jam pervenerat principalior et solemnior Bucentaurus cum + consiliariis</i>, &c. The last and most magnificent of the + bucentaurs, built in 1729, was destroyed by the French in 1798 for the + sake of its golden decorations. Remains of it are preserved at Venice in + the Museo Civico Correr and in the Arsenal; in the latter there is also a + fine model of it.</p> + + <p>The "Marriage of the Adriatic," or more correctly "of the sea" + (<i>Sposalizio del Mar</i>) was a ceremony symbolizing the maritime + dominion of Venice. The ceremony, established about <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 1000 to commemorate the doge Orseolo II.'s + conquest of Dalmatia, was originally one of supplication and placation, + Ascension day being chosen as that on which the doge had set out on his + expedition. The form it took was a solemn procession of boats, headed by + the doge's <i>maesta nave</i>, afterwards the Bucentaur (from 1311) out + to sea by the Lido port. A prayer was offered that "for us and all who + sail thereon the sea may be calm and quiet," whereupon the doge and the + others were solemnly aspersed with holy water, the rest of which was + thrown into the sea while the priests chanted "Purge me with hyssop and I + shall be clean." To this ancient ceremony a sacramental character was + given by Pope Alexander III in 1177, in return for the services rendered + by Venice in the struggle against the emperor Frederick I. The pope drew + a ring from his finger and, giving it to the doge, bade him cast such a + one into the sea each year on Ascension day, and so wed the sea. + Henceforth the ceremonial, instead of placatory and expiatory, became + nuptial. Every year the doge dropped a consecrated ring into the sea, and + with the words <i>Desponsamus te, mare</i> (We wed thee, sea) declared + Venice and the sea to be indissolubly one (see H. F. Brown, + <i>Venice</i>, London, 1893, pp. 69, 110).</p> + + <p><b>BUCEPHALUS</b> (Gr. <span title="boukephalos" class="grk" + >βουκεφαλος</span>), + the favourite Thracian horse of Alexander the Great, which died in 326 + <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, either of wounds received in the battle + on the Hydaspes, or of old age. In commemoration Alexander built the city + of Bucephala (Boukephala), the site of which is almost certainly to be + identified with a mound on the bank of the river opposite the modern + Jhelum.</p> + + <p>See especially Arrian v. 20; other stories in Plutarch, <i>Alex.</i> + 6; Curtius vi. 8. For the identification of Bucephala, Vincent A. Smith, + <i>Early Hist. of India</i> (2nd ed., 1908), pp. 65, 66 note.</p> + + <p><b>BUCER</b> (or <span class="sc">Butzer</span>), <b>MARTIN</b> + (1491-1551), German Protestant reformer, was born in 1491 at Schlettstadt + in Alsace. In 1506 he entered the Dominican order, and was sent to study + at Heidelberg. There he became acquainted with the works of Erasmus and + Luther, and was present at a disputation of the latter with some of the + Romanist doctors. He became a convert to the reformed opinions, abandoned + his order by papal dispensation in 1521, and soon afterwards married a + nun. In 1522 he was pastor at Landstuhl in the palatinate, and travelled + hither and thither propagating the reformed doctrine. After his + excommunication in 1523 he made his headquarters at Strassburg, where he + succeeded Matthew Zell. Henry VIII of England asked his advice in + connexion with the divorce from Catherine of Aragon. On the question of + the sacrament of the Lord's Supper, Bucer's opinions were decidedly + Zwinglian, but he was anxious to maintain church unity with the Lutheran + party, and constantly endeavoured, especially after Zwingli's death, to + formulate a statement of belief that would unite Lutheran, south German + and Swiss reformers. Hence the charge of ambiguity and obscurity which + has been laid against him. In 1548 he was sent for to Augsburg to sign + the agreement, called the <i>Interim</i>, between the Catholics and + Protestants. His stout opposition to this project exposed him to many + difficulties, and he was glad to accept Cranmer's invitation to make his + home in England. On his arrival in 1549 he was appointed regius professor + of divinity at Cambridge. Edward VI. and the protector Somerset showed + him much favour and he was consulted as to the revision of the Book of + Common Prayer. But on the 27th of February 1551 he died, and was buried + in the university church, with great state. In 1557, by Mary's + commissioners, his body was dug up and burnt, and his tomb demolished; it + was subsequently reconstructed by order of Elizabeth. Bucer is said to + have written ninety-six treatises, among them a translation and + exposition of the Psalms and a work <i>Deregno Christi</i>. His name is + familiar in English literature from the use made of his doctrines by + Milton in his divorce treatises.</p> + + <p>A collected edition of his writings has never been published. A volume + known as the <i>Tomus Anglicanus</i> (Basel, 1577) contains those written + in England. See J.W. Baum, <i>Capito and Butzer</i> (Strassburg, 1860); + A. Erichson, <i>Martin Butzer</i> (1891); and the articles in the + <i>Dict. Nat. Biog.</i> (by A.W. Ward), and in Herzog-Hauck's + <i>Realencyklopädie</i> (by Paul Grünberg).</p> + + <p><b>BUCH, CHRISTIAN LEOPOLD VON,</b> <span class="sc">Baron</span> + (1774-1853), German geologist and geographer, a member of an ancient and + noble Prussian family, was born at Stolpe in Pomerania on the 26th of + April 1774. In 1790-1793 he studied at the mining school of Freiberg + under Werner, one of his fellow-students there being Alexander von + Humboldt. He afterwards completed his education at the universities of + Halle and Göttingen. His <i>Versuch einer mineralogischen Beschreibung + von Landeck</i> (Breslau, 1797) was translated into French (Paris, 1805), + and into English as <i>Attempt at a Mineralogical Description of + Landeck</i> (Edinburgh, 1810); he also published in 1802 <i>Entwurf einer + geognostischen Beschreibung von Schlesien (Geognostische Beobachtungen + auf Reisen durch Deutschland und Italien</i>, Band i.). He was at this + time a zealous upholder of the Neptunian theory of his illustrious + master. In 1797 he met Humboldt at Salzburg, and with him explored the + geological formations of Styria, and the adjoining Alps. In the spring of + the following year, von Buch extended his excursions into Italy, where + his faith in the Neptunian theory was shaken. In his previous works he + had advocated the aqueous origin of basaltic and other formations. In + 1799 he paid his first visit to Vesuvius, and again in 1805 he returned + to study the volcano, accompanied by Humboldt and Gay Lussac. They had + the good fortune to witness a remarkable eruption, which supplied von + Buch with data for refuting many erroneous ideas then entertained + regarding volcanoes. In 1802 he had explored the extinct volcanoes of + Auvergne. The aspect of the Puy de Dôme, with its cone of trachyte and + its strata of basaltic lava, induced him to abandon as untenable the + doctrines of Werner on the formation of these rocks. The scientific + results of his investigations he embodied in his <i>Geognostische + Beobachtungen auf Reisen durch Deutschland und Italien</i> (Berlin, + 1802-1809). From the south of Europe von Buch repaired to the north, and + spent two years among the Scandinavian islands, making many important + observations on the geography of plants, on climatology and on geology. + He showed that many of the erratic blocks on the North German plains must + have come from Scandinavia. He also established the fact that the whole + of Sweden is slowly but continuously rising above the level of the sea + from Frederikshald to Abo. The details of these discoveries are given in + his <i>Reise durch Norwegen und Lappland</i> (Berlin, 1810). In 1815 he + visited the Canary Islands in company with Christian Smith, the Norwegian + botanist. His observations here convinced him that these and other + islands of the Atlantic owed their existence to volcanic action of the + most intense kind, and that the groups of islands in the South Sea are + the remains of a pre-existing continent. The physical description of the + Canary Islands was published at Berlin in 1825, and this work alone is + regarded as an enduring monument of his labours. After leaving the + Canaries von Buch proceeded to the Hebrides and the coasts of Scotland + and Ireland. Palaeontology also claimed his attention, and he described + in 1831 and later years a number of Cephalopods, Brachiopods and + Cystidea, and pointed out their stratigraphical importance. In addition + to the works already mentioned von Buch published in 1832 the magnificent + <i>Geological Map of Germany</i> (42 sheets, Berlin). His geological + excursions were continued without interruption till his 78th year. Eight + months before his death he visited <!-- Page 714 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page714"></a>[v.04 p.0714]</span>the mountains + of Auvergne; and on returning home he read a paper on the Jurassic + formation before the Academy of Berlin. He died at Berlin on the 4th of + March 1853. Von Buch had inherited from his father a fortune more than + sufficient for his wants. He was never married, and was unembarrassed by + family ties. His excursions were always taken on foot, with a staff in + his hand, and the large pockets of his overcoat filled with papers and + geological instruments. Under this guise, the passer-by would not easily + have recognized the man whom Humboldt pronounced the greatest geologist + of his time.</p> + + <p>A complete edition of his works was published at Berlin + (1867-1885).</p> + + <p><b>BUCHAN, EARLS OF.</b> The earldom of Mar and Buchan was one of the + seven original Scottish earldoms; later, Buchan was separated from Mar, + and among the early earls of Buchan were Alexander Comyn (d. 1289), John + Comyn (d. <i>c.</i> 1313), both constables of Scotland, and Henry + Beaumont (d. 1340), who had married a Comyn. John Comyn's wife, Isabel, + was the countess of Buchan who crowned Robert the Bruce king at Scone in + 1306, and was afterwards imprisoned at Berwick; not, however, in a cage + hung on the wall of the castle. About 1382 Sir Alexander Stewart (d. + <i>c.</i> 1404), the "wolf of Badenoch," a son of King Robert II., became + earl of Buchan, and the Stewarts appear to have held the earldom for + about a century and a half, although not in a direct line from Sir + Alexander.<a name="FnAnchor_231" href="#Footnote_231"><sup>[1]</sup></a> + Among the most celebrated of the Stewart earls were the Scottish regent, + Robert, duke of Albany, and his son John, who was made constable of + France and was killed at the battle of Verneuil in 1424. In 1617 the + earldom came to James Erskine (d. 1640), a son of John Erskine, 2nd (or + 7th) earl of Mar, whose wife Mary had inherited it from her father, James + Douglas (d. 1601), and from that time it has been retained by the + Erskines.</p> + + <p>Perhaps the most celebrated of the later earls of Buchan was the + eccentric David Steuart Erskine, 11th earl (1742-1829), a son of Henry + David, 10th earl (d. 1767), and brother of Henry Erskine (<i>q.v.</i>), + and of Thomas, Lord Erskine (<i>q.v.</i>). His pertinacity was + instrumental in effecting a change in the method of electing Scottish + representative peers, and in 1780 he succeeded in founding the Scottish + Society of Antiquaries. Among his correspondents was Horace Walpole, and + he wrote an <i>Essay on the Lives of Fletcher of Saltoun and the Poet + Thomson</i> (1792), and other writings. He died at his residence at + Dryburgh in April 1829, leaving no legitimate children, and was followed + as 12th earl by his nephew Henry David (1783-1857), the ancestor of the + present peer. The 11th earl's natural son, Sir David Erskine (1772-1837), + who inherited his father's unentailed estates, was an antiquary and a + dramatist.</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_231" href="#FnAnchor_231">[1]</a> In August 1908, + during some excavations at Dunkeld, remains were found which are supposed + to be those of Alexander Stewart, the "wolf of Badenoch."</p> + +</div> + <p><b>BUCHAN, ELSPETH</b> (1738-1791), founder of a Scottish religious + sect known as the Buchanites, was the daughter of John Simpson, + proprietor of an inn near Banff. Having quarrelled with her husband, + Robert Buchan, a potter of Greenock, she settled with her children in + Glasgow, where she was deeply impressed by a sermon preached by Hugh + White, minister of the Relief church at Irvine. She persuaded White and + others that she was a saint with a special mission, that in fact she was + the woman, and White the man-child, described in Revelation xii. White + was condemned by the presbytery, and the sect, which ultimately numbered + forty-six adherents, was expelled by the magistrates in 1784 and settled + in a farm, consisting of one room and a loft, known as New Cample in + Dumfriesshire. Mrs Buchan claimed prophetic inspiration and pretended to + confer the Holy Ghost upon her followers by breathing upon them; they + believed that the millennium was near, and that they would not die, but + be translated. It appears that they had community of wives and lived on + funds provided by the richer members. Robert Burns, the poet, in a letter + dated August 1784, describes the sect as idle and immoral. In 1785 White + and Mrs Buchan published a <i>Divine Dictionary</i>, but the sect broke + up on the death of its founder in spite of White's attempts to prove that + she was only in a trance. Even White was eventually undeceived. Andrew + Innes, the last survivor, died in 1848. See J. Train, <i>The Buchanites + from First to Last</i> (Edinburgh, 1846).</p> + + <p><b>BUCHAN, PETER</b> (1790-1854), Scottish editor, was born at + Peterhead, Aberdeenshire, in 1790. In 1816 he started in business as a + printer at Peterhead, and was successful enough to be able eventually to + retire and devote himself to the collection and editing of Scottish + ballads. His <i>Ancient Ballads and Songs of the North of Scotland</i> + (1828) contained a large number of hitherto unpublished ballads, and + newly discovered versions of existing ones. Another collection made by + him was published by the Percy Society, under the title <i>Scottish + Traditional Versions of Ancient Ballads</i> (1845). Two unpublished + volumes of Buchan's ballad collections are in the British Museum. He died + on the 19th of September 1854.</p> + + <p><b>BUCHANAN, CLAUDIUS</b> (1766-1815), English divine, was born at + Cambuslang, near Glasgow, and educated at the universities of Glasgow and + Cambridge. He was ordained in 1795, and after holding a chaplaincy in + India at Barrackpur (1797-1799) was appointed Calcutta chaplain and + vice-principal of the college of Fort William. In this capacity he did + much to advance Christianity and native education in India, especially by + organizing systematic translations of the Scriptures. An account of his + travels in the south and west of India, which added considerably to our + knowledge of nature life, is given in his <i>Christian Researches in + Asia</i> (Cambridge, 1811). After his return to England in 1808, he still + took an active part in matters connected with India, and by his book + entitled <i>Colonial Ecclesiastical Establishment</i> (London, 1813), he + assisted in settling the controversy of 1813, which ended in the + establishment of the Indian episcopate.</p> + + <p><b>BUCHANAN, GEORGE</b> (1506-1582), Scottish humanist, was born in + February 1506. His father, a younger son of an old family, was the + possessor of the farm of Moss, in the parish of Killearn, Stirlingshire, + but he died at an early age, leaving his widow and children in poverty. + His mother, Agnes Heriot, was of the family of the Heriots of Trabroun, + Haddingtonshire, of which George Heriot, founder of Heriot's hospital, + was also a member. Buchanan is said to have attended Killearn school, but + not much is known of his early education. In 1520 he was sent by his + uncle, James Heriot, to the university of Paris, where, as he tells us in + an autobiographical sketch, he devoted himself to the writing of verses + "partly by liking, partly by compulsion (that being then the one task + prescribed to youth)." In 1522 his uncle died, and Buchanan being thus + unable to continue longer in Paris, returned to Scotland. After + recovering from a severe illness, he joined the French auxiliaries who + had been brought over by John Stewart, duke of Albany, and took part in + an unsuccessful inroad into England (see the account in his <i>Hist. of + Scotland</i>). In the following year he entered the university of St + Andrews, where he graduated B.A. in 1525. He had gone there chiefly for + the purpose of attending the celebrated John Major's lectures on logic; + and when that teacher removed to Paris, Buchanan followed him in 1526. In + 1527 he graduated B.A., and in 1528 M.A. at Paris. Next year he was + appointed regent, or professor, in the college of Sainte-Barbe, and + taught there for upwards of three years. In 1529 he was elected + Procurator of the "German Nation" in the university of Paris, and was + re-elected four times in four successive months. He resigned his + regentship in 1531, and in 1532 became tutor to Gilbert Kennedy, 3rd earl + of Cassilis, with whom he returned to Scotland about the beginning of + 1537.</p> + + <p>At this period Buchanan was content to assume the same attitude + towards the Church of Rome that Erasmus maintained. He did not repudiate + its doctrines, but considered himself free to criticize its practice. + Though he listened with interest to the arguments of the Reformers, he + did not join their ranks before 1553. His first production in Scotland, + when he was in Lord Cassilis's household in the west country, was the + poem <i>Somnium</i>, a satirical attack upon the Franciscan friars and + monastic life generally. This assault on the monks was not displeasing to + James V., who engaged Buchanan as tutor to one of his natural <!-- Page + 715 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page715"></a>[v.04 + p.0715]</span>sons, Lord James Stewart (not the son who was afterwards + the regent Murray), and encouraged him to a still more daring effort. In + these circumstances the poems <i>Palinodia</i> and <i>Franciscanus & + Fratres</i> were written, and, although they remained unpublished for + many years, it is not surprising that the author became an object of + bitterest hatred to the order and their friends. Nor was it yet a safe + matter to assail the church. In 1539 there was a bitter persecution of + the Lutherans, and Buchanan among others was arrested. He managed to + effect his escape and with considerable difficulty made his way to London + and thence to Paris. In Paris, however, he found his enemy, Cardinal + David Beaton, who was there as an ambassador, and on the invitation of + André de Gouvéa, proceeded to Bordeaux. Gouvéa was then principal of the + newly founded college of Guienne at Bordeaux, and by his exertions + Buchanan was appointed professor of Latin. During his residence here + several of his best works, the translations of <i>Medea</i> and + <i>Alcestis</i>, and the two dramas, <i>Jephthes (sive Votum)</i> and + <i>Baptistes (sive Calumnia)</i>, were completed. Montaigne was + Buchanan's pupil at Bordeaux and acted in his tragedies. In the essay + <i>Of Presumption</i> he classes Buchanan with Aurat, Béza, de L'Hopital, + Montdore and Turnebus, as one of the foremost Latin poets of his time. + Here also Buchanan formed a lasting friendship with Julius Caesar + Scaliger; in later life he won the admiration of Joseph Scaliger, who + wrote an epigram on Buchanan which contains the couplet, famous in its + day:—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"Imperii fuerat Romani Scotia limes;</p> + <p>Romani eloquii Scotia limes erit?"</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>In 1542 or 1543 he returned to Paris, and in 1544 was appointed regent + in the college of Cardinal le Moine. Among his colleagues were the + renowned Muretus and Turnebus.</p> + + <p>In 1547 Buchanan joined the band of French and Portuguese humanists + who had been invited by André de Gouvéa to lecture in the Portuguese + university of Coimbra. The French mathematician Élie Vinet, and the + Portuguese historian, Jeronimo de Osorio, were among his colleagues; + Gouvéa, called by Montaigne <i>le plus grand principal de France</i>, was + rector of the university, which had reached the summit of its prosperity + under the patronage of King John III. But the rectorship had been coveted + by Diogo de Gouvéa, uncle of André and formerly head of Sainte-Barbe. It + is probable that before André's death at the end of 1547 Diogo had urged + the Inquisition to attack him and his staff; up to 1906, when the records + of the trial were first published in full, Buchanan's biographers + generally attributed the attack to the influence of Cardinal Beaton, the + Franciscans, or the Jesuits, and the whole history of Buchanan's + residence in Portugal was extremely obscure.</p> + + <p>A commission of inquiry was appointed in October 1549 and reported in + June 1550. Buchanan and two Portuguese, Diogo de Teive and Joāo da + Costa (who had succeeded to the rectorship), were committed for trial. + Teive and Costa were found guilty of various offences against public + order, and the evidence shows that there was ample reason for a judicial + inquiry. Buchanan was accused of Lutheran and Judaistic practices. He + defended himself with conspicuous ability, courage and frankness, + admitting that some of the charges were true. About June 1551 he was + sentenced to abjure his errors, and to be imprisoned in the monastery of + Sāo Bento in Lisbon. Here he was compelled to listen to edifying + discourses from the monks, whom he found "not unkind but ignorant." In + his leisure he began to translate the Psalms into Latin verse. After + seven months he was released, on condition that he remained in Lisbon; + and on the 28th of February 1552 this restriction was annulled. Buchanan + at once sailed for England, but soon made his way to Paris, where in 1553 + he was appointed regent in the college of Boncourt. He remained in that + post for two years, and then accepted the office of tutor to the son of + the Maréchal de Brissac. It was almost certainly during this last stay in + France, where Protestantism was being repressed with great severity by + Francis I., that Buchanan ranged himself on the side of the + Calvinists.</p> + + <p>In 1560 or 1561 he returned to Scotland, and in April 1562 we find him + installed as tutor to the young queen Mary, who was accustomed to read + Livy with him daily. Buchanan now openly joined the Protestant, or + Reformed Church, and in 1566 was appointed by the earl of Murray + principal of St Leonard's College, St Andrews. Two years before he had + received from the queen the valuable gift of the revenues of Crossraguel + Abbey. He was thus in good circumstances, and his fame was steadily + increasing. So great, indeed, was his reputation for learning and + administrative capacity that, though a layman, he was made moderator of + the general assembly in 1567. He had sat in the assemblies from 1563.</p> + + <p>Buchanan accompanied the regent Murray into England, and his + <i>Detectio</i> (published in 1572) was produced to the commissioners at + Westminster. In 1570, after the assassination of Murray, he was appointed + one of the preceptors of the young king, and it was through his tuition + that James VI. acquired his scholarship. While discharging the functions + of royal tutor he also held other important offices. He was for a short + time director of chancery, and then became lord privy seal, a post which + entitled him to a seat in the parliament. He appears to have continued in + this office for some years, at least till 1579. He died on the 28th of + September 1582.</p> + + <p>His last years had been occupied with two of his most important works. + The first was the treatise <i>De Jure Regni apud Scotos</i>, published in + 1579. In this famous work, composed in the form of a dialogue, and + evidently intended to instil sound political principles into the mind of + his pupil, Buchanan lays down the doctrine that the source of all + political power is the people, that the king is bound by those conditions + under which the supreme power was first committed to his hands, and that + it is lawful to resist, even to punish, tyrants. The importance of the + work is proved by the persistent efforts of the legislature to suppress + it during the century following its publication. It was condemned by act + of parliament in 1584, and again in 1664; and in 1683 it was burned by + the university of Oxford. The second of his larger works is the history + of Scotland, <i>Rerum Scoticarum Historia</i>, completed shortly before + his death (1579), and published in 1582. It is of great value for the + period personally known to the author, which occupies the greater portion + of the book. The earlier part is based, to a considerable extent, on the + legendary history of Boece. Buchanan's purpose was to "purge" the + national history "of sum Inglis lyis and Scottis vanite" (<i>Letter to + Randolph</i>), but he exaggerated his freedom from partisanship and + unconsciously criticized his work when he said that it would "content few + and displease many."</p> + + <p>Buchanan is one of Scotland's greatest scholars. For mastery over the + Latin language he has seldom been surpassed by any modern writer. His + style is not rigidly modelled upon that of any classical author, but has + a certain freshness and elasticity of its own. He wrote Latin as if it + had been his mother tongue. But in addition to this perfect command over + the language, Buchanan had a rich vein of poetical feeling, and much + originality of thought. His translations of the Psalms and of the Greek + plays are more than mere versions; the smaller satirical poems abound in + wit and in happy phrase; his two tragedies, <i>Baptistes</i> and + <i>Jephthes</i>, have enjoyed from the first an undiminished European + reputation for academic excellence. In addition to the works already + named, Buchanan wrote in prose <i>Chamaeleon</i>, a satire in the + vernacular against Maitland of Lethington, first printed in 1711; a Latin + translation of Linacre's Grammar (Paris, 1533); <i>Libettus de + Prosodia</i> (Edinburgh, 1640); and <i>Vita ab ipso scripta biennio ante + mortem</i> (1608), edited by R. Sibbald (1702). His other poems are + <i>Fratres Fraterrimi</i>, <i>Elegiae</i>, <i>Silvae</i>, two sets of + verses entitled <i>Hendecasyllabon Liber</i> and <i>Iambon Liber</i>; + three books of <i>Epigrammata</i>; a book of miscellaneous verse; <i>De + Sphaera</i> (in five books), suggested by the poem of Joannes de + Sacrobosco, and intended as a defence of the Ptolemaic theory against the + new Copernican view.</p> + + <p>There are two editions of Buchanan's works:—(<i>a</i>) + <i>Georgii Buchanani Scoti, Poetarum sui seculi facile principis, Opera + Omnia</i>, in two vols. fol., edited by Ruddiman (Edinburgh, Freebairn, + 1715); (b) edited by Burman, 4to, 1725. The <i>Vernacular Writings</i>, + <!-- Page 716 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page716"></a>[v.04 + p.0716]</span>consisting of the <i>Chamaeleon</i> (<i>u.s.</i>), a tract + on the Reformation of St Andrews University, <i>Ane Admonitioun to the + Trew Lordis</i>, and two letters, were edited for the Scottish Text + Society by P. Hume Brown. The principal biographies are:—David + Irving, <i>Memoirs of the Life and Writings of George Buchanan</i> + (Edinburgh,1807 and 1817); P. Hume Brown, <i>George Buchanan, Humanist + and Reformer</i> (Edinburgh, 1890), <i>George Buchanan and his Times</i> + (Edinburgh, 1906); Rev. D. Macmillan, <i>George Buchanan, a Biography</i> + (Edinburgh, 1906). Buchanan's quatercentenary was celebrated at different + centres in Scotland in 1906, and was the occasion of several encomia and + studies. The most important of these are: <i>George Buchanan: Glasgow + Quatercentenary Studies</i> (Glasgow, 1906), and <i>George Buchanan, a + Memoir</i>, edited by D.A. Millar (St Andrews, 1907). A verse translation + of the <i>Baptistes</i>, entitled <i>Tyrannicall-Government + Anatomized</i> (1642), has been attributed to Milton; its authorship is + discussed in the <i>Glasgow Quatercentenary Studies</i>. The records of + Buchanan's trial, discovered by the Portuguese historian, G.J.C. + Henriques, were published by him under the title <i>George Buchanan in + the Lisbon Inquisition. The Records of his Trial, with a Translation + thereof into English, Facsimiles of some of the Papers, and an + Introduction</i> (Lisbon, 1906).</p> + + <p><b>BUCHANAN, JAMES</b> (1791-1868), fifteenth president of the United + States, was born near Foltz, Franklin county, Pennsylvania, on the 23rd + of April 1791. Both parents were of Scottish-Irish Presbyterian descent. + He graduated at Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pennsylvania, in 1809, + studied law at Lancaster in 1809-1812, and was admitted to the bar in + 1812. He served in the lower house of the state legislature in 1814-1816, + and as a representative in Congress from 1821 to 1831. As chairman of the + judiciary committee he conducted the impeachment trial (1830) of Judge + James H. Peck, led an unsuccessful movement to increase the number of + Supreme Court judges and to relieve them of their circuit duties, and + succeeded in defeating an attempt to repeal the twenty-fifth section of + the Judiciary Act of 1789, which gave the Supreme Court appellate + jurisdiction by writ of error to the state courts in cases where federal + laws and treaties are in question. After the dissolution of the + Federalist party, of which he had been a member, he supported the + Jackson-Van Buren faction, and soon came to be definitely associated with + the Democrats. He represented the United States at the court of St + Petersburg in 1832-1833, and there negotiated an important commercial + treaty. He was a Democratic member of the United States Senate from + December 1834 until March 1845, ardently supporting President Jackson, + and was secretary of state in the cabinet of President Polk from 1845 to + 1849—a period marked by the annexation of Texas, the Mexican War, + and negotiations with Great Britain relative to the Oregon question. + After four years of retirement spent in the practice of his profession, + he was appointed by President Pierce minister to Great Britain in + 1853.</p> + + <p>Up to this time Buchanan's attitude on the slavery question had been + that held by the conservative element among Northern Democrats. He felt + that the institution was morally wrong, but held that Congress could not + interfere with it in the states in which it existed, and ought not to + hinder the natural tendency toward territorial expansion through a fear + that the evil would spread. He voted for the bill to exclude anti-slavery + literature from the mails, approved of the annexation of Texas, the war + with Mexico, and the Compromise of 1850, and disapproved of the Wilmot + Proviso. Fortunately for his career he was abroad during the + Kansas-Nebraska debates, and hence did not share in the unpopularity + which attached to Stephen A. Douglas as the author of the bill, and to + President Pierce as the executive who was called upon to enforce it. At + the same time, by joining with J.Y. Mason and Pierre Soule in issuing the + Ostend Manifesto in 1854, he retained the good-will of the South.<a + name="FnAnchor_241" href="#Footnote_241"><sup>[1]</sup></a> Accordingly + on his return from England in 1856 he was nominated by the Democrats as a + compromise candidate for president, and was elected, receiving 174 + electoral votes to 114 for John C. Frémont, Republican, and 8 for Millard + Fillmore, American or "Know-Nothing."</p> + + <p>His high moral character, the breadth of his legal knowledge, and his + experience as congressman, cabinet member and diplomat, would have made + Buchanan an excellent president in ordinary times; but he lacked the + soundness of judgment, the self-reliance and the moral courage needed to + face a crisis. At the beginning of his administration he appointed Robert + J. Walker of Mississippi, territorial governor of Kansas, and Frederick + P. Stanton of Tennessee, secretary, and assured them of his determination + to adhere to the popular sovereignty principle. He soon began to use his + influence, however, to force the admission of Kansas into the Union under + the pro-slavery Lecompton Constitution, contrary to the wishes of the + majority of the settlers. Stanton was removed from office for opposing + the scheme, and Walker resigned in disgust. This change of policy was + doubtless the result of timidity rather than of a desire to secure + re-election by gaining the favour of the Southern Democracy. Under the + influence of Howell Cobb of Georgia, secretary of the treasury, and Jacob + Thompson of Mississippi, secretary of the interior, the president was + convinced that it was the only way to avoid civil war. Federal patronage + was freely used to advance the Lecompton measure and the compromise + English Bill, and to prevent Douglas's election to the Senate in 1858. + Some of these facts were brought out in the famous Covode Investigation + conducted by a committee of the House of Representatives in 1860. The + investigations, however, were very partisan in character, and there is + reason to doubt the constitutional power of the House to make it, except + as the basis for an impeachment trial.</p> + + <p>The call issued by the South Carolina legislature just after the + election of Lincoln for a state convention to decide upon the + advisability of secession brought forward the most serious question of + Buchanan's administration. The part of his annual message of the 4th of + December 1860 dealing with it is based upon a report prepared by + Attorney-General Jeremiah S. Black of Pennsylvania. He argued that a + state had no legal right to secede, but denied that the federal + government had any power forcibly to prevent it. At the same time it was + the duty of the president to call out the army and navy of the United + States to protect federal property or to enforce federal laws. Soon after + the secession movement began the Southern members of the cabinet + resigned, and the president gradually came under the influence of Black, + Stanton, Dix, and other Northern leaders. He continued, however, to work + for a peaceful settlement, supporting the Crittenden Compromise and the + work of the Peace Congress. He disapproved of Major Anderson's removal of + his troops from Fort Moultrie to Fort Sumter in December 1860; but there + is probably no basis for the charge made by Southern writers that the + removal itself was in violation of a pledge given by the president to + preserve the <i>status quo</i> in Charleston harbour until the arrival of + the South Carolina commissioners in Washington. Equally unfounded is the + assertion first made by Thurlow Weed in the London <i>Observer</i> (9th + of February 1862) that the president was prevented from ordering Anderson + back to Fort Moultrie only by the threat of four members of the cabinet + to resign.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 717 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page717"></a>[v.04 p.0717]</span></p> + + <p>On the expiration of his term of office (March 4, 1861) Buchanan + retired to his home at Wheatland, near Lancaster, Pennsylvania, where he + died on the 1st of June 1868. His mistakes as president have been so + emphasized as to obscure the fact that he was a man of unimpeachable + honesty, of the highest patriotism, and of considerable ability. He never + married.</p> + + <p>See George Ticknor Curtis, <i>The Life of James Buchanan</i> (2 vols., + New York, 1883), the standard biography; Curtis, however, was a close + personal and political friend, and his work is too eulogistic. More + trustworthy, but at times unduly severe, is the account given by James + Ford Rhodes in the first two volumes of his <i>History of the United + States since the Compromise of 1850</i> (New York, new edition, + 1902-1907). John Bassett Moore has edited <i>The Works of James Buchanan, + comprising his Speeches, State Papers, and Private Correspondence</i> + (Philadelphia, 1908-1910).</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_241" href="#FnAnchor_241">[1]</a> This "manifesto," + which was bitterly attacked in the North, was agreed upon (October 18, + 1854) by the three ministers after several meetings at Ostend and at + Aix-la-Chapelle, arranged in pursuance of instructions to them from + President Pierce to "compare opinions, and to adopt measures for perfect + concert of action in aid of the negotiations at Madrid" on the subject of + reparations demanded from Spain by the United States for alleged injuries + to American commerce with Cuba. In the manifesto the three ministers + asserted that "from the peculiarity of its geographical position, and the + considerations attendant upon it, Cuba is as necessary to the North + American republic as any of its present members"; spoke of the danger to + the United States of an insurrection in Cuba; asserted that "we should be + recreant to our duty, be unworthy of our gallant forefathers, and commit + base treason against our posterity, should we permit Cuba to be + Africanized and become a second Santo Domingo, with all its attendant + horrors to the white race, and suffer the flames to extend to our own + neighboring shores, seriously to endanger or actually destroy the fair + fabric of our Union"; and recommended that "the United States ought, if + practicable, to purchase Cuba as soon as possible." To Spain, they + argued, the sale of the island would be a great advantage. The most + startling declaration of the manifesto was that if Spain should refuse to + sell "after we shall have offered a price for Cuba far beyond its present + value," and if Cuba, in the possession of Spain, should seriously + endanger "our internal peace and the existence of our cherished Union," + then "by every law, human and divine, we shall be justified in wresting + it from Spain if we have the power."</p> + +</div> + <p><b>BUCHANAN, ROBERT WILLIAMS</b> (1841-1901), British poet, novelist + and dramatist, son of Robert Buchanan (1813-1866), Owenite lecturer and + journalist, was born at Caverswall, Staffordshire, on the 18th of August + 1841. His father, a native of Ayr, after living for some years in + Manchester, removed to Glasgow, where Buchanan was educated, at the high + school and the university, one of his fellow-students being the poet + David Gray. His essay on Gray, originally contributed to the <i>Cornhill + Magazine</i>, tells the story of their close friendship, and of their + journey to London in 1860 in search of fame. After a period of struggle + and disappointment Buchanan published <i>Undertones</i> in 1863. This + "tentative" volume was followed by <i>Idyls and Legends of Inverburn</i> + (1865), <i>London Poems</i> (1866), and <i>North Coast and other + Poems</i> (1868), wherein he displayed a faculty for poetic narrative, + and a sympathetic insight into the humbler conditions of life. On the + whole, Buchanan is at his best in these narrative poems, though he + essayed a more ambitious flight in <i>The Book of Orm: A Prelude to the + Epic</i>, a study in mysticism, which appeared in 1870. He was a frequent + contributor to periodical literature, and obtained notoriety by an + article which, under the <i>nom de plume</i> of Thomas Maitland, he + contributed to the <i>Contemporary Review</i> for October 1871, entitled + "The Fleshly School of Poetry." This article was expanded into a pamphlet + (1872), but he subsequently withdrew from the criticisms it contained, + and it is chiefly remembered by the replies it evoked from D.G. Rossetti + in a letter to the <i>Athenaeum</i> (16th December 1871), entitled "The + Stealthy School of Criticism," and from Mr Swinburne in <i>Under the + Microscope</i> (1872). Buchanan himself afterwards regretted the violence + of his attack, and the "old enemy" to whom <i>God and the Man</i> is + dedicated was Rossetti. In 1876 appeared <i>The Shadow of the Sword</i>, + the first and one of the best of a long series of novels. Buchanan was + also the author of many successful plays, among which may be mentioned + <i>Lady Clare</i>, produced in 1883; <i>Sophia</i> (1886), an adaptation + of <i>Tom Jones; A Man's Shadow</i> (1890); and <i>The Charlatan</i> + (1894). He also wrote, in collaboration with Harriett Jay, the melodrama + <i>Alone in London</i>. In 1896 he became, so far as some of his work was + concerned, his own publisher. In the autumn of 1900 he had a paralytic + seizure, from which he never recovered. He died at Streatham on the 10th + of June 1901.</p> + + <p>Buchanan's poems were collected into three volumes in 1874, into one + volume in 1884; and as <i>Complete Poetical Works</i> (2 vols., 1901). + Among his poems should also be mentioned: "The Drama of Kings" (1871); + "St Abe and his Seven Wives," a lively tale of Salt Lake City, published + anonymously in 1872; and "Balder the Beautiful" (1877); "The City of + Dream" (1888); "The Outcast: a Rhyme for the Time" (1891); and "The + Wandering Jew" (1893). His earlier novels, <i>The Shadow of the + Sword</i>, and <i>God and the Man</i> (1881), a striking tale of a family + feud, are distinguished by a certain breadth and simplicity of treatment + which is not so noticeable in their successors, among which may be + mentioned <i>The Martyrdom of Madeline</i> (1882); <i>Foxglove Manor</i> + (1885); <i>Effie Hetherington</i> (1896); and <i>Father Anthony</i> + (1898). <i>David Gray and other Essays, chiefly on Poetry</i> (1868); + <i>Master Spirits</i> (1873); <i>A Poet's Sketch Book</i> (1883), in + which the interesting essay on Gray is reprinted; and <i>A Look round + Literature</i> (1887), contain Buchanan's chief contributions to + periodical literature. More valuable is <i>The Land of Lorne</i> (2 + vols., 1871), a vivid record of yachting experiences on the west coast of + Scotland.</p> + + <p>See also Harriett Jay, <i>Robert Buchanan; some Account of his + Life</i> (1903).</p> + + <p><b>BUCHAREST</b> (<i>Bucuresci</i>), also written Bucarest, Bukarest, + Bukharest, Bukorest and Bukhorest, the capital of Rumania, and chief town + of the department of Ilfov. Although <i>Bucharest</i> is the conventional + English spelling, the forms <i>Bucarest</i> and <i>Bukarest</i> more + nearly represent the correct pronunciation. The population in 1900 was + 282,071, including 43,274 Jews, and 53,056 aliens, mostly + Austro-Hungarian subjects. With its outlying parts, Bucharest covers more + than 20 sq. m. It lies in a hollow, traversed from north-west to + south-east by the river Dimbovitza (<i>Dâmbovita</i> or + <i>Dîmbovita</i>), and is built mainly on the left bank. A range of low + hills affords shelter on the west and south-west; but on every other side + there are drained, though still unhealthy, marshes, stretching away to + meet the central Walachian plains. From a distance, the multitude of its + gardens, and the turrets and metal-plated or gilded cupolas of its many + churches give Bucharest a certain picturesqueness. In a few of the older + districts, too, where land is least valuable, there are antique + one-storeyed houses, surrounded by poplars and acacias; while the gipsies + and Rumans, wearing their brightly coloured native costumes, the Russian + coachmen, or sleigh-drivers, of the banished Lipovan sect, and the + pedlars, with their doleful street cries, render Bucharest unlike any + western capital. Nevertheless, the city is modern. Until about 1860, + indeed, the dimly lit lanes were paved with rough stone blocks, imbedded + in the clay soil, which often subsided, so as to leave the surface + undulating like a sea. Drains were rare, epidemics common. Owing to the + frequency of earthquakes, many houses were built of wood, and in 1847 + fully a quarter of the city was laid waste by fire. The plague visited + Bucharest in 1718, 1738, 1793, when an earthquake destroyed a number of + old buildings, and in 1813, when 70,000 of the inhabitants died in six + weeks. From the accession of Prince Charles, in 1866, a gradual reform + began. The river was enclosed between stone embankments; sewerage and + pure water were supplied, gas and electric light installed; and horse or + electric tramways laid down in the principal thoroughfares, which were + paved with granite or wood. The older houses are of brick, overlaid with + white or tinted plaster, and ornamented with figures or foliage in + terra-cotta; but owing to the great changes of temperature in Rumania, + the plaster soon cracks and peels off, giving a dilapidated appearance to + many streets. The chief modern buildings, such as the Athenaeum, with its + Ionic façade and Byzantine dome, are principally on the quays and + boulevards, and are constructed of stone.</p> + + <p>Bucharest is often called "The Paris of the East," partly from a + supposed social resemblance, partly from the number of its boulevards and + avenues. Three main thoroughfares, the Plevna, Lipscani, and Vacaresci, + skirt the left bank of the river; the Elizabeth Boulevard, and the Calea + Victoriei, or "Avenue of Victory," which commemorates the Rumanian + success at Plevna, in 1877, radiate east and north, respectively, from + the Lipscani, and meet a broad road which surrounds all sides of + Bucharest, except the north-west. The Lipscani was originally the street + of merchants who obtained their wares from the annual fair at Leipzig; + for almost all crafts or gilds, other than the bakers and tavern-keepers, + were long confined to separate quarters; and the old names have survived, + as in the musicians', furriers', and money-changers' quarters. Continuous + with the Calea Victoriei, on the north, is the Kisilev Park, traversed by + the Chausée, a favourite drive, leading to the pretty Baneasa + race-course, where spring and autumn meetings are held. The Cismegiu or + Cismigiu Park, which has a circumference of about 1 m., is laid out + between the Plevna road and the Calea Victoriei; and there are botanical + and zoological gardens.</p> + + <p>The Orthodox Greek churches are generally small, with very narrow + windows, and are built of brick in a modified Byzantine style. They are + usually surmounted by two or three towers, but the bells are hung in a + kind of wooden porch, resembling a <!-- Page 718 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page718"></a>[v.04 p.0718]</span>lych-gate, and + standing about twenty paces from the church. The cathedral, or + metropolitan church, where the metropolitan primate of Rumania + officiates, was built between 1656 and 1665. It has the shape of a Greek + cross, surrounded by a broad cloister, with four main entrances, each + surmounted by a turret. The whole culminates in three brick towers. + Standing on high ground, the cathedral overlooks all Bucharest, and + commands a view of the Carpathians. Other interesting churches are St + Spiridion the New (1768), the loftiest and most beautiful of all; the + Doamna Balasa (1751), noteworthy for its rich carved work without, and + frescoes within; and the ancient Biserica Bucur, said, in local + traditions, to derive its name from Bucur, a shepherd whom legend makes + the founder of Bucharest. The real founder and date of this church, and + of many others, are unknown, thanks to the frequent obliteration of + Slavonic inscriptions by the Greek clergy. The Protestants, Armenians and + Lipovans worship in their own churches, and the Jews have several + synagogues. Bucharest is also the seat of a Roman Catholic archbishop; + but the Roman Catholics, though numbering nearly 37,000 in 1899, possess + only three churches, including the cathedral of St Joseph.</p> + + <p>Bucharest is a great educational centre. Besides the ordinary + ecclesiastical seminaries, lyceums, gymnasia and elementary schools, it + possesses schools of commerce, science and art institutes, and training + colleges, for engineers and veterinary surgeons; while the university, + founded in 1864, has faculties of theology, philosophy, literature, law, + science, medicine and pharmacy. Students pay no fees except for board. + The national library, containing many precious Oriental documents, and + the meeting-hall of the Rumanian senate, are both included in the + university buildings, which, with the Athenaeum (used for literary + conferences and for music), and the central girls' school, are regarded + as the best example of modern Rumanian architecture. Other libraries are + those of the Nifon seminary, of the Charles University Foundation + (<i>Fundatiunea universitara Carol</i>), which endows research, and + rewards literary or scientific merit; the central library, and the + library of the Academy, which also contains a museum of natural history + and antiquities. Among philanthropic institutions may be mentioned the + Coltei, Brancovan, Maternitate, Philantropia and Pantelimon hospitals; + the Marcutza lunatic asylum; and the Princess Elena refuge (<i>Asilul + Elena Doamna</i>), founded by Princess Elena Couza in 1862, to provide + for 230 orphan girls. The summer home of these girls is a convent in the + Transylvanian Alps. Hotels and restaurants are numerous. There are two + theatres, the National and the Lyric, which is mainly patronized by + foreign players; but minor places of amusement abound; as also do + clubs—political, social and sporting. Socially, indeed, the + progress of Bucharest is remarkable, its political, literary and + scientific circles being on a level with those of most European + capitals.</p> + + <p>Bucharest is the winter residence of the royal family, the + meeting-place of parliament, and the seat of an appeal court (<i>Curtea + de Apel</i>), of the supreme court (<i>Curtea de Casatie</i>), of the + ministries, the national bank, the bank of Rumania, many lesser credit + establishments, and a chamber of commerce. The railway lines which meet + on the western limit of the city give access to all parts, and the + telephone system, besides being internally complete, communicates with + Braila, Galatz, Jassy and Sinaia. Bucharest has a very large transit + trade in petroleum, timber and agricultural produce; above all, in wheat + and maize. Its industries include petroleum-refining, extraction of + vegetable oils, cabinet-making, brandy-distilling, tanning, and the + manufacture of machinery, wire, nails, metal-ware, cement, soap, candles, + paste, starch, paper, cardboard, pearl buttons, textiles, leather goods, + ropes, glucose, army supplies, preserved meat and vegetables, and + confectionery. An important fair is held for seven days in each year. The + mercantile community is largely composed of Austrians, Frenchmen, + Germans, Greeks and Swiss, who form exclusive colonies. Bucharest is the + headquarters of the II. army corps, and a fortress of the first rank. The + fortifications were constructed in 1885-1896 on a project drafted by the + Belgian engineer, General Brialmont, in 1883. The mean distance of the + forts from the city is 4 m., and the perimeter of the defences (which are + technically of special importance as embodying the system of Brialmont) + is about 48 m., this perimeter being defended by 36 armoured forts and + batteries. There are barracks for over 30,000 cavalry and infantry, an + arsenal, a military hospital and three military academies.</p> + + <p>The legend of Bucur is plainly unhistorical, and the meaning of + <i>Bucharest</i> has been much disputed. One account derives it from an + Albanian word <i>Bukur</i>, meaning joy, in memory of a victory won by + Prince Mircea of Walachia (c. 1383-1419) over the Turks. For this reason + Bucharest is often called "The City of Joy". Like most ancient cities of + Rumania, its foundation has also been ascribed to the first Walachian + prince, the half-mythical Radu Negru (c. 1290-1314). More modern + historians declare that it was originally a fortress, erected on the site + of the Daco-Roman Thyanus, to command the approaches to Tîrgovishtea, + formerly the capital of Walachia. It soon became the summer residence of + the court. In 1595 it was burned by the Turks; but, after its + restoration, continued to grow in size and prosperity, until, in 1698, + Prince Constantine Brancovan chose it for his capital. During the 18th + century the possession of Bucharest was frequently disputed by the Turks, + Austrians and Russians. In 1812 it gave its name to the treaty by which + Bessarabia and a third of Moldavia were ceded to Russia. In the war of + 1828 it was occupied by the Russians, who made it over to the prince of + Walachia in the following year. A rebellion against Prince Bibescu in + 1848 brought both Turkish and Russian interference, and the city was + again held by Russian troops in 1853-1854. On their departure an Austrian + garrison took possession and remained till March 1857. In 1858 the + international congress for the organization of the Danubian + principalities was held in the city; and when, in 1861, the union of + Walachia and Moldavia was proclaimed, Bucharest became the Rumanian + capital. Prince Cuza, the first ruler of the united provinces, was driven + from his throne by an insurrection in Bucharest in 1866. For the + subsequent history of the city see <span class="sc">Rumania</span>: + <i>History</i>.</p> + + <p><b>BÜCHELER, FRANZ</b> (1837-1908), German classical scholar, was born + in Rheinberg on the 3rd of June 1837, and educated at Bonn. He held + professorships successively at Freiburg (1858), Greifswald (1866), and + Bonn (1870), and in 1878 became joint-editor of the <i>Rheinisches Museum + für Philologie</i>. Both as a teacher and as a commentator he was + extremely successful. Among his editions are: <i>Frontini de aquis urbis + Romae</i> (Leipzig, 1858); <i>Pervigilium Veneris</i> (Leipzig, 1859); + <i>Petronii satirarum reliquiae</i> (Berlin, 1862; 3rd ed., 1882); + <i>Hymnus Cereris Homericus</i> (Leipzig, 1869); <i>Q. Ciceronis + reliquiae</i> (1869); <i>Herondae mimiambi</i> (Bonn, 1892). He wrote + also <i>Grundriss der lateinischen Deklination</i> (1866); <i>Das Recht + von Gortyn</i> (Frankfort, 1885, with Zitelmann); and supervised the + third edition (1893) of O. Jahn's <i>Persii, Juvenalis, Sulpiciae + saturae</i>.</p> + + <p><b>BUCHER, LOTHAR</b> (1817-1892), German publicist, was born on the + 25th of October 1817 at Neu Stettin, in Pomerania, his father being + master at a gymnasium. After studying at the university of Berlin he + adopted the legal profession. Elected a member of the National Assembly + in Berlin in 1848, he was an active leader of the extreme democratic + party. With others of his colleagues he was in 1850 brought to trial for + having taken part in organizing a movement for refusal to pay taxes; he + was condemned to fifteen months' imprisonment in a fortress, but left the + country before the sentence was executed. For ten years he lived in + exile, chiefly in London; he acted as special correspondent of the + <i>National Zeitung</i>, and gained a great knowledge of English life; + and he published a work, <i>Der Parliamentarismus wie er ist</i>, a + criticism of parliamentary government, which shows a marked change in his + political opinions. In 1860 he returned to Germany, and became intimate + with Lassalle, who made him his literary executor. In 1864 he was offered + by Bismarck, and accepted, a high position in the Prussian foreign + office. The reasons that led him to a step which involved so complete a + break with his earlier friends and associations are not clearly known. + From this time till his death he acted as Bismarck's secretary, and was + the man who probably enjoyed the greatest <!-- Page 719 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page719"></a>[v.04 p.0719]</span>amount of his + confidence. It was he who drew up the text of the constitution of the + North German Confederation; in 1870 he was sent on a very confidential + mission to Spain in connexion with the Hohenzollern candidature for the + Spanish crown; he assisted Bismarck at the final negotiations for the + treaty of Frankfort, and was one of the secretaries to the congress of + Berlin; he also assisted Bismarck in the composition of his memoirs. + Bucher, who was a man of great ability, had considerable influence, which + was especially directed against the economic doctrines of the Liberals; + in 1881 he published a pamphlet criticizing the influence and principles + of the Cobden Club. He identified himself completely with Bismarck's + later commercial and colonial policy, and probably had much to do with + introducing it, and he did much to encourage anti-British feeling in + Germany. He died at Glion, in Switzerland, on the 12th of October + 1892.</p> + + <p>See Heinrich v. Poschinger, <i>Ein 48er: Lothar Buchers Leben und + Werke</i> (3 vols., Berlin, 1890); Busch, <i>Bismarck: Some Secret Pages + of his History</i> (London, 1898).</p> + + <p>(<span class="sc">J. W. He.</span>)</p> + + <p><b>BUCHEZ, PHILIPPE JOSEPH BENJAMIN</b> (1796-1865), French author and + politician, was born on the 31st of March 1796 at Matagne-la-Petite, now + in Belgium, then in the French department of the Ardennes. He finished + his general education in Paris, and afterwards applied himself to the + study of natural science and medicine. In 1821 he co-operated with + Saint-Amand Bazard and others in founding a secret association, modelled + on that of the Italian Carbonari, with the object of organizing a general + armed rising against the government. The organization spread rapidly and + widely, and displayed itself in repeated attempts at revolution. In one + of these attempts, the affair at Belfort, Buchez was gravely compromised, + although the jury which tried him did not find the evidence sufficient to + warrant his condemnation. In 1825 he graduated in medicine, and soon + after he published with Ulisse Trélat a <i>Précis élémentaire + d'hygiène</i>. About the same time he became a member of the + Saint-Simonian Society, presided over by Bazard, Barthélemy Prosper + Enfantin, and Olinde Rodrigues, and contributed to its organ, the + <i>Producteur</i>. He left it in consequence of aversion to the strange + religious ideas developed by its "Supreme Father," Enfantin, and began to + elaborate what he regarded as a Christian socialism. For the exposition + and advocacy of his principles he founded a periodical called + <i>L'Européen</i>. In 1833 he published an <i>Introduction à la science + de l'histoire</i>, which was received with considerable favour (2nd ed., + improved and enlarged, 2 vols., 1842). Notwithstanding its prolixity, + this is an interesting work. The part which treats of the aim, foundation + and methods of the science of history is valuable; but what is most + distinctive in Buchez's theory—the division of historical + development into four great epochs originated by four universal + revelations, of each epoch into three periods corresponding to desire, + reasoning and performance, and of each of these periods into a + theoretical and practical age—is merely ingenious (see Flint's + <i>Philosophy of History in Europe</i>, i. 242-252). Buchez next edited, + along with M. Roux-Lavergne (1802-1874), the <i>Histoire parlementaire de + la Révolution française</i> (1833-1838; 40 vols.). This vast and + conscientious publication is a valuable store of material for the early + periods of the first French Revolution. There is a review of it by + Carlyle (<i>Miscellanies</i>), the first two parts of whose own history + of the French Revolution are mainly drawn from it. The editors worked + under the inspiration of a strong admiration of the principles of + Robespierre and the Jacobins, and in the belief that the French + Revolution was an attempt to realize Christianity. In the <i>Essai d'un + traité complet de philosophie au point de vue du Catholicisme et du + progrès</i> (1839-1840) Buchez endeavoured to co-ordinate in a single + system the political, moral, religious and natural phenomena of + existence. Denying the possibility of innate ideas, he asserted that + morality comes by revelation, and is therefore not only certain, but the + only real certainty.</p> + + <p>It was partly owing to the reputation which he had acquired by these + publications, but still more owing to his connexion with the + <i>National</i> newspaper, and with the secret societies hostile to the + government of Louis Philippe, that he was raised, by the Revolution of + 1848, to the presidency of the Constituent Assembly. He speedily showed + that he was not possessed of the qualities needed in a situation so + difficult and in days so tempestuous. He retained the position only for a + very short time. After the dissolution of the assembly he was not + re-elected. Thrown back into private life, he resumed his studies, and + added several works to those which have been already mentioned. A + <i>Traité de politique</i> (published 1866), which may be considered as + the completion of his <i>Traité de philosophie</i>, was the most + important of the productions of the last period of his life. His + brochures are very numerous and on a great variety of subjects, medical, + historical, political, philosophical, &c. He died on the 12th of + August 1865. He found a disciple of considerable ability in M.A. Ott, who + advocated and applied his principles in various writings.</p> + + <p>See also A. Ott, "P.B.J. Buchez," in <i>Journal des économistes</i> + for 1865.</p> + + <p><b>BUCHHOLZ,</b> a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, 1700 ft. + above the sea, on the Sehma, 18 m. S. by E. of Chemnitz by rail. Pop. + (1905) 9307. It has a Gothic Evangelical church and monuments of + Frederick the Wise of Saxony, and Bismarck. There is a school for + instruction in lace-making, an industry dating from 1589, which still + forms the chief employment of the inhabitants.</p> + + <p><b>BÜCHNER, FRIEDRICH KARL CHRISTIAN LUDWIG</b> (1824-1899), German + philosopher and physician, was born at Darmstadt. He studied at Giessen, + Strassburg, Würzburg and Vienna. In 1852 he became lecturer in medicine + at the university of Tübingen, where he published his great work <i>Kraft + und Stoff</i> (1855). In this work, the product, according to Lange, of a + fanatical enthusiasm for humanity, he sought to demonstrate the + indestructibility of matter and force, and the finality of physical + force. The extreme materialism of this work excited so much opposition + that he was compelled to give up his post at Tübingen. He retired to + Darmstadt, where he practised as a physician and contributed regularly to + pathological and physiological magazines. He continued his philosophical + work in defence of materialism, and published <i>Natur und Geist</i> + (1857), <i>Aus Natur und Wissenschaft</i> (vol. i., 1862; vol. ii., + 1884), <i>Fremdes und Eigenes aus dem geistigen Leben der Gegenwart</i> + (1890), <i>Darwinismus und Socialismus</i> (1894), <i>Im Dienste der + Wahrheit</i> (1899). He died at Darmstadt on the 1st of May 1899. In + estimating Büchner's philosophy it must be remembered that he was + primarily a physiologist, not a metaphysician. Matter and force (or + energy) are infinite; the conservation of force follows from the + imperishability of matter, the ultimate basis of all science. Büchner is + not always clear in his theory of the relation between matter and force. + At one time he refuses to explain it, but generally he assumes that all + natural and spiritual forces are indwelling in matter. "Just as a + steam-engine," he says in <i>Kraft und Stoff</i> (7th ed., p. 130), + "produces motion, so the intricate organic complex of force-bearing + substance in an animal organism produces a total sum of certain effects, + which, when bound together in a unity, are called by us mind, soul, + thought." Here he postulates force and mind as emanating from original + matter—a materialistic monism. But in other parts of his works he + suggests that mind and matter are two different aspects of that which is + the basis of all things—a monism which is not necessarily + materialistic, and which, in the absence of further explanation, + constitutes a confession of failure. Büchner was much less concerned to + establish a scientific metaphysic than to protest against the romantic + idealism of his predecessors and the theological interpretations of the + universe. Nature according to him is purely physical; it has no purpose, + no will, no laws imposed by extraneous authority, no supernatural ethical + sanction.</p> + + <p>See Frauenstädt, <i>Der Materialismus</i> (Leipzig, 1856); Janet, + <i>The Materialism of the Present Day: A Criticism of Dr Büchner's + System</i>, trans. Masson (London, 1867).</p> + + <p><b>BUCHON, JEAN ALEXANDRE</b> (1791-1849), French scholar, was born on + the 21st of May 1791 at Menetou-Salon (Cher), and died on the 29th of + August 1849. An ardent Liberal, he took an active part in party struggles + under the Restoration, while <!-- Page 720 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page720"></a>[v.04 p.0720]</span>throwing himself with equal vigour + into the great work of historical regeneration which was going on at that + period. During 1822 and the succeeding years he travelled about Europe on + the search for materials for his <i>Collection des chroniques nationales + françaises écrites en langue vulgaire du XIII<sup>e</sup> au + XVI<sup>e</sup> siècle</i> (47 vols., 1824-1829). After the revolution of + 1830 he founded the <i>Panthéon litteraire</i>, in which he published a + <i>Choix d'ouvrages mystiques</i> (1843), a <i>Choix de monuments + primitifs de l'église chrétienne</i> (1837), a <i>Choix des historiens + grecs</i> (1837), a collection of <i>Chroniques étrangères relatives aux + expéditions françaises pendant le XIII<sup>e</sup> siècle</i> (1840), + and, most important of all, a <i>Choix de chroniques et mémoires sur + l'histoire de France</i> (1836-1841). His travels in southern Italy and + in the East had put him upon the track of the medieval French settlements + in those regions, and to this subject he devoted several important works: + <i>Recherches et matériaux pour servir a une histoire de la domination + française dans les provinces démembrées de l'empire grec</i> (1840); + <i>Nouvelles recherches historiques sur la principauté française de Morée + et ses hautes baronnies</i> (2 vols., 1843-1844); <i>Histoire des + conquêtes et de l'établissement des Français dans les états de l'ancienne + Grèce sous es Villehardouin</i> (1846, unfinished). None of the numerous + publications which we owe to Buchon can be described as thoroughly + scholarly; but they have been of great service to history, and those + concerning the East have in especial the value of original research.</p> + + <p><b>BUCHU,</b> or <span class="sc">Buka Leaves</span>, the produce of + several shrubby plants belonging to the genus Barosma (nat. order + Rutaceae), natives of the Cape of Good Hope. The principal species, <i>B. + crenulata</i>, has leaves of a smooth leathery texture, oblong-ovate in + shape, from an inch to an inch and a half in length, with serrulate or + crenulate margins, on which as well as on the under side are conspicuous + oil-glands. The other species which yield buchu are <i>B. + serratifolia</i>, having linear-lanceolate sharply serrulate leaves, and + <i>B. betulina</i>, the leaves of which are cuneate-obovate, with + denticulate margins. They are all, as found in commerce, of a pale + yellow-green colour; they emit a peculiar aromatic odour, and have a + slightly astringent bitter taste. Buchu leaves contain a volatile oil, + which is of a dark yellow colour, and deposits a form of camphor on + exposure to air, a liquid hydro-carbon being the solvent of the camphor + within the oil-glands. There is also present a minute quantity of a + bitter principle. The leaves of a closely allied plant, <i>Empleurum + serratulum</i>, are employed as a substitute or adulterant for buchu. As + these possess no glands they are a worthless substitute. The British + Pharmacopoeia contains an infusion and tincture of buchu. The former may + be given in doses of an ounce and the latter in doses of a drachm. The + drug has the properties common to all substances that contain a volatile + oil. The infusion contains very little of the oil and is of very slight + value. Until the advent of the modern synthetic products buchu was valued + in diseases of the urinary tract, but its use is now practically + obsolete.</p> + + <p><b>BUCK, CARL DARLING</b> (1866- ), American philologist, was born on + the 2nd of October 1866, at Bucksport, Maine. He graduated at Yale in + 1886, was a graduate student there for three years, and studied at the + American School of Classical Studies in Athens (1887-1889) and in Leipzig + (1889-1892). In 1892 he became professor of Sanskrit and Indo-European + comparative philology in the University of Chicago; but it is in the + narrower field of the Italic dialects that his important work lies, + including <i>Der Vocalismus der oskischen Sprache</i> (1892), <i>The + Oscan-Umbrian Verb-System</i> (1895), and <i>Grammar of Oscan and + Umbrian</i> (1904), as well as an excellent <i>précis</i> of the Italic + languages in <i>Johnson's Universal Cyclopaedia</i>. He collaborated with + W.G. Hale (<i>q.v.</i>) in the preparation of <i>A Latin Grammar</i> + (1903). Of his contributions to reviews on phonological topics, perhaps + the most important is his discussion of "Brugmann's Law."</p> + + <p><b>BUCK, DUDLEY</b> (1839-1909), American musical composer, was born + in Hartford, Connecticut, on the 10th of March 1839, the son of a + merchant who gave him every opportunity for cultivating his musical + talents; and for four years (1858-1862) he studied at Leipzig, Dresden + and Paris. On returning to America he held the position of organist at + Hartford, Chicago (1869), and Boston (1871). In 1875 he went to New York + to assist Theodore Thomas as conductor of the orchestral concerts, and + from 1877 to 1903 was organist at Holy Trinity church. Meanwhile he had + become well known as a composer of church music, a number of cantatas + (<i>Columbus</i>, 1876; <i>Golden Legend</i>, 1880; <i>Light of Asia</i>, + 1885, &c), a grand opera, <i>Serapis</i>, a comic opera, + <i>Deseret</i> (1880), a symphonic overture, <i>Marmion</i>, a symphony + in E flat, and other orchestral and vocal works. He died on the 6th of + October 1909.</p> + + <p><b>BUCK,</b> (1) (From the O. Eng. <i>buc</i>, a he-goat, and + <i>bucca</i>, a male deer), the male of several animals, of goats, hares + and rabbits, and particularly of the fallow-deer. During the 18th century + the word was used of a spirited, reckless young man of fashion, and + later, with particular reference to extravagance in dress, of a dandy. + (2) (From a root common to Teutonic and Romance languages, cf. the Ger. + <i>Bauch</i>, Fr. <i>buée</i>, and Ital. <i>bucata</i>), the bleaching of + clothes in lye, also the lye itself, and the clothes to be bleached, so a + "buck-basket" means a basket of clothes ready for the wash. (3) Either + from an obsolete word meaning "body," or from the sense of bouncing or + jumping, derived from (1), a word now only found in compound words, as + "buck-board," a light four-wheeled vehicle, the primitive form of which + has one or more seats on a springy board, joining the front and rear + axles and serving both as springs and body; a "buck-wagon" (Dutch, + <i>bok-wagen</i>) is a South African cart with a frame projecting over + the wheels, used for the transport of heavy loads. (4) (Either from + "buck" a he-goat, or from a common Teutonic root, to bend, as seen in the + Ger. <i>bücken</i>, and Eng. "bow"), a verb meaning "to leap"; seen + especially in the compound "buck-jumper," a horse which leaps clear off + the ground, with feet tucked together and arched back, descending with + fore-feet rigid and head down and drawn inwards.</p> + + <p><b>BUCK-BEAN,</b> or <span class="sc">Bog-Bean</span> (<i>Menyanthes + trifoliata</i>, a member of the Gentian family), a bog-plant with a + creeping stem, alternately arranged large leaves each with three + leaflets, and spikes of white or pink flowers. The stout stem is bitter + and has tonic and febrifuge properties. The plant is widely distributed + through the north temperate zone.</p> + + <p><b>BÜCKEBURG,</b> a town of Germany, capital of the principality of + Schaumburg-Lippe, pleasantly situated at the foot of the Harrelberg on + the river Aue, 6 m. from Minden, on the main railway from Cologne to + Berlin. Pop. 6000. It has a palace standing in extensive grounds, a + gymnasium, a normal seminary, a library, a synagogue, and three churches, + one of which has the appropriate inscription, <i>Religionis non + structurae exemplum</i>. The first houses of Bückeburg began to gather + round the castle about 1365; and it was not till the 17th century that + the town was surrounded with walls, which have given place to a ring of + pretty promenades. The poet J.G. von Herder was court preacher here from + 1771 to 1776.</p> + + <p><b>BUCKERIDGE, JOHN</b> (c. 1562-1631), English divine, was a son of + William Buckeridge, and was educated at the Merchant Taylors school and + at St John's College, Oxford. He became a fellow of his college, and + acted as tutor to William Laud, whose opinions were perhaps shaped by + him. Leaving Oxford, Buckeridge held several livings, and was highly + esteemed by King James I., whose chaplain he became. In 1605 he was + elected president of St John's College, a position which he vacated on + being made bishop of Rochester in 1611. He was transferred to the + bishopric of Ely in 1628, and died on the 23rd of May 1631. The bishop + won some fame as a theologian and a controversialist. Among his intimate + friends was Bishop Lancelot Andrewes, whose "Ninety-one Sermons" were + published by Laud and Buckeridge in 1629.</p> + + <p><b>BUCKETSHOP,</b> a slang financial term for the office or business + of an inferior class of stockbroker, who is not a member of an official + exchange and conducts speculative operations for his clients, who deposit + a margin or cover. The operations consist, as a rule, of a simple bet or + wager between the broker and client, no pretence of an actual purchase or + sale being attempted. The term is sometimes, though loosely and + wrongfully, applied to <!-- Page 721 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page721"></a>[v.04 p.0721]</span>all stockbrokers who are not + members of the recognized local exchange. The origin of the word is + American. According to the <i>New English Dictionary</i> it is supposed + to have arisen in Chicago. The Board of Trade there forbade dealings in + "options" in grain of less than 5000 bushels. An "Open Board of Trade" or + unauthorized exchange was opened, for the purpose of small gamblers, in a + neighbouring street below the rooms of the Board of Trade. The lift used + by members of the Board of Trade would be sent down to bring up from the + open Board what was known as a "bucketful" of the smaller speculators, + when business was slack.</p> + + <p><b>BUCKHOLDT</b> [properly <span class="sc">Beukelsz</span>, or <span + class="sc">Bockelszoon</span>], <b>JOHANN</b> (<i>c.</i> 1508-1535), + Dutch Anabaptist fanatic, better known as <span class="sc">John of + Leiden</span>, from his place of birth, was the illegitimate son of + Bockel, burgomaster of Soevenhagen, who afterwards married his mother. He + was born about 1508, apprenticed to a tailor, became infected with the + opinions of Thomas Münzer, travelled in pursuit of his trade (being four + years in London), married a widow, became bankrupt, and in September 1533 + joined the Anabaptist movement under Johann Matthysz (Matthyszoon), baker + of Haarlem. He had little education, but some literary faculty, and had + written plays. On the 13th of January 1534 he appeared in Münster as an + apostle of Matthysz. Good-looking and fluent, he fascinated women, and + won the confidence of Bernard Knipperdollinck, a revolutionary cloth + merchant, who gave him his daughter in marriage. The Münster Anabaptists + took up arms on the 9th of February 1534 (see <span + class="sc">Anabaptists</span>). On the death of Matthysz (1534), + Buckholdt succeeded him as prophet, added his widow to the number of his + wives, and organized a new constitution for Münster, with twelve elders + (suggested by the tribes of Israel) and other officers of a theocracy, + but soon superseded these, making himself king of the new Zion. His + arbitrary rule was marked by pomp and severity. Münster was retaken (June + 25, 1535) by its prince-bishop, Franz von Waldeck. Buckholdt, after many + indignities, was cruelly executed on the 22nd of January 1536; his body, + and those of his companions, were hung in cages to the tower of the + Lamberti church. His portrait is in <i>Grouwelen der Hooftketteren</i> + (Leiden, 1607; an English edition is appended to Alexander Ross's + <i>Pansebeia</i>, 2nd ed., 1655); a better example of the same is given + by Arend.</p> + + <p>See Arend, <i>Algemeene Geschiedenis des Vaderlands</i> (1846), ii., + iii., 629; Van der Aa, <i>Biographisch Woordenboek der Nederlanden</i> + (1853); E. Belfort Bax, <i>Rise and Fail of the Anabaptists</i> + (1903).</p> + + <p>(<span class="sc">A. Go.*</span>)</p> + + <p><b>BUCKIE,</b> a fishing town and police burgh of Banffshire, + Scotland, on the Moray Firth, at the mouth of Buckie burn, about 17 m. W. + of Banff, with a station on the Great North of Scotland railway. Pop. + (1891) 5849; (1901) 6549. Its public buildings include a hall and + literary institute with library and recreation rooms. It attracts one of + the largest Scottish fleets in the herring season, and is also the chief + seat of line fishing in Scotland. The harbour, with an outer and an inner + basin, covers an area of 9 acres and has half a mile of quayage. Besides + the fisheries, there are engineering works, distilleries, and works for + the making of ropes, sails and oil. The burn, which divides the town into + Nether Buckie and Eastern Buckie, rises near the Hill of Clashmadin, + about 5 m. to the south-west. Portgordon, 1½ m. west of Buckie, is a + thriving fishing village, and Rathven, some 2 m. east, lies in a fertile + district, where there are several interesting Danish cairns and other + relics of the remote past.</p> + + <p><b>BUCKINGHAM, EARLS, MARQUESSES AND DUKES OF.</b> The origin of the + earldom of Buckingham (to be distinguished from that of Buckinghamshire, + <i>q.v.</i>) is obscure. According to Mr J.H. Round (in G.E.C.'s + <i>Peerage</i>, <i>s.v.</i>) there is some charter evidence for its + existence under William Rufus; but the main evidence for reckoning Walter + Giffard, lord of Longueville in Normandy, who held forty-eight lordships + in the county, as the first earl, is that of Odericus Vitalis, who twice + describes Walter as "Comes Bucchingehamensis," once in 1097, and again at + his death in 1102. After the death of Walter Giffard, 2nd earl in 1164, + the title was assumed by Richard de Clare, earl of Pembroke + ("Strongbow"), in right of his wife, Rohais, sister of Walter Giffard I.; + and it died with him in 1176. In 1377 Thomas of "Woodstock" (duke of + Gloucester) was created earl of Buckingham at the coronation of Richard + II. (15th of July), and the title of Gloucester having after his death + been given to Thomas le Despenser, his son Humphrey bore that of earl of + Buckingham only. On Humphrey's death, his sister Anne became countess of + Buckingham in her own right. She married Edmund Stafford, earl of + Stafford, and on her death (1438) the title of Buckingham passed to her + son Humphrey Stafford, earl of Stafford, who in 1444 was created duke of + Buckingham. This title remained in the Stafford family until the + attainder and execution of Edward, 3rd duke, in 1521 (see <span + class="sc">Buckingham, Henry Stafford</span>, 2nd duke of).</p> + + <p>In 1617 King James I. created George Villiers earl, in 1618 marquess, + and in 1623 duke of Buckingham (see <span class="sc">Buckingham, George + Villiers</span>, 1st duke of). The marquessate and dukedom became extinct + with the death of the 2nd (Villiers) duke (<i>q.v.</i>) in 1687; but the + earldom was claimed, under the special remainder in the patent of 1617, + by a collateral line of doubtful legitimacy claiming descent from John + Villiers, 1st Viscount Purbeck. The title was not actually borne after + the death of John Villiers, styling himself earl of Buckingham, in 1723. + The claim was extinguished by the death of George Villiers, a clergyman, + in 1774.</p> + + <p>In 1703 John Sheffield, marquess of Normanby, was created "duke of the + county of Buckingham and of Normanby" (see below). He was succeeded by + his son Edmund who died in October 1735 when the titles became + extinct.</p> + + <p>The title of marquess and duke of Buckingham in the Grenville family + (to the holders of which the remainder of this article applies) was + derived, not from the county, but from the town of Buckingham. It + originated in 1784, when the 2nd Earl Temple was created marquess of + Buckingham "in the county of Buckingham," this title being elevated into + the dukedom of Buckingham and Chandos for his son in 1822.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">George Nugent Temple Grenville</span>, 1st marquess + of Buckingham (1753-1813), was the second son of George Grenville, and + was born on the 17th of June 1753. Educated at Eton and Christ Church, + Oxford, he was appointed a teller of the exchequer in 1764, and ten years + later was returned to parliament as one of the members for + Buckinghamshire. In the House of Commons he was a sharp critic of the + American policy of Lord North. In September 1779 he succeeded his uncle + as 2nd Earl Temple; in 1782 was appointed lord-lieutenant of + Buckinghamshire; and in July of the same year became a member of the + privy council and lord-lieutenant of Ireland in the ministry of the earl + of Shelburne. On his advice the Renunciation Act of 1783 was passed, + which supplemented the legislative independence granted to Ireland in + 1782. By royal warrant he created the order of St Patrick in February + 1783, with himself as the first grand master. Temple left Ireland in + 1783, and again turned his attention to English politics. He enjoyed the + confidence of George III., and having opposed Fox's East India Bill, he + was authorized by the king to say that "whoever voted for the India Bill + was not only not his friend, but would be considered by him as an enemy," + a message which ensured the defeat of the bill. He was appointed a + secretary of state when the younger Pitt formed his ministry in December + 1783, but resigned two days later. In December 1784 he was created + marquess of Buckingham "in the county of Buckingham." In November 1787 he + was appointed lord-lieutenant of Ireland under Pitt, but his second + tenure of this office was hardly as successful as the first. He was + denounced by Grattan for extravagance; was censured by the Irish Houses + of parliament for refusing to transmit to England in address calling upon + the prince of Wales to assume the regency; and he could only maintain his + position by resorting to bribery on a large scale. Having become very + unpopular he resigned his office in September 1789, and subsequently took + very little part in politics, although he spoke in favour of the union + with Ireland. He died at his residence, Stowe House, <!-- Page 722 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page722"></a>[v.04 + p.0722]</span>Buckingham, on the 11th of February 1813, and was buried at + Wotton. In 1775 he had married Mary Elizabeth (d. 1812), daughter of + Robert, Earl Nugent.</p> + + <p>His elder son, <span class="sc">Richard Grenville</span>, 1st duke of + Buckingham and Chandos (1776-1839), was one of the members of parliament + for Buckinghamshire from 1797 to 1813, and, as Earl Temple, took an + active part in politics. In February 1813 he succeeded his father as + marquess of Buckingham; and having married the only child of the 3rd duke + of Chandos, he was created duke of Buckingham and Chandos in 1822. He + died in 1839. Owing to financial embarrassments, the duke lived out of + England for some time, and in 1862 an account of his travels was + published, as <i>The Private Diary of Richard, Duke of Buckingham and + Chandos</i>.</p> + + <p>He was succeeded by his only child, <span class="sc">Richard + Grenville</span>, 2nd duke of Buckingham and Chandos (1797-1861). + Educated at Eton and Oriel College, Oxford, he was known as Earl Temple + and subsequently as marquess of Chandos. He was member of parliament for + Buckinghamshire from 1818 to 1839, and was responsible for the "Chandos + clause" in the Reform Bill of 1832. He was lord privy seal from September + 1841 to January 1842, and partly owing to his opposition to the repeal of + the corn laws was known as the "Farmers' Friend." He found the estates + heavily encumbered when he succeeded to the dukedom in 1839, and his own + generous and luxurious tastes brought matters to a climax. In 1847 his + residences were seized by his creditors, and the duke left England. His + personal property and many of his landed estates were sold, and returning + to England he devoted himself to literature. He died in London, on the + 29th of July 1861. His wife, whom he married in 1819, was Mary (d. 1862), + daughter of John, 1st marquess of Breadalbane, and she obtained a divorce + from him in 1850. Buckingham's chief publications are, <i>Memoirs of the + Court and Cabinets of George III.</i> (London, 1853-1855); <i>Memoirs of + the Court of England</i>, 1811-1820 (London, 1856); <i>Memoirs of the + Court of George IV.</i> (London, 1859); and <i>Memoirs of the Court and + Cabinets of William IV. and Victoria</i> (London, 1861).</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Richard Grenville</span>, 3rd duke of Buckingham and + Chandos (1823-1889), the only son of the 2nd duke, was educated at Eton + and Christ Church, Oxford, and, as marquess of Chandos, represented the + borough of Buckingham in parliament from 1846 to 1857. He was chairman of + the London & North-Western railway from 1853 to 1861. After + succeeding to the dukedom he became lord president of the council, and + subsequently secretary for the colonies in the Conservative government of + 1866-1868. From 1875 to 1880 he was governor of Madras, and in 1886 was + chosen chairman of committees in the House of Lords. He was twice married + and left three daughters. As he left no son the dukedom became extinct on + his death; but the Scottish barony of Kinloss (to which he established + his title in 1868) passed to his eldest daughter, Mary, the wife of + Captain L. F. H. C. Morgan; the earldom of Temple to his nephew, William + Stephen Gore-Langton; and the viscounty of Cobham to his kinsman, Charles + George, 5th Baron Lyttelton. His widow married the 1st Earl Egerton of + Tatton in 1894.</p> + + <p><b>BUCKINGHAM, GEORGE VILLIERS,</b> <span class="sc">1st Duke + of</span><a name="FnAnchor_251" href="#Footnote_251"><sup>[1]</sup></a> + (1592-1628), English statesman, born in August 1592,<a + name="FnAnchor_252" href="#Footnote_252"><sup>[2]</sup></a> was a younger + son of Sir George Villiers of Brooksby. His mother, Mary, daughter of + Anthony Beaumont of Glenfield, Leicestershire, who was left a widow + early, educated him for a courtier's life, sending him to France with Sir + John Eliot; and the lad, being "by nature contemplative," took kindly to + the training. He could dance well, fence well, and talk a little French, + when in August 1614 he was brought before the king's notice, in the hope + that he would take a fancy to him.</p> + + <p>The moment was favourable. Since Salisbury's death James had taken the + business of government upon himself. But he wanted some one who would + chat with him, and amuse him, and would also fill the office of private + secretary, and save him from the trouble of saying no to importunate + suitors. It would be an additional satisfaction if he could train the + youth whom he might select in those arts of statesmanship of which he + believed himself to be a perfect master. His first choice had not proved + a happy one. Robert Carr, who had lately become earl of Somerset, had had + his head turned by his elevation. He had grown peevish toward his master, + and had placed himself at the head of the party which was working for a + close alliance with Spain.</p> + + <p>The appearance of Villiers, beaming with animal spirits and good + humour, was therefore welcomed by all who had an interest in opposing the + designs of Spain, and he was appointed cupbearer the same year. For some + little time still Somerset's pre-eminence was maintained. But on the 23rd + of April 1615, Villiers, in spite of Somerset, was promoted to be + gentleman of the bedchamber, and was knighted on the 24th; the charge of + murdering Overbury, brought against Somerset in September, completed his + downfall, and Villiers at once stepped into the place which he had + vacated. On the 3rd of January 1616 he became master of the horse, on the + 24th of April he received the order of the Garter, and on the 27th of + August 1616 was created Viscount Villiers and Baron Waddon, receiving a + grant of land valued at £80,000, while on the 5th of January 1617 he was + made earl, and on the 1st of January 1618 marquess of Buckingham. With + the exception of the earl of Pembroke he was the richest nobleman in + England.</p> + + <p>Those who expected him to give his support to the anti-Spanish party + were at first doomed to disappointment. As yet he was no politician, and + he contented himself with carrying out his master's orders, whatever they + were. In his personal relations he was kindly and jovial towards all who + did not thwart his wishes. But James had taught him to consider that the + patronage of England was in his hands, and he took good care that no man + should receive promotion of any kind who did not in one way or another + pay court to him. As far as can be ascertained, he cared less for money + than for the gratification of his vanity. But he had not merely himself + to consider. His numerous kinsfolk were to be enriched by marriage, if in + no other way, and Bacon, the great philosopher and statesman, was all but + thrust from office because he had opposed a marriage suggested for one of + Buckingham's brothers, while Cranfield, the first financier of the day, + was kept from the treasury till he would forsake the woman whom he loved, + to marry a penniless cousin of the favourite. On the 19th of January 1619 + James made him lord high admiral of England, hoping that the ardent, + energetic youth would impart something of his own fire to those who were + entrusted with the oversight of that fleet which had been almost ruined + by the peculation and carelessness of the officials. Something of this, + no doubt, was realized under Buckingham's eye. But he himself never + pretended to the virtues of an administrator, and he was too ready to + fill up appointments with men who flattered him, and too reluctant to + dismiss them, if they served their country ill, to effect any permanent + change for the better.</p> + + <p>It was about this time that he first took an independent part in + politics. All England was talking of the revolution in Bohemia in the + year before, and men's sympathy with the continental Protestants was + increased when it was known that James's son-in-law had accepted the + crown of Bohemia, and that in the summer of 1620 a Spanish force was + preparing to invade the Palatinate. Buckingham at first had thrown + himself into the popular movement. Before the summer of 1620 was at end, + incensed by injuries inflicted on English sailors by the Dutch in the + East Indies, he had swung round, and was in close agreement with + Gondomar, the Spanish ambassador. He had now married Lady Katherine + Manners, the daughter of the earl of Rutland, who was at heart a Roman + Catholic, though she outwardly conformed to the English Church, and this + alliance may have had something to do with the change.</p> + + <p>Buckingham's mistakes were owing mainly to his levity. If he passed + briskly from one camp to the other, an impartial <!-- Page 723 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page723"></a>[v.04 p.0723]</span>observer might + usually detect some personal motive at the bottom. But it is hardly + probable that he was himself conscious of anything of the sort. When he + was in reality acting under the influence of vanity or passion it was + easy for him to persuade himself that he was doing his duty to his + country.</p> + + <p>The parliament which met in 1621, angry at discovering that no help + was to be sent to the Palatinate, broke out into a loud outcry against + the system of monopolies, from which Buckingham's brothers and dependants + had drawn a profit, which was believed to be greater than it really was. + At first he pleaded for a dissolution. But he was persuaded by Bishop + Williams that it would be a wiser course to put himself at the head of + the movement, and at a conference of the Commons with the Lords + acknowledged that his two brothers had been implicated, but declared that + his father had begotten a third who would aid in punishing them. In the + impeachment of Bacon which soon followed, Buckingham, who owed much to + his wise counsels, gave him that assistance which was possible without + imperilling his own position and influence. He at first demanded the + immediate dissolution of parliament, but afterwards, when the cry rose + louder against the chancellor, joined in the attack, making however some + attempt to mitigate the severity of the charges against him during the + hearing of his case before the House of Lords. Notwithstanding, he took + advantage of Bacon's need of assistance to wring from him the possession + of York House.</p> + + <p>In the winter of 1621, and the succeeding year, Buckingham was + entirely in Gondomar's hands; and it was only with some difficulty that + in May 1622 Laud argued him out of a resolution to declare himself a + Roman Catholic. In December 1621 he actively supported the dissolution of + parliament, and there can be little doubt that when the Spanish + ambassador left England the following May, he had come to an + understanding with Buckingham that the prince of Wales should visit + Madrid the next year, on which occasion the Spanish court hoped to effect + his conversion to the Roman Catholic Church before giving him the hand of + the infanta Maria. They set out on their adventurous expedition on the + 17th of February 1623, arriving at Madrid, after passing through Paris on + the 7th of March. Each party had been the dupe of the other. Charles and + Buckingham were sanguine in hoping for the restitution of the Palatinate + to James's son-in-law, as a marriage gift to Charles; while the Spaniards + counted on the conversion of Charles to Roman Catholicism and other + extreme concessions (see <span class="sc">Charles I</span>.). The + political differences were soon accentuated by personal disputes between + Buckingham and Olivares and the grandees, and when the two young men + sailed together from Santander in September, it was with the final + resolution to break entirely with Spain.</p> + + <p>James had gratified his favourite in his absence by raising him to a + dukedom. But the splendour which now gathered round Buckingham was owing + to another source than James's favour. He had put himself at the head of + the popular movement against Spain, and when James, acknowledging sorely + against his will that the Palatinate could only be recovered by force, + summoned the parliament which met in February 1624, Buckingham, with the + help of the heir apparent, took up an independent political position. + James was half driven, half persuaded to declare all negotiations with + Spain at an end. For the moment Buckingham was the most popular man in + England.</p> + + <p>It was easier to overthrow one policy than to construct another. The + Commons would have been content with sending some assistance to the + Dutch, and with entering upon a privateering war with Spain. James, whose + object was to regain the Palatinate, believed this could only be + accomplished by a continental alliance, in which France took part. As + soon as parliament was prorogued, negotiations were opened for a marriage + between Charles and the sister of Louis XIII., Henrietta Maria. But a + difficulty arose. James and Charles had engaged to the Commons that there + should be no concessions to the English Roman Catholics, and Louis would + not hear of the marriage unless very large concessions were made. + Buckingham, impatient to begin the war as soon as possible, persuaded + Charles, and the two together persuaded James to throw over the promises + to the Commons, and to accept the French terms. It was no longer possible + to summon parliament to vote supplies for the war till the marriage had + been completed, when remonstrances to its conditions would be + useless.</p> + + <p>Buckingham, for Buckingham was now virtually the ruler of England, had + thus to commence war without money. He prepared to throw 12,000 + Englishmen, under a German adventurer, Count Mansfeld, through France + into the Palatinate. The French insisted that he should maroh through + Holland. It mattered little which way he took. Without provisions, and + without money to buy them, the wretched troops sickened and died in the + winter frosts. Buckingham's first military enterprise ended in disastrous + failure.</p> + + <p>Buckingham had many other schemes in his teeming brain. He had offered + to send aid to Christian IV., king of Denmark, who was proposing to make + war in Germany, and had also a plan for sending an English fleet to + attack Genoa, the ally of Spain, and a plan for sending an English fleet + to attack Spain itself.</p> + + <p>Before these schemes could be carried into operation James died on the + 27th of March 1625. The new king and Buckingham were at one in their aims + and objects. Both were anxious to distinguish themselves by the + chastisement of Spain, and the recovery of the Palatinate. Both were + young and inexperienced. But Charles, obstinate when his mind was made + up, was sluggish in action and without fertility in ideas, and he had + long submitted his mind to the versatile and brilliant favourite, who was + never at a loss what to do next, and who unrolled before his eyes visions + of endless possibilities in the future. Buckingham was sent over to Paris + to urge upon the French court the importance of converting its alliance + into active co-operation.</p> + + <p>There was a difficulty in the way. The Huguenots of La Rochelle were + in rebellion, and James had promised the aid of English ships to suppress + that rebellion. Buckingham, who seems at first to have consented to the + scheme, was anxious to mediate peace between the king of France and his + subjects, and to save Charles from compromising himself with his + parliament by the appearance of English ships in an attack upon + Protestants. When he returned his main demands were refused, but hopes + were given him that peace would be made with the Huguenots. On his way + through France he had the insolence to make love to the queen of + France.</p> + + <p>Soon after his return parliament was opened. It would have been hard + for Charles to pass through the session with credit. Under Buckingham's + guidance he had entered into engagements involving an enormous + expenditure, and these engagements involved a war on the continent, which + had never been popular in the House of Commons. The Commons, too, + suspected the marriage treaty contained engagements of which they + disapproved. They asked for the full execution of the laws against the + Roman Catholics, and voted but little money in return. Before they + reassembled at Oxford on the 1st of August, the English ships had found + their way into the hands of the French, to be used against La Rochelle. + The Commons met in an ill-humour. They had no confidence in Buckingham, + and they asked that persons whom they could trust should be admitted to + the king's council before they would vote a penny. Charles stood by his + minister, and on the 12th of August he dissolved his first + parliament.</p> + + <p>Buckingham and his master set themselves to work to conquer public + opinion. On the one hand, they threw over their engagements to France on + behalf of the English Roman Catholics. On the other hand they sent out a + large fleet to attack Cadiz, and to seize the Spanish treasure-ships. + Buckingham went to the Hague to raise an immediate supply by pawning the + crown jewels, to place England at the head of a great Protestant + alliance, and to enter into fresh obligations to furnish money to the + king of Denmark. It all ended in failure. The fleet returned from Cadiz, + having effected nothing. The crown jewels produced but a small sum, and + the money for the king of Denmark could only be raised by an appeal to + parliament. In the meanwhile the king of France was deeply offended by + the treatment of <!-- Page 724 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page724"></a>[v.04 p.0724]</span>the Roman Catholics, and by the + seizure of French vessels on the ground that they were engaged in + carrying goods for Spain.</p> + + <p>When Charles's second parliament met on the 6th of February 1626, it + was not long before, under Eliot's guidance, it asked for Buckingham's + punishment. He was impeached before the House of Lords on a long string + of charges. Many of these charges were exaggerated, and some were untrue. + His real crime was his complete failure as the leader of the + administration. But as long as Charles refused to listen to the + complaints of his minister's incompetency, the only way in which the + Commons could reach him was by bringing criminal charges against him. + Charles dissolved his second parliament as he had dissolved his first. + Subsequently the Star Chamber declared the duke innocent of the charges, + and on the 1st of June Buckingham was elected chancellor of Cambridge + University.</p> + + <p>To find money was the great difficulty. Recourse was had to a forced + loan, and men were thrown into prison for refusing to pay it. Disasters + had occurred to Charles's allies in Germany. The fleet sent out under + Lord Willoughby (earl of Lindsey) against the Spaniards returned home + shattered by a storm, and a French war was impending in addition to the + Spanish one. The French were roused to reprisals by Charles's persistence + in seizing French vessels. Unwilling to leave La Rochelle open to the + entrance of an English fleet, Richelieu laid siege to that stronghold of + the French Huguenots. On the 27th of June 1627 Buckingham sailed from + Portsmouth at the head of a numerous fleet, and a considerable land + force, to relieve the besieged city.</p> + + <p>His first enterprise was the siege of the fort of St Martin's, on the + Isle of Ré. The ground was hard, and the siege operations were converted + into a blockade. On the 27th of September the defenders of the fort + announced their readiness to surrender the next morning. In the night a + fresh gale brought over a flotilla of French provision boats, which + dashed through the English blockading squadron. The fort was provisioned + for two months more. Buckingham resolved to struggle on, and sent for + reinforcements from England. Charles would gladly have answered to his + call. But England had long since ceased to care for the war. There was no + money in the exchequer, no enthusiasm in the nation to supply the want. + Before the reinforcements could arrive the French had thrown a superior + force upon the island, and Buckingham was driven to retreat on the 29th + of October with heavy loss, only 2989 troops out of nearly 7000 returning + to England.</p> + + <p>His spirits were as buoyant as ever. Ill luck, or the misconduct of + others, was the cause of his failure. He had new plans for carrying on + the war. But the parliament which met on the 17th of March 1628 was + resolved to exact from the king an obligation to refrain from encroaching + for the future on the liberties of his subjects.</p> + + <p>In the parliamentary battle, which ended in the concession of the + Petition of Right, Buckingham took an active share as a member of the + House of Lords. He resisted as long as it was possible to resist the + demand of the Commons, that the king should abandon his claim to imprison + without showing cause. When the first unsatisfactory answer to the + petition was made by the king on the 2nd of June, the Commons suspected, + probably with truth, that it had been dictated by Buckingham. They + prepared a remonstrance on the state of the nation, and Coke at last + named the duke as the cause of all the misfortunes that had occurred. + "The duke of Bucks is the cause of all our miseries ... that man is the + grievance of grievances." Though on the 7th of June the king granted a + satisfactory answer to the petition, the Commons proceeded with their + remonstrance, and on the 11th demanded that he might no longer continue + in office.</p> + + <p>Once more Charles refused to surrender Buckingham, and a few days + later he prorogued parliament in anger. The popular feeling was greatly + excited. Lampoons circulated freely from hand to hand, and Dr Lambe, a + quack doctor, who dabbled in astrology, and was believed to exercise + influence over Buckingham, was murdered in the streets of London. Rude + doggerel lines announced that the duke should share the doctor's + fate.</p> + + <p>With the clouds gathering round him, Buckingham went down to + Portsmouth to take the command of one final expedition for the relief of + La Rochelle. For the first time even he was beginning to acknowledge that + he had undertaken a task beyond his powers. There was a force of inertia + in the officials which resisted his efforts to spur them on to an + enterprise which they believed to be doomed to failure. He entered gladly + into a scheme of pacification proposed by the Venetian ambassador. But + before he could know whether there was to be peace or war, the knife of + an assassin put an end to his career. John Felton, who had served at Ré, + had been disappointed of promotion, and had not been paid that which was + due to him for his services, read the declaration of the Commons that + Buckingham was a public enemy, and eagerly caught at the excuse for + revenging his private wrongs under cover of those of his country. + Waiting, on the morning of the 23rd of August, beside the door of the + room in which Buckingham was breakfasting, he stabbed him to the heart as + he came out.</p> + + <p>Buckingham married Lady Katherine Manners, daughter of Francis, 6th + earl of Rutland, by whom he left three sons and one daughter, of whom + George, the second son (1628-1687), succeeded to the dukedom.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—Article in the <i>Dict. of + Nat. Biography</i>, by S.R. Gardiner; <i>Life of Buckingham</i>, by Sir + Henry Wotton (1642), reprinted in <i>Harleian Miscellany</i>, viii. 613; + <i>A Parallel between Robert Earl of Essex and George late Duke of + Buckingham</i>, by the same writer (1641), in the <i>Thomason Tracts</i>, + 164 (20); <i>Characters</i> of the same by Edward, Earl of Clarendon + (1706); <i>Life of George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham, &c.</i> + (London, 1740); <i>Historical and Biographical Memoirs of George + Villiers, Duke of Buckingham</i> (London, 1819); <i>Letters of the Duke + and Duchess of Buckingham</i> (Edinburgh, 1834); <i>Historia Vitae ... + Ricardi II., &c.</i>, by Thos. Hearne (1729); <i>Documents + illustrating the Impeachment of Buckingham</i>, published by the Camden + Society and edited by S.R. Gardiner (1889); <i>Epistolae Hoelianae</i> + (James Howell), 187, 189, 203; <i>Poems and Songs relating to George + Villiers, Duke of Buckingham</i>, ed. by R. W. Fairholt for the Percy + Society (1850); Rous's <i>Diary</i> (Camden Soc., 1856), p. 27; <i>Gent. + Mag.</i> (1845), ii. 137-144 (portrait of Buckingham dead); <i>Cal. of + State Papers</i>, and MSS. in the British Museum (various collections). + Hist. MSS. Comm. Series. See also P. Gibbs, <i>The Romance of George + Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham</i> (1908).</p> + + <p>(S. R. G.; P. C. Y.)</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_251" href="#FnAnchor_251">[1]</a> <i>i.e.</i> in the + Villiers line; see above.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_252" href="#FnAnchor_252">[2]</a> The <i>Life</i>, + by Sir Henry Wotton, gives August 28th as the date of his birth, but, + when relating his death on August 23rd, adds, "thus died the great peer + in the 36th year of his age compleat and three days over." August 28th + was therefore probably a misprint for August 20th.</p> + +</div> + <p><b>BUCKINGHAM, GEORGE VILLIERS</b>, <span class="sc">2nd Duke + of</span><a name="FnAnchor_261" href="#Footnote_261"><sup>[1]</sup></a> + (1628-1687), English statesman, son of the 1st duke, was born on the 30th + of January 1628. He was brought up, together with his younger brother + Francis, by King Charles I. with his own children, and was educated at + Trinity College, Cambridge, where he obtained the degree of M.A. in 1642. + He fought for the king in the Civil War, and took part in the attack on + Lichfield Close in April 1643. Subsequently, under the care of the earl + of Northumberland, the two brothers travelled abroad and lived at + Florence and Rome. When the Second Civil War broke out they joined the + earl of Holland in Surrey, in July 1648. Lord Francis was killed near + Kingston, and Buckingham and Holland were surprised at St Neots on the + 10th, the duke succeeding in escaping to Holland. In consequence of his + participation in the rebellion, his lands, which had been restored to him + in 1647 on account of his youth, were now again confiscated, a + considerable portion passing into the possession of Fairfax; and he + refused to compound. Charles II. conferred on him the Garter on the 19th + of September 1649, and admitted him to the privy council on the 6th of + April 1650. In opposition to Hyde he supported the alliance with the + Scottish presbyterians, accompanied Charles to Scotland in June, and + allied himself with Argyll, dissuading Charles from joining the royalist + plot of October 1650, and being suspected of betraying the plan to the + convenanting leaders. In May he had been appointed general of the eastern + association in England, and was commissioned to raise forces abroad; and + in the following year he was chosen to lead the projected movement in + Lancashire and to command the Scottish royalists. He was present with + Charles at the battle of Worcester on the 3rd of September 1651, and + escaped safely <!-- Page 725 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page725"></a>[v.04 p.0725]</span>alone to Rotterdam in October. His + subsequent negotiations with Cromwell's government, and his readiness to + sacrifice the interests of the church, separated him from the rest of + Charles's advisers and diminished his influence; while his estrangement + from the royal family was completed by his audacious courtship of the + king's sister, the widowed princess of Orange, and by a money dispute + with Charles. In 1657 he returned to England, and on the 15th of + September married Mary, daughter of Lord Fairfax, who had fallen in love + with him although the banns of her intended marriage with the earl of + Chesterfield had been twice called in church. Buckingham was soon + suspected of organizing a presbyterian plot against the government, and + in spite of Fairfax's interest with Cromwell an order was issued for his + arrest on the 9th of October. He was confined at York House about April + 1658, and having broken bounds was rearrested on the 18th of August and + imprisoned in the Tower, where he remained till the 23rd of February + 1659, being then liberated on his promise not to abet the enemies of the + government, and on Fairfax's security of £20,000. He joined the latter in + his march against Lambert in January 1660, and afterwards claimed to have + gained Fairfax to the cause of the Restoration.</p> + + <p>On the king's return Buckingham, who met him at his landing at Dover, + was at first received coldly; but he was soon again in favour, was + appointed a gentleman of the bedchamber, carried the orb at the + coronation on the 23rd of April 1661, and was made lord-lieutenant of the + West Riding of Yorkshire on the 21st of September. The same year he + accompanied the princess Henrietta to Paris on her marriage with the duke + of Orleans, but made love to her himself with such imprudence that he was + recalled. On the 28th of April 1662 he was admitted to the privy council. + His confiscated estates amounting to £26,000 a year were restored to him, + and he was reputed the king's richest subject. He took part in the + suppression of the projected insurrection in Yorkshire in 1663, went to + sea in the first Dutch war in 1665, and was employed in taking measures + to resist the Dutch or French invasion in June 1666.</p> + + <p>He was, however, debarred from high office by Clarendon's influence. + Accordingly Buckingham's intrigues were now directed to effect the + chancellor's ruin. He organized parties in both houses of parliament in + support of the bill of 1666 prohibiting the import of Irish cattle, + partly to oppose Clarendon and partly to thwart the duke of Ormonde. + Having asserted during the debates that "whoever was against the bill had + either an Irish interest or an Irish understanding," he was challenged by + Lord Ossory. Buckingham avoided the encounter, and Ossory was sent to the + Tower. A short time afterwards, during a conference between the two + houses on the 19th of December, he came to blows with the marquess of + Dorchester, pulling off the latter's periwig, while Dorchester at the + close of the scuffle "had much of the duke's hair in his hand."<a + name="FnAnchor_262" href="#Footnote_262"><sup>[2]</sup></a> According to + Clarendon no misdemeanour so flagrant had ever before offended the + dignity of the House of Lords. The offending peers were both sent to the + Tower, but were released after apologizing; and Buckingham vented his + spite by raising a claim to the title of Lord Roos held by Dorchester's + son-in-law. His opposition to the government had forfeited the king's + favour, and he was now accused of treasonable intrigues, and of having + cast the king's horoscope. His arrest was ordered on the 25th of February + 1667, and he was dismissed from all his offices. He avoided capture till + the 27th of June, when he gave himself up and was imprisoned in the + Tower. He was released, however, by July 17th, was restored to favour and + to his appointments on the 15 of September, and took an active part in + the prosecution of Clarendon. On the latter's fall he became the chief + minister, though holding no high office except that of master of the + horse, bought from the duke of Albermarle in 1668. In 1671 he was elected + chancellor of Cambridge, and in 1672 high steward of Oxford university. + He favoured religious toleration, and earned the praise of Richard + Baxter; he supported a scheme of comprehension in 1668, and advised the + declaration of indulgence in 1672. He upheld the original jurisdiction of + the Lords in Skinner's case. With these exceptions Buckingham's tenure of + office was chiefly marked by scandals and intrigues. His illicit + connexion with the countess of Shrewsbury led to a duel with her husband + at Barn Elms on the 16th of January 1668, in which Shrewsbury was fatally + wounded. The tale that the countess, disguised as a page, witnessed the + encounter, appears to have no foundation; but Buckingham, by installing + the "widow of his own creation" in his own and his wife's house, outraged + even the lax opinion of that day. He was thought to have originated the + project of obtaining the divorce of the childless queen. He intrigued + against James, against Sir William Coventry—one of the ablest + statesmen of the time, whose fall he procured by provoking him to send + him a challenge—and against the great duke of Ormonde, who was + dismissed in 1669. He was even suspected of having instigated Thomas + Blood's attempt to kidnap and murder Ormonde, and was charged with the + crime in the king's presence by Ormonde's son, Lord Ossory, who + threatened to shoot him dead in the event of his father's meeting with a + violent end. Arlington, next to Buckingham himself the most powerful + member of the cabal and a favourite of the king, was a rival less easy to + overcome; and he derived considerable influence from the control of + foreign affairs entrusted to him. Buckingham had from the first been an + adherent of the French alliance, while Arlington concluded through Sir + William Temple in 1668 the Triple Alliance. But on the complete + <i>volte-face</i> and surrender made by Charles to France in 1670, + Arlington as a Roman Catholic was entrusted with the first treaty of + Dover of the 20th of May—which besides providing for the united + attack on Holland, included Charles's undertaking to proclaim himself a + Romanist and to reintroduce the Roman Catholic faith into + England,—While Buckingham was sent to France to carry on the sham + negotiations which led to the public treaties of the 31st of December + 1670 and the 2nd of February 1672. He was much pleased with his reception + by Louis XIV., declared that he had "more honours done him than ever were + given to any subject," and was presented with a pension of 10,000 livres + a year for Lady Shrewsbury. In June 1672 he accompanied Arlington to the + Hague to impose terms on the prince of Orange, and with Arlington + arranged the new treaty with Louis. After all this activity he suffered a + keen disappointment in being passed over for the command of the English + forces in favour of Schomberg. He now knew of the secret treaty of Dover, + and towards the end of 1673 his jealousy of Arlington became open + hostility. He threatened to impeach him, and endeavoured with the help of + Louis to stir up a faction against him in parliament. This, however, was + unsuccessful, and in January 1674 an attack was made upon Buckingham + himself simultaneously in both houses. In the Lords the trustees of the + young earl of Shrewsbury complained that Buckingham continued publicly + his intimacy with the countess, and that a son of theirs had been buried + in Westminster Abbey with the title of earl of Coventry; and Buckingham, + after presenting an apology, was required, as was the countess, to give + security for £10,000 not to cohabit together again. In the Commons he was + attacked as the promoter of the French alliance, of "popery" and + arbitrary government. He defended himself chiefly by endeavouring to + throw the blame upon Arlington; but an address was voted petitioning the + king to remove him from his councils, presence and from employment for + ever. Charles, who had only been waiting for a favourable opportunity, + and who was enraged at Buckingham's disclosures, consented with alacrity. + Buckingham retired into private life, reformed his ways, attended church + with his wife, began to pay his debts, became a "patriot," and was + claimed by the country or opposition party as one of their leaders. In + the spring of 1675 he was conspicuous for his opposition to the Test oath + and for his abuse of the bishops, and on the 16th of November he + introduced a bill for the relief of the nonconformists. On the 15th of + February 1677 he was one of the four lords who endeavoured to embarrass + the government by raising the question whether the parliament, not having + assembled according to the act of Edward III. once in the year, had not + been dissolved by <!-- Page 726 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page726"></a>[v.04 p.0726]</span>the recent prorogation. The motion + was rejected and the four lords were ordered to apologize. On their + refusing, they were sent to the Tower, Buckingham in particular + exasperating the House by ridiculing its censure. He was released in + July, and immediately entered into intrigues with Barillon, the French + ambassador, with the object of hindering the grant of supplies to the + king; and in 1678 he visited Paris to get the assistance of Louis XIV. + for the cause of the opposition. He took an active part in the + prosecution of those implicated in the supposed Popish Plot, and accused + the lord chief justice (Sir William Scroggs) in his own court while on + circuit of favouring the Roman Catholics. In consequence of his conduct a + writ was issued for his apprehension, but it was never served. He + promoted the return of Whig candidates to parliament, constituted himself + the champion of the dissenters, and was admitted a freeman of the city of + London. He, however, separated himself from the Whigs on the exclusion + question, probably on account of his dislike of Monmouth and Shaftesbury, + was absent from the great debate in the Lords on the 15th of November + 1680, and was restored to the king's favour in 1684.</p> + + <p>He took no part in public life after James's accession, but returned + to his manor of Helmsley in Yorkshire, the cause of his withdrawal being + probably exhausted health and exhausted finances. In 1685 he published a + pamphlet, entitled <i>A short Discourse on the Reasonableness of Man's + having a Religion</i> (reprinted in <i>Somers Tracts</i> (1813, ix. 13), + in which after discussing the main subject he returned to his favourite + topic, religious toleration. The tract provoked some rejoinders and was + defended, amongst others, by William Penn, and by the author himself in + <i>The Duke of Buckingham's Letter to the unknown author of a short + answer to the Duke of Buckingham's Paper</i> (1685). In hopes of + converting him to Roman Catholicism James sent him a priest, but + Buckingham turned his arguments into ridicule. He died on the 16th of + April 1687, from a chill caught while hunting, in the house of a tenant + at Kirkby Moorside in Yorkshire, expressing great repentance and feeling + himself "despised by my country and I fear forsaken by my God."<a + name="FnAnchor_263" href="#Footnote_263"><sup>[3]</sup></a> The miserable + picture of his end drawn by Pope, however, is greatly exaggerated. He was + buried on the 7th of June 1687 in Henry VII.'s chapel in Westminster + Abbey, in greater state, it was said, than the late king, and with + greater splendour. With his death the family founded by the extraordinary + rise to power and influence of the first duke ended. As he left no + legitimate children the title became extinct, and his great estate had + been completely dissipated; of the enormous mansion constructed by him at + Cliveden in Buckinghamshire not a stone remains.</p> + + <p>The ostentatious licence and the unscrupulous conduct of the + Alcibiades of the 17th century have been deservedly censured. But even + his critics agree that he was good-humoured, good-natured, generous, an + unsurpassed mimic and the leader of fashion; and with his good looks, in + spite of his moral faults and even crimes, he was irresistible to his + contemporaries. Many examples of his amusing wit have survived. His + portrait has been drawn by Burnet, Count Hamilton in the <i>Mémoires de + Grammont</i>, Dryden, Pope in the <i>Epistle to Lord Bathurst</i>, and + Sir Walter Scott in <i>Peveril of the Peak</i>. He is described by + Reresby as "the first gentleman of person and wit I think I ever saw," + and Burnet bears the same testimony. Dean Lockier, after alluding to his + unrivalled skill in riding, dancing and fencing, adds, "When he came into + the presence-chamber it was impossible for you not to follow him with + your eye as he went along, he moved so gracefully." Racing and hunting + were his favourite sports, and his name long survived in the hunting + songs of Yorkshire. He was the patron of Cowley, Sprat, Matthew Clifford + and Wycherley. He dabbled in chemistry, and for some years, according to + Burnet, "he thought he was very near the finding of the philosopher's + stone." He set up glass works at Lambeth the productions of which were + praised by Evelyn; and he spent much money, according to his biographer + Brian Fairfax, in building <i>insanae substructions</i>. Dryden described + him under the character of Zimri in the celebrated lines in <i>Absalom + and Achitophel</i> (to which Buckingham replied in <i>Poetical + Reflections on a late Poem ... by a Person of Honour, + 1682</i>):—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"A man so various, that he seemed to be</p> + <p>Not one, but all mankind's epitome;</p> + <p>Stiff in opinions, always in the wrong,</p> + <p>Was everything by starts and nothing long;</p> + <p>But in the course of one revolving moon,</p> + <p>Was chymist, fiddler, statesman and buffoon....</p> + <p>Beggar'd by fools, whom still he found too late,</p> + <p>He had his jest, but they had his estate."</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>Buckingham, however, cannot with any truth be called the "epitome of + mankind." On the contrary, the distinguishing features of his life are + its incompleteness, aimlessness, imperfection, insignificance, neglect of + talents and waste of opportunities. "He saw and approved the best," says + Brian Fairfax, "but did too often <i>deteriora sequi</i>." He is more + severely but more justly judged by himself. In gay moments indeed he had + written—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"Methinks, I see the wanton houres flee,</p> + <p>And as they passe, turne back and laugh at me,"<a name="FnAnchor_264" href="#Footnote_264"><sup>[4]</sup></a>—</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>but his last recorded words on the approach of death, "O! what a + prodigal have I been of that most valuable of all + possessions—Time!" express with exact truth the fundamental flaw of + his character and career, of which he had at last become conscious.</p> + + <p>Buckingham wrote occasional verses and satires showing undoubted but + undeveloped poetical gifts, a collection of which, containing however + many pieces not from his pen, was first published by Tom Brown in 1704; + while a few extracts from a commonplace book of Buckingham of some + interest are given in an article in the <i>Quarterly Review</i> of + January 1898. He was the author of <i>The Rehearsal</i>, an amusing and + clever satire on the heroic drama and especially on Dryden (first + performed on the 7th of December 1671, at the Theatre Royal, and first + published in 1672), a deservedly popular play which was imitated by + Fielding in <i>Tom Thumb the Great</i>, and by Sheridan in the + <i>Critic</i>. Buckingham also published two adapted plays, <i>The + Chances</i>, altered from Fletcher's play of the same name (1682) and + <i>The Restoration or Right will take place</i>, from Beaumont and + Fletcher's <i>Philaster</i> (publ. 1714); and also <i>The Battle of + Sedgmoor</i> and <i>The Militant Couple</i> (publ. 1704). The latest + edition of his works is that by T. Evans (2 vols. 8vo, 1775). Another + work is named by Wood <i>A Demonstration of the Deity</i>, of which there + is now no trace.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—The life of Buckingham has + been well and accurately traced and the chief authorities collected in + the article in the <i>Dict, of Nat. Biography</i> (1899) by C.H. Firth, + and in <i>George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham</i>, by Lady Burghclere + (1903). Other biographies are in Wood's <i>Athenae Oxon</i> (Bliss), iv. + 207; in <i>Biographia Britannica</i>; by Brian Fairfax, printed in H. + Walpole's <i>Catalogue of Pictures of George Duke of Buckingham</i> + (1758); in Arber's edition of the <i>Rehearsal</i> (1868); and by the + author of <i>Hudibras</i> in <i>The Genuine Remains of Mr Samuel + Butler</i>, by R. Thyer (1759), ii. 72. The following may also be + mentioned:—<i>Quarterly Review, Jan. 1898</i> (commonplace book); + <i>A Conference on the Doctrine of Transubstantiation between ... the + Duke of Buckingham and Father FitzGerald</i> (1714); <i>A Narrative of + the Cause and Manner of the Imprisonment of the Lords</i> (1677); <i>The + Declaration of the ... Duke of Buckingham and the Earls of Holland and + Peterborough ... associated for the King</i> (1648); S.R. Gardiner's + <i>Hist. of the Commonwealth</i> (1894-1901); <i>Hist. of Eng. + Poetry</i>, by W.J. Courthope (1903), iii. 460; Horace Walpole's <i>Royal + and Noble Authors</i>, iii. 304; <i>Miscellania Aulica</i>, by T. Brown + (1702); and the <i>Fairfax Correspondence</i> (1848-1849). For the + correspondence see <i>Charles II. and Scotland in 1650</i> (Scottish + History Soc., vol. xvii., 1894); <i>Calendars of St. Pap. Dom.; Hist. + MSS. Comm. Series, MSS. of Duke of Buccleuch at Montagu House, of Mrs + Frankland-Russell-Astley</i>, of <i>Marq. of Ormonde</i>, and <i>Various + Collections</i>; and <i>English Hist. Rev.</i> (April 1905), xx. 373.</p> + + <p>(P. C. Y.)</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_261" href="#FnAnchor_261">[1]</a> i.e. in the + Villiers line; see above.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_262" href="#FnAnchor_262">[2]</a> Clarendon, <i>Life + and Continuation</i>, 979.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_263" href="#FnAnchor_263">[3]</a> <i>Quarterly + Review</i>, January 1898, p. 110.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_264" href="#FnAnchor_264">[4]</a> From his Common + place Book (<i>Quarterly Rev.</i> vol. 187, p. 87).</p> + +</div> + <p><b>BUCKINGHAM, HENRY STAFFORD,</b> <span class="sc">2nd Duke + of</span><a name="FnAnchor_271" href="#Footnote_271"><sup>[1]</sup></a> + (1454-1483), was the son of Humphrey Stafford, killed at the first battle + of St Albans in 1455, and grandson of Humphrey the 1st duke (cr. 1444), + killed at Northampton in 1460, both fighting for Lancaster. The 1st duke, + who bore the title of earl of Buckingham in right of his mother, was the + son of Edmund, 5th earl of Stafford, and of Anne, daughter of Thomas, + duke <!-- Page 727 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page727"></a>[v.04 + p.0727]</span>of Gloucester, youngest son of Edward III.; Henry's mother + was Margaret, daughter of Edmund Beaufort, 2nd duke of Somerset, grandson + of John of Gaunt. Thus he came on both sides of the blood royal, and + this, coupled with the vastness of his inheritance, made the young duke's + future of importance to Edward IV. He was recognized as duke in 1465, and + next year was married to Catherine Woodville, the queen's sister. On + reaching manhood he was made a knight of the Garter in 1474, and in 1478 + was high steward at the trial of George, duke of Clarence. He had not + otherwise filled any position of importance, but his fidelity might seem + to have been secured by his marriage. However, after Edward's death, + Buckingham was one of the first persons worked upon by Richard, duke of + Gloucester. It was through his help that Richard obtained possession of + the young king, and he was at once rewarded with the offices of justiciar + and chamberlain of North and South Wales, and constable of all the royal + castles in the principality and Welsh Marches. In the proceedings which + led to the deposition of Edward V. he took a prominent part, and on the + 24th of June 1483 he urged the citizens at the Guildhall to take Richard + as king, in a speech of much eloquence, "for he was neither unlearned and + of nature marvellously well spoken." (More). At Richard's coronation he + served as chamberlain, and immediately afterwards was made constable of + England and confirmed in his powers in Wales. Richard might well have + believed that the duke's support was secured. But early in August + Buckingham withdrew from the court to Brecon. He may have thought that he + deserved an even greater reward, or possibly had dreams of establishing + his own claims to the crown. At all events, at Brecon he fell somewhat + easily under the influence of his prisoner, John Morton (<i>q.v.</i>), + who induced him to give his support to his cousin Henry Tudor, earl of + Richmond. A widespread plot was soon formed, but Richard had early + warning, and on the 15th of October, issued a proclamation against + Buckingham. Buckingham, as arranged, prepared to enter England with a + large force of Welshmen. His advance was stopped by an extraordinary + flood on the Severn, his army melted away without striking a blow, and he + himself took refuge with a follower, Ralph Bannister, at Lacon Hall, near + Wem. The man betrayed him for a large reward, and on the 1st of November, + Buckingham was brought to the king at Salisbury. Richard refused to see + him, and after a summary trial had him executed next day (2nd of November + 1483), though it was a Sunday.</p> + + <p>Buckingham's eldest son, Edward (1478-1521), eventually succeeded him + as 3rd duke, the attainder being removed in 1485; the second son, Henry, + was afterwards earl of Wiltshire. The 3rd duke played an important part + as lord high constable at the opening of the reign of Henry VIII., and is + introduced into Shakespeare's play of that king, but he fell through his + opposition to Wolsey, and in 1521 was condemned for treason and executed + (17th of May); the title was then forfeited with his attainder, his only + son Henry (1501-1563), who in his father's lifetime was styled earl of + Stafford, being, however, given back his estates in 1522, and in 1547 + restored in blood by parliament with the title of Baron Stafford, which + became extinct in this line with Roger, 5th Baron in 1640. In that year + the barony of Stafford was granted to William Howard (1614-1680), who + after two months was created Viscount Stafford; he was beheaded in 1680, + and his son was created earl of Stafford in 1688, a title which became + extinct in 1762; but in 1825 the descent to the barony of 1640 was + established, to the satisfaction of the House of Lords, in the person of + Sir G.W. Jerningham, in whose family it then continued.</p> + + <p>The chief original authorities for the life of the 2nd duke of + Buckingham are the <i>Continuation of the Croyland Chronicle</i>; Sir + Thomas More's <i>Richard III.</i>; and Fabyan's <i>Chronicle</i>. Amongst + modern authorities consult J. Gairdner's <i>Richard III.</i>; and Sir. J. + Ramsay's <i>Lancaster and York</i>.</p> + + <p>(C. L. K.)</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_271" href="#FnAnchor_271">[1]</a> i.e. in the + Stafford line; see above.</p> + +</div> + <p><b>BUCKINGHAM, JAMES SILK</b> (1786-1855), English author and + traveller, was born near Falmouth on the 25th of August 1786, the son of + a farmer. His youth was spent at sea. After years of wandering he + established in 1818 the <i>Calcutta Journal</i>. This venture at first + proved highly successful, but in 1823 the paper's outspoken criticisms of + the East India Company led to the expulsion of Buckingham from India and + to the suppression of the paper by John Adam, the acting + governor-general. His case was brought before parliament, and a pension + of £200 a year was subsequently awarded him by the East India Company as + compensation. Buckingham continued his journalistic ventures on his + return to England, and started the <i>Oriental Herald</i> (1824) and the + <i>Athenaeum</i> (1828) which was not a success in his hands. In + parliament, where he sat as member for Sheffield from 1832-1837, he was a + strong advocate of social reform. He was a most voluminous writer. He had + travelled much in Europe, America and the East, and wrote a great number + of useful books of travel. In 1851 the value of these and of his other + literary work was recognized by the grant of a civil list pension of £200 + a year. At the time of his death in London, on the 30th of June 1855, + Buckingham was at work on his autobiography, two volumes of the intended + four being completed and published (1855).</p> + + <p>His youngest son, Leicester Silk Buckingham (1825-1867), achieved no + little popularity as a playwright, several of his free adaptations of + French comedies being produced in London between 1860 and 1867.</p> + + <p><b>BUCKINGHAM,</b> a market town and municipal borough and the county + town of Buckinghamshire, England, in the Buckingham parliamentary + division, 61 m. N.W. of London by a branch of the London & + North-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 3152. It lies in an open valley on the + upper part of the river Ouse, which encircles the main portion of the + town on three sides. The church of St Peter and St Paul, which was + extensively restored by Sir Gilbert Scott, a native of this + neighbourhood, is of the 18th century, and stands on the site of the old + castle; the town hall dates from the close of the previous century; and + the grammar school was founded by Edward VI., in part occupying buildings + of earlier date, which retain Perpendicular and Decorated windows, and a + Norman door. A chantry, founded in 1268 by Matthew Stratton, archdeacon + of Buckingham, previously occupied the site; the Norman work may be a + remnant of the chapel of a gild of the Holy Trinity. The manor house is + of the early part of the 17th century, and other old houses remain. The + adjacent mansion of Stowe, approached from the town by a magnificent + avenue of elms, and surrounded by gardens very beautifully laid out, was + the seat of the dukes of Buckingham until the extinction of the title in + 1889. Buckingham is served by a branch of the Grand Junction Canal, and + has agricultural trade, manufactures of condensed milk and artificial + manure, maltings and flour-mills; while an old industry survives to a + modified extent in the manufacture of pillow-lace. The borough is under a + mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 5006 acres.</p> + + <p>Buckingham (Bochingeham, Bukyngham) was an important stronghold in + pre-Conquest times, and in 918 Edward the Elder encamped there with his + army for four weeks, and threw up two forts on either side of the water. + At the time of the Domesday survey there were twenty-six burgesses in + Buckingham, which, together with the hamlet of Bourton, was assessed at + one hide. Although it appears as a borough thus early, the town received + no charter until 1554, when Queen Mary created it a free borough + corporate with a bailiff, twelve principal burgesses and a steward, and + defined the boundaries as extending in width from Dudley bridge to + Thornborowe bridge and in length from Chackmore bridge to Padbury Mill + bridge. A charter from Charles II. in 1684 was very shortly abandoned in + favour of the original grant, which held force until the Municipal + Corporations Act of 1835. In 1529 and from 1545 onwards Buckingham + returned two members to parliament, until deprived by the Representation + of the People Act of 1867 of one member, and by the Redistribution of + Seats Act of 1885 of the other. Early mentions occur of markets and + fairs, and from 1522, when Henry VIII. granted to Sir Henry Marney the + borough of Buckingham with a Saturday market and two annual fairs, grants + of fairs by various sovereigns were numerous. Buckingham was formerly an + important agricultural centre, and Edward III. fixed here one of the + staples for wool, but after the removal of these to Calais the trade + suffered such decay that in an act of 32 Henry VIII. Buckingham is + mentioned among thirty-six impoverished towns.</p> + + <p><b>BUCKINGHAM AND NORMANBY, JOHN SHEFFIELD,</b> <span class="sc">1st + Duke of</span> (1648-1721), English statesman and poet, was born on <!-- + Page 728 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page728"></a>[v.04 + p.0728]</span>the 7th of April 1648. He was the son of Edmund, 2nd earl + of Mulgrave, and succeeded to that title on his father's death in 1658. + At the age of eighteen he joined the fleet, to serve in the first Dutch + war; on the renewal of hostilities in 1672 he was present at the battle + of Southwold Bay, and in the next year received the command of a ship. He + was also made a colonel of infantry, and served for some time under + Turenne. In 1680 he was put in charge of an expedition sent to relieve + the town of Tangier. It was said that he was provided with a rotten ship + in the hope that he would not return, but the reason of this abortive + plot, if plot there was, is not exactly ascertained. At court he took the + side of the duke of York, and helped to bring about Monmouth's disgrace. + In 1682 he was dismissed from the court, apparently for putting himself + forward as a suitor for the princess Anne, but on the accession of King + James he received a seat in the privy council, and was made lord + chamberlain. He supported James in his most unpopular measures, and + stayed with him in London during the time of his flight. He also + protected the Spanish ambassador from the dangerous anger of the mob. He + acquiesced, however, in the Revolution, and in 1694 was made marquess of + Normanby. In 1696 he refused in company with other Tory peers to sign an + agreement to support William as their "rightful and lawful king" against + Jacobite attempts, and was consequently dismissed from the privy council. + On the accession of Anne, with whom he was a personal favourite, he + became lord privy seal and lord-lieutenant of the North Riding of + Yorkshire, and in 1703 duke of Buckingham and Normanby. During the + predominance of the Whigs between 1705 and 1710, Buckingham was deprived + of his office as lord privy seal, but in 1710 he was made lord steward, + and in 1711 lord president of the council. After the death of Anne he + held no state appointment. He died on the 24th of February 1721 at his + house in St James's Park, which stood on the site of the present + Buckingham Palace. Buckingham was succeeded by his son, Edmund + (1716-1735) on whose death the titles became extinct.</p> + + <p>Buckingham, who is better known by his inherited titles as Lord + Mulgrave, was the author of "An Account of the Revolution" and some other + essays, and of numerous poems, among them the <i>Essay on Poetry</i> and + the <i>Essay on Satire</i>. It is probable that the <i>Essay on + Satire</i>, which attacked many notable persons, "sauntering Charles" + amongst others, was circulated in MS. It was often attributed at the time + to Dryden, who accordingly suffered a thrashing at the hands of + Rochester's bravoes for the reflections it contained upon the earl. + Mulgrave was a patron of Dryden, who may possibly have revised it, but + was certainly not responsible, although it is commonly printed with his + works. Mulgrave adapted Shakespeare's <i>Julius Caesar</i>, breaking it + up into two plays, <i>Julius Caesar</i> and <i>Marcus Brutus</i>. He + introduced choruses between the acts, two of these being written by Pope, + and an incongruous love scene between Brutus and Portia. He was a + constant friend and patron of Pope, who expressed a flattering opinion of + his <i>Essay on Poetry</i>. This, although smoothly enough written, deals + chiefly with commonplaces.</p> + + <p>In 1721 Edmund Curll published a pirated edition of his works, and was + brought before the bar of the House of Lords for breach of privilege + accordingly. An authorized edition under the superintendence of Pope + appeared in 1723, but the authorities cut out the "Account of the + Revolution" and "The Feast of the Gods" on account of their alleged + Jacobite tendencies. These were printed at the Hague in 1727. Pope + disingenuously repudiated any knowledge of the contents. Other editions + reappeared in 1723, 1726, 1729, 1740 and 1753. His <i>Poems</i> were + included in Johnson's and other editions of the British poets.</p> + + <p><b>BUCKINGHAMSHIRE, EARLS OF.</b> The first earl of Buckinghamshire + (to be distinguished from the earls of Buckingham, <i>q.v.</i>) was John + Hobart (c. 1694-1756), a descendant of Sir Henry Hobart (d. 1625), + attorney-general and chief justice of the common pleas under James I., + who was made a baronet in 1611, and who was the great-grandson of Sir + James Hobart (d. 1507), attorney-general to Henry VII. The Hobarts had + been settled in Norfolk and Suffolk for many years, when in 1728 John + Hobart, who was a son of Sir Henry Hobart, the 4th baronet (d. 1698), was + created Baron Hobart of Blickling. In 1740 Hobart became lord-lieutenant + of Norfolk and in 1746 earl of Buckinghamshire, his sister, Henrietta + Howard, countess of Suffolk, being the mistress of George II. He died on + the 22nd of September 1756, and was succeeded as 2nd earl<a + name="FnAnchor_281" href="#Footnote_281"><sup>[1]</sup></a> by his eldest + son John (1723-1793), who was member of parliament for Norwich and + comptroller of the royal household before his accession to the title. + From 1762 to 1766 he was ambassador to Russia, and from 1776 to 1780 + lord-lieutenant of Ireland, but he was hardly equal to the exceptional + difficulties with which he had to deal in the latter position. He died + without sons at Blickling Hall, Norfolk, on the 3rd of August 1793, when + his half-brother George (c. 1730-1804), became 3rd earl. Blickling Hall + and his Norfolk estates, however, passed to his daughter, Henrietta + (1762-1805), the wife of William Kerr, afterwards 6th marquess of + Lothian.</p> + + <p>Robert Hobart, 4th earl of Buckinghamshire (1760-1816), the eldest son + of the 3rd earl, was born on the 6th of May 1760. He was a soldier, and + then a member of both the English and the Irish Houses of Commons; from + 1789 to 1793 he was chief secretary to the lord-lieutenant of Ireland, + exerting his influence in this country to prevent any concessions to the + Roman Catholics. In 1793, being known by the courtesy title of Lord + Hobart, he was sent to Madras as governor, but in 1798, after serious + differences between himself and the governor-general of India, Sir John + Shore, afterwards Lord Teignmouth, he was recalled. Returning to British + politics, Hobart was called up to the House of Lords in 1798 (succeeding + to the earldom of Buckinghamshire in 1804); he favoured the union between + England and Ireland; from March 1801 to May 1804 he was secretary for war + and the colonies (his family name being taken for Hobart Town in + Tasmania), and in 1805 he became chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster + under Pitt. For a short time he was joint postmaster-general, and from + 1812 until his death on the 4th of February 1816 he was president of the + Board of Control, a post for which his Indian experience had fitted + him.</p> + + <p>The 4th earl left no sons, and his titles passed to his nephew, George + Robert Hobart (1789-1849), a son of George Vere Hobart (1761-1802), + lieutenant-governor of Grenada. In 1824 the 5th earl inherited the + Buckinghamshire estates of the Hampden family and took the name of + Hampden, his ancestor, Sir John Hobart, 3rd baronet, having married Mary + Hampden about 1655. On his death in February 1849 his brother, Augustus + Edward Hobart (1793-1884), who took the name of Hobart-Hampden in 1878, + became 6th earl. His two sons, Vere Henry, Lord Hobart (1818-1875), + governor of Madras from 1872, and Frederick John Hobart (1821-1875), + predeceased him, and when the 6th earl died he was succeeded by his + grandson, Sidney Carr Hobart-Hampden (b. 1860), who became 7th earl of + Buckinghamshire, and who added to his name that of Mercer-Henderson. + Another of the 6th earl's sons was Augustus Charles Hobart-Hampden, + generally known as Hobart Pasha (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + + <p>See Lord Hobart's <i>Essays and Miscellaneous Writings</i>, edited + with biography by Lady Hobart (1885).</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_281" href="#FnAnchor_281">[1]</a> Until 1784, when + George Grenville, Earl Temple, was created marquess of Buckingham, the + 2nd earl of Buckinghamshire always signed himself "Buckingham"; his + contemporaries knew him by this name, and hence a certain amount of + confusion has arisen.</p> + +</div> + <p><b>BUCKINGHAMSHIRE</b> (abbreviated <i>Bucks</i>) a south midland + county of England, bounded N. by Northamptonshire, E. by Bedfordshire, + Hertfordshire and Middlesex, S. for a short distance by Surrey, and by + Berkshire, and W. by Oxfordshire. Its area is 743.2 sq. m. The county is + divided between the basins of the rivers Ouse and Thames. The first in + its uppermost course forms part of the north-western boundary, passes the + towns of Buckingham, Stony Stratford, Wolverton, Newport Pagnell and + Olney, and before quitting the county forms a short stretch of the + north-eastern boundary. The principal tributary it receives within the + county is the Ouzel. The Thames forms the entire southern boundary; and + of its tributaries Buckinghamshire includes the upper part of the Thames. + To the north-west of Buckingham, and both east and west of the Ouzel, the + land rises in gentle undulations to a height of nearly 500 ft., and north + of the Thames valley a few nearly isolated hills stand boldly, such as + Brill Hill and Muswell Hill, each over 600 ft., but the hilliest <!-- + Page 729 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page729"></a>[v.04 + p.0729]</span>part of the county is the south, which is occupied by part + of the Chiltern system, the general direction of which is from south-west + to north-east. The crest-line of these hills crosses the county at its + narrowest point, along a line, above the towns of Prince's Risborough and + Wendover, not exceeding 11 m. in length. This line divides the county + into two parts of quite different physical character; for to the south + almost the whole land is hilly (the longer slope of the Chiltern system + lying in this direction), well wooded, and pleasantly diversified with + narrow vales. The chief of these are watered by the Wye, Misbourne and + Chess streams. The beech tree is predominant in the woods, in so much + that William Camden, writing c. 1585, supposed the county to take name + from this feature (A.S. <i>boc</i>, beech). In the south a remnant of + ancient forest is preserved as public ground under the name of Burnham + Beeches. The Chilterns reach a height of nearly 900 ft. within the + county.</p> + + <p><i>Geology.</i>—The northern half of the county is occupied by + Jurassic strata, in the southern half Cretaceous rocks predominate except + in the south-eastern corner, where they are covered by Tertiary beds. + Thus the oldest rocks are in the north, succeeded continuously by younger + strata to the south; the general dip of all the rocks is south-easterly. + A few patches of Upper Lias Clay appear near the northern boundary near + Grafton Regis and Castle Thorpe, and again in the valley of the Ouse near + Stoke Goldington and Weston Underwood. The Oolitic series is represented + by the Great Oolite, with limestones in the upper part, much quarried for + building stones at Westbury, Thornborough, Brock, Whittlewood Forest, + &c.; the lower portions are more argillaceous. The Forest Marble is + seen about Thornton as a thin bed of clay with an oyster-bearing + limestone at the base. Next above is the Cornbrash, a series of rubbly + and occasionally hard limestones and thin clays. The outcrop runs by + Tingwick, Buckingham, Berehampton and Newport Pagnell, it is quarried at + Wolverton and elsewhere for road metal. Inliers of these rocks occur at + Marsh Gibbon and Stan Hill. The Oxford Clay and Kimmeridge Clay, with the + Gault, lie in the vale of Aylesbury. The clay is covered by numerous + outliers of Portland, Purbeck and Lower Greensand beds. The Portland beds + are sandy below, calcareous above; the outcrop follows the normal + direction in the county, from south-west to north-east, from Thame + through Aylesbury; they are quarried at several places for building stone + and fossils are abundant. The Hartwell Clay is in the Lower Portland. + Freshwater Purbeck beds lie below the Portland and Lower Greensand beds; + they cap the ridge between Oving and Whitchurch. Glass-making sands have + been worked from the Lower Greensand at Hartwell, and phosphatic nodules + from the same beds at Brickhill as well as from the Gault at Towersey. A + broad band of Gault, a bluish clay, extends from Towersey across the + county in a north-easterly direction. Resting upon the Gault is the Upper + Greensand; at the junction of the two formations numerous springs arise, + a circumstance which has no doubt determined the site of several + villages. The Chalk rises abruptly from the low lying argillaceous plain + to form the Chiltern Hills. The form of the whole of the hilly district + round Chesham, High Wycombe and the Chalfonts is determined by the Chalk. + Reading beds, mottled clays and sands, repose upon the Chalk at Woburn, + Barnham, Fulmer and Denham, and these are in turn covered by the London + Clay, which is exposed on the slopes about Stoke Common and Iver. Between + the Tertiary-capped Chalk plateau and the Thames, a gentler slope, + covered with alluvial gravel and brick earth, reaches down to the river. + Thick deposits of plateau gravel cover most of the high ground in the + southern corner of the county, while much of the northern part is + obscured by glacial clays and gravels.</p> + + <p><i>Industries.</i>—The agricultural capacities of the soil vary + greatly in different localities. On the lower lands, especially in the + Vale of Aylesbury, about the headwaters of the Thame, it is extremely + fertile; while on the hills it is usually poor and thin. The proportion + of cultivated land is high, being about 83% of the whole. Of this a large + and growing portion is in permanent pasture; cattle and sheep being + reared in great numbers for the London markets, to which also are sent + quantities of ducks, for which the district round Aylesbury is famous. + Wheat and oats are the principal grain crops, though both decrease in + importance. Turnips and swedes for the cattle are the chief green crops; + and dairy-farming is largely practised. There is no general manufacturing + industry, but a considerable amount of lace-making and straw-plaiting is + carried on locally; and at High Wycombe and in its neighbourhood there is + a thriving trade in various articles of turnery, such as chairs and + bowls, from beech and other hard woods. The introduction of lace-making + in this and neighbouring counties is attributed to Flemish, and later to + French immigrants, but also to Catharine of Aragon during her residence + (c. 1532) at Ampthill. Down to the later part of the 19th century a + general holiday celebrated by lace-makers on the 25th of November was + known as "Cattarn's Day."</p> + + <p><i>Communications.</i>—The main line of the London & + North-Western railway crosses the north-east part of the county. + Bletchley is an important junction on this system, branches diverging + east to Fenny Stratford, Bedford and Cambridge, and west to Oxford and + Banbury, Buckingham being served by the western branch. There is also a + branch from Cheddington to Aylesbury. The Metropolitan-Great Central + joint line serves Amersham, Chesham (by a branch), and Aylesbury, joining + the North-Western Oxford branch at Verney Junction; this line is used by + the Great Central railway, the main line of which continues + north-westward from Quainton Road. A light railway connects this station + with the large village of Brill to the south-west. The Great Central and + the Great Western companies jointly own a line passing through + Beaconsfield, High Wycombe, and Prince's Risborough, which is connected + northward with the Great Central system. Before the opening of this line + in 1906 the Great Western branch from Maidenhead to Oxford was the only + line serving High Wycombe and Prince's Risborough, from which there are + branches to Watlington and Aylesbury. The main line of this company + crosses the extreme south of the county by Slough and Taplow. The Grand + Junction Canal, reaching the valley of the Ouse by way of the Ouzel + valley from the south, has branches to Aylesbury and to Buckingham. + Except the Thames none of the rivers in the county is continuously + navigable.</p> + + <p>Bletchley is an important junction on this system, branches diverging + east to Fenny Stratford, Bedford and Cambridge, and west to Oxford and + Banbury, Buckingham being served by the western branch. There is also a + branch from Cheddington to Aylesbury. The Metropolitan-Great Central + joint line serves Amersham, Chesham (by a branch), and Aylesbury, joining + the North-Western Oxford branch at Verney Junction; this line is used by + the Great Central railway, the main line of which continues + north-westward from Quainton Road. A light railway connects this station + with the large village of Brill to the south-west. The Great Central and + the Great Western companies jointly own a line passing through + Beaconsfield, High Wycombe. and Prince's Risborough, which is connected + northward with the Great Central system. Before the opening of this line + in 1906 the Great Western branch from Maidenhead to Oxford was the only + line serving High Wycombe and Prince's Risborough, from which there are + branches to Watlington and Aylesbury. The main line of this company + crosses the extreme south of the county by Slough and Taplow. The Grand + Junction Canal, reaching the valley of the Ouse by way of the Ouzel + valley from the south, has branches to Aylesbury and to Buckingham. + Except the Thames none of the rivers in the county is continuously + navigable.</p> + + <p><i>Population and Administration.</i>—The area of the ancient + county is 475,682 acres, with a population in 1891 of 185,284, and in + 1901 of 195,764. The area of the administrative county is 479,358 acres. + The county contains eight hundreds, of which three, namely Stoke, Burnham + and Desborough, form the "Chiltern Hundreds" (<i>q.v.</i>). The hundred + of Aylesbury retains its ancient designation of the "three hundreds of + Aylesbury." The municipal boroughs are Buckingham, the county town (pop. + 3152), and Wycombe, officially Chepping Wycombe, also Chipping or High + Wycombe (15,542). The other urban districts are Aylesbury (9243), + Beaconsfield (1570), Chesham (7245), Eton (3301), Fenny Stratford (4799), + Linslade, on the Ouzel opposite to Leighton Buzzard in Bedfordshire + (2157), Marlow (4526), Newport Pagnell (4028), Slough (11,453). Among the + lesser market towns may be mentioned Amersham (2674), Ivinghoe (808), + Olney (2684), Prince's Risborough (2189), Stony Stratford (2353), + Wendover (2009) and Winslow (1703). At Wolverton (5323) are the carriage + works of the London & North-Western railway. Several of the villages + on and near the banks of the Thames have become centres of residence, + such as Taplow, Cookham and Bourne End, Burnham and Wooburn. + Buckinghamshire is in the midland circuit, and assizes are held at + Aylesbury. It has one court of quarter sessions, and is divided into + thirteen petty sessional divisions. The boroughs of Buckingham and + Wycombe have separate commissions of the peace. The administrative county + contains 230 civil parishes. Buckinghamshire is almost entirely within + the diocese of Oxford, and 215 ecclesiastical parishes are situated + wholly or in part within it. There are three parliamentary divisions, + Northern or Buckingham, Mid or Aylesbury, and Southern or Wycombe, each + returning one member; and the county contains a small part of the + parliamentary borough of Windsor (chiefly in Berkshire). The most notable + institution within the county is Eton College, the famous public school + founded by Henry VI.</p> + + <p><i>History.</i>—The district which was to become Buckinghamshire + was reached by the West Saxons in 571, as by a series of victories they + pushed their way north along the Thames valley. With the grouping of the + settlements into kingdoms and the consolidation of Mercia under Offa, + Buckinghamshire was included in Mercia until, with the submission of that + kingdom to the Northmen, it became part of the Danelaw. In the 10th + century Buckinghamshire suffered frequently from the ravages of the + Danes, and numerous barrows and earthworks mark the scenes <!-- Page 730 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page730"></a>[v.04 p.0730]</span>of + struggles against the invaders. These relics are especially abundant in + the vale of Aylesbury, probably at this time one of the richest and best + protected of the Saxon settlements. The Chiltern district, on the other + hand, is said to have been an impassable forest infested by hordes of + robbers and wild beasts. In the reign of Edward the Confessor, Leofstan, + 12th abbot of St Albans, cut down large tracts of wood in this district + and granted the manor of Hamstead (Herts) to a valiant knight and two + fellow-soldiers on condition that they should check the depredations of + the robbers. The same reason led at an early period to the appointment of + a steward of the Chiltern Hundreds, and this office being continued long + after the necessity for it had ceased to exist, gradually became the + sinecure it is to-day. The district was not finally disforested until the + reign of James I.</p> + + <p>At the time of the Norman invasion Buckinghamshire was probably + included in the earldom of Leofwine, son of Godwin, and the support which + it lent him at the battle of Hastings was punished by sweeping + confiscations after the Conquest. The proximity of Buckinghamshire to + London caused it to be involved in most of the great national events of + the ensuing centuries. During the war between King John and his barons + William Mauduit held Hanslape Castle against the king, until in 1216 it + was captured and demolished by Falkes de Bréauté. The county was visited + severely by the Black Death, and Winslow was one of many districts which + were almost entirely depopulated. In the civil war Buckinghamshire was + one of the first counties to join in an association for mutual defence on + the side of the parliament, which had important garrisons at Aylesbury, + Brill and elsewhere. Newport Pagnell was for a short time garrisoned by + the royalist troops, and in 1644 the king fixed his headquarters at + Buckingham.</p> + + <p>The shire of Buckingham originated with the division of Mercia in the + reign of Edward the Elder, and was probably formed by the aggregation of + pre-existing hundreds round the county town, a fact which explains the + curious irregularities of the boundary line. The eighteen hundreds of the + Domesday survey have now been reduced to eight, of which the three + Chiltern hundreds, Desborough, Burnham and Stoke, are unaltered in extent + as well as in name. The remainder have been formed each by the union of + three of the ancient hundreds, and Aylesbury is still designated "the + three hundreds of Aylesbury." All, except Newport and Buckingham, retain + the names of Domesday hundreds, and the shire has altered little on its + outer lines since the survey. Until the time of Queen Elizabeth + Buckinghamshire and Bedfordshire had a common sheriff. The shire court of + the former county was held at Aylesbury.</p> + + <p>The ecclesiastical history of Buckinghamshire is not easy to trace, as + there is no local chronicler, but the earliest churches were probably + subject to the West Saxon see of Dorchester, and when after the Conquest + the bishop's stool was transferred to Lincoln no change of jurisdiction + ensued. After the dissolution of the monasteries it was proposed to form + a new diocese to include Bedfordshire and Buckinghamshire, but the + project was abandoned, and both remained in the Lincoln diocese until + 1837, when the latter was transferred to Oxford. The arch-deaconry was + probably founded towards the close of the 11th century by Bishop Rémy, + and the subdivision into rural deaneries followed shortly after. A dean + of Thornborough is mentioned in the 12th century, and in the taxation of + Nicholas IV. eight deaneries are given, comprising 186 parishes. In 1855 + the deaneries were reconstructed and made eighteen in number.</p> + + <p>On the redistribution of estates after the Conquest only two + Englishmen continued to retain estates of any importance, and the chief + landowners at this date were Walter Giffard, first earl of Buckingham, + and Odo, bishop of Bayeux. Few of the great Buckinghamshire estates, + however, remained with the same proprietors for any length of time. Many + became annexed by religious establishments, while others reverted to the + crown and were disposed of by various grants. The family of Hampden alone + claim to have held the estate from which the name is derived in an + unbroken line from Saxon times.</p> + + <p>Buckinghamshire has always ranked as an agricultural rather than a + manufacturing county, and has long been famed for its corn and cattle. + Fuller mentions the vale of Aylesbury as producing the biggest bodied + sheep in England, and "Buckinghamshire bread and beef" is an old proverb. + Lace-making, first introduced into this county by the Fleming refugees + from the Alva persecution, became a very profitable industry. The + monopolies of James I. considerably injured this trade, and in 1623 a + petition was addressed to the high sheriff of Buckinghamshire + representing the distress of the people owing to the decay of bone + lace-making. Newport Pagnell and Olney were especially famous for their + lace, and the parish of Hanslape is said to have made an annual profit of + £8000 to £9000 from lace manufacture. The straw-plait industry was + introduced in the reign of George I., and formerly gave employment to a + large number of the population.</p> + + <p>The county was first represented in parliament by two members in 1290. + The representation increased as the towns acquired representative rights, + until in 1603 the county with its boroughs made a total return of + fourteen members. By the Reform Act of 1832 this was reduced to eleven, + and by the Redistribution of Seats Act of 1885 the boroughs were deprived + of representation and the county returned three members for three + divisions.</p> + + <p><i>Antiquities.</i>—Buckinghamshire contains no ecclesiastical + buildings of the first rank. Monastic remains are scanty, but two former + abbeys may be noted. At Medmenham, on the Thames above Marlow, there are + fragments, incorporated into a residence, of a Cistercian abbey founded + in 1201; which became notorious in the middle of the 18th century as the + meeting-place of a convivial club called the "Franciscans" after its + founder, Sir Francis Dashwood, afterwards Lord le Despencer (1708-1781), + and also known as the "Hell-Fire Club," of which John Wilkes, Bubb + Dodington and other political notorieties were members. The motto of the + club, <i>fay ce que voudras</i> (do what you will), inscribed on a + doorway at the abbey, was borrowed from Rabelais' description of the + abbey of Thelema in <i>Gargantua</i>. The remains of the Augustinian + Notley Abbey (1162), incorporated with a farm-house, deserve mention + rather for their picturesque situation by the river Thame than for their + architectural value. Turning to churches, there is workmanship considered + to be of pre-Norman date in Wing church, in the neighbourhood of Leighton + Buzzard, including a polygonal apse and crypt. Stewkley church, in the + same locality, shows the finest Norman work in the county; the building + is almost wholly of the later part of this period, and the ornamentation + is very rich. The Early English work of Chetwode and Haddenham churches, + both in the west of the county, is noteworthy; especially in the first, + which, as it stands, is the eastern part of a priory church of + Augustinians (1244). Good specimens of the Decorated style are not + wanting, though none is of special note; but the county contains three + fine examples of Perpendicular architecture in Eton College chapel and + the churches of Maids Moreton to the north, and Hillesden to the south, + of Buckingham. Ancient domestic architecture is chiefly confined to a few + country houses, of which Chequers Court, dating from the close of the + 16th century, is of interest not only from the architectural standpoint + but from its beautiful situation high among the Chiltern Hills between + Prince's Risborough and Wendover, and from a remarkable collection of + relics of Oliver Cromwell, preserved here as a consequence of the + marriage, in 1664, of John Russell, a grandson of the Protector, into the + family to which the house then belonged. The manor-house of Hampden, + among the hills east of Prince's Risborough, was for many generations the + abode of the family of that name, and is still in the possession of + descendants of John Hampden, who fell at the battle of Chalgrove in 1643, + and is buried in Hampden church. Fine county seats are + numerous—there may be mentioned Stowe (Buckingham), formerly the + seat of the dukes of Buckingham; Cliveden and Hedsor, two among the many + beautifully situated mansions by the bank of the Thames; and Claydon + House in the west of the county. Among the Chiltern Hills, also, there + are several <!-- Page 731 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page731"></a>[v.04 p.0731]</span>splendid domains. Associations + with eminent men have given a high fame to several towns or villages of + Buckinghamshire. Such are the connexion of Beaconsfield with Edmund + Waller and Edmund Burke, that of Hughenden near Wycombe with Benjamin + Disraeli, Lord Beaconsfield, whose father's residence was at Bradenham; + of Olney and Stoke Pogis with the poets Cowper and Gray respectively. At + Chalfont St Giles a cottage still stands in which Milton completed + <i>Paradise Lost</i> and began <i>Paradise Regained</i>. In earlier life + he had lived and worked at Horton, near the Thames below Windsor.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—The original standard + history is the laborious work of G. Lipscomb, <i>History and Antiquities + of the County of Buckingham</i> (London, 1831-1847). Other works are: + Browne Willis, <i>History and Antiquities of the Town, Hundred, and + Deanery of Buckingham</i> (London, 1755); D. and S. Lysons, <i>Magna + Britannia</i>, vol. i.; R. Gibbs, <i>Buckingham</i> (Aylesbury, + 1878-1882); <i>Worthies of Buckingham</i> (Aylesbury, 1886); and + <i>Buckingham Miscellany</i> (Aylesbury, 1891); G.S. Roscoe, + <i>Buckingham Sketches</i> (London, 1891); P.H. Ditchfield, <i>Memorials + of Old Buckinghamshire</i> (London, 1901); <i>Victoria County + History</i>, "Buckinghamshire."</p> + + <p><b>BUCKLAND, FRANCIS TREVELYAN</b> (1826-1880), English zoologist, son + of Dean William Buckland the geologist, was born at Oxford on the 17th of + December 1826. He was educated at Winchester and Christ Church, taking + his degree in 1848, and then adopted the medical profession, studying at + St George's hospital, London, where he became house-surgeon in 1852. The + pursuit of anatomy led him to a good deal of out-of-the-way research in + zoology, and in 1856 he became a regular writer on natural history for + the newly established <i>Field</i>, particularly on the subject of fish. + In 1866 he started <i>Land and Water</i> on similar lines. In 1867 he was + appointed government inspector of fisheries, and in the course of his + work travelled constantly about the country, being largely responsible + for the increased attention paid to the scientific side of pisciculture. + Among his publications, besides articles and official reports, were + <i>Fish Hatching</i> (1863), <i>Curiosities of Natural History</i> (4 + vols., 1857-1872), <i>Logbook of a Fisherman</i> (1875), <i>Natural + History of British Fishes</i> (1881). He died on the 19th of December + 1880.</p> + + <p>See <i>Life</i> by G.C. Bompas (1885).</p> + + <p><b>BUCKLAND, WILLIAM</b> (1784-1856), English divine and geologist, + eldest son of the Rev. Charles Buckland, rector of Templeton and Trusham, + in Devon, was born at Axminster on the 12th of March 1784. He was + educated at the grammar school of Tiverton, and at Winchester, and in + 1801 was elected a scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, becoming + B.A. in 1804. In 1809 he was elected a fellow of his college, and was + admitted into holy orders. From early boyhood he had exhibited a strong + taste for natural science, which was subsequently stimulated by the + lectures of Dr John Kidd on mineralogy and chemistry; and his attention + was especially drawn to the then infant science of geology. He also + attended the lectures of Sir Christopher Pegge (1765-1822) on anatomy. He + now devoted himself systematically to an examination of the geological + structure of Great Britain, making excursions, and investigating the + order of superposition of the strata and the characters of the organic + remains which they contained. In 1813, on the resignation of Dr Kidd, he + was appointed reader in mineralogy in Oxford; and the interest excited by + his lectures was so great that in 1819 a readership in geology was + founded and especially endowed by the treasury, Dr Buckland being the + first holder of the new appointment. In 1818 Dr Buckland was elected a + fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1824 and again in 1840 he was chosen + president of the Geological Society of London. In 1825 he was presented + by his college to the living of Stoke Charity, near Whitchurch, Hants, + and in the same year he was appointed by Lord Liverpool to a canonry of + the cathedral of Christ Church, Oxford, when the degree of D.D. was + conferred upon him. In 1825, also, he married Mary, the eldest daughter + of Mr Benjamin Morland of Sheepstead House, near Abingdon, Berks, by + whose abilities and excellent judgment he was materially assisted in his + literary labours. In 1832 he presided over the second meeting of the + British Association, which was then held at Oxford. In 1845 he was + appointed by Sir Robert Peel to the vacant deanery of Westminster, and + was soon after inducted to the living of Islip, near Oxford, a preferment + attached to the deanery. In 1847 he was appointed a trustee in the + British Museum; and in 1848 he was awarded the Wollaston medal by the + Geological Society of London. In 1849 his health began to give way under + the increasing pressure of his multifarious duties; and the later years + of his life were overshadowed by a serious illness, which compelled him + to live in retirement. He died on the 24th of August 1856, and was buried + in a spot which he had himself chosen, in Islip churchyard.</p> + + <p>Buckland was a man many-sided in his abilities, and of a singularly + wide range of attainments. Apart from his published works and memoirs in + connexion with the special department of geology, and in addition to the + work entailed upon him by the positions which he at different times held + in the Church of England, he entered with great enthusiasm into many + practical questions connected with agricultural and sanitary science, and + various social and even medical problems. As a teacher he possessed + powers of the highest order; and the university of Oxford is enriched by + the large and valuable private collections, illustrative of geology and + mineralogy, which he amassed in the course of his active life. It is, + however, upon his published scientific works that Dr Buckland's great + reputation is mainly based. His first great work was the well-known + <i>Reliquiae Diluvianae, or Observations on the Organic Remains contained + in caves, fissures, and diluvial gravel attesting the Action of a + Universal Deluge</i>, published in 1823 (2nd ed. 1824), in which he + supplemented his former observations on the remains of extinct animals + discovered in the cavern of Kirkdale in Yorkshire, and expounded his + views as to the bearing of these and similar cases on the Biblical + account of the Deluge. Thirteen years after the publication of the + <i>Reliquiae</i>, Dr Buckland w as called upon, in accordance with the + will of the earl of Bridgewater, to write one of the series of works + known as the <i>Bridgewater Treatises</i>. The design of these treatises + was to exhibit the "power, wisdom, and goodness of God, as manifested in + the Creation," and none of them was of greater value, as evinced by its + vitality, than that on "Geology and Mineralogy." Originally published in + 1836, it has gone through three editions, and though not a "manual" of + geological science, it still possesses high value as a storehouse of + geological and palaeontological facts bearing upon the particular + argument which it was designed to illustrate. The third edition, issued + in 1858, was edited by his son Francis T. Buckland, and is accompanied by + a memoir of the author and a list of his publications.</p> + + <p>Of Dr Buckland's numerous original contributions to the sciences of + Geology and Palaeontology, the following may be mentioned:—(1) "On + the Structure of the Alps and adjoining parts of the Continent, and their + relation to the Secondary and Transition Rocks of England" (<i>Annals of + Phil.</i>, 1821); (2) "Account of an Assemblage of Fossil Teeth and Bones + of Elephant, Rhinoceros, Hippopotamus, &c., discovered in a cave at + Kirkdale in Yorkshire in the year 1821" (<i>Phil. Trans.</i>); (3) "On + the Quartz Rock of the Lickey Hill in Worcestershire" (<i>Trans. Geol. + Soc.</i>); (4) "On the Megalosaurus or Great Fossil Lizard of + Stonesfield" (Ibid.); (5) "On the Cycadeoideae, a Family of Plants found + in the Oolite Quarries of the Isle of Portland" (Ibid.); (6) "On the + Discovery of a New Species of Pterodactyle in the Lias of Lyme Regis" + (Ibid.); (7) "On the Discovery of Coprolites or Fossil Faeces in the Lias + of Lyme Regis, and in other Formations" (Ibid.); (8) "On the Evidences of + Glaciers in Scotland and the North of England" (<i>Proc. Geol. Soc. + Lond.</i>); (9) "On the South-Western Coal District of England" (joint + paper with the Rev. W.D. Conybeare, <i>Trans. Geol. Soc. Lond.</i>); (10) + "On the Geology of the neighbourhood of Weymouth, and the adjacent parts + of the Coast of Dorset" (joint paper with Sir H. De la Beche, <i>Trans. + Geol. Soc. Lond.</i>).</p> + + <p>With regard to the Glacial theory propounded by Agassiz, no one + welcomed it with greater ardour than Buckland, and he zealously sought to + trace out evidences of former glaciation in Britain. A record of the + interesting discussion which took place at the Geological Society's + meeting in London in November 1840, <!-- Page 732 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page732"></a>[v.04 p.0732]</span>after the + reading of a paper by Buckland, was printed in the <i>Midland + Naturalist</i>, October 1883.</p> + + <p><b>BUCKLE, HENRY THOMAS</b> (1821-1862), English historian, author of + the <i>History of Civilization</i>, the son of Thomas Henry Buckle, a + wealthy London merchant, was born at Lee, in Kent, on the 24th of + November 1821. Owing to his delicate health he was only a very short time + at school, and never at college, but the love of reading having been + early awakened in him, he was allowed ample means of gratifying it. He + gained his first distinctions not in literature but in chess, being + reputed, before he was twenty, one of the first players in the world. + After his father's death in January 1840 he spent some time with his + mother on the continent (1840-1844). He had by that time formed the + resolution to direct all his reading and to devote all his energies to + the preparation of some great historical work, and during the next + seventeen years he bestowed ten hours each day in working out his + purpose. At first he contemplated a history of the middle ages, but by + 1851 he had decided in favour of a history of civilization. The six years + which followed were occupied in writing and rewriting, altering and + revising the first volume, which appeared in June 1857. It at once made + its author a literary and even social celebrity,—the lion of a + London season. On the 1st of March 1858 he delivered at the Royal + Institution a public lecture (the only one he ever gave) on the + <i>Influence of Women on the Progress of Knowledge</i>, which was + published in <i>Fraser's Magazine</i> for April 1858, and reprinted in + the first volume of the <i>Miscellaneous and Posthumous Works</i>. On the + 1st of April 1859 a crushing and desolating affliction fell upon him in + the death of his mother. It was under the immediate impression of his + loss that he concluded a review he was writing of J.S. Mill's <i>Essay on + Liberty</i> with an argument for immortality, based on the yearning of + the affections to regain communion with the beloved dead,—on the + impossibility of standing up and living, if we believed the separation + were final. The argument is a strange one to have been used by a man who + had maintained so strongly that "we have the testimony of all history to + prove the extreme fallibility of consciousness." The review appeared in + <i>Fraser's Magazine</i>, May 1859, and is to be found also in the + <i>Miscellaneous and Posthumous Works</i> (1872). The second volume of + his history was published in May 1861. Soon after he left England for the + East, in order to recruit his spirits and restore his health. From the + end of October 1861 to the beginning of March 1862 was spent by him in + Egypt, from which he went over the desert of Sinai and of Edom to Syria, + reaching Jerusalem on the 19th of April 1862. After staying there eleven + days, he set out for Europe by Beyrout, but at Nazareth he was attacked + by fever; and he died at Damascus on the 29th of May 1862.</p> + + <p>Buckle's fame, which must rest wholly on his <i>History of + Civilization in England</i>, is no longer what it was in the decade + following his death. His <i>History</i> is a gigantic unfinished + introduction, of which the plan was, first to state the general + principles of the author's method and the general laws which govern the + course of human progress; and secondly, to exemplify these principles and + laws through the histories of certain nations characterized by prominent + and peculiar features,—Spain and Scotland, the United States and + Germany. Its chief ideas are—(1) That, owing partly to the want of + ability in historians, and partly to the complexity of social phenomena, + extremely little had as yet been done towards discovering the principles + which govern the character and destiny of nations, or, in other words, + towards establishing a science of history; (2) That, while the + theological dogma of predestination is a barren hypothesis beyond the + province of knowledge, and the metaphysical dogma of free will rests on + an erroneous belief in the infallibility of consciousness, it is proved + by science, and especially by statistics, that human actions are governed + by laws as fixed and regular as those which rule in the physical world; + (3) That climate, soil, food, and the aspects of nature are the primary + causes of intellectual progress,—the first three indirectly, + through determining the accumulation and distribution of wealth, and the + last by directly influencing the accumulation and distribution of + thought, the imagination being stimulated and the understanding subdued + when the phenomena of the external world are sublime and terrible, the + understanding being emboldened and the imagination curbed when they are + small and feeble; (4) That the great division between European and + non-European civilization turns on the fact that in Europe man is + stronger than nature, and that elsewhere nature is stronger than man, the + consequence of which is that in Europe alone has man subdued nature to + his service; (5) That the advance of European civilization is + characterized by a continually diminishing influence of physical laws, + and a continually increasing influence of mental laws; (6) That the + mental laws which regulate the progress of society cannot be discovered + by the metaphysical method, that is, by the introspective study of the + individual mind, but only by such a comprehensive survey of facts as will + enable us to eliminate disturbances, that is, by the method of averages; + (7) That human progress has been due, not to moral agencies, which are + stationary, and which balance one another in such a manner that their + influence is unfelt over any long period, but to intellectual activity, + which has been constantly varying and advancing:—"The actions of + individuals are greatly affected by their moral feelings and passions; + but these being antagonistic to the passions and feelings of other + individuals, are balanced by them, so that their effect is, in the great + average of human affairs, nowhere to be seen, and the total actions of + mankind, considered as a whole, are left to be regulated by the total + knowledge of which mankind is possessed"; (8) That individual efforts are + insignificant in the great mass of human affairs, and that great men, + although they exist, and must "at present" be looked upon as disturbing + forces, are merely the creatures of the age to which they belong; (9) + That religion, literature and government are, at the best, the products + and not the causes of civilization; (10) That the progress of + civilization varies directly as "scepticism," the disposition to doubt + and to investigate, and inversely as "credulity" or "the protective + spirit," a disposition to maintain, without examination, established + beliefs and practices.</p> + + <p>Unfortunately Buckle either could not define, or cared not to define, + the general conceptions with which he worked, such as those denoted by + the terms "civilization," "history," "science," "law," "scepticism," and + "protective spirit"; the consequence is that his arguments are often + fallacies. Moreover, the looseness of his statements and the rashness of + his inferences regarding statistical averages make him, as a great + authority has remarked, the <i>enfant terrible</i> of moral + statisticians. He brought a vast amount of information from the most + varied and distant sources to confirm his opinions, and the abundance of + his materials never perplexed or burdened him in his argumentation, but + examples of well-conducted historical argument are rare in his pages. He + sometimes altered and contorted the facts; he very often unduly + simplified his problems; he was very apt when he had proved a favourite + opinion true to infer it to be the whole truth. On the other hand, many + of his ideas have passed into the common literary stock, and have been + more precisely elaborated by later writers on sociology and history; and + though his own work is now somewhat neglected, its influence was + immensely valuable in provoking further research and speculation.</p> + + <p>See his <i>Life</i> by A.W. Huth (1880).</p> + + <p><b>BUCKNER, SIMON BOLIVAR</b> (1823- ), American soldier and political + leader, was born in Hart county, Kentucky, on the 1st of April 1823. He + graduated at West Point in 1844, and was assistant professor of + geography, history and ethics there in 1845-1846. He fought in several + battles of the Mexican War, received the brevet of first lieutenant for + gallantry at Churubusco, where he was wounded, and later, after the + storming of Chapultepec, received the brevet of captain. In 1848-1850 he + was assistant instructor of infantry tactics at West Point. During the + succeeding five years he was in the recruiting service, on frontier duty, + and finally in the subsistence department. He resigned from the army in + March 1855. During the futile attempt of Governor Beriah Magoffin to + maintain Kentucky in a position of neutrality, he was commander of the + state <!-- Page 733 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page733"></a>[v.04 + p.0733]</span>guard; but in September 1861, after the entry of Union + forces into the state, he openly espoused the Confederate cause and was + commissioned brigadier-general, later becoming lieutenant-general. He was + third in command of Fort Donelson at the time of General Grant's attack + (February 1862), and it fell to him, after the escape of Generals Floyd + and Pillow, to surrender the post with its large garrison and valuable + supplies. General Buckner was exchanged in August of the same year, and + subsequently served under General Bragg in the invasion of Kentucky and + the campaign of Chickamauga. He was governor of Kentucky in 1887-1891, + was a member of the Kentucky constitutional convention of 1890, and in + 1896 was the candidate of the National or "Gold" Democrats for + vice-president of the United States.</p> + + <p><b>BUCKRAM</b> (a word common, in various early forms, to many + European languages, as in the Fr. <i>bouqueran</i> or Ital. + <i>bucherame</i>, the derivation of which is unknown), in early usage the + name of a fine linen or cotton cloth, but now only of a coarse fabric of + linen or cotton stiffened with glue or other substances, used for linings + of clothes and in bookbinding. Falstaff's "men in buckram" (Shakespeare, + <i>Henry IV.</i>, pt. i. II. 4) has become a proverbial phrase for any + imaginary persons.</p> + + <p><b>BUCKSTONE, JOHN BALDWIN</b> (1802-1879), English actor and dramatic + writer, was born at Hoxton on the 14th of September 1802. He was articled + to a solicitor, but soon exchanged the law for the stage. After some + years as a provincial actor he made his first London appearance, on the + 30th of January 1823, at the Surrey theatre, as Ramsay in the <i>Fortunes + of Nigel</i>. His success led to his engagement in 1827 at the Adelphi, + where he remained as leading low comedian until 1833. At the Haymarket, + which he joined for summer seasons in 1833, and of which he was lessee + from 1853 to 1878, he appeared as Bobby Trot in his own <i>Luke the + Labourer</i>; and here were produced a number of his plays and farces, + <i>Ellen Wareham, Uncle Tom</i> and others. After his return from a visit + to the United States in 1840 he played at several London theatres, among + them the Lyceum, where he was Box at the first representation of <i>Box + and Cox</i>. As manager of the Haymarket he surrounded himself with an + admirable company, including Sothern and the Kendals. He produced the + plays of Gilbert, Planché, Tom Taylor and Robertson, as well as his own, + and in most of these he acted. He died on the 31st of October 1879. He + was the author of 150 plays, some of which have been very popular. His + daughter, Lucy Isabella Buckstone (1858-1893), was an actress, who made + her first London appearance at the Haymarket theatre as Ada Ingot in + <i>David Garrick</i> in 1875.</p> + + <p><b>BUCKTHORN,</b> known botanically as <i>Rhamnus cathartica</i> + (natural order Rhamnaceae), a much-branched shrub reaching 10 ft. in + height, with a blackish bark, spinous branchlets, and ovate, + sharply-serrated leaves, 1 to 2 in. long, arranged several together at + the ends of the shoots. The small green flowers are regular and have the + parts in fours; male and female flowers are borne on different plants. + The fruit is succulent, black and globose, and contains four stones. The + plant is a native of England, occurring in woods and thickets chiefly on + the chalk; it is rare in Ireland and not wild in Scotland. It is native + in Europe, north Africa and north Asia, and naturalized in some parts of + eastern North America. The fruit has strong purgative properties, and the + bark yields a yellow dye.</p> + + <p>An allied species, <i>Rhamnus Frangula</i>, is also common in England, + and is known as berry-bearing or black alder. It is distinguished from + buckthorn by the absence of spiny branchlets, its non-serrated leaves, + and bisexual flowers with parts in fives. The fruits are purgative and + yield a green dye when unripe. The soft porous wood, called black + dogwood, is used for gunpowder. Dyes are obtained from fruits and bark of + other species of <i>Rhamnus</i>, such as <i>R. infectoria</i>, <i>R. + tinctoria</i> and <i>R. davurica</i>—the two latter yielding the + China green of commerce. Several varieties of <i>R. Alaternus</i>, a + Mediterranean species, are grown in shrubberies.</p> + + <p>Sea-buckthorn is <i>Hippophae rhamnoides</i>, a willow-like shrub, 1 + to 8 ft. in height, with narrow leaves silvery on the underside, and + globose orange-yellow fruits one-third of an inch in diameter. It occurs + on sandy seashores from York to Kent and Sussex, but is not common.</p> + + <p>American buckthorns are: <i>Rhamnus purshiana</i> or <i>Cascara + sagrada</i>, of the Pacific coast, producing cascara bark, and <i>R. + Caroliniana</i>, the alder-buckthorn. <i>Bumelia lycioides</i> (or + <i>lanuginosa</i>) is popularly called "southern buckthorn."</p> + + <p><b>BUCKWHEAT,</b> the fruit (so-called seeds) of <i>Fagopyrum + esculentum</i> (natural order Polygonaceae), a herbaceous plant, native + of central Asia, but cultivated in Europe and North America; also + extensively cultivated in the Himalaya, as well as an allied species + <i>F. tataricum</i>. The fruit has a dark brown tough rind enclosing the + kernel or seed, and is three-sided in form, with sharp angles, similar in + shape to beech-mast, whence the name from the Ger. <i>Buchweizen</i>, + beechwheat. Buckwheat is grown in Great Britain only to supply food for + pheasants and to feed poultry, which devour the seeds with avidity. In + the northern countries of Europe, however, the seeds are employed as + human food, chiefly in the form of cakes, which when baked thin have an + agreeable taste, with a darkish somewhat violet colour. The meal of + buckwheat is also baked into crumpets, as a favourite dainty among Dutch + children, and in the Russian army buckwheat groats are served out as part + of the soldiers' rations, which they cook with butter, tallow or + hemp-seed oil. Buckwheat is also used as food in the United States, where + "buckwheat cakes" are a national dish; and by the Hindus it is eaten on + "bart" or fast days, being one of the phalahas, or lawful foods for such + occasions. When it is used as food for cattle the hard sharp angular rind + must first be removed. As compared with the principal cereal grains, + buckwheat is poor in nitrogenous substances and fat; but the rapidity and + ease with which it can be grown render it a fit crop for very poor, badly + tilled land. An immense quantity of buckwheat honey is collected in + Russia, bees showing a marked preference for the flowers of the plant. + The plant is also used as a green fodder.</p> + + <p>In the United States buckwheat is sown at the end of June or beginning + of July, the amount of seed varying from 3 to 5 pecks to the acre. The + crop matures rapidly and continues blooming till frosts set in, so that + at harvest, which is usually set to occur just before this period, the + grain is in various stages of ripeness. It is cut by hand or with the + self-delivery reaper, and allowed to lie in the swath for a few days and + then set up in shocks. The stalks are not tied into bundles as in the + case of other grain crops, the tops of the shocks being bound round and + held together by twisting stems round them. The threshing is done on the + field in most cases.</p> + + <p><b>BUCOLICS</b> (from the Gr. <span title="boukolikos" class="grk" + >βουκολικός</span>, + "pertaining to a herdsman"), a term occasionally used for rural or + pastoral poetry. The expression has been traced back in English to the + beginning of the 14th century, being used to describe the "Eclogues" of + Virgil. The most celebrated collection of bucolics in antiquity is that + of Theocritus, of which about thirty, in the Doric dialect, and mainly + written in hexameter verse, have been preserved. This was the name, as is + believed, originally given by Virgil to his pastoral poems, with the + direct object of challenging comparison with the writings of Theocritus. + In modern times the term "bucolics" has not often been specifically given + by the poets to their pastorals; the main exception being that of + Ronsard, who collected his eclogues under the title of "Les Bucoliques." + In general practice the word is almost a synonym for pastoral poetry, but + has come to bear a slightly more agricultural than shepherd + signification, so that the "Georgics" of Virgil has grown to seem almost + more "bucolic" than his "Eclogues." (See also <span + class="sc">Pastoral</span>.)</p> + + <p>(E. G.)</p> + + <p><b>BUCYRUS,</b> a city and the county-seat of Crawford county, Ohio, + U.S.A., on the Sandusky river, 62 m. N. of Columbus. Pop. (1890) 5974; + (1900) 6560 (756 foreign-born); (1910) 8122. It is served by the + Pennsylvania, the Toledo, Walhonding Valley & Ohio (Pennsylvania + system), and the Ohio Central railways, and by interurban electric lines. + The Ohio Central, of which Bucyrus is a division terminal, has shops + here. The city lies at an elevation of about 1000 ft. above sea-level, + and is surrounded <!-- Page 734 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page734"></a>[v.04 p.0734]</span>by a country well adapted to + agriculture and stock-raising. Among its manufactures are machinery, + structural steel, ventilating and heating apparatus, furniture, interior + woodwork, ploughs, wagons, carriages, copper products and clay-working + machines. Bucyrus was first settled in 1817; it was laid out as a town in + 1822, was incorporated as a village in 1830, and became a city in 1885. + The county-seat was permanently established here in 1830.</p> + + <p><b>BUDAPEST,</b> the capital and largest town of the kingdom of + Hungary, and the second town of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, 163 m. + S.E. of Vienna by rail. Budapest is situated on both banks of the Danube, + and is formed of the former towns of Buda (Ger. <i>Ofen</i>) together + with O-Buda (Ger. <i>Alt-Ofen</i>) on the right bank, and of Pest + together with Köbánya (Ger. <i>Steinbruch</i>) on the left bank, which + were all incorporated into one municipality in 1872. It lies at a point + where the Danube has definitely taken its southward course, and just + where the outlying spurs of the outer ramifications of the Alps, namely, + the Bakony Mountains, meet the Carpathians. Budapest is situated nearly + in the centre of Hungary, and dominates by its strategical position the + approach from the west to the great Hungarian plain. The imposing size of + the Danube, 300 to 650 yds. broad, and the sharp contrast of the two + banks, place Budapest among the most finely situated of the larger towns + of Europe. On the one side is a flat sandy plain, in which lies Pest, + modern of aspect regularly laid out, and presenting a long frontage of + handsome buildings to the river. On the other the ancient town of Buda + straggles capriciously over a series of small and steep hills, commanded + by the fortress and the Blocksberg (770 ft. high, 390 ft. above the + Danube), and backed beyond by spurs of mountains, which rise in the form + of terraces one above the other. The hills are generally devoid of + forests, while those near the towns were formerly covered with vineyards, + which produced a good red wine. The vineyards have been almost completely + destroyed by the phylloxera.</p> + + <p>Budapest covers an area of 78 sq. m., and is divided into ten + municipal districts, namely Vár (Festung), Viziváros (Wasserstadt), + Ó-Buda (Alt-Ofen), all on the right bank, belonging to Buda, and Belváros + (Inner City), Lipótváros (Leopoldstadt), Terézváros (Theresienstadt), + Erzsébetváros (Elisabethstadt), Józsefváros (Josephstadt), Ferenczváros + (Franzstadt), and Köbánya (Steinbruch), all on the left bank, belonging + to Pest. Buda, with its royal palace, the various ministries, and other + government offices, is the official centre, while Pest is the commercial + and industrial part, as well as the centre of the nationalistic and + intellectual life of the town. The two banks of the Danube are united by + six bridges, including two fine suspension bridges; the first of them, + generally known as the Ketten-Brücke, constructed by the brothers Tiernay + and Adam Clark in 1842-1849, is one of the largest in Europe. It is 410 + yds. long, 39 ft. broad, 36 ft. high above the mean level of the water, + and its chains rest on two pillars 160 ft. high; its ends are ornamented + with four colossal stone lions. At one end is a tunnel, 383 yds. long, + constructed by Adam Clark in 1854, which pierces the castle hill and + connects the quarter known as the Christinenstadt with the Danube. The + other suspension bridge is the Schwurplatz bridge, completed in 1903, 56 + ft. broad, with a span of 317 yds. The other bridges are the Margaret + bridge, with a junction bridge towards the Margaret island, the Franz + Joseph bridge, and two railway bridges.</p> + + <p>Perhaps the most attractive part of Budapest is the line of broad + quays on the left bank of the Danube, which extend for a distance of 2½ + m. from the Margaret bridge to the custom-house, and are lined with + imposing buildings. The most important of these is the Franz Joseph Quai, + 1 m. long, which contains the most fashionable cafés and hotels, and is + the favourite promenade. The inner town is surrounded by the Innere + Ring-Strasse, a circle of wide boulevards on the site of the old wall. + Wide tree-shaded streets, like the Király Utcza, the Kerrepesi Ut, and + the Üllöi Ut, also form the lines of demarcation between the different + districts. The inner ring is connected by the Váczi Körut (Waitzner-Ring) + with the Grosse Ring-Strasse, a succession of boulevards, describing a + semicircle beginning at the Margaret bridge and ending at the Boráros + Platz, near the custom-house quay, through about the middle of the town. + One of the most beautiful streets in the town is the Andrássy Ut, 1½ m. + long, connecting Váczi Körut with Városliget (<i>Stadtwäldchen</i>), the + favourite public park of Budapest. It is a busy thoroughfare, lined in + its first half with magnificent new buildings, and in its second half, + where it attains a width of 150 ft., with handsome villas standing in + their own gardens, which give the impression rather of a fashionable + summer resort than the centre of a great city. Budapest possesses + numerous squares, generally ornamented with monuments of prominent + Hungarians, usually the work of Hungarian artists.</p> + + <p><i>Buildings.</i>—Though of ancient origin, neither Buda nor + Pest has much to show in the way of venerable buildings. The oldest + church is the Matthias church in Buda, begun by King Bela IV. in the 13th + century, completed in the 15th century, and restored in 1890-1896. It was + used as a mosque during the Turkish occupation, and here took place the + coronation of Franz Joseph as king of Hungary in 1867. The garrison + church, a Gothic building of the 13th century, and the Reformed church, + finished in 1898, are the other ecclesiastical buildings in Buda worth + mentioning. The oldest church in Pest is the parish church situated in + the Eskü-Ter (Schwur-Platz) in the inner town; it was built in 1500, in + the Gothic style, and restored in 1890. The most magnificent church in + Pest is the Leopoldstadt Basilica, a Romanesque building with a dome 315 + ft. in height, begun in 1851; next comes the Franzstadt church, also a + Romanesque building, erected in 1874. Besides several modern churches, + Budapest possesses a beautiful synagogue, in the Moorish style, erected + in 1861, and another, in the Moorish-Byzantine style, built in 1872, + while in 1901 the construction of a much larger synagogue was begun. In + Buda, near the Kaiserbad, and not far from the Margaret bridge, is a + small octagonal Turkish mosque, with a dome 25 ft. high, beneath which is + the grave of a Turkish monk. By a special article in the treaty of + Karlowitz of 1699 the emperor of Austria undertook to preserve this + monument.</p> + + <p>Among the secular buildings the first place is taken by the royal + palace in Buda, which, together with the old fortress, crowns the summit + of a hill, and forms the nucleus of the town. The palace erected by Maria + Theresa in 1748-1771 was partly burned in 1849, but has been restored and + largely extended since 1894. In the court chapel are preserved the + regalia of Hungary, namely, the crown of St Stephen, the sceptre, orb, + sword and the coronation robes. It is surrounded by a magnificent garden, + which descends in steep terraces to the Danube, and which offers a + splendid view of the town lying on the opposite bank. New and palatial + buildings of the various ministries, several high and middle schools, a + few big hospitals, and the residences of several Hungarian magnates, are + among the principal edifices in this part of the town.</p> + + <p>The long range of substantial buildings fronting the left bank of the + Danube includes the Houses of Parliament (see <span + class="sc">Architecture</span>, Plate IX. fig. 115), a huge limestone + edifice in the late Gothic style, covering an area of 3¾ acres, erected + in 1883-1902; the Academy, in Renaissance style, erected in 1862-1864, + containing a lofty reception room, a library, a historic picture gallery, + and a botanic collection; the Redoute buildings, a large structure in a + mixed Romanesque and Moorish style, erected for balls and other social + purposes; the extensive custom-house at the lower end of the quays, and + several fine hotels and insurance offices. In the beautiful Andrássy Ut + are the opera-house (1875-1884), in the Italian Renaissance style; the + academy of music; the old and new exhibition building; the national + drawing school; and the museum of fine arts (1900-1905), in which was + installed in 1905 the national gallery, formed by Prince Esterházy, + bought by the government in 1865 for £130,000, and formerly housed in the + academy, and the collection of modern pictures from the national museum. + At the end of the street is one of the numerous monuments erected in + various parts of the country to commemorate the thousandth anniversary of + the foundation of the kingdom of Hungary. Other buildings remarkable for + their <!-- Page 735 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page735"></a>[v.04 + p.0735]</span>size and interest are: the national museum (1836-1844); the + town-hall (1869-1875), in the early Renaissance style; the university, + with a baroque façade (rebuilt 1900), and the university library (opened + in 1875), a handsome Renaissance building; the palace of justice (1896), + a magnificent edifice situated not far from the Houses of Parliament. In + its neighbourhood also are the palatial buildings of the ministries of + justice and of agriculture. There are also the exchange (1905); the + Austro-Hungarian bank (1904); the central post and telegraph office; the + art-industrial museum (1893-1897), in oriental style, with some + characteristically Hungarian ornamentations; several handsome theatres; + large barracks; technical and secondary schools; two great railway + termini and a central market (1897) to be mentioned. To the south-east of + the town lies the vast slaughter-house (1870-1872), which, with the + adjacent cattle-market, covers nearly 30 acres of ground. The building + activity of Budapest since 1867 has been extraordinary, and the town has + undergone a thorough transformation. The removal of slums and the + regulation of the older parts of the town, in connexion with the + construction of the two new bridges across the Danube and of the railway + termini, went hand-in-hand with the extension of the town, new quarters + springing up on both banks of the Danube. This process is still going on, + and Budapest has become one of the handsomest capitals of Europe.</p> + + <p><i>Education.</i>—Budapest is the intellectual capital of + Hungary. At the head of its educational institutions stands the + university, which was attended in 1900 by 4983 students—only about + 2000 in 1880—and has a staff of nearly 200 professors and + lecturers. It has been completely transformed into a national Hungarian + seat of learning since 1867, and great efforts have been made to keep at + home the Hungarian students, who before then frequented other + universities and specially that of Vienna. It is well provided with + scientific laboratories, botanic garden, and various collections, and + possesses a library with nearly a quarter of a million volumes. The + university of Budapest, the only one in Hungary proper, was established + at Tyrnau in 1635, removed to Buda in 1777, and transferred to Pest in + 1783. Next to it comes the polytechnic, attended by 1816 students in + 1900, which is also thoroughly equipped for a scientific training. Other + high schools are a veterinary academy, a Roman Catholic seminary, a + Protestant theological college, a rabbinical institute, a commercial + academy, to which has been added in 1899 an academy for the study of + oriental languages, and military academies for the training of Hungarian + officers. Budapest possesses an adequate number of elementary and + secondary schools, as well as a great number of special and technical + schools. At the head of the scientific societies stands the academy of + sciences, founded in 1825, for the encouragement of the study of the + Hungarian language and the various sciences except theology. Next to it + comes the national museum, founded in 1807 through the donations of Count + Stephan Széchényi, which contains extensive collections of antiquities, + natural history and ethnology, and a rich library which, in its + manuscript department of over 20,000 MSS., contains the oldest specimens + of the Hungarian language. Another society which has done great service + for the cultivation of the Hungarian language is the Kisfaludy society, + founded in 1836. It began by distributing prizes for the best literary + productions of the year, then it started the collection and publication + of the Hungarian folklore, and lastly undertook the translation into the + Hungarian language of the masterpieces of foreign literatures. The + influence exercised by this society is very great, and it has attracted + within its circle the best writers of Hungary. Another society similar in + aim with this one is the Petöfi society, founded in 1875. Amongst the + numerous scientific associations are the central statistical department, + and the Budapest communal bureau of statistics, which under the + directorship of Dr Joseph de Körösy has gained a European reputation.</p> + + <p>The artistic life in Budapest is fostered by the academy of music, + which once had Franz Liszt as its director, a <i>conservatoire</i> of + music, a dramatic school, and a school for painting and for drawing, all + maintained by the government. Budapest possesses, besides an opera house, + eight theatres, of which two are subsidized by the government and one by + the municipality. The performances are almost exclusively in Hungarian, + the exceptions being the occasional appearance of French, Italian and + other foreign artists. Performances in German are under a popular taboo, + and they are never given in a theatre at Budapest.</p> + + <p><i>Trade.</i>—-In commerce and industry Budapest is by far the + most important town in Hungary, and in the former, if not also in the + latter, it is second to Vienna alone in the Austro-Hungarian monarchy. + The principal industries are steam flour-milling, distilling, and the + manufacture of machinery, railway plant, carriages, cutlery, gold and + silver wares, chemicals, bricks, jute, and the usual articles produced in + large towns for home consumption. The trade of Budapest is mainly in + corn, flour, cattle, horses, pigs, wines, spirits, wool, wood, hides, and + in the articles manufactured in the town. The efforts of the Hungarian + government to establish a great home industry, and the measures taken to + that effect, have benefited Budapest to a greater degree than any other + Hungarian town, and the progress made is remarkable. The increase in the + number of joint-stock companies, and the capital thus invested in + industrial undertakings, furnish a valuable indication. In 1873 there + were 28 such companies with a total capital of £2,224,900; in 1890, 75 + with a capital of £9,352,000; and in 1899 no fewer than 242 with a total + capital of £31,378,655. Budapest owes its great commercial importance to + its situation on the Danube, on which the greater part of its trade is + carried. The introduction of steamboats on the Danube in 1830 was one of + the earliest material causes of the progress of Budapest, and gave a + great stimulus to its corn trade. This still continues to operate, having + been promoted by the flour-milling industry, which was revolutionized by + certain local inventions. Budapest is actually one of the greatest + milling centres in the world, possessing a number of magnificent + establishments, fitted with machinery invented and manufactured in the + city. Budapest is, besides, connected with all the principal places in + Austria and Hungary by a well-developed net of railways, which all + radiate from here.</p> + + <p><i>Population.</i>—Few European towns grew so rapidly as + Budapest generally, and Pest particularly, during the 19th century, and + probably none has witnessed such a thorough transformation since 1867. In + 1799 the joint population of Buda and Pest was 54,179, of which 24,306 + belonged to Buda, and 29,870 belonged to Pest, being the first time that + the population of Pest exceeded that of Buda. By 1840, however, Buda had + added but 14,000 to its population while that of Pest had more than + doubled; and of the joint population of 270,685 in 1869, fully 200,000 + fell to the share of Pest. In 1880 the civil population of Budapest was + 360,551, an increase since 1869 of 32%; and in 1890 it was 491,938, and + increase of 36.57% in the decade. In the matter of the increase of its + population alone, Budapest has only been slightly surpassed by one + European town, namely, Berlin. Both capitals multiplied their population + by nine in the first nine decades of the century. According to an + interesting and instructive comparison of the growth of twenty-eight + European cities made by Dr Joseph de Körösy, Berlin in 1890 showed an + increase, as compared with the beginning of the century, of 818% and + Budapest of 809%. Within the same period the increase of Paris was 343%, + and of London 340%. In 1900 the civil population of Budapest was 716,476 + inhabitants, showing an increase of 44.82% in the decade. To this must be + added a garrison of 15,846 men, making a total population 732,322. Of the + total population, civil and military, 578,458 were Magyars, 104,520 were + Germans, 25,168 were Slovaks, and the remainder was composed of + Croatians, Servians, Rumanians, Russians, Greeks, Armenians, Gypsies, + &c. According to religion, there were 445,023 Roman Catholics, 5806 + Greek Catholics, 4422 Greek Orthodox; 67,319 were Protestants of the + Helvetic, and 38,811 were Protestants of the Augsburg Confessions; + 168,985 were Jews, and the remainder belonged to various other creeds. A + striking feature in the progress of Budapest is the decline in the + death-rate, which sank from 43.4 per thousand in 1874 to 20.6 per + thousand in 1900. In addition to the increased influx of <!-- Page 736 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page736"></a>[v.04 + p.0736]</span>persons in the prime of life, this is due largely to the + improved water-supply and better sanitary conditions generally, including + increased hospital accommodation.</p> + + <p><i>Social Position.</i>—Budapest is the seat of the government + of Hungary, of the parliament, and of all the highest official + authorities—civil, military, judicial and financial. It is the + meeting-place, alternately with Vienna, of the Austro-Hungarian + delegations, and it was elected to an equality with Vienna as a royal + residence in 1892. It is the see of a Roman Catholic archbishop. The town + is administered by an elected municipal council, which consists of 400 + members. As Paris is sometimes said to be France, so may Budapest with + almost greater truth be said to be Hungary. Its composite population is a + faithful reflection of the heterogeneous elements in the dominions of the + Habsburgs, while the trade and industry of Hungary are centralized at + Budapest in a way that can scarcely be affirmed of any other European + capital. In virtue of its cultural institutions, it is also the + intellectual and artistic centre of Hungary. The movement in favour of + Magyarizing all institutions has found its strongest development in + Budapest, where the German names have all been removed from the buildings + and streets. The wonderful progress of Budapest is undoubtedly due to the + revival of the Hungarian national spirit in the first half of the 19th + century, and to the energetic and systematic efforts of the government + and people of Hungary since the restoration of the constitution. So far + as Hungary was concerned, Budapest in 1867 at once became the favoured + rival of Vienna, with the important additional advantage that it had no + such competitors within its own sphere as Vienna had in the Austrian + provincial capitals. The political, intellectual, and social life of + Hungary was centred in Budapest, and had largely been so since 1848, when + it became the seat of the legislature, as it was that of the Austrian + central administration which followed the revolution. The ideal of a + prosperous, brilliant and attractive Magyar capital, which would keep the + nobles and the intellectual flower of the country at home, uniting them + in the service of the Fatherland, had received a powerful impetus from + Count Stephan Széchényi, the great Hungarian reformer of the + pre-Revolutionary period. His work, continued by patriotic and able + successors, was now taken up as the common task of the government and the + nation. Thus the promotion of the interests of the capital and the + centralization of the public and commercial life of the country have + formed an integral part of the policy of the state since the restoration + of the constitution. Budapest has profited largely by the encouragement + of agriculture, trade and industry, by the nationalization of the + railways, by the development of inland navigation, and also by the + neglect of similar measures in favour of Vienna.</p> + + <p>From that time to the present day the record of the Hungarian capital + has been one of uninterrupted advance, not merely in externals, such as + the removal of slums, the reconstruction of the town, the development of + communications, industry and trade, and the erection of important public + buildings, but also in the mental, moral and physical elevation of the + inhabitants; besides another important gain from the point of view of the + Hungarian statesman, namely, the progressive increase and improvement of + status of the Magyar element of the population. When it is remembered + that the ideal of both the authorities and the people is the ultimate + monopoly of the home market by Hungarian industry and trade, and the + strengthening of the Magyar influence by centralization, it is easy to + understand the progress of Budapest.</p> + + <p>Politically, this ambitious and progressive capital is the creation of + the Magyar upper classes. Commercially and industrially, it may be said + to be the work of the Jews. The sound judgment of the former led them to + welcome and appreciate the co-operation of the latter. Indeed, a + readiness to assimilate foreign elements is characteristic of Magyar + patriotism, which has, particularly within the last generation, made + numerous converts among the other nationalities of Hungary, and—for + national purposes—may be considered to have quite absorbed the + Hungarian Jews. It has thus come to pass that there is no anti-Semitism + in Budapest, although the Hebrew element is proportionately much larger + (21% as compared with 9%) than it is in Vienna, the Mecca of the + Jew-baiter.</p> + + <p>Budapest has long been celebrated for its mineral springs and baths, + some of them having been already used during the Roman period. They rise + at the foot of the Blocksberg, and are powerful chalybeate and + sulphureous hot springs, with a temperature of 80°-150° Fahr. The + principal baths are the Bruckbad and the Kaiserbad, both dating from the + Turkish period; the St Lucasbad; and the Raitzenbad, rebuilt in 1860, one + of the most magnificent establishments of its kind, which was connected + through a gallery with the royal palace in the time of Matthias Corvin. + There is an artesian well of sulphureous water with a temperature of 153° + Fahr. in the Stadtwäldchen; and another, yielding sulphureous water with + a temperature of 110° Fahr., which is used for both drinking and bathing, + in the Margaret island. The mineral springs, which yield bitter alkaline + waters, are situated in the plain south of the Blocksberg, and are over + 40 in number. The principal are the Hunyadi-János spring, of which about + 1,000,000 bottles are exported annually, the Arpad spring, and the Apenta + spring.</p> + + <p>The largest and most popular of the parks in Budapest is the + Városliget, on the north-east side of the town. It has an area of 286 + acres, and contains the zoological garden. On an island in its large pond + are situated the agricultural (1902-1904) and the ethnographical museums. + It was in this park that the millennium exhibition of 1896 took place. A + still more delightful resort is the Margaret island, a long narrow island + in the Danube, the property of the archduke Joseph, which has been laid + out in the style of an English park, with fine trees, velvety turf and a + group of villas and bath-houses. The name of the island is derived from + St Margaret, the daughter of King Bela IV. (13th century), who built here + a convent, the ruins of which are still in existence. To the west of Buda + extends the hill (1463 ft.) of Sváb-Hegy (<i>Schwabenberg</i>), with + extensive view and numerous villas; it is ascended by a rack-and-pinion + railway. A favourite spot is the Zugliget (<i>Auwinkel</i>), a wooded + dale on the northern slope of the hill. To the north of Ó-Buda, about 4 + m. from the Margaret island, on the right bank of the Danube, are the + remains of the Roman colony of Aquincum. They include the foundations of + an amphitheatre, of a temple, of an aqueduct, of baths and of a castrum. + The objects found here are preserved in a small museum. To the north of + Pest lies the historic Rákos field, where the Hungarian diets were held + in the open air from the 10th to the 14th century; and 23 m. to the north + lies the royal castle of Gödöllö, with its beautiful park.</p> + + <p><i>History.</i>—The history of Budapest consists of the separate + history of the two sister towns, Buda and Pest. The Romans founded, in + the 2nd century <span class="scac">A.D.</span>, on the right bank of the + Danube, on the site of the actual Ó-Buda, a colony, on the place of a + former Celtic settlement. This colony was named Aquincum, a + transformation from the former Celtic name of <i>Ak-ink</i>, meaning + "rich waters." The Roman occupation lasted till <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 376, and then the place was invaded by Huns, + Ostrogoths, and later by Avars and Slavs. When the Magyars came into the + country, at the end of the 10th century, they preserved the names of Buda + and Pest, which they found for these two places. The origin of Pest + proper is obscure, but the name, apparently derived from the old Slavonic + <i>pestj</i>, a stove (like Ofen, the German name of Buda), seems to + point to an early Slavonic settlement. The Romans never gained a foothold + on this side of the river.</p> + + <p>When it first appears in history Pest was essentially a German + settlement, and a chronicler of the 13th century describes it as "Villa + Teutonica ditissima." Christianity was introduced early in the 11th + century. In 1241 Pest was destroyed by the Tatars, after whose departure + in 1244 it was created a royal free city by Bela IV., and repeopled with + colonists of various nationalities. The succeeding period seems to have + been one of considerable prosperity, though Pest was completely eclipsed + by the sister town of Buda with its fortress and palace. This fortress + and palace were built by King Bela IV. in 1247, and were the nucleus + round which the town of Buda was built, which soon gained <!-- Page 737 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page737"></a>[v.04 p.0737]</span>great + importance, and became in 1361 the capital of Hungary. In 1526 Pest was + taken and pillaged by the Turks, and from 1541 to 1686 Buda was the seat + of a Turkish pasha. Pest in the meantime entirely lost its importance, + and on the departure of the Turks was left little more than a heap of + ruins. Its favourable situation and the renewal of former privileges + helped it to revive, and in 1723 it became the seat of the highest + Hungarian officials. Maria Theresa and Joseph II. did much to increase + its importance, but the rapid growth which enabled it completely to + outstrip Buda belongs entirely to the 19th century. A signal proof of its + vitality was given in 1838 by the speed and ease with which it recovered + from a disastrous inundation that destroyed 3000 houses. In 1848 Pest + became the seat of the revolutionary diet, but in the following year the + insurgents had to retire before the Austrians under Windischgrätz. A + little later the Austrians had to retire in their turn, leaving a + garrison in the fortress of Buda, and, while the Hungarians endeavoured + to capture this position, General Hentzi retaliated by bombarding Pest, + doing great damage to the town. In 1872 both towns were united into one + municipality. In 1896 took place here the millennium exhibition, in + celebration of the thousandth anniversary of the foundation of the + kingdom of Hungary.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—The official publications + of the Budapest Communal Bureau of Statistics have acquired a European + repute for their completeness, and their fearless exposure of + shortcomings has been an element in the progress of the town. Reference + should also be made to separate works of the director of that + institution, Dr Joseph de Körösy, known in England for his discovery of + the law of marital fertility, published by the Royal Society, and by his + labours in the development of comparative international statistics. His + <i>Statistique Internationale des grandes villes</i> and <i>Bulletin + annuel des finances des grandes villes</i> give valuable comparative + data. See also <i>Die Österreichisch-Ungarische Monarchie in Wort und + Bild</i> (Wien, 1886-1902, 24 vols.); volume xii., published in 1893, is + devoted to Budapest.</p> + + <p>(<span class="sc">O. Br.</span>)</p> + + <p><b>BUDAUN,</b> a town and district of British India, in the Rohilkhand + division of the United Provinces. The town is near the left bank of the + river Sot. Pop. (1901) 39,031. There are ruins of an immense fort and a + very handsome mosque of imposing size, crowned with a dome, and built in + 1223 in great part from the materials of an ancient Hindu temple. The + American Methodist mission maintains several girls' schools, and there is + a high school for boys. According to tradition Budaun was founded about + <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 905, and an inscription, probably of the + 12th century, gives a list of twelve Rathor kings reigning at Budaun + (called Vodamayuta). The first authentic historical event connected with + it, however, is its capture by Kutb-ud-din in 1196, after which it became + a very important post on the northern frontier of the Delhi empire. In + the 13th century two of its governors, Shams-ud-din Altamsh, the builder + of the great mosque referred to above, and his son Rukn-ud-din Firoz, + attained the imperial throne. In 1571 the town was burnt, and about a + hundred years later, under Shah Jahan, the seat of the governorship was + transferred to Bareilly; after which the importance of Budaun declined. + It ultimately came into the power of the Rohillas, and in 1838 was made + the headquarters of a British district. In 1857 the people of Budaun + sided with the mutineers, and a native government was set up, which + lasted until General Penny's victory at Kakrala (April 1858) led to the + restoration of British authority.</p> + + <p>The <span class="sc">District Of Budaun</span> has an area of 1987 sq. + m. Pop. (1901) 1,025,753. The country is low, level, and is generally + fertile, and watered by the Ganges, the Ramganga, the Sot or Yarwafadar, + and the Mahawa. Budaun district was ceded to the British government in + 1801 by the nawab of Oudh. There are several indigo factories. The + district is crossed by two lines of the Oudh & Rohilkhand railway, + and by a narrow-gauge line from Bareilly. The chief centre of trade is + Bilsi.</p> + + <p><b>BUDDEUS, JOHANN FRANZ</b> (1667-1729), German Lutheran divine, was + born at Anklam, a town of Pomerania, where his father was pastor. He + studied with great distinction at Greifswald and at Wittenberg, and + having made a special study of languages, theology and history, was + appointed professor of Greek and Latin at Coburg in 1692, professor of + moral philosophy in the university of Halle in 1693, and in 1705 + professor of theology at Jena. Here he was held in high esteem, and in + 1715 became Primarius of his faculty and member of the Consistory. His + principal works are: <i>Leipzig, allgemeines historisches Lexikon</i> + (Leipzig, 1709 ff.); <i>Historia, Ecclesiastica Veteris Testamenti</i> (4 + vols., Halle, 1709); <i>Elementa Philosophiae Practicae, Instrumentalis, + et Theoreticae</i> (3 vols., 1697); <i>Selecta Juris Naturae et + Gentium</i> (Halle, 1704); <i>Miscellanea Sacra</i> (3 vols., Jena, + 1727); and <i>Isagoge Historico-Theologica ad Theologiam Universam, + singulasque ejus partes</i> (2 vols., 1727).</p> + + <p><b>BUDDHA.</b> According to the Buddhist theory (see <span + class="sc">Buddhism</span>), a "Buddha" appears from time to time in the + world and preaches the true doctrine. After a certain lapse of time this + teaching is corrupted and lost, and is not restored till a new Buddha + appears. In Europe, Buddha is used to designate the last historical + Buddha, whose family name was Gotama, and who was the son of + Suddhōdana, one of the chiefs of the tribe of the Sākiyas, + one of the republican clans then still existent in India.</p> + + <p>We are accustomed to find the legendary and the miraculous gathering, + like a halo, around the early history of religious leaders, until the + sober truth runs the risk of being altogether neglected for the + glittering and edifying falsehood. The Buddha has not escaped the fate + which has befallen the founders of other religions; and as late as the + year 1854 Professor Wilson of Oxford read a paper before the Royal + Asiatic Society of London in which he maintained that the supposed life + of Buddha was a myth, and "Buddha himself merely an imaginary being." No + one, however, would now support this view; and it is admitted that, under + the mass of miraculous tales which have been handed down regarding him, + there is a basis of truth already sufficiently clear to render possible + an intelligent history.</p> + + <p>The circumstances under which the future Buddha was born were somewhat + as follows.<a name="FnAnchor_291" href="#Footnote_291"><sup>[1]</sup></a> + In the 6th century <span class="scac">B.C.</span> the Āryan tribes + had long been settled far down the valley of the Ganges. The old + child-like joy in life so manifest in the Vedas had died away; the + worship of nature had developed or degenerated into the worship of new + and less pure divinities; and the Vedic songs themselves, whose freedom + was little compatible with the spirit of the age, had faded into an + obscurity which did not lessen their value to the priests. The country + was politically split up into little principalities, most of them + governed by some petty despot, whose interests were not often the same as + those of the community. There were still, however, about a dozen free + republics, most of them with aristocratic government, and it was in these + that reforming movements met with most approval and support. A convenient + belief in the doctrine of the transmigration of souls satisfied the + unfortunate that their woes were the natural result of their own deeds in + a former birth, and, though unavoidable now, might be escaped in a future + state of existence by present good conduct. While hoping for a better + fate in their next birth, the poor turned for succour and advice in this + to the aid of astrology, witchcraft and animism—a belief in which + seems to underlie all <!-- Page 738 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page738"></a>[v.04 p.0738]</span>religions, and still survives even + in England.<a name="FnAnchor_292" href="#Footnote_292"><sup>[2]</sup></a> + The inspiriting wars against the enemies of the Āryan people, the + infidel deniers of the Āryan gods, had given place to a succession + of internecine feuds between the chiefs of neighbouring clans. In + literature an age of poets had long since made way for an age of + commentators and grammarians, who thought that the old poems must have + been the work of gods. But the darkest period was succeeded by the dawn + of a reformation; travelling logicians were willing to maintain these + against all the world; whilst here and there ascetics strove to raise + themselves above the gods, and hermits earnestly sought for some + satisfactory solution of the mysteries of life. These were the teachers + whom the people chiefly delighted to honour. Though the ranks of the + priesthood were for ever firmly closed against intruders, a man of lay + birth, a Kshatriya or Vaisya, whose mind revolted against the orthodox + creed, and whose heart was stirred by mingled zeal and ambition, might + find through these irregular orders an entrance to the career of a + religious teacher and reformer.</p> + + <p>The Sākiya clan was then seated in a tract of country probably + two or three thousand square miles in extent, the chief town of which was + Kapilavastu, situate about 27° 37′ N. by 83° 11′ E., some + days' journey north of Benares. Their territory stretched up into the + lower slopes of the mountains, and was mostly in what is now Nepal, but + it included territory now on the British side of the frontier. It is in + this part of the Sākiya country that the interesting discovery was + made of the monument they erected to their famous clansman. From their + well-watered rice-fields, the main source of their wealth, they could see + the giant Himālayas looming up against the clear blue of the Indian + sky. Their supplies of water were drawn from the river Rohini, the modern + Kohāna; and though the use of the river was in times of drought the + cause of disputes between the Sākiyas and the neighbouring + Koliyans, the two clans were then at peace; and two daughters of a + chieftain of Koli, which was only 11 m. east of Kapilavastu, were the + principal wives of Suddhōdana. Both were childless, and great was + the rejoicing when, in about the forty-fifth year of her age, the elder + sister, Mahā Māyā, promised her husband a son. In due + time she started with the intention of being confined at her parents' + home, but the party halting on the way under the shade of some lofty + satin-trees, in a pleasant garden called Lumbini on the river-side, her + son, the future Buddha, was there unexpectedly born. The exact site of + this garden has been recently rediscovered, marked by an inscribed pillar + put up by Asoka (see <i>J.R.A.S.</i>, 1898).</p> + + <p>He was in after years more generally known by his family name of + Gotama, but his individual name was Siddhattha. When he was nineteen + years old he was married to his cousin Yasodharā, daughter of a + Koliyan chief, and gave himself up to a life of luxury. This is the + solitary record of his youth; we hear nothing more till, in his + twenty-ninth year, it is related that, driving to his pleasure-grounds + one day, he was struck by the sight of a man utterly broken down by age, + on another occasion by the sight of a man suffering from a loathsome + disease, and some months after by the horrible sight of a decomposing + corpse. Each time his charioteer, whose name was Channa, told him that + such was the fate of all living beings. Soon after he saw an ascetic + walking in a calm and dignified manner, and asking who that was, was told + by his charioteer the character and aims of the Wanderers, the travelling + teachers, who played so great a part in the intellectual life of the + time. The different accounts of these visions vary so much as to cast + great doubts on their accuracy; and the oldest one of all + (<i>Anguttara</i>, i. 145) speaks of ideas only, not of actual visions. + It is, however, clear from what follows, that about this time the mind of + the young Räjput must, from some cause or other, have been deeply + stirred. Many an earnest heart full of disappointment or enthusiasm has + gone through a similar struggle, has learnt to look upon all earthly + gains and hopes as worse than vanity, has envied the calm life of the + cloister, troubled by none of these things, and has longed for an + opportunity of entire self-surrender to abstinence and meditation.</p> + + <p>Subjectively, though not objectively, these visions may be supposed to + have appeared to Gotama. After seeing the last of them, he is said, in + the later accounts, to have spent the afternoon in his pleasure-grounds + by the river-side; and having bathed, to have entered his chariot in + order to return home. Just then a messenger arrived with the news that + his wife Yasodhara had given birth to a son, his only child. "This," said + Gotama quietly, "is a new and strong tie I shall have to break." But the + people of Kapilavastu were greatly delighted at the birth of the young + heir, the raja's only grandson. Gotama's return became an ovation; + musicians preceded and followed his chariot, while shouts of joy and + triumph fell on his ear. Among these sounds one especially attracted his + attention. It was the voice of a young girl, his cousin, who sang a + stanza, saying, "Happy the father, happy the mother, happy the wife of + such a son and husband." In the word "happy" lay a double meaning; it + meant also freed from the chains of rebirth, delivered, <i>saved</i>. + Grateful to one who, at such a time, reminded him of his highest hopes, + Gotama, to whom such things had no longer any value, took off his collar + of pearls and sent it to her. She imagined that this was the beginning of + a courtship, and began to build daydreams about becoming his principal + wife, but he took no further notice of her and passed on. That evening + the dancing-girls came to go through the Natch dances, then as now so + common on festive occasions in many parts of India; but he paid them no + attention, and gradually fell into an uneasy slumber. At midnight he + awoke; the dancing-girls were lying in the ante-room; an overpowering + loathing filled his soul. He arose instantly with a mind fully made + up—"roused into activity," says the Sinhalese chronicle, "like a + man who is told that his house is on fire." He called out to know who was + on guard, and finding it was his charioteer Channa, he told him to saddle + his horse. While Channa was gone Siddhattha gently opened the door of the + room where Yasodhara was sleeping, surrounded by flowers, with one hand + on the head of their child. He had hoped to take the babe in his arms for + the last time before he went, but now he stood for a few moments + irresolute on the threshold looking at them. At last the fear of + awakening Yasodhara prevailed; he tore himself away, promising himself to + return to them as soon as his mind had become clear, as soon as he had + become a Buddha,—<i>i.e.</i> Enlightened,—and then he could + return to them not only as husband and father, but as teacher and + saviour. It is said to have been broad moonlight on the full moon of the + month of July, when the young chief, with Channa as his sole companion, + leaving his father's home, his wealth and social position, his wife and + child behind him, went out into the wilderness to become a penniless and + despised student, and a homeless wanderer. This is the circumstance which + has given its name to a Sanskrit work, the Mahabhinishkramana Sutra, or + Sutra of the Great Renunciation.</p> + + <p>Next is related an event in which we may again see a subjective + experience given under the form of an objective reality. Mara, the great + tempter, appears in the sky, and urges Gotama to stop, promising him, in + seven days, a universal kingdom over the four great continents if he will + but give up his enterprise.<a name="FnAnchor_293" + href="#Footnote_293"><sup>[3]</sup></a> When his words fail to have any + effect, the tempter consoles himself by the confident hope that he will + still overcome his enemy, saying, "Sooner or later some lustful or + malicious or angry thought must arise in his mind; in that moment I shall + be his master"; and from that hour, adds the legend, "as a shadow always + follows the body, so he too from that day always followed the Blessed + One, striving to throw every obstacle in his way towards the Buddhahood." + Gotama rides a long distance that night, only stopping at the banks of + the Anoma beyond the Koliyan territory. There, on the sandy bank of the + river, at a spot where later piety erected a dagaba (a solid dome-shaped + relic shrine), he cuts off with his sword his long flowing locks, and, + taking off his ornaments, sends them and the horse back in charge of the + unwilling Channa to Kapilavastu. The next seven days were spent alone in + a grove of mango trees <!-- Page 739 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page739"></a>[v.04 p.0739]</span>near by, whence the recluse walks + on to Rajagriha, the capital of Magadha, and residence of Bimbisara, one + of the then most powerful rulers in the valley of the Ganges. He was + favourably received by the raja; but though asked to do so, he would not + as yet assume the responsibilities of a teacher. He attached himself + first to a brahmin sophist named Alara, and afterwards to another named + Udraka, from whom he learnt all that Indian philosophy had then to teach. + Still unsatisfied, he next retired to the jungle of Uruvela, on the most + northerly spur of the Vindhya range of mountains, and there for six + years, attended by five faithful disciples, he gave himself up to the + severest penance and self-torture, till his fame as an ascetic spread in + all the country round about "like the sound," says the Burmese chronicle, + "of a great bell hung in the canopy of the skies."<a name="FnAnchor_294" + href="#Footnote_294"><sup>[4]</sup></a> At last one day, when he was + walking in a much enfeebled state, he felt on a sudden an extreme + weakness, like that caused by dire starvation, and unable to stand any + longer he fell to the ground. Some thought he was dead, but he recovered, + and from that time took regular food and gave up his severe penance, so + much so that his five disciples soon ceased to respect him, and leaving + him went to Benares.</p> + + <p>There now ensued a second struggle in Gotama's mind, described with + all the wealth of poetry and imagination of which the Indian mind is + master. The crisis culminated on a day, each event of which is surrounded + in the Buddhist accounts with the wildest legends, on which the very + thoughts passing through the mind of Buddha appear in gorgeous + descriptions as angels of darkness or of light. To us, now taught by the + experiences of centuries how weak such exaggerations are compared with + the effect of a plain unvarnished tale, these legends may appear childish + or absurd, but they have a depth of meaning to those who strive to read + between the lines of such rude and inarticulate attempts to describe the + indescribable. That which (the previous and subsequent career of the + teacher being borne in mind) seems to be possible and even probable, + appears to be somewhat as follows.</p> + + <p>Disenchanted and dissatisfied, Gotama had given up all that most men + value, to seek peace in secluded study and self-denial. Failing to attain + his object by learning the wisdom of others, and living the simple life + of a student, he had devoted himself to that intense meditation and + penance which all philosophers then said would raise men above the gods. + Still unsatisfied, longing always for a certainty that seemed ever just + beyond his grasp, he had added vigil to vigil, and penance to penance, + until at last, when to the wondering view of others he had become more + than a saint, his bodily strength and his indomitable resolution and + faith had together suddenly and completely broken down. Then, when the + sympathy of others would have been most welcome, he found his friends + falling away from him, and his disciples leaving him for other teachers. + Soon after, if not on the very day when his followers had left him, he + wandered out towards the banks of the Neranjara, receiving his morning + meal from the hands of Sujata, the daughter of a neighbouring villager, + and set himself down to eat it under the shade of a large tree (a + <i>Ficus religiosa</i>), to be known from that time as the sacred Bo tree + or tree of wisdom. There he remained through the long hours of that day + debating with himself what next to do. All his old temptations came back + upon him with renewed force. For years he had looked at all earthly good + through the medium of a philosophy which taught him that it, without + exception, contained within itself the seeds of bitterness, and was + altogether worthless and impermanent; but now to his wavering faith the + sweet delights of home and love, the charms of wealth and power, began to + show themselves in a different light, and glow again with attractive + colours. He doubted, and agonized in his doubt; but as the sun set, the + religious side of his nature had won the victory, and seems to have come + out even purified from the struggle. He had attained to Nirvana, had + become clear in his mind, a Buddha, an Enlightened One. From that night + he not only did not claim any merit on account of his self-mortification, + but took every opportunity of declaring that from such penances no + advantage at all would be derived. All that night he is said to have + remained in deep meditation under the Bo tree; and the orthodox Buddhists + believe that for seven times seven nights and days he continued fasting + near the spot, when the archangel Brahmā came and ministered to + him. As for himself, his heart was now fixed,—his mind was made + up,—but he realized more than he had ever done before the power of + temptation, and the difficulty, the almost impossibility, of + understanding and holding to the truth. For others subject to the same + temptations, but without that earnestness and insight which he felt + himself to possess, faith might be quite impossible, and it would only be + waste of time and trouble to try to show to them "the only path of + peace." To one in his position this thought would be so very natural, + that we need not hesitate to accept the fact of its occurrence as related + in the oldest records. It is quite consistent with his whole career that + it was love and pity for others—otherwise, as it seemed to him, + helplessly doomed and lost—-which at last overcame every other + consideration, and made Gotama resolve to announce his doctrine to the + world.</p> + + <p>The teacher, now 35 years of age, intended to proclaim his new gospel + first to his old teachers Ālāra and Udraka, but finding that + they were dead, he determined to address himself to his former five + disciples, and accordingly went to the Deer-forest near Benares where + they were then living. An old <i>gāthhā</i>, or hymn + (translated in <i>Vinaya Texts</i>, i. 90) tells us how the Buddha, rapt + with the idea of his great mission, meets an acquaintance, one Upaka, a + wandering sophist, on the way. The latter, struck with his expression, + asks him whose religion it is that makes him so glad, and yet so calm. + The reply is striking. "I am now on my way," says the Buddha, "to the + city of Benares, to beat the drum of the Ambrosia (to set up the light of + the doctrine of Nirvana) in the darkness of the world!" and he proclaims + himself the Buddha who alone knows, and knows no teacher. Upaka says: + "You profess yourself, then, friend, to be an Arahat and a conqueror?" + The Buddha says: "Those indeed are conquerors who, as I have now, have + conquered the intoxications (the mental intoxication arising from + ignorance, sensuality or craving after future life). Evil dispositions + have ceased in me; therefore is it that I am conqueror!" His acquaintance + rejoins: "In that case, venerable Gotama, your way lies yonder!" and he + himself, shaking his head, turns in the opposite direction.</p> + + <p>Nothing daunted, the new prophet walked on to Benares, and in the cool + of the evening went on to the Deer-forest where the five ascetics were + living. Seeing him coming, they resolved not to recognize as a superior + one who had broken his vows; to address him by his name, and not as + "master" or "teacher"; only, he being a Kshatriya, to offer him a seat. + He understands their change of manner, calmly tells them not to mock him + by calling him "the venerable Gotama"; that he has found the ambrosia of + truth and can lead them to it. They object, naturally enough, from the + ascetic point of view, that he had failed before while he was keeping his + body under, and how can his mind have won the victory now, when he serves + and yields to his body. Buddha replies by explaining to them the + principles of his new gospel, in the form of noble truths, and the Noble + Eightfold Path (see <span class="sc">Buddhism</span>).</p> + + <p>It is nearly certain that Buddha had a commanding presence, and one of + those deep, rich, thrilling voices which so many of the successful + leaders of men have possessed. We know his deep earnestness, and his + thorough conviction of the truth of his new gospel. When we further + remember the relation which the five students mentioned above had long + borne to him, and that they had passed through a similar culture, it is + not difficult to understand that his persuasions were successful, and + that his old disciples were the first to acknowledge him in his new + character. The later books say that they were all converted at once; but, + according to the most ancient Pāli record—though their old + love and reverence had been so rekindled when the Buddha came near that + their cold resolutions quite broke down, and they vied with each other in + such acts of personal attention as an <!-- Page 740 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page740"></a>[v.04 p.0740]</span>Indian disciple + loves to pay to his teacher,—yet it was only after the Buddha had + for five days talked to them, sometimes separately, sometimes together, + that they accepted in its entirety his plan of salvation.<a + name="FnAnchor_295" href="#Footnote_295"><sup>[5]</sup></a></p> + + <p>The Buddha then remained at the Deer-forest near Benares until the + number of his personal followers was about threescore, and that of the + outside believers somewhat greater. The principal among the former was a + rich young man named Yasa, who had first come to him at night out of fear + of his relations, and afterwards shaved his head, put on the yellow robe, + and succeeded in bringing many of his former friends and companions to + the teacher, his mother and his wife being the first female disciples, + and his father the first lay devotee. It should be noticed in passing + that the idea of a priesthood with mystical powers is altogether + repugnant to Buddhism; every one's salvation is entirely dependent on the + modification or growth of his own inner nature, resulting from his own + exertions. The life of a recluse is held to be the most conducive to that + state of sweet serenity at which the most ardent disciples aim; but that + of a layman, of a believing householder, is held in high honour; and a + believer who does not as yet feel himself able or willing to cast off the + ties of home or of business, may yet "enter the paths," and by a life of + rectitude and kindness ensure for himself a rebirth under more favourable + conditions for his growth in holiness.</p> + + <p>After the rainy season Gotama called together those of his disciples + who had devoted themselves to the higher life, and said to them: "I am + free from the five hindrances which, like an immense net, hold men and + angels in their power; you too (owing to my teaching) are set free. Go ye + now, brethren, and wander for the gain and welfare of the many, out of + compassion for the world, to the benefit of gods and men. Preach the + doctrine, beauteous in inception, beauteous in continuation, beauteous in + its end. Proclaim the pure and perfect life. Let no two go together. I + also go, brethren, to the General's village in the wilds of + Uruvelā."<a name="FnAnchor_296" + href="#Footnote_296"><sup>[6]</sup></a> Throughout his career, Gotama + yearly adopted the same plan, collecting his disciples round him in the + rainy season, and after it was over travelling about as an itinerant + preacher; but in subsequent years he was always accompanied by some of + his most attached disciples.</p> + + <p>In the solitudes of Uruvelā there were at this time three + brothers, fire-worshippers and hermit philosophers, who had gathered + round them a number of scholars, and enjoyed a considerable reputation as + teachers. Gotama settled among them, and after a time they became + believers in his system,—the elder brother, Kassapa, taking + henceforth a principal place among his followers. His first set sermon to + his new disciples is called by Bishop Bigandet the Sermon on the Mount. + Its subject was a jungle-fire which broke out on the opposite hillside. + He warned his hearers against the fires of concupiscence, anger, + ignorance, birth, death, decay and anxiety; and taking each of the senses + in order he compared all human sensations to a burning flame which seems + to be something it is not, which produces pleasure and pain, but passes + rapidly away, and ends only in destruction.<a name="FnAnchor_297" + href="#Footnote_297"><sup>[7]</sup></a></p> + + <p>Accompanied by his new disciples, the Buddha walked on to + Rājagaha, the capital of King Bimbisāra, who, not unmindful + of their former interview, came out to welcome him. Seeing Kassapa, who + as the chronicle puts it, was as well known to them as the banner of the + city, the people at first doubted who was the teacher and who the + disciple, but Kassapa put an end to their hesitation by stating that he + had now given up his belief in the efficacy of sacrifices either great or + small; that Nirvāna was a state of rest to be attained only by a + change of heart; and that he had become a disciple of the Buddha. Gotama + then spoke to the king on the miseries of the world which arise from + passion, and on the possibility of release by following the way of + salvation. The rāja invited him and his disciples to eat their + simple mid-day meal at his house on the following morning; and then + presented the Buddha with a garden called Veluvana or Bamboo-grove, + afterwards celebrated as the place where the Buddha spent many rainy + seasons, and preached many of his most complete discourses. There he + taught for some time, attracting large numbers of hearers, among whom + two, Sāriputta and Moggallāna, who afterwards became + conspicuous leaders in the new crusade, then joined the Sangha or + Society, as the Buddha's order of mendicants was called.</p> + + <p>Meanwhile the prophet's father, Suddhōdana, who had anxiously + watched his son's career, heard that he had given up his asceticism, and + had appeared as a Wanderer, an itinerant preacher and teacher. He sent + therefore to him, urging him to come home, that he might see him once + more before he died. The Buddha accordingly started for Kapilavastu, and + stopped according to his custom in a grove outside the town. His father + and uncles and others came to see him there, but the latter were angry, + and would pay him no reverence. It was the custom to invite such teachers + and their disciples for the next day's meal, but they all left without + doing so. The next day, therefore, Gotama set out at the usual hour, + carrying his bowl to beg for a meal. As he entered the city, he hesitated + whether he should not go straight to his father's house, but determined + to adhere to his custom. It soon reached his father's ears that his son + was walking through the streets begging. Startled at such news he rose + up, seizing the end of his outer robe, and hastened to the place where + Gotama was, exclaiming, "Illustrious Buddha, why do you expose us all to + such shame? Is it necessary to go from door to door begging your food? Do + you imagine that I am not able to supply the wants of so many + mendicants?" "My noble father," was the reply, "this is the custom of all + our race." "How so?" said his father. "Are you not descended from an + illustrious line? no single person of our race has ever acted so + indecorously." "My noble father," said Gotama, "you and your family may + claim the privileges of Kshatriya descent; my descent is from the + prophets (Buddhas) of old, and they have always acted so; the customs of + the law (Dharma) are good both for this world and the world that is to + come. But, my father, when a man has found a treasure, it is his duty to + offer the most precious of the jewels to his father first. Do not delay, + let me share with you the treasure I have found." Suddhōdana, + abashed, took his son's bowl and led him to his house.</p> + + <p>Eighteen months had now elapsed since the turning-point of Gotama's + career—his great struggle under the Bo tree. Thus far all the + accounts follow chronological order. From this time they simply narrate + disconnected stories about the Buddha, or the persons with whom he was + brought into contact,—the same story being usually found in more + than one account, but not often in the same order. It is not as yet + possible, except very partially, to arrange chronologically the snatches + of biography to be gleaned from these stories. They are mostly told to + show the occasion on which some memorable act of the Buddha took place, + or some memorable saying was uttered, and are as exact as to place as + they are indistinct as to time. It would be impossible within the limits + of this article to give any large number of them, but space may be found + for one or two.</p> + + <p>A merchant from Sūnaparanta having joined the Society was + desirous of preaching to his relations, and is said to have asked + Gotama's permission to do so. "The people of Sūnaparanta," said the + teacher, "are exceedingly violent. If they revile you what will you do?" + "I will make no reply," said the mendicant. "And if they strike you?" "I + will not strike in return," was the reply. "And if they try to kill you?" + "Death is no evil in itself; many even desire it, to escape from the + vanities of life, but I shall take no steps either to hasten or to delay + the time of my departure." These answers were held satisfactory, and the + monk started on his mission.</p> + + <p>At another time a rich farmer held a harvest home, and the Buddha, + wishing to preach to him, is said to have taken his alms-bowl and stood + by the side of the field and begged. The farmer, a wealthy brāhmin, + said to him, "Why do you come and beg? <!-- Page 741 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page741"></a>[v.04 p.0741]</span>I plough and + sow and earn my food; you should do the same." "I too, O brahmin," said + the beggar, "plough and sow; and having ploughed and sown I eat." "You + profess only to be a farmer; no one sees your ploughing, what do you + mean?" said the brahmin. "For my cultivation," said the beggar, "faith is + the seed, self-combat is the fertilizing rain, the weeds I destroy are + the cleaving to existence, wisdom is my plough, and its guiding-shaft is + modesty; perseverance draws my plough, and I guide it with the rein of my + mind; the field I work is in the law, and the harvest that I reap is the + never-dying nectar of Nirvāna, Those who reap this harvest destroy + all the weeds of sorrow."</p> + + <p>On another occasion he is said to have brought back to her right mind + a young mother whom sorrow had for a time deprived of reason. Her name + was Kisāgotamī. She had been married early, as is the custom + in the East, and had a child when she was still a girl. When the + beautiful boy could run alone he died. The young girl in her love for it + carried the dead child clasped to her bosom, and went from house to house + of her pitying friends asking them to give her medicine for it. But a + Buddhist convert thinking "she does not understand," said to her, "My + good girl, I myself have no such medicine as you ask for, but I think I + know of one who has." "Oh, tell me who that is?" said + Kisāgotamī. "The Buddha can give you medicine; go to him," + was the answer. She went to Gotama; and doing homage to him said, "Lord + and master, do you know any medicine that will be good for my child?" + "Yes, I know of some," said the teacher. Now it was the custom for + patients or their friends to provide the herbs which the doctors + required; so she asked what herbs he would want. "I want some + mustard-seed," he said; and when the poor girl eagerly promised to bring + some of so common a drug, he added, "you must get it from some house + where no son, or husband, or parent or slave has died." "Very good," she + said; and went to ask for it, still carrying her dead child with her. The + people said, "Here is mustard-seed, take it"; but when she asked, "In my + friend's house has any son died, or a husband, or a parent or slave?" + They answered, "Lady! what is this that you say? the living are few, but + the dead are many." Then she went to other houses, but one said "I have + lost a son," another "We have lost our parents," another "I have lost my + slave." At last, not being able to find a single house where no one had + died, her mind began to clear, and summoning up resolution she left the + dead body of her child in a forest, and returning to the Buddha paid him + homage. He said to her, "Have you the mustard-seed?" "My lord," she + replied, "I have not; the people tell me that the living are few, but the + dead are many." Then he talked to her on that essential part of his + system, the impermanency of all things, till her doubts were cleared + away, she accepted her lot, became a disciple, and entered the "first + path."</p> + + <p>For forty-five years after entering on his mission Gotama itinerated + in the valley of the Ganges, not going farther than about 250 m. from + Benares, and always spending the rainy months at one spot—usually + at one of the <i>viharas</i>,<a name="FnAnchor_298" + href="#Footnote_298"><sup>[8]</sup></a> or homes, which had been given to + the society. In the twentieth year his cousin Ānanda became a + mendicant, and from that time seems to have attended on the Buddha, being + constantly near him, and delighting to render him all the personal + service which love and reverence could suggest. Another cousin, + Devadatta, the son of the rāja of Koli, also joined the society, + but became envious of the teacher, and stirred up Ajatasattu (who, having + killed his father Bimbisara, had become king of Rajagaha) to persecute + Gotama. The account of the manner in which the Buddha is said to have + overcome the wicked devices of this apostate cousin and his parricide + protector is quite legendary; but the general fact of Ajatasattu's + opposition to the new sect and of his subsequent conversion may be + accepted.</p> + + <p>The confused and legendary notices of the journeyings of Gotama are + succeeded by tolerably clear accounts of the last few days of his life.<a + name="FnAnchor_299" href="#Footnote_299"><sup>[9]</sup></a> On a journey + towards Kusinārā, a town about 120 m. north-north-east of + Benares, and about 80 m. due east of Kapilavastu, the teacher, being then + eighty years of age, had rested for a short time in a grove at + Pāwā, presented to the society by a goldsmith of that place + named Chunda. Chunda prepared for the mendicants a mid-day meal, and + after the meal the Buddha started for Kusinārā. He had not + gone far when he was obliged to rest, and soon afterwards he said, + "Ānanda, I am thirsty," and they gave him water to drink. Half-way + between the two towns flows the river Kukushtā. There Gotama rested + again, and bathed for the last time. Feeling that he was dying, and + careful lest Chunda should be reproached by himself or others, he said to + Ānanda, "After I am gone tell Chunda that he will receive in a + future birth very great reward; for, having eaten of the food he gave me, + I am about to die; and if he should still doubt, say that it was from my + own mouth that you heard this. There are two gifts which will be blest + above all others, namely, Sujātā's gift before I attained + wisdom under the Bo tree, and this gift of Chunda's before I pass away." + After halting again and again the party at length reached the river + Hiranyavati, close by Kusinārā, and there for the last time + the teacher rested. Lying down under some Sal trees, with his face + towards the south, he talked long and earnestly with Ānanda about + his burial, and about certain rules which were to be observed by the + society after his death. Towards the end of this conversation, when it + was evening, Ānanda broke down and went aside to weep, but the + Buddha missed him, and sending for him comforted him with the promise of + Nirvāna, and repeated what he had so often said before about the + impermanence of all things,—"O Ānanda! do not weep; do not + let yourself be troubled. You known what I have said; sooner or later we + must part from all we hold most dear. This body of ours contains within + itself the power which renews its strength for a time, but also the + causes which lead to its destruction. Is there anything put together + which shall not dissolve? But you, too, shall be free from this delusion, + this world of sense, this law of change. Beloved," added he, speaking to + the rest of the disciples, "Ānanda for long years has served me + with devoted affection." And he spoke to them at some length on the + kindness of Ānanda.</p> + + <p>About midnight Subhadra, a brahmin philosopher of + Kusinārā, came to ask some questions of the Buddha, but + Ānanda, fearing that this might lead to a longer discussion than + the sick teacher could bear, would not admit him. Gotama heard the sound + of their talk, and asking what it was, told them to let Subhadra come. + The latter began by asking whether the six great teachers knew all laws, + or whether there were some that they did not know, or knew only + partially. "This is not the time," was the answer, "for such discussions. + To true wisdom there is only one way, the path that is laid down in my + system. Many have already followed it, and conquering the lust and pride + and anger of their own hearts, have become free from ignorance and doubt + and wrong belief, have entered the calm state of universal kindliness, + and have reached Nirvāna even in this life. O Subhadra! I do not + speak to you of things I have not experienced. Since I was twenty-nine + years old till now I have striven after pure and perfect wisdom, and + following the good path, have found Nirvāna." A rule had been made + that no follower of a rival system should be admitted to the society + without four months' probation. So deeply did the words or the impressive + manner of the dying teacher work upon Subhadra that he asked to be + admitted at once, and Gotama granted his request. Then turning to his + disciples he said, "When I have passed away and am no longer with you, do + not think that the Buddha has left you, and is not still in your midst. + You have my words, my explanations of the deep things of truth, the laws + I have laid down for the society; let them be your guide; the Buddha has + not left you." Soon afterwards he again spoke to them, urging them to + reverence one another, and rebuked one of the disciples who spoke <!-- + Page 742 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page742"></a>[v.04 + p.0742]</span>indiscriminately all that occurred to him. Towards the + morning he asked whether any one had any doubt about the Buddha, the law + or the society; if so, he would clear them up. No one answered, and + Ānanda expressed his surprise that amongst so many none should + doubt, and all be firmly attached to the law. But the Buddha laid stress + on the final perseverance of the saints, saying that even the least among + the disciples who had entered the first path only, still had his heart + fixed on the way to perfection, and constantly strove after the three + higher paths. "No doubt," he said, "can be found in the mind of a true + disciple." After another pause he said: "Behold now, brethren, this is my + exhortation to you. Decay is inherent in all component things. Work out, + therefore, your emancipation with diligence!" These were the last words + the Buddha spoke; shortly afterwards he became unconscious, and in that + state passed away.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Authorities On The Life Of The + Buddha</span>.—Canonical Pāli (reached their present shape + before the 4th century <span class="scac">B.C.</span>); episodes only, + three of them long: (1) <i>Birth</i>; text in <i>Majjhima + Nikāya</i>, ed. Trenckner and Chalmers (London, Pāli Text + Society, 1888-1899), vol. iii. pp. 118-124; also in <i>Anguttara + Nikāya</i>, ed. Morris and Hardy (Pāli Text Society, + 1888-1900), vol. ii. pp. 130-132. (2) <i>Adoration of the babe</i>; old + ballad; text in <i>Sutta Nipāta</i>, ed. Fausböll (Pāli Text + Society, 1884), pp. 128-131; translation by the same in <i>Sacred Books + of the East</i> (Oxford, 1881), vol. x. pp. 124-131. (3) <i>Youth at + home</i>; text in <i>Anguttara Nikāya</i>, i. 145. (4) <i>The going + forth</i>; old ballad; text in <i>Sutta Nipata</i>, pp. 70-74 (London, + 1896), pp. 99-101; prose account in <i>Dīgha Nikāya</i>, ed. + Rhys Davids and Carpenter (Pāli Text Society, 1890-1893), vol. i. + p. 115, translated by Rhys Davids in <i>Dialogues of the Buddha</i> + (Oxford, 1899), pp. 147-149. (5) <i>First long episode</i>; the going + forth, years of study and penance, attainment of Nirvāna and + Buddhahood, and conversion of first five converts; text in + <i>Majjhima</i>, all together at ii. 93; parts repeated at i. 163-175, + 240-249; ii. 212; <i>Vinaya</i>, ed. Oldenberg (London, 1879-1883), vol. + i. pp. 1-13. (6) <i>Second long episode</i>; from the conversation of the + five down to the end of the first year of the teaching; text in + <i>Vinaya</i>, i. 13-44, translated by Oldenberg in <i>Vinaya Texts</i>, + i. 73-151. (7) <i>Visit to Kapilavastu</i>; text in <i>Vinaya</i>, i. 82; + translation by Oldenberg in <i>Vinaya Texts</i> (Oxford, 1881-1885), vol. + i. pp. 207-210. (8) <i>Third long episode</i>; the last days; text in + <i>Dīgha Nikāya</i> (the <i>Mahāparinibbāna + Suttanta</i>), vol. ii. pp. 72-168, translated by Rhys Davids <i>in + Buddhist Suttas</i> (Oxford, 1881), pp. 1-136. Buddhist Sanskrit Texts: + (i) <i>Mahāvastu</i> (probably 2nd century <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>); edited by Senart (3 vols., Paris, 1882-1897), + summary in French prefixed to each volume; down to the end of first year + of the teaching. (2) <i>Lalita Vistara</i> (probably 1st century <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>); edited by Mitra (Calcutta, 1877); translated + into French by Foucaux (Paris, 1884); down to the first sermon. (3) + <i>Buddha Carita</i>, by Ašvaghosha, probably 2nd century <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> edited by Cowell (Oxford, 1892); translated by + Cowell (Oxford, 1894, S.B.E. vol. xlix.); an elegant poem; stops just + before the attainment of Buddhahood. (These three works reproduce and + amplify the above episodes Nos. 1-6; they retain here and there a very + old tradition as to arrangement of clauses or turns of expression.) Later + Pāli: The commentary on the <i>Jātaka</i>, written probably + in the 5th century <span class="scac">A.D.</span>, gives a consecutive + narrative, from the birth to the end of the second year of the teaching, + based on the canonical texts, but much altered and amplified; edited by + Fausböll in <i>Jātaka</i>, vol. i. (London, 1877), pp. 1-94; + translated by Rhys Davids in <i>Buddhist Birth Stories</i> (London, + 1880), pp. 1-133. Modern Works: (i) Tibetan; <i>Life of the Buddha</i>; + episodes collected and translated by W. Woodville Rockhill (London, + 1884), from Tibetan texts of the 9th and 10th centuries <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> (2) Sinhalese; episodes collected and translated + by Spence Hardy from Sinhalese texts of the 12th and later centuries, in + <i>Manual of Buddhism</i> (London, 1897, 2nd edition), pp. 138-359. (3) + Burmese: <i>The Life or Legend of Gaudama</i> (3rd edition, London, + 1880), by the Right Rev. P. Bigandet, translated from a Burmese work of + <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 1773. (The Burmese is, in its turn, a + translation from a Pāli work of unknown date; it gives the whole + life, and is the only consecutive biography we have.) (4) Kambojian: + <i>Pathama Sambodhian</i>; translated into French by A. Leclère in + <i>Livres sacrés du Cambodge</i> (Paris, 1906).</p> + + <p>(T. W. R. D.)</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_291" href="#FnAnchor_291">[1]</a> <i>Note on the + Date of the Buddha.</i>—The now generally accepted date of the + Buddha is arrived at by adding together two numbers, one being the date + of the accession of Asoka to the throne, the second being the length of + the interval between that date and that of the death of the Buddha. The + first figure, that of the date of Asoka, is arrived at by the mention in + one of his edicts of certain Greek kings, as then living. The dates of + these last are approximately known; and arguing from these dates the date + of Asoka's accession has been fixed by various scholars (at dates varying + only by a difference of five years more or less) at about 270 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> The second figure, the total interval between + Asoka's accession and the Buddha's death, is given in the Ceylon + Chronicles as 218 years. Adding these two together, the date of the + Buddha's death would be 488 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, and, as he + was eighty years old at the time of his death, the date of his birth + would be 568 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> The dates for his death and + birth accepted in Burma, Siam and Ceylon are about half a century + earlier, namely, 543 and 623 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, the + difference being in the date of Asoka's accession. It will be seen that + the dates as adopted in Europe are approximate only, and liable to + correction if better data are obtainable. The details of this + chronological question are discussed at length in Professor Rhys Davids' + <i>Ancient Coins and Measures of Ceylon</i> (London, 1877), where the + previous discussions are referred to.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_292" href="#FnAnchor_292">[2]</a> See report of + <i>Rex</i>. v. <i>Neuhaus</i>, Clerkenwell Sessions, September 15, + 1906.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_293" href="#FnAnchor_293">[3]</a> The various + legends of Mara are the subject of an exhaustive critical analysis in + Windsisch's <i>Mara and Buddha</i> (Leipzig, 1895).</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_294" href="#FnAnchor_294">[4]</a> Bigandet, p. 49; + and compare <i>Jataka</i>, p. 67, line 27.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_295" href="#FnAnchor_295">[5]</a> <i>Vinaya + Texts</i>, i. 97-99; cf. <i>Jataka</i>, vol. i. p. 82, lines 11-19.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_296" href="#FnAnchor_296">[6]</a> <i>Samyutta</i>, + i. 105.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_297" href="#FnAnchor_297">[7]</a> Cf. Big. p. 99, + with Hardy, <i>M.B.</i> p. 191. The Pali name is <i>aditta-pariyaya</i>: + the sermon on the lessons to be drawn from burning. The text is + <i>Vinaya</i>, i. 34 = <i>Samyutta</i>, iv. 19. A literal translation + will be found in <i>Vinaya Texts</i>, i. 134, 135.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_298" href="#FnAnchor_298">[8]</a> These were at + first simple huts, built for the mendicants in some grove of palm-trees + as a retreat during the rainy season; but they gradually increased in + splendour and magnificence till the decay of Buddhism set in. See the + authorities quoted in <i>Buddhist India</i>, pp. 141, 142.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_299" href="#FnAnchor_299">[9]</a> The text of the + account of this last journey is the <i>Mahāparinibbāna + Suttanta</i>, vol. ii. of the <i>Dīgha</i> (ed. Rhys Davids and + Carpenter) The translation is in Rhys Davids' <i>Buddhist Suttas</i>.</p> + +</div> + <p><b>BUDDHAGHOSA,</b> a celebrated Buddhist writer. He was a Brahmin by + birth and was born near the great Bodhi tree at Budh Gayā; in north + India about <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 390, his father's name being + Kesī. His teacher, Revata, induced him to go to Ceylon, where the + commentaries on the scriptures had been preserved in the Sinhalese + language, with the object of translating them into Pāli. He went + accordingly to Anuradhapura, studied there under Sanghapāla, and + asked leave of the fraternity there to translate the commentaries. With + their consent he then did so, having first shown his ability by writing + the work <i>Visuddhi Magga</i> (the Path of Purity, a kind of summary of + Buddhist doctrine). When he had completed his many years' labours he + returned to the neighbourhood of the Bodhi tree in north India. Before he + came to Ceylon he had already written a book entitled + <i>Nānodaya</i> (the Rise of Knowledge), and had commenced a + commentary on the principal psychological manual contained in the + <i>Pitakas</i>. This latter work he afterwards rewrote in Ceylon, as the + present text (now published by the Pāli Text Society) shows. One + volume of the <i>Sumangala Vilāsinī</i> (a portion of the + commentaries mentioned above) has been edited, and extracts from his + comment on the Buddhist canon law. This last work has been discovered in + a nearly <span class="correction" title="'comtemporaneous' in original" + >contemporaneous</span> Chinese translation (an edition in Pāli is + based on a comparison with that translation). The works here mentioned + form, however, only a small portion of what Buddhaghosa wrote. His + industry must have been prodigious. He is known to have written books + that would fill about 20 octavo volumes of about 400 pages each; and + there are other writings ascribed to him which may or may not be really + his work. It is too early therefore to attempt a criticism of it. But it + is already clear that, when made acceptable, it will be of the greatest + value for the history of Indian literature and of Indian ideas. So much + is uncertain at present in that history for want of definite dates that + the voluminous writings of an author whose date is approximately certain + will afford a standard by which the age of other writings can be tested. + And as the original commentaries in Sinhalese are now lost his works are + the only evidence we have of the traditions then handed down in the + Buddhist community. The main source of our information about Buddhaghosa + is the <i>Mahāvamsa</i>, written in Anurādhapura about fifty + years after he was working there. But there are numerous references to + him in Pāli books on Pāli literature; and a Burmese author of + unknown date, but possibly of the 15th century, has compiled a biography + of him, the <i>Buddhaghos' Uppatti</i>, of little value and no critical + judgment.</p> + + <p>See <i>Mahāvamsa</i>, ch. xxxvii. (ed. Turnour, Colombo, 1837); + "Gandhavaramsa," p. 59, in <i>Journal of the Pāli Text Society</i> + (1886); <i>Buddhghosuppatti</i> (text and translation, ed. by E. Gray, + London, 1893); <i>Sumangala Vilāsinī</i>, edited by T. W. + Rhys Davids and J. E. Carpenter, vol. i. (London, Pāli Text + Society, 1886). (T. W. R. D.)</p> + + <p><b>BUDDHISM,</b> the religion held by the followers of the Buddha + (<i>q.v.</i>), and covering a large area in India and east and central + Asia.</p> + + <p><i>Essential Doctrines.</i>—We are fortunate in having preserved + for us the official report of the Buddha's discourse, in which he + expounded what he considered the main features of his system to the five + men he first tried to win over to his new-found faith. There is no reason + to doubt its substantial accuracy, not as to words, but as to purport. In + any case it is what the compilers of the oldest extant documents believed + their teacher to have regarded as the most important points in his + teaching. Such a summary must be better than any that could now be made. + It is incorporated into two divisions of their sacred books, first among + the <i>suttas</i> containing the doctrine, and again in the rules of the + society or order he founded (<i>Samyutta</i>, v. 421 = <i>Vinaya</i>, i. + 10). The gist of it, omitting a few repetitions, is as + follows:—</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>"There are two aims which he who has given up the world ought not to + follow after—devotion, on the one hand, to those things whose + attractions depend upon the passions, a low and pagan ideal, fit only for + the worldly-minded, ignoble, unprofitable, and the practice on the other + hand of asceticism, which is painful, ignoble, unprofitable. There is a + Middle Path discovered by the Tathāgata<a name="FnAnchor_301" + href="#Footnote_301"><sup>[1]</sup></a>—a path which opens the + eyes, and bestows understanding, which leads to peace, to insight, to the + higher wisdom, to Nirvāna. Verily! it is this Noble Eightfold Path; + that is to say, Right Views, Right Aspirations, Right Speech, Right + Conduct, Right Mode of Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and + Right Rapture.</p> + + <p>"Now this is the Noble Truth as to suffering. Birth is attended with + pain, decay is painful, disease is painful, death is painful. Union with + the unpleasant is painful, painful is separation from the pleasant; and + any craving unsatisfied, that too is painful. In brief, the five + aggregates of clinging (that is, the conditions of individuality) are + painful.</p> + + <p>"Now this is the Noble Truth as to the origin of suffering. Verily! it + is the craving thirst that causes the renewal of becomings, that is + accompanied by sensual delights, and seeks satisfaction now here, now + there—that is to say, the craving for the gratification of the + senses, or the craving for a future life, or the craving for + prosperity.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 743 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page743"></a>[v.04 p.0743]</span></p> + + <p>"Now this is the Noble Truth as to the passing away of pain. Verily! + it is the passing away so that no passion remains, the giving up, the + getting rid of, the being emancipated from, the harbouring no longer of + this craving thirst.</p> + + <p>"Now this is the Noble Truth as to the way that leads to the passing + away of pain. Verily! it is this Noble Eightfold Path, that is to say, + Right Views, Right Aspirations, Right speech, conduct and mode of + livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness and Right Rapture."</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>A few words follow as to the threefold way in which the speaker + claimed to have grasped each of these Four Truths. That is all. There is + not a word about God or the soul, not a word about the Buddha or + Buddhism. It seems simple, almost jejune; so thin and weak that one + wonders how it can have formed the foundation for a system so mighty in + its historical results. But the simple words are pregnant with meaning. + Their implications were clear enough to the hearers to whom they were + addressed. They were not intended, however, to answer the questionings of + a 20th-century European questioner, and are liable now to be + misunderstood. Fortunately each word, each clause, each idea in the + discourse is repeated, commented on, enlarged upon, almost <i>ad + nauseam</i>, in the <i>suttas</i>, and a short comment in the light of + those explanations may bring out the meaning that was meant.<a + name="FnAnchor_302" href="#Footnote_302"><sup>[2]</sup></a></p> + + <p>The passing away of pain or suffering is said to depend on an + emancipation. And the Buddha is elsewhere (<i>Vinaya</i> ii. 239) made to + declare: "Just as the great ocean has one taste only, the taste of salt, + just so have this doctrine and discipline but one flavour only, the + flavour of emancipation"; and again, "When a brother has, by himself, + known and realized, and continues to abide, here in this visible world, + in that emancipation of mind, in that emancipation of heart, which is + Arahatship; that is a condition higher still and sweeter still, for the + sake of which the brethren lead the religious life under me."<a + name="FnAnchor_303" href="#Footnote_303"><sup>[3]</sup></a> The + emancipation is found in a habit of mind, in the being free from a + specified sort of craving that is said to be the origin of certain + specified sorts of pain. In some European books this is completely + spoiled by being represented as the doctrine that existence is misery, + and that desire is to be suppressed. Nothing of the kind is said in the + text. The description of suffering or pain is, in fact, a string of + truisms, quite plain and indisputable until the last clause. That clause + declares that the <i>Upādāna Skandhas</i>, the five groups of + the constituent parts of every individual, involve pain. Put into modern + language this is that the conditions necessary to make an individual are + also the conditions that necessarily give rise to sorrow. No sooner has + an individual become separate, become an individual, than disease and + decay begin to act upon it. Individuality involves limitation, limitation + in its turn involves ignorance, and ignorance is the source of sorrow. + Union with the unpleasant, separation from the pleasant, unsatisfied + craving, are each a result of individuality. This is a deeper + generalization than that which says, "A man is born to trouble as the + sparks fly upward." But it is put forward as a mere statement of fact. + And the previous history of religious belief in India would tend to show + that emphasis was laid on the fact, less as an explanation of the origin + of evil, than as a protest against a then current pessimistic idea that + salvation could not be reached on earth, and must therefore be sought for + in a rebirth in heaven, in the <i>Brahmaloka</i>. For if the + fact—the fact that the conditions of individuality are the + conditions, also, of pain—were admitted, then the individual there + would still not have escaped from sorrow. If the five ascetics to whom + the words were addressed once admitted this implication, logic would + drive them also to admit all that followed.</p> + + <p>The threefold division of craving at the end of the second truth might + be rendered "the lust of the flesh, the lust of life and the love of this + present world." The two last are said elsewhere to be directed against + two sets of thinkers called the Eternalists and the Annihilationists, who + held respectively the everlasting-life-heresy and the + let-us-eat-and-drink-for-tomorrow-we-die-heresy.<a name="FnAnchor_304" + href="#Footnote_304"><sup>[4]</sup></a> This may be so, but in any case + the division of craving would have appealed to the five hearers as + correct.</p> + + <p>The word translated "noble" in Noble Path, Noble Truth, is + <i>ariya</i>, which also means Aryan.<a name="FnAnchor_305" + href="#Footnote_305"><sup>[5]</sup></a> The negative, un-Aryan, is used + of each of the two low aims. It is possible that this rendering should + have been introduced into the translation; but the ethical meaning, + though still associated with the tribal meaning, had probably already + become predominant in the language of the time.</p> + + <p>The details of the Path include several terms whose meaning and + implication are by no means apparent at first sight. Right Views, for + instance, means mainly right views as to the Four Truths and the Three + Signs. Of the latter, one is identical, or nearly so, with the First + Truth. The others are Impermanence and Non-soul (the absence of a + soul)—both declared to be "signs" of every individual, whether god, + animal or man. Of these two again the Impermanence has become an Indian + rather than a Buddhist idea, and we are to a certain extent familiar with + it also in the West. There is no Being, there is only a Becoming. The + state of every individual is unstable, temporary, sure to pass away. Even + in the lowest class of things, we find, in each individual, form and + material qualities. In the higher classes there is a continually rising + series of mental qualities also. It is the union of these that makes the + individual. Every person, or thing, or god, is therefore a putting + together, a compound; and in each individual, without any exception, the + relation of its component parts is ever changing, is never the same for + two consecutive moments. It follows that no sooner has separateness, + individuality, begun, than dissolution, disintegration, also begins. + There can be no individuality without a putting together: there can be no + putting together without a becoming: there can be no becoming without a + becoming different: and there can be no becoming different without a + dissolution, a passing away, which sooner or later will inevitably be + complete.</p> + + <p>Heracleitus, who was a generation or two later than the Buddha, had + very similar ideas;<a name="FnAnchor_306" + href="#Footnote_306"><sup>[6]</sup></a> and similar ideas are found in + post-Buddhistic Indian works.<a name="FnAnchor_307" + href="#Footnote_307"><sup>[7]</sup></a> But in neither case are they + worked out in the same uncompromising way. Both in Europe, and in all + Indian thought except the Buddhist, souls, and the gods who are made in + imitation of souls, are considered as exceptions. To these spirits is + attributed a Being without Becoming, an individuality without change, a + beginning without an end. To hold any such view would, according to the + doctrine of the Noble (or Aryan) Path, be erroneous, and the error would + block the way against the very entrance on the Path.</p> + + <p>So important is this position in Buddhism that it is put in the + forefront of Buddhist expositions of Buddhism. The Buddha himself is + stated in the books to have devoted to it the very first discourse he + addressed to the first converts.<a name="FnAnchor_308" + href="#Footnote_308"><sup>[8]</sup></a> The first in the collection of + the <i>Dialogues of Gotama</i> discusses, and completely, categorically, + and systematically rejects, all the current theories about "souls." Later + books follow these precedents. Thus the <i>Kathā Vatthu</i>, the + latest book included in the canon, discusses points of disagreement that + had arisen in the community. It places this question of "soul" at the + head of all the points it deals with, and devotes to it an amount of + space quite overshadowing all the rest.<a name="FnAnchor_309" + href="#Footnote_309"><sup>[9]</sup></a> So also in the earliest Buddhist + book later than the canon—the very interesting and suggestive + series of conversations between the Greek king Menander and the Buddhist + teacher Nāgasena. It is precisely this question of the "soul" that + the unknown author takes up first, describing how Nāgasena + convinces the king that there is no such thing as the <!-- Page 744 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page744"></a>[v.04 p.0744]</span>"soul" + in the ordinary sense, and he returns to the subject again and again.<a + name="FnAnchor_3010" href="#Footnote_3010"><sup>[10]</sup></a></p> + + <p>After Right Views come Right Aspirations. It is evil desires, low + ideals, useless cravings, idle excitements, that are to be suppressed by + the cultivation of the opposite—of right desires, lofty + aspirations. In one of the Dialogues<a name="FnAnchor_3011" + href="#Footnote_3011"><sup>[11]</sup></a> instances are given—the + desire for emancipation from sensuality, aspirations towards the + attainment of love to others, the wish not to injure any living thing, + the desire for the eradication of wrong and for the promotion of right + dispositions in one's own heart, and so on. This portion of the Path is + indeed quite simple, and would require no commentary were it not for the + still constantly repeated blunder that Buddhism teaches the suppression + of all desire.</p> + + <p>Of the remaining stages of the Path it is only necessary to mention + two. The one is Right Effort. A constant intellectual alertness is + required. This is not only insisted upon elsewhere in countless passages, + but of the three cardinal sins in Buddhism (<i>rāga</i>, + <i>dosa</i>, <i>moha</i>) the last and worst is stupidity or dullness, + the others being sensuality and ill-will. Right Effort is closely + connected with the seventh stage, Right Mindfulness. Two of the dialogues + are devoted to this subject, and it is constantly referred to + elsewhere.<a name="FnAnchor_3012" + href="#Footnote_3012"><sup>[12]</sup></a> The disciple, whatsoever he + does—whether going forth or coming back, standing or walking, + speaking or silent, eating or drinking—is to keep clearly in mind + all that it means, the temporary character of the act, its ethical + significance, and above all that behind the act there is no actor (goer, + seer, eater, speaker) that is an eternally persistent unity. It is the + Buddhist analogue to the Christian precept: "Whether therefore ye eat or + drink, or whatsoever ye do, do all to the glory of God."</p> + + <p>Under the head of Right Conduct the two most important points are Love + and Joy. Love is in Pāli <i>Mettā</i>, and the <i>Metta + Sutta</i><a name="FnAnchor_3013" + href="#Footnote_3013"><sup>[13]</sup></a> says (no doubt with reference + to the Right Mindfulness just described): "As a mother, even at the risk + of her own life, protects her son, her only son, so let him cultivate + love without measure towards all beings. Let him cultivate towards the + whole world—above, below, around—a heart of love unstinted, + unmixed with the sense of differing or opposing interests. Let a man + maintain this mindfulness all the while he is awake, whether he be + standing, walking, sitting or lying down. This state of heart is the best + in the world."</p> + + <p>Often elsewhere four such states are described, the Brahma + Vihāras or Sublime Conditions. They are Love, Sorrow at the sorrows + of others, Joy in the joys of others, and Equanimity as regards one's own + joys and sorrows.<a name="FnAnchor_3014" + href="#Footnote_3014"><sup>[14]</sup></a> Each of these feelings was to + be deliberately practised, beginning with a single object, and gradually + increasing till the whole world was suffused with the feeling. "Our mind + shall not waver. No evil speech will we utter. Tender and compassionate + will we abide, loving in heart, void of malice within. And we will be + ever suffusing such a one with the rays of our loving thought. And with + that feeling as a basis we will ever be suffusing the whole wide world + with thought of love far-reaching, grown great, beyond measure, void of + anger or ill-will."<a name="FnAnchor_3015" + href="#Footnote_3015"><sup>[15]</sup></a></p> + + <p>The relative importance of love, as compared with other habits, is + thus described. "All the means that can be used as bases for doing right + are not worth the sixteenth part of the emancipation of the heart through + love. That takes all those up into itself, outshining them in radiance + and glory. Just as whatsoever stars there be, their radiance avails not + the sixteenth part of the radiance of the moon. That takes all those up + into itself, outshining them in radiance and glory—just as in the + last month of the rains, at harvest time, the sun, mounting up on high + into the clear and cloudless sky, overwhelms all darkness in the realms + of space, and shines forth in radiance and glory—just as in the + night, when the dawn is breaking, the morning star shines out in radiance + and glory—just so all the means that can be used as helps towards + doing right avail not the sixteenth part of the emancipation of the heart + through love."<a name="FnAnchor_3016" + href="#Footnote_3016"><sup>[16]</sup></a></p> + + <p>The above is the positive side; the qualities (<i>dhammā</i>) + that have to be acquired. The negative side, the qualities that have to + be suppressed by the cultivation of the opposite virtues, are the Ten + Bonds (<i>Samyojanas</i>), the Four Intoxications + (<i>Āsavā</i>) and the Five Hindrances + (<i>Nīvaranas</i>).</p> + + <p>The Ten Bonds are: (1) Delusion about the soul; (2) Doubt; (3) + Dependence on good works; (4) Sensuality; (5) Hatred, ill-feeling; (6) + Love of life on earth; (7) Desire for life in heaven; (8) Pride; (9) + Self-righteousness; (10) Ignorance. The Four Intoxications are the mental + intoxication arising respectively from (1) Bodily passions, (2) Becoming, + (3) Delusion, (4) Ignorance. The Five Hindrances are (1) Hankering after + worldly advantages, (2) The corruption arising out of the wish to injure, + (3) Torpor of mind, (4) Fretfulness and worry, (5) Wavering of mind.<a + name="FnAnchor_3017" href="#Footnote_3017"><sup>[17]</sup></a> "When + these five hindrances have been cut away from within him, he looks upon + himself as freed from debt, rid of disease, out of jail, a free man and + secure. And gladness springs up within him on his realizing that, and joy + arises to him thus gladdened, and so rejoicing all his frame becomes at + ease, and being thus at ease he is filled with a sense of peace, and in + that peace his heart is stayed."<a name="FnAnchor_3018" + href="#Footnote_3018"><sup>[18]</sup></a></p> + + <p>To have realized the Truths, and traversed the Path; to have broken + the Bonds, put an end to the Intoxications, and got rid of the + Hindrances, is to have attained the ideal, the Fruit, as it is called, of + Arahatship. One might fill columns with the praises, many of them among + the most beautiful passages in Pāli poetry and prose, lavished on + this condition of mind, the state of the man made perfect according to + the Buddhist faith. Many are the pet names, the poetic epithets bestowed + upon it—the harbour of refuge, the cool cave, the island amidst the + floods, the place of bliss, emancipation, liberation, safety, the + supreme, the transcendent, the uncreated, the tranquil, the home of + peace, the calm, the end of suffering, the medicine for all evil, the + unshaken, the ambrosia, the immaterial, the imperishable, the abiding, + the farther shore, the unending, the bliss of effort, the supreme joy, + the ineffable, the detachment, the holy city, and many others. Perhaps + the most frequent in the Buddhist text is Arahatship, "the state of him + who is worthy"; and the one exclusively used in Europe is Nirvāna, + the "dying out"; that is, the dying out in the heart of the fell fire of + the three cardinal sins—sensuality, ill-will and stupidity.<a + name="FnAnchor_3019" href="#Footnote_3019"><sup>[19]</sup></a></p> + + <p>The choice of this term by European writers, a choice made long before + any of the Buddhist canonical texts had been published or translated, has + had a most unfortunate result. Those writers did not share, could not be + expected to share, the exuberant optimism of the early Buddhists. + Themselves giving up this world as hopeless, and looking for salvation in + the next, they naturally thought the Buddhists must do the same, and in + the absence of any authentic scriptures, to correct the mistake, they + interpreted Nirvāna, in terms of their own belief, as a state to be + reached after death. As such they supposed the "dying out" must mean the + dying out of a "soul"; and endless were the discussions as to whether + this meant eternal trance, or absolute annihilation, of the "soul." It is + now thirty years since the right interpretation, founded on the canonical + texts, has been given, but outside the ranks of Pāli scholars the + old blunder is still often repeated. It should be added that the belief + in salvation in this world, in this life, has appealed so strongly to + Indian sympathies that from the time of the rise of Buddhism down to the + present day it has been adopted as a part of general Indian belief, and + <i>Jīvanmukti</i>, salvation during this life, has become a + commonplace in the religious language of India.</p> + + <p><i>Adopted Doctrines.</i>—The above are the essential doctrines + of <!-- Page 745 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page745"></a>[v.04 + p.0745]</span>the original Buddhism. They are at the same time its + distinctive doctrines; that is to say, the doctrines that distinguish it + from all previous teaching in India. But the Buddha, while rejecting the + sacrifices and the ritualistic magic of the brahmin schools, the + animistic superstitions of the people, the asceticism and soul-theory of + the Jains, and the pantheistic speculations of the poets of the + pre-Buddhistic <i>Upanishads</i>, still retained the belief in + transmigration. This belief—the transmigration of the soul, after + the death of the body, into other bodies, either of men, beasts or + gods—is part of the animistic creed so widely found throughout the + world that it was probably universal. In India it had already, before the + rise of Buddhism, been raised into an ethical conception by the + associated doctrine of <i>Karma</i>, according to which a man's social + position in life and his physical advantages, or the reverse, were the + result of his actions in a previous birth. The doctrine thus afforded an + explanation, quite complete to those who believed it, of the apparent + anomalies and wrongs in the distribution here of happiness or woe. A man, + for instance, is blind. This is owing to his lust of the eye in a + previous birth. But he has also unusual powers of hearing. This is + because he loved, in a previous birth, to listen to the preaching of the + law. The explanation could always be exact, for it was scarcely more than + a repetition of the point to be explained. It fits the facts because it + is derived from them. And it cannot be disproved, for it lies in a sphere + beyond the reach of human inquiry.</p> + + <p>It was because it thus provided a moral cause that it was retained in + Buddhism. But as the Buddha did not acknowledge a soul, the link of + connexion between one life and the next had to be found somewhere else. + The Buddha found it (as Plato also found it)<a name="FnAnchor_3020" + href="#Footnote_3020"><sup>[20]</sup></a> in the influence exercised upon + one life by a desire felt in the previous life. When two thinkers of such + eminence (probably the two greatest ethical thinkers of antiquity) have + arrived independently at this strange conclusion, have agreed in + ascribing to cravings, felt in this life, so great, and to us so + inconceivable, a power over the future life, we may well hesitate before + we condemn the idea as intrinsically absurd, and we may take note of the + important fact that, given similar conditions, similar stages in the + development of religious belief, men's thoughts, even in spite of the + most unquestioned individual originality, tend though they may never + produce exactly the same results, to work in similar ways.</p> + + <p>In India, before Buddhism, conflicting and contradictory views + prevailed as to the precise mode of action of <i>Karma</i>; and we find + this confusion reflected in Buddhist theory. The prevailing views are + tacked on, as it were, to the essential doctrines of Buddhism, without + being thoroughly assimilated to them, or logically incorporated with + them. Thus in the story of the good layman Citta, it is an aspiration + expressed on the deathbed;<a name="FnAnchor_3021" + href="#Footnote_3021"><sup>[21]</sup></a> in the dialogue on the subject, + it is a thought dwelt on during life,<a name="FnAnchor_3022" + href="#Footnote_3022"><sup>[22]</sup></a> in the numerous stories in the + <i>Peta</i> and <i>Vimāna Vatthus</i> it is usually some isolated + act, in the discussions in the <i>Dhamma Sangani</i> it is some mental + disposition, which is the <i>Karma</i> (doing or action) in the one life + determining the position of the individual in the next. These are really + conflicting propositions. They are only alike in the fact that in each + case a moral cause is given for the position in which the individual + finds himself now; and the moral cause is his own act.</p> + + <p>In the popular belief, followed also in the brahmin theology, the + bridge between the two lives was a minute and subtle entity called the + soul, which left the one body at death, through a hole at the top of the + head, and entered into the new body. The new body happened to be there, + ready, with no soul in it. The soul did not make the body. In the + Buddhist adaptation of this theory no soul, no consciousness, no memory, + goes over from one body to the other. It is the grasping, the craving, + still existing at the death of the one body that causes the new set of + <i>Skandhas</i>, that is, the new body with its mental tendencies and + capacities, to arise. How this takes place is nowhere explained.</p> + + <p>The Indian theory of <i>Karma</i> has been worked out with many points + of great beauty and ethical value. And the Buddhist adaptation of it, + avoiding some of the difficulties common to it and to the allied European + theories of fate and predestination, tries to explain the weight of the + universe in its action on the individual, the heavy hand of the + immeasurable past we cannot escape, the close connexion between all forms + of life, and the mysteries of inherited character. Incidentally it held + out the hope, to those who believed in it, of a mode of escape from the + miseries of transmigration. For as the Arahat had conquered the cravings + that were supposed to produce the new body, his actions were no longer + <i>Karma</i>, but only <i>Kiriyā</i>, that led to no rebirth.<a + name="FnAnchor_3023" href="#Footnote_3023"><sup>[23]</sup></a></p> + + <p>Another point of Buddhist teaching adopted from previous belief was + the practice of ecstatic meditation. In the very earliest times of the + most remote animism we find the belief that a person, rapt from all sense + of the outside world, possessed by a spirit, acquired from that state a + degree of sanctity, was supposed to have a degree of insight, denied to + ordinary mortals. In India from the soma frenzy in the <i>Vedas</i>, + through the mystic reveries of the <i>Upanishads</i>, and the hypnotic + trances of the ancient Yoga, allied beliefs and practices had never lost + their importance and their charm. It is clear from the <i>Dialogues</i>, + and other of the most ancient Buddhist records,<a name="FnAnchor_3024" + href="#Footnote_3024"><sup>[24]</sup></a> that the belief was in full + force when Buddhism arose, and that the practice was followed by the + Buddha's teachers. It was quite impossible for him to ignore the + question; and the practice was admitted as a part of the training of the + Buddhist Bhikshu. But it was not the highest or the most important part, + and might be omitted altogether. The states of Rapture are called + Conditions of Bliss, and they are regarded as useful for the help they + give towards the removal of the mental obstacles to the attainment of + Arahatship.<a name="FnAnchor_3025" + href="#Footnote_3025"><sup>[25]</sup></a> Of the thirty-seven constituent + parts of Arahatship they enter into one group of four. To seek for + Arahatship in the practice of the ecstasy alone is considered a deadly + heresy.<a name="FnAnchor_3026" href="#Footnote_3026"><sup>[26]</sup></a> + So these practices are both pleasant in themselves, and useful as one of + the means to the end proposed. But they are not the end, and the end can + be reached without them. The most ancient form these exercises took is + recorded in the often recurring paragraphs translated in Rhys Davids' + <i>Dialogues of the Buddha</i> (i. 84-92). More modern, and much more + elaborate, forms are given in the <i>Yogāvacaras Manual of Indian + Mysticism as practised by Buddhists</i>, edited by Rhys Davids from a + unique MS. for the Pāli Text Society in 1896. In the Introduction + to this last work the various phases of the question are discussed at + length.</p> + + <p><i>Buddhist Texts. The Canonical Books.</i>—It is necessary to + remember that the Buddha, like other Indian teachers of his period, + taught by conversation only. A highly-educated man (according to the + education current at the time), speaking constantly to men of similar + education, he followed the literary habit of his day by embodying his + doctrines in set phrases (<i>sūtras</i>), on which he enlarged, on + different occasions, in different ways. Writing was then widely known. + But the lack of suitable writing materials made any lengthy books + impossible. Such sūtras were therefore the recognized form of + preserving and communicating opinion. They were catchwords, as it were, + <i>memoria technica</i>, which could easily be remembered, and would + recall the fuller expositions that had been based upon them. Shortly + after the Buddha's time the Brahmins had their sūtras in Sanskrit, + already a dead language. He purposely put his into the ordinary + conversational idiom of the day, that is to say, into Pāli. When + the Buddha died these sayings were collected together by his disciples + into what they call the Four Nikāyas, or "collections." These + cannot have reached their final form till about fifty or sixty years + afterwards. Other sayings and verses, most of them ascribed, not to the + Buddha, but to the disciples themselves, were put into a supplementary + Nikāya. We know <!-- Page 746 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page746"></a>[v.04 p.0746]</span>of slight additions made to this + Nikāya as late as the time of Asoka, 3rd century <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> And the developed doctrine, found in certain + portions of it, shows that these are later than the four old + Nikāyas. For a generation or two the books so put together were + handed down by memory, though probably written memoranda were also used. + And they were doubtless accompanied from the first, as they were being + taught, by a running commentary. About one hundred years after the + Buddha's death there was a schism in the community. Each of the two + schools kept an arrangement of the canon—still in Pāli, or + some allied dialect. Sanskrit was not used for any Buddhist works till + long afterwards, and never used at all, so far as is known, for the + canonical books. Each of these two schools broke up in the following + centuries, into others. Several of them had their different arrangements + of the canonical books, differing also in minor details. These books + remained the only authorities for about five centuries, but they all, + except only our extant Pāli Nikāyas, have been lost in India. + These then are our authorities for the earliest period of Buddhism. Now + what are these books?</p> + + <p>We talk necessarily of Pāli <i>books</i>. They are not books in + the modern sense. They are memorial sentences or verses intended to be + learnt by heart. And the whole style and method of arrangement is + entirely subordinated to this primary necessity. Each sūtra + (Pāli, <i>sutta</i>) is very short; usually occupying only a page, + or perhaps two, and containing a single proposition. When several of + these, almost always those that contain propositions of a similar kind, + are collected together in the framework of one dialogue, it is called a + <i>sullanta</i>. The usual length of such a suttanta is about a dozen + pages; only a few of them are longer, and a collection of such suttantas + might be called a book. But it is as yet neither narrative nor essay. It + is at most a string of passages, drawn up in similar form to assist the + memory, and intended, not to be read, but to be learnt by heart. The + first of the four Nikāyas is a collection of the longest of these + suttantas, and it is called accordingly the <i>Dīgha + Nikāya</i>, that is "the Collection of Long Ones" (<i>sci.</i> + Suttantas). The next is the <i>Majjhima Nikāya</i>, the "Collection + of the suttantas of Medium Length"—medium, that is, as being + shorter than the suttantas in the Dīgha, and longer than the + ordinary suttas preserved in the two following collections. Between them + these first two collections contain 186 dialogues, in which the Buddha, + or in a few cases one of his leading disciples, is represented as engaged + in conversation on some one of the religious, or philosophic, or ethical + points in that system which we now call Buddhism. In depth of philosophic + insight, in the method of Socratic questioning often adopted, in the + earnest and elevated tone of the whole, in the evidence they afford of + the most cultured thought of the day, these dialogues constantly remind + the reader of the dialogues of Plato. But not in style. They have indeed + a style of their own; always dignified, and occasionally rising into + eloquence. But for the reasons already given, it is entirely different + from the style of Western writings which are always intended to be read. + Historical scholars will, however, revere this collection of dialogues as + one of the most priceless of the treasures of antiquity still preserved + to us. It is to it, above all, that we shall always have to go for our + knowledge of the most ancient Buddhism. Of the 186, 175 had by 1907 been + edited for the Pāli Text Society, and the remainder were either in + the press or in preparation.</p> + + <p>A disadvantage of the arrangement in dialogues, more especially as + they follow one another according to length and not according to subject, + is that it is not easy to find the statement of doctrine on any + particular point which is interesting one at the moment. It is very + likely just this consideration which led to the compilation of the two + following Nikāyas. In the first of these, called the <i>Anguttara + Nikāya</i>, all those points of Buddhist doctrine capable of + expression in classes are set out in order. This practically includes + most of the psychology and ethics of Buddhism. For it is a distinguishing + mark of the dialogues themselves that the results arrived at are arranged + in carefully systematized groups. We are familiar enough in the West with + similar classifications, summed up in such expressions as the Seven + Deadly Sins, the Ten Commandments, the Thirty-nine Articles, the Four + Cardinal Virtues, the Seven Sacraments and a host of others. These + numbered lists (it is true) are going out of fashion. The aid which they + afford to memory is no longer required in an age in which books of + reference abound. It was precisely as a help to memory that they were + found so useful in the early Buddhist times, when the books were all + learnt by heart, and had never as yet been written. And in the Anguttara + we find set out in order first of all the units, then all the pairs, then + all the trios, and so on. It is the longest book in the Buddhist Bible, + and fills 1840 pages 8vo. The whole of the Pāli text has been + published by the Pāli Text Society, but only portions have been + translated into English. The next, and last, of these four collections + contains again the whole, or nearly the whole, of the Buddhist doctrine; + but arranged this time in order of subjects. It consists of 55 + <i>Samyuttas</i> or groups. In each of these the suttas on the same + subject, or in one or two cases the suttas addressed to the same sort of + people, are grouped together. The whole of it has been published in five + volumes by the Pāli Text Society. Only a few fragments have been + translated.</p> + + <p>Many hundreds of the short suttas and verses in these two collections + are found, word for word, in the dialogues. And there are numerous + instances of the introductory story stating how, and when, and to whom + the sutta was enunciated—a sort of narrative framework in which the + sutta is set—recurring also. This is very suggestive as to the way + in which the earliest Buddhist records were gradually built up. The + suttas came first embodying, in set phrases, the doctrine that had to be + handed down. Those episodes, found in two or three different places, and + always embodying several suttas, came next. Then several of these were + woven together to form a suttanta. And finally the suttantas were grouped + together into the two Nikāyas, and the suttas and episodes + separately into the two others. Parallel with this evolution, so to say, + of the suttas, the short statements of doctrine, in prose, ran the + treatment of the verses. There was a great love of poetry in the + communities in which Buddhism arose. Verses were helpful to the memory. + And they were adopted not only for this reason. The adherents of the new + view of life found pleasure in putting into appropriate verse the + feelings of enthusiasm and of ecstasy which the reforming doctrines + inspired. When particularly happy in literary finish, or peculiarly rich + in religious feeling, such verses were not lost. These were handed on, + from mouth to mouth, in the small companies of the brethren or sisters. + The oldest verses are all lyrics, expressions either of emotion, or of + some deep saying, some pregnant thought. Very few of them have been + preserved alone. And even then they are so difficult to understand, so + much like puzzles, that they were probably accompanied from the first by + a sort of comment in prose, stating when, and why, and by whom they were + supposed to have been uttered. As a general rule such a framework in + prose is actually preserved in the old Buddhist literature. It is only in + the very latest books included in the canon that the narrative part is + also regularly in verse, so that a whole work consists of a collection of + ballads. The last step, that of combining such ballads into one long epic + poem, was not taken till after the canon was closed. The whole process, + from the simple anecdote in mixed prose and verse, the so-called + <i>ākhyāna</i>, to the complete epic, comes out with striking + clearness in the history of the Buddhist canon. It is typical, one may + notice in passing, of the evolution of the epic elsewhere; in Iceland, + for instance, in Persia and in Greece. And we may safely draw the + conclusion that if the great Indian epics, the Mahā-bhārata + and the Rāmāyana, had been in existence when the formation of + the Buddhist canon began, the course of its development would have been + very different from what it was.</p> + + <p>As will easily be understood, the same reasons which led to literary + activity of this kind, in the earliest period, continued to hold good + afterwards. A number of such efforts, after the Nikāyas had been + closed, were included in a supplementary Nikāya called the + <i>Khuddaka Nikāya</i>. It will throw very useful light upon the + intellectual level in the Buddhist community just <!-- Page 747 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page747"></a>[v.04 p.0747]</span>after the + earliest period, and upon literary life in the valley of the Ganges in + the 4th or 5th century <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, if we briefly + explain what the tractates in this collection contain. The first, the + <i>Khuddaka Pātha</i>, is a little tract of only a few pages. After + a profession of faith in the Buddha, the doctrine and the order, there + follows a paragraph setting out the thirty-four constituents of the human + body—bones, blood, nerves and so on—strangely incongruous + with what follows. For that is simply a few of the most beautiful poems + to be found in the Buddhist scriptures. There is no apparent reason, + except their exquisite versification, why these particular pieces should + have been here brought together. It is most probable that this tiny + volume was simply a sort of first lesson book for young neophytes when + they joined the order. In any case that is one of the uses to which it is + put at present. The text book is the <i>Dhammapada</i>. Here are brought + together from ten to twenty stanzas on each of twenty-six selected points + of Buddhist self-training or ethics. There are altogether 423 verses, + gathered from various older sources, and strung together without any + other internal connexion than that they relate more or less to the same + subject. And the collector has not thought it necessary to choose stanzas + written in the same metre, or in the same number of lines. We know that + the early Christians were accustomed to sing hymns, both in their homes + and on the occasions of their meeting together. These hymns are now + irretrievably lost. Had some one made a collection of about twenty + isolated stanzas, chosen from these hymns, on each of about twenty + subjects—such as Faith, Hope, Love, the Converted Man, Times of + Trouble, Quiet Days, the Saviour, the Tree of Life, the Sweet Name, the + Dove, the King, the Land of Peace, the Joy Unspeakable—we should + have a Christian Dhammapada, and very precious such a collection would + be. The Buddhist Dhammapada has been edited by Professor Fausböll (2nd + ed., 1900), and has been frequently translated. Where the verses deal + with those ideas that are common to Christians and Buddhists, the + versions are easily intelligible, and some of the stanzas appeal very + strongly to the Western sense of religious beauty. Where the stanzas are + full of the technical terms of the Buddhist system of self-culture and + self-control, it is often impossible, without expansions that spoil the + poetry, or learned notes that distract the attention, to convey the full + sense of the original. In all these distinctively Buddhist verses the + existing translations (of which Professor Max Müller's is the best known, + and Dr Karl Neumann's the best) are inadequate and sometimes quite + erroneous. The connexion in which they were spoken is often apparent in + the more ancient books from which these verses have been taken, and has + been preserved in the commentary on the work itself.</p> + + <p>In the next little work the framework, the whole paraphernalia of the + ancient akhyāna, is included in the work itself, which is called + <i>Udāna</i>, or "ecstatic utterances." The Buddha is represented, + on various occasions during his long career, to have been so much moved + by some event, or speech, or action, that he gave vent, as it were, to + his pent-up feelings in a short, ecstatic utterance, couched, for the + most part, in one or two lines of poetry. These outbursts, very terse and + enigmatic, are charged with religious emotion, and turn often on some + subtle point of Arahatship, that is, of the Buddhist ideal of life. The + original text has been published by the Pāli Text Society. The + little book, a garland of fifty of these gems, has been translated by + General Strong. The next work is called the <i>Iti Vuttaka</i>. This + contains 120 short passages, each of them leading up to a terse deep + saying of the Buddha's, and introduced, in each case, with the words + <i>Iti vuttam Bhagavalā</i>—"thus was it spoken by the + Exalted One." These anecdotes may or may not be historically accurate. It + is quite possible that the memory of the early disciples, highly trained + as it was, enabled them to preserve a substantially true record of some + of these speeches, and of the circumstances in which they were uttered. + Some or all of them may also have been invented. In either case they are + excellent evidence of the sort of questions on which discussions among + the earliest Buddhists must have turned. These ecstatic utterances and + deep sayings are attributed to the Buddha himself, and accompanied by the + prose framework. There has also been preserved a collection of stanzas + ascribed to his leading followers. Of these 107 are brethren, and 73 + sisters, in the order. The prose framework is in this case preserved only + in the commentary, which also gives biographies of the authors. This work + is called the <i>Thera-therī-gāthā</i>.</p> + + <p>Another interesting collection is the <i>Jātaka</i> book, a set + of verses supposed to have been uttered by the Buddha in some of his + previous births. These are really 550 of the folk-tales current in India + when the canon was being formed, the only thing Buddhist about them being + that the Buddha, in a previous birth, is identified in each case with the + hero in the little story. Here again the prose is preserved only in the + commentary. And it is a most fortunate chance that this—the oldest, + the most complete, and the most authentic collection of folklore + extant—has thus been preserved intact to the present day. Many of + these stories and fables have wandered to Europe, and are found in + medieval homilies, poems and story-books. A full account of this curious + migration will be found in the introduction to the present writer's + <i>Buddhist Birth Stories</i>. A translation of the whole book is now + published, under the editorship of Professor Cowell, at the Cambridge + University Press. The last of these poetical works which it is necessary + to mention is the <i>Sutta Nipāta</i>, containing fifty-five poems, + all except the last merely short lyrics, many of great beauty. A very + ancient commentary on the bulk of these poems has been included in the + canon as a separate work. The poems themselves have been translated by + Professor Fausböll in the <i>Sacred Books of the East</i>. The above + works are our authority for the philosophy and ethics of the earliest + Buddhists. We have also a complete statement of the rules of the order in + the <i>Vinaya</i>, edited, in five volumes, by Professor Oldenberg. Three + volumes of translations of these rules, by him and by the present writer, + have also appeared in the <i>Sacred Books of the East</i>.</p> + + <p>There have also been added to the canonical books seven works on + <i>Abhidhamma</i>, a more elaborate and more classified exposition of the + Dhamma or doctrine as set out in the <i>Nikāyas</i>. All these + works are later. Only one of them has been translated, the so-called + Dhamma Sangani. The introduction to this translation, published under the + title of <i>Buddhist Psychology</i>, contains the fullest account that + has yet appeared of the psychological conceptions on which Buddhist + ethics are throughout based. The translator, Mrs Caroline Rhys Davids, + estimates the date of this ancient manual for Buddhist students as the + 4th century <span class="scac">B.C.</span></p> + + <p><i>Later Works.</i>—So far the canon, almost all of which is now + accessible to readers of Pāli. But a good deal of work is still + required before the harvest of historical data contained in these texts + shall have been made acceptable to students of philosophy and sociology. + These works of the oldest period, the two centuries and a half, between + the Buddha's time and that of Asoka, were followed by a voluminous + literature in the following Periods—from Asoka to Kanishka, and + from Kanishka to Buddhaghosa,—each of about three centuries. Many + of these works are extant in MS.; but only five or six of the more + important Have so far been published. Of these the most interesting is + the Milinda, one of the earliest historical novels preserved to us. It is + mainly religious and philosophical and purports to give the discussion, + extending over several days, in which a Buddhist elder named + Nāgasena succeeds in converting Milinda, that is Menander, the + famous Greek king of Bactria, to Buddhism. The Pāli text has been + edited and the work translated into English. More important historically, + though greatly inferior in style and ability, is the Mahāvastu or + <i>Sublime Story</i>, in Sanskrit. The story is the one of chief + importance to the Buddhists—the story, namely, of how the Buddha + won, under the Bo Tree, the victory over ignorance, and attained to the + Sambodhi, "the higher Wisdom," of Nirvāna. The story begins with + his previous births, in which also he was accumulating the Buddha + qualities. And as the Mahāvastu was a standard work of a particular + sect, or rather school, called the Mahā-sanghikas, it has thus + preserved for us the theory of the Buddha as held outside the followers + of the cannon, by those whose views developed, in after centuries, into + the Mahāyāna or modern form of Buddhism in India. But this + book, like all the ancient books, was composed, not in the north, in + Nepal, but in the valley of the Ganges, and it is partly <!-- Page 748 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page748"></a>[v.04 p.0748]</span>in + prose, partly in verse. Two other works, the <i>Lalita Vistara</i> and + the <i>Buddha Carita</i>, give us—but this, of course, is + later—Sanskrit poems, epics, on the same subject. Of these, the + former may be as old as the Christian era; the latter belongs to the 2nd + century after Christ. Both of them have been edited and translated. The + older one contains still a good deal of prose, the gist of it being often + repeated in the verses. The later one is entirely in verse, and shows off + the author's mastery of the artificial rules of prosody and poetics, + according to which a poem, a mahā-kāvya, ought, according to + the later writers on the <i>Ars poetica</i>, to be composed.</p> + + <p>These three works deal only quite briefly and incidentally with any + point of Buddhism outside of the Buddha legend. Of greater importance for + the history of Buddhism are two later works, the <i>Netti Pakarana</i> + and the <i>Saddharma Pundarīka</i>. The former, in Pāli, + discusses a number of questions then of importance in the Buddhist + community; and it relies throughout, as does the Milinda, on the + canonical works, which it quotes largely. The latter, in Sanskrit, is the + earliest exposition we have of the later Mahāyāna doctrine. + Both these books may be dated in the 2nd or 3rd century of our era. The + latter has been translated into English. We have now also the text of the + <i>Prajnā Pāramitā</i>, a later treatise on the + Mahāyāna system, which in time entirely replaced in India the + original doctrines. To about the same age belongs also the + <i>Divyāvadāna</i>, a collection of legends about the leading + disciples of the Buddha, and important members of the order, through the + subsequent three centuries. These legends are, however, of different + dates, and in spite of the comparatively late period at which it was put + into its present form, it contains some very ancient fragments.</p> + + <p>The whole of the above works were composed in the north of India; that + is to say, either north or a few miles south of the Ganges. The record is + at present full of gaps. But we can even now obtain a full and accurate + idea of the earliest Buddhism, and are able to trace the main lines of + its development through the first eight or nine centuries of its career. + The Pāli Text Society is still publishing two volumes a year; and + the Russian Academy has inaugurated a series to contain the most + important of the Sanskrit works still buried in MS. We have also now + accessible in Pāli fourteen volumes of the commentaries of the + great 5th-century scholars in south India and Ceylon, most of them the + works either of Buddhaghosa of Budh Gaya, or of Dhammapāla of + Kāncipura (the ancient name of Conjeeveram). These are full of + important historical data on the social, as well as the religious, life + of India during the periods of which they treat.</p> + + <p><i>Modern Research.</i>—The striking archaeological discoveries + of recent years have both confirmed and added to our knowledge of the + earliest period. Pre-eminent among these is the discovery, by Mr William + Peppé, on the Birdpur estate, adjoining the boundary between English and + Nepalese territory, of the stūpa, or cairn, erected by the + Sākiya clan over their share of the ashes from the cremation pyre + of the Buddha. About 12 m. to the north-east of this spot has been found + an inscribed pillar, put up by Asoka as a record of his visit to the + Lumbini Garden, as the place where the future Buddha had been born. + Although more than two centuries later than the event to which it refers, + this inscription is good evidence of the site of the garden. There had + been no interruption of the tradition; and it is probable that the place + was then still occupied by the descendants of the possessors in the + Buddha's time. North-west of this another Asoka pillar has been + discovered, recording his visit to the cairn erected by the Sakyas over + the remains of Konāgamana, one of the previous Puddhas or teachers, + whose follower Gotama the Buddha had claimed to be. These discoveries + definitely determine the district occupied by the Sākiya republic + in the 6th and 7th centuries <span class="scac">B.C.</span> The + boundaries, of course, are not known; but the clan must have spread 30 m. + or more along the lower slopes of the Himalayas and 30 m. or more + southwards over the plains. It has been abandoned jungle since the 3rd + century <span class="scac">A.D.</span>, or perhaps earlier, so that the + ruined sites, numerous through the whole district, have remained + undisturbed, and further discoveries may be confidently expected.</p> + + <p>The principal points on which this large number of older and better + authorities has modified our knowledge are as follows:—</p> + + <p>1. We have learnt that the division of Buddhism, originating with + Burnouf, into northern and southern, is misleading. He found that the + Buddhism in his Pāli MSS., which came from Ceylon, differed from + that in his Sanskrit MSS., which came from Nepal. Now that the works he + used have been made accessible in printed editions, we find that, + wherever the existing MSS. came from, the original works themselves were + all composed in the same stretch of country, that is, in the valley of + the Ganges. The difference of the opinions expressed in the MSS. is due, + not to the place where they are now found, but <i>to the difference of + time</i> at which they were originally composed. Not one of the books + mentioned above is either northern or southern. They all claim, and + rightly claim, to belong, so far as their place of origin is concerned, + to the Majjhima Desa, the middle country. It is undesirable to base the + main division of our subject on an adventitious circumstance, and + especially so when the nomenclature thus introduced (it is not found in + the books themselves) cuts right across the true line of division. The + use of the terms northern and southern as applied, not to the existing + MSS., but to the original books, or to the Buddhism they teach, not only + does not help us, it is the source of serious misunderstanding. It + inevitably leads careless writers to take for granted that we have, + historically, two Buddhisms—one manufactured in Ceylon, the other + in Nepal. Now this is admittedly wrong. What we have to consider is + Buddhism varying through slight degrees, as the centuries pass by, in + almost every book. We may call it one, or we may call it many. What is + quite certain is that it is not two. And the most useful distinction to + emphasize is, not the ambiguous and misleading geographical + one—derived from the places where the modern copies of the MSS. are + found; nor even, though that would be better, the linguistic + one—but the chronological one. The use, therefore, of the + inaccurate and misleading terms northern and southern ought no longer to + be followed in scholarly works on Buddhism.</p> + + <p>2. Our ideas as to the social conditions that prevailed, during the + Buddha's lifetime, in the eastern valley of the Ganges have been + modified. The people were divided into clans, many of them governed as + republics, more or less aristocratic. In a few cases several of such + republics had formed confederations, and in four cases such + confederations had already become hereditary monarchies. The right + historical analogy is not the state of Germany in the middle ages, but + the state of Greece in the time of Socrates. The Sākiyas were still + a republic. They had republics for their neighbours on the east and + south, but on the western boundary was the kingdom of Kosala, the modern + Oudh, which they acknowledged as a suzerain power. The Buddha's father + was not a king. There were rājas in the clan, but the word meant at + most something like consul or archon. All the four real kings were called + Mahā-rāja. And Suddhodana, the teacher's father, was not even + rāja. One of his cousins, named Bhaddiya, is styled a rāja; + but Suddhodana is spoken of, like other citizens, as Suddhodana the + Sākiyan. As the ancient books are very particular on this question + of titles, this is decisive.</p> + + <p>3. There was no caste—no caste, that is, in the modern sense of + the term. We have long known that the connubium was the cause of a long + and determined struggle between the patricians and the plebeians in Rome. + Evidence has been yearly accumulating on the existence of restrictions as + to intermarriage, and as to the right of eating together (commensality) + among other Aryan tribes, Greeks, Germans, Russians and so on. Even + without the fact of the existence now of such restrictions among the + modern successors of the ancient Aryans in India, it would have been + probable that they also were addicted to similar customs. It is certain + that the notion of such usages was familiar enough to some at least of + the tribes that preceded the Aryans in India. Rules of endogamy and + exogamy; privileges, restricted to certain classes, of eating together, + are not only Indian or Aryan, but world-wide phenomena. Both the spirit, + and to a large degree the actual details, of modern Indian caste-usages + are identical <!-- Page 749 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page749"></a>[v.04 p.0749]</span>with these ancient, and no doubt + universal, customs. It is in them that we have the key to the origin of + caste.</p> + + <p>At any moment in the history of a nation such customs seem, to a + superficial observer, to be fixed and immutable. As a matter of fact they + are never quite the same in successive centuries, or even generations. + The numerous and complicated details which we sum up under the + convenient, but often misleading, single name of caste, are solely + dependent for their sanction on public opinion. That opinion seems + stable. But it is always tending to vary as to the degree of importance + attached to some particular one of the details, as to the size and + complexity of the particular groups in which each detail ought to be + observed.</p> + + <p>Owing to the fact that the particular group that in India worked its + way to the top, based its claims on religious grounds, not on political + power, nor on wealth, the system has, no doubt, lasted longer in India + than in Europe. But public opinion still insists, in considerable circles + even in Europe, on restrictions of a more or less defined kind, both as + to marriage and as to eating together. And in India the problem still + remains to trace, in the literature, the gradual growth of the + system—the gradual formation of new sections among the people, the + gradual extension of the institution to the families of people engaged in + certain trades, belonging to the same group, or sect, or tribe, tracing + their ancestry, whether rightly or wrongly, to the same source. All these + factors, and others besides, are real factors. But they are phases of the + extension and growth, not explanations of the origin of the system.</p> + + <p>There is no evidence to show that at the time of the rise of Buddhism + there was any substantial difference, as regards the barriers in + question, between the peoples dwelling in the valley of the Ganges and + their contemporaries, Greek or Roman, dwelling on the shores of the + Mediterranean Sea. The point of greatest weight in the establishment of + the subsequent development, the supremacy in India of the priests, was + still being hotly debated. All the new evidence tends to show that the + struggle was being decided rather against than for the Brahmins. What we + find in the Buddha's time is caste in the making. The great mass of the + people were distinguished quite roughly into four classes, social strata, + of which the boundary lines were vague and uncertain. At one end of the + scale were certain outlying tribes and certain hereditary crafts of a + dirty or despised kind. At the other end the nobles claimed the + superiority. But Brahmins by birth (not necessarily sacrificial priests, + for they followed all sorts of occupations) were trying to oust the + nobles from the highest grade. They only succeeded, long afterwards, when + the power of Buddhism had declined.</p> + + <p>4. It had been supposed on the authority of late priestly texts, where + boasts of persecution are put forth, that the cause of the decline of + Buddhism in India had been Brahmin persecution. The now accessible older + authorities, with one doubtful exception,<a name="FnAnchor_3027" + href="#Footnote_3027"><sup>[27]</sup></a> make no mention of persecution. + On the other hand, the comparison we are now able to make between the + canonical books of the older Buddhism and the later texts of the + following centuries, shows a continual decline from the old standpoint, a + continual approximation of the Buddhist views to those of the other + philosophies and religions of India. We can see now that the very event + which seemed, in the eyes of the world, to be the most striking proof of + the success of the new movement, the conversion and strenuous support, in + the 3rd century <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, of Asoka, the most + powerful ruler India had had, only hastened the decline. The adhesion of + large numbers of nominal converts, more especially from the newly + incorporated and less advanced provinces, produced weakness rather than + strength in the movement for reform. The day of compromise had come. + Every relaxation of the old thoroughgoing position was welcomed and + supported by converts only half converted. And so the margin of + difference between the Buddhists and their opponents gradually faded + almost entirely away. The soul theory, step by step, gained again the + upper hand. The popular gods and the popular superstitions are once more + favoured by Buddhists themselves. The philosophical basis of the old + ethics is overshadowed by new speculations. And even the old ideal of + life, the salvation of the Arahat to be won in this world and in this + world only, by self-culture and self-mastery, is forgotten, or mentioned + only to be condemned. The end was inevitable. The need of a separate + organization became less and less apparent. The whole pantheon of the + Vedic gods, with the ceremonies and the sacrifices associated with them, + passed indeed away. But the ancient Buddhism, the party of reform, was + overwhelmed also in its fall; and modern Hinduism arose on the ruins of + both.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—The attention of the few + scholars at work on the subject being directed to the necessary first + step of publishing the ancient authorities, the work of exploring them, + of analysing and classifying the data they contain, has as yet been very + imperfectly done. The annexed list contains only the most important + works.</p> + + <p><b>Texts.</b>—<i>Pāli Text Society</i>, 57 vols.; + <i>Jātaka</i>, 7 vols., ed. Fausböll, 1877-1897; <i>Vinaya</i>, 5 + vols., ed. Oldenberg, 1879-1883; <i>Dhammapada</i>, ed. Fausböll, 2nd + ed., 1900; <i>Divyāvadāna</i>, ed. Cowell and Neil, 1882; + <i>Mahāvastu</i>, ed. Senart, 3 vols., 1882-1897; <i>Buddha + Carita</i>, ed. Cowell, 1892; <i>Milinda-pañho</i>, ed. Trenckner, + 1880.</p> + + <p><b>Translations.</b>—<i>Vinaya Texts</i>, by Rhys Davids and + Oldenberg, 3 vols., 1881-1885; <i>Dhammapada</i>, by Max Müller, and + <i>Sutta Nipata</i>, by Fausböll, 1881; <i>Questions of King Milinda</i>, + by Rhys Davids, 2 vols., 1890-1894; <i>Buddhist Suttas,</i> by Rhys + Davids, 1881; <i>Saddharma Pundarīka</i>, by Kern, 1884; + <i>Buddhist Mahāyāna Texts</i>, by Cowell and Max Müller, + 1894—all the above in the "Sacred Books of the East"; + <i>Jātaka</i>, vol. i., by Rhys Davids, under the title <i>Buddhist + Birth Stories</i>, 1880; vols. i.-vi., by Chalmers, Neil, Francis, and + Rouse, 1895-1897; <i>Buddhism in Translations</i>, by Warren, 1896; + <i>Buddhistische Anthologie</i>, by Neumann, 1892. <i>Lieder der Mönche + und Nonnen</i>, 1899, by the same; <i>Dialogues of the Buddha</i>, by + Rhys Davids, 1899; <i>Die Reden Gotamo Buddhas</i>, by Neumann, 3 vols., + 1899-1903; <i>Buddhist Psychology</i>, by Mrs Rhys Davids, 1900.</p> + + <p><b>Manuals, Monographs, &c.</b>—<i>Buddhism</i>, by Rhys + Davids, 12mo, 20th thousand, 1903; <i>Buddha, sein Leben, seine Lehre und + seine Gemeinde</i>, by Oldenberg, 5th edition, 1906; <i>Der Buddhismus + und seine Geschichte in Indien</i>, by Kern, 1882; <i>Der Buddhismus</i>, + by Edmund Hardy, 1890; <i>American Lectures, Buddhism</i>, by Rhys + Davids, 1896; <i>Inscriptions de Piyadasi</i>, by Senart, 2 vols., + 1881-1886; <i>Mara und Buddha</i>, by Windisch, 1895; <i>Buddhist + India</i>, by Rhys Davids, 1903.</p> + + <p>(T. W. R. D.)</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_301" href="#FnAnchor_301">[1]</a> That is by the + Arahat, the title the Buddha always uses of himself. He does not call + himself the Buddha, and his followers never address him as such.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_302" href="#FnAnchor_302">[2]</a> One very ancient + commentary on the Path has been preserved in three places in the canon: + <i>Dīgha</i>, ii. 305-307 and 311-313, <i>Majjhima</i>, iii. 251, + and <i>Samyutta</i>, v. 8.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_303" href="#FnAnchor_303">[3]</a> <i>Mahāli + Suttanta</i>; translated in Rhys Davids' <i>Dialogues of the Buddha</i>, + vol. i. p. 201 (cf. p. 204).</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_304" href="#FnAnchor_304">[4]</a> See + <i>Iti-vuttaka</i>, p. 44; <i>Samyutta</i>, iii. 57.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_305" href="#FnAnchor_305">[5]</a> See + <i>Dīgha</i>, ii. 28; <i>Jāt</i>. v. 48, ii. 80.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_306" href="#FnAnchor_306">[6]</a> Burnett, <i>Early + Greek Philosophy</i>, p. 149.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_307" href="#FnAnchor_307">[7]</a> <i>Katha Up</i>. + 2, 10; <i>Bhag. Gītā</i>, 2, 14; 9, 33.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_308" href="#FnAnchor_308">[8]</a> The + <i>Anatta-lakkhana Sutta</i> (<i>Vinaya</i>, i. 13 = <i>Samyutta</i>, + iii. 66 and iv. 34), translated in <i>Vinaya Texts</i>, i. 100-102.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_309" href="#FnAnchor_309">[9]</a> See article on + "Buddhist Schools of Thought," by Rhys Davids, in the <i>J.R.A.S.</i> for + 1892.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_3010" href="#FnAnchor_3010">[10]</a> <i>Questions of + King Milinda</i>, translated by Rhys Davids (Oxford, 1890-1894), vol. i. + pp. 40, 41, 85-87; vol. ii. pp. 21-25, 86-89.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_3011" href="#FnAnchor_3011">[11]</a> + <i>Majjhima</i>, iii. 251, cf. <i>Samyutta</i>, v. 8.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_3012" href="#FnAnchor_3012">[12]</a> + <i>Dīgha</i>, ii. 290-315. <i>Majjhima</i>, i. 55 et seq. Cf. Rhys + Davids' <i>Dialogues of the Buddha</i>, i. 81.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_3013" href="#FnAnchor_3013">[13]</a> No. 8 in the + <i>Sutta Nipata</i> (p. 26 of Fausböll's edition). It is translated by + Fausböll in vol. x. of the <i>S.B.E.</i>, and by Rhys Davids, + <i>Buddhism</i>, p. 109.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_3014" href="#FnAnchor_3014">[14]</a> + <i>Dīgha</i>, ii. 186-187.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_3015" href="#FnAnchor_3015">[15]</a> + <i>Majjhima</i>, i. 129.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_3016" href="#FnAnchor_3016">[16]</a> + <i>Iti-vuttaka</i>, pp. 19-21.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_3017" href="#FnAnchor_3017">[17]</a> On the details + of these see <i>Dīgha</i>, i. 71-73, translated by Rhys Davids in + <i>Dialogues of the Buddha</i>, i. 82-84.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_3018" href="#FnAnchor_3018">[18]</a> + <i>Dīgha</i>, i. 74.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_3019" href="#FnAnchor_3019">[19]</a> + <i>Samyutta</i>, iv. 251, 261.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_3020" href="#FnAnchor_3020">[20]</a> <i>Phaedo</i>, + 69 et seq. The idea is there also put forward in connexion with a belief + in transmigration.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_3021" href="#FnAnchor_3021">[21]</a> + <i>Samyutta</i>, iv. 302.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_3022" href="#FnAnchor_3022">[22]</a> + <i>Majjhima</i>, iii. 99 et seq.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_3023" href="#FnAnchor_3023">[23]</a> The history of + the Indian doctrine of Karma has yet to be written. On the Buddhist side + see Rhys Davids' <i>Hibbert Lectures</i>, pp. 73-120, and Dahlke, + <i>Aufsatze zum Verstandnis des Buddhismus</i> (Berlin, 1903), i. 92-106, + and ii. l-11.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_3024" href="#FnAnchor_3024">[24]</a> For instance, + <i>Majjhima</i>, i. 163-166</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_3025" href="#FnAnchor_3025">[25]</a> + <i>Anguttara</i>, iii. 119.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_3026" href="#FnAnchor_3026">[26]</a> + <i>Dīgha</i>, i. 38.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_3027" href="#FnAnchor_3027">[27]</a> See <i>Journal + of the Pāli Text Society</i>, 1896, pp. 87-92.</p> + +</div> + <p><b>BUDÉ</b> [<span class="sc">Budaeus</span>], <b>GUILLAUME</b> + (1467-1540), French scholar, was born at Paris. He went to the university + of Orleans to study law, but for several years, being possessed of ample + means, he led an idle and dissipated life. When about twenty-four years + of age he was seized with a sudden passion for study, and made rapid + progress, particularly in the Latin and Greek languages. The work which + gained him greatest reputation was his <i>De Asse et Partibus</i> (1514), + a treatise on ancient coins and measures. He was held in high esteem by + Francis I., who was persuaded by him, and by Jean du Bellay, bishop of + Narbonne, to found the Collegium Trilingue, afterwards the Collège de + France, and the library at Fontainebleau, which was removed to Paris and + was the origin of the Bibliothèque Nationale. He also induced Francis to + refrain from prohibiting printing in France, which had been advised by + the Sorbonne in 1533. He was sent by Louis XII. to Rome as ambassador to + Leo X., and in 1522 was appointed <i>maître des requêtes</i> and was + several times <i>prévôt des marchands</i>. He died in Paris on the 23rd + of August 1540.</p> + + <p>Budé was also the author of <i>Annotationes in XXIV. libros + Pandectarum</i> (1508), which, by the application of philology and + history, had a great influence on the study of Roman law, and of + <i>Commentarii linguae Graecae</i> (1529), an extensive collection of + lexicographical notes, which contributed greatly to the study of Greek + literature in France. Budé corresponded with the most learned men of his + time, amongst them Erasmus, who called him the marvel of France, and + Thomas More. He wrote with equal facility in Greek and Latin, although + his Latin is inferior to his Greek, being somewhat harsh and full of + Greek constructions. His request that he should be buried at night, and + his widow's open profession of Protestantism at Geneva (where she retired + after his death), caused him to be suspected of leanings towards + Calvinism. At the time of the massacre of St Bartholomew, the members of + his family were obliged to flee from France. Some took refuge in + Switzerland, where they worthily upheld the traditions of their house, + while others settled in Pomerania under the name Budde or Buddeus.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 750 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page750"></a>[v.04 p.0750]</span></p> + + <p>See Le Roy, <i>Vita G. Budaei</i> (1540); Rebitté, <i>G. Budé, + restaurateur des études grecques en France</i> (1846); E. de Budé, <i>Vie + de G. Budé</i> (1884), who refutes the idea of his ancestor's Protestant + views; D'Hozier, <i>La Maison de Budé</i>; L. Delaruelle, <i>Études sur + l'humanisme français</i> (1907).</p> + + <p><b>BUDE,</b> a small seaport and watering-place in the Launceston + parliamentary division of Cornwall, England, on the north coast at the + mouth of the river Bude. With the market town of Stratton, 1½ m. inland + to the east, it forms the urban district of Stratton and Bude, with a + population (1901) of 2308. Bude is served by a branch of the London & + South-Western railway. Its only notable building is the Early English + parish church of St Michael and All Angels. The climate is healthy and + the coast scenery in the neighbourhood fine, especially towards the + south. There the gigantic cliffs, with their banded strata, have been + broken into fantastic forms by the waves. Many ships have been wrecked on + the jagged reefs which fringe their base. The figure-head of one of + these, the "Bencellon," lost in 1862, is preserved in the churchyard. The + harbour, sheltered by a breakwater, will admit vessels of 300 tons at + high water; and the river has been dammed to form a basin for the canal + which runs to Launceston. Some fishing is carried on: but the staple + trade is the export of sand, which, being highly charged with carbonate + of lime, is much used for manure. There are golf links near the town. The + currents in the bay make bathing dangerous.</p> + + <p><b>BUDGELL, EUSTACE</b> (1686-1737), English man of letters, the son + of Dr Gilbert Budgell, was born on the 19th of August 1686 at St Thomas, + near Exeter. He matriculated in 1705 at Trinity College, Oxford, and + afterwards joined the Inner Temple, London; but instead of studying law + he devoted his whole attention to literature. Addison, who was first + cousin to his mother, befriended him, and, on being appointed secretary + to Lord Wharton, lord-lieutenant of Ireland in 1710, took Budgell with + him as one of the clerks of his office. Budgell took part with Steele and + Addison in writing the <i>Tatler</i>. He was also a contributor to the + <i>Spectator</i> and the <i>Guardian</i>,—his papers being marked + with an X in the former, and with an asterisk in the latter. He was + subsequently made under-secretary to Addison, chief secretary to the + lords justices of Ireland, and deputy-clerk of the council, and became a + member of the Irish parliament. In 1717, when Addison became principal + secretary of state in England, he procured for Budgell the place of + accountant and comptroller-general of the revenue in Ireland. But the + next year, the duke of Bolton being appointed lord-lieutenant, Budgell + wrote a lampoon against E. Webster, his secretary. This led to his being + removed from his post of accountant-general, upon which he returned to + England, and, contrary to the advice of Addison, published his case in a + pamphlet. In the year 1720 he lost £20,000 by the South Sea scheme, and + afterwards spent £5000 more in unsuccessful attempts to get into + parliament. He began to write pamphlets against the ministry, and + published many papers in the <i>Craftsman</i>. In 1733 he started a + weekly periodical called the <i>Bee</i>, which he continued for more than + a hundred numbers. By the will of Matthew Tindal, the deist, who died in + 1733, a legacy of 2000 guineas was left to Budgell; but the bequest + (which had, it was alleged, been inserted in the will by Budgell himself) + was successfully disputed by Tindal's nephew and nearest heir, Nicholas + Tindal, who translated and wrote a <i>Continuation</i> of the <i>History + of England</i> of Paul de Rapin-Thoyras. Hence Pope's lines—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"Let Budgell charge low Grub Street on his quill,</p> + <p>And write whate'er he pleased—except his will."<a name="FnAnchor_311" href="#Footnote_311"><sup>[1]</sup></a></p> + </div> + </div> + <p>Budgell is said to have sold the second volume of Tindal's + <i>Christianity as Old as the Creation</i> to Bishop Gibson, by whom it + was destroyed. The scandal caused by these transactions ruined him. On + the 4th of May 1737, after filling his pockets with stones, he took a + boat at Somerset-stairs, and while the boat was passing under the bridge + threw himself into the river. On his desk was found a slip of paper with + the words—"What Cato did, and Addison approved, cannot be wrong." + Besides the works mentioned above, he wrote a translation (1714) of the + <i>Characters</i> of Theophrastus. He never married, but left a natural + daughter, Anne Eustace, who became an actress at Drury Lane.</p> + + <p>See Cibber's <i>Lives of the Poets</i>, vol. v.</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_311" href="#FnAnchor_311">[1]</a> <i>Epistle to Dr + Arbuthnot</i>, lines 378-379.</p> + +</div> + <p><b>BUDGET</b> (originally from a Gallic word meaning sack, latinized + as <i>bulga</i>, leather wallet or bag, thence in O. Fr. <i>bougette</i>, + from which the Eng. form is derived), the name applied to an account of + the ways and means by which the income and expenditure for a definite + period are to be balanced, generally by a finance minister for his state, + or by analogy for smaller bodies.<a name="FnAnchor_321" + href="#Footnote_321"><sup>[1]</sup></a> The term first came into use in + England about 1760. In the United Kingdom the chancellor of the + exchequer, usually in April, lays before the House of Commons a statement + of the actual results of revenue and expenditure in the past finance year + (now ending March 31), showing how far his estimates have been realized, + and what surplus or deficit there has been in the income as compared with + the expenditure. This is accompanied by another statement in which the + chancellor gives an estimate of what the produce of the revenue may be in + the year just entered upon, supposing the taxes and duties to remain as + they were in the past year, and also an estimate of what the expenditure + will be in the current year. If the estimated revenue, after allowing for + normal increase of the principal sources of income, be less than the + estimated expenditure, this is deemed a case for the imposition of some + new, or the increase of some existing, tax or taxes. On the other hand, + if the estimated revenue shows a large surplus over the estimated + expenditure, there is room for remitting or reducing some tax or taxes, + and the extent of this relief is generally limited to the amount of + surplus realized in the previous year. The chancellor of the exchequer + has to take parliament into confidence on his estimates, both as regards + revenue and expenditure; and these estimates are prepared by the various + departments of the administration. They are divided into two parts, the + consolidated fund services and the supply services, the first comprising + the civil list, debt charge, pensions and courts of justice, while the + "supply" includes the remaining expenditure of the country, as the army, + the navy, the civil service and revenue departments, the post-office and + telegraph services. The consolidated fund services are an annual charge, + fixed by statute, and alterable only by statute, but the supply services + may be gone through in detail, item by item, by the House of Commons, + which forms itself into a committee of supply for the purpose. These + items can be criticized, and reduced (but not increased) by amendments + proposed by private members. The committee of ways and means (also a + committee of the whole House) votes the supplies when granted and + originates all taxes. The resolutions of these committees are reported to + the House, and when the taxation and expenditure obtain the assent of + parliament, the results as thus adjusted become the final budget estimate + for the year, and are passed as the Finance Act. This system of annual + review and adjustment of the public finances obtains not only in the + British colonies, but in British India. The Indian budget, giving the + results of income and expenditure in the year ending 31st of December, + and the prospective estimates, is laid before the imperial parliament in + the course of the ensuing session.</p> + + <p>The budget, though modified by different forms, has also long been + practised in France, the United States, and other constitutional + countries, and has in some cases been adopted by autocratic Powers. + Russia began the publication of annual budgets in 1866; Egypt has + followed the example; so also has Turkey, by an imperial decree of 1875. + All countries agree in taking a yearly period, but the actual date of + commencement varies considerably. The German and Danish financial year, + like that of the United Kingdom, begins on the 1st of April; in France, + Belgium and Austria, it begins on the 1st of January; in Italy, Spain, + the United States and Canada, on the 1st of July. <!-- Page 751 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page751"></a>[v.04 p.0751]</span>Previously to + 1832, however, the English financial year ran from the 1st of January to + the 31st of December.</p> + + <p>It may be mentioned that Disraeli introduced a budget (on which he was + defeated) in the autumn of 1852; and in 1860, owing to the ratification + of the commercial treaty with France, the budget was introduced on the + 10th of February. In 1859, through a change of administration, the budget + was not introduced until the 18th of July, while in 1880 there were two + budgets, one introduced in March under Disraeli's administration, and the + other in June, under Gladstone's administration.</p> + + <p>National budgets are to be discriminated (1) as budgets passing under + parliamentary scrutiny and debate from year to year, and (2) budgets + emitted on executive authority. In most constitutional countries the + procedure is somewhat of a mean between the extremes of the United + Kingdom and the United States. In the United Kingdom the budget is placed + by the executive before the whole House, without any previous examination + except by the cabinet, and it is scrutinized by the House sitting as a + committee; in the majority of countries, however, the budget undergoes a + preliminary examination by a specially selected committee, which has the + power to make drastic changes in the proposals of the executive. In the + United States, on the other hand, the budget practically emanates from + Congress, for there is no connexion between the executive and the + legislative departments. The estimates prepared by the various executive + departments are submitted to the House of Representatives by the + secretary of the treasury. With these estimates two separate committees + deal. The committee on ways and means deals with taxation, and the + committee on appropriations with expenditure. The latter committee is + divided into various sub-committees, each of which brings in an + appropriation bill for the department or subject with which it is + charged.</p> + + <p>There are also, in all the greater countries, local and municipal + taxations and expenditures of only less account than the national. In + federal governments such as the United States, the German empire, or the + Argentine republic, the budgets of the several states of the federation + have to be consulted, as well as the federal budgets, for a knowledge of + the finances.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—Stourm, <i>Le Budget, son + histoire et son mécanisme</i> (1889), which gives a comparative study of + the budgets of different countries, is the best book upon the subject. + See also Siedler, <i>Budget und Budgetrecht</i>(1885); Sendel, <i>Über + Budgetrecht</i>(1890); Besson, <i>Le Contrôle des budgets en France et à + l'étranger</i> (1899); Bastable, <i>Public Finance</i> (3rd ed., 1903); + Eugene E. Agger, <i>The Budget in American Commonwealths</i> (New York, + 1907).</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_321" href="#FnAnchor_321">[1]</a> It was a name + applied also to a leather-covered case or small coffer. Cotgrave + translates <i>bougette</i> "a little coffer or trunk ... covered with + leather." It became a common word for a despatch box in which official + papers were kept. The chancellor of the exchequer thus was said to "open + his budget" when he made his annual statement.</p> + +</div> + <p><b>BUDINI,</b> an ancient nation in the N.E. of the Scythia + (<i>q.v.</i>) of Herodotus (iv, 21, 108, 109), probably on the middle + course of the Volga about Samara. They are described as light-eyed and + red-haired, and lived by hunting in their thick forests. They were + probably Finns of the branch now represented by the Votiaks and Permiaks, + forced northwards by later immigrants. In their country was a wooden city + inhabited by a distinct race, the Geloni, who seem to have spoken an + Indo-European tongue. Later writers add nothing to our knowledge, and are + chiefly interested in the tarandus, an animal which dwelt in the woods of + the Budini and seems to have been the reindeer (Aristotle ap. Aelian, + <i>Hist. Anim.</i> xv. 33).</p> + + <p>(E. H. M.)</p> + + <p><b>BUDWEIS</b> (Czech <i>Budějovice</i>), a town of Bohemia, + Austria, 80 m. S.S.W. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 39,630. It is + situated at the junction of the Maltsch with the Moldau, which here + becomes navigable, and possesses a beautiful square, lined with fine + arcaded buildings, the principal one being the town-hall, built in 1730 + in Renaissance style. Other interesting buildings are the cathedral with + its detached tower, dating from 1500, and the Marien-Kirche with fine + cloisters. Budweis has a large, varied and growing industry, which + comprises the manufacture of chemicals, matches, paper, machinery, bricks + and tiles, corn and saw mills, boat-building, bell-founding and + black-lead pencils. It is the principal commercial centre of South + Bohemia, being an important railway junction, as well as a river port, + and carries on a large trade in corn, timber, lignite, salt, industrial + products and beer, the latter mostly exported to America. It is the see + of a bishop since 1783, and is the centre of a German enclave in Czech + Bohemia. But the Czech element is steadily increasing, and the population + of the town was in 1908 60% Czech. The railway from Budweis to Linz, laid + in 1827 for horse-cars, was the first line constructed in Austria. A + little to the north, in the Moldau valley, stands the beautiful castle of + Frauenberg, belonging to Prince Schwarzenberg. It stands on the site + formerly occupied by a 13th-century castle, and was built in the middle + of the 19th century, after the model of Windsor Castle.</p> + + <p>The old town of Budweis was founded in the 13th century by Budivoj + Vitkovec, father of Záviš of Falkenstein. In 1265 Ottokar II. + founded the new town, which was soon afterwards created a royal city. + Charles IV. and his son Wenceslaus granted the town many privileges. + Although mainly Catholic, Budweis declared for King George + Poděbrad, and in 1468 was taken by the crusaders under Zdenko of + Stenberg. From this time the town remained faithful to the royal cause, + and in 1547 was granted by the emperor Ferdinand the privilege of ranking + at the diet next to Prague and Pilsen. After the outbreak of the Thirty + Years' War Budweis was confirmed in all its privileges.</p> + + <p><b>BUELL, DON CARLOS</b> (1818-1898), American soldier, was born near + Marietta, Ohio, on the 23rd of March 1818. He graduated at West Point in + 1841, and as a company officer of infantry took part in the Seminole War + of 1841-42 and the Mexican War, during which he was present at almost all + the battles fought by Generals Taylor and Scott, winning the brevet of + captain at Monterey, and that of major at Contreras-Churubusco, where he + was wounded. From 1848 to 1861 he performed various staff duties, chiefly + as assistant-adjutant-general. On the outbreak of the Civil War he was + appointed lieutenant-colonel on the 11th of May 1861, brigadier-general + of volunteers a few days later, and major-general of volunteers in March + 1862. He aided efficiently in organizing the Army of the Potomac, and, at + the instance of General McClellan, was sent, in November 1861, to + Kentucky to succeed General William T. Sherman in command. Here he + employed himself in the organization and training of the Army of the Ohio + (subsequently of the Cumberland), which to the end of its career retained + a standard of discipline and efficiency only surpassed by that of the + Army of the Potomac. In the spring of 1862 Buell followed the retiring + Confederates under Sidney Johnston, and appeared on the field of Shiloh + (<i>q.v.</i>) at the end of the first day's fighting. On the following + day, aided by Buell's fresh and well-trained army, Grant carried all + before him. Buell subsequently served under Halleck in the advance on + Corinth, and in the autumn commanded in the campaign in Kentucky against + Bragg. After a period of manœuvring in which Buell scarcely held + his own, this virtually ended in the indecisive battle of Perryville. The + alleged tardiness of his pursuit, and his objection to a plan of campaign + ordered by the Washington authorities, brought about Buell's removal from + command. With all his gifts as an organizer and disciplinarian, he was + haughty in his dealings with the civil authorities, and, in high command, + he showed, on the whole, unnecessary tardiness of movement and an utter + disregard for the requirements of the political situation. Moreover, as + McClellan's friend, holding similar views, adverse politically to the + administration, he suffered by McClellan's displacement. The complaints + made against him were investigated in 1862-1863, but the result of the + investigation was not published. Subsequently he was offered military + employment, which he declined. He resigned his volunteer commission in + May, and his regular commission in June 1864. He was president of Green + River ironworks (1865-1870), and subsequently engaged in various mining + enterprises; he served (1885-1889) as pension agent at Louisville. He + died near Rockport, Kentucky, on the 19th of November 1898.</p> + + <p><b>BUENAVENTURA,</b> a Pacific port of Colombia, in the department of + Cauca, about 210 m. W.S.W. of Bogotá. Pop. about 1200. The town is + situated on a small island, called Cascajal, at the head of a broad + estuary or bay projecting inland from the Bay of Chocó and 10 m. from its + mouth. Its geographical position is lat. 3° 48′ N., long. 77° + 12′ W. The estuary is deep enough for vessels of 24 ft. draught and + affords an excellent harbour. Buenaventura is a port of call for two + lines of steamers (English <!-- Page 752 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page752"></a>[v.04 p.0752]</span>and German), and is the Colombian + landing-place of the West Coast cable. The town is mean in appearance, + and has a very unhealthy climate, oppressively hot and humid. It is the + port for the upper basin of the Cauca, an elevated and fertile region, + with two large commercial centres, Popayan and Cali. In 1907 a railway + was under construction to the latter, and an extension to Bogotá was also + projected.</p> + + <p><b>BUENOS AIRES,</b> a maritime province of Argentina, South America, + bounded N. by the province of Santa Fé and Entre Rios, E. by the latter, + the La Plata estuary, and the Atlantic, S. by the Atlantic, and W. by the + territories (<i>gobernaciones</i>) of Rio Negro and Las Pampas, and the + provinces of Córdoba and Santa Fé. Its area is 117,812 sq. m., making it + the largest province of the republic. It is also the most populous, even + excluding the federal district, an official estimate of 1903 giving it a + population of 1,251,000. Although it has a frontage of over 900 m. on the + La Plata and the Atlantic, the province has but few good natural ports, + the best being Bahia Blanca, where the Argentine government has + constructed a naval port, and Ensenada (La Plata), where extensive + artificial basins have been constructed for the reception of ocean-going + steamers. San Nicolas in the extreme north has a fairly good river port, + while at Buenos Aires a costly artificial port has been constructed.</p> + + <p>In its general aspect the province forms a part of the great treeless + plain extending from the Atlantic and La Plata estuary westward to the + Andes. A fringe of small tangled wood covers the low river banks and + delta region of the Paraná between San Nicolas and Buenos Aires; thence + southward to Bahia Blanca the sea-shore is low and sandy, with a zone of + lagoons and partially submerged lands immediately behind. The + south-eastern and central parts of the province are low and marshy, and + their effective drainage has long been an urgent problem. Two ranges of + low mountains extend partly across the southern part of the + province—the first from Mar del Plata, on the coast, in a + north-east direction, known at different points as the Sierra del Volcan + (885 ft.), Sierra de Tandil (1476 ft.), and Sierra Baya, and the second + and shorter range nearer Bahia Blanca, having the same general direction, + known at different points as the Sierra Pillahuinco and Sierra de la + Ventana (3543 ft.). The country is well watered with numerous lakes and + small rivers, the largest river being the Rio Salado del Sud, which rises + near the north-western boundary and flows entirely across the province in + a south-easterly direction with a course of about 360 m. The Rio Colorado + crosses the extreme southern extension of the province, a distance of + about 80 m., but its mouth is obstructed, and its lower course is subject + to occasional disastrous inundations.</p> + + <p>Cattle-raising naturally became the principal industry of this region + soon after its settlement by the Spaniards, and sheep-raising on a + profitable basis was developed about the middle of the 19th century. + Toward the end of that century the exports of wool, live-stock and + dressed meats reached enormous proportions. There is a large export of + jerked beef (<i>tasajo</i>) to Brazil and Cuba, and of live-stock to + Europe, South Africa and neighbouring South American republics. Much + attention also has been given to raising horses, asses, mules, swine and + goats, all of which thrive on these grassy plains. Butter and + cheese-making have gained considerable prominence in the province since + 1890, and butter has become an article of export. Little attention had + been given to cereals up to 1875, but subsequently energetic efforts were + made to increase the production of wheat, Indian corn, linseed, barley, + oats and alfalfa, so that by the end of the century the exports of wheat + and flour had reached a considerable value. In 1895 there were 3,400,000 + acres under cultivation in the province, and in 1900 the area devoted to + wheat alone aggregated 1,960,000 acres. Fruit-growing also has made good + progress, especially on the islands of the Paraná delta, and Argentine + peaches, pears, strawberries, grapes and figs are highly appreciated.</p> + + <p>The navigation of the Paraná is at all times difficult, and is + impossible for the larger ocean-going steamers. The greater part of the + trade of the northern and western provinces, therefore, must pass through + the ports of Buenos Aires and Ensenada, at which an immense volume of + business is concentrated. All the great trunk railways of the republic + pass through the province and converge at these ports, and from them a + number of transatlantic steamship lines carry away the products of its + fertile soil. The province is also liberally supplied with branch + railways. In the far south the new port of Bahia Blanca has become + prominent in the export of wool and wheat.</p> + + <p>The principal cities and towns of the province (apart from Buenos + Aires and its suburbs of Belgrano and Flores) are its capital La Plata; + Bahia Blanca, San Nicolas, a river port on the Paraná 150 m. by rail + north-west of Buenos Aires, with a population (1901) of 13,000; Campana + (pop. 5419 in 1895), the former river port of Buenos Aires on one of the + channels of the Paraná, 51 m. by rail north-west of that city, and the + site of the first factory in Argentina (1883) for freezing mutton for + export; Chivilcoy, an important interior town, with a population (1901) + of 15,000; Pergamino (9540 in 1895), a northern inland railway centre; + Mar del Plata, a popular seaside resort 250 m. by rail south of Buenos + Aires; Azul (9494), Tandil (7088), Chascomús (5667), Mercedes (9269), and + Barracas al Sud (10,185), once the centre of the jerked beef + industries.</p> + + <p>The early history of the province of Buenos Aires was a struggle for + supremacy over the other provinces for a period of two generations. Its + large extent of territory was secured through successive additions by + conquest of adjoining Indian territories south and west, the last + additions being as late as 1879. Buenos Aires became a province of the + Confederation in 1820, and adopted a constitution in 1854, which provides + for its administration by a governor and legislature of two chambers, + both chosen by popular vote. An unsuccessful revolt in 1880 against the + national government led to the federalization of the city of Buenos + Aires, and the selection of La Plata as the provincial capital, the + republic assuming the public indebtedness of the provinces at that time + as an indemnification. Before the new capital was finished, however, the + province had incurred further liabilities of ten millions sterling, and + has since then been greatly handicapped in its development in + consequence.</p> + + <p>(A. J. L.)</p> + + <p><b>BUENOS AIRES,</b> a city and port of Argentina, and capital of the + republic, in 34° 36′ 21″ S. lat. and 58° 21′ 33″ + W. long., on the west shore of the La Plata estuary, about 155 m. above + its mouth, and 127 m. W. by N. from Montevideo. The estuary at this point + is 34 m. wide, and so shallow that vessels can enter the docks only + through artificial channels kept open by constant dredging. Previously to + the construction of the new port, ocean-going vessels of over 15 ft. + draught were compelled to anchor in the outer roads some 12 m. from the + city, and communication with the shore was effected by means of steam + tenders and small boats, connecting with long landing piers, or with + carts driven out from the beach. The city is built upon an open grassy + plain extending inland from the banks of the estuary, and north from the + Riachuelo or Matanzas river where the "Boca" port is located. Its average + elevation is about 65 ft. above sea-level. The federal district, which + includes the city and its suburbs and covers an area of 72 sq. m., was + detached from the province of Buenos Aires by an act of congress in 1880. + With the construction of the new port and reclamation of considerable + areas of the shallow water frontage, the area of the city has been + greatly extended below the line of the original estuary banks. The + streets of the old city, which are narrow and laid out to enclose + rectangular blocks of uniform size, run nearly parallel with the cardinal + points of the compass, but this plan is not closely followed in the new + additions and suburbs. This uniformity in plan, combined with the level + ground and the style of buildings first erected, gave to the city an + extremely monotonous and uninteresting appearance, but with its growth in + wealth and population, greater diversity and better taste in architecture + have resulted.</p> + + <p>The prevailing style of domestic architecture is that introduced from + Spain and used throughout all the Spanish colonies—the grouping of + one-storey buildings round one or two <i>patios</i>, which open on the + street through a wide doorway. These residences have heavily barred + windows on the street, and flat roofs with <!-- Page 753 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page753"></a>[v.04 p.0753]</span>parapets + admirably adapted for defence. The domiciliation of wealthy foreigners, + and the introduction of foreign customs and foreign culture, have + gradually modified the style of architecture, both public and domestic, + and modern Buenos Aires is adorned with many costly and attractive public + edifices and residences. French renaissance, lavishly decorated, has + become the prevailing style. The Avenida Alvear is particularly noted for + the elegance of its private residences, and the new Avenida de Mayo for + its display of elaborately ornamented public and business edifices, while + the suburban districts of Belgrano and Flores are distinguished for the + attractiveness of their country-houses and gardens. A part of the + population is greatly overcrowded, one-fifth living in + <i>conventillos</i>, or tenement-houses.</p> + + <p>Among the city's many <i>plazas</i>, or squares, twelve are especially + worthy of mention, viz.: 25 de Mayo (formerly Victoria) on which face the + Government-House and Cathedral, San Martin (or Retiro), Lavalle, + Libertad, Lorea, Belgrano, 6 de Junio, Once de Setiembre, Independencia + (formerly Conceptión), Constitución, Caridad and 29 de Deciembre. These + vary in size from one to three squares, or 4 to 12 acres each, and are + handsomely laid out with flowers, shrubbery, walks and shade trees. There + are also two elaborately laid out <i>alamedas</i>, the Recoleta and the + Paseo de Julio, the latter on the river front and partially absorbed by + the new port works, and the great park at Palermo, officially called 3 de + Febrero, which contains 840 acres, beautifully laid out in drives, + footpaths, lawns, gardens and artificial lakes. In all, the <i>plazas</i> + and parks of Buenos Aires cover an area of 960 acres.</p> + + <p>The cathedral, which is one of the largest in South America, dating + from 1752, resembles the Madeleine of Paris in design, and its classical + portico facing the Plaza 25 de Mayo has twelve stately Corinthian columns + supporting an elaborately sculptured pediment. The archbishop's palace + (Buenos Aires became an archiepiscopal see in 1866) adjoins the + cathedral. There are about twenty-five Roman Catholic churches in the + city, one of the richest and most popular of which is the Merced on Calle + Reconquista, and four Protestant churches—English, Scottish + Presbyterian, American Methodist and German Lutheran. Twenty asylums for + orphans and indigent persons and one for lunatics are maintained at + public expense and by private religious associations, while the demand + for organized medical and surgical treatment is met by fifteen + well-appointed hospitals, having an aggregate of 2600 beds, and treating + 17,000 patients annually. Of these, five belong to foreign nationalities. + The city has six cemeteries covering 230 acres.</p> + + <p>Among the more noteworthy public buildings are the Casa Rosada + (government-house), facing the Plaza 25 de Mayo and occupying in part the + site of the fort built by Garay in 1580; the new congress hall on Calle + Callao and Avenida de Mayo, finished in 1906 at a cost of about + £1,300,000; the new municipal hall on Avenida de Mayo; the <i>bolsa</i> + or exchange, distributing reservoir, mint, and some of the more modern + educational buildings. Higher education is represented by the university + of Buenos Aires, with its several faculties, including law and medicine, + and 3562 students (1901), four national colleges, three normal schools + and various technical schools. There are, also, a national library, a + national museum, a zoological garden and an aquarium. The people are fond + of music, the drama and amusements, and devote much time and expense to + diversions of a widely varied character, from Italian opera to + horse-racing and <i>pelota</i>. They have two or three large public + baths, and a large number of social, sporting and athletic clubs. The + Porteños, as the residents of Buenos Aires are called, are accustomed to + call their city the "Paris of America," and not without reason. Buenos + Aires has become the principal manufacturing centre of the republic, and + its industrial establishments are numbered by thousands and their capital + by hundreds of millions of dollars.</p> + + <p>The growth of Buenos Aires since settled conditions have prevailed, + and especially since its federalization, has been very rapid, and the + city has finally outstripped all rivals and become the largest city of + South America. At the time of its first authentic census in 1869, it had + a population of 177,767. In 1887, when the suburbs of Belgrano and Flores + with an aggregate population of 28,000 were annexed, its population + without this increment was estimated at 404,000. In 1895 the national + census gave the population as 663,854, and in 1904 a municipal census + increased it to 950,891. At the close of 1905 the national statistical + office estimated it at 1,025,653. The excess of births over deaths is + unusually large (about 14 per thousand in 1905). The city has about + one-fifth of the population of the whole republic. The government is + vested in an <i>intendente municipal</i> (mayor) appointed by the + national executive with the approval of the senate, and a <i>concejo + deliberante</i> (legislative council) elected by the people and composed + of two councillors from each parish. The police force is a military + organization under the control of the national executive, and the higher + municipal courts are subject to the same authority. Every ratepayer, + whether foreigner or native, has the right to vote in municipal elections + and to serve in the municipal council.</p> + + <p>The water-supply is drawn from the estuary at Belgrano and conducted + 3½ m. to the Recoleta, where three great settling basins, with an + aggregate capacity of 12,000,000 gallons, and six acres of covered + filters, are located. It is then pumped to the great distributing + reservoir at Calles Córdoba and Viamonte, which covers four acres and has + a capacity of 13,500,000 gallons. These works were begun in 1873. Up to + 1873, when the water and drainage works were initiated by English + engineers and contractors, there were no public sewers, and the sanitary + state of the city was indescribably bad. The cholera epidemic of + 1867-1868, with 15,000 victims, and the yellow fever epidemic of 1871, + with 26,000 victims, were greatly intensified by these insanitary + conditions. The construction of the sewers lasted about 19 years, when in + 1892 the water and drainage works were taken over by the government, and + are now administered at public expense and at a profit. The main sewer is + 16 m. long and extends southward beyond Quilmes. The total cost of the + two systems exceeded six millions sterling. Buenos Aires is now provided + with a good water-supply, and its sanitary condition compares favourably + with that of other great cities, the annual death-rate being about 18 per + thousand, against 27 per thousand in 1887. Its mean annual temperature is + 64° Fahr., and its annual rainfall 34 in.</p> + + <p>The lighting includes both gas and electricity, the former dating from + 1856. Previously to that time street lighting had been effected at first + with lamps burning mares' grease, and then with tallow candles. The + streets were at first paved with cobble-stones, then with dressed granite + paving-stones (parallelepipedons), and finally with wood and asphalt. The + tram service is in the hands of nine private companies, operating 313 m. + of track (31st of December 1905), on almost five-sevenths of which + electric traction is employed. The city is the principal terminus and + port for nearly all the trunk railway lines of the republic, which have + large passenger stations at the Retiro, Once de Setiembre, and + Constitución plazas, and are connected with the central produce market + and the new Madero port. The great central produce market at Barracas al + Sud (<i>Mercado Central de Frutos</i>), whose lands, buildings, railway + sidings, machinery and mole cost £750,000, is designed to handle the + pastoral and agricultural products of the country on a large scale, while + 20 markets in the city meet the needs of local consumers.</p> + + <p>The most important feature of the port of Buenos Aires is the "Madero + docks," constructed to enlarge and improve its shipping facilities. + Improvements had been, begun in 1872 at the "Boca," as the port on the + Riachuelo is called, and nearly £1,500,000 was spent there in landing + facilities and dredging a channel 12 m. in length, to deep water. These + improvements were found insufficient, and in 1887 work was begun on plans + executed by Sir John Hawkshaw for a series of four docks and two basins + in front of the city, occupying 3 m. of reclaimed shore-line, and + connected with deep water by two dredged channels. The north basin is + provided with two dry docks, and the new quays are equipped with 24 + warehouses, hydraulic cranes, and 28 m. of railway sidings and + connexions. The total cost of the new port works <!-- Page 754 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page754"></a>[v.04 p.0754]</span>up to 1908 was + about £8,000,000 sterling ($40,000,000 gold). In September of that year + it was decided by congress to borrow £5,000,000 for still further + extensions which were found to be required. The channels to deep water + require constant dredging because of the great quantity of silt deposited + by the river, and on this and allied purposes an expenditure of £560,000 + was voted in 1908. In 1907 there were 29,178 shipping entries in the + port, with an aggregate of 13,335,737 tons, the merchandise movement + being 4,360,000 tons imports and 2,900,000 tons of produce exports. The + revenues for 1907 were $5,452,000 gold, and working expenses, $2,213,000 + gold, the profit ($3,229,000) being equal to about 8% on the cost of + construction.</p> + + <p><i>History.</i>—Three attempts were made to establish a colony + where the city of Buenos Aires stands. The first was in 1535 by Don Pedro + de Mendoza with a large and well-equipped expedition from Spain, which, + through mismanagement and the hostility of the Indians, resulted in + complete failure. An expedition sent up the river by Mendoza founded + Asunción, and thither went the colonists from his "Santa Maria de Buenos + Ayres" when that settlement was abandoned. The second was in 1542 by a + part of the expedition from Spain under Cabeza de Vaca, but with as + little success. The third was in 1580 by Don Juan de Garay, governor of + Paraguay, who had already established a half-way post at Santa Fé in + 1573, and from this attempt dates the foundation of the city. The need of + a port near the sea, where supplies from Spain could be received and + ships provisioned, was keenly felt by the Spanish colonists at Asunción, + and Garay's expedition down the Paraná in 1580 had that special object in + view. Garay built a fort and laid out a town in the prescribed Spanish + style above Mendoza's abandoned settlement, giving it the name of "Ciudad + de la Santissima Trinidad," but retaining Mendoza's descriptive name for + the port in appreciation of the agreeable and invigorating atmosphere of + that locality. Buenos Aires remained a dependency of Asunción until 1620, + when the Spanish settlements of the La Plata region were divided into + three provinces, Paraguay, Tucuman and Buenos Aires, and Garay's "city" + became the capital of the latter and also the seat of a new bishopric. + The increasing population and trade of the La Plata settlements naturally + contributed to the importance and prosperity of Buenos Aires, but Spain + seems to have taken very little interest in the town at that time. Peru + still dazzled the imagination with her stores of gold and silver, and the + king and his councillors and merchants had no thought for the little + trading station on the La Plata, for which one small shipment of supplies + each year was at first thought sufficient. The proximity of the + Portuguese settlements of Brazil and the unprotected state of the coast, + however, made smuggling easy, and the colonists soon learned to supply + their own needs in that way. The heavy seigniorage tax on gold and + silver, and the costs of transportation by way of Panama, also sent a + stream of contraband metal from Charcas to Buenos Aires, where it found + eager buyers among the Portuguese traders from Brazil, who even founded + the town of Colonia on the opposite bank of the estuary to facilitate + their hazardous traffic. In time the magnitude of these operations + attracted attention at Madrid and efforts were made to suppress them, but + without complete success until more liberal provisions were made to + promote trade between Spain and her colonies. In 1776 the Rio de la Plata + provinces were erected into a vice-royalty, and Buenos Aires became its + capital. Two years later the old commercial restrictions were abolished + and a new code was promulgated, so liberal in character compared with the + old that it was called the "free trade regulations." Under the old system + all intercourse with foreign countries had been prohibited, with the + exception of Great Britain and Portugal—the former having a + contract (1715 to 1739) to introduce African slaves, and permission to + send one shipload of merchandise each year to certain colonial ports, and + the latter's Brazilian colonies having permission to import from Buenos + Aires each year 2000 fanegas of wheat, 500 quintals of jerked beef and + 500 of tallow. The African slaves introduced into Buenos Aires in this + way were limited to 800 a year, and were the only slaves of that + character ever received except some from Brazil after 1778, when greater + commercial activity in the port created a sudden demand for labourers. + Under the new regulations 9 ports in Spain and 24 in the colonies were + declared <i>puertos habilitados</i>, or ports of entry, and trade between + them was permitted, though under many restrictions. The effect of this + change may be seen in the exportation of hides to the mother country, + which had been only 150,000 a year before 1778, but rose to 700,000 and + 800,000 a year after that date. (For the later history of the city see + <span class="sc">Argentina.</span>)</p> + + <p>(A. J. L.)</p> + + <p><b>BUFF</b> (from Fr. <i>buffle</i>, a buffalo), a leather originally + made from the skin of the buffalo, now also from the skins of other + animals, of a dull pale yellow colour, used for making the buffcoat or + jerkin, a leathern military coat. The old 3rd Foot regiment of the line + in the British army (now the East Kent Regiment), and the old 78th Foot + (now 2nd battalion Seaforth Highlanders), are called the "Buffs" and the + "Ross-shire Buffs" respectively, from the yellow or buff-colour of their + facings. The term is commonly used now of the colour alone.</p> + + <p><b>BUFFALO,</b> a city and port of entry, and the county-seat of Erie + county, New York, U.S.A., the second city in population in the state, and + the eighth in the United States, at the E. extremity of Lake Erie, and at + the upper end of the Niagara river; distant by rail from New York City + 423 m., from Boston 499 m., and from Chicago 540 m.</p> + + <p>The site of the city, which has an area of 42 sq. m., is a broad, + undulating tract, rising gradually from the lake to an elevation of from + 50 to 80 ft., its altitude averaging somewhat less than 600 ft. above + sea-level. The high land and temperate climate, and the excellent + drainage and water-supply systems, make Buffalo one of the most healthy + cities in the United States, its death-rate in 1900 being 14.8 per + thousand, and in 1907 15.58. As originally platted by Joseph Ellicott, + the plan of Buffalo somewhat resembled that of Washington, but the plan + was much altered and even then not adhered to. Buffalo to-day has broad + and spacious streets, most of which are lined by trees, and many small + parks and squares. The municipal park system is one of unusual beauty, + consisting of a chain of parks with a total area of about 1030 acres, + encircling the city and connected by boulevards and driveways. The + largest is Delaware Park, about 365 acres, including a lake of 46½ acres, + in the north part of the city; the north part of the park was enclosed in + the grounds of the Pan-American Exposition of 1901. Adjoining it is the + Forest Lawn cemetery, in which are monuments to President Millard + Fillmore, and to the famous Seneca chief Red Jacket (1751-1830), a friend + of the whites, who was faithful when approached by Tecumseh and the + Prophet, and warned the Americans of their danger; by many he has been + considered the greatest orator of his race. Among the other parks are + Cazenovia Park, Humboldt Park, South Park on the Lake Shore, and "The + Front" on a bluff overlooking the source of the Niagara river; in the + last is Fort Porter (named in honour of Peter B. Porter), where the + United States government maintains a garrison.</p> + + <p><i>Principal Buildings.</i>—Buffalo is widely known for the + beauty of its residential sections, the houses being for the most part + detached, set well back from the street, and surrounded by attractive + lawns. Among the principal buildings are the Federal building, erected at + a cost of $2,000,000; the city and county hall, costing $1,500,000, with + a clock tower 245 ft. high; the city convention hall, the chamber of + commerce, the builders' exchange, the Masonic temple, two state + armouries, the Prudential, Fidelity Trust, White and Mutual Life + buildings, the Teck, Star and Shea's Park theatres, and the Ellicott + Square building, one of the largest office structures in the world; and, + in Delaware Park, the Albright art gallery, and the Buffalo Historical + Society building, which was originally the New York state building + erected for the Pan-American Exposition held in 1901. Among the social + clubs the Buffalo, the University, the Park, the Saturn and the Country + clubs, and among the hotels the Iroquois, Lafayette, Niagara and Genesee, + may be especially mentioned. There are many handsome churches, including + St Joseph's (Roman Catholic) and St Paul's (Protestant Episcopal) + cathedrals, <!-- Page 755 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page755"></a>[v.04 p.0755]</span>and Trinity (Protestant + Episcopal), the Westminster Presbyterian, the Delaware Avenue Baptist, + and the First Presbyterian churches.</p> + + <p><i>Education.</i>—In addition to the usual high and grammar + schools, the city itself supports a city training school for teachers, + and a system of night schools and kindergartens. Here, too, is a state + normal school. The university of Buffalo (organized in 1845) comprises + schools of medicine (1845), law (1887), dentistry (1892), and pharmacy + (1886). Canisius College is a Roman Catholic (Jesuit) institution for men + (established in 1870 and chartered in 1883), having in 1907 a college + department and an academic (or high school) department, and a library of + about 26,000 volumes. Martin Luther Seminary, established in 1854, is a + theological seminary of the Evangelical Lutheran Church. Among the + best-known schools are the Academy of the Sacred Heart, Buffalo Seminary, + the Franklin and the Heathcote schools, Holy Angels and St Mary's + academies, St Joseph's Collegiate Institute, and St Margaret's school for + girls. The Buffalo public library, founded in 1837, is housed in a fine + building erected in 1887 (valued at $1,000,000), and contains about + 300,000 books and pamphlets. Other important libraries, with the + approximate number of their books, are the Grosvenor (founded in 1859), + for reference (75,000 volumes and 7000 pamphlets); the John C. Lord, + housed in the building of the Historical Society (10,620); the Law (8th + judicial district) (17,000); the Catholic Institute (12,000); and the + library of the Buffalo Historical Society (founded 1862) (26,600), now in + the handsome building in Delaware Park used as the New York state + building during the Pan-American Exposition of 1901. The Buffalo Society + of Natural Sciences has a museum in the public library building.</p> + + <p><i>Public Institutions.</i>—The hospitals and the charitable and + correctional institutions are numerous and are well administered. Many + private institutions are richly endowed. Among the hospitals are a state + hospital for the insane, the Erie county, the Buffalo general, the + Children's, the United States marine (maintained by the Federal + government), the German, the Homeopathic, the Women's, the German + Deaconess and the Riverside hospitals, and the Buffalo hospital of the + Sisters of Charity. Nurses' training schools are connected with most of + these. Among the charitable institutions are the Home for the Friendless, + the Buffalo, St Vincent's and St Joseph's orphan asylums, St John's + orphan home, St Mary's asylum for widows and foundlings, and the + Ingleside home for erring women. One of the most noteworthy institutions + in the city is the Charity Organisation Society, with headquarters in + Fitch Institute. Founded in 1877, it was the first in the United States, + and its manifold activities have not only contributed much to the + amelioration of social conditions in Buffalo, but have caused it to be + looked to as a model upon which similar institutions have been founded + elsewhere.</p> + + <p>The first newspaper, the <i>Gazette</i> (a weekly), was established in + 1811 and became the <i>Commercial</i>, a daily, in 1835. The first daily + was the <i>Courier</i>, established in 1831. There were in 1908 eleven + daily papers published, three of which were in German and two in Polish. + The weekly papers include several in German, three in Polish, and one in + Italian.</p> + + <p><i>Government and Population.</i>—Buffalo is governed under an + amended city charter of 1896 by which the government is vested in a + bicameral city council, and a mayor elected for a term of four years. The + mayor appoints the heads of the principal executive departments (health, + civil service, parks, police and fire). The city clerk is elected by the + city council. The municipality maintains several well-equipped public + baths, and owns its water-supply system, the water being obtained from + Lake Erie. The city is lighted by electricity generated by the water + power of Niagara Falls, and by manufactured gas. Gas, obtained by pipe + lines from the Ohio-Pennsylvania and the Canadian (Welland) natural gas + fields, is also used extensively for lighting and heating purposes.</p> + + <p>From the first census enumeration in 1820 the population has steadily + and rapidly increased from about 2000 till it reached 352,387 inhabitants + in 1900, and 423,715 (20% increase) in 1910. In 1900 there were 248,135 + native-born and 104,252 foreign-born; 350,586 were white and only 1801 + coloured, of whom 1698 were negroes. Of the native-born whites, 155,716 + had either one or both parents foreign-born; and of the total population + 93,256 were of unmixed German parentage. Of the foreign-born population + 36,720 were German, the other large elements in their order of importance + being Polish, Canadian, Irish, the British (other than Irish). Various + sections of the poorer part of the city are occupied almost exclusively + by the immigrants from Poland, Hungary and Italy.</p> + + <p><i>Communications and Commerce.</i>—Situated almost equidistant + from Chicago, Boston and New York, Buffalo, by reason of its favourable + location in respect to lake transportation and its position on the + principal northern trade route between the East and West, has become one + of the most important commercial and industrial centres in the Union. + Some fourteen trunk lines have terminals at, or pass through, Buffalo. + Tracks of a belt line transfer company encircle the city, and altogether + there are more than 500 m. of track within the limits of Buffalo. Of + great importance also is the lake commerce. Almost all the great + steamship transportation lines of the Great Lakes have an eastern + terminus at Buffalo, which thus has direct passenger and freight + connexion with Cleveland, Detroit, Chicago, Milwaukee and the "Head of + the Lakes" (Duluth-Superior). With the latter port it is connected by the + Great Northern Steamship Company, a subsidiary line of the Great Northern + railway, the passenger service of which is carried on by what are + probably the largest and finest inland passenger steamships in existence. + The tonnage of the port of Buffalo is considerably more than 5,000,000 + tons annually. With a water front of approximately 20 m. and with 8 to 10 + m. of wharfs, the shipping facilities have been greatly increased by the + extensive harbour improvements undertaken by the Federal government. + These improvements comprise a series of inner breakwaters and piers and + an outer breakwater of stone and cement, 4 m. in length, constructed at a + cost of more than $2,000,000. Another artery of trade of great importance + is the Erie Canal, which here has its western terminus, and whose + completion (1825) gave the first impetus to Buffalo's commercial growth. + With the Canadian shore Buffalo is connected by ferry, and by the + International bridge (from Squaw Island), which cost $1,500,000 and was + completed in 1873.</p> + + <p>It is as a distributing centre for the manufactured products of the + East to the West, and for the raw products of the West to the East, and + for the trans-shipment from lake to rail and vice versa, that Buffalo + occupies a position of greatest importance. It is one of the principal + grain and flour markets in the world. Here in 1843 Joseph Dart erected + the first grain elevator ever constructed. In 1906 the grain elevators + had a capacity of between twenty and thirty millions of bushels, and + annual receipts of more than 200,000,000 bushels. The receipts of flour + approximate 10,000,000 barrels yearly. More than 10,000,000 head of live + stock are handled in a year in extensive stock-yards (75 acres) at East + Buffalo; and the horse market is the largest in America. Other important + articles of commerce are lumber, the receipts of which average + 200,000,000 ft. per annum; fish (15,000,000 lb annually); and iron ore + and coal, part of which, however, is handled at Tonawanda, really a part + of the port of Buffalo. Buffalo is the port of entry of Buffalo Creek + customs district; in 1908 its imports were valued at $6,708,919, and its + exports at $26,192,563.</p> + + <p><i>Manufactures.</i>—As a manufacturing centre Buffalo ranks + next to New York among the cities of the state. The manufactures were + valued in 1900 at $122,230,061 (of which $105,627,182 was the value of + the factory product), an increase of 22.2% over 1890; value of factory + product in 1905, $147,377,873. The value of the principal products in + 1900 was as follows: slaughtering and meat packing, $9,631,187 (in 1905 + slaughtering and meat-packing $12,216,433, and slaughtering, not + including meat-packing, $3,919,940); foundry and machine shop products, + $6,816,057 (1905, $11,402,855); linseed oil, $6,271,170; cars and shop + construction, $4,513,333 (1905, $3,609,471); malt liquors, $4,269,973 + (1905, $5,187,216); soap and candles, $3,818,571 (in 1905, soap <!-- Page + 756 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page756"></a>[v.04 + p.0756]</span>$4,792,915); flour and grist mill products, $3,263,697 + (1905, $9,807,906); lumber and planing mill products, $3,095,760 (1905, + $4,186,668); clothing, $3,246,723 (1905, $4,231,126); iron and steel + products, $2,624,547. Other industrial establishments of importance + include petroleum refineries, ship-yards, brick, stone and lime works, + saddlery and harness factories, lithographing establishments, patent + medicine works, chemical works, and copper smelters and refineries. Some + of the plants are among the largest in existence, notably the Union and + the Wagner Palace car works, the Union dry docks, the steel plants of the + Lackawanna Iron and Steel Company, and the Larkin soap factory.</p> + + <p><i>History.</i>—The first white men to visit the site of Buffalo + were undoubtedly the adventurous French trappers and various Jesuit + missionaries. Near here, on the east bank of the Niagara river at the + mouth of Cayuga Creek, La Salle in 1679 built his ship the "Griffin," and + at the mouth of the river built Fort Conti, which, however, was burned in + the same year. In 1687 marquis de Denonville built at the mouth of the + river a fort which was named in his honour and was the predecessor of the + fortifications on or near the same site successively called Fort Niagara; + and the neighbourhood was the scene of military operations up to the + close of the War of Independence. As early as 1784 the present site of + the city of Buffalo came to be known as "the Buffalo Creek region" either + from the herds of buffalo or bison which, according to Indian tradition, + had frequented the salt licks of the creek, or more probably from an + Indian chief. A little later, possibly in 1788-1789, Cornelius Winney, an + Indian trader, built a cabin near the mouth of the creek and thus became + the first permanent white resident. Slowly other settlers gathered. The + land was a part of the original Phelps-Gorham Purchase, and subsequently + (about 1793) came into the possession of the Holland Land Company, being + part of the tract known as the Holland Purchase. Joseph Ellicott, the + agent of the company, who has been called the "Father of Buffalo," laid + out a town in 1801-1802, calling it New Amsterdam, and by this name it + was known on the company's books until about 1810. The name of Buffalo + Creek or Buffalo, however, proved more popular; the village became the + county-seat of Niagara county in 1808, and two years later the town of + Buffalo was erected. Upon the outbreak of the second war with Great + Britain, Buffalo and the region about Niagara Falls became a centre of + active military operations; directly across the Niagara river was the + British Fort Erie. It was from Buffalo that Lieutenant Jesse D. Elliott + (1782-1845) made his brilliant capture of the "Detroit" and "Caledonia" + in October 1812; and on the 30th and 31st of December 1813 the settlement + was attacked, captured, sacked, and almost completely destroyed by a + force of British, Canadians and Indians under General Sir Phineas Riall + (<i>c.</i> 1769-1851). After the cessation of hostilities, however, + Buffalo, which had been incorporated as a village in 1813, was rapidly + rebuilt. Its advantages as a commercial centre were early recognized, and + its importance was enhanced on the opening up of the middle West to + settlement, when Buffalo became the principal gateway for the lake + routes. Here in 1818 was rebuilt the "Walk-in-the-Water," the first + steamboat upon the Great Lakes, named in honour of a famous Wyandot + Indian chief. In 1825 the completion of the Erie Canal with its western + terminus at Buffalo greatly increased the importance of the place, which + now rapidly outstripped and soon absorbed Black Rock, a village adjoining + it on the N., which had at one time threatened to be a dangerous rival. + In 1832 Buffalo obtained a city charter, and Dr Ebenezer Johnson + (1786-1849) was chosen the first mayor. In that year, and again in 1834, + a cholera epidemic caused considerable loss of life. At Buffalo in 1848 + met the Free-Soil convention that nominated Martin van Buren for the + presidency and Charles Francis Adams for the vice-presidency. Grover + Cleveland lived in Buffalo from 1855 until 1884, when he was elected + president, and was mayor of Buffalo in 1882, when he was elected governor + of New York state. The Pan-American Exposition, in celebration of the + progress of the Western hemisphere in the nineteenth century, was held + there (May 1-November 2, 1901). It was during a reception in the Temple + of Music on the Exposition grounds that President McKinley was + assassinated (September 6th); he died at the home of John G. Milburn, the + president of the Exposition. In the house of Ansley Wilcox here + Vice-President Theodore Roosevelt took the oath of office as president. A + marble shaft 80 ft. high, in memory of McKinley, has been erected in + Niagara Square.</p> + + <p>See William Ketchum, <i>History of Buffalo</i> (2 vols., Buffalo, + 1864-1865); H.P. Smith, <i>History of Buffalo and Erie County</i> + (Syracuse, 1884); <i>Publications of the Buffalo Historical Society</i> + (Buffalo, 1879 et seq.); O. Turner, <i>History of the Holland + Purchase</i> (Buffalo, 1850); T.H. Hotchkin, <i>History of Western New + York</i> (New York, 1845); and the sketch in Lyman P. Powell's + <i>Historic Towns of the Middle States</i> (New York, 1901).</p> + + <p><b>BUFFALO,</b> a name properly pertaining to an aberrant species of + cattle which has been kept in a state of domestication in India and Egypt + from time immemorial, and had been introduced from the latter country + into southern Europe. It is now taken, however, to include not only this + species, whose native home is India, but all more or less nearly related + animals.<a name="FnAnchor_331" href="#Footnote_331"><sup>[1]</sup></a> + Buffaloes are heavily built oxen, with sparsely haired skin, large ears, + long, tufted tails, broad muzzles and massive angulated horns. In having + only 13 pairs of ribs they resemble the typical oxen. African buffaloes + all have the hair of the back directed backwards.</p> + + <p>In the Cape buffalo, <i>Bos (Bubalus) caffer</i>, the horns do not + attain an excessive length, but in old bulls are so expanded and + thickened at the base as to form a helmet-like mass protecting the whole + forehead. Several more or less nearly allied local races have been named; + and in Eastern Africa the buffaloes (<i>B. caffer aequinoctialis</i>) + have smaller horns, which do not meet in the middle line. From this + animal, which is brown instead of black, there seems to be a transition + towards the red dwarf buffalo (<i>B. nanus</i>) of West Africa, an animal + scarcely more than two-thirds the size of its gigantic southern cousin, + with relatively small, much flattened, upwardly curved horns. In South + Africa buffaloes frequent reedy swamps, where they associate in herds of + from fifty to a hundred or more individuals. Old bulls may be met with + either alone or in small parties of from two or three to eight or ten. + This buffalo formerly roamed in herds over the plains of Central and + Southern Africa, always in the near vicinity of water, but the numbers + are greatly diminished. In Cape Colony some herds are protected by the + government in the eastern forest-districts. This species has never been + domesticated, nor does there appear to have been any attempt to reduce it + to service. Like its Indian ally it is fond of water, which it visits at + regular intervals during the twenty-four hours; it also plasters itself + with mud, which, when hardened by the sun, protects it from the bite of + the gadflies which in spite of its thick hide seem to cause it + considerable annoyance. It is relieved of a portion of the parasitic + ticks, so common on the hides of thick-skinned animals, by means of the + red-beaked rhinoceros birds, <i>Buphaga erythrorhynca</i>, a dozen or + more of which may be seen partly perched on its horns and partly moving + about on its back, and picking up the ticks on which they feed. The + hunter is often guided by these birds in his search for the buffalo, but + oftener still they give timely warning to their host of the dangerous + proximity of the hunter, and have thus earned the title of "the buffalo's + guardian birds."</p> + + <p>In a wild state the typical Indian buffalo, <i>Bos (Bubalus) + bubalis</i>, seems to be restricted to India and Ceylon, although some of + the buffaloes found in the Malay Peninsula and Islands probably represent + local races. The species has been introduced into Asia Minor, Egypt, + Italy and elsewhere. The large size and wide separation of the horns, as + well as the less thickly fringed ears, and the more elongated and narrow + head, form marked points of distinction between the Asiatic and South + African species. Moreover, all Asiatic buffaloes are distinguished from + the African forms by having the hair on the fore-part of the back + directed forwards; and these go far to support the views of those who + would make them the types of a distinct subgenus, <!-- Page 757 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page757"></a>[v.04 p.0757]</span>or genus, + <i>Buffelus</i>. In Assam there formerly existed a local race, <i>B. + bubalis macrocercus</i>, characterized by the horns, which are of immense + size, being directed mainly outwards, instead of curving upwards in a + circular form. Another Assam race (<i>B. bubalis fulvus</i>) is + characterized by the tawny, in place of black, colour of its hair and + hide. The haunts of the Indian buffalo are the grass-jungles near swamps, + in which the grass exceeds 20 ft. in height. Here the + buffaloes—like the Indian rhinoceros—form covered pathways, + in which they are completely concealed. The herds frequently include + fifty or more individuals. These animals are fond of passing the day in + marshes, where they love to wallow in the mud; they are by no means shy, + and do much harm to the crops. The rutting-season occurs in autumn, when + several females follow a single male, forming for the time a small herd. + The period of gestation lasts for ten months, and the female produces one + or two calves at a birth. The bull is capable, it is said, of + overthrowing an elephant, and generally more than a match even for the + tiger, which usually declines the combat when not impelled by hunger. The + Indian driver of a herd of tame buffaloes does not shrink from entering a + tiger-frequented jungle, his cattle, with their massive horns, making + short work of any tiger that may come in their way. Buffalo fights and + fights between buffaloes and tigers were recognized Indian sports in the + old days. Domesticated buffaloes differ from their wild brethren merely + by their inferior size and smaller horns; some of the latter being of the + circular and others of the straight type. The milk is good and + nourishing, but of a ropy consistency and a peculiar flavour.</p> + + <p>The tamarao, or Philippine buffalo, <i>Bos (Bubalus) mindorensis</i>, + is a smaller animal, in many respects intermediate between the Indian + buffalo and the dwarf anoa, or Celebes buffalo (<i>B. + depressicornis</i>).</p> + + <p>(R. L.*)</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_331" href="#FnAnchor_331">[1]</a> In America, it is + worth noting, the term "buffalo" is almost universally taken, at all + events in popular parlance, to designate the American bison, for which + see <span class="sc">Bison</span>.</p> + +</div> + <p><b>BUFFET, LOUIS JOSEPH</b> (1818-1898), French statesman, was born at + Mirecourt. After the revolution of February 1848 he was elected deputy + for the department of the Vosges, and in the Assembly sat on the right, + pronouncing for the repression of the insurrection of June 1848 and for + Louis Napoleon Bonaparte. He was minister of agriculture from August to + December 1849 and from August to October 1851. Re-elected deputy in 1863, + he was one of the supporters of the "Liberal Empire" of Emile Ollivier, + being finance minister in Ollivier's cabinet from January to the 10th of + April 1870. He was president of the National Assembly from the 4th of + April 1872 to the 10th of March 1875, and minister of the interior in + 1875. Then, elected senator for life (1876), he pronounced himself in + favour of the <i>coup d'état</i> of the 16th of May 1877. Buffet had some + oratorical talent, but shone most in opposition.</p> + + <p><b>BUFFET,</b> a piece of furniture which may be open or closed, or + partly open and partly closed, for the reception of dishes, china, glass + and plate. The word may also signify a long counter at which one stands + to eat and drink, as at a restaurant, or—which would appear to be + the original meaning—the room in which the counter stands. The + word, like the thing it represents, is French. The buffet is the + descendant of the credence, and the ancestor of the sideboard, and + consequently has a close affinity to the dresser. Few articles of + furniture, while preserving their original purpose, have varied more + widely in form. In the beginning the buffet was a tiny apartment, or + recess, little larger than a cupboard, separated from the room which it + served either by a breast-high balustrade or by pillars. It developed + into a definite piece of furniture, varying from simplicity to splendour, + but always provided with one or more flat spaces, or broad shelves, for + the reception of such necessaries of the dining-room as were not placed + upon the table. The early buffets were sometimes carved with the utmost + elaboration; the Renaissance did much to vary their form and refine their + ornament. Often the lower part contained receptacles as in the + characteristic English court-cupboard. The rage for collecting china in + the middle of the 18th century was responsible for a new form—the + high glazed back, fitted with shelves, for the display of fine pieces of + crockery-ware. This, however, was hardly a true buffet, and was the very + antithesis of the primary arrangement, in which the huge goblets and + beakers and fantastic pieces of plate, of which so extremely few examples + are left, were displayed upon the open "gradines." The tiers of shelves, + with or without a glass front, which are still often found in Georgian + houses, were sometimes called buffets—in short, any dining-room + receptacle for articles that were not immediately wanted came at last to + bear the name. In France the variations of type were even more numerous + than in England, and it is sometimes difficult to distinguish a commode + from a buffet. In the latter part of the 18th century the buffet + occasionally took the form of a console table.</p> + + <p><b>BUFFIER, CLAUDE</b> (1661-1737), French philosopher, historian and + educationalist, was born in Poland, on the 25th of May 1661, of French + parents, who returned to France, and settled at Rouen, soon after his + birth. He was educated at the Jesuit college there, and was received into + the order at the age of nineteen. A dispute with the archbishop compelled + him to leave Rouen, and after a short stay in Rome he returned to Paris + to the college of the Jesuits, where he spent the rest of his life. He + seems to have been an admirable teacher, with a great power of lucid + exposition. His object in the <i>Traité des vérités premières</i> (1717), + his best-known work, is to discover the ultimate principle of knowledge. + This he finds in the sense we have of our own existence and of what we + feel within ourselves. He thus takes substantially the same ground as + Descartes, but he rejected the <i>a priori</i> method. In order to know + what exists distinct from the self, "common sense" is necessary. Common + sense he defined as "that disposition which nature has placed in all or + most men, in order to enable them, when they have arrived at the age and + use of reason, to form a common and uniform judgment with respect to + objects different from the internal sentiment of their own perception, + which judgment is not the consequence of any anterior judgment." The + truths which this "disposition of nature" obliges us to accept can be + neither proved nor disproved; they are practically followed even by those + who reject them speculatively. But Buffier does not claim for these + truths of "common sense" the absolute certainty which characterizes the + knowledge we have of our own existence or the logical deductions we make + from our thoughts; they possess merely the highest probability, and the + man who rejects them is to be considered a fool, though he is not guilty + of a contradiction. Buffier's aversion to scholastic refinements has + given to his writings an appearance of shallowness and want of + metaphysical insight, and unquestionably he failed entirely even to + indicate the nature of that universality and necessity which he ascribed + to his "eternal verities"; he was, however, one of the earliest to + recognize the psychological as distinguished from the metaphysical side + of Descartes's principle, and to use it, with no inconsiderable skill, as + the basis of an analysis of the human mind, similar to that enjoined by + Locke. In this he has anticipated the spirit and method as well as many + of the results of Reid and the Scottish school. Voltaire described him as + "the only Jesuit who has given a reasonable system of philosophy."</p> + + <p>He wrote also <i>Éléments de métaphysique</i> (1724), a "French + Grammar on a new plan," and a number of historical essays. Most of his + works appeared in a collected form in 1732, and an English translation of + the <i>Traité</i> was published in 1780.</p> + + <p><b>BUFFON, GEORGE LOUIS LECLERC,</b> <span class="sc">Comte de</span> + (1707-1788), French naturalist, was born on the 7th of September 1707, at + Montbard (Côte d'Or), his father, Benjamin François Leclerc de Buffon + (1683-1775), being councillor of the Burgundian parlement. He studied law + at the college of Jesuits at Dijon; but he soon exhibited a marked + predilection for the study of the physical sciences, and more + particularly for mathematics. Whilst at Dijon he made the acquaintance of + a young Englishman, Lord Kingston, and with him travelled through Italy + and then went to England. He published a French translation of Stephen + Hales's <i>Vegetable Statics</i> in 1735, and of Sir I. Newton's + <i>Fluxions</i> in 1740. At twenty-five years of age he succeeded to a + considerable property, inherited from his mother, and from this time + onward his life was devoted to regular scientific labour. At first he + directed his attention more especially to mathematics, physics, <!-- Page + 758 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page758"></a>[v.04 + p.0758]</span>and agriculture, and his chief original papers are + connected with these subjects. In the spring of 1739 he was elected an + associate of the Academy of Sciences; and at a later period of the same + year he was appointed keeper of the Jardin du Roi and of the Royal + Museum. This appears to have finally determined him to devote himself to + the biological sciences in particular, and he began to collect materials + for his <i>Natural History</i>. In the preparation of this voluminous + work he associated with himself L.J.M. Daubenton, to whom the descriptive + and anatomical portions of the treaties were entrusted, and the first + three volumes made their appearance in the year 1749. In 1752 (not in + 1743 or 1760, as sometimes stated) he married Marie Françoise de + Saint-Belin. He seems to have been fondly attached to her, and felt + deeply her death at Montbard in 1769. The remainder of Buffon's life as a + private individual presents nothing of special interest. He belonged to a + very long-lived race, his father having attained the age of ninety-three, + and his grandfather eighty-seven. He himself died at Paris on the 15th of + April 1788, at the age of eighty-one, of vesical calculus, having refused + to allow any operation for his relief. He left one son, George Louis + Marie Leclerc Buffon, who was an officer in the French army, and who died + by the guillotine, at the age of thirty, on the 10th of July 1793 (22 + Messidor, An II.), having espoused the party of the duke of Orleans.</p> + + <p>Buffon was a member of the French Academy (his inaugural address being + the celebrated <i>Discours sur le style</i>, 1753), perpetual treasurer + of the Academy of Sciences, fellow of the Royal Society of London, and + member of the Academies of Berlin, St Petersburg, Dijon, and of most of + the learned societies then existing in Europe. Of handsome person and + noble presence, endowed with many of the external gifts of nature, and + rejoicing in the social advantages of high rank and large possessions, he + is mainly known by his published scientific writings. Without being a + profound original investigator, he possessed the art of expressing his + ideas in a clear and generally attractive form. His chief defects as a + scientific writer are that he was given to excessive and hasty + generalization, so that his hypotheses, however seemingly brilliant, are + often destitute of any sufficient basis in observed facts, whilst his + literary style is not unfrequently theatrical and turgid, and a great + want of method and order is commonly observable in his writings.</p> + + <p>His great work is the <i>Histoire naturelle, générale et + particulière</i>; and it can undoubtedly claim the merit of having been + the first work to present the previously isolated and apparently + disconnected facts of natural history in a popular and generally + intelligible form. The sensation which was made by its appearance in + successive parts was very great, and it certainly effected much good in + its time by generally diffusing a taste for the study of nature. For a + work so vast, however—aiming, as it did, at being little less than + a general encyclopaedia of the sciences—Buffon's capacities may, + without disparagement, be said to have been insufficient, as is shown by + the great weakness of parts of the work (such as those relating to + mineralogy). The <i>Histoire naturelle</i> passed through several + editions, and was translated into various languages. The edition most + highly prized by collectors, on account of the beauty of its plates, is + the first, which was published in Paris (1749-1804) in forty-four quarto + volumes, the publication extending over more than fifty years. In the + preparation of the first fifteen volumes of this edition (1749-1767) + Buffon was assisted by Daubenton, and subsequently by P. Guéneau de + Montbéliard, the abbé G.L.C.A. Bexon, and C.N.S. Sonnini de Manoncourt. + The following seven volumes form a supplement to the preceding, and + appeared in 1774-1789, the famous <i>Époques de la nature</i> (1779) + being the fifth of them. They were succeeded by nine volumes on the birds + (1770-1783), and these again by five volumes on minerals (1783-1788). The + remaining eight volumes, which complete this edition, appeared after + Buffon's death, and comprise reptiles, fishes and cetaceans. They were + executed by B.G.E. de Lacépède, and were published in successive volumes + between 1788 and 1804. A second edition begun in 1774 and completed in + 1804, in thirty-six volumes quarto, is in most respects similar to the + first, except that the anatomical descriptions are suppressed and the + supplement recast.</p> + + <p>See Humbert-Bazile, <i>Buffon, sa famille, &c.</i> (1863); M.J.P. + Flourens, <i>Hist. des travaux et des idées de Buffon</i> (1844, 3rd ed., + 1870); H. Nadault de Buffon, <i>Correspondance de Buffon</i> (1860); A.S. + Packard, <i>Lamarck</i> (1901).</p> + + <p><b>BUG,</b> the name of two rivers of Europe. (1) A stream of European + Russia, distinguished sometimes as the Southern Bug, which rises in the + S. of the government of Volhynia, and flows generally S.E. through the + governments of Podolia and Kherson, and after picking up the Ingul from + the left at Nikolayev, enters the <i>liman</i> or lagoon into which the + Dnieper also discharges. Its length is 470 m. Its upper part is beset + with rapids, and its lower is of little value for navigation on account + of the numerous sandbanks and blocks of rock which choke its bed. (2) A + river distinguished as the Western Don, which rises in the E. of Austrian + Galicia between Tarnopol and Brody, and flows N.N.W. as far as + Brest-Litovsk, separating the Polish provinces of Lublin and Siedlce from + the Russian governments of Volhynia and Grodno; it then swings away + almost due W., between the provinces of Warsaw and Lomza, and joins the + Vistula, 23 m. below the city of Warsaw. Length, 470 m. It is navigable + from Brest-Litovsk downwards.</p> + + <p><b>BUG,</b> the common name for hemipterous insects of the family + <i>Cimicidae</i>, of which the best-known example is the house bug or bed + bug (<i>Cimex lectularius</i>). This disgusting insect is of an oval + shape, of a rusty red colour, and, in common with the whole tribe to + which it belongs, gives off an offensive odour when touched; unlike the + others, however, it is wingless. The bug is provided with a proboscis, + which when at rest lies along the inferior side of the thorax, and + through which it sucks the blood of man, the sole food of this species. + It is nocturnal in its habits, remaining concealed by day in crevices of + bed furniture, among the hangings, or behind the wall paper, and shows + considerable activity in its nightly raids in search of food. The female + deposits her eggs at the beginning of summer in crevices of wood and + other retired situations, and in three weeks the young emerge as small, + white, and almost transparent larvae. These change their skin very + frequently during growth, and attain full development in about eleven + weeks. Two centuries ago the bed bug was a rare insect in Britain, and + probably owes its name, which is derived from a Celtic word signifying + "ghost" or "goblin," to the terror which its attacks at first inspired. + An allied species, the dove-cote bug (<i>Cimex columbaria</i>), attacks + domestic fowls and pigeons.</p> + + <p><b>BUGEAUD DE LA PICONNERIE, THOMAS ROBERT,</b> <span class="sc">duke + of Isly</span> (1784-1849), marshal of France, was born at Limoges on the + 15th of October 1784. He came of a noble family of Périgord, and was the + youngest of his parents' thirteen children. Harsh treatment led to his + flight from home, and for some years about 1800 he lived in the country, + engaged in agriculture, to which he was ever afterwards devoted. At the + age of twenty he became a private soldier in the <i>Vélites</i> of the + Imperial Guard (1804), with which he took part in the Austerlitz campaign + of the following year. Early in 1806 he was given a commission, and as a + sub-lieutenant he served in the Jena and Eylau campaigns, winning his + promotion to the rank of lieutenant at Pultusk (December 1806). In 1808 + he was in the first French corps which entered Spain, and was stationed + in Madrid during the revolt of the <i>Dos Mayo</i>. At the second siege + of Saragossa he won further promotion to the rank of captain, and in + 1809-1810 found opportunities for winning distinction under General + (Marshal) Suchet in the eastern theatre of the Peninsular War, in which + he rose to the rank of major and the command of a full regiment. At the + first restoration he was made a colonel, but he rejoined Napoleon during + the Hundred Days, and under his old chief Suchet distinguished himself + greatly in the war in the Alps. For fifteen years after the fall of + Napoleon he was not re-employed, and during this time he displayed great + activity in agriculture and in the general development of his district of + Périgord. The July revolution of 1830 reopened his military career, and + after a short tenure of a regimental command he was in 1831 made a + <i>maréchal de camp</i>. In the chamber <!-- Page 759 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page759"></a>[v.04 p.0759]</span>of deputies, to + which he was elected in the same year, he showed himself to be an + inflexible opponent of democracy, and in his military capacity he was + noted for his severity in police work and the suppression of + <i>émeutes</i>. His conduct as gaoler of the duchesse de Berry led to a + duel between Bugeaud and the deputy Dulong, in which the latter was + killed (1834); this affair and the incidents of another <i>émeute</i> + exposed Bugeaud to ceaseless attacks in the Chamber and in the press, but + his opinion was sought by all parties in matters connected with + agriculture and industrial development. He was re-elected in 1834, 1837 + and 1839.</p> + + <p>About this time Bugeaud became much interested in the question of + Algeria. At first he appears to have disapproved of the conquest, but his + undeviating adherence to Louis Philippe brought him into agreement with + the government, and with his customary decision he proposed to employ at + once whatever forces were necessary for the swift, complete and lasting + subjugation of Algeria. Later events proved the soundness of his views; + in the meantime Bugeaud was sent to Africa in a subordinate capacity, and + proceeded without delay to initiate his war of flying columns. He won his + first victory on the 7th of July 1836, made a brilliant campaign of six + weeks' duration, and returned home with the rank of lieutenant-general. + In the following year he signed the treaty of Tafna (June 1st, 1837), + with Abd-el-Kader, an act which, though justified by the military and + political situation, led to a renewal of the attacks upon him in the + chamber, to the refutation of which Bugeaud devoted himself in 1839. + Finally, in 1840, he was nominated governor-general of Algeria, and early + in 1841 he put into force his system of flying columns. His swiftness and + energy drove back the forces of Abd-el-Kader from place to place, while + the devotion of the rank and file to "Père Bugeaud" enabled him to carry + all before him in action. In 1842 he secured the French positions by + undertaking the construction of roads. In 1843 Bugeaud was made marshal + of France, and in this and the following year he continued his operations + with unvarying success. His great victory of Isly on the 14th of August + 1844 won for him the title of duke. In 1845, however, he had to take the + field again in consequence of the disaster of Sidi Brahim (22nd of + September 1845), and up to his final retirement from Algeria (July 1846) + he was almost constantly employed in the field. His resignation was due + to differences with the home government on the question of the future + government of the province. Amidst his other activities he had found time + to study the agricultural characteristics of the conquered country, and + under his régime the number of French colonists had grown from 17,000 to + 100,000. In 1848 the marshal was in Paris during the revolution, but his + orders prevented him from acting effectually to suppress it. He was + asked, but eventually refused, to be a candidate for the presidency in + opposition to Louis Napoleon. His last public service was the command of + the army of the Alps, formed in 1848-1849 to observe events in Italy. He + died in Paris on the 10th of June 1849.</p> + + <p>Bugeaud's writings were numerous, including his <i>Œuvres + militaires</i>, collected by Weil (Paris, 1883), many official reports on + Algeria and the war there, and some works on economics and political + science. See Comte d'Ideville, <i>Le Maréchal Bugeaud</i> (Paris, + 1881-1882).</p> + + <p><b>BUGENHAGEN, JOHANN</b> (1485-1558), surnamed <span + class="sc">Pomeranus</span>, German Protestant reformer, was born at + Wollin near Stettin on the 24th of June 1485. At the university of + Greifswald he gained much distinction as a humanist, and in 1504 was + appointed by the abbot of the Praemonstratensian monastery at Belbuck + rector of the town school at Treptow. In 1509 he was ordained priest and + became a vicar in the collegiate <i>Marienkirche</i> at Treptow; in 1517 + he was appointed lecturer on the Bible and Church Fathers at the abbey + school at Belbuck. In 1520 Luther's <i>De Captivitate Babylonica</i> + converted him into a zealous supporter of the Reformer's views, to which + he won over the abbot among others. In 1521 he went to Wittenberg, where + he formed a close friendship with Luther and Melanchthon, and in 1522 he + married. He preached and lectured in the university, but his zeal and + organizing skill soon spread his reforming influence far beyond its + limits. In 1528 he arranged the church affairs of Brunswick and Hamburg; + in 1530 those of Lübeck and Pomerania. In 1537 he was invited to Denmark + by Christian III., and remained five years in that country, organizing + the church (though only a presbyter, he consecrated the new Danish + bishops) and schools. He passed the remainder of his life at Wittenberg, + braving the perils of war and persecution rather than desert the place + dear to him as the home of the Reformation. He died on the 20th of April + 1558. Among his numerous works is a history of Pomerania, which remained + unpublished till 1728. Perhaps his best book is the <i>Interpretatio in + Librum Psalmorum</i> (1523), and he is also remembered as having helped + Luther in his translation of the Bible.</p> + + <p>See Life by H. Hering (Halle, 1888); Emil Görigk, <i>Bugenhagen und + die Protestantisierung Pommerns</i> (1895). O. Vogt published a + collection of Bugenhagen's correspondence in 1888, and a supplement in + 1890.</p> + + <p><b>BUGGE, SOPHUS</b> (1833-1907), Norwegian philologist, was born at + Laurvik, Norway, on the 5th of January 1833. He was educated at + Christiania, Copenhagen and Berlin, and in 1866 he became professor of + comparative philology and Old Norse at Christiania University. In + addition to collecting Norwegian folk-songs and traditions, and writing + on Runic inscriptions, he made considerable contributions to the study of + the Celtic, Romance, Oscan, Umbrian and Etruscan languages. He was the + author of a very large number of books on philology and folklore. His + principal work, a critical edition of the elder Edda (<i>Norroen + Fornkvoedi</i>), was published at Christiania in 1867. He maintained that + the songs of the <i>Edda</i> and the earlier sagas were largely founded + on Christian and Latin tradition imported into Scandinavian literature by + way of England. His writings also include <i>Gamle Norske Folkeviser</i> + (1858), a collection of Old Norse folk-songs; <i>Bidrag til den aeldste + skaldedigtnings historie</i> (Christiania, 1894); <i>Helge-digtene i den + Aeldre Edda</i> (Copenhagen, 1896, Eng. trans., <i>The Home of the Eddic + Poems</i>, 1899); <i>Norsk Sagafortaelling op Sagaskrivning i Island</i> + (Christiania, 1901), and various books on Runic inscriptions. He died on + the 8th of July 1907.</p> + + <p>For a further list of his works see J.B. Halvorsen, <i>Norsk + Forfatter-Lexikon</i>, vol. i. (Christiania, 1885).</p> + + <p><b>BUGGY,</b> a vehicle with either two (in England and India) or four + wheels (in America). English buggies are generally hooded and for one + horse. American buggies are for one horse or two, and either covered with + a hood or open; among the varieties are the "Goddard" (the name of the + inventor), the "box," so called from the shape of the body, the "cut + under," i.e. cut out for the front wheels to cramp beneath and so turn in + a narrow space, the "end-spring" and "side-bar," names referring to the + style of hanging. A skeleton buggy, lightly constructed, is used on the + American "speedways," built and maintained for fast driving. The word is + of unknown origin; it may be connected with "bogie" (<i>q.v.</i>) a + truck. The supposed Hindustani <i>baggī</i>, a gig, often given as + the source, appears to be an invention or an adaptation into the + vernacular of the English word.</p> + + <p><b>BUGIS,</b> or <span class="sc">Bughis</span>, a people of Malayan + stock, originally occupying only the kingdom of Boni in the south-western + peninsula of the island of Celebes. From this district they spread over + the whole island, and founded settlements throughout the whole Malay + Archipelago. They are of middle size and robust, of very active, + enterprising nature and of a complexion slightly lighter than the average + Malay. In disposition they are brave, haughty and fierce, and are said to + be more predisposed towards "running amuck" than any other Malayans. They + speak a language allied to that of the Macassars, and write it with + similar characters. It has been studied, and its letters reproduced in + type by Dr B.F. Mathes of the Netherlands Bible Society. The Bugis are + industrious and ingenious; they practise agriculture more than the + neighbouring tribes, and manufacture cotton-cloth not only for their own + use but for export. They also carry on a considerable trade in the + mineral and vegetable products of Boni, such as gold-dust, + tortoise-shell, pearls, nut-megs and camphor. Thair love of the sea has + given them almost a monopoly of trade around Celebes. Their towns <!-- + Page 760 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page760"></a>[v.04 + p.0760]</span>are well built and they have schools of their own. The king + is elected generally for life, and always from their own number, by the + chiefs of the eight petty states that compose the confederation of Boni, + and he cannot decide on any public measure without their consent. In some + of the states the office of chief is hereditary; in others any member of + the privileged classes may aspire to the dignity, and it not infrequently + happens that the state is governed by a woman. The Bugis have been + Mahommedans since the 17th century. Their original form of nature-worship + had been much affected by Hindu influences, and even now they retain + rites connected with the worship of Siva. See further <span + class="sc">Boni; Celebes</span>.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:22%;"> + <a href="images/bugle_1.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bugle_1.png" + alt="Fig. 1.--Modern Service Bugle." title="Fig. 1.--Modern Service Bugle." /></a> + <p class="poem"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.—Modern Service + Bugle, British Army (Charles Mahillon).</p> + </div> + <p><b>BUGLE,</b> <span class="sc">Bugle-horn, Keyed Bugle, Kent Bugle or + Regent's Bugle</span> (Fr. <i>Bugle</i>, <i>Clairon</i>, <i>Cor à + clefs</i>, <i>Bugle à clefs</i>; Ger. <i>Flügelhorn</i>, + <i>Signalhorn</i>, <i>Bugelhorn</i>, <i>Klappenhorn</i>, <i>Kenthorn</i>; + Ital. <i>Corna cromatica</i>), a treble brass wind instrument with + cup-shaped mouthpiece and conical bore, used as a military duty and + signal instrument. The bugle was originally, as its name denotes, a + bull's horn,<a name="FnAnchor_341" + href="#Footnote_341"><sup>[1]</sup></a> of which it has preserved the + characteristic conical bore of rapidly increasing diameter.</p> + + <p>Those members of the brass wind such as the horns, bugle, trumpet and + tubas, which, in their simplest form, consist of tubes without lateral + openings, depend for their scale on the harmonic series obtained by + overblowing, i.e. by greater pressure of breath and by the increased + tension of the lips, acting as reeds, across the mouthpiece. The harmonic + series thus produced, which depends on the acoustic principles of the + tube itself, and is absolutely uninfluenced by the manner in which the + tube is bent, forms a natural subdivision in classifying these + instruments:—(1) Those in which the lower harmonics from the second + to the sixth or eighth are employed, such as the bugle, post-horn, the + cornet à pistons, the trombone. (2) Those in which the higher harmonics + from the third or fourth to the twelfth or sixteenth are mostly used, + such as the French horn and trumpet. (3) Those which give out the + fundamental tone and harmonics up to the eighth, such as the tubas and + ophicleide.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"> + <a href="images/buglemusic1.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/buglemusic1.png" + alt="Harmonic Series." title="Harmonic Series." /></a> + </div> + <p>We thus find a fundamental difference between the trumpet and the + bugle as regards the harmonic series. But although, to the casual + beholder, these instruments may present a general similarity, there are + other important structural distinctions. The tube of the trumpet is + cylindrical, widening only at the bell, whereas that of the bugle, as + stated above, is conical. Both instruments have cup-shaped mouthpieces + outwardly similar. The peculiar shape of the basins, however, at the + place where they open into the tube, angular in the trumpet and bevelled + in the bugle, taken in conjunction with the bore of the main tube, gives + to the trumpet its brilliant blaring tone, and to the bugle its more + veiled but penetrating quality, characteristic of the whole family.<a + name="FnAnchor_342" href="#Footnote_342"><sup>[2]</sup></a> Only five + notes are required for the various bugle-calls, although the actual + compass of the instrument consists of eight, of which the first or + fundamental, however, being of poor quality, is never used. There are + bugles in C and in E flat, but the bugle in B flat is most generally + used; the key of C is used in notation.</p> + + <p>In order to increase the compass and musical possibilities of the + bugle, two methods have been adopted, the use of (1) keys and (2) valves. + The application of keys to the bugle produced the Kent bugle, and later + the ophicleide. The application of valves produced the family of + saxhorns. The use of keys for wood wind instruments was known early in + the 15th century,<a name="FnAnchor_343" + href="#Footnote_343"><sup>[3]</sup></a> perhaps before. In 1438, the duke + of Burgundy paid Hennequin Haulx, instrument-maker of Brussels, 4 + <i>ridres</i> a piece for three tenor bombards with keys. In the 16th + century we find a key applied to the bass flûte-à-bec<a + name="FnAnchor_344" href="#Footnote_344"><sup>[4]</sup></a> and later to + the large tenor cornetto.<a name="FnAnchor_345" + href="#Footnote_345"><sup>[5]</sup></a> In 1770 a horn-player named + Kölbel, belonging to the imperial Russian band, experimented with keys on + the trumpet, and in 1795 Weidinger of Vienna produced a trumpet with five + keys. In 1810 Joseph Halliday, the bandmaster of the Cavan militia, + patented the keyed bugle, with five keys and a compass of twenty-five + notes, calling it the "Royal Kent Bugle" out of compliment to the duke of + Kent, who was at the time commander-in-chief, and encouraged the + introduction of the instrument into the regimental bands. A Royal Kent + bugle in C, stamped with Halliday's name as inventor, and made by P. + Turton, 5 Wormwood Gate, Dublin, was exhibited by Col. Shaw-Hellier at + the Royal Military Exhibition in 1890.<a name="FnAnchor_346" + href="#Footnote_346"><sup>[6]</sup></a> The instrument measures 17 in., + and the total length of the tubing, including the mouthpiece, 50½ in. The + diameter at the mouthpiece is ½ in. and at the bell 5¾ in. The instrument + has a chromatic compass of two octaves, <a + href="images/zbuglemusic2.png"><img src="images/buglemusic2.png" + class="middle" alt="Chromatic compass." /></a> the open notes being <a + href="images/zbuglemusic3.png"><img src="images/buglemusic3.png" + class="middle" alt="Open notes." /></a>.</p> + + <p>Mahillon (op. cit. p. 117) points out that the tonality of the + key-bugle and kindred instruments is determined by the second harmonic + given out by the open tube, the first key remaining open. To the original + instrument specified in the patent, Halliday added a sixth key, which + became the first and was in the normal position open; this key when + closed gave B flat, with the same series of harmonics as the open tube. + The series, however, becomes shorter with each successive key. Thus, on + being opened, the second key gives <a href="images/zbuglemusic4.png"><img + src="images/buglemusic4.png" class="middle" alt="Second key." /></a>, the + third key <a href="images/zbuglemusic5.png"><img + src="images/buglemusic5.png" class="middle" alt="Third key." /></a>, the + fourth key <a href="images/zbuglemusic6.png"><img + src="images/buglemusic6.png" class="middle" alt="Fourth key." /></a>, the + fifth key <a href="images/zbuglemusic7.png"><img + src="images/buglemusic7.png" class="middle" alt="Fifth key." /></a>, the + sixth key <a href="images/zbuglemusic8.png"><img + src="images/buglemusic8.png" class="middle" alt="Sixth key." /></a>. The + bore of the instrument is just wide enough in proportion to its length to + make possible the playing of the fundamental tones in the first two + series, but these notes are never used, and the harmonics above the sixth + are also avoided, being of doubtful intonation. In the ophicleide, the + bass of the key-bugle, the bore is sufficiently wide to produce the + fundamentals of a satisfactory quality.</p> + + <p>The keyed bugle was chiefly used in B flat, a crook for B flat being + frequently added to the bugle in C; the soprano bugle in E flat was also + much used in military bands.</p> + + <p>The origin of the bugle, in common with that of the hunting horn, is + of the highest antiquity. During the middle ages, the word "bugle" was + applied to the ox and also to its horns, whether used as musical + instruments or for drinking. The <i>New English Dictionary</i> quotes a + definition of bugle dating from c. 1398: "The Bugle ... is lyke to an oxe + and is a fyers <!-- Page 761 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page761"></a>[v.04 p.0761]</span>beest."<a name="FnAnchor_347" + href="#Footnote_347"><sup>[7]</sup></a> In 1300 a romance<a + name="FnAnchor_348" href="#Footnote_348"><sup>[8]</sup></a> contains the + word used in both acceptations, "A thousand bugles of Ynde," and "tweye + bugle-hornes and a bowe." F. Godefroy<a name="FnAnchor_349" + href="#Footnote_349"><sup>[9]</sup></a> gives quotations from early + French which show that, as in England, the word bugle was frequently used + as an adjective, and as a verb:—"IIII cors buglieres fist soner de + randon" (<i>Quatre fils Aymon</i>, ed. P. Tarbé, p. 32), and "I grant cor + buglerenc fit en sa tor soner" (<i>Aiol</i>, 7457, <i>Société des anciens + textes français</i>). Tubas, horns, cornets and bugles have as common + archetype the horn of ram, bull or other animal, whose form was copied + and modified in bronze, wood, brass, ivory, silver, &c. Of all these + instruments, the bugle has in the highest degree retained the acoustic + properties and the characteristic scale of the prototype, and is still + put to the original use for giving military signals. The shofar of the + ancient Hebrews, used at the siege of Jericho, was a cow's horn (Josh. + vi. 4, 5, 8, 13, &c.), translated in the Vulgate <i>buccina</i>, in + the paraphrase of the Chaldee <i>buccina ex cornu</i>. The directions + given for sounding the trumpets of beaten silver described in Numbers x. + form the earliest code of signals yet known; the narrative shows that the + Israelites had metal wind instruments; if, therefore, they retained the + more primitive cow's horn and ram's horn (shofar), it was from choice, + because they attached special significance to them in connexion with + their ritual. The trumpet of silver mentioned above was the + <i>Khatsotsrah</i>, probably the long straight trumpet or tuba which also + occurs among the instruments in the musical scenes of the ancient + Egyptians and Assyrians. Gideon's use of a massed band of three hundred + shofars to terrify and defeat the Midianites (Judges vii. 16), and Saul's + call to arms (1 Sam. xiii. 3) show that the value of the shofar as a + military instrument was well understood by the Jews. The cornu was used + by the Roman infantry to sound the military calls, and Vegetius<a + name="FnAnchor_3410" href="#Footnote_3410"><sup>[10]</sup></a> states + that the tuba and buccina were also used for the same purpose. Mahillon + possesses a facsimile of an ancient Etruscan cornu, the length of which + is 1.40 m.; he gives its scale,<a name="FnAnchor_3411" + href="#Footnote_3411"><sup>[11]</sup></a> pitched one tone below that of + the bugle in E flat, as that of D flat, of which the harmonics <a + href="images/zbuglemusic9.png"><img src="images/buglemusic9.png" + class="middle" alt="Scale of Etruscan cornu." /></a>, from the second to + the sixth are available. The same department of the British Museum was + enriched in 1904 with a terra-cotta model (fig. 2) of a late Roman bugle + (<i>c.</i> 4th century <span class="scac">A.D.</span>), bent completely + round upon itself to form a coil between the mouthpiece and the bell-end + (the latter has been broken off). This precious relic was found at + Ventoux in France and has been acquired from the collection of M. Morel. + This is precisely the form of bugle now used as a badge by the first + battalion of the King's Own Light Infantry.<a name="FnAnchor_3412" + href="#Footnote_3412"><sup>[12]</sup></a> During the middle ages the use + of the bugle-horn by knights and huntsmen, and perhaps also in naval + warfare, was general in Europe, as the following additional quotations + will show: "XXX cors bugleres, fait l'amirax soner" (<i>Conq. de + Jérusalem</i>, 6811, Hippeau); "Two squyers blewe ... with ij grete + bugles hornes" (Caxton, <i>Chron. Engl. ccix. 192</i>). The oliphant was + a glorified bugle-horn made of rich material, such as ivory, carved and + inlaid with designs in gold and silver.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:28%;"> + <a href="images/bugle_2.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bugle_2.png" + alt="Model of Roman Bugle." title="Model of Roman Bugle." /></a> + <p class="poem"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.—Terra Cotta Model + of Roman Bugle, 4th cent. (British Museum).</p> + </div> + <p>The history of the bugle as a military instrument is in England + closely connected with the creation of the light infantry, in which it + gradually superseded the drum<a name="FnAnchor_3413" + href="#Footnote_3413"><sup>[13]</sup></a> as a duty and signal + instrument. It was during the 17th century that the change was + inaugurated; improvements in firearms brought about the gradual + abandonment of armour by the infantry, and the formation of the light + infantry and the adoption of the bugle followed by degrees. One of the + oldest light infantry regiments, Prince Albert's 1st Somerset Light + Infantry, formed in 1685 by the earl of Huntingdon, employed a drummer at + that date at a shilling per day.<a name="FnAnchor_3414" + href="#Footnote_3414"><sup>[14]</sup></a> At the end of the 18th century + we find the bugle the recognized signal instrument in the light infantry, + while the trumpet remained that of the cavalry. The general order + introducing the bugle as a minor badge for the light infantry is under + date 28th of December 1814. In 1856 the popularity of the keyed or Royal + Kent bugle in the army had reached its height. A bugle-band was formed in + the Royal Artillery as a substitute for the drum and fife band.<a + name="FnAnchor_3415" href="#Footnote_3415"><sup>[15]</sup></a> The + organization and training of this bugle-band were entrusted to + Trumpet-major James Lawson, who raised it to a very high standard of + excellence. Major Lawson was a fine cornet player, and finding the scale + of the service bugle too restricted he obtained permission to add to it a + valve attachment, which made the bugle a chromatic instrument like the + cornet, in fact practically a saxhorn. Before long, horns in E flat, + tenor horns in B flat, euphoniums and bass tubas were added, all made of + copper, and in 1869 the name of "bugle band" was changed to R.A. Brass + Band, and in 1877 it was merged in the Mounted Band. The bugle with its + double development by means of keys into Royal Kent bugle and ophicleide, + and by means of valves into saxhorns and tubas, formed the nucleus of + brass bands of all countries during the greater part of the 19th century. + The Flügelhorn, as its name denotes, became the signal instrument of the + infantry in Germany as in England, and still holds it own with the keyed + bugle in the fine military bands of Austro-Hungary.</p> + + <p>There is in the department of prehistoric antiquities at the British + Museum a fine bugle-horn belonging to the Bronze Age in Denmark; the + tube, which has an accentuated conical bore, is bent in a semi-circle, + and has on the inner bend a series of little rings from which were + probably suspended ornaments or cords. An engraved design runs spirally + round the whole length of the tube, which is in an excellent state of + preservation.</p> + + <p>Meyerbeer introduced the bugle in B flat in his opera + <i>Robert-le-Diable</i> in the scene of the resurrection of the nuns, and + a bugle in A in the fifth act.</p> + + <p>See, for further information on the technique of the instrument, + Logier's <i>Introduction to the Art of Playing on the Royal Kent + Bugle</i> (London, Clementi, 1820); and for the use of the bugle in the + French army, G. Kastner, <i>Le Manuel général de musique militaire</i> + (with illustrations, Paris, 1848).</p> + + <p>(K. S.)</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_341" href="#FnAnchor_341">[1]</a> The word is + derived from Lat. <i>buculus</i>, a young bull. "Bugle," meaning a long + jet or black glass bead, used in trimming ladies' dresses, is possibly + connected with the Ger. <i>Bugel</i>, a bent piece of metal. The English + name "bugle" is also given to a common labiate plant, the <i>Ajuga + reptans</i>, not to be confused with the "Bugloss" or <i>Anchusa + officinalis</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_342" href="#FnAnchor_342">[2]</a> For diagrams of + these mouthpieces see V.C. Mahillon, <i>Éléments d'acoustique</i> + (Brussels, 1874), p. 96.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_343" href="#FnAnchor_343">[3]</a> See E. van der + Straeten, <i>La Musique aux Pays-bas</i>, vol. vii. p. 38, where the + instrument is not mentioned as a novelty; also Léon, comte de Laborde, + <i>Les Ducs de Bourgogne</i>, pt. ii. (<i>Preuves</i>), (Paris, 1849), + tom. i. p. 365, No. 1266.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_344" href="#FnAnchor_344">[4]</a> Martin Agricola, + <i>Musica Instrumentalis deudsch</i> (Wittenberg, 1528), f. + viii<sup>b</sup>.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_345" href="#FnAnchor_345">[5]</a> Michael + Praetorius, <i>Syntagma Musicum</i> (Wolfenbüttel, 1618), pl. viii. No. + 5.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_346" href="#FnAnchor_346">[6]</a> See Captain C.R. + Day, <i>Descript. Catalogue</i> (London, 1891), pp. 168-169, and pl. xi. + fig. D.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_347" href="#FnAnchor_347">[7]</a> Barthol. Trevisa, + <i>De Propr. Rebus</i>, xviii., xv., 1495, 774.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_348" href="#FnAnchor_348">[8]</a> <i>King + Alisaunder</i>, 5112 and 5282.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_349" href="#FnAnchor_349">[9]</a> <i>Dictionnaire de + l'ancienne langue française du IXe an XVe siècle.</i></p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_3410" href="#FnAnchor_3410">[10]</a> <i>De re + militari</i>, bk. iii. ch. v.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_3411" href="#FnAnchor_3411">[11]</a> See <i>Catal. + descriptif du musée instrumental du conservatoire de Bruxelles</i>, vol. + i. (Ghent, 1880), p. 331. There are, in the department of Greek and Roman + antiquities at the British Museum, two bronze Etruscan cornua, No. 2734, + resembling the hunting horns of the middle ages and bent in a + semicircular shape. They measure from end to end respectively 2 ft. 1 in. + and 2 ft. 2 in.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_3412" href="#FnAnchor_3412">[12]</a> Maj. J.H.L. + Archer, <i>The British Army Records</i> (London, 1888), p. 402.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_3413" href="#FnAnchor_3413">[13]</a> For the use of + the drum in the 16th century, see Sir John Smyth, <i>Instructions and + Observations for all Chieftaines, Captaines, &c.</i> (London, 1595), + pp. 158-159.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_3414" href="#FnAnchor_3414">[14]</a> See Richard + Cannon, <i>Historical Records</i> of the regiment (London, 1848), p. + 3.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_3415" href="#FnAnchor_3415">[15]</a> See H.G. + Farmer, <i>Memoirs of the Royal Artillery Band</i> (London, 1904), p. + 183.</p> + +</div> + <p><b>BUGTI,</b> a Baluch tribe of Rind (Arab) origin, numbering about + 15,500, who occupy the hills to the east of the Sind-Peshin railway, + between Jacobabad and Sibi, with the Marris (a cognate tribe) to the + north of them. Like the Marris, the Bugtis are physically a magnificent + race of people, fine horsemen, good swordsmen and hereditary robbers. An + expedition against them was organized by Sir C. Napier in 1845, but they + were never brought under control till Sir Robert Sandeman ruled + Baluchistan. Since the construction of the railway, which completely + outflanks their country, they have been fairly orderly.</p> + + <p><b>BUHLE, JOHANN GOTTLIEB</b> (1763-1821), German scholar and + philosopher, was born at Brunswick, and educated at Göttingen. He became + professor of philosophy at Göttingen, Moscow (1840) and Brunswick. Of his + numerous publications, <!-- Page 762 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page762"></a>[v.04 p.0762]</span>the most important are the + <i>Handbuch der Geschichte der Philosophie</i> (8 vols., 1796-1804), and + <i>Geschichte der neueren Philosophie</i> (6 vols., 1800-1805). The + latter, elaborate and well written, is lacking in critical appreciation + and proportion; there are French and Italian translations. He edited + Aratus (2 vols., 1793, 1801) and part of Aristotle (Bipontine edition, + vols. i.-v., 1791-1904).</p> + + <p><b>BUHTURĪ</b> [al-Walīd ibn 'Ubaid Allāh] + (820-897), Arabian poet, was born at Manbij (Hierapolis) in Syria, + between Aleppo and the Euphrates. Like Abū Tammām, he was of + the tribe of Tāi. While still young, he went to visit Abū + Tammām at Horns, and by him was commended to the authorities at + Ma'arrat un-Nu'mān, who gave him a pension of 4000 dirhems (about + £90) yearly. Later he went to Bagdad, where he wrote verses in praise of + the caliph Motawakkil and of the members of his court. Although long + resident in Bagdad he devoted much of his poetry to the praise of Aleppo, + and much of his love-poetry is dedicated to Alwa, a maiden of that city. + He died at Manbij Hierapolis in 897. His poetry was collected and edited + twice in the 10th century, arranged in one edition alphabetically (i.e. + according to the last consonant in each line); in the other according to + subjects. It was published in Constantinople (<span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 1883). Like Abū Tammām he made a + collection of early poems, known as the Hamāsa (index of the poems + contained in it, in the <i>Journal of the German Oriental Society</i>, + vol. 47, pp. 418 ff., cf. vol. 45, pp. 470 ff.).</p> + + <p>Biography in M<sup>c</sup>G. de Slane's translation of Ibn + Khallikān's <i>Biographical Dictionary</i> (Paris and London, + 1842), vol. iii. pp. 657 ff.; and in the <i>Book of Songs</i> (see <span + class="sc">Abulfaraj</span>), vol. xviii. pp. 167-175.</p> + + <p>(G. W. T.)</p> + + <p><b>BUILDERS' RITES.</b> Many people familiar with the ceremonies + attendant on the laying of foundation stones, whether ecclesiastical, + masonic or otherwise, may be at a loss to account for the actual origin + of the custom in placing within a cavity beneath the stone, a few coins + of the realm, newspapers, &c. The ordinary view that by such means + particulars may be found of the event on the removal of the stone + hereafter, may suffice as respects latter-day motives, but such memorials + are deposited in the hope that they will never be disturbed, and so + another reason must be found for such an ancient survival. Whilst old + customs continue, the reasons for them are ever changing, and certainly + this fact applies to laying foundation stones. Originally, it appears + that living victims were selected as "a sacrifice to the gods," and + especially to ensure the stability of the building. Grimm<a + name="FnAnchor_351" href="#Footnote_351"><sup>[1]</sup></a> remarks "It + was often thought necessary to immure live animals and even men in the + foundation, on which the structure was to be raised, to secure immovable + stability." There is no lack of evidence as to this gruesome practice, + both in savage and civilized communities. "The old pagan laid the + foundation of his house and fortress in blood."<a name="FnAnchor_352" + href="#Footnote_352"><sup>[2]</sup></a> Under the walls of two round + towers in Ireland (the only ones examined) human skeletons have been + discovered. In the 15th century, the wall of Holsworthy church was built + over a living human being, and when this became unlawful, images of + living beings were substituted (<i>Folk-Lore Journal</i>, i. 23-24).</p> + + <p>The best succinct account of these rites is to be obtained in G. W. + Speth's <i>Builders' Rites and Ceremonies</i> (1893).</p> + + <p>(W. J. H.*)</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_351" href="#FnAnchor_351">[1]</a> <i>Teutonic + Mythology</i> (1883-1884), (trans. Stalleybrass).</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_352" href="#FnAnchor_352">[2]</a> Baring-Gould on + "Foundations," <i>Murray's Mag.</i> (1887).</p> + +</div> + <p><b>BUILDING.</b><a name="FnAnchor_361" + href="#Footnote_361"><sup>[1]</sup></a> The art of building comprises the + practice of civil architecture, or the mechanical operations necessary to + <span class="sidenote">Relation of building to architecture.</span> carry + the designs of the architect into effect. It is not infrequently called + "practical architecture," but the adoption of this form would lead only + to confusion, by rendering it difficult to make the distinction generally + understood between architecture (<i>q.v.</i>) as a fine or liberal art, + and architecture as a mechanical art. The execution of works of + architecture necessarily includes building, but building is frequently + employed when the result is not architectural; a man may be a competent + builder without being an architect, but no one can be an accomplished + architect unless he be competent to specify and direct all the operations + of building. An architect should have a scientific knowledge of the + various soils he may meet with, such as clay, earth, silt, rock, gravel, + chalk, &c., so that when the trial holes are dug out on the site, he + can see the nature of the soil, and at once know what kind of a + foundation to put to the building, and the depth to which he must go to + get a good bottom. He should also have a good knowledge of chemistry, so + that he may understand the effects of the various acids, gases, &c., + that are contained in the materials he uses, and the objections to their + presence. He must be acquainted with the principles of timbering in + trenches, and excavations, shoring, brickwork, fireproof construction, + stonework, carpentry and joinery, smiths' work, plumbing, heating, + ventilation, bells, electric and gas lighting, water-supply, drainage, + plastering, tiling to internal walls or pavings and roofs, slating of + roofs, glazing, painting and decoration. He should be able to calculate + the various strengths and strains to be placed on any portion of the + structure, and have a general knowledge of the building trade, enabling + him to deal with any difficulty or defects that may arise.</p> + + <p>An important feature in the qualification of the architect is that he + should be thoroughly conversant with the by-laws of the different towns + or districts, as to the requirements for the various classes of + buildings, and the special features of portions of the different + buildings. The following are examples of the various buildings which he + may have to design, and the erection of which he may have to + superintend:—dwelling-houses, domestic buildings, shops, dwellings + for the working class, public buildings such as churches, schools, + hospitals, libraries and hotels, factories of all kinds for all general + trades, studios, electric power stations, cold storage buildings, stables + and slaughterhouses. With regard to factories, places for the storage or + making of different patent foods, and for slaughter of beasts intended + for human consumption, stringent by-laws are in most countries laid down + and enforced by the public health authorities. In England, the Public + Health Acts and By-laws are carried out by the various borough or + district authorities, who appoint inspectors especially to study the + health of the public with regard to sanitary arrangements. The inspectors + have special powers to deal with all improper or defective food, or with + any defects in buildings that may affect its cleanly preparation.</p> + + <p>In addition to meeting the requirements of the clients, the various + buildings have to be constructed and planned on clearly <span + class="sidenote">Reasons for special type of plans.</span> defined lines, + according to the rules of the various authorities that control their + erection; thus the construction and planning of public schools are + governed in England by the board of education, and churches are governed + by the various societies that assist in financing the erection of these + edifices; of these the Incorporated Church Building Society exercises the + strongest control. Factories both in England and France must be planned + and erected to meet the separate acts that deal with these buildings. The + fire insurance companies lay down certain requirements according to the + size of the building, and the special trade for which it is erected, and + fix their rate of premium accordingly. Dwelling-houses in London must be + erected in accordance with the many building acts which govern the + materials to be used, and the methods by which they shall be employed, + the thickness of walls, rates of inclination of roofs, means of escape + from fire, drainage, space at rear, &c. &c.; these laws + especially forbid the use of timber framed buildings. In sundry districts + in England where the model by-laws are not in force, notably at + Letchworth, Herts, it is possible to erect buildings with sound materials + untrammelled by by-laws. With regard to premises used in a combined way, + as shop and dwelling-house, if in London, and the building exceeds 10 + squares, or 1000 sq. ft. super in area, the stairs and a large portion of + the building must be built of fire-resisting materials. In the erection + of London flats under certain conditions the stairs and corridors <!-- + Page 763 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page763"></a>[v.04 + p.0763]</span>must be of fire-resisting materials, while in parts of New + York timber buildings are allowed; for illustrations of these see the + article <span class="sc">Carpentry</span>. In public buildings and + theatres in London, Paris and New York not only the construction, but + also the exits and seating accommodation and stage, including the scenery + dock and flies, must conform to certain regulations.</p> + + <p>The conditions necessary for planning a successful building may be + summarized as follows:—(1) Ease of access; (2) Good <span + class="sidenote">Conditions necessary for a successful building.</span> + light (3) Good service; (4) Pleasing environment and approaches; (5) + Minimum cost with true economy; in the case of office buildings, also + ease of rearrangement to suit tenants. An architect should also be + practically acquainted with all the modes of operation in all the trades + or arts employed in building, and be able minutely to estimate beforehand + the absolute cost involved in the execution of a proposed structure. The + power to do this necessarily involves that of measuring work (usually + done by the quantity surveyor at an advanced stage of the work), and of + ascertaining the quantities to be done. In ordinary practice the + architect usually cubes a building at a price per foot cube, as will be + described hereafter, but an architect should know how to measure and + prepare quantities, or he cannot be said to be master of his + profession.</p> + + <p>Building includes what is called construction, which is the branch of + the science of architecture relating to the practical <span + class="sidenote">Construction.</span> execution of the works required to + produce any structure; it will therefore be necessary to explain the + subject in a general manner before entering upon building in detail.</p> + + <p>Although the styles of architecture have varied at different periods, + buildings, wherever similar materials are employed, must be constructed + on much the same principles. Scientific knowledge of the natures and + properties of materials has, however, given to the modern workman immense + advantages over his medieval brother-craftsman, and caused many changes + in the details of the trade, or art of building, although stones, bricks, + mortar, &c., then as now, formed the element of the more solid parts + of all edifices.</p> + + <p>The object of constructions is to adapt, combine and fit materials in + such a manner that they shall retain in use the <span + class="sidenote">General principles.</span> forms and dispositions + assigned to them. If an upright wall be properly constructed upon a + sufficient foundation, the combined mass will retain its position and + bear pressure acting in the direction of gravity to any extent that the + ground on which it stands, and the compound materials of the wall, can + sustain. But pressure acting laterally has a necessary tendency to + overthrow a wall, and therefore it will be the aim of the constructor to + compel, as far as possible, all forces that can act upon an upright wall, + to act in the direction of gravity, or else to give it permanent means of + resistance in the direction opposite to that in which a disturbing force + may act. Thus when an arch is built to bear against an upright wall, a + buttress or other counterfort is applied in a direction opposed to the + pressure of the arch. In like manner the inclined roof of a building + spanning from wall to wall tends to thrust out the walls, and hence a tie + is applied to hold the opposite sides of the roof together at its base, + where alone a tie can be fully efficient, and thus the roof is made to + act upon the walls wholly in the direction of gravity; or where an + efficient tie is inapplicable, as in the case of a hammer beam roof, + buttresses or counterforts are added to the walls, to enable them to + resist the pressure outwards. A beam laid horizontally from wall to wall, + as a girder to carry a floor and its load, may sag or bend downwards, and + tend thereby to force out the walls, or the beam itself may break. Both + these contingencies are obviated by trussing, which renders the beam + stiff enough to place its load on the walls in the direction of gravity, + and strong enough to carry it safely. Or if the beam be rigid in its + nature, or uncertain in its structure, or both (as cast-iron is), and + will break without bending, the constructor by the smiths' art will + supply a check and ensure it against the possible contingency.</p> + + <p>Perfect stability, however, is not to be obtained with materials which + are subject to influences beyond the control of man, and all matter is + subject to certain influences of that nature. The <span + class="sidenote">Materials.</span> influences mostly to be contended + against are heat and humidity, the former of which produces movement of + some kind or to some extent in all bodies, the latter, in many kinds of + matter; whilst the two acting together contribute to the disintegration + or decay of materials available for the purposes of construction. These + pervading influences the constructor seeks to counteract, by proper + selection and disposition of his materials.</p> + + <p>Stone and brick, the principal materials in general construction, keep + their places in combination by means of gravity. They may <span + class="sidenote">Stone.</span> be merely packed together, but in general + they are compacted by means of mortar or cement, so that although the + main constituent materials are wholly incompressible, masses of either, + or of both, combined in structures are compressible, until the setting + medium has indurated to a like condition of hardness. That kind of stone + is best fitted for the purposes of general construction which is least + absorbent of moisture, and at the same time free to work. Absorbent stone + exposed to the weather rapidly disintegrates, and for the most part + non-absorbent stone is so hard that it cannot always be used with a due + regard to economy. When, therefore, suitable stone of both qualities can + be obtained, the harder stone can be exposed to the weather, or to the + action which the softer stone cannot resist, and made to form the main + body of the structure of the latter so protected. The hard and the soft + should be made to bear alike, and should therefore be coursed and bonded + together by the mason's art, whether the work be of stone wrought into + blocks and gauged to thickness, or of rough dressed or otherwise unshaped + rubble compacted with mortar.</p> + + <p>Good bricks are less absorbent of moisture than any stone of the same + degree of hardness, and are better non-conductors <span + class="sidenote">Bricks.</span> of heat than stone. As the basis of a + stable structure, brickwork is more to be relied upon than stone in the + form of rubble, when the constituents bear the relation to one another + last above referred to, the setting material being the same in both; + because the brick by its shaped form seats itself truly, and produces by + bonding a more perfectly combined mass, whilst the imperfectly shaped and + variously sized stone as dressed rubble can neither bed nor bond truly, + the inequalities of the form having to be compensated for with mortar, + and the irregularity of size of the main constituent accounted for by the + introduction of larger and smaller stones. The most perfect stability is + to be obtained, nevertheless, from truly wrought and accurately seated + and bonded blocks of stone, mortar being used to no greater extent than + may be necessary to exclude wind and water and prevent the disintegrating + action of these agents upon even the most durable stone. When water alone + is to be dealt with, and especially when it is liable to act with force, + mortar is necessary for securing to every block in the structure its own + full weight, and the aid of every other collateral and superimposed + stone, in order to resist the loosening effect which water in powerful + action is bound to produce.</p> + + <p>In the application of construction to any particular object, the + nature of the object will naturally affect the character of <span + class="sidenote">Particular objects of construction.</span> the + constructions and the materials of which they are to be formed. Every + piece of construction should be complete in itself, and independent as + such of everything beyond it. A door or a gate serves its purpose by an + application wholly foreign to itself, but it is a good and effective, or + a bad and ineffective, piece of construction, independently of the posts + to which it may be hung, whilst the wheel of a wheelbarrow, comprising + felloes, spokes and axletree, is a piece of construction complete in + itself, and independent as such of everything beyond it. An arch of + masonry, however large it may be, is not necessarily a piece of + construction complete in itself, for it would fall to pieces without + abutments. Thus a bridge consisting of a series of arches, however + extensive, may be but one piece of construction, no arch being complete + in itself without the collateral arches in the series to serve as its + abutments, and the whole series being dependent thereby upon <!-- Page + 764 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page764"></a>[v.04 + p.0764]</span>the ultimate abutments of the bridge, without which the + structure would not stand. This illustration is not intended to apply to + the older bridges with widely distended masses, which render each pier + sufficient to abut the arches springing from it, but tend, in providing + for a way over the river, to choke up the way by the river itself, or to + compel the river either to throw down the structure or else to destroy + its own banks.</p> + + <p>Some soils are liable to change in form, expanding and contracting + under meteorological influences; such are clays which <span + class="sidenote">Foundations.</span> swell when wetted and shrink when + dried. Concrete foundations are commonly interposed upon such soils to + protect the building from derangement from this cause; or walls of the + cheaper material, concrete, instead of the more expensive brick or stone + structure, are brought up from a level sufficiently below the ordinary + surface of the ground. When concrete is used to obviate the tendency of + the soil to yield to pressure, expanse or extent of base is required, and + the concrete being widely spread should therefore be deep or thick as a + layer, only with reference to its own power of transmitting to the ground + the weight of the wall to be built upon it, without breaking across or + being crushed. But when concrete is used as a substitute for a wall, in + carrying a wall down to a low level, it is in fact a wall in itself, wide + only in proportion to its comparative weakness in the absence of + manipulated bond in its construction, and encased by the soil within + which it is placed. When a concrete wall is used in place of brick the + London Building Act requires an extra thickness of one-third; on the + question of reinforced concrete no regulations as to thickness have at + present been made.</p> + + <p>The foundation of a building of ordinary weight is for the most part + sufficiently provided for by applying what are technically <span + class="sidenote">Footings to walls.</span> termed "footings" to the + walls. The reason for a footing is, that the wall obtains thereby a + bearing upon a breadth of ground so much greater than its own width or + thickness above the footing as to compensate for the difference between + the power of resisting pressure of the wall, and of the ground or + ultimate foundation upon which the wall is to rest. It will be clear from + this that if a building is to be erected upon rock as hard as the main + constituent of the walls theoretically no expanded footings will be + necessary; if upon chalk, upon strong or upon weak gravel, upon sand or + upon clay, the footing must be expanded with reference to the power of + resistance of the structure to be used as a foundation; whilst in or upon + made ground or other loose and badly combined or imperfectly resisting + soil, a solid platform bearing evenly over the ground, and wide enough + not to sink into it, becomes necessary under the constructed footing. For + this purpose the easiest, the most familiar, and for most purposes the + most effectual and durable is a layer of concrete.</p> + + <p>The English government, when it has legislated upon building matters, + has generally confined itself to making provision that the enclosing + walls of buildings should be formed of incombustible materials. In + provisions regarding the least thicknesses of such walls, these were + generally determined with reference to the height and length of the + building.</p> + + <p>In the general and usual practice of developing land at the present + day, the owner or freeholder of the land first consults an <span + class="sidenote">Procedure for an intended building.</span> architect and + states his intentions of building, the size of what he requires, what it + is to be used for, if for trade how many hands he intends to employ, and + the sub-buildings and departments, &c., that will be wanted. The + architect gathers as much information as he can as to his client's + requirements, and from this information prepares his sketches. This first + step is usually done with rough sketches or outlines only, and when + approved by the client as regards the planning and situation of rooms, + &c., the architect prepares the plans, elevations, and sections on + the lines of the approved rough sketches; at the same time he strictly + observes the building acts, and makes every portion of the building + comply with these acts as regards the thickness of walls, open spaces, + light and air, distances from surrounding property, frontage lines, and a + host of other points too numerous to mention, as far as he can interpret + the meaning of the enactments. (The London and New York Building Acts are + very extensive, with numerous amendments made as occasion requires.) An + architect, whilst preparing the working drawings from the rough approved + sketches, and endeavouring to conform with the Building Act requirements, + often finds after consultation with the district surveyor, or the London + County Council, or other local authorities, that the plans have to be + altered; and when so altered the client may disapprove of them, and thus + delay often occurs in settling them.</p> + + <p>Another important point is that after the architect has obtained the + consent of the building authorities, and also the approval of the client, + then he may have to fight the adjoining owners with regard to ancient + lights, or air space, or party walls. In the city of London these last + difficulties often mean the suspension of the work for a long time, and a + great loss to the client.</p> + + <p>If the site is a large one, or the nature of the soil uncertain, trial + holes should be sunk directly the sketch plans are approved. (See <span + class="sc">Foundations</span>.)</p> + + <p>Where the property is leasehold there are always at this stage + negotiations as to obtaining the approval of the senior lessors and the + freeholders; these having been obtained, the architect is then free to + serve the various notices that may be required <i>re</i> party walls, + &c.</p> + + <p>The contract plans should be very carefully prepared, and sections, + plans and elevations of all parts of the buildings and the levels from a + datum line be given. In addition to the general set of drawings, larger + scale details of the principal portions of the building should be + given.</p> + + <p>If there are any existing buildings on the site these should be + carefully surveyed and accurate detail plans be made for reference; this + is especially necessary with regard to easements and rights of adjoining + owners. Also in the preparation of the site plan the various levels of + the ground should be shown.</p> + + <p>The plans having been approved by all parties concerned, the next + operation is the preparation of the <i>specification</i>. This is a + document which describes the materials to be used in the building, states + how they are to be mixed, and how the various works are to be executed, + and specifies every trade, and every portion of work in the building. The + specification is necessary to enable the builder to erect the structure + according to the architect's requirements, and is written by the + architect; usually two copies of this document are made, one for the + builder, the other for the architect, and the latter is signed as the + contract copy in the same manner as the drawings.</p> + + <p>From the specification and drawings usually an approximate estimate of + the cost of the proposed building is prepared by the architect, and the + most general method adopted is to cube the building by a multiplication + of the length, breadth and height of the building, and to multiply the + product or cubic contents by a price ranging from fivepence to three + shillings per cubic foot. In the case of churches, chapels and schools, + the cost may be roughly computed by taking the number of seats at a price + per seat. In the case of churches and chapels, taking a minimum area of 8 + ft. each, the cost varies from £10 upwards, the difference being due to + the amount of architectural embellishment or the addition of a tower. + Schools may be estimated as averaging £9 per scholar; we find that, + taking schools of various sizes erected by the late London School Board, + their cost varied from £7:12:4 to £10:1:10 per scholar. Hospitals vary + from £100 per bed upwards, the lowest cost being taken from a cottage + hospital type; while in the case of St Thomas's hospital, London, the + cost per bed, including the proportion of the administrative block, was + £650, and without this portion the wards alone cost £250. The Herbert + hospital at Woolwich cost only £320 per bed.</p> + + <p>The bills of quantities are prepared by the quantity surveyor, and are + generally made to form part of the contract, and so mentioned in "the + contract." The work of the quantity surveyor is to measure from the + drawings the whole of the materials required for the structure, and state + the amounts or quantities of the respective materials in the form of a + bill usually made out on foolscap paper specially ruled, so that <!-- + Page 765 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page765"></a>[v.04 + p.0765]</span>the builders can price each item, together with the labour + required to work and fix it, thus forming the building. The idea is to be + able to arrive at a lump sum for which the builders will undertake to + erect the building. It is of frequent occurrence, in fact it occurs in + four-fifths of building contracts, that when a building is commenced, the + client, or other interested person, will alter some portion, thereby + causing deviations from the bills of quantities. By having the prices of + the different materials before him, it is easy for the quantity surveyor + to remeasure the portion altered, adding or deducting as the case may be, + and thus to ascertain what difference the alteration makes. This method + of bills of quantities and prices is absolutely necessary to any one + about to build, and means a considerable saving to the client in the end. + For example:—Suppose that bills of quantities are not prepared for + a certain job by a quantity surveyor, and, as is often done, the drawings + and specification are sent to several builders asking them for a + quotation to build the house or factory or whatever it may be, according + to the drawings and specification. The prices are duly sent in to the + architect, and probably the lowest price is accepted and the successful + builder starts the job. During the progress of the works certain + alterations take place by the owner's instructions, and when the day of + settlement comes, the builder puts in his claim for "extras," then owing + to the alterations and to the architect having no prices to work upon, + litigation often ensues.</p> + + <p>Before the work of erecting a structure is entrusted to a builder he + has to sign a contract in the same manner as the drawings and + specification. This contract is an important document wherein the builder + agrees to carry out the work for a stated sum of money, in accordance + with the drawings and specification, and bills of quantities, and + instructions of the architect, and to his entire satisfaction; and it + also states the description of the materials and workmanship, and the + manner of carrying out the work, responsibilities of the builder, + particularly clauses indemnifying the employer against accidents to + employees, and against numerous other risks, the time of completion of + works under a penalty for non-completion (the usual allowance being made + for bad weather, fire or strikes), and also how payments will be made to + the builder as he proceeds with the building. This form of contract is + generally prepared by the architect, and varies in part as may be + necessary to meet the requirements of the case.</p> + + <p>When the drawings have been approved by the owner or client, also by + the district surveyor or local authorities, and by adjoining owners, one + copy of them, made on linen, is usually deposited (in London) either with + the district surveyor, or with the London County Council, another is + prepared for the freeholder if a lease of the land is granted, and a + third is given to the builder. In addition, in complicated cases such as + occur in the city of London, when a building is erected on land which has + four or five distinct owners, an architect may have to prepare a large + number of complete copies to be deposited with the various parties + interested.</p> + + <p>The duties of the builder are very similar to those of the architect, + except that he is not expected to be able to plan <span + class="sidenote">The builder's sphere.</span> and design, but to carry + out the plans and designs of the architect in the actual work of + building. The builder should also know the various acts, and in + particular the acts specially relating to the erection of scaffoldings, + hoardings, gantries, shoring and pulling down of old buildings. He should + have a thorough knowledge of all materials, their qualifying marks or + brands, and the special features of good and bad in each class, their + uses and method of use. He should be able to control and manage both the + men and materials; and briefly, in a builder, as opposed to an architect, + the constructive knowledge should predominate.</p> + + <p>On large or important works it is usual to have a clerk of works or + delegate from the architect; his duties are to be on the works while they + are in progress and endeavour by constant attention to secure the use of + the best materials and construction, and to report to the architect for + his instruction any difficulties that may arise. He should be a + thoroughly practical man as opposed to the architectural draughtsman. His + salary is paid by the client, and is not included in the architect's + remuneration.</p> + + <p>American building acts agree in a general manner with those enforced + in London. But whereas New York allows the erection <span + class="sidenote">American practice.</span> of frame or wood structures, + while defining a certain portion of the city inside which no new frame or + wood structures shall be erected, in London and the large cities of Great + Britain the erection of wood frame buildings as dwellings is prohibited. + In New York City provision is made for a space at the rear of domestic + buildings at least 10 ft. deep, but such depth is increased when the + building is over 60 ft. high, and is varied under special circumstances. + In London this depth is the same, but the height of the building in + relation to the space required in the rear thereof shall be constructed + to keep within an angle of 63½ degrees, inclining from the rear boundary + towards the building from the level of pavement in front of building; the + position from which the angle is taken is varied under special + circumstances. In the smaller English towns the building regulations are + framed on the model by-laws, and these increase the depth of the yard or + garden according to the height of the building.</p> + + <p>With regard to the strength and proportion of materials, these are not + dealt with in the London Building Act to the same extent as in the New + York; for example, in the New York acts (parts 4 and 5)<a + name="FnAnchor_362" href="#Footnote_362"><sup>[2]</sup></a> it is + prescribed that the bricks used shall be good, hard, well-burned bricks. + The sand used for mortar shall be clean, sharp, grit sand, free from loam + or dirt, and shall not be finer than the standard samples kept in the + office of the department of buildings; also the quality of lime and + mortar is fully described, and the strengths of steel and cast-iron, and + tests of new materials. Also it is required that all excavations for + buildings shall be properly guarded and protected so as to prevent them + from becoming dangerous to life or limb, and shall be sheath-piled where + necessary by the person or persons causing the excavations to be made, to + prevent the adjoining earth from caving in. Plans filed in the department + of buildings shall be accompanied by a statement of the character of the + soil at the level of the footings. There are also requirements as to + protecting adjoining property. The bearing capacity of soils, pressure + under footings of foundations, and in part 6 the materials of walls and + the methods to be observed in building them are defined. Part 23 deals + with floor loads, and the strength of floors constructed of various + materials, and requires that the temporary support shall be strong enough + to carry the load placed upon them during the progress of any works to + buildings. Part 24 deals with the calculations and strength of materials, + and wind pressure. Parts 4 and 5 of the New York Building Code are not + dealt with by the London Building Act, but the local by-laws of the + various districts deal with these. Part 6 of the New York code is dealt + with partly by the London Building Act, and partly by the local by-laws. + Parts 23 and 24 of the New York code are not dealt with in the English + acts at all. In America the standard quality for all materials is set + out, but in no English acts do we find the definition of the quality of + timber, new materials, steel, &c. Iron and steel construction is in + its infancy in England as compared with America, and probably this + accounts for no special regulations being in force; but part 22 of the + New York Building Code, section 110 to 129 inclusive, deals very fully + with iron and steel construction, and this is further supplemented by + sections 137 to 140 inclusive.</p> + + <p>Sanitary work is dealt with in London by section 39 of the Public + Health (London) Act, and the drainage by-laws of the London County + Council, in which every detail is very fully gone into with regard to the + laying of drains, and fitting up of soil pipes, w.c.'s, &c., all of + which is to be carried out and tested to the satisfaction of the local + borough's sanitary inspector. The general requirements of New York with + regard to sanitary work are very similar with a few more restrictions, + and are carried out under "the rules and regulations for plumbing, + drainage, <!-- Page 766 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page766"></a>[v.04 p.0766]</span>water-supply, and ventilation of + buildings." The noticeable feature of the New York regulations is that + all master plumbers have to be registered, which is not so in England. + The New York regulations have 183 sections relating to sanitary work, and + the English regulations have 96 sections. Also by part 16 of the + Amendments to Plumbing Rules 1903, the New York laws require that, before + any construction of, or alterations to, any gas piping or fittings are + commenced, permits must be obtained from the superintendent of buildings; + these are only issued to a registered plumber. The application must be + accompanied by plans of the different floors showing each outlet, and the + number of burners to each outlet; a statement must also be made of the + quality of the pipes and fittings, all of which are to be tested by the + inspector. In London there are no such laws; the gas companies control a + small portion of the work as regards the connexion to meters, while the + insurance companies require gas jets to be covered with a wire guard + where liable to come in contact with inflammable goods. As to water, the + various water companies in England have each their own set of regulations + as to the kind of fittings and thickness and quality of pipe to be used, + whether for service, wastes or main.</p> + + <p>The importance of fire-resisting construction is being more fully + recognized now by all countries. In France the regulations <span + class="sidenote">Fire-resisting construction.</span> for factories, shops + and workshops relating to "exits" require that all doors should open + outwardly when they open on to courts, vestibules, staircases or interior + passages. When they give access to the open air, outward opening is not + obligatory unless it has been judged necessary in the interests of + safety. If the doors open on to a passage or staircase they must be fixed + in such a manner as not to project into the passage or staircase when + open. The exits must be numerous, and signs indicating the quickest way + out are to be placed in conspicuous positions. The windows are to open + outwardly. Staircases in offices or other buildings serving as places for + work shall be constructed in incombustible materials, or shall be walled + in fully in plaster. The number of staircases shall be in proportion to + the number of employees, &c. It is prohibited to use any liquid + emitting vapours inflammable under 35° C. for the purpose of lighting or + heating, unless the apparatus containing the liquid is solidly closed + during work, that part of the apparatus containing the liquid being so + closed as to avoid any oozing out of the liquid, &c. &c. + Instructions are added as to precautions to be taken in case of fire.</p> + + <p>In London fire-resisting construction is dealt with in the London + Building Act, and its second schedule, and in London County Council + Theatre and Factory Acts, &c. In New York the building code (parts + 19, 20 and 21) deals with fire appliances, escapes, and fire-proof + shutters and doors, fire-proof buildings and fire-proof floors, and + requires that all tenement houses shall have an iron ladder for escape. A + section somewhat similar to the last came into force in London in 1907 + under the London Building Act, being framed with a view to require all + existing projecting one-storey shops to have a fire-resisting roof, and + all existing buildings over 50 ft. in height to have means of escape to + and from the roof in case of fire.</p> + + <p>There are several patents now in use with which it would be possible + to erect a fire-proof dwelling at small cost with walls 3 to 5 in. in + thickness. One of these has been used where the building act does not + apply, as in the case of the Newgate prison cells, London, where the + outside walls were from 3 to 4 in. thick only, and were absolutely fire + and burglar proof. This method consists in using steel dovetailed sheets + fixed between small steel stanchions and plastered in cement on both + sides. This form of construction was also used at the British pavilion, + Paris Exhibition 1900, and has been employed in numerous other buildings + in England, and also in South Africa, Venezuela, and India (Delhi + durbar). The use of many of these convenient and sound forms of building + construction for ordinary buildings in London, and in districts of + England where the model by-laws are in force, is prohibited because they + do not comply with some one or other of the various clauses relating to + materials, or to the thickness of a wall.</p> + + <p>The various details of construction are described and illustrated + under separate headings. See <span class="sc">Brickwork, Carpentry, + Foundations, Glazing, Joinery, Masonry, Painter-Work, Plastering, Roofs, + Scaffold, Shoring, Staircase, Steel Construction, Stone, Timber, + Wall-Coverings,</span> &c.</p> + + <p>The principal publications for reference in connexion with this + subject are: <i>The Building and Health Laws of the City of New York</i>, + Brooklyn Eagle Library, No. 85; <i>Rules and Regulations affecting + Building Operations in the administrative County of London</i>, compiled + by Ellis Marsland; <i>Annotated By-Laws as to House Drainage, + &c.</i>, by Jensen; <i>Metropolitan Sanitation</i>, by Herbert + Daw.</p> + + <p>(<span class="sc">J. Bt.</span>)</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_361" href="#FnAnchor_361">[1]</a> The verb "to + build" (O.E. <i>byldan</i>) is apparently connected with O.E. + <i>bold</i>, a dwelling, of Scandinavian origin; cf. Danish <i>bol</i>, a + farm, Icelandic <i>ból</i>, farm, abode. Skeat traces it eventually to + Sanskrit <i>bhu</i>, to be, build meaning "to construct a place in which + to be or dwell."</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_362" href="#FnAnchor_362">[2]</a> <i>Building and + Health Laws and Regulations affecting the City of New York, including the + Building Code of New York City as amended to 1st May 1903.</i></p> + +</div> + <p><b>BUILDING SOCIETIES,</b> the name given to societies "for the + purpose of raising, by the subscriptions of the members, a stock or fund + for making advances to members out of the funds of the society upon + freehold, copyhold, or leasehold estate by way of mortgage," may be + "either <i>terminating</i> or <i>permanent</i>" (Building Societies Act + 1874, § 13). A "terminating" society is one "which by its rules is to + terminate at a fixed date, or when a result specified in its rules is + attained"; a "permanent" society is one "which has not by its rules any + such fixed date or specified result, at which it shall terminate" (§ 5). + A more popular description of these societies would be—societies by + means of which every man may become "his own landlord," their main + purpose being to collect together the small periodical subscriptions of a + number of members, until each in his turn has been able to receive a sum + sufficient to aid him materially in buying his dwelling-house. The origin + and early history of these societies is not very clearly traceable. A + mention of "building clubs" in Birmingham occurs in 1795; one is known to + have been established by deed in the year 1809 at Greenwich; another is + said to have been founded in 1825, under the auspices of the earl of + Selkirk at Kirkcudbright in Scotland, and we learn (Scratchley, <i>On + Building Societies</i>, p. 5) that similar societies in that kingdom + adopted the title of "menages."</p> + + <p><i>United Kingdom.</i>—When the Friendly Societies Act of 1834 + gave effect to the wise and liberal policy of extending its benefits to + societies for frugal investment, and generally to all associations having + a similar legal object, several building societies were certified under + it,—so many, indeed, that in 1836 a short act was passed confirming + to them the privileges granted by the Friendly Societies Act, and + according to them the additional privileges (very valuable at that time) + of exemption from the usury laws, simplicity in forms of conveyance, + power to reconvey by a mere endorsement under the hands of the trustees + for the time being, and exemption from stamp duty. This act remained + unaltered until 1874, when an act was passed at the instance of the + building societies conferring upon them several other privileges, and + relieving them of some disabilities and doubts, which had grown up from + the judicial expositions of the act of 1836. It made future building + societies incorporated bodies, and extended the privilege of + incorporation to existing societies upon application, so that members and + all who derive title through them were relieved from having to trace that + title through the successive trustees of a society. It also gave a + distinct declaration to the members of entire freedom from liability to + pay anything beyond the arrears due from them at the time of winding up, + or the amount actually secured by their mortgage deeds. Power to borrow + money was also expressly given to the societies by the act, but upon two + conditions: that the limitation of liability must be made known to the + lender, by being printed on the acknowledgment for the loan, and that the + borrowed money must not exceed two-thirds of the amount secured by + mortgage from the members, or, in a terminating society, one year's + income from subscriptions. Previous to the passing of the act (or rather + to the judicial decision in <i>Laing</i> v. <i>Read</i>, which the clause + of the act made statutory) there had been, on the one hand, grave doubts + on high legal authority whether a society could borrow money at all; + while, on the other hand, many societies in order to raise funds carried + on the business of deposit banks to an extent far exceeding the amounts + used by them for their legitimate purpose of investment on mortgage. It + enacted, that if a society borrowed more than the statute authorizes, the + directors accepting the loan should be personally <!-- Page 767 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page767"></a>[v.04 p.0767]</span>responsible for + the excess. By an act passed in 1894 all the Benefit Building Societies + established under the act of 1836 after the year 1856 were required to + become incorporated under the act of 1874.</p> + + <p>There are, therefore, three categories of building + societies:—(1) Those established before 1856, which have not been + incorporated under the act of 1874 and remain under the act of 1836. (2) + Those established before 1874 under the act of 1836, which have been + incorporated under the act of 1874. (3) Those which have been established + since the act of 1874 was passed. The first class still act by means of + trustees. Of these societies there are only 62 remaining in existence, + and their number cannot be increased. The second and third classes exceed + 2000 in number.</p> + + <p>The early societies were all "terminating,"—consisting of a + limited number of members, and coming to an end as soon as every member + had received the amount agreed upon as the value of his shares. Take, as + a simple typical example of the working of such a society, one the shares + of which are £120 each, realizable by subscriptions of 10s. a month + during 14 years. Fourteen years happens to be nearly the time in which, + at 5% compound interest, a sum of money becomes doubled. Hence the + present value, at the commencement of the society, of the £120 to be + realized at its conclusion, or (what is the same thing) of the + subscriptions of 10s. a month by which that £120 is to be raised, is £60. + If such a society had issued 120 shares, the aggregate subscriptions for + the first month of its existence would amount to exactly the sum required + to pay one member the present value of one share. One member would + accordingly receive a sum down of £60, and in order to protect the other + members from loss, would execute a mortgage of his dwelling-house for + ensuring the payment of the future subscription of 10s. per month until + every member had in like manner obtained an advance upon his shares, or + accumulated the £120 per share. As £60 is not of itself enough to buy a + house, even of the most modest kind, every member desirous of using the + society for its original purpose of obtaining a dwelling-house by its + means would require to take more than one share. The act of 1836 limited + the amount of each share to £150, and the amount of the monthly + contributions on each share to £1, but did not limit the number of shares + a member might hold.</p> + + <p>The earlier formed societies (in London at least) did not usually + adopt the title "Building Society"; or they added to it some further + descriptive title, as "Accumulating Fund," "Savings Fund," or "Investment + Association." Several are described as "Societies for obtaining freehold + property," or simply as "Mutual Associations," or "Societies of + Equality." The building societies in Scotland are mostly called "Property + Investment," or "Economic." Although the term "Benefit Building Society" + occurs in the title to the act of 1836, it was not till 1849 that it + became in England the sole distinctive name of these societies; and it + cannot be said to be a happy description of them, for as ordinarily + constituted they undertake no building operations whatever, and merely + advance money to their members to enable them to build or to buy + dwelling-houses or land.</p> + + <p>The name "Building Society," too, leaves wholly out of sight the + important functions these societies fulfil as means of investment of + small savings. The act of 1836 defined them as societies to enable every + member to receive the amount or value of a share or shares to erect or + purchase a dwelling-house, &c., but a member who did not desire to + erect or purchase a dwelling-house might still receive out of the funds + of the society the amount or value of his shares, improved by the + payments of interest made by those to whom shares had been advanced.</p> + + <p>About 1846 an important modification of the system of these societies + was introduced, by the invention of the "permanent" plan, which was + adopted by a great number of the societies established after that date. + It was seen that these societies really consist of two classes of + members; that those who do not care to have, or have not yet received, an + advance upon mortgage security are mere investors, and that it matters + little when they commence investing, or to what amount; while those to + whom advances have been made are really debtors to the society, and + arrangements for enabling them to pay off their debt in various terms of + years, according to their convenience, would be of advantage both to + themselves and the society. By permitting members to enter at any time + without back-payment, and by granting advances for any term of years + agreed upon, a continuous inflow of funds, and a continuous means of + profitable investment of them, would be secured. The interest of each + member in the society would terminate when his share was realized, or his + advance paid off, but the society would continue with the accruing + subscriptions of other members employed in making other advances.</p> + + <p>Under this system building societies largely increased and developed. + The royal commissioners who inquired into the subject in 1872 estimated + the total assets of the societies in 1870 at 17 millions, and their + annual income at 11 millions. The more complete returns, afterwards + obtained, indicate that this was an under-estimate.</p> + + <p>A variety of the terminating class of societies met at one time with + considerable favour under the name of "Starr Bowkett" or "mutual" + societies, of which more than a thousand were established. They differed + from the typical society above described, in the contribution of a member + who had not received an advance being much smaller, while the amount of + the advance was much larger, and it was made without any calculation of + interest. Thus a society issued, say, 500 shares, on which the + contributions were to be 1s. 3d. per week, and, as soon as a sum of £300 + accumulated allotted it by ballot to one of the shareholders, on + condition that he was to repay it without interest by instalments in 10 + or 12½ years, and at the same time to keep up his share-contributions. + The fortunate recipient of the appropriation was at liberty to sell it, + and frequently did so at a profit; but (except from fines) no profit + whatever was earned by those who did not succeed in getting an + appropriation, and as the number of members successful in the ballot must + necessarily be small in the earlier years of the society, the others + frequently became discontented and retired. These societies could not + borrow money, for as they received no interest they could not pay any. + The plan was afterwards modified by granting the appropriations + alternately by ballot and sale, so that by the premiums paid on the sales + (which are the same in effect as payments of interest on the amount + actually advanced) profits might be earned for the investing members. The + formation of societies of this class ceased on the passing of the act of + 1894, by which balloting for advances was prohibited in societies + thereafter established. A further modification of the "mutual" plan was + to make all the appropriations by sale. The effect of this was to bring + the mutual society back to the ordinary form; for it amounts to precisely + the same thing for a man to pay 10s. a month on a loan of £60 for 14 + years, as for him to borrow a nominal sum of £84 for the same period, + repayable in the same manner, but to allow £24 off the loan as a + "bidding" at the sale. The only difference between the two classes of + societies is that the interest which the member pays who bids for his + advance depends on the amount of competition at the bidding, and is not + fixed by a rule of the society.</p> + + <p>For several years the progress of building societies in general was + steady, but there were not wanting signs that their prosperity was + unsubstantial. A practice of receiving deposits repayable at call had + sprung up, which must lead to embarrassment where the funds are invested + in loans repayable during a long term of years. It was surmised, if not + actually known, that many societies had large amounts of property on + their hands, which had been reduced into possession in consequence of the + default of borrowers in paying their instalments. A practice had also + grown up of establishing mushroom societies, which did little more than + pay fees to the promoters. The vicious system of trafficking in advances + that had been awarded by ballot, near akin to gambling, prevailed in many + societies. These signs of weakness had been observed by the + well-informed, and the disastrous failure of a large society incorporated + under <!-- Page 768 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page768"></a>[v.04 + p.0768]</span>the act of 1874, the Liberator, which had in fact long + ceased to do any genuine building society business, hastened the + crisis.</p> + + <p>This society had drawn funds to the amount of more than a million + sterling from provident people in <span class="sidenote">The + "Liberator."</span> all classes of the population and all parts of the + country by specious representations, and had applied those funds not to + the legitimate purpose of a building society, but to the support of other + undertakings in which the same persons were concerned who were the active + managers of the society. The consequence was that the whole group of + concerns became insolvent (Oct. 1892), and the Liberator depositors and + shareholders were defrauded of every penny of their investments. Many of + them suffered great distress from the loss of their savings, and some + were absolutely ruined. The result was to weaken confidence in building + societies generally, and this was very marked in the rapid decline of the + amount of the capital of the incorporated building societies. From its + highest point (nearly 54 millions) reached in 1887, it fell to below 43 + millions in 1895. On some societies, which had adopted the deposit + system, a run was made, and several were unable to stand it. The Birkbeck + Society was for two days besieged by an anxious crowd of depositors + clamouring to withdraw their money; but luckily for that society, and for + the building societies generally, a very large portion of its funds was + invested in easily convertible securities, and it was enabled by that + means to get sufficient assistance from the Bank of England to pay + without a moment's hesitation every depositor who asked for his money. + Its credit was so firmly established by this means that many persons + sought to pay money in. Had this very large society succumbed, the + results would have been disastrous to the whole body of building + societies. As the case stood, the energetic means it adopted to save its + own credit reacted in favour of the societies generally.</p> + + <p>The Liberator disaster convinced everybody that something must be done + towards avoiding such calamities in the future. The government of the day + brought in a bill for that purpose, and several private members also + prepared measures—most of them more stringent than the government + bill. All the bills were referred to a select committee, of which Mr + Herbert Gladstone was the chairman. As the result of the deliberations of + the committee, the Building Societies Act of 1894 was passed. Meanwhile + the Rt. Hon. W.L. Jackson (afterwards Lord Allerton), a member of the + committee, moved for an address to the crown for a return of the property + held in possession by building societies. This was the first time such a + return had been called for, and the managers of the societies much + resented it; there were no means of enforcing the return, and the + consequence was that many large societies failed to make it, + notwithstanding frequent applications by the registrar. The act provided + that henceforth all incorporated societies should furnish returns in a + prescribed form, including schedules showing respectively the mortgages + for amounts exceeding £5000; the properties of which the societies had + taken possession for more than twelve months through default of the + mortgagors; and the mortgages which were more than twelve months in + arrear of repayment subscription. The act did not come into operation + till the 1st of January 1895, and the first complete return under it was + not due till 1896, when it appeared that the properties in possession at + the time of Mr Jackson's return must have been counted for at least seven + and a half millions in the assets of the societies. In a few years after + the passing of the act the societies reduced their properties in + possession from 14% of the whole of the mortgages to 5%, or, in other + words, reduced them to one-third of the original amount, from 7½ millions + to 2½ millions. Though this operation must have been attended with some + sacrifice in many societies, upon the whole the balance of profit has + increased rather than diminished. Thus this provision of the act, though + it greatly alarmed the managers of societies, was really a blessing in + disguise. The act also gave power to the registrar, upon the application + of ten members, to order an inspection of the books of a society, but it + did not confer upon individual members the right to inspect the books, + which would have been more effective. It empowered the registrar, upon + the application of one-fifth of the members, to order an inspection upon + oath into the affairs of a society, or to investigate its affairs with a + view to dissolution, and even in certain cases to proceed without an + application from members. It gave him ample powers to deal with a society + which upon such investigation proved to be insolvent, and these were + exercised so as to procure the cheap and speedy dissolution of such + societies. It also prohibited the future establishment of societies + making advances by ballot, or dependent on any chance or lot, and + provided an easy method by which existing societies could discontinue the + practice of balloting. This method has been adopted in a few instances + only. The act, or the circumstances which led to it, has greatly + diminished the number of new societies applying for registry.</p> + + <p>The statistics of building societies belonging to all the three + classes mentioned show that there were on the 31st of December 1904, 2118 + societies in existence in the United Kingdom. Of these, 2075, having + 609,785 members, made returns. Their gross receipts for the financial + year were £38,729,009, and the amount advanced on mortgage during the + year was £9,589,864. The capital belonging to their members was + £39,408,430, and the undivided balance of profit £4,004,547. Their + liabilities to depositors and other creditors were £24,838,290. To meet + this they had mortgages on which £53,196,112 was due, but of this + £2,443,255 was on properties which had been in possession more than a + year, and £222,444 on mortgages which had fallen into arrear more than a + year. Their other assets were £14,952,485, and certain societies showed a + deficit balance which in the aggregate was £102,670. As compared with + 1895, when first returns were obtained from unincorporated societies, + these figures show an increase in income of 30%, in assets of 23%, and in + profit balances of 46%, and a diminution of the properties in possession + and mortgages in arrear of 14% in the nine years. The total assets and + income are more than three times the amount of the conjectural estimate + made for 1870 by the royal commission. It is not too much to say that a + quarter of a million persons have been enabled by means of building + societies to become the proprietors of their own homes.</p> + + <p>In recent years, several rivals to building societies have sprung up. + Friendly societies have largely taken to investing their surplus funds in + loans to members on the building society principle. Industrial and + provident land and building societies have been formed. The legislature + has authorized local authorities to lend money to the working classes to + enable them to buy their dwelling-houses. Bond and investment companies + have been formed under the Companies Acts, and are under no restriction + as to balloting for appropriation. All these have not yet had any + perceptible effect in checking the growth of the building society + movement, and it is not thought that they will permanently do so.</p> + + <p><i>British Colonies.</i>—In several of the British colonies, + legislation similar to that of the mother country has been adopted. In + Victoria, Australia, a crisis occurred, in which many building societies + suffered severely. In the other Australian colonies the building society + movement has made progress, but not to a very large extent. In the + Dominion of Canada these societies are sometimes called "loan companies" + and are not restricted in their investments to loans on real estates, but + about 90% of their advances are on that security. At the close of the + year 1904 their liabilities to stockholders exceeded £13,000,000, and to + the public £21,000,000. The uncalled capital was £5,000,000. The balance + of current loans was £28,000,000, and the property owned by the societies + exceeded £7,000,000.</p> + + <p><i>Belgium, &c.</i>—In Belgium, the Government Savings Bank + has power to make advances of money to societies of credit or of + construction to enable their members to become owners of dwelling-houses. + The advance is made to the society at 3 or sometimes at 2½% interest, and + the borrower pays 4%. In the great majority of cases the borrower effects + an insurance with the savings bank so that his repayments terminate at + his death. On the 31st of December 1903 nearly 25,000 advances were in + course of repayment. In Germany, building societies are recognized as a + form of societies for self-help, but are not many in number, being + overshadowed by the great organization of credit societies founded by + Schulze-Delitzsch. In other countries there has been no special + legislation for building societies similar to that of the United Kingdom, + and though societies with the same special object probably exist, + separate information with regard to them is not available.</p> + + <p>(E. W. B.)</p> + + <p><i>United States.</i>—"Building and loan association" is a + general term applied in the United States to such institutions as mutual + loan associations, homestead aid associations, savings fund and loan + associations, co-operative banks, co-operative savings and loan + associations, &c. They are private corporations, for the accumulation + of savings, and for the loaning of money to build homes. The first + association of this kind in the United States of which there is any + record was organized at Frankford, a suburb <!-- Page 769 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page769"></a>[v.04 p.0769]</span>of + Philadelphia, on the 3rd of January 1831, under the title of the Oxford + Provident Building Association. Their permanent inception took place + between 1840 and 1850. The receipts or capital of the building and loan + association consists of periodical payments by the members, interest and + premiums paid by borrowing members or others, fixed periodical + instalments by borrowing members, fines for failures to pay such fixed + instalments, forfeitures, fees for transferring stock, entrance fees, and + any other revenues or payments,—all of which go into the common + treasury. When the instalment payments and profits of all kinds equal the + face value of all the shares issued, the assets, over and above expenses + and losses, are apportioned among members, and this apportionment cancels + the borrower's debt, while the non-borrower is given the amount of his + stock. A man who wishes to borrow, let us say, $1000 for the erection of + a house ordinarily takes five shares in an association, each of which, + when he has paid all the successive instalments on it, will be worth + $200, and he must offer suitable security for his loan, usually the lot + on which he is to build. The money is not lent to him at regular rates of + interest, as in the case of a savings bank or other financial + institution, but is put up at auction usually in open meeting at the time + of the payment of dues, and is awarded to the member bidding the highest + premium. To secure the $1000 borrowed, the member gives the association a + mortgage on his property and pledges his five shares of stock. Some + associations, when the demand for money from the shareholders does not + exhaust the surplus, lend their funds to persons not shareholders, upon + such terms and conditions as may be approved by their directors. Herein + lies a danger, for such loans are sometimes made in a speculative way, or + on insufficient land value. Some associations make stock loans, or loans + on the shares held by a stockholder without real estate security; these + vary in different associations, some applying the same rules as to real + estate loans. To cancel his debt the stockholder is constantly paying his + monthly or semi-monthly dues, until such time as these payments, plus the + accumulation of profits through compound interest, mature the shares at + $200 each, when he surrenders his shares, and the debt upon his property + is cancelled.</p> + + <p>Every member of a building and loan association must be a stockholder, + and the amount of interest which a member has in a <span + class="sidenote">Shares.</span> building and loan association is + indicated by the number of shares he holds, the age of the shares, and + their maturing value. The difference between a stockholder in such an + association and one in an ordinary corporation for usual business + purposes lies in the fact that in the latter the member or stockholder + buys his stock and pays for it at once, and as a rule is not called upon + for further payment; all profits on such stocks are received through + dividends, the value of shares depending upon the successful operation of + the business. In the former the stockholder or member pays a stipulated + minimum sum, say $1, when he takes his membership and buys a share of + stock. He continues to pay a like sum each month until the aggregate of + sums paid, increased by the profits and all other sources of income, + amounts to the maturing value of the stock, usually $200, when the + stockholder is entitled to the full maturing value of the share and + surrenders the same. Shares are usually issued in series. When a second + series is issued the issue of the stock of the first series ceases. + Profits are distributed and losses apportioned before a new series can be + issued. The term during which a series is open for subscription differs, + but it usually extends over three or six months, and sometimes a year. + Some associations, usually known as perpetual associations, issue a new + series of stock without regard to the time of maturity of previous + issues. It is the practice in such associations to issue a new series of + stock every year. Instead of shares that are paid in instalments, some + associations issue prepaid shares and paid-up shares. <i>Prepaid + shares</i>, known also as partly paid-up shares, are issued at a fixed + price per share in advance. They usually participate as fully in the + profits as the regular instalment shares, and when the amount originally + paid for such shares, together with the dividends accrued thereon, + reaches the maturing or par value, they are disposed of in the same + manner as regular instalment shares. Some associations, instead of + crediting all the profits made on this class of shares, allow a fixed + rate of interest on the amount paid therefor at each dividend period, + which is paid in cash to the holder thereof. This interest is then + deducted from the profits to which the shares are entitled, and the + remainder is credited to the shares until such unpaid portion of the + profits, added to the amount originally paid, equals the maturing or par + value. <i>Paid-up shares</i> are issued upon the payment of the full + maturity or par value, when a certificate of paid-up stock is issued, the + owners being entitled to receive in cash the amount of all dividends + declared thereon, subject to such conditions or limitations as may be + agreed upon. These shares sometimes participate as fully in the profits + as the regular instalment shares, but in most cases a fixed rate of + interest only is allowed, the holders of the shares usually assigning to + the association all right to profits above that amount. Certificates of + matured shares are also issued to holders of regular instalment shares, + who prefer to leave their money with the association as an + investment.</p> + + <p>Prior to the maturing of a share it has two values, the holding or + book value and the withdrawal value. The book value is ascertained by + adding all the dues that have been paid to the profits that have accrued; + that is to say, it is the actual value of a share at any particular time. + The withdrawal value is that amount of the book value which the + association is willing to pay to a shareholder who desires to sever his + connexion with the association before his share is matured. Some + associations do not permit their members to withdraw prior to the + maturing of their shares. Then the only way a shareholder can realize + upon his shares is by selling them to some other person at whatever price + he can obtain. There are twelve or more plans for the withdrawal of + funds. Every association has full regulations on all such matters.</p> + + <p>The purchase of a share binds the shareholder to the necessity of + keeping up his dues, and thus secures to him not only the benefits <span + class="sidenote">Variations in methods.</span> of a savings bank, but the + benefit of constantly accruing compound interest. This accomplishes the + first feature of the motive of a building and loan association. The + second is accomplished by enabling a man to borrow money for building + purposes. It is a moot question whether this method of obtaining money + for the building of homes is more or less economical than that of + obtaining it from the ordinary savings banks or from other sources. + Sometimes the premium which must be paid to secure a loan increases the + regular interest to such an amount as to make the building and loan + method more expensive than the ordinary method of borrowing money, but a + building and loan association has a moral influence upon its members, in + that it encourages a regular payment of instalments. Some associations + have a fixed or established premium rate, and under such circumstances + loans are awarded to the members in the order of their applications or by + lot. The premium may consist of the amount which the borrower pays in + excess of the legal interest, or it may consist of a certain number of + payments of dues or of interest to be made in advance. There are very + many plans for the payment of premiums, nearly seventy relating to real + estate loans being in vogue in different associations in different parts + of the United States; but in nearly all cases the borrower makes his + regular payments of dues and interest until the shares pledged have + reached maturing value. There is also a great variety of plans for the + distribution of profits, something like twenty-five such plans being in + existence. The methods of calculating interest and profits are somewhat + complicated, but they are all found in the books to which reference will + be made. The various plans for the payment of premiums, distribution of + profits, and withdrawals, and the calculations under each, are given in + full in the ninth annual report of the U.S. commissioner of labour.</p> + + <p>Most building and loan associations confine their operations to a + small community, usually to the county in which they are situated; but + some of them operate on a large scale, extending their business + enterprises even beyond the borders of their own state. These national + associations are ready to make loans on property anywhere, and sell their + shares to any person without reference to his residence. In local + associations the total amount of dues paid in by the shareholders forms + the basis for the distribution of profits, while in most national + associations only a portion of the dues paid in by the shareholders is + considered in the distribution. For instance, in a national association + the dues are generally 60 cents a share per month, out of which either 8 + or 10 cents are carried to an expense fund, the remainder being credited + on the loan fund. The expense fund thus created is lost to the + shareholders, except in the case of a few associations which carry the + unexpended balances to the profit and loss account, and whatever profits + are made are apportioned on the amount of dues credited to the loan fund + only. The creation of an expense fund in the nationals has sometimes been + the source of disaster. Safety or security in both local and national + associations depends principally upon the integrity with which their + affairs are conducted, and not so much upon the form of organization or + the method of distribution. Some of the states—New York, + Massachusetts, New Jersey, Ohio, Illinois, California and + others—bring building and loan associations under the same general + supervision of law thrown around savings banks. In some states nothing is + officially known of them beyond the formalities of their incorporation. + Though the business of the associations is conducted by men not trained + as bankers, it yet meets with rare success. Associations disband when not + successful, but when they disband great loss does not occur because the + whole business of the association consists of its loans, and these loans + are to its own shareholders, as a rule, who hold the securities in their + associated forms. The amount of money on hand is always small, because it + is sold or lent as fast as paid in. A disbanded association, therefore, + simply returns to its own members their own property, and but few real + losses occur. Investment in a building and loan association is as nearly + absolutely <!-- Page 770 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page770"></a>[v.04 p.0770]</span>safe as it can be, for the monthly + dues and the accumulated profits, which give the actual capital of the + association, are lent or sold, as it is termed, by the association as + fast as they accumulate, and upon real estate or upon the stock of the + association itself. The opportunities for embezzlement, therefore, or for + shrinkage of securities, are reduced to the minimum, and an almost + absolute safety of the investment is secured.</p> + + <p>The growth of these associations has been very rapid since 1840, and + at the opening of the 20th century they numbered nearly 6000. The Federal + government, through the department of labour, made an investigation of + building and loan associations, and published its report in 1893. The + total dues paid in on instalment shares amounted then to $450,667,594. + The business represented by this great sum, conducted quietly, with + little or no advertising, and without the experienced banker in charge, + shows that the common people, in their own ways, are quite competent to + take care of their savings, especially when it was shown that but + thirty-five of the associations then in existence met with a net loss at + the end of their latest fiscal year, and that this loss amounted to only + a little over $23,000. Bulletin No. 10 (May 1897) of the U.S. department + of labour contained a calculation of the business at that date, based + upon such states' reports as were available. That calculation showed a + growth in almost every item. During the years of depression ending with + 1899 the growth of building and loan associations was naturally slower + than in prosperous periods.</p> + + <p>See <i>Ninth Annual Report of U.S.A. Commissioner of Labour</i> + (1893); <i>Bulletin</i>, No. 10 (May 1897), of the Department of Labour; + Edmund Rigley, <i>How to manage Building Associations</i> (1873); Seymour + Dexter, <i>A Treatise on Co-operation Savings and Loan Associations</i> + (New York, 1891); Charles N. Thompson, <i>A Treatise on Building + Associations</i> (Chicago, 1892).</p> + + <p>(C. D. W.)</p> + + <p><b>BUILTH,</b> or <span class="sc">Builth Wells</span>, a market town + of Brecknockshire, Wales. Pop. of urban district (1901), 1805. It has a + station on the Cambrian line between Moat Lane and Brecon, and two others + (high and low levels) at Builth Road about 1¾ m. distant where the London + & North-Western and the Cambrian cross one another. It is pleasantly + situated in the upper valley of the Wye, in a bend of the river on its + right bank below the confluence of its tributary the Irfon. During the + summer it is a place of considerable resort for the sake of its + waters—saline, chalybeate and sulphur—and it possesses the + usual accessories of pump-rooms, baths and a recreation ground. The + scenery of the Wye valley, including a succession of rapids just above + the town, also attracts many tourists. The town is an important + agricultural centre, its fairs for sheep and ponies in particular being + well attended.</p> + + <p>The town, called in Welsh Llanfair (yn) Muallt, i.e. St Mary's in + Builth, took its name from the ancient territorial division of Buallt in + which it is situated, which was, according to Nennius, an independent + principality in the beginning of the 9th century, and later a cantrev, + corresponding to the modern hundred of Builth. Towards the end of the + 11th century, when the tide of Norman invasion swept upwards along the + Wye valley, the district became a lordship marcher annexed to that of + Brecknock, but was again severed from it on the death of William de + Breos, when his daughter Matilda brought it to her husband, Roger + Mortimer of Wigmore. Its castle, built probably in Newmarch's time, or + shortly after, was the most advanced outpost of the invaders in a wild + part of Wales where the tendency to revolt was always strong. It was + destroyed in 1260 by Llewellyn ab Gruffydd, prince of Wales, with the + supposed connivance of Mortimer, but its site was reoccupied by the earl + of Lincoln in 1277, and a new castle at once erected. It was with the + expectation that he might, with local aid, seize the castle, that + Llewellyn invaded this district in December 1282, when he was surprised + and killed by Stephen de Frankton in a ravine called Cwm Llewellyn on the + left bank of the Irfon, 2½ m. from the town. According to local tradition + he was buried at Cefn-y-bedd ("the ridge of the grave") close by, but it + is more likely that his headless trunk was taken to Abbey Cwmhir. No + other important event was associated with the castle, of which not a + stone is now standing. The lordship remained in the marches till the Act + of Union 1536, when it was grouped with a number of others so as to form + the shire of Brecknock. The town was governed by a local board from 1866 + until the establishment of an urban district council in 1894; the urban + district was then made conterminous with the civil parish, and in 1898 it + was re-named Builth Wells.</p> + + <p><b>BUISSON, FERDINAND</b> (1841- ), French educationalist, was born at + Paris on the 20th of December 1841. In 1868, when attached to the + teaching staff of the Academy of Geneva, he obtained a philosophical + fellowship. In 1870 he settled in Paris, and in the following year was + nominated an inspector of primary education. His appointment was, + however, strongly opposed by the bishop of Orleans (who saw danger to + clerical influence over the schools), and the nomination was cancelled. + But the bishop's action only served to draw attention to Buisson's + abilities. He was appointed secretary of the statistical commission on + primary education, and sent as a delegate to the Vienna exhibition of + 1873, and the Philadelphia exhibition of 1876. In 1878 he was instructed + to report on the educational section of the Paris exhibition, and in the + same year was appointed inspector-general of primary education. In 1879 + he was promoted to the directorship of primary education, a post which he + occupied until 1896, when he became professor of education at the + Sorbonne. At the general election of 1902 he was returned to the chamber + of deputies as a radical socialist by the XIII<sup>me</sup> + arrondissement of Paris. He supported the policy of M. Combes, and + presided over the commission for the separation of church and state.</p> + + <p><b>BUITENZORG,</b> a hill station in the residency of Batavia, island + of Java, Dutch East Indies. It is beautifully situated among the hills at + the foot of the Salak volcano, about 860 ft. above sea-level, and has a + cool and healthy climate. Buitenzorg is the usual residence of the + governor-general of the Dutch East Indies, and is further remarkable on + account of its splendid botanical garden and for its popularity as a + health resort. The botanic gardens are among the finest in the world; + they originally formed a part of the park attached to the palace of the + governor-general, and were established in 1817. Under J.S. Teysmann, who + became <i>hortulanus</i> in 1830, the collection was extended, and in + 1868 was recognized as a government institution with a director. Between + this and 1880 a museum, a school of agriculture, and a culture garden + were added, and since then library, botanical, chemical, and + pharmacological laboratories, and a herbarium have been established. The + palace of the governor-general was founded by Governor-General van Imhoff + in 1744, and rebuilt after being destroyed by an earthquake in 1834. + Buitenzorg is also the seat of the general secretary of the state railway + and of the department of mines. Buitenzorg, which is called Bogor by the + natives, was once the capital of the princess of Pajajaram. Close by, at + <i>Bata Tulis</i> ("inscribed stone"), are some Hindu remains. The + district of Buitenzorg (till 1866 an assistant residency) forms the + southern part of the residency of Batavia, with an area of 1447 sq. m. It + occupies the northern slopes of a range of hills separating it from + Preanger, and has a fertile soil. Tea, coffee, cinchona, sugar-cane, + rice, nutmegs, cloves and pepper are cultivated.</p> + + <p><b>BUJNŪRD,</b> a town of Persia, in the province of Khorasan, + in a fertile plain encompassed by hills, in 37° 29′ N., 57° + 21′ E., at an elevation of 3600 ft. Pop. about 8000. Its old name + was Buzinjird, and thus it still appears in official registers. It is the + chief place of the district of same name, which extends in the west to + the borders of Shahrud and Astarabad; in the north it is bounded by + Russian Transcaspia, in the east by Kuchan, and in the south by Jovain. + The greater part of the population consists of Shadillu Kurds, the + remainder being Zafranlu Kurds, Garaili Turks, Goklan Turkomans and + Persians.</p> + + <p><b>BUKHĀRĪ</b> [Mahommed ibn Ismā'īl + al-Bukhārī] (810-872), Arabic author of the most generally + accepted collection of traditions (<span class="special" + title="hadith"><i>ḥadīth</i></span>) from Mahomet, was born + at Bokhara (<i>Bukhārā</i>), of an Iranian family, in <span + class="scac">A.H.</span> 194 (<span class="scac">A.D.</span> 810). He + early distinguished himself in the learning of traditions by heart, and + when, in his sixteenth year, his family made the pilgrimage to Mecca, he + gathered additions to his store from the authorities along the route. + Already, in his eighteenth year, he had devoted himself to the + collecting, sifting, testing and arranging of traditions. For that + purpose he travelled over the Moslem world, from Egypt to Samarkand, and + learned (as the story goes) from over a thousand men three hundred + thousand traditions, true and false. He certainly became the acknowledged + authority on the subject, and developed a power and speed of memory <!-- + Page 771 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page771"></a>[v.04 + p.0771]</span>which seemed miraculous, even to his contemporaries. His + theological position was conservative and anti-rationalistic; he enjoyed + the friendship and respect of <span class="special" title="Ahmad Ibn Hanbal" + >Aḥmad Ibn Ḥanbal</span>. In law, he appears to have been a + Shāfi'ite. After sixteen years' absence he returned to Bokhara, and + there drew up his <span class="special" + title="Sahih"><i>Ṣaḥīḥ</i></span>, a + collection of 7275 tested traditions, arranged in chapters so as to + afford bases for a complete system of jurisprudence without the use of + speculative law, the first book of its kind (see <span + class="sc">Mahommedan Law</span>). He died in <span + class="scac">A.H.</span> 256, in banishment at Kartank, a suburb of + Samarkand. His book has attained a quasi-canonicity in Islām, being + treated almost like the Koran, and to his grave solemn pilgrimages are + made, and prayers are believed to be heard there.</p> + + <p>See F. Wüstenfeld, <i>Schāfi'iten</i>, 78 ff.; M<sup>c</sup>G. + de Slane's transl. of Ibn Khallikan, i. 594 ff.; I. Goldziher, + <i>Mohammedanische Studien</i>, ii. 157 ff.; Nawawi, <i>Biogr. Dict.</i> + 86 ff.</p> + + <p>(<span class="sc">D. B. Ma.</span>)</p> + + <p><b>BUKOVINA,</b> a duchy and crownland of Austria, bounded E. by + Russia and Rumania, S. by Rumania, W. by Transylvania and Hungary, and N. + by Galicia. Area, 4035 sq. m. The country, especially in its southern + parts, is occupied by the offshoots of the Carpathians, which attain in + the Giumaleu an altitude of 6100 ft. The principal passes are the Radna + Pass and the Borgo Pass. With the exception of the Dniester, which skirts + its northern border, Bukovina belongs to the watershed of the Danube. The + principal rivers are the Pruth, and the Sereth with its affluents the + Suczawa, the Moldava and the Bistritza. The climate of Bukovina is + healthy but severe, especially in winter; but it is generally milder than + that of Galicia, the mean annual temperature at Czernowitz being 46.9° F. + No less than 43.17% of the total area is occupied by woodland, and the + very name of the country is derived from the abundance of beech trees. Of + the remainder 27.59% is occupied by arable land, 12.68% by meadows, + 10.09% by pastures and 0.78% by gardens. The soil of Bukovina is fertile, + and agriculture has made great progress, the principal products being + wheat, maize, rye, oats, barley, potatoes, flax and hemp. Cattle-rearing + constitutes another important source of revenue. The principal mineral is + salt, which is extracted at the mine of Kaczyka, belonging to the + government. Brewing, distilling and milling are the chief industries. + Commerce is mostly in the hands of the Jews and Armenians, and chiefly + confined to raw products, such as agricultural produce, cattle, wool and + wood. Bukovina had in 1900 a population of 729,921, which is equivalent + to 181 inhabitants per sq. m. According to nationality, over 40% were + Ruthenians, 35% Rumanians, 13% Jews, and the remainder was composed of + Germans, Poles, Hungarians, Russians and Armenians. The official language + of the administration, of the law-courts, and of instruction in the + university is German. Nearly 70% of the population belong to the Greek + Orthodox Church, and stand under the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the + archbishop or metropolitan of Czernowitz. To the Roman Catholic Church + belong 11%, to the Greek United Church 3.25%, while 2.5% are Protestants. + Elementary education is improving, but, after Dalmatia, Bukovina still + shows the largest number of illiterates in Austria. The local diet, of + which the archbishop of Czernowitz and the rector of the university are + members <i>ex officio</i>, is composed of 31 members, and Bukovina sends + 14 deputies to the Reichsrat at Vienna. For administrative purposes, the + country is divided into 9 districts and an autonomous municipality, + Czernowitz (pop. 69,619), the capital. Other towns are Radautz (14,343), + Suczawa (10,946), Kuczurmare (9417), Kimpolung (8024) and Sereth + (7610).</p> + + <p>Bukovina was originally a part of the principality of Moldavia, whose + ancient capital Suczawa was situated in this province. It was occupied by + the Russians in 1769, and by the Austrians in 1774. In 1777 the Porte, + under whose suzerainty Moldavia was, ceded this province to Austria. It + was incorporated with Galicia in a single province in 1786, but was + separated from it in 1849, and made a separate crownland.</p> + + <p>See Bidermann, <i>Die Bukowina unter der osterreichischen Verwaltung, + 1775-1875</i> (Lemberg, 1876).</p> + + <p><b>BULACÁN,</b> a town of the province of Bulacán, Luzon, Philippine + Islands, on an arm of the Pampanga delta, 22 m. N.N.W. of Manila. Pop. + (1903) 11,589; after the census enumeration, the town of Guiguintó (pop. + 3948) was annexed. Bulacán is served by the Manila-Dagupan railway. + Sugar, rice, indigo and tropical fruits are the chief products of the + fertile district in which the town lies; it is widely known for its + fish-ponds and its excellent fish, and its principal manufactures are + jusi, piña, ilang ilang perfume and sugar. With the exception of the + churches and a few stone buildings, Bulacán was completely destroyed by + fire in 1898.</p> + + <p><b>BULANDSHAHR,</b> a town and district of British India in the Meerut + division of the United Provinces. The town is situated on a height on the + right bank of the Kali-Nadi, whence the substitution of the names + Unchanagar and Bulandshahr (high town) for its earlier name of Baran, by + which it is still sometimes called. The population in 1901 was 18,959. + Its present handsome appearance is due to several successive collectors, + notably F.S. Growse, who was active in erecting public buildings, and in + encouraging the local gentry to beautify their own houses. In particular, + it boasts a fine bathing-ghat, a town-hall, a market-place, a tank to + supply water, and a public garden.</p> + + <p>The <span class="sc">District of Bulandshahr</span> has an area of + 1899 sq. m. The district stretches out in a level plain, with a gentle + slope from N.W. to S.E., and a gradual but very slight elevation about + midway between the Ganges and Jumna. Principal rivers are the Ganges and + Jumna—the former navigable all the year round, the latter only + during the rains. The Ganges canal intersects the district, and serves + both for irrigation and navigation. The Lower Ganges canal has its + headworks at Narora. The climate of the district is liable to extremes, + being very cold in the winter and excessively hot in the summer. In 1901 + the population was 1,138,101, showing an increase of 20% in the decade. + The district is very highly cultivated and thickly populated. There are + several indigo factories, and mills for pressing and cleaning cotton, but + the former have greatly suffered by the decline in indigo of recent + years. The main line of the East Indian railway and the Oudh and + Rohilkhand railway cross the district. The chief centre of trade is + Khurja.</p> + + <p>Nothing certain is known of the history of the district before <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 1018, when Mahmud of Ghazni appeared before + Baran and received the submission of the Hindu raja and his followers to + Islam. In 1193 the city was captured by Kutb-ud-din. In the 14th century + the district was subject to invasions of Rajput and Mongol clans who left + permanent settlements in the country. With the firm establishment of the + Mogul empire peace was restored, the most permanent effect of this period + being the large proportion of Mussulmans among the population, due to the + zeal of Aurangzeb. The decline of the Mogul empire gave free play to the + turbulent spirit of the Jats and Gujars, many of whose chieftains + succeeded in carving out petty principalities for themselves at the + expense of their neighbours. During this period, however, Baran had + properly no separate history, being a dependency of Koil, whence it + continued to be administered under the Mahratta domination. After Koil + and the fort of Aligarh had been captured by the British in 1803, + Bulandshahr and the surrounding country were at first incorporated in the + newly created district of Aligarh (1805). Bulandshahr enjoyed an evil + reputation in the Mutiny of 1857, when the Gujar peasantry plundered the + towns. The Jats took the side of the government, while the Gujars and + Mussulman Rajputs were most actively hostile.</p> + + <p>See <i>Imperial Gazetteer of India</i> (Oxford, ed. 1908); F.S. + Growse, <i>Bulandshahr</i> (Benares, 1884).</p> + + <p><b>BULAWAYO,</b> the capital of Matabeleland, the western province of + southern Rhodesia, South Africa. White population (1904) 3840. It + occupies a central position on the tableland between the Limpopo and + Zambezi rivers, is 4469 ft. above the sea and 1362 m. north-east of Cape + Town by rail. Beira, the nearest port, is 398 m. east in a direct line, + but distant 675 m. by railway. Another railway, part of the Cape to Cairo + connexion, runs north-west from Bulawayo, crossing the Zambezi just below + the Victoria Falls. In the centre of the town is a large market square to + which roads lead in regular lines north, south, east and <!-- Page 772 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page772"></a>[v.04 p.0772]</span>west. + Those going east and west are called avenues and are numbered, those + running north and south are called streets and are named. Through the + centre of Market Square runs Rhodes Street. There are many handsome + public and private buildings. In front of the stock exchange is a + monument in memory of the 257 settlers killed in the Matabele rebellion + of 1896, and at the junction of two of the principal streets is a + colossal bronze statue of Cecil Rhodes. East of the town is a large park + and botanical gardens, beyond which is a residential suburb. The railway + station and water and electric supply works are in the south-west + quarter. An avenue 130 ft. broad and nearly 1½ m. long, planted + throughout its length with trees, leads from the town to Government + House, which is built on the site of Lobengula's royal kraal. The tree + under which that chieftain sat when giving judgment has been preserved. A + number of gold reefs intersect the surrounding district and in some of + the reefs gold is mined. South-south-east of the town are the Matoppo + Hills. In a grave in one of these hills, 33 m. from Bulawayo, Rhodes is + buried.</p> + + <p>The "Place of Slaughter," as the Zulu word Bulawayo is interpreted, + was founded about 1838 by Lobengula's father, Mosilikatze, some distance + south of the present town, and continued to be the royal residence till + its occupation by the British South Africa Company's forces in November + 1893, when a new town was founded. Four years later the railway + connecting it with Cape Town was completed (see <span + class="sc">Rhodesia</span>).</p> + + <p><b>BULDANA,</b> a town and district of India, in Berar. The town had a + population in 1901 of 4137. The district has an area of 3662 sq. m. The + southern part forms a portion of Berar Balaghat or Berar—above the + Ghats. Here the general contour of the country may be described as a + succession of small plateaus decreasing in elevation to the extreme + south. Towards the eastern side of the district the country assumes more + the character of undulating high lands, favoured with soil of a good + quality. A succession of plateaus descends from the highest ridges on the + north to the south, where a series of small ghats march with the nizam's + territory. The small fertile valleys between the plateaus are watered by + streams during the greater portion of the year, while wells of + particularly good and pure water are numerous. These valleys are + favourite village sites. The north portion of the district occupies the + rich valley of the Purna. The district is rich in agricultural produce; + in a seasonable year a many-coloured sheet of cultivation, almost without + a break, covers the valley of the Purna. In the Balaghat also the crops + are very fine. Situated as the district is in the neighbourhood of the + great cotton market of Khamgaon, and nearer to Bombay than the other + Berar districts, markets for its agricultural produce on favourable terms + are easily found. In 1901 the population was 423,616, showing a decrease + of 12% in the decade due to the effects of famine. The district was + reconstituted, and given an additional area of 853 sq. m. in 1905; the + population on the enlarged area in 1901 was 613,756. The only manufacture + is cotton cloth. Cotton, wheat and oil-seeds are largely exported. The + Nagpur line of the Great Indian Peninsula railway runs through the north + of the district. The most important place of trade is Malkapur—pop. + (1901) 13,112—with several factories for ginning and pressing + cotton.</p> + + <p><b>BULDUR,</b> or <span class="sc">Burdur</span>, chief town of a + sanjak of the Konia vilayet in Asia Minor. It is called by the Christians + <i>Polydorion</i>. Its altitude is 3150 ft. and it is situated in the + midst of gardens, about 2 m. from the brackish lake, Buldur Geul (anc. + <i>Ascania Limne</i>). Linen-weaving and leather-tanning are the + principal industries. There is a good carriage road to Dineir, by which + much grain is sent from the Buldur plain, and a railway connects it with + Dineir and Egirdir. Pop. 12,000.</p> + + <p><b>BULFINCH, CHARLES</b> (1763-1844), American architect, was born in + Boston, Massachusetts, on the 8th of August 1763, the son of Thomas + Bulfinch, a prominent and wealthy physician. He was educated at the + Boston Latin school and at Harvard, where he graduated in 1781, and after + several years of travel and study in Europe, settled in 1787 in Boston, + where he was the first to practise as a professional architect. Among his + early works were the old Federal Street theatre (1793), the first + play-house in New England, and the "new" State House (1798). For more + than twenty-five years he was the most active architect in Boston, and at + the same time took a leading part in the public life of the city. As + chairman of the board of selectmen for twenty-one years (1797-1818), an + important position which made him practically chief magistrate, he + exerted a strong influence in modernizing Boston, in providing for new + systems of drainage and street-lighting, in reorganizing the police and + fire departments, and in straightening and widening the streets. He was + one of the promoters in 1787 of the voyage of the ship "Columbia," which + under command of Captain Robert Gray (1755-1806) was the first to carry + the American flag round the world. In 1818 Bulfinch succeeded B.H. + Latrobe (1764-1820) as architect of the National Capitol at Washington. + He completed the unfinished wings and central portion, constructing the + rotunda from plans of his own after suggestions of his predecessor, and + designed the new western approach and portico. In 1830 he returned to + Boston, where he died on the 15th of April 1844. Bulfinch's work was + marked by sincerity, simplicity, refinement of taste and an entire + freedom from affectation, and it greatly influenced American architecture + in the early formative period. His son, Stephen Greenleaf Bulfinch + (1809-1870), was a well-known Unitarian clergyman and author.</p> + + <p>See <i>The Life and Letters of Charles Bulfinch</i> (Boston, 1896), + edited by his grand-daughter, and "The Architects of the American + Capitol," by James Q. Howard, in <i>The International Review</i>, vol. i. + (New York, 1874).</p> + + <p><b>BULGARIA,</b> a kingdom of south-eastern Europe, situated in the + north-east of the Balkan Peninsula, and on the Black Sea. From 1878 until + the 5th of October 1908, Bulgaria was an autonomous and tributary + principality, under the suzerainty of the sultan of Turkey. The area of + the kingdom amounts to 37,240 sq. m., and comprises the territories + between the Balkan chain and the river Danube; the province of Eastern + Rumelia, lying south of the Balkans; and the western highlands of + Kiustendil, Samakov, Sofia and Trn. Bulgaria is bounded on the N. by the + Danube, from its confluence with the Timok to the eastern suburbs of + Silistria whence a line, forming the Rumanian frontier, is drawn to a + point on the Black Sea coast 10 m. S. of Mangalia. On the E. it is washed + by the Black Sea; on the S. the Turkish frontier, starting from a point + on the coast about 12 m. S. of Sozopolis, runs in a south-westerly + direction, crossing the river Maritza at Mustafa Pasha, and reaching the + Arda at Adakali. The line laid down by the Berlin Treaty (1878) ascended + the Arda to Ishiklar, thence following the crest of Rhodope to the + westwards, but the cantons of Krjali and Rupchus included in this + boundary were restored to Turkey in 1886. The present frontier, passing + to the north of these districts, reaches the watershed of Rhodope a + little north of the Dospat valley, and then follows the crest of the + Rilska Planina to the summit of Tchrni Vrkh, where the Servian, Turkish + and Bulgarian territories meet. From this point the western or Servian + frontier passes northwards, leaving Trn to the east and Pirot to the + west, reaching the Timok near Kula, and following the course of that + river to its junction with the Danube. The Berlin Treaty boundary was far + from corresponding with the ethnological limits of the Bulgarian race, + which were more accurately defined by the abrogated treaty of San Stefano + (see below, under <i>History</i>). A considerable portion of Macedonia, + the districts of Pirot and Vranya belonging to Servia, the northern half + of the vilayet of Adrianople, and large tracts of the Dobrudja, are, + according to the best and most impartial authorities, mainly inhabited by + a Bulgarian population.</p> + + <p><i>Physical Features.</i>—The most striking physical features + are two mountain-chains; the Balkans, which run east and west through the + heart of the country; and Rhodope, which, for a considerable distance, + forms its southern boundary. The Balkans constitute the southern half of + the great semicircular range known as the anti-Dacian system, of which + the Carpathians form the northern portion. This great chain is sundered + at the Iron Gates by the passage of the Danube; its two component parts + present many points of resemblance in their aspect and outline, + geological formation and flora. The Balkans (ancient <i>Haemus</i>) run + almost parallel to the Danube, ...</p> + + <p><i>(continued in part 4)</i></p> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 4, Part 3, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + +***** This file should be named 19699-h.htm or 19699-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/1/9/6/9/19699/ + +Produced by Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, Keith Edkins and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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