diff options
| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 05:03:44 -0700 |
|---|---|---|
| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 05:03:44 -0700 |
| commit | c2a8782049476ee6766f11732491c115b35380c1 (patch) | |
| tree | 70112dd3e958c71cdfa18be49a1e1015643abdd0 /19723-h | |
Diffstat (limited to '19723-h')
122 files changed, 9473 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/19723-h/19723-h.htm b/19723-h/19723-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c6cf65b --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/19723-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,9473 @@ +<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN"> +<html> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1"> +<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Cliff Ruins of Canyon de Chelly, Arizona, by Cosmos Mindeleff</title> +<style type = "text/css"> + +body {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + +hr {width: 80%; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em;} +hr.mid {width: 50%;} +hr.tiny {width: 20%;} + +img {border: none;} + +a.tag {text-decoration: none; vertical-align: .3em; font-size: 80%; +line-height: 0em;} + +h1, h2, h3, h4, h5, h6 {text-align: center; font-style: normal; +font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.5; margin-top: .5em; +margin-bottom: .5em;} + +h1 {font-size: 200%;} +h2 {font-size: 150%;} +h3 {font-size: 125%;} +h4 {font-size: 115%;} +h5 {font-size: 100%;} +h6 {font-size: 85%;} + +h1.pg {text-align: center; + font-style: normal; + font-weight: bold; + line-height: 1.0; + margin-top: 0em; + margin-bottom: .5em; + font-size: 173%; } + +h4.pg {text-align: center; + font-style: normal; + font-weight: bold; + line-height: 1.0; + margin-top: 0em; + margin-bottom: .5em; + font-size: 100%; } + +p, blockquote {margin-top: .5em; margin-bottom: 0em; line-height: 1.2;} + +p.illustration {text-align: center; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: +1em;} +p.caption {text-align: center; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; +font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 85%;} + +p.footnote {font-size: 95%; margin-right: 2em; margin-left: 2em;} + +p.inset {margin-left: 1em; font-size: 92%;} +p.hanging {margin-left: 3em; text-indent: -2em; font-size: 92%;} +p.hanging.deep {margin-left: 5em; margin-top: .2em;} + +blockquote {margin-left: 1.5em; margin-right: 1.5em; font-size: 92%;} + +/* tables */ + +table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 1em; +margin-bottom: 1em;} +table.figfloat {float: right; margin: .5em 0em .2em 1em;} +table.toc {width: 90%;} +table.index {margin-top: 0em; margin-bottom: 0em; width: 92%; +font-size: 88%;} +table.sites {width: 90%; font-size: 88%; font-family: sans-serif;} + +td {vertical-align: top; text-align: left; padding: .1em 1em .1em 0em;} +td.inset {padding-left: 2em;} + +td.number {text-align: right;} +td.item {text-align: right; white-space: nowrap;} + +td.picture {text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;} +td.caption {text-align: center; font-family: sans-serif; +font-size: 85%; padding-top: 1em;} + +/* conditional */ +table p {margin-top: 0em; margin-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em; +line-height: normal;} +table.sites p {margin-left: 1em; text-indent: -1em;} + +table.index td.number, table.toc td.number {vertical-align: bottom;} +table.index td.inset {padding-left: 1em;} + +table.toc a, table.sites a {text-decoration: none; color: #009; +background-color: inherit;} + +p.inset + p.inset {margin-top: .3em;} +p.caption + p.illustration {margin-top: 2em;} + +/* floating paragraph */ + +.floatright {float: right; clear: right;} + +.hidden {display: none;} +.invisible {visibility: hidden;} + +/* text formatting */ + +.chapter {margin-top: 4em;} +.section {margin-top: 2em;} +.space {margin-top: 1em;} +.nospace {margin-top: 0em;} + +.smallroman {font-size: 0.8em;} +.smallcaps {font-variant: small-caps;} +.extended {letter-spacing: 0.5em;} +.sans {font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 90%;} +.ital {font-style: italic;} +.boldf {font-weight: bold;} +.latin {font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} +.plaintext {font-style: normal;} /* switches off italics */ + +/* correction popup */ + +ins.correction {text-decoration: none; border-bottom: thin dotted red;} + +.pagenum {position: absolute; right: 5%; font-size: 95%; +font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; text-align: right; +text-indent: 0em; color: #666; background-color: inherit;} + +.mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; +margin: 1em 5%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} + +pre {font-size: 75%; } +</style> +</head> +<body> +<h1 class="pg">The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Cliff Ruins of Canyon de Chelly, Arizona, +by Cosmos Mindeleff</h1> +<pre> +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at <a href = "http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre> +<p>Title: The Cliff Ruins of Canyon de Chelly, Arizona</p> +<p> Sixteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1894-95, Government Printing Office, Washington, 1897, pages 73-198</p> +<p>Author: Cosmos Mindeleff</p> +<p>Release Date: November 6, 2006 [eBook #19723]</p> +<p>Language: English</p> +<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p> +<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CLIFF RUINS OF CANYON DE CHELLY, ARIZONA***</p> +<br><br><center><h4 class="pg">E-text prepared by Louise Hope, Carlo Traverso,<br> + and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br> + (<a href="http://www.pgdp.net/">http://www.pgdp.net/</a>)<br> + from psge images generously made available by the<br> + Bibliothèque nationale de France (BnF/Gallica)<br> + (<a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/">http://gallica.bnf.fr/</a>)</h4></center><br><br> +<table border=0 bgcolor="ddddee" cellpadding=10> + <tr> + <td valign="top"> + Note: + </td> + <td> + This document is taken from the <i>Sixteenth Annual Report of + the Bureau of Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian + Institution</i>, 1894-95, Government Printing Office, + Washington, 1897, pages 73-198. Images of the original pages + are available through the Bibliothèque nationale de France + (BnF/Gallica) + <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/"> + http://gallica.bnf.fr/</a>. + </td> + </tr> +</table> +<br> +<br> +<div class = "mynote"> +<p>Transcriber's note:</p> +<p>Several Figures, with their captions, were printed sideways in the +original book. Their position has been retained for this e-text, rotated +180° where necessary to keep all oriented in the same direction (top of +Figure on the left). Each of these Figures links to a separate +illustration <i>at the same scale</i> but horizontally positioned.</p> + +<p>A few typographical errors have been corrected. They have been +marked in the text with <ins class = "correction" title = +"like this">mouse-hover popups</ins>. The spelling "bowlder" is standard +for this publication.</p> + +<p>Brackets within quotations are in the original.</p> +</div> +<br> +<br> +<hr class="full" noshade> +<br> +<br> +<br> + +<span class = "pagenum">73</span> +<a name = "page073" id = "page073"> </a> +<!--png 273--> + +<h2>THE CLIFF RUINS</h2> + +<h6>OF</h6> + +<h3>CANYON DE CHELLY, ARIZONA</h3> + +<h6>BY</h6> + +<h5>COSMOS MINDELEFF</h5> + +<hr class = "mid"> + +<a name = "page074" id = "page074"> </a> +<!--png 274--> +<span class = "pagenum">75</span> +<a name = "page075" id = "page075"> </a> +<!--png 275--> + +<h4 class = "section">CONTENTS</h4> + +<hr class = "tiny"> + +<table class = "toc" summary = "table of contents"> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td class = "number">Page</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href = "#intro">Introduction</a></td> +<td class = "number">79</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +<a href = "#intro_history">History and literature</a></td> +<td class = "number">79</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +<a href = "#intro_geography">Geography</a></td> +<td class = "number">82</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href = "#desc">Classification and descriptions</a></td> +<td class = "number">89</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +<a href = "#desc_ruins">Ruins of the pueblo region</a></td> +<td class = "number">89</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +<a href = "#desc_open">I—Old villages on open sites</a></td> +<td class = "number">93</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +<a href = "#desc_bottom">II—Home villages on bottom lands</a></td> +<td class = "number">94</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +<a href = "#desc_defense">III—Home villages located for +defense</a></td> +<td class = "number">111</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +<a href = "#desc_outlooks">IV—Cliff outlooks or farming +shelters</a></td> +<td class = "number">142</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href = "#details">Details</a></td> +<td class = "number">153</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +<a href = "#details_sites">Sites</a></td> +<td class = "number">153</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +<a href = "#details_masonry">Masonry</a></td> +<td class = "number">159</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +<a href = "#details_openings">Openings</a></td> +<td class = "number">164</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +<a href = "#details_timber">Roofs, floors, and timber work</a></td> +<td class = "number">165</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +<a href = "#details_cists">Storage and burial cists (Navaho)</a></td> +<td class = "number">166</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +<a href = "#details_defense">Defensive and constructive +expedients</a></td> +<td class = "number">170</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +<a href = "#details_kivas">Kivas or sacred chambers</a></td> +<td class = "number">174</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +<a href = "#details_chimney">Chimney-like structures</a></td> +<td class = "number">182</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +<a href = "#details_traditions">Traditions</a></td> +<td class = "number">190</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href = "#conclusions">Conclusions</a></td> +<td class = "number">191</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan = "2"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "sans"> +<a href = "#index">Index</a></td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "sans"> +<a href = "#footnotes">Footnotes</a></td> +<td></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<table class = "sites" summary = "list of numbered sites"> +<tr> +<td colspan = "2"> +Numbered sites (<i>list added by transcriber</i>). Text references to +"the map" are to <a href = "#plateXLIII">Plate XLIII</a>. +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td width = "50%"> +<p>Site 1 <a href = "#ruin1a"> a</a>, +<a href = "#ruin1b">b</a>, +<a href = "#plateLXI">Plate LXI</a>, +<a href = "#fig77">Figure 77</a></p> +<p>Site<a href = "#ruin2"> 2</a>, +<a href = "#plateLV">Plate LV</a></p> +<p>Site 3 <a href = "#ruin3a"> a</a>, +<a href = "#ruin3b"> b</a>, +<a href = "#ruin3c"> c</a>, +<a href = "#fig10">Figure 10</a>, +<a href = "#plateLVIII">Plate LVIII</a></p> +<p>Site 4 <a href = "#ruin4a"> a</a>, +<a href = "#ruin4b"> b</a>, +<a href = "#plateXLVI">Plate XLVI</a>, +<a href = "#fig73">Figure 73</a></p> +<p>Site 6 <a href = "#ruin6a"> a</a>, +<a href = "#ruin6b"> b</a>, +<a href = "#plateLIII">Plate LIII</a>, +<a href = "#plateLXII">Plate LXII</a></p> +<p>Site<a href = "#ruin8"> 8</a>, +<a href = "#plateLVI">Plate LVI</a>;</p> +<p>Site 10 <a href = "#ruin10a"> a</a>, +<a href = "#ruin10b"> b</a>, +<a href = "#ruin10c"> c</a>, +<a href = "#ruin10d"> d</a>, +<a href = "#ruin10e"> e</a>, +<a href = "#fig23">Figure 23</a>, +<a href = "#fig24">Figure 24</a>, +<a href = "#fig25">Figure 25</a>, +<a href = "#fig71">Figure 71</a>, +<a href = "#fig72">Figure 72</a>, +<a href = "#plateLIX">Plate LIX</a>, +<a href = "#plateLXIII">Plate LXIII</a>;</p> +<p>Site<a href = "#ruin12"> 12</a>, +<a href = "#plateXLIV">Plate XLIV</a></p> +<p>Site<a href = "#ruin14"> 14</a>, +<a href = "#fig57">Figure 57</a></p> +<p>Site 15 <a href = "#ruin15a"> a</a>, +<a href = "#ruin15b"> b</a>, +<a href = "#fig19">Figure 19</a>, +<a href = "#fig78">Figure 78</a>, +<a href = "#fig79">Figure 79</a>;</p> +<p>Site 16 <a href = "#ruin16a"> a</a>, +<a href = "#ruin16b"> b</a>, +<a href = "#ruin16c"> c</a>, +<a href = "#ruin16d"> d</a>, +<a href = "#ruin16e"> e</a>, +<a href = "#ruin16f"> f</a>, +<a href = "#fig27">Figure 27</a>, +<a href = "#fig80">Figure 80</a>, +<a href = "#plateLI">Plate LI</a>, +<a href = "#plateLVII">Plate LVII</a>, +<a href = "#plateLX">Plate LX</a>;</p> +<p>Site<a href = "#ruin17"> 17</a></p> +<p>Site<a href = "#ruin28"> 28</a>, +<a href = "#fig3">Figure 3</a></p> +</td> +<td> +<p>Site 31 <a href = "#ruin31a"> a</a>, +<a href = "#ruin31b"> b</a>, +<a href = "#ruin31c"> c</a>, +<a href = "#ruin31d"> d</a>, +<a href = "#fig20">Figure 20</a>, +<a href = "#fig70">Figure 70</a></p> +<p>Site 32 <a href = "#ruin32a"> a</a>, +<a href = "#ruin32b"> b</a>, +<a href = "#fig21">Figure 21</a>, +<a href = "#fig69">Figure 69</a></p> +<p>Site<a href = "#ruin34"> 34</a>, +<a href = "#fig45">Figure 45</a></p> +<p><ins class = "correction" title = +"discussed in text but not named">Site 35</ins>, +<a href = "#fig46">Figure 46</a></p> +<p>Site<a href = "#ruin36"> 36</a>, +<a href = "#fig35">Figure 35</a></p> +<p>Site 37 <a href = "#ruin37a"> a</a>, +<a href = "#ruin37b"> b</a>, +<a href = "#fig47">Figure 47</a>, +<a href = "#fig74">Figure 74</a></p> +<p>Site<a href = "#ruin43"> 43</a>, +<a href = "#fig13">Figure 13</a></p> +<p>Site<a href = "#ruin44"> 44</a>, +<a href = "#fig36">Figure 36</a></p> +<p>Site<a href = "#ruin45"> 45</a>, +<a href = "#fig63">Figure 63</a></p> +<p>Site<a href = "#ruin46"> 46</a>, +<a href = "#fig48">Figure 48</a></p> +<p>Site<a href = "#ruin47"> 47</a>, +<a href = "#fig40">Figure 40</a></p> +<p>Site<a href = "#ruin48"> 48</a>, +<a href = "#fig17">Figure 17</a>, +<a href = "#fig18">Figure 18</a></p> +<p>Site<a href = "#ruin49"> 49</a>, +<a href = "#fig29">Figure 29</a></p> +<p>Site<a href = "#ruin52"> 52</a></p> +<p>Site<a href = "#ruin58"> 58</a></p> +<p>Site<a href = "#ruin60"> 60</a></p> +<p>Site<a href = "#ruin62"> 62</a>, +<a href = "#fig30">Figure 30</a></p> +<p><ins class = "correction" +title = "discussed in text but not named">Site 64</ins>, +<a href = "#fig62">Figure 62</a></p> +<p>Site<a href = "#ruin69"> 69</a>, +<a href = "#fig41">Figure 41</a> +</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<a name = "page076" id = "page076"> </a> +<!--png 276--> +<span class = "pagenum">77</span> +<a name = "page077" id = "page077"> </a> +<!--png 277--> + +<h4 class = "section">ILLUSTRATIONS</h4> + +<p class = "mynote"> +Illustrations have been placed as close as practicable to their +discussion in the text. Page numbers refer to their original location +in the printed book: Figures on text pages, Plates facing text pages. +</p> + +<hr class = "tiny"> + +<table class = "toc" summary = "list of illustrations"> +<tr> +<td></td><td></td> +<td class = "number">Page</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item smallcaps">Plate <a href = "#plateXLI">XLI.</a></td> +<td><p>Map of the ancient pueblo region, showing location of Canyon de +Chelly</p></td> +<td class = "number">79</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateXLII">XLII.</a></td> +<td><p>Map of Canyon de Chelly and its branches</p></td> +<td class = "number">85</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateXLIII">XLIII.</a></td> +<td><p>Detailed map of part of Canyon de Chelly, showing areas of +cultivable land</p></td> +<td class = "number">93</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateXLIV">XLIV.</a></td> +<td><p>Section of old walls, Canyon de Chelly</p></td> +<td class = "number">95</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateXLV">XLV.</a></td> +<td><p>General view of ruin on bottom land, Canyon del Muerto</p></td> +<td class = "number">97</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateXLVI">XLVI.</a></td> +<td><p>Village ruin in Canyon de Chelly</p></td> +<td class = "number">103</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateXLVII">XLVII.</a></td> +<td><p>Casa Blanca ruin, Canyon de Chelly</p></td> +<td class = "number">105</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateXLVIII">XLVIII.</a></td> +<td><p>Mummy cave, central and eastern part</p></td> +<td class = "number">112</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateXLIX">XLIX.</a></td> +<td><p>Eastern cove of Mummy cave</p></td> +<td class = "number">115</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateL">L.</a></td> +<td><p>Reservoir in ruin No. 10</p></td> +<td class = "number">127</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateLI">LI.</a></td> +<td><p>Small village, ruin No. 16, Canyon de Chelly</p></td> +<td class = "number">129</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateLII">LII.</a></td> +<td><p>Walls resting on refuse in ruin No. 16</p></td> +<td class = "number">131</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateLIII">LIII.</a></td> +<td><p>Cliff outlook in lower Canyon de Chelly</p></td> +<td class = "number">149</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateLIV">LIV.</a></td> +<td><p>Cliff ruin No. 14</p></td> +<td class = "number">151</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateLV">LV.</a></td> +<td><p>Site marked by pictographs</p></td> +<td class = "number">153</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateLVI">LVI.</a></td> +<td><p>Site difficult of approach</p></td> +<td class = "number">159</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateLVII">LVII.</a></td> +<td><p>Masonry in Canyon de Chelly</p></td> +<td class = "number">161</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateLVIII">LVIII.</a></td> +<td><p>Chinked walls in Canyon de Chelly</p></td> +<td class = "number">163</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateLIX">LIX.</a></td> +<td><p>A partly plastered wall</p></td> +<td class = "number">165</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateLX">LX.</a></td> +<td><p>Plastered wall in Canyon de Chelly</p></td> +<td class = "number">167</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateLXI">LXI.</a></td> +<td><p>Storage cist in Canyon de Chelly</p></td> +<td class = "number">169</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateLXII">LXII.</a></td> +<td><p>Navaho burial cists</p></td> +<td class = "number">171</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateLXIII">LXIII.</a></td> +<td><p>Kivas in ruin No. 10, showing second-story walls</p></td> +<td class = "number">173</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td><td> </td><td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item smallcaps">Figure <a href = "#fig1">1.</a></td> +<td><p>Ground plan of an old ruin in Canyon del Muerto</p></td> +<td class = "number">95</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig2">2.</a></td> +<td><p>Ground plan of a ruin on bottom land in Canyon del +Muerto</p></td> +<td class = "number">96</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig3">3.</a></td> +<td><p>Ground plan of small ruin in Canyon de Chelly</p></td> +<td class = "number">96</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig4">4.</a></td> +<td><p>Granary in the rocks, connected with a ruin</p></td> +<td class = "number">97</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig5">5.</a></td> +<td><p>Ground plan of a ruin in a cave</p></td> +<td class = "number">98</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig6">6.</a></td> +<td><p>Ground plan of Pakashi-izini ruin, Canyon del Muerto</p></td> +<td class = "number">99</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig7">7.</a></td> +<td><p>Ground plan of a ruin in Canyon del Muerto</p></td> +<td class = "number">100</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig8">8.</a></td> +<td><p>Ground plan of a ruin in Tseonitsosi canyon</p></td> +<td class = "number">100</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig9">9.</a></td> +<td><p>Ground plan of a much obliterated ruin</p></td> +<td class = "number">101</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig10">10.</a></td> +<td><p>Ground plan of a ruin in Canyon de Chelly</p></td> +<td class = "number">101</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig11">11.</a></td> +<td><p>Ground plan of a village ruin</p></td> +<td class = "number">103</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig12">12.</a></td> +<td><p>Ground plan of kivas in Canyon de Chelly</p></td> +<td class = "number">103</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig13">13.</a></td> +<td><p>Ground plan of a small ruin on bottom land</p></td> +<td class = "number">104</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig14">14.</a></td> +<td><p>Ground plan of the upper part of Casa Blanca ruin</p></td> +<td class = "number">105</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig15">15.</a></td> +<td><p>Ground plan of the lower part of Casa Blanca ruin</p></td> +<td class = "number">106</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig16">16.</a></td> +<td><p>Ground plan of Mummy Cave ruin</p></td> +<td class = "number">113</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig17">17.</a></td> +<td><p>Ruin in a rock cove</p></td> +<td class = "number">117</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig18">18.</a></td> +<td><p>Ground plan of a ruin in a rock cove</p></td> +<td class = "number">117</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig19">19.</a></td> +<td><p>Ground plan of a ruin on a ledge</p></td> +<td class = "number">118</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig20">20.</a></td> +<td><p>Ground plan of ruin No. 31, Canyon de Chelly</p></td> +<td class = "number">119</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig21">21.</a></td> +<td><p>Ground plan of ruin No. 32, Canyon de Chelly</p></td> +<td class = "number">120</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig22">22.</a></td> +<td><p>Section of a kiva wall</p></td> +<td class = "number">122</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig23">23.</a></td> +<td><p>Ruin No. 10 on a ledge in a cove</p></td> +<td class = "number">123</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig24">24.</a></td> +<td><p>Ground plan of ruin No. 10</p></td> +<td class = "number">124</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"> +<span class = "pagenum">78</span> +<a name = "page078" id = "page078"> </a> +<!--png 278--> +<a href = "#fig25">25.</a></td> +<td><p>Oven-like structure in ruin No. 10</p></td> +<td class = "number">127</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig26">26.</a></td> +<td><p>Plan of oven-like structure</p></td> +<td class = "number">128</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig27">27.</a></td> +<td><p>Ground plan of a small village, ruin No. 16</p></td> +<td class = "number">129</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig28">28.</a></td> +<td><p>Ruins on a large rock</p></td> +<td class = "number">130</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig29">29.</a></td> +<td><p>Ground plan of ruins No. 49</p></td> +<td class = "number">131</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig30">30.</a></td> +<td><p>Ruins on an almost inaccessible site</p></td> +<td class = "number">133</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig31">31.</a></td> +<td><p>Ground plan of a large ruin in Canyon del Muerto</p></td> +<td class = "number">134</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig32">32.</a></td> +<td><p>Ground plan of a small ruin in Canyon del Muerto</p></td> +<td class = "number">135</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig33">33.</a></td> +<td><p>Ground plan of a small ruin</p></td> +<td class = "number">135</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig34">34.</a></td> +<td><p>Plan of a ruin of three rooms</p></td> +<td class = "number">136</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig35">35.</a></td> +<td><p>Ground plan of a small ruin, with two kivas</p></td> +<td class = "number">136</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig36">36.</a></td> +<td><p>Ground plan of a small ruin, No. 44</p></td> +<td class = "number">137</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig37">37.</a></td> +<td><p>Ground plan of a ruin on a rocky site</p></td> +<td class = "number">137</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig38">38.</a></td> +<td><p>Rock with cups and petroglyphs</p></td> +<td class = "number">138</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig39">39.</a></td> +<td><p>Ground plan of a ruin in Canyon de Chelly</p></td> +<td class = "number">139</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig40">40.</a></td> +<td><p>Site showing recent fall of rock</p></td> +<td class = "number">140</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig41">41.</a></td> +<td><p>Ruin No. 69 in a branch canyon</p></td> +<td class = "number">140</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig42">42.</a></td> +<td><p>Ground plan of a small ruin in Canyon del Muerto</p></td> +<td class = "number">140</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig43">43.</a></td> +<td><p>Ground plan of a small ruin</p></td> +<td class = "number">141</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig44">44.</a></td> +<td><p>Plan of a ruin with curved inclosing wall</p></td> +<td class = "number">141</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig45">45.</a></td> +<td><p>Ground plan of ruin No. 34</p></td> +<td class = "number">142</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig46">46.</a></td> +<td><p>Ground plan of cliff outlook No. 35</p></td> +<td class = "number">143</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig47">47.</a></td> +<td><p>Plan of a cliff outlook</p></td> +<td class = "number">143</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig48">48.</a></td> +<td><p>Plan of cliff ruin No. 46</p></td> +<td class = "number">144</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig49">49.</a></td> +<td><p>Plan of cliff room with partitions</p></td> +<td class = "number">145</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig50">50.</a></td> +<td><p>Plan of a large cliff outlook in Canyon del Muerto</p></td> +<td class = "number">145</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig51">51.</a></td> +<td><p>Plan of a cluster of rooms in Canyon del Muerto</p></td> +<td class = "number">146</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig52">52.</a></td> +<td><p>White House ruin in Tseonitsosi canyon</p></td> +<td class = "number">146</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig53">53.</a></td> +<td><p>Ground plan of a ruin in Tseonitsosi canyon</p></td> +<td class = "number">147</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig54">54.</a></td> +<td><p>Plan of rooms against a convex cliff</p></td> +<td class = "number">147</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig55">55.</a></td> +<td><p>Small ruin with curved wall</p></td> +<td class = "number">147</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig56">56.</a></td> +<td><p>Ground plan of a cliff outlook</p></td> +<td class = "number">148</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig57">57.</a></td> +<td><p>Plan of cliff outlook No. 14, in Canyon de Chelly</p></td> +<td class = "number">148</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig58">58.</a></td> +<td><p>Ground plan of outlooks in a cleft</p></td> +<td class = "number">149</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig59">59.</a></td> +<td><p>Plan of a single-room outlook</p></td> +<td class = "number">149</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig60">60.</a></td> +<td><p>Three-room outlook in Canyon del Muerto</p></td> +<td class = "number">150</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig61">61.</a></td> +<td><p>Plan of a two-room outlook</p></td> +<td class = "number">150</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig62">62.</a></td> +<td><p>Plan of outlook and burial cists, No. 64</p></td> +<td class = "number">150</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig63">63.</a></td> +<td><p>Plan of rectangular room, No. 45</p></td> +<td class = "number">151</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig64">64.</a></td> +<td><p>Rectangular single room</p></td> +<td class = "number">151</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig65">65.</a></td> +<td><p>Single-room remains</p></td> +<td class = "number">152</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig66">66.</a></td> +<td><p>Site apparently very difficult of access</p></td> +<td class = "number">158</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig67">67.</a></td> +<td><p>Notched doorway in Canyon de Chelly</p></td> +<td class = "number">164</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig68">68.</a></td> +<td><p>Cist composed of upright slabs</p></td> +<td class = "number">169</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig69">69.</a></td> +<td><p>Retaining walls in Canyon de Chelly</p></td> +<td class = "number">172</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig70">70.</a></td> +<td><p>Part of a kiva in ruin No. 31</p></td> +<td class = "number">175</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig71">71.</a></td> +<td><p>Plan of part of a kiva in ruin No. 10</p></td> +<td class = "number">176</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig72">72.</a></td> +<td><p>Kiva decoration in white</p></td> +<td class = "number">177</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig73">73.</a></td> +<td><p>Pictograph in white</p></td> +<td class = "number">178</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig74">74.</a></td> +<td><p>Markings on cliff wall, ruin No. 37</p></td> +<td class = "number">178</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig75">75.</a></td> +<td><p>Decorative band in kiva in Mummy Cave ruin</p></td> +<td class = "number">179</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig76">76.</a></td> +<td><p>Design employed in decorative band</p></td> +<td class = "number">180</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig77">77.</a></td> +<td><p>Pictographs in Canyon de Chelly</p></td> +<td class = "number">181</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig78">78.</a></td> +<td><p>Plan of chimney-like structure in ruin No. 15</p></td> +<td class = "number">182</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig79">79.</a></td> +<td><p>Section of chimney-like structure in ruin No. 15</p></td> +<td class = "number">183</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig80">80.</a></td> +<td><p>Plan of chimney-like structure in ruin No. 16</p></td> +<td class = "number">184</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig81">81.</a></td> +<td><p>Section of chimney-like structure in ruin No. 16</p></td> +<td class = "number">185</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig82">82.</a></td> +<td><p>Plan of the principal kiva in Mummy Cave ruin</p></td> +<td class = "number">186</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig83">83.</a></td> +<td><p>Chimney-like structure in Mummy Cave ruin</p></td> +<td class = "number">187</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<!--png 279--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateXLI" id = "plateXLI"> </a> +<a href = "images/plates/plate41.png"> +<img src = "images/plates/plate41thumb.png" width = "482" height = "313" +alt = "large map" title = "large map"></a> +</p> +<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps"> +Plate XLI. Ancient Pueblo Region<br> +Showing Location of Canyon De Chelly</span><br> +<a href = "images/plates/plate41.png">Larger View</a></p> + +<hr class = "mid"> + +<span class = "pagenum">79</span> +<a name = "page079" id = "page079"> </a> +<!--png 280--> + +<h3>THE CLIFF RUINS<br> +OF CANYON DE CHELLY, ARIZONA</h3> + +<hr class = "tiny"> + +<h5 class = "smallcaps">By Cosmos Mindeleff</h5> + +<hr class = "tiny"> + +<h4> +<a name = "intro" id = "intro">INTRODUCTION</a></h4> + +<h6> +<a name = "intro_history" id = "intro_history">HISTORY AND +LITERATURE</a></h6> + +<p>Although Canyon de Chelly is one of the best cliff-ruin regions of +the United States, it is not easily accessible and is practically +unknown. At the time of the conquest of this country by the "Army of the +West" in 1846, and of the rush to California in 1849, vague rumors were +current of wonderful "cities" built in the cliffs, but the position of +the canyon in the heart of the Navaho country apparently prevented +exploration. In 1849 it was found necessary to make a demonstration +against these Indians, and an expedition was sent out under the command +of Colonel Washington, then governor of New Mexico. A detachment of +troops set out from Santa Fé, and was accompanied by Lieutenant +(afterward General) J. H. Simpson, of the topographical engineers, +to whose indefatigable zeal for investigation and carefulness of +observation much credit is due. He was much interested in the archeology +of the country passed over and his descriptions are remarkable for their +freedom from the exaggerations and erroneous observations which +characterize many of the publications of that period. His journal was +published by Congress the next year<a class = "tag" name = "tag1" id = +"tag1" href = "#note1">1</a> and was also printed privately.</p> + +<p>The expedition camped in the Chin Lee valley outside of Canyon de +Chelly, and Lieutenant Simpson made a side trip into the canyon itself. +He mentions ruins noticed by him at 4½, 5, and 7 miles from the mouth; +the latter, the ruin subsequently known as Casa Blanca, he describes at +some length. He also gives an illustration drawn by R. H. Kern, +which is very bad, and pictures some pottery fragments found near or in +the ruin. The name De Chelly was apparently used before this time. +Simpson obtained its orthography from Vigil, secretary of the province +(of New Mexico), who told him it was of Indian origin and was pronounced +<i>chay-e</i>. Possibly it was derived from the Navaho name of the +place, Tsé-gi.</p> + +<p><span class = "pagenum">80</span> +<a name = "page080" id = "page080"> </a> +<!--png 281--> +Simpson's description, although very brief, formed the basis of all the +succeeding accounts for the next thirty years. The Pacific railroad +surveys, which added so much to our knowledge of the Southwest, did not +touch this field. In 1860 the Abbé Domenech published his "Deserts of +North America," which contains a reference to Casa Blanca ruin, but his +knowledge was apparently derived wholly from Simpson. None of the +assistants of the Hayden Survey actually penetrated the canyon, but one +of them, W. H. Jackson, examined and described some ruins on the +Rio de Chelly, in the lower Chin Lee valley. But in an article in +Scribner's Magazine for December, 1878, Emma C. Hardacre published a +number of descriptions and illustrations derived from the Hayden corps, +<ins class = "correction" title = +"wording unchanged: 'other figures' or omit 'figures'">among others +figures</ins> one entitled "Ruins in Cañon de Chelly," from a drawing by +Thomas Moran. The ruin can not be identified from the drawing.</p> + +<p>This article is worth more than a passing notice, as it not only +illustrates the extent of knowledge of the ruins at that time (1878), +but probably had much to do with disseminating and making current +erroneous inferences which survive to this day. In an introductory +paragraph the author says:</p> + +<blockquote> +Of late, blown over the plains, come stories of strange newly discovered +cities of the far south-west; picturesque piles of masonry, of an age +unknown to tradition. These ruins mark an era among antiquarians. The +mysterious mound-builders fade into comparative insignificance before +the grander and more ancient cliff-dwellers, whose castles lift their +towers amid the sands of Arizona and crown the terraced slopes of the +Rio Mancos and the Hovenweap. +</blockquote> + +<p>Of the Chaco ruins it is said:</p> + +<blockquote> +In size and grandeur of conception, they equal any of the present +buildings of the United States, if we except the Capitol at Washington, +and may without discredit be compared to the Pantheon and the Colosseum +of the Old World. +</blockquote> + +<p>In the same year Mr J. H. Beadle gave an account<a class = "tag" +name = "tag2" id = "tag2" href = "#note2">2</a> of a visit he made to +the canyon. He entered it over the Bat trail, near the junction of +Monument canyon, and saw several ruins in the upper part. His +descriptions are hardly more than a mention. Much archeologic data were +secured by the assistants of the Wheeler Survey, but it does not appear +that any of them, except the photographer, visited Canyon de Chelly. In +the final reports of the Survey there is an illustration of the ruin +visited by Lieutenant Simpson about thirty years before.<a class = "tag" +name = "tag3" id = "tag3" href = "#note3">3</a> The illustration is a +beautiful heliotype from a fine photograph made by T. H. +O'Sullivan, but one serious defect renders it useless; through some +blunder of the photographer or the engraver, the picture is reversed, +the right and left sides being interchanged, so that to see it properly +it must be looked at in a mirror. The illustration is accompanied by a +short text, apparently prepared by Prof. F. W. Putnam, who edited +the volume. The account by Simpson is quoted and some +<span class = "pagenum">81</span> +<a name = "page081" id = "page081"> </a> +<!--png 282--> +additional data are given, derived from notes accompanying the +photograph. The ruin is said to have "now received the name of the Casa +Blanca, or White House," but the derivation of the name is not +stated.</p> + +<p>In 1882 Bancroft could find no better or fuller description than +Simpson's, which he uses fully, and reproduces also Simpson's (Kern's) +illustration. In the same year investigation by the assistants of the +Bureau of Ethnology was commenced. Colonel James Stevenson and a party +visited the canyon, and a considerable amount of data was obtained. In +all, 46 ruins were visited, 17 of which were in Del Muerto; and +sketches, ground plans, and photographs were obtained. The report of the +Bureau for that year contains an account of this expedition, including a +short description of a large ruin in Del Muerto, subsequently known as +Mummy Cave. A brief account of the trip was also published +elsewhere.<a class = "tag" name = "tag4" id = "tag4" href = +"#note4">4</a> The next year a map of the canyon was made by the writer +and many new ruins were discovered, making the total number in the +canyon and its branches about 140. Since 1883 two short visits have been +made to the place, the last late in 1893, and on each trip additional +material was obtained. In 1890 Mr F. T. Bickford<a class = "tag" +name = "tag5" id = "tag5" href = "#note5">5</a> published an account of +a visit to the canyon, illustrated with a series of woodcuts made from +the photographs of the Bureau. The illustrations are excellent and the +text is pleasantly written, but the descriptions of ruins are too +general to be of much value to the student.</p> + +<p>In recent years several publications have appeared which, while not +bearing directly on the De Chelly ruins, are of great interest, as they +treat of analogous remains—the cliff ruins of the Mancos canyon +and the Mesa Verde. These ruins were discovered in 1874 by W. H. +Jackson and were visited and described in 1875 by W. H. Holmes,<a +class = "tag" name = "tag6" id = "tag6" href = "#note6">6</a> both of +the Hayden Survey. This region was roamed over by bands of renegade Ute +and Navaho, who were constantly making trouble, and for fifteen years +was apparently not visited by whites. Recent exploration appears to have +been inaugurated by Mr F. H. Chapin, who spent two summers in the +Mesa Verde country. Subsequently he published the results of some of his +observations in a handsome little volume.<a class = "tag" name = "tag7" +id = "tag7" href = "#note7">7</a> In 1891 Dr W. R. Birdsall made a +flying trip to this region and published an account<a class = "tag" name += "tag8" id = "tag8" href = "#note8">8</a> of the ruins he saw the same +year. At the time of this visit a more elaborate exploration was being +carried on by the late G. Nordenskiöld, who made some excavations +and obtained much valuable data which formed the basis of a book +published in 1893.<a class = "tag" name = "tag9" id = "tag9" href = +"#note9">9</a> This is the most important treatise on the cliff ruins +that has ever been published, and the illustrations can only be +characterized as magnificent. All of these works, and especially the +last named, are of great value to the student of the cliff ruins +wherever located, or of pueblo architecture.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">82</span> +<a name = "page082" id = "page082"> </a> +<!--png 283--> + +<h6 class = "section"> +<a name = "intro_geography" id = "intro_geography">GEOGRAPHY</a></h6> + +<p>The ancient pueblo culture was so intimately connected with and +dependent on the character of the country where its remains are found +that some idea of this country is necessary to understand it. The limits +of the region are closely coincident with the boundaries of the plateau +country except on the south, so much so that a map of the latter,<a +class = "tag" name = "tag10" id = "tag10" href = "#note10">10</a> +slightly extended around its margin, will serve to show the former. The +area of the ancient pueblo region may be 150,000 square miles; that of +the plateau country, approximately, 130,000.</p> + +<p>The plateau country is not a smooth and level region, as its name +might imply; it is extremely rugged, and the topographic obstacles to +travel are greater than in many wild mountain regions. It is a country +of cliffs and canyons, often of considerable magnitude and forming a bar +to extended progress in any direction. The surface is generally smooth +or slightly undulating and apparently level, but it is composed of a +series of platforms or mesas, which are seldom of great extent and +generally terminate at the brink of a wall, often of huge dimensions. +There are mesas everywhere; it is the mesa country.</p> + +<p>Although the strata appear to be horizontal, they are slightly +tilted. The inclination, although slight, is remarkably persistent, and +the thickness of the strata remains almost constant. The beds, +therefore, extend from very high altitudes to very low ones, and often +the formation which is exposed to view at the summit of an incline is +lost to view after a few miles, being covered by some later formation, +which in turn is covered by a still later one. Each formation thus +appears as a terrace, bounded on one side by a descending cliff carved +out of the edges of its own strata and on the other by an ascending +cliff carved out of the strata which overlie it. This is the more common +form, although isolated mesas, bits of tableland completely engirdled by +cliffs, are but little less common.</p> + +<p>The courses of the margins of the mesas are not regular. The cliffs +sometimes maintain an average trend through great distances, but in +detail their courses are extremely crooked; they wind in and out, +forming alternate alcoves and promontories in the wall, and frequently +they are cut through by valleys, which may be either narrow canyons or +interspaces 10 or even 20 miles wide.</p> + +<p>The whole region has been subjected to many displacements, both +flexures of the monoclinal type and faults. Some of these flexures +attain a length of over 80 miles and a displacement of 3,000 feet, and +the faults reach even a greater magnitude. There is also an abundance of +volcanic rocks and extinct volcanoes, and while the principal eruptions +have occurred about the borders of the region, extending but slightly +<span class = "pagenum">83</span> +<a name = "page083" id = "page083"> </a> +<!--png 284--> +into it, traces of lesser disturbances can be found throughout the +country. It has been said that if a geologist should actually make the +circuit of the plateau country, he could so conduct his route that for +three-fourths of the time he would be treading upon volcanic materials +and could pitch his camp upon them every night. The oldest eruptions do +not go back of Tertiary time, while some are so recent as probably to +come within the historic period—within three or four +centuries.</p> + +<p>The strata of the plateau country are remarkable for their +homogeneity, when considered with reference to their horizontal +extensions; hardly less so for their diversity when considered in their +vertical relation. Although the groups differ radically from each other, +still each preserves its characteristics with singularly slight degrees +of variation from place to place. Hence we have a certain amount of +similarity and monotony in the landscape which is aided rather than +diminished by the vegetation; for the vegetation, like the human +occupants of this country, has come under its overpowering influence. +The characteristic landscape consists of a wide expanse of featureless +plains, bounded by far-off cliffs in gorgeous colors; in the foreground +a soil of bright yellow or ashy gray; over all the most brilliant +sunlight, while the distant features are softened by a blue haze.</p> + +<p>The most conspicuous formation of the whole region is a massive +bright-red sandstone out of which have been carved "the most striking +and typical features of those marvelous plateau landscapes which will be +subjects of wonder and delight to all coming generations of men. The +most superb canyons of the neighboring region, the Canyon de Chelly and +the Del Muerto, the lofty pinnacles and towers of the San Juan country, +the finest walls in the great upper chasms of the Colorado, are the +vertical edges of this red sandstone."</p> + +<p>Of the climate of the plateau country it has been said that in the +large valleys it is "temperate in winter and insufferable in summer; +higher up the summers are temperate and the winters barely sufferable." +It is as though there were two distinct regions covering the same area, +for there are marked differences throughout, except in topographic +configuration, between the lowlands and the uplands or high plateaus. +The lowlands present an appearance which is barren and desolate in the +extreme, although the soil is fertile and under irrigation yields good +crops. Vegetation is limited to a scanty growth of grass during a small +part of the year, with small areas here and there scantily covered by +the prickly greasewood and at intervals by clumps of sagebrush; but even +these prefer a higher level, and develop better on the neighboring mesas +than in the valleys proper. The arborescent growth consists of sparsely +distributed cottonwoods and willows, closely confined to the river +bottoms. On intermediate higher levels junipers and cedars appear, often +standing so closely together as to seriously impede travel, but they are +confined to the tops of mesas and +<span class = "pagenum">84</span> +<a name = "page084" id = "page084"> </a> +<!--png 285--> +other high ground, the valleys being generally clear or covered with +sagebrush. Still higher up yellow pines become abundant and in places +spread out into magnificent forests, while in some mountain regions +scrub oak, quaking asp, and even spruce trees are abundant.</p> + +<p>In the mountain regions there is often a reasonable amount of +moisture, and some crops, potatoes for example, are grown there without +irrigation; but the season is short. In the Tunicha mountains the Navaho +raise corn at an altitude of nearly 8,000 feet, but they often lose the +crop from drought or from frost. On the intermediate levels and in the +lowlands cultivation by modern methods is practically impossible without +irrigation, except in a few favored localities, where a crop can be +obtained perhaps two years or three years in five. But with a minute +knowledge of the climatic conditions, and with methods adapted to meet +these conditions, scanty crops can be and are raised by the Indians +without irrigation throughout the whole region; but everywhere that +water can be applied the product of the soil is increased many fold.</p> + +<p>Near the center of the plateau country, in the northeastern corner of +Arizona, a range of mountains crosses diagonally from northwest to +southeast, extending into New Mexico. In the north an irregular cluster +of considerable size, separated from the remainder of the range, is +called the Carrizo; and the range proper has no less than three names +applied to different parts of it. The northern end is known as the +Lukachukai, the central part as the Tunicha, and the southern part as +the Chuska or Choiskai mountains, all Navaho names. The two former +clusters attain an altitude of 9,500 feet; the Tunicha and the Chuska +are about 9,000 feet high, the latter having a flat top of considerable +area.</p> + +<p>On the east these mountains break down rather abruptly into the broad +valley of the Chaco river, or the Chaco wash, as it is more commonly +designated; on the west they break down gradually, through a series of +slopes and mesas, into the Chin Lee valley. Canyon de Chelly has been +cut in the western slope by a series of small streams, which, rising +near the crest of the mountain, combine near its head and flow in a +general westerly direction. The mouth of the canyon is on the eastern +border of the Chin Lee valley. It is 60 miles south of the Utah boundary +and 25 miles west of that of New Mexico; hence it is 60 miles east and a +little north from the old province of Tusayan, the modern Moki, and 85 +miles northwest from the old province of Cibola, the modern Zuñi. Its +position is almost in the heart of the ancient pueblo region; the Chaco +ruins lie about 80 miles east, and the ruins of the San Juan from 60 to +80 miles north and northeast.</p> + +<p>The geographic position of Canyon de Chelly has had an important +effect on its history, forming as it does an available resting place in +any migratory movement either on the north and south line or east and +west. The Tunicha mountains are a serious obstacle to north and +<span class = "pagenum">85</span> +<a name = "page085" id = "page085"> </a> +<!--png 287--> +south movement at the present day, but less so than the arid valleys +which border them. Except at one place, and that place is difficult, it +is almost impossible to cross the mountains with a wheeled vehicle, but +there are innumerable trails running in all directions, and these trails +are in constant use by the Navaho, except in the depths of winter. The +mountain route is preferable, however, to the valley roads, where the +traveler for several days is without wood, with very little water and +forage, and his movements are impeded by deep sand.</p> + +<p>To the traveler on foot, or even on horseback, Canyon de Chelly is +easily accessible from almost any direction. Good trails run northward +to the San Juan and northeastward over the Tunicha mountains to the +upper part of that river; Fort Defiance is but half a day's journey to +the southeast; Tusayan and Zuñi are but three days distant to the +traveler on foot; the Navaho often ride the distance in a day or a day +and a half. The canyon is accessible to wagons, however, only at its +mouth.</p> + +<!--png 286--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateXLII" id = "plateXLII"> </a> +<a href = "images/plates/plate42.png"> +<img src = "images/plates/plate42thumb.png" width = "442" height = "360" +alt = "map" title = "map"></a> +</p> +<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps"> +Plate XLII. Map of Canyon De Chelly and Its Branches<br> +Surveyed by Cosmos Mindeleff</span><br> +<a href = "images/plates/plate42.png">Larger View</a></p> + +<p>The main canyon, shown on the map (plate XLII) as Canyon de Chelly +and known to the Navaho as Tsé-gi, is about 20 miles long. It heads near +Washington pass, within a few miles of the crest of the mountain, and +extends almost due west to the Chin Lee valley. The country descends by +a regular slope from an altitude of about 7,500 feet at the foot of the +main crest to about 5,200 feet in the Chin Lee valley, 25 miles west, +and is so much cut up locally by ravines and washes that it is +impassable to wagons, but it preserves throughout its mesa-like +character.</p> + +<p>About 3 miles from its mouth De Chelly is joined by another canyon +almost as long, which, heading also in the Tunicha mountains, comes in +from the northeast. It is over 15 miles long, and is called on the map +Canyon del Muerto; the Navaho know it as Én-a-tsé-gi. About 13 miles +above the mouth of the main canyon a small branch comes in from the +southeast. It is about 10 miles long, and has been called Monument +canyon, on account of the number of upright natural pinnacles of rock in +it. In addition to those named there are innumerable small branches, +ranging in size from deep coves to real canyons a mile or two long. +Outside of De Chelly, and independent of it, there is a little canyon +about 4 miles long, called Tse-on-i-tso-si by the Navaho. At one point +near its head it approaches so near to De Chelly that but a few feet of +rock separate them.</p> + +<p>On the western side of the mountains there are a number of small +perennial streams fed by springs on the upper slopes. Several of these +meet in the upper part of De Chelly, others in Del Muerto, and in the +upper parts of these canyons there is generally water. But, except at +the time of the autumn and winter rains and in the spring when the +mountain snows are melting, the streams are not powerful enough to carry +the water to the mouth of the canyon. The flow is absorbed by the deep +sand which forms the stream bed. Ordinarily it is difficult to procure +enough water to drink less than 8 or 10 miles from the mouth +<span class = "pagenum">86</span> +<a name = "page086" id = "page086"> </a> +<!--png 288--> +of De Chelly, but occasionally the whole stream bed, at places over a +quarter of a mile wide, is occupied by a raging torrent impassable to +man or beast. Such ebullitions, however, seldom last more than a few +hours. Usually water can be obtained anywhere in the bottom by sinking a +shallow well in the sand, and it is by this method that the Navaho, the +present occupants of the canyon, obtain their supply.</p> + +<p>The walls of the canyon are composed of brilliant red sandstone, +discolored everywhere by long streaks of black and gray coming from +above. At its mouth it is about 500 feet wide. Higher up the walls +sometimes approach to 300 feet of each other, elsewhere broadening out +to half a mile or more; but everywhere the wall line is tortuous and +crooked in the extreme, and, while the general direction of De Chelly is +east and west, the traveler on the trail which runs through it is as +often headed north or south. Del Muerto is even more tortuous than De +Chelly, and in places it is so narrow that one could almost throw a +stone across it.</p> + +<p>At its mouth the walls of Canyon de Chelly are but 20 to 30 feet +high, descending vertically to a wide bed of loose white sand, and +absolutely free from talus or débris. Three miles above Del Muerto comes +in, but its mouth is so narrow it appears like an alcove and might +easily be overlooked. Here the walls are over 200 feet high, but the +rise is so gradual that it is impossible to appreciate its amount. At +the point where Monument canyon comes in, 13 miles above the mouth of De +Chelly, the walls reach a height of over 800 feet, about one-third of +which consists of talus.</p> + +<p>The rise in the height of the walls is so gradual that when the +canyon is entered at its mouth the mental scale by which we estimate +distances and magnitudes is lost and the wildest conjectures result. We +fail at first to realize the stupendous scale on which the work was +done, and when we do finally realize it we swing to the opposite side +and exaggerate. At the junction of Monument canyon there is a beautiful +rock pinnacle or needle standing out clear from the cliff and not more +than 165 feet on the ground. It has been named, in conjunction with a +somewhat similar pinnacle on the other side of the canyon, "The +Captains," and its height has been variously estimated at from 1,200 to +2,500 feet. It is less than 800. A curious illustration of the effects +of the scenery in connection with this pinnacle may not be amiss. The +author of Western Wilds (Cincinnati, 1878) thus describes it:</p> + +<blockquote> +But the most remarkable and unaccountable feature of the locality is +where the canyons meet. There stands out 100 feet from the point, +entirely isolated, a vast leaning rock tower at least 1,200 feet high +and not over 200 thick at the base, as if it had originally been the +sharp termination of the cliff and been broken off and shoved farther +out. It almost seems that one must be mistaken; that it must have some +connection with the cliff, until one goes around it and finds it 100 +feet or more from the former. It leans at an angle from the +perpendicular of at least 15 degrees; and lying down at the base on the +under side, by the best sighting I could make, it seemed to me that the +opposite upper edge was directly over me—that is to say, +mechanically speaking, its center of gravity barely falls with the base, +and a heave of only a yard or two more would cause it to topple over. +(Page 257.) +</blockquote> + +<p><span class = "pagenum">87</span> +<a name = "page087" id = "page087"> </a> +<!--png 289--> +The dimensions have already been given. The pinnacle is perfectly +plumb.</p> + +<p>The rock of which the canyon walls are formed is a massive sandstone +in which the lines of bedding are almost completely obliterated. It is +rather soft in texture, and has been carved by atmospheric erosion into +grotesque and sometimes beautiful forms. In places great blocks have +fallen off, leaving smooth vertical surfaces, extending sometimes from +the top nearly to the stream bed, 400 feet or more in height and as much +in breadth. In the lower parts of the canyons the walls, sometimes of +the character described, sometimes with the surfaces and angles smoothed +by the flying sand, are generally vertical and often overhang, +descending sheer to the canyon bottom without talus or intervening +slopes of débris. The talus, where there is any, is slight and consists +of massive sandstone of the same character as the walls, but much +rounded by atmospheric erosion. The enlarged map (plate XLIII) +shows something of this character.</p> + +<!--png 295--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateXLIII" id = "plateXLIII"> </a> +<a href = "images/plates/plate43.png"> +<img src = "images/plates/plate43thumb.png" width = "462" height = "269" +alt = "map" title = "map"></a> +</p> +<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps"> +Plate XLIII. Detailed Map of Part of Canyon De Chelly<br> +Showing Areas of Cultivatable Land</span><br> +<a href = "images/plates/plate43.png">Larger View</a></p> + +<div class = "mynote"> +<p>The varying distances between vertical lines in this thumbnail view +are a byproduct of scanning. The larger version has been artificially +rescaled to approximate the correct dimensions. Numbers and words in red +were added by the transcriber because the original text was unreadable +at any practical magnification.</p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<a href = "images/plates/plate43full.png">Original Plate</a> (very +large, unedited)</p> +</div> + +<p>Near its mouth the whole bottom of the canyon consists of an even +stretch of white sand extending from cliff to cliff. A little higher up +there are small areas of alluvium, or bottom land, in recesses and coves +in the walls and generally only a foot or two above the stream bed. +Still higher up these areas become more abundant and of greater extent, +forming regular benches or terraces, generally well raised above the +stream bed. At the Casa Blanca ruin, 7 miles up the canyon, the +bench is 8 or 10 feet above the stream. Each little branch canyon and +deep cove in the cliffs is fronted by a more or less extended area of +this cultivable bottom land. Ten miles up the talus has become a +prominent feature. It consists of broken rock, sand, and soil, generally +overlying a slope of massive sandstone, such as has been described, and +which occasionally crops out on the surface. With the development of the +talus the area of bottom land dwindles, and the former encroaches more +and more until a little above the junction of Monument canyon the bottom +land is limited to narrow strips and small patches here and there.</p> + +<p>These bottom lands are the cultivable areas of the canyon bottom, and +their occurrence and distribution have dictated the location of the +villages now in ruins. They are also the sites of all the Navaho +settlements in the canyon. The Navaho hogans are generally placed +directly on the bottoms; the ruins are always so located as to overlook +them. Only a very small proportion of the available land is utilized by +the Navaho, and not all of it was used by the old village builders. The +Navaho sites, as a whole, are far superior to the village sites.</p> + +<p>The horticultural conditions here, while essentially the same as +those of the whole pueblo region, present some peculiar features. Except +for a few modern examples there are no traces of irrigating works, and +the Navaho work can not be regarded as a success. The village builders +probably did not require irrigation for the successful cultivation of +their crops, and under the ordinary Indian methods of planting and +cultivation a failure to harvest a good crop was probably rare. After +<span class = "pagenum">88</span> +<a name = "page088" id = "page088"> </a> +<!--png 290--> +the Harvest season it is the practice of the Navaho to abandon the +canyon for the winter, driving their flocks and carrying the season's +produce to more open localities in the neighboring valleys. The canyon +is not a desirable place of residence in the winter to a people who live +in the saddle and have large flocks of sheep and goats, but there is no +evidence that the old inhabitants followed the Navaho practice.</p> + +<p>During most of the year there is no water in the lower 10 miles of +the canyons, where most of the cultivable land is situated. The autumn +rains in the mountains, which occur late in July or early in August, +sometimes send down a little stream, which, however, generally lasts but +a few days and fails to reach the mouth of the canyon. Late in October, +or early in November, a small amount comes down and is fairly permanent +through the winter and spring. The stream bed is even more tortuous than +the canyon it occupies, often washing the cliffs on one side, then +passing directly across the bottom and returning again to the same side, +the stream bed being many times wider than the stream, which constantly +shifts its channel. In December it becomes very cold and so much of the +stream is in shade during a large part of the day that much of the water +becomes frozen and, as it were, held in place. In the warm parts of the +day, and in the sunshine, the ice is melted, the stream resumes its +flow, and so gradually pushes its way farther and farther down the +canyon. But some sections, less exposed to warmth than others, retain +their ice during the day. These points are flooded by the water from +above, which is again frozen during the night and again flooded the next +day, and so on. In a short time great fields of smooth ice are formed, +which render travel on horseback very difficult and even dangerous. +This, and the scant grazing afforded by the bottom lands in winter, +doubtless is the cause of the annual migration of the Navaho; but these +conditions would not materially affect a people living in the canyon who +did not possess or were but scantily supplied with horses and sheep. The +stream when it is flowing is seldom more than a foot deep, generally +only a few inches, except in times of flood, when it becomes a raging +torrent, carrying everything before it. Hence irrigation would be +impracticable, even if its principles were known, nor is it essential +here to successful horticulture.</p> + +<p>One of the characteristic features of the canyons at the present day +is the immense number of peach trees within them. Wherever there is a +favorable site, in some sheltered cove or little branch canyon, there is +a clump of peach trees, in some instances perhaps as many as 1,000 in +one "orchard." When the peaches ripen, hundreds and even thousands of +Navaho flock to the place, coming from all over the reservation, like an +immense flock of vultures, and with disastrous results to the food +supply. A few months after it is difficult to procure even a handful of +dried fruit. The peach trees are, of course, modern. They were +introduced into this country originally by the Spanish monks, but in De +Chelly there are not more than two or three +<span class = "pagenum">89</span> +<a name = "page089" id = "page089"> </a> +<!--png 291--> +trees which are older than the last Navaho war. At that time, it is +said, the soldiers cut down every peach tree they could find. But, aside +from the peaches, De Chelly was until recently the great agricultural +center of the Navaho tribe, and large quantities of corn, melons, +pumpkins, beans, etc, were and are raised there every year. Under modern +conditions many other localities now vie with it, and some surpass it in +output of agricultural products, but not many years ago De Chelly was +regarded as the place par excellence.</p> + +<p>It will be clear, therefore, that prior to very recent times De +Chelly would be selected by almost any tribe moving across the country, +and, barring a hostile prior occupancy, would be the most desirable +place for the pursuit of horticultural operations for many miles in any +direction. The vicinity of the Tunicha mountains, which could be reached +in half a day from any part of the canyons, and which must have abounded +in game, for even now some is found there, would be a material +advantage. The position of the canyon in the heart of the plateau +country and of the ancient pueblo region would make it a natural +stopping place during any migratory movement either north and south or +east and west, and its settlement was doubtless due to this favorable +position and to the natural advantages it offered. This settlement was +effected probably not by one band or tribe, nor at one time, but by many +bands at many times. Probably the first settlements were very old; +certainly the last were very recent.</p> + + +<h4 class = "chapter"> +<a name = "desc" id = "desc">CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTIONS</a></h4> + +<h6 class = "section"> +<a name = "desc_ruins" id = "desc_ruins">RUINS OF THE PUEBLO +REGION</a></h6> + +<p>No satisfactory general classification of the ruins of the ancient +pueblo region has yet been made; possibly because the material in hand +is not sufficiently abundant. There are thousands of ruins scattered +over the southwest, of many different types which merge more or less +into each other. In 1884 Mr A. F. Bandelier, whose knowledge of the +archeology of the southwest is very extensive, formulated a +classification, and in 1892, in his final report,<a class = "tag" name = +"tag11" id = "tag11" href = "#note11">11</a> he announces that he has +nothing to change in it. The classification is as follows:</p> + +<p class = "inset"> +I. Large communal houses several stories high.</p> + +<p class = "hanging deep"> +(<i>a</i>) Composed of one or two, seldom three, extensive buildings, +generally so disposed as to surround an interior court.</p> + +<p class = "hanging deep"> +(<i>b</i>) Polygonal pueblos.</p> + +<p class = "hanging deep"> +(<i>c</i>) Scattered pueblos, composed of a number of large many-storied +houses, disposed in a more or less irregular manner; sometimes in +irregular squares or on a line.</p> + +<p class = "hanging deep"> +(<i>d</i>) Artificial caves, resembling in number, size, and disposition +of the cells the many-storied communal dwelling.</p> + +<p class = "hanging deep"> +(<i>e</i>) Many-storied dwellings, with artificial walls, erected inside +of natural caves of great size.</p> + +<p class = "inset"> +II. Detached family dwellings, either isolated or in groups forming +villages.</p> + +<p><span class = "pagenum">90</span> +<a name = "page090" id = "page090"> </a> +<!--png 292--> +Many hundreds of ruins have been examined by Mr Bandelier, and doubtless +the classification above afforded a convenient working basis for the +region with which he is most familiar, the basin of the Rio Grande and +its tributaries. It does not apply very well to the western part of the +pueblo region.</p> + +<p>The distinguishing characteristics of the first group (of five +classes)—houses several stories high—are as follows: Each +building consisted of an agglomeration of a great number of small cells, +without any larger halls of particularly striking dimensions. All the +buildings, except outhouses or additions, were at least two stories +high, and the lower story was entered only from the roof. The various +stories receded from the bottom to the top. The prevalence of the estufa +(kiva) generally, or often, circular in form.</p> + +<p>Ruins of class II—detached family dwellings—consist +sometimes of a single room; more often of several rooms. The rooms are +generally built of stone, although examples constructed of mud and adobe +are also found in certain regions. The average size of the room is +larger than in the communal building, and there is a gradual increase in +size of rooms from north to south. There are front doorways and light +and air holes are larger than in the communal houses. Mr Bandolier +suggests that the detached family dwelling was the early type, and that +only when enemies began to threaten were the communal houses resorted to +for purposes of defense.</p> + +<p>This classification is apparently based on external form alone, +without taking into account the numerous influences which modify or +produce form; and while no doubt it was sufficient for field use, it is +not likely to be permanently adopted; for there does not appear to be +any essential or radical difference between the various classes. +Moreover, there does not appear to be any place in the scheme for the +cliff ruins of the variety especially abundant in De Chelly and found in +many other localities, unless indeed such ruins come under class +II—detached family dwellings; yet this would imply precedence in +time, and the ruins themselves will not permit such an inference.</p> + +<p>The essential uniformity of types which prevails over the immense +area covered by the ancient pueblo ruins is a noteworthy feature, and +any system of classification which does not take it into account must be +considered as only tentative. What elements should be considered and +what weight assigned to each in preparing a scheme of classification is +yet to be determined, but probably one of the most important elements is +the character of the site occupied, with reference to its convenience +and defensibility. There are great differences in kind between the great +valley pueblos, located without reference to defense and depending for +security on their size and the number of their population, of which Zuñi +and Taos are examples, and the villages which are located on high mesas +and projecting tongues of rock; in other words, on defensive sites where +reliance for security was placed on the character +<span class = "pagenum">91</span> +<a name = "page091" id = "page091"> </a> +<!--png 293--> +of the site occupied, such as the Tusayan villages of today. Within each +of these classes there are varieties, and there are also secondary types +which pertain sometimes to one, sometimes to the other, and sometimes to +both. Such are the cliff ruins, the cavate lodges, and the single house +remains.</p> + +<p>The unit of pueblo architecture is the single cell, and in its +development the highest point reached is the aggregation of a great +number of such cells into one or more clusters, either connected with or +adjacent to each other. These cells were all the same, or essentially +so; for while differentiation in use or function had been or was being +developed at the time of the Spanish conquest, differentiation in form +had not been reached. The kiva, of circular or rectangular shape, is a +survival and not a development.</p> + +<p>Large aggregations of many cells into one cluster are the latest +development of pueblo architecture. They were immediately preceded by a +type composed of a larger number of smaller villages, located on sites +selected with reference to their ease of defense, and apparently the +change from the latter to the former type was made at one step, without +developing any intermediate forms. The differences between the largest +examples of villages on defensive sites and the smallest appear to be +only differences of size. Doubtless in the early days of pueblo +architecture small settlements were the rule. Probably these settlements +were located in the valleys, on sites most convenient for horticulture, +each gens occupying its own village. Incursions by neighboring wild +tribes, or by hostile neighbors, and constant annoyance and loss at +their hands, gradually compelled the removal of these little villages to +sites more easily defended, and also forced the aggregation of various +related gentes into one group or village. At a still later period the +same motive, considerably emphasized perhaps, compelled a further +removal to even more difficult sites. The Tusayan villages at the time +of the Spanish discovery were located on the foothills of the mesas, and +many pueblo villages at that period occupied similar sites. Actuated by +fear of the Ute and Comanche, and perhaps of the Spaniards, the +inhabitants soon after moved to the top of the mesa, where they now are. +Many villages stopped at this stage. Some were in this stage at the time +of the discovery—Acoma, for example. Finally, whole villages whose +inhabitants spoke the same language combined to form one larger village, +which, depending now on size and numbers for defense, was again located +on a site convenient for horticulture.</p> + +<p>The process sketched above was by no means continuous. The population +was in slow but practically constant movement, much the same as that now +taking place in the Zuñi country; it was a slow migration. Outlying +settlements were established at points convenient to cultivable fields, +and probably were intended to be occupied only during the summer. +Sometimes these temporary sites might be found more convenient than that +of the parent village, and it would gradually come +<span class = "pagenum">92</span> +<a name = "page092" id = "page092"> </a> +<!--png 294--> +about that some of the inhabitants would remain there all the year. +Eventually the temporary settlement might outgrow the parent, and would +in turn put out other temporary settlements. This process would be +possible only during prolonged periods of peace, but it is known to have +taken place in several regions. Necessarily hundreds of small +settlements, ranging in size from one room to a great many, would be +established, and as the population moved onward would be abandoned, +without ever developing into regular villages occupied all the year. It +is believed that many of the single house remains of Mr Bandelier's +classification<a class = "tag" name = "tag12" id = "tag12" href = +"#note12">12</a> belong to this type, as do also many cavate lodges, and +in the present paper it will be shown that some at least of the cliff +ruins belong to the same category.</p> + +<p>The cliff ruins are a striking feature, and the ordinary traveler is +apt to overlook the more important ruins which sometimes, if not +generally, are associated with them. The study of the ruins in Canyon de +Chelly has led to the conclusion that the cliff ruins there are +generally subordinate structures, connected with and inhabited at the +same time as a number of larger home villages located on the canyon +bottom, and occupying much the same relation to the latter that +Moen-kapi does to Oraibi, or that Nutria, Pescado, and Ojo Caliente do +to Zuñi; and that they are the functional analogues of the "watch +towers" of the San Juan and of Zuñi, and the brush shelters or "kisis" +of Tusayan: in other words, they were horticultural outlooks occupied +only during the farming season.</p> + +<p>Mr G. Nordenskiöld, who examined a number of cliff and other ruins in +the Mancos canyon and the Mesa Verde region, adopts<a class = "tag" name += "tag13" id = "tag13" href = "#note13">13</a> a very simple +classification, as follows:</p> + +<p class = "inset"> +I. Ruins in the valleys, on the plains, or on the plateaus.</p> +<p class = "inset"> +II. Ruins in caves in the walls of the canyons, subdivided as +follows:</p> +<p class = "hanging"> +(<i>a</i>) Cave dwellings, or caves inhabited without the erection of +any buildings within them.</p> +<p class = "hanging"> +(<i>b</i>) Cliff dwellings, or buildings erected in caves.</p> + +<p>From its topographic character it might be expected that the Canyon +de Chelly ruins would hardly come within a scheme of classification +based upon those found in the open country; and here, if anywhere, we +should find corroboration of the old idea that the cliff ruins were the +homes and last refuge of a race harassed by powerful enemies and finally +driven to the construction of dwellings in inaccessible cliffs, where a +last ineffectual stand was made against their foes; or the more recent +theory that they represent an early stage in the development of pueblo +architecture, when the pueblo builders were few in number and surrounded +by numerous enemies. Neither of these theories are in accord with the +facts of observation. The still later idea that the cliff dwellings were +used as places of refuge by various pueblo tribes who, when +<span class = "pagenum">93</span> +<a name = "page093" id = "page093"> </a> +<!--png 296--> +the occasion for such use was passed, returned to their original homes, +or to others constructed like them, may explain some of the cliff ruins, +but if applicable at all to those of De Chelly, it applies only to a +small number of them.</p> + +<p>The ruins of De Chelly show unmistakably several periods of +occupancy, extending over considerable time and each fairly complete. +They fall easily into the classification previously suggested, and +exhibit various types, but the earliest and the latest forms are not +found. In the descriptions which follow the classification below has +been employed:</p> + +<p class = "inset"> + I—Old villages on open sites.</p> +<p class = "inset"> + II—Home villages on bottom lands.</p> +<p class = "inset"> +III—Home villages located for defense.</p> +<p class = "inset"> +IV—Cliff outlooks or farming shelters.</p> + + +<h6 class = "section"> +<a name = "desc_open" id = "desc_open">I—OLD VILLAGES ON OPEN +SITES</a></h6> + +<p>In the upper part of the canyon, and extending into what we may call +the middle region, there are a number of ruins that seem to be out of +place in this locality. They are exactly similar to hundreds of ruins +found in the open country; such, for example, as the older villages of +Tusayan, located on low foothills at the foot of the mesa, and the +peculiar topographic characteristics of the location have not made the +slightest impression on them. These ruins are located on gentle slopes, +the foothills of the talus, as it were, away from the cliffs, and are +now marked only by scattered fragments of building stone and broken +pottery. The ground plans are in all cases indistinguishable; in only a +few instances can even a short wall line be traced. They seem to have +been located without special reference to large areas of cultivable +land, although they always command small areas of such land. There is a +remarkable uniformity in ruins of this type in character of site +occupied, outlook, and general appearance. They are always close to the +stream bed, seldom more than 10 or 12 feet above it, and the sites were +chosen apparently without any reference to their defensibility. A +typical example occurs at the point marked <a name = "ruin60" id = +"ruin60">60</a> on the detailed map (<a href = "#plateXLIII">plate +XLIII</a>), another occurs at <a name = "ruin58" id = "ruin58">58</a>, +and another at <a name = "ruin52" id = "ruin52">52</a>. One of the +largest examples is in the lower part of the canyon. At the junction of +Del Muerto there is a large mass of rock standing out alone and +extending nearly to the full height of the canyon walls. On the south it +is connected with the main wall back of it by a low tongue of rock, +sparsely covered in places by soil and sand, and on the top of this +tongue or saddle there is a large ruin of the type described, but no +ground plan can now be made out. Possibly the obliterated appearance of +this ruin and of others of the same class is due to the use of the +material, ready to hand and of the proper size, in later structures. It +is known that a similar appearance was produced in Tusayan by such a +cause. The old village of Walpi, on a foothill below the mesa point and +the site of the village at the time of the Spanish conquest, presents an +appearance of great antiquity, although it was partly occupied so late +as fifty +<span class = "pagenum">94</span> +<a name = "page094" id = "page094"> </a> +<!--png 297--> +years ago. When the movement to the summit of the mesa became general, +the material of the old houses was utilized in the construction of the +new ones, and at the present day it can almost be said that not one +stone remains above another. So complete is the obliteration that no +ground plan can be made out.</p> + +<p>If similar conditions prevailed in De Chelly, there might be many +more ruins of this class than those so far discovered. Even those found +are not easily distinguished and might easily be passed over. Possibly +there were small ruins of this type scattered over the whole canyon +bottom. An example which occurs at the point marked <a name = "ruin12" +id = "ruin12">12</a> on the map, and shown in plate XLIV, presents no +trace on the surface except some potsherds, which in this locality mean +nothing. The site is a low hill or end of a slope, the top of which is +perhaps 25 feet above the stream bed, but separated from it by a belt of +recent alluvium carpeted with grass. The hill itself was formed of +talus, covered with alluvium, all but a small portion of which was +subsequently cut away, leaving an almost vertical face 15 or 18 feet +high. In this face the ends or vertical sections of several walls can be +seen; one of them is nearly 3 feet thick and extends 4 feet +below the present ground surface.</p> + +<!--png 298--> +<!--png 299--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateXLIV" id = "plateXLIV"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate44.png" width = "438" height = "313" +alt = "section of walls" title = "section of walls"> +</p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate XLIV. Section of Old Walls, Canyon De Chelly</p> + +<p>The filling of these ruins to a depth of 4 or 5 feet and the +almost complete absence of surface remains or indications does not +necessarily imply a remote antiquity, although it suggests it. During +the fall and early winter months tremendous sand storms rage in the +canyon; the wind sweeps through the gorge with an almost irresistible +power, carrying with it such immense quantities of sand that objects a +few hundred feet distant can not be distinguished. These sand storms +were and are potent factors in producing the picturesque features of the +red cliffs forming the canyon walls; but they are constructive as well +as destructive, and cavities and hollow places in exposed situations +such as the canyon bottom are soon filled up. The stream itself is also +a powerful agent of destruction and construction; during flood periods +banks of sand and alluvium are often cut away and sometimes others are +formed. Yet there are reasons for believing that the old village ruins +on open sites, now almost obliterated, mark the first period in the +occupancy of the canyon, perhaps even a period distinctly separated from +the others. Excavation on these sites would probably yield valuable +results.</p> + + +<h6 class = "section"> +<a name = "desc_bottom" id = "desc_bottom">II—HOME VILLAGES ON +BOTTOM LANDS</a></h6> + +<p>Ruins comprised in the second class are located on the bottom lands, +generally at the base of a cliff, and without reference to the +defensibility of the site. They are, as a rule, much broken down, and +might perhaps be classed with the ruins already described, but there are +some distinctive features which justify us in separating them. Ruins of +this class are always located either at the base of a cliff or in a cove +under it, on the level or raised but slightly above the bottom land, and +sometimes at a considerable distance from the stream. The ground plans +<span class = "pagenum">95</span> +<a name = "page095" id = "page095"> </a> +<!--png 300--> +can generally be distinguished, and in many instances walls are still +standing—sometimes to a height of three stories. The ground plans +reflect more or less the character of the site they occupy, and we would +be as much surprised to find plans of their character in the open +country as we are to see plans of class I within the canyon. Unlike the +ground plans of class I, those of this group were laid out with direct +reference to the cliff behind them, and which formed, as it were, a part +of them.</p> + +<p>In point of size, long period of occupancy, and position these +villages were the most important in the canyon. The ruins often cover +considerable areas and almost invariably show the remains of one or more +circular kivas. Sometimes they are located directly upon the bottom +land, more often they occupy low swells next the cliff, rising perhaps +10 feet above the general level and affording a fine view over it. +Sometimes they are found in alcoves at the base of the cliff, but they +always rest on the bottom land which extends into them; these merge +insensibly into the next class—village ruins on defensible +sites—and the distinction between them is partly an arbitrary one, +as is also that between the last mentioned and the cliff ruins +proper.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig1" id = "fig1"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig1.png" width = "432" height = "80" +alt = "ground plan" title = "ground plan"> +</p> +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 1</span>—Ground plan of an old ruin +in Canyon del Muerto.</p> + +<!--png 302--> +<!--png 303--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateXLV" id = "plateXLV"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate45.png" width = "496" height = "315" +alt = "view of ruin" title = "view of ruin"> +</p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate XLV. General View of Ruin on Bottom Land, Canyon Del Muerto</p> + +<p>Figure 1 is a ground plan of a small ruin located in Del Muerto, on +the bottom lands near its mouth. No standing walls now remain, but there +is no doubt that the village at one time covered much more ground than +that shown on the plan. There are now remains of sixteen rooms on the +ground, in addition to two kivas. There is a shallow alcove in the cliff +at the ground level, and the overhanging cliff gave the village some +protection overhead. Plate XLV shows another example in Del Muerto, the +largest in that canyon. The walls are still standing to a height of +three stories in one place, and the masonry is of high class. The back +cliff has not entered into the plan here to the same extent that it +generally does. Figure 2, a ground plan, exhibits only that portion +of the area of the ruin on which walls are still standing. It shows +about 20 rooms on the ground, exclusive of three or perhaps four kivas. +The rooms are small as a rule, rectangular, and arranged with a more +than ordinary degree of regularity. One room still carries its roof +intact, as shown on the plan. In the center of the ruin are the remains +of a very large kiva, over 36 feet in diameter. It is now so much broken +down that but little can be inferred as to its former condition, except +that there was probably no interior bench, as no remains of such a +structure can now be distinguished. The size of +<span class = "pagenum">96</span> +<a name = "page096" id = "page096"> </a> +<!--png 301--> +this kiva is exceptional, and it is very probable that it was never +roofed. The structures within the kiva, shown on the ground plan, are +Navaho burial cists. West of the large kiva there were two others, less +than 20 feet in diameter. One of these was circular; the other was +irregular in shape, perhaps more nearly approaching an oval form. At no +fewer than five places within the ruin there are comparatively recent +Navaho burials.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig2" id = "fig2"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig2.png" width = "406" height = "203" +alt = "ground plan" title = "ground plan"> +</p> +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 2</span>—Ground plan of a ruin on +bottom land in Canyon del Muerto.</p> + +<p>Figure 3 is a ground plan of a small and very compact village, +situated on the south side of the canyon at the point marked <a name = +"ruin28" id = "ruin28">28</a> on the detailed map. It is located on a +slightly raised part of the bottom, commanding an outlook over a large +area now under cultivation by the Navaho. The wall lines are remarkably, +although not perfectly, regular, and show at least 25 rooms; there were +probably others to the northward and eastward. The rooms are now almost +filled with débris, but two of them are still intact, being kept in +order by the Navaho +<span class = "pagenum">97</span> +<a name = "page097" id = "page097"> </a> +<!--png 304--> +and used for the storage of corn. The roofs of both these rooms are now +on the ground level. The covered room nearest the cliff, shown on the +plan, has been divided into two small compartments by a wall through the +middle; access to each of these is obtained by a framed trapdoor in the +roof about a foot square. This dividing wall is probably of Navaho +origin, as the separate rooms formed by it are too small for habitation +and the masonry is very rough. A short distance to the north along the +cliff there is a Navaho house, roughly rectangular in plan, which was +constructed of stone obtained from this site. The masonry of the ruin +presents a very good face, not due to chinking, however, which was but +slightly practiced, but to the careful selection of material. Some of +the stones show surface pecking.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig3" id = "fig3"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig3.png" width = "422" height = "223" +alt = "ground plan" title = "ground plan"> +</p> +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 3</span>—Ground plan of a small +ruin in Canyon de Chelly.</p> + +<p>About 300 feet above or southeast of this ruin there are the remains +of two small rooms which were placed against the cliff. They are of the +same general character as those described, and doubtless formed part of +the same settlement. Between the two occurs a curious feature. A large +slab of rock, 280 feet long and not more than 12 feet thick at any +point, has split off from the cliff and dropped down to the ground, +where it remains on edge. This slab is triangular in elevation and about +50 feet high at the apex. Between it and the cliff, in the upper part, +there is a space from 2 to 2½ feet wide. This is easily accessible from +the north, on the edge of the slab, and can be reached from the southern +end, but with much difficulty. Figure 4 shows this feature and its +relation to the ruin. There is no doubt that this was a granary or huge +storage bin, and probably the two rooms on the south were placed there +to guard that end; the northern end, of more easy access, being +protected by the village itself. It was well adapted to this +purpose—a fact that the Navaho have not been slow to appreciate. +They have constructed small bins near the northern end, shown on the +plan, and beyond this timbers have been wedged in so as to furnish a +means of closing the cleft. In the cleft itself cross walls have been +constructed, dividing it into several compartments. The interior forms a +convenient dry, airy space, and at the time it was visited the floor was +covered with a litter of cornhusks.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig4" id = "fig4"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig4.png" width = "434" height = "59" +alt = "granary" title = "granary"> +</p> +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 4</span>—Granary in the rocks, +connected with a ruin.</p> + +<p>Almost directly opposite this ruin, on the other side of the canyon, +are the remains of a village that might properly be called a cave +village. At this point a large rock stands out from the cliff and in it +there is a cavity shaped almost like a quarter sphere. Its greatest +diameter is 45 feet and its height about 20 feet. The bottom land here +is 10 or 12 feet above the stream bed and slopes up gradually toward +<span class = "pagenum">98</span> +<a name = "page098" id = "page098"> </a> +<!--png 305--> +the cliff, forming the bottom of the cave, which is perhaps 18 or 20 +feet above the stream and some distance from it. The cave commands an +extensive outlook over the cultivable lands below it and those extending +up a branch canyon a little above.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig5" id = "fig5"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig5.png" width = "315" height = "248" +alt = "ground plan" title = "ground plan"> +</p> +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 5</span>—Ground plan of a ruin in a +cave.</p> + +<p>The whole bottom of the cave is covered by remains of rooms, shown in +plan in figure 5. The population could not have been greater than +10 or 12 persons, yet the remains of two kivas are clearly shown. Both +were in the front of the cave, adjoining but not connected with each +other, and were about 12 feet in diameter. Both had interior benches, +extending in one perhaps completely around, in the other only partly +around. The rooms are very irregular in shape and in size, ranging from +8 by 10 feet to 3 by 4 feet, but the latter could be used only for +storage. The masonry is not of fine grade, although good; but not much +detail can be made out, as the place has been used as a sheepfold by the +Navaho and the ground surface has been filled up and smoothed over.</p> + +<table class = "figfloat" summary = "illustration with caption"> +<tr> +<td class = "picture"> +<a name = "fig6" id = "fig6"> </a> +<a href = "images/figures/fig6.png"> +<img src = "images/figures/fig6thumb.png" width = "162" height = "742" +alt = "ground plan" title = "ground plan"></a> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 6</span>—Ground plan<br> +of Pakashi-izini ruins,<br> +Canyon del Muerto.<br> +<a href = "images/figures/fig6.png">Horizontal View</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>The largest ruin in the canyons is that shown in plan in +figure 6. It is situated in Del Muerto, on the canyon bottom at the +base of a cliff, and is known to the Navaho as Pakashi-izini (the blue +cow). The name was derived probably from a pictograph of a cow done in +blue paint on the canyon wall back of the ruin. Traces of walls extend +over a narrow belt against the cliffs about 400 feet long and not over +40 feet wide, and over this area many walls are still standing. +Scattered over the site are a number of large bowlders. No attempt to +remove these was made, but walls were carried over and under them, and +in some cases the direction of a wall was modified to correspond with a +face of a bowlder.</p> + +<p>The settlement may have consisted of two separate portions, divided +by a row or cluster of large bowlders. The group shown on the right +<span class = "pagenum">99</span> +<a name = "page099" id = "page099"> </a> +<!--png 306--> +of the plan was very compactly built, in one place being four rooms +deep, but no traces of a kiva can be seen in it, nor does there appear +to be any place where a kiva could be built within the house area or +immediately adjacent to it. At present 14 or 15 rooms may be traced on +the ground and the whole structure may have comprised 30 rooms. The wall +lines are not regular. In the western end of the structure there is a +narrow passageway into a large room in the center. Such passageways, +while often seen in the valley pueblos, are rare in these canyons. The +three rooms to the south of the passageway appear to have been added +after the rest of the structure was completed, and diminished in size +regularly by a series of steps or insets in the northern or passage +wall.</p> + +<p>The other portion of the ruin shows the remains of about 40 rooms on +the ground, in addition to three kivas; there may have been 60 rooms in +this part of the settlement, or 85 or 90 rooms altogether. The +population could not have been over 55 or 60 persons, or about 12 +families. In other words, it appears that, owing to the peculiarities of +conditions under which they lived, and of the ground plan which +resulted, the largest settlement of this class in the canyons, extending +over 400 feet in one direction, provided homes for a very limited number +of people. As it is probable that each family had one or more outlooks, +occupied in connection with their horticultural operations, it will +readily be seen that only a small number of inhabitants might leave a +large number of house remains, and that it is not necessary to assume +either a large population or a long period of occupancy.</p> + +<p>The kivas are clustered in the lower end of the settlement, and all +appear to have been inclosed within walls or other buildings. Two of +them are fairly well preserved; of the third only a fragment +<span class = "pagenum">100</span> +<a name = "page100" id = "page100"> </a> +<!--png 307--> +remains. The inclosure of the kivas is a suggestive feature, which will +be discussed later, as will also the square shaft shown on the plan as +attached to the principal kiva.</p> + +<p>It will be noticed that in several places where bowlders occur within +the limits of the settlement they have been incorporated into the walls +and form part of them. In two places they have altered the direction of +walls and produced irregularities in the plan. Elsewhere the face of a +rock has been prolonged by a wall carried out to continue it, as in the +front wall of the principal kiva apartment. This apartment appears to +have been entered from the west through a passageway. This is an +anomalous feature and suggests modernness.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig7" id = "fig7"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig7.png" width = "430" height = "201" +alt = "ground plan" title = "ground plan"> +</p> +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 7</span>—Ground plan of a ruin in +Canyon del Muerto.</p> + +<p>Figure 7 is a ground plan of another ruin in Del Muerto. There is a +slight cove or bay in the cliff at the point where the ruin occurs, and +the ground, which is on the level of the bottom lands, is strewn with +large bowlders, as in the example last described. But few remains of +walls are now observable, and there are traces of only one kiva. This +was situated near the outer edge of the settlement. The wall lines are +irregular and the disposition and size of the bowlders are such that it +is improbable that this site was ever occupied by a large cluster of +rooms. On the left of the plan will be seen a small room or storage cist +still intact. At the point marked > in the center +<span class = "pagenum">101</span> +<a name = "page101" id = "page101"> </a> +<!--png 308--> +of the site a burial cist was found and excavated in 1884 by Mr Thomas +V. Keam. It contained the remains of a child, almost perfectly +desiccated. It is said that when the remains were first removed the +color of the iris could be distinguished. The specimen was subsequently +deposited in the National Museum.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig8" id = "fig8"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig8.png" width = "428" height = "144" +alt = "ground plan" title = "ground plan"> +</p> +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 8</span>—Ground plan of a ruin in +Tseonitsosi canyon.</p> + +<p>A ruin which occurs in Tse-on-i-tso-si canyon, near the mouth of De +Chelly, is shown in plan in figure 8. There were two kivas, one of +which was benched. The number of rooms connected with them is remarkably +small—there could not have been more than six, if there were that +many—and the character of the site is such as to preclude the +possibility of other rooms in the immediate vicinity. Some of the walls +are still standing, and exhibit a fair degree of skill in masonry.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig9" id = "fig9"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig9.png" width = "427" height = "62" +alt = "ground plan" title = "ground plan"> +</p> +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 9</span>—Ground plan of a much +obliterated ruin.</p> + +<p>A type of which there are many examples is shown in plan in +figure 9. These ruins occur on the flat, next the cliff, which is +seldom bayed and overhangs but slightly. They are usually so much +obliterated that only careful scrutiny reveals the presence of wall +lines, and walls standing to a height of 6 inches above the ground +are rare. In the example illustrated no traces of a kiva can be found, +but the almost complete destruction of the walls might account for this. +There is every reason to suppose that these ruins are of the same class +as those described above, the remains of home villages located without +reference to defense, and no reason to suppose otherwise. They are +probably instances where, owing to exposed situation, early abandonment, +and possibly also proximity to later establishments, destruction has +proceeded at a greater rate than in other examples.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig10" id = "fig10"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig10.png" width = "406" height = "156" +alt = "ground plan" title = "ground plan"> +</p> +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 10</span>—Ground plan of a ruin in +Canyon de Chelly.</p> + +<p>Ruins of the class under discussion were not confined to any part of +the canyons, but were located wherever the conditions were favorable. An +example which occurs in the lower part of the canyon, at the point +marked <a name = "ruin3a" id = "ruin3a">3</a> on the map, is shown in +plan in figure 10. It occurs at the back of a deep cove in a little +branch canyon, and was at one time +<span class = "pagenum">102</span> +<a name = "page102" id = "page102"> </a> +<!--png 309--> +quite an extensive village. It was located on a slight slope or raised +place next the cliffs and overhung by them. A stone dropped from the top +of the cliffs would fall 45 or 50 feet out from their base. There are +remains of three kivas. The central one, which was 12 feet in diameter, +still shows nearly all its periphery, and the wall is in one place +3 feet high. The western kiva is now almost obliterated, but it can +still be made out, and shows a diameter of 15 feet. It is 50 feet west +of the central kiva and on a level about 8 feet below it, being +only about 3 feet above the bottom land. East of the central kiva, +and between it and a large bowlder, there was another, of which only a +part now remains.</p> + +<p>North of the central kiva, and extending nearly to the cliff behind, +there are remains of rooms. One corner is still standing to a height of +3 to 4 feet. The western wall was smoothly plastered outside and +was pierced by a narrow notched doorway. The northern wall has an +opening still intact, shown in <a href = "#plateLVIII">plate LVIII</a>; +it is 2 feet high and 14 inches wide, with a lintel composed of six +small sticks about an inch in diameter, laid side by side. The sticks +are surmounted by a flat stone, very roughly shaped and separated from +them by an inch of mud plaster or mortar. The masonry is exceptionally +well executed, that of the northern wall being composed of large stones +carefully chinked and rubbed down. The chinking appears to have been +carried through in bands, producing a decorative effect, resembling some +of the masonry of the Chaco ruins. The western wall is composed of +larger stones laid up more roughly with less chinking, and appears to +have been a later addition. On the back wall of the cave are marks of +walls showing a number of additional rooms, and there is no doubt that +at one time there was quite an extensive settlement here.</p> + +<!--png 310--> +<!--png 311--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateXLVI" id = "plateXLVI"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate46.png" width = "464" height = "312" +alt = "village ruin" title = "village ruin"> +</p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate XLVI. Village Ruin in Canyon De Chelly</p> + +<p>Around the corner from the last example, as it were (at the point +marked <a name = "ruin4a" id = "ruin4a">4</a> on the map), and at the +mouth of a little canyon that opens out from the head of the cove, the +ruin shown in plate XLVI occurs. The village was located on the canyon +bottom, in a shallow cove hardly 25 feet deep, but the view over the +bottom is almost closed by a large sand dune, bare on top and but +scantily covered on the sides with grass and weeds. Were it not for this +dune, the site of the ruin would command one of the best areas of +cultivable land in the canyon, but apparently an extensive outlook was +not a desideratum. The slight elevation of the site above the level of +the bottom lands is shown in the illustration.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig11" id = "fig11"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig11.png" width = "429" height = "141" +alt = "ground plan" title = "ground plan"> +</p> +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 11</span>—Ground plan of a village +ruin.</p> + +<p>The village was not a large one, having been occupied probably by +only two families, yet there are traces of two kivas. That on the west +is so far obliterated that its outline can be made out only with +difficulty. That on the east still shows a part of its wall to a height +of about a foot. The plan, figure 11, shows the general arrangement. +Some of the walls are still standing to a height of 2 or 3 feet, +and at the eastern end of the ruin there is a room with walls +6 feet high. More than the usual amount of mud mortar was used in +the construction of +<span class = "pagenum">103</span> +<a name = "page103" id = "page103"> </a> +<!--png 312--> +the walls of this room, and the interstices were filled with this, +chinking with small stones being but slightly practiced. The masonry of +the other walls is rougher, with even less chinking, and some of them +show later additions which did not follow the main lines. The eastern +room had two openings and the tops of the walls are apparently finished, +for there are no marks of roof timbers. The room may have been roofless, +but the same effect might have been produced by recent Navaho repairs +and alterations. In the exterior wall, at the southeastern corner, there +is a series of hand-holes, as though access to the interior were +sometimes had in this way, but the hand-holes are later than the wall. +On the back wall of the cove there are a number of pictographs.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig12" id = "fig12"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig12.png" width = "431" height = "168" +alt = "ground plan" title = "ground plan"> +</p> +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 12</span>—Ground plan of kivas in +Canyon de Chelly.</p> + +<p>Just above the mouth of Del Muerto and on the opposite side of the +main canyon, at the point marked <a name = "ruin17" id = "ruin17">17</a> +on the map, there was a village on the canyon bottom. It overlooked a +fine stretch of cultivable land on both sides of the canyon. There is a +large isolated mass of rock here, nearly as high as the cliffs on either +side, and connected with those back of it by a slope of talus and +débris, partly bare rock, partly covered with sand dunes. At the point +where the ruin occurs the rock is bare and about 40 feet high, partly +overhanging the site. The remains, shown in plan in figure 12, occupy +the summit of a hill about 10 feet high, composed principally of débris +of walls. Only a few faint traces now remain, but two kivas are still +clearly distinguishable. The one on the south had an interior bench, +which apparently extended +<span class = "pagenum">104</span> +<a name = "page104" id = "page104"> </a> +<!--png 313--> +around it. The other shows walls 2 feet high, and has been +plastered with a number of successive coats. The small wall on the +extreme right of the plan is composed of almost pure mud.</p> + +<p>There are a number of ruins in the canyons of the type shown in +figure 13. They are generally located directly on the bottom, and seldom +as much as 5 feet above it, within coves or under overhanging +cliffs; they are always of small area, and generally so far obliterated +that no walls or wall remains are now visible. The obliteration is due +not so much to antiquity, which may or may not have been a cause, but to +the character of the site they occupied. They are always in sheltered +situations, and being on the canyon bottom are much used by the Navaho +as sheepfolds and have been so used for years. Sometimes, although +rarely, faint traces of kivas can be made out.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig13" id = "fig13"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig13.png" width = "428" height = "157" +alt = "ground plan" title = "ground plan"> +</p> +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 13</span>—Ground plan of a small +ruin on bottom land.</p> + +<p>The example illustrated occurs at the point marked <a name = "ruin43" +id = "ruin43">43</a> on the map. It is situated in a cove in a point of +rock jutting out from the main cliff. The rock is about 60 feet high and +the cove about 30 feet deep, and the remains are but a few feet above +the level of the bottom land outside. The walls are composed of rather +small stones; the interstices were chinked with <ins class = +"correction" title = "spelling unchanged">spawls</ins>, and the masonry +was laid up with an abundance of mud mortar. The back wall of the cove +is considerably blackened by smoke.</p> + +<table summary = "two ground plans with captions"> +<tr> +<td class = "picture"> +<a name = "fig14" id = "fig14"> </a> +<a href = "images/figures/fig14.png"> +<img src = "images/figures/fig14thumb.png" width = "242" height = "738" +alt = "ground plan" title = "ground plan"></a> +</td> +<td class = "picture"> +<a name = "fig15" id = "fig15"> </a> +<a href = "images/figures/fig15.png"> +<img src = "images/figures/fig15thumb.png" width = "270" height = "735" +alt = "ground plan" title = "ground plan"></a> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"> +<a href = "images/figures/fig14.png">Horizontal View</a></td> +<td class = "caption"> +<a href = "images/figures/fig15.png">Horizontal View</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption" colspan = "2"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 14</span> [left]—Ground plan of the +lower part of Casa Blanca ruin.<br> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 15</span> [right]—Ground plan of +the upper part of Casa Blanca ruin. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>One of the most striking and most important ruins in the canyon is +shown in plan in figures 14 and 15. This is the ruin seen by Lieutenant +Simpson in 1849 and subsequently called Casa Blanca. It is also known +under the equivalent Navaho term, Kini-na e-kai or White House. The +general character of the ruin is shown in plate XLVII, which is from a +photograph. At first sight this ruin appears not to belong to this +class, or rather to belong both to this class and the succeeding one +composed of villages located with reference to defense; but, as will +appear later, it has nothing in common with the latter.</p> + +<!--png 314--> +<!--png 315--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateXLVII" id = "plateXLVII"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate47.png" width = "491" height = "314" +alt = "view of ruin" title = "view of ruin"> +</p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate XLVII. Casa Blanca Ruin, Canyon De Chelly</p> + +<p>In its present condition the ruin consists of two distinct +parts—a lower part, comprising a large cluster of rooms on the +bottom land against the vertical cliff, and an upper part which was much +smaller and occupied a cave directly over the lower portion and was +separated +<span class = "pagenum">105</span> +<a name = "page105" id = "page105"> </a> +<!--png 316--> +from it only by some 35 feet of vertical cliff. There is evidence, +however, that some of the houses in the lower settlement were four +stories high against the cliff, and in fact that the structures were +practically continuous; but for convenience of description we may regard +the ruin as composed of two.</p> + +<p>The lower ruin covers an area of about 150 by 50 feet, raised but a +few feet above the bottom land, probably by its own debris. Within this +area there are remains of 45 rooms on the ground, in addition to a +circular kiva. On the east side there are walls still standing to a +height of 12 and 14 feet. It is probable that the lower ruin comprised +about 60 rooms, which, with a liberal allowance for the rooms in the +cave, would make a total of 80. This would furnish accommodations for a +maximum of 10 or 12 families or a total population of 50 or 60 persons. +It is probable, however, that this estimate is excessive and that the +total population at any one time did not exceed 30 or 40 persons.</p> + +<p>The ground plans shown are the result of a very careful survey, +plotted on the ground on a large scale (10 feet to 1 inch—1:120), +and the irregularities shown were carefully noted and put down at the +time. These irregularities, which are commonly ignored in the +preparation +<span class = "pagenum">106</span> +<a name = "page106" id = "page106"> </a> +<!--png 317--> +of plans of ruins, are of the highest importance. From them the sequence +of construction can often be determined.</p> + +<p>The walls of the lower ruin are somewhat obscured by loose débris, of +which a large amount is lying about. Roof débris is especially abundant; +it consists of small twigs and lumps of clay, with ends of beams +projecting here and there. The principal walls occur in the eastern +part, where some of them are 2 feet thick and still standing to a +height of 10 and 12 and in one place of 14 feet. An inspection of the +plan will show that, as is invariably the case where a wall rises to a +height of more than one story, the lower part is massive and the upper +wall sets back 5 or 6 inches, reducing its thickness by that amount. All +the heavy walls occur either about the kiva or east of it. Apparently +these walls were built first especially heavy and massive, and +afterward, when upper stories were added, it was not found necessary to +carry them up the full thickness. It will be noticed that the wall +extending eastward from the corner of +<span class = "pagenum">107</span> +<a name = "page107" id = "page107"> </a> +<!--png 318--> +the kiva, and which is from a foot to 6 feet high at the present +time, extends through the heavy wall which crosses it 33 feet to the +east, and is continuous to its termination about 50 feet east, against +another heavy wall. The last-mentioned wall is also continuous from the +cliff out to the front of the ruin, a distance of about 46 feet.</p> + +<p>The heavy walls of the lower ruin are immediately under the upper +cave. Back of them the cliff presents an almost smooth face of rock, 35 +feet high and slightly overhanging. On this rock face there are marks +which show that formerly there were upper stories, the rooms of which +are outlined upon it. The rock surface was coated in places with a thin +wash of clay, doubtless to correspond with the other walls of the rooms, +but this coating was necessarily omitted where the partition walls and +roofs and floors abutted on the rock. This is shown in <a href = +"#plateXLVII">plate XLVII</a>. Although the marks are now so faint as to +be easily overlooked, at a certain hour in the day, when the light falls +obliquely on the rock, they can be clearly made out. At a point about 50 +feet east of the kiva the structure was three stories higher than it is +now. The roof of the upper story was within 4 feet of the floor of +the cave, and under the gap or gateway in front of the main room above. +West of this point there are the marks of but two stories additional. +Farther west the structure rose again, but not to the height attained on +the east.</p> + +<p>The kiva was placed directly against the cliff. This is an unusual +arrangement; but it will be noticed that the walls in front of it are of +a different character from those on the east, and it is probable that +when the kiva was built it opened to the air. The kiva is also anomalous +in its construction. It presents the usual features of the inner +circular chamber and an inclosing rectangular wall, but in this case the +intermediate space was filled in solidly, and perhaps was so +constructed. The kiva is still 6 feet deep inside, which must be +nearly its maximum depth, and the roof was probably placed at a level +not more than a foot or two above the present top. Whether the village +was placed on a slight raise, or on the flat, level with the bottom land +about it, and subsequently filled up with the debris of masonry, etc, +can not be determined without excavation; but the top of the kiva is now +16 feet above the general level of the bottom land, and its bottom 10 +feet above that level. It is possible that the kiva was much deeper than +now appears, as no sign of the usual interior bench can be seen above +the present ground surface, nor can any connection with the chimney-like +structure to the south of it be determined, yet such connection must +have existed. Probably not only this kiva but the whole ruin would well +repay excavation.</p> + +<p>The interior of the kiva was not exactly circular, being a little +elongated northeast and southwest. The inclosing wall on the east is +still standing in one place to a height of 5 feet above the top of +the kiva structure, and about a foot above that level is marked by a +setback, which reduces its thickness. Apparently the upper part was +added at +<span class = "pagenum">108</span> +<a name = "page108" id = "page108"> </a> +<!--png 319--> +a date some time subsequent to the completion of the kiva structure, as +the wall on the south, now some 3 feet above the level mentioned, +does not conform to the lower exterior wall on which it was placed. On +the western side there is another fragment of the upper inclosing wall. +Both this wall and the one on the south are less than 15 inches in +thickness.</p> + +<p>West of the kiva there are remains of other stone walls which differ +in character from those on the east. They are now usually less than +3 feet high; they were 12 to 15 inches thick, and the lines are +very irregular. South of the kiva, in the center of the ruin, there are +other stone walls even thinner and more irregularly placed than those on +the west, but most of the walls here are of adobe. As the use of adobe +blocks is not an aboriginal feature, the occurrence of these walls is a +matter of much interest, especially as they are so intimately associated +with the stonework that it is not always an easy matter to separate +them.</p> + +<p>The occurrence and distribution of adobe walls is shown on the ground +plan. They are not found as subordinate walls, dividing larger rooms, +except perhaps in one instance; but apparently this method of +construction was employed when it was desired to add new rooms to those +already constructed. No room with walls constructed wholly of adobe can +be made out, but walls of this character closing one side of a room are +common, and rooms with two or even three sides of adobe are not +uncommon. There are some instances in which part of a wall is stone and +part adobe, and also instances in which the lower wall, complete in +itself, is of stone, while the upper part, evidently a later addition, +is of adobe; such, for example, is the cross wall in the eastern tier, +about 30 feet from the cliff.</p> + +<p>The mere occurrence of adobe here is evidence of the occupancy of +this site at a period subsequent to the sixteenth century—we might +almost say subsequent to the middle of the seventeenth; but its +occurrence in this way and in such intimate association with the stone +walls indicates that the occupancy was continuous from a time prior to +the introduction of adobe construction to a period some time subsequent +to it. This hypothesis is supported by other evidence, which will appear +later. Attention may here be directed to the fact that there are four +chimney-like structures in the lower ruin, all of adobe, and all, except +the one which pertains to the kiva, attached to adobe walls.</p> + +<p>On the western margin of the ruin, and nowhere else within it, there +are traces of another kind of construction which was not found elsewhere +within the canyon. This method is known to the Mexicans as "jacal," and +much used by them. It consists of a row of sticks or thin poles set +vertically in the ground and heavily plastered with mud. At present not +one of these walls remains to a height of 6 inches above the ground, but +the lines of poles broken off at the ground level are still visible. The +ground at this point is but 3 or 4 feet above the general level of +the bottom. The ground plan shows the occurrence of +<span class = "pagenum">109</span> +<a name = "page109" id = "page109"> </a> +<!--png 320--> +these wall remains on the western edge of the site. They are all outside +of but attached to what was formerly the exterior wall on that side.</p> + +<p>There are remains of four Navaho burial cists in the lower ruin, at +the points shown on the ground plan. These are constructed of stones and +mud roughly put together in the ordinary manner, forming thin, rounded +walls; but these can not be confounded with the other methods of +construction described. Three of the cists have long been in ruins and +broken down; the one on the east is but a few years old.</p> + +<p>Access to the upper ruin can now be had only with much difficulty. In +the western end of the cave there is a single room placed on the cliff +edge, and between this and the end of a wall to the right a small stick +has been embedded in the masonry at a height of about 2 feet from +the rock. The cliff here is vertical and affords no footing, but by +throwing a rope over the stick a man can ascend hand over hand. During +the period when the houses were occupied, access was had in another and +much easier way, through a doorway or passageway nearly in the center of +the ruin and directly over the point where the lower village was four +stories high. The roof of the lower structure was less than 4 feet +below the floor of the cave; yet there is no doubt that a doorway or +passageway existed also at the western end of the cave, as the western +end of the wall on the right of the stick is neatly finished and +apparently complete.</p> + +<p>The principal room in the upper ruin is situated nearly in the center +of the cave, and is the one that has given the whole ruin its name. The +walls are 2 feet thick, constructed of stone, 12 feet high in front +and 7 feet high on the sides and inside. The exterior was finished +with a coat of whitewash, with a decorative band in yellow; hence the +name of Casa Blanca or White House. West of the principal room there is +a smaller one, which appears to be a later addition. The walls of this +room are only 7 inches thick, of adobe on the sides and back and of +small stones in front. The top of the wall is about 2 feet below +the top of the wall on the east. The coat of whitewash and the yellow +decorative band are continuous over both rooms, but the white coat was +also applied to the exterior western wall of the main room. In the main +room there is a series of small sticks, about half an inch in diameter, +projecting 8 inches from the wall and on a line 3 or 4 inches under +where the roof was.</p> + +<p>The small room in the eastern end of the cave was located on a kind +of bench or upper level, and was constructed partly of stone and partly +of adobe. The stone part is the upper portion of the eastern half. On +the west there is a small opening or window, with an appliance for +closing it. It is probable that this room was used only for storage. In +the western end of the cave there is another single room, which is +clearly shown in <a href = "#plateXLVII">plate XLVII</a>. The front wall +is 11 feet high outside and 5 feet high inside. The lower portion +is stone, the upper part and sides are adobe, and the side walls rest on +nearly 2 feet of straw, ashes, +<span class = "pagenum">110</span> +<a name = "page110" id = "page110"> </a> +<!--png 321--> +etc. The buttress shown in the illustration is of stone and the front +wall that it supports is slightly battened. A close inspection of the +illustration will show that this wall rests partly on horizontal timber +work, a feature which is repeated in several walls in the main cluster +of the ruins.</p> + +<p>The use of timber laid horizontally under a wall is not uncommon, and +as it will be discussed at greater length in another place, it may be +dismissed here with the statement that as a rule it failed to accomplish +the purpose intended. But the use of the buttress is an anomalous +feature which it is difficult to believe was of aboriginal conception. +Its occurrence in this ruin together with so many other unaboriginal +features is suggestive.</p> + +<p>The walls of the principal room and of the rooms immediately in front +of it are constructed of stone; all the other walls in the upper ruin +are of adobe or have adobe in them. The two rooms on the east and two +walls of the room adjoining on the west are wholly of adobe, about 7 +inches thick and now 3 and 4 feet high. In the southeast corner of +the second room from the east there is an opening through the front wall +which may have been a drain. It is on the floor level, round, 5 inches +in diameter, and smoothly plastered. In the fourth room from the east +there is a similar hole. Both of these discharge on the edge of the +cliff, and it is difficult to imagine their purpose unless they were +expedients for draining the rooms; but this would imply that the rooms +were not roofed. Although the cliff above is probably 500 feet high, and +overhangs to the degree that a rock pushed over its edge falls 15 feet +or more outside of the outermost wall remains, and over 70 feet from the +foot of the cliff, still a driving storm of rain or snow would leave +considerable quantities of water in the front rooms if they were not +roofed, and some means would have to be provided to carry it off.</p> + +<p>In the same room, the fourth from the east, there are the remains of +a chimney-like structure, the only one in the upper ruin. It is in the +northeast corner, at a point where the wall has fallen and been replaced +by a Navaho burial cist also fallen in ruin, and was constructed of +stone. There is no doubt that it was added some time after the walls +were built, as it has cracked off from the wall on the east, which shows +at that point its original finish. In the eastern wall of this room +there is a well-finished opening, and at the corresponding point in the +wall of the room on the right, the third wall from the east, there is +another. The latter wall is of adobe, or rather there are two adobe +walls built side by side; one, the eastern, considerably thinner than +the other. The opening extends through both walls; it was neatly +finished and was closed by a thin slab of stone plastered in with mud. +It has the appliance for closing mentioned above and described later (<a +href = "#page165">page 165</a>). Most of the openings in the walls +appear to have been closed up at the time the houses were abandoned.</p> + +<p><span class = "pagenum">111</span> +<a name = "page111" id = "page111"> </a> +<!--png 322--> +The front wall of the main room is 12 feet high in front and was stepped +back 6 inches at half its height from the ground. The stepback is +continued through the front wall of the small room on the west. Near the +center of the main room there is a well-finished doorway, directly over +the point where a cross wall in front of it comes in. This opening was +originally a double-notched or T-shape doorway, but at a later period +was filled up so as to leave only a rectangular orifice. The principal +entrance to the upper ruin was in front of this opening and a little to +the left of it. It will be noticed from an inspection of the plan that +the room into which this entrance opened was divided at a point about +4 feet back from the cliff edge by a stone wall not more than half +the thickness of the walls on either side of it. This cross wall is +still 6 feet high on the side nearest the cliff, but there is no +evidence of a doorway or opening through it. The back rooms must have +been reached by a ladder in front, thence over the roof of the room. The +cliff entrance was a narrow doorway left in the front wall. The ends of +the walls on either side were smoothly finished, as in the western +doorway.</p> + +<p>There are many lumps of clay scattered about on the ground, some +showing impressions of small sticks. Apparently they are the debris of +roofs. There are also some fragments of pottery, principally corrugated +ware. The adobe walls in the upper ruin rest generally on rock, +sometimes on ashes and loose debris; in the lower ruin they rest usually +on stone foundations. The occurrence in this ruin of many features that +are not aboriginal suggests that it was one of the last to be abandoned +in the canyon, but there are certain features which make it seem +probable that the upper portion continued to be inhabited for some time +after the lower portion. The contrivance for closing openings is +identical with examples found in the Mesa Verde region, and it is +probable that an intimate connection between the two existed.</p> + + +<h6 class = "section"> +<a name = "desc_defense" id = "desc_defense">III—HOME VILLAGES +LOCATED FOR DEFENSE</a></h6> + +<p>The distinction between home villages located on bottom lands +absolutely without reference to the defensive value of the site, and +other villages located on defensive sites, is to some extent an +arbitrary one. The former, which are always located at the base of or +under an overhanging cliff, sometimes occupy slightly raised ground +which overlooks the adjacent land, and the latter are sometimes so +slightly raised above the bottoms they overlook as hardly to come within +the classification. Moreover, ruins in their present condition sometimes +belong to both classes, as in the example last described. Yet a general +distinction may be drawn between the classes, in that the former are +generally located directly upon the bottom land and invariably without +thought or regard to the defensive value of the site, while in the +latter the effect of this requirement is always apparent.</p> + +<p>The class of ruins which has been designated as the remains of +villages located for defense comprises all the most striking remains in +the +<span class = "pagenum">112</span> +<a name = "page112" id = "page112"> </a> +<!--png 323--> +canyon, many of which may properly be termed cliff ruins. The +characteristics of the class are: A site more or less difficult of +access—generally an elaborate ground plan, although sometimes they +consist of only a few rooms—and the invariable presence of the +kiva or estufa, here always circular in form. The largest ruin of this +class occurs in Del Muerto, and is known as Mummy Cave ruin. It is +called by the Navajo Tse-i-ya-kin. It is situated in the upper part of +the canyon, near the junction of a small branch, and has an extensive +outlook.</p> + +<p>At a height of about 80 feet above the top of a gentle slope of earth +and loose rock, and perhaps 300 feet above the stream bed, there are two +coves in the rock, connected by a narrow bench. The western cove is +about 100 feet across and its back is perhaps 75 feet from the front +wall of the cliff. The eastern cove is over 200 feet across and perhaps +100 feet deep, while the connecting ledge is about 110 feet long. Ruins +occur on the central ledge and on similar ledges in the back parts of +both coves.</p> + +<p>The western or smaller cove is accessible only from the ledge, which +in turn can be approached only from the eastern cove. The smaller cove +had a row of little rooms across the back and there are traces of walls +on the slope in front of these. Fourteen rooms can now be made out on +the ground; altogether there may have been 20 rooms in this portion. +Practically all the available space on the ledge was occupied by rooms, +and 10, all of considerable size, can now be traced. The total number in +this portion was 14 or 15. The eastern cove contained the largest part +of the settlement. The back part is occupied by a ledge about 50 feet +wide entirely covered by remains of walls. Some 44 rooms can now be made +out on the ground, in addition to 3 or perhaps 4 circular kivas, and the +whole number of rooms may have been 55. Assuming, then, that the various +portions of the ruin were inhabited at the same time, we would have a +total of 90 rooms; but, as many of them could be used only for storage, +the population could not have been more than 60 persons.</p> + +<p>The rooms in the western cove are fairly uniform in size and were +probably habitations, for they are all too large to be classed as +storage rooms. There was no kiva in this portion, however, nor any +unoccupied place where a kiva might have been placed. It seems clear, +therefore, that this portion was either an appendage of the other or was +occupied at a later period; in either case it was constructed at a date +subsequent to the remains in the eastern cove.</p> + +<table class = "figfloat" summary = "illustration with caption"> +<tr> +<td class = "picture"> +<a name = "fig16" id = "fig16"> </a> +<a href = "images/figures/fig16.png"> +<img src = "images/figures/fig16thumb.png" width = "207" height = "743" +alt = "ground plan" title = "ground plan"></a> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 16</span>—Ground plan<br> +of Mummy Cave ruin.<br> +<a href = "images/figures/fig16.png">Horizontal View</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>The intermediate ledge, which is about 110 feet long and about 30 +feet wide, was practically all occupied by a row of seven rooms, some of +them of more than one story. These rooms are exceptionally +large—larger than any group of rooms in the canyon or in this part +of the country. The outside or front wall is more than 20 feet from the +cliff back of it, and the rooms are from 10 to 15 feet wide. Figure 16, +which is a ground plan of the ruin, shows the exceptional size of +<span class = "pagenum">113</span> +<a name = "page113" id = "page113"> </a> +<!--png 326--> +these rooms. All of them were at least two stories high; some were +three. The walls in this portion are generally 2 feet or more thick +and exceptionally well constructed. Its eastern end is still standing to +a height of three stories, and carries a roof intact, giving a +tower-like effect to that portion. Originally this portion rose but one +story above the other rooms. Throughout nearly all its length the front +wall shows part of the upper story, which is also marked on the cliff +wall by a thin wash of clay, in the same manner as in the Casa Blanca +ruin. The two rooms west of the tower were surmounted by a single large +room. The cliff wall is coated with a thin wash of yellowish clay, and +no mark of a cross wall or partition can be seen upon it. There are no +openings between the three eastern rooms on the ground floor. The first +room to the west of the tower has a square chimney-like shaft, and a +niche or alcove connected with it. The second room also has a niche and +a rounded shaft. The third room has neither niche nor shaft.</p> + +<p>The front wall was exceptionally heavy, but the upper portion has +fallen inward, forming a heavy mass of debris against it. The east and +south sides of the tower, for about 5 feet of its height, are +decorated by inlaying small stones 1 to 2 inches long and half an inch +thick. The same decoration occurs at intervals down the front wall, but +irregularly. This feature is not chinking, such as has been described, +and has no constructive value, but is purely decorative. Back of the +rooms west of the tower there are some old pictographs on +<span class = "pagenum">114</span> +<a name = "page114" id = "page114"> </a> +<!--png 327--> +the cliff wall at the place where the roof abutted on it. Here the wash +of clay before mentioned was necessarily omitted. In the first room +there is a pictograph of a man, in the second a semicircle, both done in +light-green paint.</p> + +<p>The lower part of the outer corner of the tower has fallen out. At +this point there was a small doorway or opening, which was the only +entrance on the south or east. The corner which has fallen was +apparently supported by three or four sticks laid horizontally on the +rock at an angle of 45 degrees with either wall. The giving way of the +timber support apparently caused the fall of the corner, but why a +structure otherwise so substantial should be placed on such frail +support, when a filling of masonry was both easy and practicable, is not +clear.</p> + +<p>The doorway mentioned is the only opening into the ground-floor room +in the tower. Connection with the rooms on the west was through a large +doorway in the western wall of the second story, and in the story above +there was a similar opening. These are shown in plate XLVIII, which is a +general view of the central portion of the eastern cove.</p> + +<!--png 324--> +<!--png 325--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateXLVIII" id = "plateXLVIII"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate48.png" width = "315" height = "418" +alt = "mummy cave" title = "mummy cave"> +</p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate XLVIII. Mummy Cave, Central and Eastern Part</p> + +<p>The lintels of the openings in the central part are formed of round +sticks, about 3 inches in diameter, matched, and bound together with +withes. These withes may be seen in places where the mud plaster has +fallen away. The stick lintels occur only in the central portion; the +windows and doorways of the other portions of the ruin, some fine +examples of which remain, are always finished with stone lintels and +sometimes with stone jambs.</p> + +<p>A little east of the center of the front wall there is a large rock, +or rather a pile of large rocks, near the outer edge of the ledge. This +is shown in the illustration. Instead of removing this obstruction the +wall was built under and over it. Near the western end of the front wall +there is a large doorway or opening. Access to the western cove was +along the narrow edge of the ledge under the front wall, thence through +this doorway. The doorway gave entrance to a very narrow space, less +than 4 feet square, surrounded by a heavy wall with a doorway +through the left or western wall into the last apartment of the series. +Through the western wall of this apartment a doorway opened on the end +of the ledge and the western cove. This principal entrance is shown in +<a href = "#plateXLVIII">plate XLVIII</a>. Its size is exceptional, it +being about 6 feet high. A little below the top there is a single +stick across it, and a similar contrivance was found in place in the +openings in the tower, but it does not occur in the opening in the cross +wall. The same feature is found in the modern pueblos, where the stick +forms the support of a blanket draped to close the opening.</p> + +<p>A little east of the doorway in the front wall there is a small +opening near the ground, through which can be seen what appears to be a +roof. It is but 2 feet above the ground, however, and very roughly +constructed. It consists of a layer of cedar logs; above this a layer of +small sticks, and above this again slabs of stone and mud. It occurs +<span class = "pagenum">115</span> +<a name = "page115" id = "page115"> </a> +<!--png 330--> +under a narrow room or passage, shown on the plan, and seems to have +been the floor of that room rather than a roof of a space below.</p> + +<p>Roofing or flooring beams project from the tower on three sides. They +are all rounded and carefully selected or matched. Those of the lower +story or first roof are 4½ inches in diameter, those of the story above +about 3 inches, while those of the roof, which occur in pairs, are about +2½ inches. They all, except those of the lower story, project about +2 feet from the wall. All the beams are from 18 inches to +2 feet apart, and the roof is formed of canes or willow sticks less +than half an inch in diameter laid very neatly in patterns. The work +here is by far the best in any part of the canyon. The beams of the +first floor are represented only by the ends which pass through the +walls, the middle portion being gone.</p> + +<p>The cliff wall forming one side of the rooms in the tower was coated +with a wash of yellowish clay to correspond with the other sides. It +shows bare rock at the points where the floors abutted against it. The +roof of the second story or middle room was 10 inches thick, and the +marks are on the same level as those of the rooms over the west of the +tower. There are also beam holes in the third story about 4 feet +above its floor, but extending only from the cliff out to its +opening.</p> + +<p>A singular feature occurs in the tower, which is difficult to +explain. The upper part of the third-story room was coated in the +interior with whitewash, which appears to have been carelessly applied. +Small quantities struck the setback at the floor level and spattered +over the wall below—that of the second-story room. In one case a +considerable quantity of the whitewash struck the top of a beam in what +would be the roof of the second story and scattered over the wall +surface below it. It is therefore clear that at the time when the +whitewash was applied, which was either at the time or subsequent to the +habitation of the rooms, there was no floor to the third-story room nor +roof to the second story. The stains of whitewash never go below the +floor level of the second story.</p> + +<!--png 328--> +<!--png 329--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateXLIX" id = "plateXLIX"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate49.png" width = "465" height = "317" +alt = "mummy cave" title = "mummy cave"> +</p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate XLIX. Eastern Cove of Mummy Cave</p> + +<p>The house remains in the eastern cove are partly shown in plate XLIX, +which is from a photograph. The point of view is from the ledge in front +of the tower. The ruins rest on a ledge in the back of the cove formed +of debris well compacted and apparently consisting partly of sheep dung. +The rooms are small, sometimes three deep against the back of the cove, +and many of them could only have been used for storage. The principal +structure is the western kiva, with its chimney-like attachments. This +is described at length on pages 177, 179, 186, and 187. Adjoining it on +the east is another kiva, part of whose wall is still two stories high, +and clearly shown in the illustration. Some 50 or 60 feet to the east or +southeast there is another circular structure, which apparently had no +interior bench. The small semicircular structure shown on the plan and +in the illustration, which rests against and is roofed by the rock, is a +Navaho burial cist, and +<span class = "pagenum">116</span> +<a name = "page116" id = "page116"> </a> +<!--png 331--> +another of these cists, of large size, occurs west of the principal +kiva; but the ruin as a whole contains much less evidence of Navaho work +than those farther down the canyon.</p> + +<p>Many of the walls are built entirely of small pieces of stone, not +more than 3 or 4 inches long by 2 inches wide and half an inch to an +inch and a half thick. This construction is especially noticeable in +inner walls. The joints are carefully plastered, evidently with the +hand, but the mud is seldom allowed to cover the stone. It appears to +have been applied externally, in pellets about the size of a walnut. The +general thickness of walls is about 15 inches, although on the +intermediate ledge they are over 2 feet, but some of the less +important walls consist of a single layer, 6 to 8 inches thick. Walls +are sometimes seen here supported by vertical timbers incorporated in +them after the manner later described at some length. Ends of logs +project here and there from the debris on the slope, but probably many +of them are the débris of roofs.</p> + +<p>The peculiar and anomalous features presented by the remains on the +intermediate ledge seem to require some explanation. This portion of the +ruin is not only different from the other portions, but different also +from anything else in the canyon, and the difference is not one of +degree only. Doubtless systematic excavation in the various parts of the +ruin would afford an explanation. In the absence of such work we can +only speculate on the problem.</p> + +<p>The occurrence of two chimney-like shafts in connection with the +rectangular rooms west of the tower is significant. Nowhere else in the +canyons, except in the Casa Blanca ruin, do these structures occur, so +far as known, except in connection with circular kivas. As regards the +ruin named, it is almost certain that it was occupied in the historic +period, probably in the seventeenth century.</p> + +<p>The division of the ruin into three separate parts, the absence of +kivas in the western cove, and the method of access to that portion all +attract attention. If there were monks or other Spaniards in the +settlement, the explanation would be plain; they and those of the +natives allied with them would occupy the central ledge, and the +anomalous features would be natural under the circumstances. Such a +hypothesis would explain also the source of the many unaboriginal +features which are found in other parts of the canyon, but there is no +direct evidence to support it. It should be mentioned, however, that the +walls here rest on about half an inch of substance which resembles +compacted sheep dung. If the substance is really such, the walls must +have been built within the historic period.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig17" id = "fig17"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig17.png" width = "434" height = "284" +alt = "ruin" title = "ruin"> +</p> +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 17</span>—Ruin in a rock cove.</p> + +<p>At the point marked <a name = "ruin48" id = "ruin48">48</a> on the +map there is a ruin which resembles somewhat in its location an example +previously described (<a href = "#page098">page 98</a>). It is situated +in a cove in a jutting point of rock, forming part of the talus slope, +and is about 20 feet above the bottom, which it overlooks. Figure 17 +shows the character of the site, and figure 18 is a +<span class = "pagenum">117</span> +<a name = "page117" id = "page117"> </a> +<!--png 332--> +ground plan. At the back of the cove a row of small rooms, five or six +in number, was built against the rock. In front of these there were two +kivas and perhaps other rooms. Only fragments of these now remain, but +it can still be seen that both kivas had interior benches, and that the +western one has been plastered with several successive coats—at +least four. There are no pictographs on the back wall, and but little +staining by smoke. The masonry is rather rough, consisting of large +stones, pretty well chinked with small <ins class = "correction" title = +"spelling unchanged">spawls</ins>.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig18" id = "fig18"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig18.png" width = "433" height = "181" +alt = "ground plan" title = "ground plan"> +</p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 18</span>—Ground plan of a ruin in +a rock cove.</p> + +<p>Some of the walls were plastered. The western end of the ruin has +been partially restored by the Navaho and used for burial cists, and +other cists have been built on the site independent of the old walls, as +shown on the plan. Figure 19 is a ground plan of a ruin on a +<span class = "pagenum">118</span> +<a name = "page118" id = "page118"> </a> +<!--png 333--> +ledge near the mouth of Del Muerto, at the point marked <a name = +"ruin15a" id = "ruin15a">15</a> on the map. It is situated at the back +of a considerable bay, directly opposite a large rock at the mouth of +Del Muerto, and overlooked the whole of the bottom land in the bay. The +houses were built on a bench or ledge, about 30 feet wide, overhung by +the cliff above and dropping down almost vertically to the bottom land, +about 40 feet below, but on the east access to the bench was easy by a +slope of talus extending up to it. The site was covered with bowlders, +and walls have been built over and under them. The masonry is good, and +was composed of larger stones than usual, carefully chinked with spalls, +the work being well done.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig19" id = "fig19"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig19.png" width = "428" height = "154" +alt = "ground plan" title = "ground plan"> +</p> +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 19</span>—Ground plan of a ruin on +a ledge.</p> + +<p>There were but 10 rooms on the ground, in addition to one circular +kiva; some of these rooms are too small for habitation, and one of them +appears to have been a rectangular kiva. On the same bench, about 100 +feet westward, however, there are traces of other rooms, the walls of +which were very thin. The cliffs back of the ruin and for 200 feet west +of it are covered with pictographs in white and colors.</p> + +<p>Near the center of that portion of the ruin shown on the ground plan +there is a large room which may have been a rectangular kiva. The walls +are over 2 feet thick in the first story, diminishing at the roof +level by a step or setback to the ordinary thickness of about a foot. +These walls, as usual in such structures, were about 2 feet thick; +they are slightly curved, the front wall markedly so, and the interior +corners are well rounded. No reason for this curvature is apparent, and +it is certainly not dictated by the occurrence of the rock over which +the wall is built, as only the point of this rock comes through the wall +in the western side of the front wall. There may have been an opening +into the room through the eastern wall connecting it with the room on +that side, as the masonry is there broken down; but this is doubtful, as +the eastern room itself has no exterior opening. It is more probable +that the large room was entered through the roof, for the thin wall of +the second story shows in front one side of a well-finished doorway.</p> + +<p>Just outside of the heavy front wall there is a round hole in the +ground, the remains of a vertical shaft connected with the interior of +the room. The hole is about a foot in diameter, and is neatly plastered +<span class = "pagenum">119</span> +<a name = "page119" id = "page119"> </a> +<!--png 334--> +inside, and appears to have been a chimney or a chimney-like structure +such as occur in connection with the kivas in other ruins. It will later +be discussed in detail.</p> + +<p>The circular kiva occupies the western end of that part of the room +shown in the plan. It was 15 feet in diameter, and is exceptionally well +built. The wall is standing for about half of its circumference, and was +so neatly finished that the interior coating of plaster was apparently +omitted. There are no traces of inclosing rectangular walls; the +thickness of the kiva walls and the exceptionally large stones used in +parts of it suggest that the kiva stood alone. So far as the walls +remain standing, an interior bench can be traced, about 2 feet wide +and 6 feet below the top of the outside wall. On the southeastern +side, in the interior, there is a buttress or projection, which +terminates the bench at this point.</p> + +<p>The walls between the rectangular room described and the circular +kiva are thin and very irregularly laid out. In front of the rectangular +room and on the edge of the bench, which is here but a few feet above +the talus, a rather heavy wall has been built over the top of a rock, +and inside or to the north of it another wall has been placed, hardly +2 feet distant. These walls are connected at the eastern end by a +thin cross wall, now but slightly above the ground surface and notched +like a doorway. Below the notch a slab of stone has been placed and was +apparently used as a step. The purpose of these walls is not clear, but +they may have constituted an entrance or passageway to the village. If +so, we have here a very efficient defensive expedient and a decided +anomaly in cliff-village architecture.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig20" id = "fig20"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig20.png" width = "437" height = "139" +alt = "ground plan" title = "ground plan"> +</p> +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 20</span>—Ground plan of ruin No. +31, Canyon de Chelly.</p> + +<p>At the point marked <a name = "ruin31a" id = "ruin31a">31</a> on the +map there is a small ruin on a ledge about 150 feet above the bottom and +difficult of access. The site overlooks considerable areas of bottom +land on both sides of the canyon, and was probably connected with and +formed part of a larger ruin on the same ledge and east of it, which +will next be described. On this site there are remains of half a dozen +rooms or more and of one circular kiva, which was 20 feet in diameter. +(See ground plan, figure 20.) The site has been much filled up, and the +kiva appears as a cylindrical depression, flush with the ground outside, +but 3 to 5 feet deep inside. The walls are rather thin and smoothly +plastered inside. On the south +<span class = "pagenum">120</span> +<a name = "page120" id = "page120"> </a> +<!--png 335--> +side there is an opening extending down to the floor level and opening +directly on the sharply sloping rock. This feature will later be +discussed at some length. The walls to the west of the kiva are still 14 +or 15 feet high, showing two stories, and were well constructed and +smoothly plastered. The interior of the kiva shows a number of +successive coats of plastering—at least eight.</p> + +<table class = "figfloat" summary = "illustration with caption"> +<tr> +<td class = "picture"> +<a name = "fig21" id = "fig21"> </a> +<a href = "images/figures/fig21.png"> +<img src = "images/figures/fig21thumb.png" width = "248" height = "745" +alt = "ground plan" title = "ground plan"></a> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 21</span>—Ground plan<br> +of ruin No. 32,<br> +Canyon de Chelly.<br> +<a href = "images/figures/fig21.png">Horizontal View</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>Immediately above the last-mentioned ruin, and on the same ledge, +occur the remains of a large settlement, shown in plan in figure 21. It +will be noticed that here, as in some of the previous examples +described, the general arrangement consists of a row of rooms against +the cliff, with the kivas in front. There were at least 17 rooms in +line, and there may have been as many as 30 to 50 rectangular rooms in +the village, scattered over an area nearly 200 feet long by 65 feet +wide, but not all of this area was covered. Three kivas are still +clearly shown.</p> + +<p>This ruin is especially interesting on account of the site it +occupies. The walls were placed on sharply sloping rock and in some +cases on loose debris, and numerous expedients were resorted <ins class += "correction" title = "duplication not an error">to to</ins> prevent +them from slipping down the slope. The +<span class = "pagenum">121</span> +<a name = "page121" id = "page121"> </a> +<!--png 336--> +fact that these expedients were not successful makes them more +interesting. Upright logs were inclosed in the walls and anchored in +holes drilled in the rock below; horizontal logs were built into the +masonry as ties and placed below it, and heavy retaining walls were +erected. These constructive expedients will later be discussed at +greater length.</p> + +<p>The whole slope is more or less covered with debris, and there is no +doubt that this was at one time a considerable settlement. The cliff +walls near the east end show traces of two stories, and in one place of +three stories, which formerly rested against them. Moreover, the number +of successive coats of plaster in the kiva shows an extended occupancy, +an inference which is further supported by the variety of expedients +which were adopted to hold the walls in place.</p> + +<p>The marked irregularity of the five eastern rooms as compared with +the regular series west of them will be noticed on the plan. These +eastern rooms must have been added at a period subsequent to the +completion of the others. The marks of a second and third story occur on +the cliff back of this cluster, and there is no doubt that it was an +important part of the settlement. West of the area shown on the plan +traces of walls occur on the slope and among the debris for a distance +of over 100 feet.</p> + +<p>Parts of three kivas can now be seen on the ground, and this was +probably the total number in the settlement. The fronts of all of them +have fallen out, notwithstanding various expedients that were employed +to hold them in place. The western wall of the western kiva is part of +the rectangular system and was apparently in place before the kiva was +built. A triangular block which formed the junction in front of this +kiva and the central one has slipped down and new walls were afterward +built to restore the kivas to their original shape. The central kiva has +an interior bench, which was, however, added after the structure was +completed, and in fact after the front had been replaced. The second +falling off of the front has left a fine section of the wall, and the +changes which have taken place are plainly shown in it.</p> + +<p>That the interior bench was added long after the original kiva had +been completed and occupied is shown by the occurrence between it and +the wall of nearly an inch of plaster composed of separate coatings, +each smoke-blackened, varying from the thickness of a piece of heavy +paper up to an eighth of an inch or more. If one of these coatings were +added each year, twelve or fifteen years at least must have elapsed +between the building of the kiva and the construction of the interior +bench. The original floor of the kiva was composed of a layer of mud +mortar about an inch thick, and extends through under the bench, the top +of which is about 3 feet above it; Under this floor there is a +straight wall at right angles to the cliff and extending some +4 feet toward the center of the kiva; what is left of it is just +under the floor level.</p> + +<p><span class = "pagenum">122</span> +<a name = "page122" id = "page122"> </a> +<!--png 337--> +There is a suggestion in this that the site of the kiva was originally +occupied by rectangular rooms, and there is a further suggestion, in the +end sections referred to, that the kiva had at some period fallen into +decay and was subsequently rebuilt. All this occurred before the first +falling out of the front.</p> + +<table class = "figfloat" summary = "illustration with caption"> +<tr> +<td class = "picture"> +<a name = "fig22" id = "fig22"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig22.png" width = "244" height = "305" +alt = "section of wall" title = "section of wall"> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 22</span>—Section of a kiva wall. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>The section shows that the original walls were not so thick as the +present ones, and that there was formerly a slight setback in the wall +of 2½ or 3 inches at the level of the present bench, reducing the +thickness of the wall by that amount. The original outside wall on the +east extends only 6 inches above this setback. The upper portion of the +exterior wall was added at the same time that the bench was constructed +and is the same thickness as the lower part of the original wall. Figure +22 will make clear the changes which have taken place.</p> + +<p>There was a recess of some kind in the original wall on the east and +a similar one on the west side, but they have been filled up by the +later additions. The upright logs which were built into the masonry are +incorporated in the older walls. Under the floor, and apparently under +the walls themselves, there is a layer nearly a foot thick of loose +débris consisting of cornstalks, corn leaves, ashes, and loose dirt. The +floor of the east circular room, which still covers about half the +interior, rests similarly on a layer of ashes. The expedients employed +to hold the front walls of these kivas in place are later discussed at +some length.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig23" id = "fig23"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig23.png" width = "433" height = "327" +alt = "view of ruin" title = "view of ruin"> +</p> +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 23</span>—Ruin No. 10 on a ledge in +a cove.</p> + +<p>Figure 23 shows the character of site occupied by a village ruin of +some size situated in the first cove in the cliff wall below the mouth +of Canyon del Muerto. The cliff here is about 300 feet high and the ruin +is located on a ledge in a cove about 70 feet above the stream bed. +Although seemingly very difficult to reach, the ruin is of comparatively +easy access without artificial aid. The cavity was caused apparently by +the occurrence of a pocket of material softer than that about it, and +this softer material has weathered out, showing very strongly the lines +of cross bedding, which, in the massive rock on either side, have been +almost entirely obliterated. The strata are inclined at an angle and the +edges project from a few inches to about a foot, forming a series of +<span class = "pagenum">123</span> +<a name = "page123" id = "page123"> </a> +<!--png 338--> +little benches tilted up at an angle of about 45 degrees. By the +exercise of some agility, one can ascend along these benches. About +halfway between the site of the ruin and the stream bed there is a +narrow horizontal bench, and again halfway between this bench and the +ruin there is another, about 55 feet above the stream. Access to the +ruins is greatly facilitated by these intermediate ledges.</p> + +<table class = "figfloat" summary = "illustration with caption"> +<tr> +<td class = "picture"> +<a name = "fig24" id = "fig24"> </a> +<a href = "images/figures/fig24.png"> +<img src = "images/figures/fig24thumb.png" width = "192" height = "736" +alt = "ground plan" title = "ground plan"></a> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 24</span>—Ground plan<br> +of ruin No. 10.<br> +<a href = "images/figures/fig24.png">Horizontal View</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>The bench on which the ruin occurs is about 250 feet long and +generally about 20 feet wide, the surface being almost flat. There are +structures on the extreme northern and on the extreme southern ends, but +a considerable part of the intermediate area was not occupied. Reference +to the ground plan (figure 24) will show that most of the buildings +occur on the northern half of the ledge, which was fairly well filled by +them. Many of the walls in this portion are apparently underlaid by a +foot or more of ashes, sheep dung, domestic refuse, cornhusks, etc.</p> + +<p>The room which is shown in the center of the plan, at the southern +end of the main group, stood alone and was the largest rectangular room +in the village. It covered an area 15 feet by 9 feet inside the +walls, which are now 5 or 6 feet high. The masonry is very good, +although chinking with spalls was but slightly employed to finish the +exterior; inside it is more apparent. The western wall was built over +the edge of the sloping rock forming the back of the cove, as shown on +the plan, and this rock projects below the wall into the room. There +were apparently no openings in the walls, except some very small ones on +the +<span class = "pagenum">124</span> +<a name = "page124" id = "page124"> </a> +<!--png 339--> +eastern side, near the floor level. In the southern wall a piece of +rough timber was inlaid in the masonry, about 5 feet above the +floor, flush with the wall inside and extending nearly through it. This +piece of timber was crooked and its bend determined the wall line, which +is bowed outward, as shown on the ground plan. This feature will be +discussed later.</p> + +<p>There were two circular kivas in the village, one of which was +unusually small, being only about 10 feet in diameter north and south; +the east-and-west diameter is a trifle smaller. There was apparently no +bench in the interior, but on the western or northwestern side there is +a bench-like recess of about a foot which occupies 7 feet of the +circumference. The whole interior was covered with a number of washes of +clay, applied one over another, forming a coating now nearly +three-quarters of an inch thick. This is cracked and peeled off in +places, and in the section eighteen coats, generally about one +thirty-second of an inch thick, may be counted. Each coat or plastering +is defined by a film of smoke-blackened surface.</p> + +<p>On a level about 2 feet above the bench and about 5 feet +above the present ground surface, there seems to have been some kind of +roof. The stones here project into the interior slightly beyond the wall +surface, and the plaster seems to curve inward. This point or level is +from 6 to 18 inches below the top of the wall, and here there are +remains of occasional small sticks, about an inch in diameter, which +projected into the kiva. They are irregularly disposed +<span class = "pagenum">125</span> +<a name = "page125" id = "page125"> </a> +<!--png 340--> +and probably had no connection with the roof, but there are no traces of +heavier timbers above them. In the interior a white band with points +completely encircled the kiva. The top of this band is about a foot +above the present ground surface and about 18 inches below the bench on +the western side. It is illustrated in <a href = "#fig72">figure +72</a>.</p> + +<p>The exterior wall of the kiva was very roughly laid up, and some of +the lower stones were set on edge, which is rather an anomalous feature. +There is no evidence that the structure was ever inclosed in rectangular +walls, as was the usual custom; in fact, the occurrence of other walls +near it would apparently preclude such an arrangement. The wall which +runs north or northwest from the kiva, joining it to the cliff wall +behind, is pierced by a doorway some feet above the ground, and in front +of or below this doorway there is a buttress or step of solid masonry, +shown on the plan. There was apparently an open space between this +doorway and the next wall to the north. The room entered through the +doorway was very small, and its roof, formed by the overhanging cliff, +is much blackened by smoke.</p> + +<p>The main or north kiva was 15 feet in diameter on the floor, with a +bench a foot wide extending around it. The external diameter is over 20 +feet. The interior was decorated by bands and dots in white, which are +described at length in another place (<a href = "#page178">page +178</a>). The roof was 5½ feet above the bench, and there is a +suggestion that it rested on a series of beams extending north and +south, but this is not certain.</p> + +<p>On the southeastern side, at the point where the kiva comes nearest +the edge of the cliff, there was a narrow opening or doorway not more +than 15 inches wide. This was the only entrance to the interior, except +through the roof, and it opens directly on the edge of the cliff, so +that it is very difficult, although not impossible, to pass it. In front +of the opening a little platform was built on the sloping edge of the +cliff, as though entrance was had from the lower bench by artificial +means, but it is more probable that this feature is all that remains of +a chimney-like structure.</p> + +<p>Above this kiva there was apparently a living room, the walls of +which, where they still remain on the north and west sides, were +approximately straight, but the corners were rounded. The roof was +formed by the overhanging cliff and the interior walls were whitewashed. +The kiva walls were about 18 inches thick, but on the west side, in the +small room between the kiva and the cliff, the masonry is much heavier, +the lower part extending into the room a foot farther than the upper. +This is caused by the wall of the second-story room above setting in +toward the east or center of the kiva. This upper wall was supported by +a beam, part of which is still in place. The small room behind is much +blackened by smoke.</p> + +<p>The exterior wall of the main kiva on the northwest side is very +rough. On the northeast and southeast, however, it is covered by +straight walls which are well finished. The western end of the north +<span class = "pagenum">126</span> +<a name = "page126" id = "page126"> </a> +<!--png 341--> +wall is joined to the exterior circular wall of the kiva, at the point +shown on the plan, by a short flying wall whose purpose is not clear. It +extends to what may have been the roof of the kiva, but underneath it is +open. The triangular cavity formed by it is too small to permit the +passage of a person, and was available only from the second story.</p> + +<p>The site of these ruins commands an extensive prospect, including +several small areas of good bottom land, one of which lies directly in +front of it; but the number of other ruins in the cove suggests that +there was once a much larger area of bottom land here, and this +suggestion is supported by the presence of several large cottonwood +trees, now standing out in the midst of the sand, in the bed of the +stream, where these trees never grow. Some of these trees are not yet +entirely dead, indicating that the change in the bed of the stream was a +recent one. Against the foot of the talus, just above the ruin, there is +a narrow strip of bottom land, about 3 feet above the stream bed, +and on it a single tree, still alive, but inclined at an angle. In the +stream bed, above and below the ruin, there are large trees, of which +only one or a few branches are still alive. The position of the cove +with reference to the stream bed made the bottom lands here especially +subject to erosion when the stream assumed its present channel and they +were gradually worn away.</p> + +<p>The western end of the ledge was occupied by a structure whose use at +first sight is not apparent. The wall, as shown on the plan, is curved, +very thick and heavy, and built partly over the sloping rock forming the +back of the cave. The front wall is 3 feet thick, and its top, now +level, is about 5 feet above a narrow bench in front of it. There +is no doorway or other opening into it, and access into its interior was +had over the steep sloping rock to the north by means of hand-holes in +the rock. These are shown in plate L. The interior appears to have +been plastered.</p> + +<!--png 342--> +<!--png 343--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateL" id = "plateL"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate50.png" width = "441" height = "313" +alt = "reservoir" title = "reservoir"> +</p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate L. Reservoir in Ruin No. 10</p> + +<p>This structure measures 15 by 5 feet inside, there being no wall +on the north, as the east wall merges into the sloping rock. The +foot-holes in the rock, before referred to, are at this end, nearest the +village, and appear to be in several series. The structure is so +situated that the sun shines on it only a few hours each day, and it +seems more than probable that it was a reservoir. The bed of the stream, +the channel followed in low water, sweeps against the base of the cliff +below this point, and by carrying water 20 feet it would be directly +beneath and about 50 feet below it. Finally, the cliff wall above this +point is decorated with pictographs of tadpoles and other water symbols +in common use among the pueblos, and these do not occur elsewhere on +this site. In the southwestern corner of the structure, near the bottom, +there was an opening about 18 inches high, which was carefully filled up +from the inside and plastered. This may have been an outlet by which the +water was discharged when the reservoir was cleaned out. The wall has +caved in slightly above it. The mud mortar used in building this +structure and the other walls was necessarily brought from below.</p> + +<p><span class = "pagenum">127</span> +<a name = "page127" id = "page127"> </a> +<!--png 344--> +About 25 feet east of the reservoir there are remains of a small single +room, rectangular, with a circular addition, shown on the ground plan. +The walls are well chinked and well constructed, the mud mortar being +used when about the consistency of modeling clay. In front of this room, +about 5 feet distant and on the edge of the sloping rock, a hole +has been pecked into the solid rock of the ledge. This hole is 12 inches +wide on top, slightly tapering, 10 inches deep on the upper side, and 4 +inches on the lower. Twelve feet to the northeast there is a similar +hole, and below it, distant 10 inches, another, and beyond this others, +distributed generally along the foot of the sloping rock forming the +back of the ledge, but sometimes farther out on the flat floor. Probably +these holes mark the sites of upright posts supporting a drying scaffold +or frame, the horizontal poles of which extended backward to the wall of +the cliff.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig25" id = "fig25"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig25.png" width = "444" height = "250" +alt = "oven-like structure" title = "oven-like structure"> +</p> +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 25</span>—Oven-like structure in +ruin No. 10.</p> + +<p>Near the center of the ledge, at the point shown on the plan, there +are some remains which strongly suggest the Mexican oven. The bed rock, +which is here nearly flat, was removed to a depth of about 4 inches over +a rectangular area measuring 4 feet north, and south by 3½ feet. +There were natural fissures in the rock on the north and west sides +which left clean edges. The southern edge appears to have been smashed +off with a rock. The eastern side required no dressing, as it was at a +slightly lower level, and it was to reach this level that the rock was +removed. In the rectangular space described there was a circular, +dome-shape structure, about 3 feet in diameter, composed of mud and +sticks, with a scant admixture of small stones. This is shown in figure +25, and in plan in figure 26. The walls were about 3 inches thick, and +from their slope the structure could not have been over 3 feet +high. The mud which composed the walls was held together by thin sticks +or +<span class = "pagenum">128</span> +<a name = "page128" id = "page128"> </a> +<!--png 345--> +branches, incorporated in it and curved with the wall—apparently +some kind of a vine twisted together and incorporated bodily. On the +edge of the rectangular space there is a drilled hole, 3 inches in +diameter, shown in the illustration. Three feet to the south there is +another, 6 inches in diameter.</p> + +<table class = "figfloat" summary = "illustration with caption"> +<tr> +<td class = "picture"> +<a name = "fig26" id = "fig26"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig26.png" width = "172" height = "235" +alt = "oven-like structure" title = "oven-like structure"> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 26</span>—Plan of oven-like +structure. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>If this structure was a dome-shape oven, and it is difficult to +imagine it anything else, its occurrence here is important. It is well +known that the dome-shape oven, which is very common in all the pueblos, +in some villages being numbered by hundreds, is not an aboriginal +feature, but was borrowed outright from the Mexicans. If the structure +above described was an oven, it is clear evidence of the occupancy of +these ruins within the historic period—it might almost be said +within the last century. No other structure of the kind was found in the +canyon, however, and it should be stated that the ovens of the pueblos +are as a rule rather larger in size than this and usually constructed of +small stones and mud—sometimes of regular masonry plastered. There +is a suggestion here, which is further borne out by the chimney-like +structures to be discussed later, that only the idea of these structures +was brought here, without detailed knowledge of how to carry it +out—as if, for example, they were built by novices from +description only.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig27" id = "fig27"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig27.png" width = "444" height = "180" +alt = "ground plan" title = "ground plan"> +</p> +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 27</span>—Ground plan of a small +village, ruin No. 16.</p> + +<p>Figure 27 is the ground plan of a small village ruin situated at the +mouth of Del Muerto at the point marked <a name = "ruin16a" id = +"ruin16a">16</a> on the map. The site, which is an excellent one, but +rather difficult of access, overlooks the bottom land at the junction of +the canyons and a long strip on the opposite side, together with a +considerable area above. The approach is over smooth sandstone inclined +at such an angle as to make it difficult to maintain a footing, but the +ruin can be reached without artificial aid.</p> + +<p>The village was not of large extent and contained but one kiva, but +the walls were well constructed and the masonry throughout is +exceptionally good. The exterior wall of the western rooms was +constructed of small stones neatly laid. The eastern room of the two was +built after the other, and entrance was had by an almost square opening +2 feet from the ground. To facilitate ingress, a notch was dug in +the wall about 8 inches from the ground. There was no communication +between the rooms, the western room being entered by a small doorway on +the western side, about 8 inches from the ground, 3 feet high and +14 inches wide. There was no plastering in the interior of these +rooms.</p> + +<p>The kiva is 15 feet in diameter on the floor, and about 23 feet in +its exterior diameter. The walls are 3 feet thick above the bench +level and 4 feet +<span class = "pagenum">129</span> +<a name = "page129" id = "page129"> </a> +<!--png 348--> +thick below it. The interior was plastered with a number of successive +coats, probably four or five in all; but although the wall is still +standing to a height of 4 feet or more above the bench, there are +gaps on the eastern and western sides which render it impossible to say +whether doorways were there or not. The eastern break exposes the +western side of the inclosing wall, which is smoothly finished as though +there were originally a recess here. There are rectangular inclosing +walls on the east and south; the northern side was formed by the cliff +against which the kiva rests, while on the west there are no traces of +an inclosing wall. The triangular spaces formed by the inclosing walls +on the northeast and southeast sides of the kiva were not filled up in +the customary manner, but appear to have been preserved as storerooms. +The southeastern space was connected with the kiva by a narrow doorway, +shown in the plan, and another doorway, completely sealed, led from this +space into the room adjoining on the east. The latter doorway had not +been used for a long time prior to the abandonment of the ruin, and its +opening into the rectangular room was carefully concealed from that side +by several successive coats of plaster.</p> + +<p>On the south side of the kiva and outside the rectangular wall is a +square buttress or chimney-like construction, 4 by 3 feet, +inclosing a shaft 10 by 5 inches. This feature will be discussed in +another place. It was added after the wall was completed, and embedded +in it, about a foot from the ground, is a heavy beam about 5 inches in +diameter. Plate LI, which shows the whole front of the village, will +make this feature clear. The beam projects from the kiva wall at or +under the floor level, and seems to have no reference to the shaft, +which is, however, shouldered to accommodate it. Similar beams project +from the walls to the east, about 8 inches above the bed rock.</p> + +<!--png 346--> +<!--png 347--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateLI" id = "plateLI"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate51.png" width = "469" height = "329" +alt = "village ruin" title = "village ruin"> +</p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate LI. Small Village, Ruin No. 16, Canyon De Chelly</p> + +<p>In the room east of the kiva no doorway was found. The walls are +still intact to a minimum height of 6 feet from the floor, except +in the southeast corner, where they are 3 feet. The opening +described, which occurs in the southwest corner of the room, was +4 feet from the floor; and in the southeast corner, where the wall +is broken down, there now +<span class = "pagenum">130</span> +<a name = "page130" id = "page130"> </a> +<!--png 349--> +are remains of one side of a similar opening on the same level. No +stains of smoke are found on the exterior coat of plaster in this room, +but the coats underneath were much blackened. The room north of the one +described, and adjoining the kiva, was also without a doorway, unless it +existed in the northeast corner, next the cliff, where no trace of walls +now remains. The walls of this room, now 6 feet high, were +plastered and show old smoke stains. The wall on the western side of the +kiva is very rough, as though at one time another wall existed outside +of it. This is shown in plate LII, which shows also the débris, +consisting of ashes, sheep dung, and refuse, well compacted, upon which +the wall rests.</p> + +<!--png 350--> +<!--png 351--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateLII" id = "plateLII"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate52.png" width = "437" height = "318" +alt = "ruin walls" title = "ruin walls"> +</p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate LII. Walls Resting on Refuse in Ruin No. 16</p> + +<p>West of the kiva and on the extreme edge of the cliff are the remains +of two small apartments, a trifle below the surface of the ledge and +with a 3-foot wall on the south. These are too small for habitations, +and were used probably for the storage of corn. About 100 feet west of +the group described, on the same bench, there are remains of a large +room, divided into two, and of quite rough construction. It contains +several Navaho dead and may be of Navaho origin.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig28" id = "fig28"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig28.png" width = "438" height = "384" +alt = "ruins" title = "ruins"> +</p> +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 28</span>—Ruins on a large +rock.</p> + +<p>A type of site which is abundant in the San Juan country and is found +in other regions, but is very rare in this, is shown in figure 28. +<span class = "pagenum">131</span> +<a name = "page131" id = "page131"> </a> +<!--png 352--> +This example, which occurs in the upper part of Del Muerto, is the only +one of its kind in the canyons. A large mass of rock, smoothed and +rounded by atmospheric erosion, but still connected with the cliff at +one point, juts out into the bottom, a large area of which is commanded +by it. At three different levels there are remains of rooms, the group +on the summit being the largest. It is doubtful whether any of these +remains represent permanent villages, but it is possible that the +uppermost one did. It is therefore included in this place.</p> + +<table class = "figfloat" summary = "illustration with caption"> +<tr> +<td class = "picture"> +<a name = "fig29" id = "fig29"> </a> +<a href = "images/figures/fig29.png"> +<img src = "images/figures/fig29thumb.png" width = "255" height = "724" +alt = "ground plan" title = "ground plan"></a> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 29</span>—Ground plan<br> +of ruins No. 49<br> +<a href = "images/figures/fig29.png">Horizontal View</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>At the point marked <a name = "ruin49" id = "ruin49">49</a> on the +map there is a ruin or group of ruins which presents some anomalous +features. Figure 29 shows in detail the distribution of the remains. The +rooms were located on narrow benches in the cliff, the principal part on +a high, narrow bench, 40 or 50 feet above the top of the talus and over +300 feet above the canyon bottom. Access to the upper ledge from the top +of the talus is exceedingly difficult, requiring a climb over almost +vertical rock for 40 feet. Above the ledge there is massive sandstone, +but below it for 100 feet or more there is an area of cross bedding, and +the rock has an almost vertical cleavage, +<span class = "pagenum">132</span> +<a name = "page132" id = "page132"> </a> +<!--png 353--> +apparently standing upright in thin slabs 2 to 6 inches thick. Access +was had by aid of the rough projections of the slabs, aided where +necessary by hand and foot holes pecked in the rock. At several places +little platforms of masonry have been built.</p> + +<p>At the northern end of the upper ledge there are five small cells +occupying its whole width, and whose front wall follows the winding +ledge. The walls are about 5 feet high, and their tops bear the +marks of the poles which carried the roof. There are no exterior +openings, nor is there any evidence of a means of communication between +the rooms; but in the second room from the south two stones project from +the wall inside, near the southeastern corner, forming rude steps, +doubtless to a trapdoor in the roof. These cells could hardly have been +used as habitations. The floors are covered with many lumps of clay, +which apparently formed part of the roof.</p> + +<p>To the south of this cluster of cells there was a large room of +irregular shape on a level about 8 feet higher. The remainder of +the ledge, which is about on the same level as this large room, is +almost covered with large bowlders, but at several points on it other +remains of walls occur. The largest room of all was near its center. It +was built against the cliff, which formed one of its sides, and measured +about 16 by 6 feet. There are no evidences of any partitions or +roof, the latter probably being formed by the overhanging rock. As the +room was built partly on the sloping rock, the floor is very uneven. It +could hardly have been used as a habitation, but may have been employed +for the storage of water.</p> + +<p>The southern end of the lower ledge merges into the head of the +talus, the northern part drops down by a sharply sloping and in places +an almost vertical wall of about 30 feet; thence it descends to the +bottom by a long slope of bare rock, generally passable on foot. The +lower ledge is about 50 feet above the upper. Upon it are scattered the +remains of a few rooms of the same general character as those above, but +smaller. Many of these have been utilized for modern Navaho burials, and +perhaps some of them were constructed for that purpose. If these rooms +were used as habitations, it must have been under very peculiar +circumstances; moreover, the site is hardly suited for such a purpose, +having the sunshine less than half of the day. In this respect it is +anomalous.</p> + +<p>At the southern end of the ledge there is a large angular bowlder, +one edge of which rests against the cliff wall and is free from the +ground. Under this the walls of a small room can be seen. The cliff +formed one side of the room and the bowlder acted as a roof. On the +extreme northern end of the ledge, 200 feet distant from the nearest +room, there are remains of a structure standing alone. The masonry is +much rougher than that of the other rooms, and, although the walls are +now about 6 feet high, there is no evidence of any doorway or +opening into the room.</p> + +<p><span class = "pagenum">133</span> +<a name = "page133" id = "page133"> </a> +<!--png 354--> +On the surface of the sloping rock, at this point nearly flat, there are +traces of a circular kiva 18 or 20 feet in diameter. These traces occur +at a point about midway between the southern and northern ends of the +lower ledge and some 30 feet below it. The cliff walls, both of the +lower and upper ledges, are covered with pictographs in white, red, and +yellow.</p> + +<p>The location and character of this site and the character of the +remains suggest that most if not all of the rooms which can now be +traced were used for storage only. For this purpose the site is well +adapted. But the remains of the circular kiva at the foot of the lower +<span class = "pagenum">134</span> +<a name = "page134" id = "page134"> </a> +<!--png 355--> +ledge show plainly that there were at one time some habitations here. +Doubtless these were located on the smooth rock at the foot of the +cliff, and the disappearance of all traces of walls may be due to the +subsequent use of the material by the Navaho for the construction of +burial cists, in which the site abounds. There still remains on the +ground a fair amount of broken stone, suitable for building, but no +lines of wall are now traceable.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig30" id = "fig30"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig30.png" width = "442" height = "564" +alt = "ruins" title = "ruins"> +</p> +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 30</span>—Ruin on an almost +inaccessible site.</p> + +<p>Figure 30 shows one of the most inaccessible sites in the canyon. It +occurs at the point marked <a name = "ruin62" id = "ruin62">62</a> on +the map, where there is a narrow ledge nearly 400 feet above the stream. +The approach is over bare rock, sharply sloping, but passable at two +points by an active man accustomed to climbing. Both of these points are +near the western or left-hand end of the ruin; toward the right the rock +becomes vertical. Immediately below this ruin there are the remains of a +large settlement on a low spur near the stream, now much obliterated, +and above and below it on suitable sites there were a number of small +settlements which may have been connected with it.</p> + +<p>There were a number of rooms scattered along the ledge which appear +to have been used as habitations. The overhanging cliff is so close that +in a number of cases it formed the roof of the room, and the whole site +was an inconvenient and dangerous one. The rooms on the east rest on a +large block which has split off from the wall since the walls were +built, and now hangs apparently ready to drop at any moment.</p> + +<p>At the time this site was inhabited access was had over the smooth +rounded rock on the west. Here hand and foot holes have been pecked in +the steep places, but as the rock is much exposed to atmospheric erosion +these holes are now almost obliterated. After ascending the rock the +village was entered through a doorway in a wall of exceptional +thickness, shown on the left of the drawing. The room which was entered +through this doorway appears to have been placed at this +<span class = "pagenum">135</span> +<a name = "page135" id = "page135"> </a> +<!--png 356--> +point to command the entrance to the village. The wall is exceptionally +heavy and was pierced with oblique loopholes commanding a narrow bench +immediately in front of it. This appears to have been a purely defensive +expedient, and as such is unique.</p> + +<p>The site commands an extensive outlook over the canyon bottom, +including several areas of cultivable land, and while it may have been +occupied as a regular village, such occupancy could not have been long +continued. Altogether the site and the character of the house remains +are anomalous and doubtless resulted from anomalous conditions.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig31" id = "fig31"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig31.png" width = "431" height = "218" +alt = "ground plan" title = "ground plan"> +</p> +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 31</span>—Ground plan of a large +ruin in Canyon del Muerto.</p> + +<p>Figure 31 is a ground plan of a large ruin in Del Muerto. It occupied +almost the whole available area of the ledge on which it is situated, +and over 40 rooms can now be made out on the ground, in addition to 3 +circular kivas. The settlement may have comprised between 80 and 100 +rooms, which would accommodate 15 to 20 families. The size is very +unusual, and the presence of but 3 kivas would indicate that the +families were closely related. There are other examples of this +character in the canyons, but not so large as the one illustrated.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig32" id = "fig32"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig32.png" width = "434" height = "122" +alt = "ground plan" title = "ground plan"> +</p> +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 32</span>—Ground plan of a small +ruin in Canyon del Muerto.</p> + +<table class = "figfloat" summary = "illustration with caption"> +<tr> +<td class = "picture"> +<a name = "fig33" id = "fig33"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig33.png" width = "283" height = "170" +alt = "ground plan" title = "ground plan"> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 33</span>—Ground plan of a small +ruin.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>Figure 32 illustrates a type which is more common. Here we have the +usual arrangement of rooms along the cliff, with a kiva in front of +them. There were altogether not over 10 or 12 rooms, and they were +probably occupied by one family. Figure 33 shows a kind rather more +abundant than the last, and consisting like it of one circular kiva with +rooms back of and between it and the cliff. Ruins of this type are +generally well protected by an overhanging cliff. Figure 34 is another +example, in +<span class = "pagenum">136</span> +<a name = "page136" id = "page136"> </a> +<!--png 357--> +which only three rectangular rooms can be made out. The site here is +almost covered with large bowlders. All these examples occur in Del +Muerto.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig34" id = "fig34"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig34.png" width = "430" height = "184" +alt = "ground plan" title = "ground plan"> +</p> +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 34</span>—Plan of a ruin of three +rooms.</p> + +<p>Figure 35 is a ground plan of a small ruin which occurs at the point +marked <a name = "ruin36" id = "ruin36">36</a> on the map. It is +situated in a shallow cove at the head of the talus, 200 or 300 feet +above the bottom, and is of comparatively easy access. There is but a +small amount of cultivable bottom land immediately below it, but it +commands extensive areas on the opposite site of the canyon and in the +lower part of a branch on that side. There are but few remains of rooms +other than parts of two kivas, but there is no question that there was +at one time a considerable number here. Both kivas had interior benches, +and were of small size, plastered in the interior. The masonry is fair +to good. On the highest point of the bowlder shown on the right of the +plan there is a fragment of compacted sheep dung and soil, which is now +6 feet above the ground. It is all that remains of a layer of some +thickness which must have been deposited when the surface was filled up +to or nearly to the top of the rock. Possibly there was a wall outside +and only the intermediate space was filled.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig35" id = "fig35"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig35.png" width = "431" height = "196" +alt = "ground plan" title = "ground plan"> +</p> +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 35</span>—Ground plan of a small +ruin, with two kivas.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">137</span> +<a name = "page137" id = "page137"> </a> +<!--png 358--> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig36" id = "fig36"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig36.png" width = "441" height = "223" +alt = "ground plan" title = "ground plan"> +</p> +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 36</span>—Ground plan of a small +ruin, No. 44.</p> + +<p>Figure 36 is the ground plan of a somewhat similar ruin which occurs +at the point marked <a name = "ruin44" id = "ruin44">44</a> on the map. +It is situated on the top of the talus, against the cliff, and commands +a fine outlook over the cultivable lands in the cove below it and on the +canyon bottom proper. There are but few wall remains, but two kivas can +still be made out. There is no ledge here, and the walls were built on +loose debris of rocks and talus. The builders had some trouble in +holding the walls in place, and only partly succeeded in doing so. About +one-half of the principal kiva is standing, showing masonry composed of +exceptionally large stones, roughly chinked. The other, or western kiva, +was similarly constructed, and both had interior benches. The front of +the western kiva fell out, the builders being unable to tie it or to +hold it in place on its loose foundation, and other walls were +constructed inside of it, as shown on the plan. There were other walls +outside the main kiva, apparently rectangular inclosing walls. This +example is interesting because the masonry was constructed on a +foundation of loose debris, not on bed rock, and the knowledge possessed +by the builders was not sufficient to enable them to overcome the +natural difficulties of the site. +<span class = "pagenum">138</span> +<a name = "page138" id = "page138"> </a> +<!--png 359--> +Although ultimately the village had to be abandoned as a failure, it was +certainly occupied for some years, and this occupancy suggests that +there was some strong objection to the lower part of the canyon. It +illustrates, moreover, the importance which was attached to a command or +outlook over extensive cultivable areas, as to obtain such an outlook +the builders were content to occupy even such an unsuitable site as the +one described.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig37" id = "fig37"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig37.png" width = "428" height = "162" +alt = "ground plan" title = "ground plan"> +</p> +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 37</span>—Ground plan of a ruin on +a rocky site.</p> + +<p>Figure 37 shows a small ruin similar to those described, but located +on a site almost covered with large bowlders. The principal structure +now remaining is a circular kiva, which, contrary to the usual plan, was +placed close up against the cliff; possibly the cliff formed part of the +back wall. Large bowlders so closely hemmed in the structure that there +was neither space nor necessity for an inclosing wall. The kiva was +benched for about half of its circumference.</p> + +<table class = "figfloat" summary = "illustration with caption"> +<tr> +<td class = "picture"> +<a name = "fig38" id = "fig38"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig38.png" width = "212" height = "258" +alt = "petroglyphs" title = "petroglyphs"> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 38</span>—Rock with cups<br> +and petroglyphs +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>Under the large bowlder to the right of the kiva a complete room had +been built, with a doorway of the usual type through the front wall. +Scattered remnants of other walls may be seen here and there, but none +show well-defined rooms. Petroglyphs are quite numerous, and one small +bowlder to the left of and next to the kiva is covered with cups, dots, +and carvings. It is shown in figure 38.</p> + +<p>Figure 39 shows a ruin where the site was not so restricted. One +well-defined room and two kivas still remain, and there are traces of +other chambers. The main kiva formed part of a compact little group of +rooms, of which it occupied the front, and appears to have been inclosed +by a curved wall of rough construction. A curved inclosing wall is an +anomalous feature, and it is not at all certain that it occurs here, as +the wall is so much broken down that its lines can not now be clearly +made out. Excavation would doubtless determine this, as the whole site +has been much filled up with sand and loose earth.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig39" id = "fig39"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig39.png" width = "429" height = "334" +alt = "ground plan" title = "ground plan"> +</p> +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 39</span>—Ground plan of a ruin in +Canyon de Chelly.</p> + +<p>The second kiva, which was about the same size as the first, was +situated some little distance from the other, and on the outer edge of +the little platform or bench on which the settlement was located. It +still shows about half of its wall. The rectangular room near the main +kiva still stands to a height of 3 and 4 feet. The wall nearest the +kiva is pierced by a number of small openings, and by a neatly finished +double-notched doorway, which is illustrated in another place (<a href = +"#fig67">figure 67</a>).</p> + +<p>The whole front of the site has been filled up to a probable depth of +several feet, and a number of Navaho burials have been made on it. +<span class = "pagenum">139</span> +<a name = "page139" id = "page139"> </a> +<!--png 360--> +These are shown on the plan by shaded spots. Owing to the soft ground +underneath, it was easier to excavate a hole and wall it up than to +construct the regular surface cist, and the former plan was +followed.</p> + +<table class = "figfloat" summary = "illustration with caption"> +<tr> +<td class = "picture"> +<a name = "fig40" id = "fig40"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig40.png" width = "219" height = "108" +alt = "rock fall" title = "rock fall"> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 40</span>—Site showing recent fall +of rock. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>Although many of the sites are covered with bowlders and blocks of +stone fallen from above, which often occur among and even over walls, +close inspection generally shows that the walls were constructed after +the rocks fell. There are two instances, however, which are doubtful, +and in one (shown in figure 40) it appears that large blocks of rock +have fallen since the walls were constructed. Such falls of rock are not +uncommon now in the fall and winter months, when frost and seepage from +the melting snow sometimes split off huge fragments.</p> + +<p>The site mentioned occurs at the point marked <a name = "ruin47" id = +"ruin47">47</a> on the map. It is in a cove under a mass of rock which +juts out from the cliff, and is about 30 feet above the bottom, on the +edge of a slope of loose rock which extends some distance above it. At +the top of the talus, over 200 feet above, there is another ruin, which +was probably only an outlook, as no trace of a kiva can be found, and it +is possible that the lower site was connected with and formed part of +the upper one. The lower site contained a circular kiva, only a small +portion of which now remains, and the ground is covered with blocks of +rock which must have fallen since the walls were built. They appear to +have fallen quite recently. It can still be seen that the kiva had an +interior bench, and that there was a room, or perhaps rooms, between it +and the back of the cove; but beyond this nothing can now be made +out.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">140</span> +<a name = "page140" id = "page140"> </a> +<!--png 361--> +<p>There are many favorable sites in the branch canyons, but not many of +them are occupied, possibly because in the upper parts of these canyons +the bottom land is of small area and is sometimes rough, being composed +of numerous small hillocks. The flat bottom lands of the canyon proper +are much easier to cultivate, but the sites in the side canyons offered +much better facilities for defense. Figure 41 shows the plan of a ruin +which occurs at the point marked <a name = "ruin69" id = "ruin69">69</a> +on the map, on the western side of a branch canyon through which passes +the trail to Fort Defiance. It is situated in a shallow cove at the top +of the talus and overlooks an extensive area of fine bottom land below +it. At the eastern end there is a single room about 10 feet long; its +front wall extends up to the overhanging rock, which forms the roof of +the room. A small cist has been built against it on the west.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig41" id = "fig41"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig41.png" width = "431" height = "69" +alt = "ruin" title = "ruin"> +</p> +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 41</span>—Ruin No. 69, in a branch +canyon.</p> + +<p>About 60 feet west, on the same ledge, there are remains of other +rooms which rested probably on the talus. Several rooms can be made out, +but only one shows standing walls. This is on the western end, and the +walls are now about 5 feet high. Four feet from the top of the wall +there is a clear line of demarcation extending horizontally across it. +Below this line the masonry consists of large flat slabs of rock laid in +mud mortar, which was used nearly dry and stuffed into the cracks to +some extent. Above the line the stones were carefully selected and the +work was well done, the whole being finished by a thin coat of plaster. +There is no opening in the lower part, but in the upper part there is a +neatly finished doorway 3 feet high and slightly tapering. The +bottom of this opening extends 2 inches below the line, and the lintel +is composed of a large slab of stone a trifle wider than the thickness +of the wall, but fitted flush on the outside.</p> + +<table class = "figfloat" summary = "illustration with caption"> +<tr> +<td class = "picture"> +<a name = "fig42" id = "fig42"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig42.png" width = "232" height = "107" +alt = "ground plan" title = "ground plan"> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 42</span>—Ground plan of a<br> +small ruin in Canyon del Muerto.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>On a bench about 100 feet higher than the ruin described there are +two small rooms, extending up to the overhanging rock above them. These +rooms, which may be of Navaho origin, were reached by means of a narrow +ledge extending +<span class = "pagenum">141</span> +<a name = "page141" id = "page141"> </a> +<!--png 362--> +from the top of a slope of loose rock and debris about 300 yards to the +southward, or up the canyon.</p> + +<p>Figure 42 is a ground plan of a small ruin in Del Muerto in which the +usual preponderance of rectangular rooms is illustrated. The site was +restricted, but there is an apparent attempt to carry out the usual +arrangement of a row of rooms against the cliff, with a kiva in front. +Probably only three of the rooms shown were used as habitations. The +plan of the kiva, which occurs in the center, was somewhat marred by a +large bowlder, which must have projected into it, but apparently no +attempt was made to dress off the projecting point.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig43" id = "fig43"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig43.png" width = "430" height = "190" +alt = "ground plan" title = "ground plan"> +</p> +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 43</span>—Ground plan of a small +ruin.</p> + +<p>Figure 43 is the plan of a ruin located on a more open site. Only a +few walls now remain, but there is no doubt that at one time more of the +site was covered than now appears. There are remains of two, and perhaps +of three, circular kivas.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig44" id = "fig44"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig44.png" width = "430" height = "203" +alt = "ground plan" title = "ground plan"> +</p> +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 44</span>—Plan of a ruin with +curved inclosing wall.</p> + +<p>Figure 44 shows a ruin in which the plan is somewhat more elaborated. +There are remains of several well-defined rooms, and two kivas are still +fairly well preserved. The ledge is narrow and the rooms are stretched +along it, with kivas at either end. That on the east was +<span class = "pagenum">142</span> +<a name = "page142" id = "page142"> </a> +<!--png 363--> +benched nearly all around its interior, and the outside inclosing wall, +on the east, apparently follows the curve. An example in which this +feature occurs has been mentioned above (<a href = "#page138">page +138</a>). It is very rare, but in this case the evidence is clearer than +in the one previously described. The western kiva, somewhat smaller than +the other, was also benched, and had an exterior shaft, like those +mentioned above and later described at length.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig45" id = "fig45"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig45.png" width = "367" height = "151" +alt = "ground plan" title = "ground plan"> +</p> +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 45</span>—Ground plan of ruin No. +34.</p> + +<p>Figure 45 is a plan of a small ruin of the same type, which occurs in +the middle region of De Chelly. It occupies the site marked <a name = +"ruin34" id = "ruin34">34</a> on the map, and is situated in a niche in +a deep cove, where the outlook is almost completely obscured by a large +sand dune in front of it. It comprised one circular kiva and four +rectangular rooms, but, contrary to the usual result, the latter are +fairly well preserved, while the former is almost completely +obliterated. This may be due to the use of the rectangular rooms as +sites for Navaho burial cists, of which there are no fewer than six +here, and possibly the kiva walls furnished the necessary building +material for the construction of the cists. The old masonry is of good +quality, the outside wall being formed of selected stones of medium +size, well laid and carefully chinked. Most of the walls were plastered +inside. In a cleft in the rock to the right of this ruin there is a kind +of cave, with foot-holes leading up the rock to it, and quite difficult +of access. It formerly may have been used for storage, but at present +contains only some remains of Navaho burials.</p> + + +<h6 class = "section"> +<a name = "desc_outlooks" id = "desc_outlooks">IV—CLIFF OUTLOOKS +OR FARMING SHELTERS</a></h6> + +<p>Ruins comprised in the class of cliff outlooks, or farming shelters, +are by far the most numerous in the canyon. They were located on various +kinds of sites, but always with reference to some area of cultivable +land which they overlooked, and seldom, if ever, was the site selected +under the influence of the defensive motive. It is not to be understood +that such motive was wholly absent; it may have been present in some +cases, but the dominating motive was always convenience to some adjacent +area of cultivable land.</p> + +<p><span class = "pagenum">143</span> +<a name = "page143" id = "page143"> </a> +<!--png 364--> +The separation of this class of ruins from the preceding village ruins, +while clear and definite enough in the main, is far from absolute. The +sole criterion we have is the presence or absence of the kiva, as the +sites occupied are essentially the same; but this test is in a general +way sufficient. It is possible that in certain cases the kiva is so far +obliterated as to be no longer distinguishable, but the number of cases +in which this might have occurred is comparatively small. The kivas, as +a rule, were more solidly constructed than the other rooms, and, as the +preceding ground plans show, sometimes survived when the rectangular +rooms connected with them have entirely disappeared.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig46" id = "fig46"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig46.png" width = "434" height = "140" +alt = "ground plan" title = "ground plan"> +</p> +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 46</span>—Ground plan of cliff +outlook No. <a name = "ruin35" id = "ruin35">35</a>.</p> + +<p>Figure 46 is the plan of an outlook in the same cove as the last +example of village ruin illustrated, and only 200 or 300 yards south of +it. It may have been connected with that ruin, but could not in itself +have been a village, as there are no traces of a kiva on the site, and +hardly room enough for one on the bench proper. At the extreme northern +end there are traces of walls on the rocks at a lower level.</p> + +<p>The walls which were at right angles to the cliff were not carried +back to it after the usual manner, but stopped about 3 feet from +it, and the rooms were closed by a back wall running parallel to the +cliff, and about 3 feet from it. This wall rises to a height of +about 4 feet before it meets the overhanging cliff, and +consequently there is a long narrow passageway, about 3 feet high +and 3 feet wide on the bottom, between it and the cliff. A small +man might wriggle through, but with difficulty.</p> + +<p><span class = "pagenum">144</span> +<a name = "page144" id = "page144"> </a> +<!--png 365--> +The ruin commands a fine outlook over the cove. The masonry is good, +being composed of selected stone well chinked with small spalls, and +sometimes with bits of clay pressed in with the fingers.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig47" id = "fig47"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig47.png" width = "441" height = "168" +alt = "ground plan" title = "ground plan"> +</p> +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 47</span>—Plan of a cliff +outlook.</p> + +<p>Figure 47 shows a ruin located at the point marked <a name = +"ruin37a" id = "ruin37a">37</a> on the map. There is a high slope of +talus here, the top of which is flat and of considerable area.</p> + +<p>The ruin is invisible from below in its present condition, but the +site commands a fine outlook over several considerable areas of bottom +land. The walls are now much obliterated and worked over by the Navaho, +but the remains are scattered over quite an extensive area and may have +been at one time an extensive settlement; however, no traces of a kiva +can now be seen. Marks on the cliff show that some of the houses had +been three stories high. Some places on the cliff, which were apparently +back-walls of rooms, were plastered and coated with white, and there are +many pictographs on the rock. The masonry is of fair quality, but the +stones were laid with more mortar than usual.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig48" id = "fig48"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig48.png" width = "434" height = "152" +alt = "ground plan" title = "ground plan"> +</p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 48</span>—Plan of cliff ruin No. +46.</p> + +<p>Figure 48 is a ground plan of a ruin which occurs at the point marked +<a name = "ruin46" id = "ruin46">46</a> on the map. It is situated in a +cove in the rock at the top of the talus, 300 or 400 feet above the +bottom, and immediately above the rectangular single room described and +illustrated on <a href = "#page151">page 151</a>. It commands an +extensive outlook over the bottom lands on both sides of the canyon and +above. The cove is about 40 feet deep, and, though so high up, has been +used as a sheep close, and doubtless some of the walls have been covered +up. Four rooms are still standing in two little clusters of two rooms +each. The walls of the rooms on the west are composed of large stones +laid in plenty of mud mortar and plastered inside and out; those of the +eastern portion were built of small stones, chinked but not plastered. +One of the rooms is blackened by smoke in the corner only, as though +there had been some chimney structure here, which subsequently had +fallen away. The cliff walls back of the eastern part are heavily +smoke-blackened; back of the western portion there are no stains. There +is now no trace of a circular kiva, but there is a heavy deposit of +sheep dung on the ground which might cover up such traces if they +existed. This site commands one of the best outlooks in the canyon, but +access, while not very difficult, is inconvenient on account of the +great height above the bottom.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">145</span> +<a name = "page145" id = "page145"> </a> +<!--png 366--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig49" id = "fig49"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig49.png" width = "418" height = "145" +alt = "ground plan" title = "ground plan"> +</p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 49</span>—Plan of cliff room with +partitions.</p> + +<p>Figure 49 shows a common type of ruin in this class. The original +structure appears to have contained one or two good rooms, which by +subsequent additions have been divided into several. These later +additions may have been made by the Navaho, who used the building +material on the ground; at any rate the structure is now merely a +cluster of storage cists.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig50" id = "fig50"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig50.png" width = "430" height = "147" +alt = "ground plan" title = "ground plan"> +</p> +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 50</span>—Plan of a large cliff +outlook in Canyon del Muerto.</p> + +<table class = "figfloat" summary = "illustration with caption"> +<tr> +<td class = "picture"> +<a name = "fig51" id = "fig51"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig51.png" width = "302" height = "132" +alt = "ground plan" title = "ground plan"> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 51</span>—Plan of a cluster<br> +of rooms in Canyon del Muerto.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>One of the most extensive ruins of the cliff-outlook type situated in +Canyon del Muerto is shown in figure 50. The plan shows at least eight +rooms stretched along the cliff at the top of the talus. Figure 51 shows +five rooms arranged in a cluster. One of these is still complete, the +walls extending to the overhanging rock above which formed the roof. It +will be noticed that the front room was set back far enough to allow +access to the central room through a doorway in the corner. This was a +convenience, rather than a necessity, for many of the rooms in ruins of +this class were entered only through other rooms or through the roof, +and a direct opening to the outer air was not considered a necessity; +probably because these rooms in the cliff, which have been termed +outlooks, were not in any sense watch towers, but rather places of abode +during the harvest season, where the workers in the field lived when not +actually employed in labor, and where the fields tinder cultivation +could always be kept in view—an arrangement quite as necessary and +quite as extensively practiced now as it was formerly.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig52" id = "fig52"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig52.png" width = "394" height = "239" +alt = "ruin" title = "ruin"> +</p> +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 52</span>—White House ruin in +Tseonitsosi canyon.</p> + +<p>Figure 52 shows a cluster of rooms in the little canyon called +Tseonitsosi. This is another Casa Blanca, or White House, and, oddly +enough, +<span class = "pagenum">146</span> +<a name = "page146" id = "page146"> </a> +<!--png 367--> +it resembles its namesake in De Chelly, not only in the coat of +whitewash applied to the front of the main room, but in having a +subordinate room to the left, over which the wash extends, and in the +character of the site it occupies. The principal part of the structure +was built in a cave, 18 or 20 feet from the ground, across the front of +which walls extended as in the other Casa Blanca, and, like that ruin, +there are also some ruins at the foot of the cliff, on the flat. Figure +53 is a ground plan. The resemblance to the other Casa Blanca, however, +goes no further. The ruin here illustrated represents a very small +settlement, hardly more than half a dozen rooms in all, and there is no +trace of a circular kiva, or other evidence of permanent habitation. It +is possible that the space between the edge of the floor of the cave +above and the whitened house back of it was occupied by some sort of +structure, but no evidence now remains which would warrant such a +hypothesis, except that the door of the white house is now about +4 feet above the ground. The cave is only 40 feet long and a little +over 10 feet deep, and there is not room on the floor for more than +three or four rooms, in addition to those shown on the plan. The room on +the right still preserves its roof intact, showing the typical pueblo +roof construction. It has a well-preserved doorway, and three other +openings may be seen in the main room.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig53" id = "fig53"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig53.png" width = "372" height = "154" +alt = "ground plan" title = "ground plan"> +</p> +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 53</span>—Ground plan of a ruin in +Tseonitsosi canyon.</p> + +<p>Apparently some effort at ornamentation was made here. The whitewash +was not applied to the fronts of the two back rooms so as to cover +<span class = "pagenum">147</span> +<a name = "page147" id = "page147"> </a> +<!--png 368--> +all of them, but in a broad belt, leaving the natural yellowish-gray +color of the plastering in a narrow band above and a broad band below +it. Moreover, the principal opening of the larger room was specially +treated; in the application of the whitewash a narrow border or frame of +the natural color was left surrounding it. The attempt to apply +decoration not utilitarian in character is rare among the ruins here. It +implies either a late period in the occupancy of this region, or an +occupancy of the site by a people who had practiced this method of +house-building longer or under more favorable conditions than the +others.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig54" id = "fig54"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig54.png" width = "427" height = "136" +alt = "ground plan" title = "ground plan"> +</p> +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 54</span>—Plan of rooms against a +convex cliff.</p> + +<p>Figure 54 shows an arrangement of rooms along a narrow ledge at the +top of the talus, where the cliff wall is not coved or concave, but +convex. Some of these little rooms may have been used only for storage, +but others were undoubtedly habitations. Figure 55 shows an example in +which the back wall is curved, as though it was either built over an old +kiva or an attempt was made to convert a rectangular room into a kiva. +There were originally three rooms in the cluster, only one of which +remains, but that one is of unusual size, measuring about 15 +<span class = "pagenum">148</span> +<a name = "page148" id = "page148"> </a> +<!--png 369--> +by 10 feet. If the room was used solely as a habitation, there was no +necessity for the back wall, as the side walls continue back to the +cliff. Including the little cove on the left, there are seven Navaho +burial places on this site.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig55" id = "fig55"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig55.png" width = "435" height = "110" +alt = "ruin" title = "ruin"> +</p> +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 55</span>—Small ruin with curved +wall.</p> + +<!--png 370--> +<!--png 371--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateLIII" id = "plateLIII"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate53.png" width = "475" height = "314" +alt = "outlook" title = "outlook"> +</p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate LIII. Cliff Outlook in Lower Canyon De Chelly</p> + +<p>Plate LIII shows an outlook in the lower part of De Chelly, at the +point marked <a name = "ruin6a" id = "ruin6a">6</a> on the map. The +lower part of the cliff here flares out slightly, forming a sharp slope; +where it meets the vertical rock there is a small bench, on which the +ruin is situated. It is apparently inaccessible, but close examination +shows a long series of hand and foot holes extending up a cleft in the +rock, and forming an easy ascent. The site commands a good outlook over +the bottom lands.</p> + +<table class = "figfloat" summary = "illustration with caption"> +<tr> +<td class = "picture"> +<a name = "fig56" id = "fig56"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig56.png" width = "310" height = "86" +alt = "ground plan" title = "ground plan"> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 56</span>—Ground plan of a cliff +outlook.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>The ruin consists of three rectangular rooms arranged side by side +against the cliff, and a kind of curved addition on the east. Figure 56 +is a ground plan. The walls are still standing from a foot to +4 feet high, and produce the impression of being unfinished; +although carefully chinked, they were neither plastered nor rubbed down. +The two western rooms were built first, and the eastern wall extends +through the front. East of these rooms there is a small rectangular +chamber, and east of this again a low curved wall forming a little +chamber or cist of irregular form (not shown in the plan). The front +wall was extended beyond this and brought in again to the cliff on a +curve, forming another small cist of irregular shape. This and the +little chamber west of it were doubtless used for storage. They resemble +in plan Navaho cists, but the masonry, which is exactly like the other +walls here, will not permit the hypothesis of Navaho construction. +Except for some slight traces in the northwest corner of the west room, +there are no smoke stains about, nor are there any pictographs on the +cliff walls. The western room was pierced by a window opening which was +subsequently filled up, possibly by the Navaho, who have five burial +cists here.</p> + +<table class = "figfloat" summary = "illustration with caption"> +<tr> +<td class = "picture"> +<a name = "fig57" id = "fig57"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig57.png" width = "188" height = "92" +alt = "ground plan" title = "ground plan"> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 57</span>—Plan of cliff outlook<br> +No. 14, in Canyon de Chelly.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>Figure 57 is the plan of a small outlook which occurs at the point +marked <a name = "ruin14" id = "ruin14">14</a> on the map. Opposite the +mouth of Del Muerto there is an elevated rocky area of considerable +extent, perhaps 50 feet above the bottom, but shelving off around the +edges. Near the cliff this is covered by sand dunes and piles of broken +rock; farther out there is a more level area covered thinly with sand +and soil, and here there is a large ruin of the old obliterated type +already described (<a href = "#page093">page 93</a>).</p> + +<p><span class = "pagenum">149</span> +<a name = "page149" id = "page149"> </a> +<!--png 372--> +Near the edges the rock becomes bare again, and is 20 to 30 feet high, +descending sheer or with an overhang to the bottoms or to the stream +bed. On the western side, facing north, the ruin illustrated occurs. It +is a mere cubby hole, and was evidently located for the area of +cultivable land which lies before it, and which it almost completely +commands. The cavity is about 12 feet above the ground and appears to +have been divided by cross walls into three rooms, two of which were +quite small. The back room was small, dark, and not large enough to +contain a human body unless it was carefully packed in, and at various +points along the back wall there are seeps of water. The interior of the +little room was very wet and moldy at the time when it was examined, in +winter, but in the summer time is probably dry enough.</p> + +<!--png 374--> +<!--png 375--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateLIV" id = "plateLIV"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate54.png" width = "429" height = "311" +alt = "view of ruin" title = "view of ruin"> +</p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate LIV. Cliff Ruin No. 14</p> + +<p>The masonry is fair and the surface is finished with plaster. The +open space in front of the small back room and the outer wall of the +room itself are much blackened by smoke, as though the inhabitant lived +here and used the small room only to store his utensils and implements. +A small room on the east must have been used for a similar purpose. Both +of these rooms were entered through narrow doorways opening on the +principal space. The site is an ideal one for a lookout, but not well +suited for a habitation. Plate LIV shows its character.</p> + +<table class = "figfloat" summary = "illustration with caption"> +<tr> +<td class = "picture"> +<a name = "fig58" id = "fig58"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig58.png" width = "251" height = "230" +alt = "ground plan" title = "ground plan"> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 58</span>—Ground plan of<br> +outlooks in a cleft. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>Cliff outlooks are often found on sites whose restricted areas +preclude all possibility that they formed parts of larger settlements +since obliterated. The ruin just described is an example. Another +instance which occurs in Del Muerto is shown in figure 58. Here a deep +cleft in the rock was partly occupied by two or three rooms. There was +room for more, but apparently no more were built. There was not room, +however, for even a small village. There are several other examples in +the canyon almost identical with these, but this type is not nearly so +abundant as the succeeding. Figure 59 is a plan of a +<span class = "pagenum">150</span> +<a name = "page150" id = "page150"> </a> +<!--png 373--> +ruin near the mouth of Del Muerto. It was a single room, situated on a +ledge perhaps 30 or 40 feet above the bottom land which it overlooked +and of easy access. This is the most common type of outlook or cliff +ruin, and it might almost be said that they number hundreds, sometimes +consisting of one room alone, sometimes of two or even three The general +appearance of these outlooks is shown in figure 60, which shows an +example containing three rooms.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig59" id = "fig59"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig59.png" width = "430" height = "101" +alt = "ground plan" title = "ground plan"> +</p> +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 59</span>—Plan of a single-room +outlook.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig60" id = "fig60"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig60.png" width = "319" height = "170" +alt = "drawing of outlook" title = "drawing of outlook"> +</p> +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 60</span>—Three-room outlook in +Canyon del Muerto.</p> + +<table class = "figfloat" summary = "illustration with caption"> +<tr> +<td class = "picture"> +<a name = "fig61" id = "fig61"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig61.png" width = "308" height = "113" +alt = "ground plan" title = "ground plan"> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 61</span>—Plan of a two-room +outlook.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>Figure 61 is a ground plan of an example containing two rooms, which +occurs below the large ruin described before (No. <a name = "ruin31b" id += "ruin31b">31</a>, <a href = "#page119">page 119</a>), and figure 62 +shows an example with one room, obscured and built over with Navaho +cists. This site is located in the upper part of the canyon, on top of +the talus, about 100 feet above the stream, and commands an outlook over +several areas of bottom land on both sides. The walls are built about 10 +feet high, and are composed of medium-size stones laid in courses and +carefully chinked with small spalls. The southwestern corner of the room +is broken down, but the eastern wall is still standing, and shows a +well-finished opening on that side. There are several Navaho burial +cists on this site.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig62" id = "fig62"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig62.png" width = "430" height = "103" +alt = "ground plan" title = "ground plan"> +</p> +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 62</span>—Plan of outlook and +burial cists, No. <a name = "ruin64" id = "ruin64">64</a>.</p> + +<table class = "figfloat" summary = "illustration with caption"> +<tr> +<td class = "picture"> +<a name = "fig63" id = "fig63"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig63.png" width = "152" height = "114" +alt = "ground plan" title = "ground plan"> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 63</span>—Plan of<br> +rectangular<br> +room No. 45. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>Figure 63 is the plan of a type of ruin which is rather anomalous in +the canyon. It occurs at the point marked <a name = "ruin45" id = +"ruin45">45</a> on the map, and occupies a small flat area almost on top +of the talus 300 feet or more +<span class = "pagenum">151</span> +<a name = "page151" id = "page151"> </a> +<!--png 376--> +above the stream bed. It is just below the ruin described and +illustrated on <a href = "#page144">page 144</a> (<a href = +"#fig48">figure 48</a>), and hardly 20 feet distant from it, and yet it +does not appear to have been connected with it. It consists of a single +large room, 20 feet long by 11½ feet wide outside, and the site commands +an extensive prospect over bottom lands on both sides of the canyon, and +above, but the only opening in the wall on that side is a little +peephole 6 inches square and 2 feet from the ground. This is +sufficient, however, to command nearly the whole outlook. There is a +doorway on the eastern side, one side of which, fairly well finished, +remains. There was apparently no other opening, unless one existed on +the western side, where, in the center, the wall is broken down to +within 2 feet of the ground. Along the western side of the room, at +the present ground surface, there are remains of a bench about a foot +wide; the eastern side is covered above this level.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig64" id = "fig64"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig64.png" width = "439" height = "331" +alt = "drawing of ruin" title = "drawing of ruin"> +</p> +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 64</span>—Rectangular single +room.</p> + +<p>The masonry is very rough and chinked only with large stones. The +interior is roughly plastered in places, and small pieces of stone are +stuck on flat. The corners are rounded. Externally the masonry has the +appearance of stones laid without mortar, like a Navaho stone corral, +and were it not for the occurrence of other similar remains, it might be +regarded as of Navaho or white man's construction, as the size, +<span class = "pagenum">152</span> +<a name = "page152" id = "page152"> </a> +<!--png 377--> +site, plan, and masonry are all anomalous. Figure 64 shows an example, +however, closely resembling the one described in these features, and +figure 65 shows another. Altogether there are four or five examples, +distributed over a considerable area.</p> + +<table summary = "two illustrations with caption"> +<tr> +<td class = "picture"> +<a name = "fig65" id = "fig65"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig65a.png" width = "143" height = "139" +alt = "ground plan" title = "ground plan"> +</td> +<td class = "picture"> +<img src = "images/figures/fig65b.png" width = "233" height = "207" +alt = "view of room" title = "view of room"> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption" colspan = "2"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 65</span>—Single-room remains. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>Somewhat similar wall remains are seen in places on the canyon +bottom, where they are always of modern Navaho origin, and it is quite +possible that the ruins above mentioned should be placed in the same +category. It will be noticed that in the plan the doorway or entrance +opening is on the eastern side—an invariable requirement of Navaho +house constructions; but it is only within recent times that the Navaho +have constructed permanent, rectangular abodes, and even now such houses +are rarely built. It is difficult to understand, moreover, why recourse +should be had to such inconvenient sites, if the structures are of +Navaho origin, as these Indians always locate their hogans on the bottom +lands, or on some slight rise overlooking them.</p> + +<p>Distributed throughout the canyons, wherever a favorable situation +could be found, there are a great number of sites resembling those of +the cliff outlooks, but showing now no standing wall. There is always +some evidence of human occupancy, often many pictographs on the back +wall, as in an example in the lower part of the canyon shown in plate +LV. This occurs at point <a name = "ruin2" id = "ruin2">2</a> on the +map, in a cove perhaps 100 feet across, with caves on the northern and +southern sides.</p> + +<!--png 378--> +<!--png 379--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateLV" id = "plateLV"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate55.png" width = "457" height = "313" +alt = "pictographs" title = "pictographs"> +</p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate LV. Site Marked by Pictographs</p> + +<p>In the southern cave there are no traces of masonry, but the back of +the cave is covered with hand prints and pictographs of deer, as shown +in the plate. In the northern cave there are traces of walls. Many of +the sites do not show the faintest trace of house structures; some of +them have remains of storage cists, and many have remains of Navaho +burial cists, associated with pictographs not of Navaho origin. Some +idea of the number and distribution of these sites may be obtained from +the following list, wherein the numbers represent the location shown on +the detailed map: 2, 8, 9, 11, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, 25, 26, 30, 38, 39, +40, 42, 43, 53, 54, 57, and 66—in all 21 sites which occur between +the mouth +<span class = "pagenum">153</span> +<a name = "page153" id = "page153"> </a> +<!--png 380--> +of De Chelly and the junction of Monument canyon, 13 miles above. Beyond +this point they are rare, as the areas of cultivable land become scarce. +A similar distribution prevails in Del Muerto.</p> + + +<h4 class = "chapter"> +<a name = "details" id = "details">DETAILS</a></h4> + +<h6 class = "section"> +<a name = "details_sites" id = "details_sites">SITES</a></h6> + +<p>The character of the site occupied by a ruin is a very important +feature where the response to the physical environment is as ready and +complete as it is in the ancient pueblo region. This feature has not +received the attention it deserves, for it is more than probable that in +the ultimate classification of ruins that will some day be formulated +the site occupied will be one of the principal elements considered, if +not the most important. The site is not so important per se, but must be +considered with reference to the specific character of the ruin upon it, +its ground plan, the character of other ruins in the vicinity which may +have been connected with it, and its topographic environment. The +character and ground plan of a cliff ruin would be so much out of place +on an open valley site that it would immediately attract attention. The +reverse is equally remarkable.</p> + +<p>Considering all that has been written about the cliff ruins as +defensive structures, it is strange how little direct evidence there is +to support the hypothesis; how few examples can be cited which show +anything that can be construed as the result of the defensive motive +except the general impression produced on the observer. Nor, on the +other hand, do these ruins as a whole give any support to the theory +that they represent an intermediate stage in the development of the +pueblo people. Some few may, perhaps those examined by Mr F. H. +Cushing south and east of Zuñi do; but more than 99 per cent of them +give more support to a theory that they are the ultimate development of +pueblo architecture than to the other hypothesis, for they contain in +themselves evidence of a knowledge of construction equal and even +superior to that shown in many of the modern pueblo villages. The only +thing anomalous or distinctive about the cliff ruins, considered as an +element of pueblo architecture, is the character of site occupied. If +this were dictated by the defensive motive, it would seem reasonable to +suppose that the same motive would have some direct influence on the +structures, yet examples where it has affected the arrangement of rooms +or ground plan or the character of the masonry are exceedingly rare and +generally doubtful.</p> + +<p>It is well to specify that in the preceding remarks the term cliff +ruin has been applied to small settlements, comprising generally less +than four rooms, sometimes only one or two, and usually located on high +and almost inaccessible sites. These are comprised in class IV of the +classification here followed. Regular villages located in the cliffs or +on top of the talus (class III) are a different matter. These have +nothing in common with the small ruins, except that sometimes there is a +similarity +<span class = "pagenum">154</span> +<a name = "page154" id = "page154"> </a> +<!--png 381--> +of site. Doubtless in some of these ruins the defensive motive operated +to a certain extent. In classes I and II, however, the influence of the +defensive motive, in so far as it affected the character of site chosen, +is conspicuous by its absence. As there is no evidence that the cliff +ruins of class IV were separate and distinct from the other ruins, but +the contrary, the defensive motive may be assigned a very subordinate +place among the causes which produced that phase of pueblo architecture +found in Canyon de Chelly.</p> + +<p>An hypothesis as to the order in which sites of the various classes +were occupied can not be based on the present condition of the ruins. It +is more than likely that the older ruins served as quarries of building +material for succeeding structures erected near them, and probably some +of the cliff ruins themselves served in this way for the erection of +others, for there are many sites from which the building stone has been +almost entirely removed; yet there is no doubt that these sites were +formerly occupied. The Navaho also have contributed to the destruction. +Notwithstanding their horror of contact with the remains of the dead, +quite a number of buildings have been erected by these Indians with +material derived from adjacent ruins. It is evident that the gathering +of this material would be a much lighter task than to quarry and prepare +it, no matter how roughly the latter might be done.</p> + +<p>In a study of some ruins in the valley of the Rio Verde, made a few +years ago, a suggestion was made of the order in which ruins of various +kinds succeeded one another—a sort of chronologic sequence, of +which the beginning in time could not be determined. Studies of the +ruins and inhabited villages of the old province of Tusayan (Moki) and +Cibola (Zuñi), and a cursory examination of ruins on Gila river, show +that they all fall easily into the same general order, which is somewhat +as follows:</p> + +<p>1. The earliest form of pueblo house is doubtful. As a rule, in most +localities the earliest forms are already well advanced. As it is now +known that the ancient pueblo region was not inhabited by a vast number +of people, but by a comparatively small number of little bands, each in +constant though slow movement, this condition is what we would expect to +find. It is probable that the earliest settlements consisted of single +houses or small clusters located in valleys convenient to areas of +cultivable land and on streams or near water.</p> + +<p>2. The next step gives us villages, generally of small size, located +on the foothills of mesas and overlooking large areas of good land which +were doubtless under cultivation. This class comprises more examples +perhaps than any other, and many of them come well within the historic +period, such as six of the seven villages of Tusayan at the time of the +Spanish conquest in 1540, all of the Cibolan villages of the same date, +and some of the Rio Grande pueblos of that time.</p> + +<p>3. In some localities, though not in all, the small villages were at +a later period moved to higher and more inaccessible sites. This change +has taken place in Tusayan within the historic period, and in fact was +<span class = "pagenum">155</span> +<a name = "page155" id = "page155"> </a> +<!--png 382--> +not wholly completed even fifty years ago. The pueblo of Acoma was in +this stage at the time of the conquest, and has remained so to the +present day. As a rule each of the small villages preserved its +independence, but in some cases they combined together to occupy +together a high defensive site. Such combination is, however, +unusual.</p> + +<p>4. The final stage in the development of pueblo architecture is the +large, many-storied, or beehive village, located generally in the midst +of broad valleys, depending on its size and population for defense, and +usually adjacent to some stream. In this class of structure the +defensive motive, in so far as it affected the choosing of the site, +entirely disappears. The largest existing pueblo, Zuñi, made this step +early in the eighteenth century; the next largest, Taos, was probably in +this stage in 1540, and has remained so since. In some cases ruins on +foothill sites (2) have merged directly into many-storied pueblos on +open sites (4), without passing through an intermediate stage.</p> + +<p>There is another step in the process of development which is now +being taken by many pueblos, which, although an advance from the +industrial point of view, is to the student of architecture +degeneration. This consists of a return to single houses located in the +valleys and on the bottom lands wherever convenience to the fields under +cultivation required. This movement is hardly twenty years old, but is +proceeding at a steadily accelerating pace, and its ultimate result is +the complete destruction of pueblo architecture. Whatever we wish to +know of this phase of Indian culture must be learned now, for two +generations hence probably nothing will remain of it.</p> + +<p>This hasty sketch will illustrate some of the difficulties that lie +in the way of a complete classification of the ruins of the pueblo +country. It is impossible to arrange them in chronologic sequence, +because they are the product of different tribes who at different times +came under the influence of analogous causes, and results were produced +which are similar in themselves but different in time. It is believed, +however, that the classification suggested exhibits a cultural sequence +and probably within each tribe a chronologic order.</p> + +<p>In this classification no mention has been made of the cliff and cave +ruins. These structures belong partly to class III, villages on +defensive sites, and partly to a subclass which pertained to a certain +extent to all the others. In the early stages of pueblo architecture the +people lived directly on the laud they tilled. Later the villages were +located on low foothills overlooking the land, but in this stage some of +the villages had already attained considerable size and the lands +overlooked by them were not sufficient for their needs. As a consequence +some of the inhabitants had to work fields at a distance from the home +village, and as a matter of convenience small temporary shelters were +erected near by. In a still later stage, when the villages were removed +to higher and more easily defended sites, the number of farming shelters +must have largely increased, as suitable sites which also commanded +large areas of good land could not often be found. At a still later +<span class = "pagenum">156</span> +<a name = "page156" id = "page156"> </a> +<!--png 383--> +stage, when the inhabitants of a number of small villages combined to +form one large one, this difficulty was increased still more, and it is +probable that in this stage the construction of outlying farming +settlements attained its maximum development. Often whole villages of +considerable size, sometimes many miles from the home pueblo, were +nothing more than farming shelters. These villages, like the single-room +shelters, were occupied only during the farming season; in the winter +the inhabitants abandoned them completely and retired to the home +village.</p> + +<p>Some farming villages, such as those described above, are still in +use among the pueblos. The little village of Moen-Kapi, attached to +Oraibi, but 75 miles distant from it, is an example. There are also no +fewer than three villages in the Zuñi country of the same class. Nutria, +Pescado, and Ojo Caliente are summer villages of the Zuñi, although +distant from that pueblo from 15 to 25 miles. It is significant that +none of these subordinate villages possess a kiva. It is believed that +the cliff ruins and cavate lodges, which are merely variants of each +other due to geological conditions, were simply farming shelters of +another type, produced by a certain topographic environment.</p> + +<p>The importance which it is believed should attach to the site on +which a ruin is found will be apparent from the above. It was certainly +a prominent element in the De Chelly group. A study of the detailed map +here published will illustrate how completely the necessity for +proximity to an area of cultivable land has dominated the location of +the settlements, large and small; and a visit to the place itself would +show how little influence the defensive motive has exercised. Near the +mouth of the canyon, where cultivable areas of land are not many, there +are few ruins, but those which do occur overlook such lands. In the +middle portion, where good lands are most abundant, ruins also are most +abundant; while above this, as the rocky talus develops more and more, +the ruins become fewer and fewer; and in the upper parts of the canyon, +beyond the area shown on the map, they are located at wide distances +apart, corresponding to little areas of good land so located. Not all of +the available land was utilized, and only a small percentage of the +available sites were built upon. Between the mouth of De Chelly and the +junction of Monument canyon, 13 miles above, there are seventy-one +ruins. A fair idea of their distribution may be obtained from a study of +the detailed map (<a href = "#plateXLIII">plate XLIII</a>), in +conjunction with the following figures:</p> + +<p class = "hanging"> +I. Old villages on open sites occur at the points marked 12, 41, 52, +17<i>a</i>, 55, 60, 61, and 67; in all, nine sites; principally in the +upper part of the canyon.</p> + +<p class = "hanging"> +II. Home villages on bottom lands, located without reference to defense, +occupy sites 3, 4, 17, 20, 28, 48, and 51; in all, seven sites. Probably +there are many more ruins of this class and the preceding, now so far +obliterated as to be overlooked or indistinguishable.</p> + +<p class = "hanging"> +III. Home villages on defensive sites occur at the points marked 5, 10, +13, 15, 16, 27, 31, 32, 34, 36, 37, 40, 44, 47, 59, 62, and 66; in all, +seventeen. This includes many sites where the settlements were very +small, often only a few rooms, but there is always at least one kiva. +</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">157</span> +<a name = "page157" id = "page157"> </a> +<!--png 384--> + +<p class = "hanging"> +IV. Cliff outlooks and farming shelters occupy sites 2, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, +14, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 29, 30, 33, 35, 38, 39, 42, 43, 45, +46, 49, 50, 53, 54, 56, 57, 64, 63, 65, 68, 69, and 70; in all, +thirty-seven, or more than half. Some of these sites are now marked only +by Navaho remains, and possibly a small percentage of them are of Navaho +making, but the sites which are clearly and unmistakably Navaho are not +mentioned here. Of all the sites only one (No. 7) is actually +inaccessible without artificial aid. +</p> + +<p>The absence of any attempt to improve the natural advantages of the +sites is remarkable. No expedients were employed to make access either +easier or more difficult, except that here and there series of hand and +foot holes have been pecked in the rock. Steps, either constructed of +masonry or cut in the rock, such as those found in the Mancos canyon and +the Mesa Verde region, are never seen here. The cavities in which the +ruins occur are always natural; they are never enlarged or curtailed or +altered in the slightest degree, and very rarely is the cavity itself +treated as a room, although there are some excellent sites for such +treatment. The back wall of a cove is often the back wall of a village, +but aside from this the natural advantages of the sites were seldom +realized.</p> + +<p>The settlements were always located with reference to the canyon +bottom, and access was never had from above, notwithstanding that in +some cases access from above was easier than from below. Yet the +inhabitants must necessarily have obtained their supply of firewood from +above, as the quantity in the canyons, especially in that part where +most of the ruins occur, is very limited. The Navaho throw the wood over +the cliffs, afterward gathering up the fragments below and carrying them +on their backs to their hogans at various points on the canyon bottom. +The crash of falling logs, dropped or pushed over the edge of a cliff, +sometimes 400 or 500 feet high, is not an infrequent sound in the +canyon, and is at first very puzzling to the visitor.</p> + +<p>The canyon walls are so nearly vertical, or rather so large a +proportion is vertical, that egress or ingress, except at the mouth of +the canyon, is a matter of great difficulty. Near the junction of +Monument canyon, 13 miles above the mouth of De Chelly, there is a +practicable horse trail ascending a narrow gorge to the southeast. The +Navaho call it the Bat trail, on account of its difficulties. Another +horse trail crosses Del Muerto some 8 or 10 miles above its mouth. With +these exceptions there is no point where a horse can get into the +canyons or out of them, but there are dozens of places where an active +man, accustomed to it, can scale the walls by the aid of foot-holes +which have been pecked in the rock at the most difficult places. These +foot trails are in constant use by the Navaho, who ascend and descend by +them with apparent ease, but it is doubtful whether a white man could be +induced to climb them, except perhaps under the stress of necessity. +There are even some trails over which sheep and goats are driven in and +out of the canyon, but anyone who had not seen the flocks actually +passing over the rocks would declare such a feat impossible. Some of +these trails at least are of Navaho origin. Whether any of them were +<span class = "pagenum">158</span> +<a name = "page158" id = "page158"> </a> +<!--png 385--> +used by the former dwellers in the canyon can not now be determined; it +seems probable that some of them were.</p> + +<!--png 386--> +<!--png 387--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateLVI" id = "plateLVI"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate56.png" width = "472" height = "312" +alt = "view of site" title = "view of site"> +</p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate LVI. Site Difficult of Approach</p> + +<p>Plate LVI shows a characteristic site in the lower part of the +canyon. It occurs at the point marked <a name = "ruin8" id = +"ruin8">8</a> on the map, and is now quite difficult of approach, owing +to the wearing away or weathering of a long line of foot-holes in the +sloping rock, but formerly access was easy enough. It is now marked by a +cluster of Navaho burial cists. Figure 66 shows an example that occurs +in De Chelly, about 8 miles +<span class = "pagenum">159</span> +<a name = "page159" id = "page159"> </a> +<!--png 388--> +above the junction, of Monument canyon. At first glance, and at a +distance, this site appears to be really inaccessible, but a close +inspection of the figure will show that it could be reached with +comparative little difficulty over the rounded mass of rock shown to the +left. By cutting off that side of the figure it could be made to serve +as an illustration of a wholly inaccessible ruin.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig66" id = "fig66"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig66.png" width = "399" height = "612" +alt = "view of site" title = "view of site"> +</p> +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 66</span>—Site apparently very +difficult of access.</p> + + +<h6 class = "section"> +<a name = "details_masonry" id = "details_masonry">MASONRY</a></h6> + +<p>The ancient pueblo builder, like his modern successor, was so closely +in touch with nature, so dependent on his immediate physical +surroundings, that variations in some at least of his arts are more +natural and to be expected than uniformity. Especially is this true of +the art of construction, and variations in masonry are more often than +not the result of variations in the material employed, which is nearly +always that most convenient to hand. Yet there were other conditions +that necessarily influenced it, such, for example, as the character of +the structure to be erected, whether permanent or temporary. The summer +village of Ojo Caliente presents a type of masonry much ruder than any +found in the home village of Zuñi, although both were built and occupied +by the same people at the same time.</p> + +<p>Within the limits of Canyon de Chelly, where the physical conditions +and the character of material are essentially uniform, a considerable +variation in the masonry is found, implying that some conditions other +than the usual ones have influenced it. Were the masonry of one class of +ruins inferior or superior throughout to that of another it might be +easily explained, but variations within each class are greater than +those between classes. Conditions analogous to those which prevailed in +the case of Ojo Caliente and Zuñi may have governed here, or there may +have been other conditions of which we now know nothing. It may be that +sites originally occupied as farming shelters subsequently became +regular villages, as has happened in other regions. The position of the +kivas in many of the ruins suggests this. As a whole the masonry is +inferior to that found in the Mancos canyon and the Chaco, and superior +to that of Tusayan, but, as in Tusayan, where the masonry is sometimes +very roughly constructed, the builders were well acquainted with the +methods which produced the finer and better work.</p> + +<p>The highest type of masonry in the pueblo system of architecture +consists of small blocks of stone of nearly uniform size, dressed, and +laid in courses, and rubbed down in situ. No attempt was made to break +joints. This system requires the careful preparation of the material +beforehand, and examples of it are not very common in Canyon de Chelly. +As a variant we have walls composed of stones of fairly uniform size, +laid with the best face out and with the interstices chinked with small +spalls. The chinking is carried to such an extent in some places, as in +the Chaco ruins, that the walls present the effect of a mosaic composed +of small spalls. Chinking is almost a universal practice, and in some +localities had passed, or was passing, from a mere +<span class = "pagenum">160</span> +<a name = "page160" id = "page160"> </a> +<!--png 389--> +constructive to a real decorative feature. Here we have the beginning of +that architecture which has been defined by Ferguson as "ornamental and +ornamented construction"—in other words, of architecture as an art +rather than as a craft.</p> + +<p>The use of an exterior finish of plaster was conducive to poor +masonry. Such plastering is found throughout the region, but it is much +more abundant in the modern than in the ancient work. Perhaps we may +find in this a suggestion of relative age; not in the use of plastering, +but in its prevalence.</p> + +<p>Pueblo masonry is composed of very small units, and the results +obtained testify to the patience and industry of the builders rather +than to their knowledge and skill. In fact, their knowledge of +construction was far more limited than would at first sight be supposed. +The marked tabular character of the stone used rendered but a small +amount of preparation necessary for even the best masonry. For over 90 +per cent of it there was no preparation other than the selection of +material. The walls and buildings were always modified to suit the +ground, never the reverse, and instances in which the site was prepared +are very rare, if not indeed unknown. There are no such instances in De +Chelly, where sites were often irregular, and a small amount of work +would have rendered them much more desirable.</p> + +<!--png 390--> +<!--png 391--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateLVII" id = "plateLVII"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate57.png" width = "469" height = "312" +alt = "masonry" title = "masonry"> +</p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate LVII. Masonry in Canyon De Chelly</p> + +<p>Plate LVII shows a type of masonry which is quite common in De +Chelly. It is the west room of ruin <a name = "ruin16b" id = +"ruin16b">16</a>, near the mouth of Del Muerto. An attempt at +regularity, and possibly at decorative effect, is apparent in the use of +courses of fairly uniform thickness, alternating with other courses or +belts composed of small thin fragments. Beautiful examples of masonry +constructed on this method occur in the Chaco ruins, but here, while the +method was known, the execution was careless or faulty. Chinking with +small spalls has been extensively practiced and gives the wall an +appearance of smoothness and finish. A similar wall, rather better +constructed, occurs at the point marked <a name = "ruin3b" id = +"ruin3b">3</a> on the map, and in this case the stones composing the +wall were rubbed down in situ. Another wall, which occurs in the same +ruin, is shown in plate LVIII. In places very large stones have been +used, larger than one man could handle conveniently, but the general +effect of the wall face is very good. This effect was obtained by +placing the best face of the stone outward and by careful chinking.</p> + +<!--png 394--> +<!--png 395--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateLVIII" id = "plateLVIII"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate58.png" width = "440" height = "310" +alt = "walls" title = "walls"> +</p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate LVIII. Chinked Walls in Canyon De Chelly</p> + +<p>Chinking was sometimes done, not with slips of stone driven in with a +hammer, after the usual style, but with bits of mud pressed in with the +fingers. The mud was used when about the consistency of modeling clay, +and bears the imprints of the fingers that applied it; even the skin +markings show clearly and distinctly. From this use of mud to its use as +an exterior plaster there is but a short step; in fact, examples which +are intermediate can be seen throughout the canyon. In places mud has +been applied to small cracks and cavities in larger quantities than was +necessary, and the excess has been smoothed over the +<span class = "pagenum">161</span> +<a name = "page161" id = "page161"> </a> +<!--png 392--> +adjacent stones forming a wall partly plastered, or plastered in +patches. Plate LIX, which shows the interior of a room in ruin <a name = +"ruin10a" id = "ruin10a">10</a>, will illustrate this. Here the process +has been carried so far that the wall is almost plastered, but not +quite. In plastered walls the process was carried a step farther, and +the surface was finished by the application of a final coat of mud made +quite liquid. The interior plastering of kivas was always much more +carefully done than that of any other walls. Owing to blackening by +smoke and recoating, the thickness of the plastering in kivas can be +easily made out. Often it is as thin as ordinary paper.</p> + +<!--png 398--> +<!--png 399--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateLIX" id = "plateLIX"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate59.png" width = "478" height = "313" +alt = "wall" title = "wall"> +</p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate LIX. A Partly Plastered Wall</p> + +<p>Plate LX shows walls in which an abundance of mud mortar was used, +and the effect is that of a plastered wall. The difference between these +walls and those shown in <a href = "#plateLVII">plate LVII</a> is only +one of degree, the wall shown in <a href = "#plateLIX">plate LIX</a> +being of an intermediate type. No instance occurs in the canyon where a +coating of mud was evenly applied to the whole surface of a wall, in the +way, for example, that stucco is used by us. It seems probable, +therefore, that the application of plaster as a finish grew out of the +use of stone spalls for chinking, and its prevalence in modern as +compared with old structures is suggestive. It is not claimed, however, +that because we have examples of the intermediate stages in De Chelly +that the process was developed there. The step is such a slight one that +it might have been made in a hundred different localities at a hundred +different times or at one time; but it is well to note that in any given +group of ruins or locality it is likely to be later than masonry chinked +with stones. Surface finishing in mud plaster is the prevailing method +at the present day, and well-executed masonry of stone carefully chinked +is almost invariably ancient. The use of surface plaster is largely +responsible for the deterioration of stonework that has taken place +since the beginning of the historic period. The modern village of Zuñi, +which dates from the beginning of the eighteenth century, although built +on the site of an older village, is essentially a stone-built village, +though that fact would never appear from a cursory examination, so +completely is the stonework covered by surface plaster.</p> + +<!--png 402--> +<!--png 403--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateLX" id = "plateLX"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate60.png" width = "415" height = "297" +alt = "wall" title = "wall"> +</p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate LX. Plastered Wall in Canyon De Chelly</p> + +<p>In Tusayan (Moki) walls have been observed in progress of erection. +The stones were laid up dry, and some time after, when the rains came +and pools of water stood here and there in pockets on the mesa top, mud +mortar was mixed and the interstices were filled. This method saved the +transportation of water from the wells below up to the top of the mesa, +a task entailing much labor. Doubtless a similar method was followed in +De Chelly, where the stream bed carries water only during a part of the +year. But stone was also actually laid in mud mortar, as shown in <a +href = "#plateLII">plate LII</a>, which illustrates a rough type of +masonry.</p> + +<p>It is probable that the practice of chinking grew up out of the +scarcity of water, when walls were erected during the dry season and +finished when the rains made the manufacture of mud mortar less of a +task. The rough wall shown in the illustration is the outside of an +interior wall of a kiva, and it was probably covered by the rectangular +<span class = "pagenum">162</span> +<a name = "page162" id = "page162"> </a> +<!--png 393--> +inclosing wall that came outside of it. It will be noticed that +chinking, both with mud and with spalls, was extensively practiced and +seems here to have been an essential part of the construction. In this +example it could have no relation to the finish of the wall, for the +wall was not finished.</p> + +<p>Much of the masonry in the canyon is of the type described, but +examples differ widely in degree of finish and in material selected. +Some of the walls appear very rough and even crude, so much so that they +almost appear to be the first efforts of a people at an unknown art, but +a closer inspection shows that even the rudest walls were erected with a +knowledge of the principles which were followed in the best ones, and +that the difference resulted only from the care or lack of care +employed. The rudest walls are much superior to the masonry of the +Navaho cists which are found in conjunction with them and which are +constructed on a different method.</p> + +<p>Although walls were often built on sloping rock, and the builders had +experience and at times disastrous experience to guide them, the +necessity for a fiat and solid foundation was never appreciated. Walls +were sometimes built on loose debris; even refuse which had been covered +and formed an artificial soil was considered sufficient. There are many +instances in the canyon where lack of foresight or lack of knowledge in +this respect has brought about the destruction of walls. Walls resting +on foreign material occur throughout the region; they are not confined +to anyone class of ruins or to any part of the canyon, but are found as +much or more in the most recent as in the most ancient examples. Mummy +Cave ruin and Casa Blanca are good examples. In the latter the small +room on the left of the upper group (<a href = "#plateXLVII">plate +XLVII</a>) is especially interesting. The side walls appear to rest on a +deposit of refuse nearly 2 feet thick, which in turn rests on the +sloping rock. The front wall is supported by a buttress as shown; +without this support it would certainly have been pushed out. The +buttress appears to have been built at the same time as the front wall, +although its use in this way is not aboriginal. The whole arrangement is +such as would result if this room, originally represented by a low front +wall perhaps, were constructed when the site became inadequate and +consequently at a late period in its occupancy.</p> + +<p>The character of the refuse and debris upon which some of the walls +rest is worth notice. It is well known that sheep were introduced into +this country by the Spaniards, and the presence in the ruins of sheep +dung, or of a material which closely resembles it, is important. Much of +this is due to subsequent Navaho occupancy, and many ruins are used +today by these Indians as sheepfolds. It is said, moreover, that at the +time of the Navaho war, when the soldiers bayoneted all the sheep they +could find, large flocks were driven up into some cliff ruins that are +almost inaccessible, and kept there for a time in security. But many +instances are found where the walls rest directly upon layers +<span class = "pagenum">163</span> +<a name = "page163" id = "page163"> </a> +<!--png 396--> +of compacted dung. An example is shown in <a href = "#plateLII">plate +LII</a>, and others are mentioned in the text under the descriptions of +various ruins.</p> + +<p>It has been suggested that the compacted dung found in the ruins was +the product not of sheep, but of some other domesticated animal which +existed in this country at the time of the first Spanish invasion, but +the evidence to support this hypothesis is so very slight that so far +the suggestion is only a suggestion. Not the slightest trace of this +animal has been found, although it is alleged that it was domesticated +among the pueblos three hundred and fifty years ago.</p> + +<p>Although the idea of a strengthening or supporting buttress is +thought to be a foreign introduction, a hypothesis that is strengthened +by the occurrence of other features, the masonry itself is aboriginal in +its principles and probably also in execution. The conservatism of the +Indian mind in such matters is well known. The Zuñi today use stone more +than adobe, although for a hundred years or more there has been an adobe +church in the midst of the village.</p> + +<p>Adobe construction in this region is only partially successful. North +of the Gila river, in the plateau country, the climate is not suited to +it; the rains are too heavy and the frosts are destructive. Constant +vigilance and prompt repairs are necessary, and even then the adobe work +is not satisfactory. Certainly in the northern part of the country the +aborigines would not have developed this method of construction in the +face of the difficulties with which it is surrounded; yet there are +examples of adobe work in some of the most important ruins in De Chelly, +as has already been stated. The fact that the only previously known +examples of adobe work occur in ruins which are known to have been +inhabited subsequent to the Spanish conquest, such as the ruin of +Awatobi, in Tusayan, is suggestive. Moreover, adobe construction in this +region belongs to a late period; for the walls are almost always very +thin, usually 6 or 7 inches. The old type of massive walls, 2 or even +3 feet thick, are seldom or never found constructed of adobe, +although such thickness is more necessary in this material than in +stone.</p> + +<p>There is another method of construction which, although not masonry, +should be noticed here. This is the equivalent of the Mexican "jacal" +construction, and consists of series of poles or logs planted vertically +in the ground close to each other and plastered with mud either outside +or on both sides. The only example of this found in the canyon occurs in +the western part of the lower Casa Blanca ruin, and has already been +mentioned. Did it not occur elsewhere it could be dismissed here as +simply another item of evidence of the modern occupancy of the ruin, but +Dr W. R. Birdsall mentions walls in the Mesa Verde ruins which are +"continued upward upon a few tiers of stone by wickerwork heavily +plastered inside and outside"<a class = "tag" name = "tag14" id = +"tag14" href = "#note14">14</a> and Nordenskiöld mentions a similar +construction in the interior of a kiva. Whether a similar foundation or +lower part of stone existed in the Casa Blanca ruin could not be +determined without excavation.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">164</span> +<a name = "page164" id = "page164"> </a> +<!--png 397--> + +<h6 class = "section"> +<a name = "details_openings" id = "details_openings">OPENINGS</a></h6> + +<p>The ruins in De Chelly are so much broken down that few examples of +openings now remain; still fewer are yet intact; but there is no doubt +that they are of the regular pueblo types. Most of the openings in the +De Chelly ruins are rectangular, of medium size, neither very large nor +very small, with unfinished jambs and sills, and with a lintel such as +that shown in <a href = "#plateLVIII">plate LVIII</a>, composed of one +or two series of light sticks, sometimes surmounted by a flat stone +slab. This example occurs at the point marked <a name = "ruin3c" id = +"ruin3c">3</a> on the map, in what was formerly an extensive village. +The wall on the left, now covered by loosely piled rocks, was pierced by +a narrow notched doorway. The opening shown in the illustration, which +is in the northern wall, is 2 feet high and 14 inches wide; its +sill is about 18 inches from the ground. The lintel is composed of six +small sticks, about an inch in diameter, surmounted by a flat slab of +stone, very roughly shaped, and separated from the sticks by 2 inches of +mud mortar.</p> + +<p><a href = "#plateLVII">Plate LVII</a> shows an opening which occurs +in ruin No. <a name = "ruin16c" id = "ruin16c">16</a>. The building +consisted of two rooms, between which there was no communication. The +eastern room was entered by the doorway shown in the illustration, which +is 2 feet above the ground and 2 feet high. To facilitate +ingress a notch was dug in the wall about 8 inches from the ground. The +western room was entered through a large doorway, shown in <a href = +"#plateLI">plate LI</a>. The sill is about 8 inches above the ground; +the opening is 3 feet high and 14 inches wide. The lintel is +composed of small sticks, with a slab of stone above them, and the top +of the opening and perhaps the sides were plastered.</p> + +<table class = "figfloat" summary = "illustration with caption"> +<tr> +<td class = "picture"> +<a name = "fig67" id = "fig67"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig67.png" width = "304" height = "181" +alt = "doorway" title = "doorway"> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 67</span>—Notched doorway<br> +in Canyon de Chelly. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>The notched or T-shape doorway, which is quite common in the Mesa +Verde ruins and in Tusayan, is not abundant in De Chelly, but some +examples can be seen there. One is shown in figure 67, which illustrates +the type. There is no doubt that doorways of this kind developed at a +time when no means existed for closing the opening, except blankets or +skins, and when loads were carried on the backs of men. It often +happened that doorways originally constructed of this style were +afterward changed by partial filling to square or rectangular openings. +The principal doorway in the front wall of the White House proper was +originally of T-shape; at some later period, but before +<span class = "pagenum">165</span> +<a name = "page165" id = "page165"> </a> +<!--png 400--> +the white coating was applied, the left-hand wing and the standard below +it were filled in, leaving an almost square opening. This later filling +is not uncommon in De Chelly, and is often found in Tusayan, where +openings are sometimes reduced for the winter season and enlarged again +in the summer. Many openings are completely closed, either by filling in +with masonry or by a stone slab, and examples of both of these methods +are found in De Chelly. In the third wall from the east, in the upper +part of Casa Blanca ruin, there is a well-finished doorway sealed by a +thin slab of stone set in mud. On the right side of the opening, about +the middle, a loop or staple of wood has been built into the wall, and +in the corresponding place on the left side a stick about half an inch +in diameter projects. An opening into the small room west of the White +House proper has a similar contrivance, and another example occurs in +the front wall of the small single room in the eastern end of the ruin. +Oddly enough the three examples that occur in this ruin are all found in +adobe walls.</p> + +<p>This feature appears to have been a contrivance for temporarily +closing openings which were provided with stone slabs, and the latter +were sealed in place with mud mortar when it was desired to close the +room permanently. Examples, identical even in details, have been found +in the Mancos canyon, and one is described and illustrated by Chapin,<a +class = "tag" name = "tag15" id = "tag15" href = "#note15">15</a> who +states that the slab was 14½ inches wide at one end, 15½ at the other, +and 25 inches high, with an average thickness of an inch. He mentions +staples on both sides. Nordenskiöld<a class = "tag" name = "tag16" id = +"tag16" href = "#note16">16</a> illustrates another or possibly the same +example. He notes, however, an inner frame composed of small sticks and +mud against which the slab rested. He thinks the notched doorways +belonged to rooms most frequented in daily life, while the others +belonged in general to storerooms or other chambers requiring a door to +close them.</p> + +<p>Taken as a whole, the settlements in De Chelly appear to have been +well provided with doorways and other openings, and there is no +perceptible difference in this respect between the various classes of +ruins. Openings were freely left in the walls, wherever convenience +dictated, and without regard to the defensive motive, which, in the +large valley pueblos, brought about the requirement that all the +first-story rooms should be entered from the roof, a requirement which +has only recently given way to the greater convenience of an entrance on +the ground level.</p> + + +<h6 class = "section"> +<a name = "details_timber" id = "details_timber">ROOFS, FLOORS, AND +TIMBER WORK</a></h6> + +<p>In the pueblo system of construction roofs and floors are the same; +in other words, the roof of one room is the floor of the room above, and +where a room or house is but one story high no change in the method of +construction is made. The erection of walls was only a question of time, +as the unit of the masonry is small; but the construction of a roof was +a much harder task, as the beams were necessarily +<span class = "pagenum">166</span> +<a name = "page166" id = "page166"> </a> +<!--png 401--> +brought from a distance, sometimes a very long distance. The Tusayan +claim that some of the timbers used in the construction of the mission +buildings, which were established prior to the insurrection of 1680, +were brought on the backs of men from San Francisco mountains, a +distance of over 100 miles, and references to the transportation of +timber over long distances are not uncommon in Pueblo traditions. In De +Chelly great difficulty must have been experienced in procuring an +adequate supply, as in that portion of the canyon where most of the +ruins occur no suitable trees grow. Doubtless in many cases, where the +location, under overhanging cliffs permitted, roofs were dispensed with, +but this alone would not account for the dearth of timber found in the +ruins. If we suppose the canyon to have been the scene of a number of +occupancies instead of one, the absence of timber work, as well as the +much obliterated appearance of some of the ruins, would be explained, +for the material would be used more than once, perhaps several times. +The Navaho would not use the timber in cliff ruins under any +circumstances, and they would rather starve than eat food cooked with +it. Many of the cliff outlooks, being occupied only during the farming +season and being also fairly well sheltered, were probably roofless.</p> + +<p>Timber was used as an aid to masonry construction in two +ways—as a foundation and as a tie. Many instances can be seen +where the walls rest on beams, running, not with them, but across them. +These beams were placed directly on the rock, and the front walls rested +partly on their ends and partly on the rock itself. <a href = +"#plateLII">Plate LII</a> shows the end of one of these beams. In nine +cases out of ten the beams do not appear to have served any useful end, +but perhaps if the walls were removed down to the foundations the +purpose would be clear. Sometimes a beam was placed on the rock in the +line of the wall above it. The single or separate room occupying the +western end of the upper cave in the Casa Blanca ruin is an example of +this use. The front wall rests on beams, as shown in <a href = +"#plateXLVI">plate XLVI</a>. Some of the back adobe walls in the eastern +part of the upper ruin rest on timbers, and instances of this feature +are not uncommon in other parts of the canyon. The southeastern corner +of the tower in Mummy Cave ruin in Del Muerto rested on timbers +apparently laid over a small cavity or hole in the rock. The timber was +not strong enough to support the weight placed upon it, and consequently +gave way, letting the corner of the tower fall out.</p> + +<p>Cross walls were sometimes tied to front or back walls by timbers +built into them, but this method, of which fine examples can be seen in +the Chaco ruins, was but slightly practiced here. Timber was used also +to prevent the slipping of walls on sloping sites, being placed +vertically and built into the masonry; but as this use is a constructive +expedient it is discussed under that head.</p> + + +<h6 class = "section"> +<a name = "details_cists" id = "details_cists">STORAGE AND BURIAL +CISTS</a></h6> + +<p>Facilities for the storage of grain and other produce are essential +in the pueblo system of horticulture, as in any other. As a result, +storage cists are found everywhere. In the modern pueblos the inner +<span class = "pagenum">167</span> +<a name = "page167" id = "page167"> </a> +<!--png 404--> +dark rooms, which would otherwise be useless, provide the necessary +space, but in the settlements in De Chelly, which were very small as a +rule, there were few such rooms, and special structures had to be +erected. These differed from the dwelling rooms only in size, although +as a rule, perhaps, the openings by which they were entered were not so +large as those of the dwellings and were sometimes, possibly always, +provided with some means by which they could be closed.</p> + +<p>Immense numbers of these storage cists are found in the canyon, some +of them with masonry so roughly executed that it is difficult to +discriminate between the old pueblo and the modern Navaho work. +Sometimes these cists or small rooms form part of a village, more often +they are attached to the cliff outlooks, and not infrequently they stand +alone on sites overlooking the lands whose product they contained. It is +probable that many of the cliff outlooks themselves were used quite as +much for temporary storage as for habitations during the farming season. +These two uses, although quite distinct, do not conflict with each +other. Doubtless many excellent sites, now marked only by the remains of +storage cists, were occupied also during the summer as outlooks without +the erection of any house structures. Some of the modern pueblos now use +temporary shelters of brush for outlooks.</p> + +<p>It is not meant that the crops when gathered were placed in these +cists and kept there until used. The harvest was, as a rule, permanently +stored in the home villages, and the cists were used only for temporary +storage. Doubtless the old practice resembled somewhat that followed by +the Navaho today. The harvest is gathered at the proper time and what is +not eaten at once is hidden away in cists of old or modern construction. +If it is well hidden, the grain may remain in the cists for a long time +if not withdrawn for consumption; but as a rule it is taken away a few +months later. The annual emigration of the Navaho commences soon after +the harvest, and at intervals during the winter and spring, and in +summer, if the supply is not then exhausted, visits are paid to the +cists and portions of the grain are carried away.</p> + +<p>A large proportion of the cists are of modern Navaho work, but that +some of them were used by the pueblo people who preceded them seems +probable from the similarity in horticultural methods, and from the +small size of many of the villages. A village inhabited by half a dozen +people was not uncommon; one which could accommodate more than fifty was +rare. Moreover, some of the storage cists that occur in conjunction with +dwellings differ from the latter only in size and in their separation +from the other rooms. The masonry is quite as good as that of the +houses, and much superior to the Navaho work.</p> + +<p>Plate LXI shows an example which occurs in the lower part of the +canyon, at the point marked <a name = "ruin1a" id = "ruin1a">1</a> on +the map. It is placed on a little ledge or block of rock, 12 feet above +the stream and about 8 feet above the bottom land below it. This is +the first considerable area of bottom land in the canyon. The cist is +2 feet square inside and occupies the +<span class = "pagenum">168</span> +<a name = "page168" id = "page168"> </a> +<!--png 405--> +whole width of the rock. An exceptionally large amount of mud plaster +was used on the walls, which are better finished outside than inside. +Access was had by hand-holes in the rock, now almost obliterated. +Originally the structure consisted of two or more rooms.</p> + +<!--png 406--> +<!--png 407--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateLXI" id = "plateLXI"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate61.png" width = "481" height = "313" +alt = "storage cist" title = "storage cist"> +</p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate LXI. Storage Cist in Canyon De Chelly</p> + +<p>A little below this site there are some well-executed pictographs, +and on some rocks immediately to the right some crude work of the Navaho +of the same sort. To the left of the cist a round hole 6 or 8 inches in +diameter has been pecked into the almost vertical face of the rock. The +purpose of this is not clear.</p> + +<p>The storage of water was so seldom attempted, or perhaps so seldom +necessary, that only one example of a reservoir was found. This has +already been described (<a href = "#page126">page 126</a>). If the cliff +ruins were defensive structures, a supply of water must have been kept +in them, and where this requirement was common, as it would be under the +hypothesis, certainly some receptacle other than jars of pottery would +be provided. Few, if any, of the cliff outlooks are so situated that a +supply of water could be procured without descending to the stream bed, +and without a supply of water the most impregnable site in the canyon +would have little value.</p> + +<p>The number of burial cists in the canyon is remarkable; there are +hundreds of them. Practically every ruin whose walls are still standing +contains one or more, some have eight or ten. They are all of Navaho +origin and in many of them the remains of Navaho dead may still be seen. +Possibly the Navaho taboo of their own dead has brought about the +partial taboo of the cliff dwellers' remains which prevails, and which +is an element that must be taken into account in any discussion of the +antiquity of the ruins.</p> + +<p>The burial cists are built usually in a corner or against a wall of a +cliff dweller's house, but sometimes they are built against a cliff +wall, and occasionally stand out alone. The masonry is always rough, +much inferior to the old walls against which it generally rests, and +usually very flimsy. The structures are dome-shape when standing alone, +or in the shape of a section of a dome when placed against other walls. +The natural bedding of the stone is sometimes wholly ignored, and in +some cases the walls consist merely of thin slabs of stone on edge, held +together with masses of mud, the whole presenting an average thickness +of less than 3 inches. Such structures on ordinary sites would not last +six months; protected as they are they might last for many years.</p> + +<p>Not all the Navaho dead in the canyon find their last resting place +in the ruins. Graves can be seen under bowlders and rocks high up on the +talus; and in one place in De Chelly a number of little piles of stones +are pointed out as the burial places of "many Americans," who, it is +said, were killed by the Navaho in their last war. It is also said that +in the olden days, when the Navaho considered De Chelly their stronghold +and the heart of their country, the remains of prominent +<span class = "pagenum">169</span> +<a name = "page169" id = "page169"> </a> +<!--png 408--> +men of the tribe were often brought to the canyon for interment in the +ruins. Such burials are still made, both in the ruins themselves and in +cists on similar sites.</p> + +<p>As a whole the Navaho burial cists are much more difficult of access +than the ruins, and some of them appear to be now really inaccessible, a +statement which can be made of but few ruins. Some of them appear to +have been reached from above. The agility and dexterity of the Navaho in +climbing the cliffs is remarkable, and possibly some of the sites now +apparently inaccessible are not so considered by them. As before stated, +there are a number of Navaho foot trails out of the canyon, where +shallow pits or holes have been pecked in the rock as an aid in the more +difficult places, and similar aids were often employed to afford access +to storage and burial cists. <a href = "#plateLVI">Plate LVI</a> shows a +site in the lower part of the canyon where such means have been +employed. The pits in the rock are so much worn by atmospheric erosion +that the ascent now is very dangerous. The cove or ledge to which they +lead is about halfway up the cliff, and on it are a number of cists, one +of them still intact, with a doorway. The masonry consists of large +slabs of sandstone set on edge, sometimes irregularly one above another, +the whole being roughly plastered inside and out. About 200 yards +farther up the cove, on the same side, there is a series of foot holes +leading to a small cave about halfway up, and thence upward and probably +out of the canyon. They are probably of Navaho origin.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig68" id = "fig68"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig68.png" width = "439" height = "298" +alt = "cist" title = "cist"> +</p> +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 68</span>—Cist composed of upright +slabs.</p> + +<p>The use of stone on edge is apparently confined to these cists. +Figure 68 shows a structure which occurs a little above the ruin marked +37 on the map. The walls consist of thin slabs of stone set upright and +<span class = "pagenum">170</span> +<a name = "page170" id = "page170"> </a> +<!--png 409--> +roughly plastered where they meet. Instances of the use of stone in this +way are not uncommon in the pueblo country, and there are a number of +examples in De Chelly.</p> + +<p>As before stated, the typical Navaho burial cist is of dome shape. +The roof or upper portion is supported on sticks so arranged as to leave +a small square opening in the top. Apparently at some stage in its +existence this hole is closed and sealed, but examples were examined +which were very old and one which was but twenty-four hours old, but in +neither case was the opening closed. Doubtless the opening has some +ceremonial significance; it is not of any actual use, as it is too small +to permit the passage of a human body. Plate LXII shows a typical cist +in good order and another such broken down. These examples occur at the +point marked <a name = "ruin6b" id = "ruin6b">6</a> on the map, in the +ruin shown in <a href = "#plateLIII">plate LIII</a>. This site is of +comparatively easy access, and there are many others equally easy or +even more so, but, on the other hand, there are many Sites which now +seem to be wholly inaccessible.</p> + +<!--png 410--> +<!--png 411--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateLXII" id = "plateLXII"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate62.png" width = "484" height = "312" +alt = "burial cist" title = "burial cist"> +</p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate LXII. Navaho Burial Cists</p> + + +<h6 class = "section"> +<a name = "details_defense" id = "details_defense">DEFENSIVE AND +CONSTRUCTIVE EXPEDIENTS</a></h6> + +<p>The cliff ruins have always been regarded as defensive structures, +sometimes even as fortresses, but in De Chelly whatever value they have +in this respect is due solely to the sites they occupy. There are many +places here where slight defensive works on the approaches to sites +would increase their value a hundredfold, but such works were apparently +never constructed. Furthermore, the ruins themselves never show even a +suggestion of the influence of the defensive motive, except in the two +possible instances already mentioned. The ordinary or dwelling-house +plan has not been at all modified, not even to the extent that it has in +the modern pueblos. If the cliff ruins were defensive structures it +would certainly seem that an influence strong enough to bring about the +occupancy of such inconvenient and unsuitable sites would also be strong +enough to bring about some modifications in the architecture, +modifications which would render more suitable sites available. The +influence of the physical environment on pueblo architecture, and the +sensitiveness of the latter to such influence, has already been +commented on. Moreover, it also has been stated that, so far as known, +but one instance occurs in the canyon where provision was made for the +storage of water; yet without water the strongest "fortress" in the +canyon could not withstand a siege of forty-eight hours. Further, +assuming that the structures were defensive, and well prepared to resist +attack, if necessary, for several days, only a few such attacks would be +required to cause their abandonment, for the crops on the canyon bottom, +practically the sole possessions of the dwellers in the canyon, would +necessarily be lost.</p> + +<p>These are some of the difficulties that stand in the way of the +assumption that the cliff ruins were defensive structures or permanent +homes. If, however, we adopt the hypothesis that they were farming +outlooks +<span class = "pagenum">171</span> +<a name = "page171" id = "page171"> </a> +<!--png 412--> +occupied only during the farming season, and then only for a few days or +weeks at a time, after the manner that such outlooks are used by the +Pueblo Indians at the present time, most of the difficulties vanish.</p> + +<p>The apparent inaccessibility of many of the sites disappears on close +examination, and we must not forget that places really difficult of +access to us would not necessarily be so regarded by a people accustomed +to that manner of life. Many locations which could not be surpassed as +defensive sites were not occupied, while others much inferior in this +respect were built upon. It was very seldom that the natural conditions +were modified, even to the extent of selecting a route of access other +than that which, would naturally be followed, and, of course, the +easiest route for the cliff dwellers would be also the easiest route for +their enemies. In many cases the easiest way of access, which was the +one used by the cliff dwellers, was not direct. It was not commanded by +the immediate site of the dwellings, except in its upper part, and in +some cases not at all. Enemies could climb to the very doors of the +houses before they could be seen or attacked. The absence of military +knowledge and skill, and of any attempt to fortify or strengthen a site, +or even to fully utilize its natural defensive advantages, is +characteristic of the cliff ruins of De Chelly. If the cliff dwellers +were driven to the use of such places by a necessity for defense, this +absence is remarkable, especially as there is evidence that the +settlements were occupied for a number of, perhaps a great many, +years.</p> + +<p>Under the head of constructive expedients we have a different result. +The difficulties which came from the occupancy of exceptional sites were +promptly reflected in the construction, and unusual ways and methods +were adopted to overcome them. These methods are the more interesting in +that they were not always successful. It sometimes happened that walls +had to be placed on a foundation of smooth, sloping rock. In such cases +the rock was never cut away, but timbers were employed to hold the wall +in place. In some instances the timbers were laid at right angles to the +line of front wall, at points where cross walls joined it inside. The +front wall thus rested partly on the ends of timbers and partly on rock, +while the other ends of the timbers were held in place by the cross +walls built upon them. An example of this construction is shown in <a +href = "#plateLII">plate LII</a>. In other instances, where the surface +was irregular but did not slope much, timbers were laid on the wall +lines and the masonry rested partly upon them. An example of this occurs +in the Casa Blanca ruin, shown in <a href = "#plateXLVII">plate +XLVII</a>. Still another method of using timber in masonry occurs in a +number of ruins. It was seldom effective and apparently was confined to +this region. This consists of the incorporation into the masonry of +upright logs. Figure 69 shows an example that occurs at the point marked +<a name = "ruin32a" id = "ruin32a">32</a> on the map. The site here is +an especially difficult one, as the builders were compelled to place +walls not only on sloping rock foundations, but also on loose débris, +and the vertical timber support is quite common. +<span class = "pagenum">172</span> +<a name = "page172" id = "page172"> </a> +<!--png 413--> +The three kivas which are shown on the plan occupied the front of the +village, and their front walls have fallen out. Apparently the same +accident has happened at least once, if not several times, before, and a +fragment of a previous front wall has slipped down 3 or 4 feet, and +was left there when the kiva was repaired. The round dots shown on the +plan, two in the wall of the central kiva and one on the east, represent +vertical timbers incorporated in the masonry. The tops of these logs +reach the level of the top of the bench in the kiva, and their lower +ends rest in cavities in the rocks. The eastern one was removed and was +found to be about 2 feet long. The upper half was charred, although +formerly inclosed completely in the masonry, as though it had been +burned off to the required length. The lower end was hacked off with +some blunt implement, and as nearly squared as it could be done with +such means. It was set into a socket or hole pecked in the solid rock +and plastered in with clay. In the outer portion of the eastern wall of +the central kiva there are many marks of sticks, 3 to 4 inches in +diameter and placed vertically.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig69" id = "fig69"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig69.png" width = "437" height = "263" +alt = "ground plan showing retaining walls" +title = "ground plan showing retaining walls"> +</p> +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 69</span>—Retaining walls in Canyon +de Chelly.</p> + +<p>Although timbers as an aid to masonry occur in many ruins, they +predominate in those which have been suggested as the sites most +recently occupied; but in the Chaco ruins timber has been used +extensively and much more skillfully than here. Instances occur where a +cross wall has been tied into a front wall with timber, and so effective +was the device that in one instance a considerable section of cross wall +can be seen suspended in the air, being completely broken out below and +now supported wholly by the ties. Instances can also be seen where +partition walls are supported on crossbeams at some distance from the +ground, forming large and convenient openings between rooms; but nothing +of that kind was seen in De Chelly. In the latter region +<span class = "pagenum">173</span> +<a name = "page173" id = "page173"> </a> +<!--png 416--> +wherever horizontal timbers are used for the support of masonry they +rest on the bed rock.</p> + +<p>The same ruin (No. <a name = "ruin32b" id = "ruin32b">32</a>) +contains an elaborate system of retaining avails, which are shown partly +in figure 69. At first a retaining wall was built immediately in front +of the main kiva, which is now 5 feet high outside. Apparently this +did not serve the purpose intended, for another and much heavier wall +was built immediately next to it. This wall is 4 feet thick, flush +on top and inside, but 10 feet high outside. At half its height it has a +step back of 6 inches. It would seem that even this heavy construction +did not suffice, and still another wall was built outside of and next to +it. This wall is nearly or quite as heavy as the one described, and its +top is on the level of the foot of that wall, but it is 12 feet high +outside. Something of the character of the site may be inferred from the +arrangement of these walls, which have a combined vertical fall of 27 +feet in a horizontal distance of less than 15 feet. The outer or lower +wall has a series of very heavy timbers projecting from its face; these +are placed irregularly. It should be noted that access to this village +was from the bench on either side, and that it could not be reached from +the front, where these walls occur. There are other walls on the lower +slope, similarly reinforced.</p> + +<p>A little to the right of the point where these retaining walls occur +there is a room in which horizontal beams have been incorporated in the +masonry. A similar use of timber occurs in ruin No. <a name = "ruin16d" +id = "ruin16d">16</a> and is shown in <a href = "#plateLX">plate LX</a>. +Why timber should be used in this way is not clear. It may be that when +the supply was placed on the ground the builders found that they had +more timber than was needed for a roof and used the excess in the wall +rather than bring up more stone. The posts which were placed vertically +and built into the wall were always short; perhaps they were fragments +or ends cut from roofing timbers that were found to be too long. In many +instances they failed to hold the walls, and possibly the pit holes in +sloping rock, which are numerous on some sites, indicate places where +this expedient was formerly employed.</p> + +<p>It is singular that the necessity for such expedients did not develop +the idea of a buttress. On this site such an expedient would have saved +an immense amount of work. In only one place in the canyon was a +buttress found. This was in the Casa Blanca ruin, shown in <a href = +"#plateXLVII">plate XLVII</a>. There is no doubt that in this place the +buttress was used with a full knowledge of its principles, and but +little doubt that the idea was imported at a late, perhaps the latest, +period in the occupancy of that site. Had it been known before, it would +have been used in other places where there was great need for it, not so +much to prevent the slipping of walls as to supersede the construction +of walls 4 feet thick or more, and to strengthen outside walls +which were likely to give way at any time from the outward thrust upon +them.</p> + +<p>Altogether the constructive expedients employed in De Chelly suggest +the introduction of plans and methods adapted to other regions +<span class = "pagenum">174</span> +<a name = "page174" id = "page174"> </a> +<!--png 417--> +and other conditions into a new region with different requirements, and +that occupancy of the latter region did not continue long enough to +conform the methods to the new conditions.</p> + + +<h6 class = "section"> +<a name = "details_kivas" id = "details_kivas">KIVAS OR SACRED +CHAMBERS</a></h6> + +<p>The kivas, or estufas as they formerly were called, are sacred +chambers in which the civil and religious affairs of the tribe are +transacted, and they also form a place of resort, or club, as it were, +for the men. Their functions are many and varied, but as this subject +has already been discussed at length<a class = "tag" name = "tag17" id = +"tag17" href = "#note17">17</a> it need not be enlarged upon here. In +Tusayan the kivas are rectangular and separated from the houses; in Zuñi +and in some other pueblos they are also rectangular, but are +incorporated in the house clusters—a feature doubtless brought +about by the repressive policy of the Spanish monks. In some of the +pueblos, as in Taos, they are circular, and in many of the older ruins +the same form is found. In the large ruins of Chaco canyon the kivas +occur in groups arranged along the inner side of the rooms; always, +where the ground plan is such as to permit it, arranged on the border of +an inner court. In Canyon de Chelly the kivas are always circular and +are placed generally on the outer edge of the settlement, which is +usually the front.</p> + +<p>As the function of the kivas is principally a religious one, they are +found only in permanent villages where religious ceremonies were +performed. They are never found in subordinate settlements, or farming +villages, or outlooks, unless such settlements came to be inhabited all +the year—in other words, until they became permanent villages. The +habits and requirements of the Pueblo people make it essential that a +permanent village should have one or more kivas, and we have in the +presence of these structures a criterion by which the character of a +village or ruin may be determined. As the kivas in De Chelly are always +circular, they can generally be easily distinguished.</p> + +<p>The circular kiva is unquestionably a survival in +architecture—a relic of the time when the Pueblo people dwelt in +circular lodges or huts—and its use in conjunction with a +rectangular system entailed many difficulties and some awkward +expedients to overcome them. The main problem, how to use the two +systems together, was solved by inclosing the circular chamber in a +rectangular cell, and this expedient aided in the solution of the hardly +less important problem of roofing. The roof of the kiva was the roof of +the chamber that inclosed it.</p> + +<p>It seems to have been a common requirement throughout the pueblo +country that the kiva should be wholly or partly underground. So strong +was this requirement in Tusayan that the occurrence of natural clefts +and fissures in the rock of the mesa top has dictated the location of +the kivas often at some distance from the houses. But in De Chelly there +were some sites where the requirement could not be filled without +extensive rock excavation wholly beyond the power of the builders. +<span class = "pagenum">175</span> +<a name = "page175" id = "page175"> </a> +<!--png 418--> +Here then it seems that other requirements were strong enough to +overcome the ceremonial necessity for partly subterranean structures, +for examples of that kind are comparatively rare. In all of the ruins on +the canyon bottom the requirement could be filled, and as many of the +villages on defensive sites were constructed after the site itself had +been partly filled up with loose débris, it could also be filled in +those cases. There are also instances where the bottom of the kiva rests +directly on the rock, while outside the walls the site was covered deep +with artificial débris. But it would be difficult to determine what was +the surface of the ground when the kiva was in use.</p> + +<p>The size and character of the kivas in De Chelly, and their relations +to the other rooms about them, are shown in the ground plans preceding. +Some have walls still standing to a height of 6 feet above the +ground, but this could not have been the total height. Dr H. C. +Yarrow, U.S.A., in 1874 examined one of the five large circular kivas in +Taos. He states<a class = "tag" name = "tag18" id = "tag18" href = +"#note18">18</a> that it was 25 or 30 feet in diameter, arched above, +and 20 feet high. Around the wall, 2 feet from the ground, there +was a hard earthen bench, and in the center a fireplace about 2 by +3 feet.</p> + +<p>Entrance to the kivas is invariably from the roof by a ladder. This +appears to be a ceremonial requirement. Doorways at the ground level are +not only unknown, but also impracticable; but in De Chelly there are +some puzzling features which might easily be mistaken for such doorways. +The principal kiva in the ruin, which occurs at the point marked <a name += "ruin10b" id = "ruin10b">10</a> on the map, and described above (<a +href = "#page123">page 123</a>, <a href = "#fig24">figure 24</a>), is on +the edge of the ledge, and its outer wall is so close as to make a +passage difficult, although not impossible. At the point where the +curved wall comes nearest the cliff there is a narrow gap or opening, +not more than 15 inches wide. In front of this there appears to be a +little platform on the sloping rock, 2 feet long, 10 inches wide, +and now about a foot high. At first sight this would be taken for a +doorway so arranged that access to the kiva could be obtained only from +below; but a closer examination shows that this was probably only what +remains of a chimney-like structure, such as those described later.</p> + +<table class = "figfloat" summary = "illustration with caption"> +<tr> +<td class = "picture"> +<a name = "fig70" id = "fig70"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig70.png" width = "304" height = "118" +alt = "ground plan" title = "ground plan"> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 70</span>—Part of a kiva in ruin +No. 31. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>In ruin <a name = "ruin31c" id = "ruin31c">31</a> there is another +example. The kiva here was about 20 feet in diameter, with rather thin +walls smoothly plastered inside. On the inner side the walls are from 3 +to 5 feet high; outside they are generally flush with the ground. +The kiva is not a true circle, but is slightly elongated north and +south. On the south side, nearest the edge of the ledge, there is an +opening, shown in figure 70. The opening is 6 feet 3 inches +<span class = "pagenum">176</span> +<a name = "page176" id = "page176"> </a> +<!--png 419--> +wide, and the ends of the curved walls terminate in smoothly finished +surfaces. In front of it there are remains of two walls, about a foot +apart, and so arranged as to form an apparent passageway into the +interior of the kiva. These seem to be a kind of platform, like that +just described, but close inspection shows the walls, which can be +traced to within 6 inches of the inner wall of the kiva. This also may +be the remains of a chimney-like structure. There are other points in +the canyon where the same feature occurs, but in none of them is the +evidence of an opening or doorway more definite than in the examples +described.</p> + +<table class = "figfloat" summary = "illustration with caption"> +<tr> +<td class = "picture"> +<a name = "fig71" id = "fig71"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig71.png" width = "220" height = "186" +alt = "ground plan" title = "ground plan"> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 71</span>—Plan of part<br> +of a kiva in ruin No. 10. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>The masonry of the kivas is always as good as that of any other +structure on the site, and generally much better. The walls are usually +massive; sometimes they are 3 feet thick in the upper part and +4 feet in the lower portion, where the bench occurs. In a few cases +the kiva has an upper or second story, but when this occurs no attempt +is made to preserve the circular form, and the upper rooms are really +rectangular with much rounded corners. <a href = "#plateXLIX">Plate +XLIX</a> shows a second-story kiva wall in Mummy Cave ruin, and plate +LXIII one in ruin No. <a name = "ruin10c" id = "ruin10c">10</a> in De +Chelly. The latter occurs over the principal kiva, and the walls which +are still standing on the north and west sides are approximately +straight, but the corners are much rounded. Figure 71 is a detailed plan +of part of the kiva, showing the arrangement of the upper walls. The +kiva walls are about 18 inches thick. On the north side the upper wall +is supported by a heavy beam, part of which is still in place. Under the +north-east corner of the upper room there is a little triangular space +formed by a short connecting wall, shown on the plan. This is really a +flying wall, covering only the upper portion of the space, and its +purpose is not clear, as the opening left is not large enough to permit +the passage of a person, and was available only from the second +story.</p> + +<!--png 414--> +<!--png 415--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateLXIII" id = "plateLXIII"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate63.png" width = "484" height = "311" +alt = "view of kiva" title = "view of kiva"> +</p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate LXIII. Kiva in Ruin No. 10, Showing Second-Story Walls</p> + +<p>Apparently the greatest care was bestowed on the construction and +finish of the kivas. The exterior of the circular wall is often rough +and unfinished, but this is probably because the whole structure was +generally inclosed within rectangular walls. The interior was plastered, +often with a number of coats. The southern kiva in ruin No. <a name = +"ruin10d" id = "ruin10d">10</a> shows a number of these on its interior +surface, applied one after another, and now forming a plastering nearly +three-quarters of an inch thick. In its section 18 distinct coats can be +counted, separated one from the other by a thin film of smoke-blackened +surface. The kiva in ruin No. <a name = "ruin16e" id = "ruin16e">16</a> +has 4 or 5 coats, that in ruin No. <a name = "ruin31d" id = +"ruin31d">31</a> shows at least 8. In the last example the last coat was +not decorated, but some of the underlying ones were.</p> + +<p><span class = "pagenum">177</span> +<a name = "page177" id = "page177"> </a> +<!--png 420--> +Kivas are used, principally in the autumn and winter, when the farming +season is over and the ceremonies and dances take place. It is probable, +therefore, that each coat of plaster means at least a year in the +history of the kiva, which would indicate that some of the sites were +occupied about twenty years. But Mr Frank H. Cushing has observed in +Zuñi a ceremony, part of which is the refinishing of the kiva interior, +and this occurs only once in four years. This would give a maximum +occupancy of about eighty years to some of the kivas; the ruins as a +whole would hardly justify an hypothesis of a longer occupancy than +this. In Tusayan the interior of the kiva is plastered by the women once +every year at the feast of Powamu (the fructifying moon).</p> + +<p>The kivas are seldom true circles, being usually elongated one way or +another. Some instances occur which are rectangular, such as the room +shown in <a href = "#fig19">figure 19</a>, which was apparently a kiva. +Nordenskiöld<a class = "tag" name = "tag19" id = "tag19" href = +"#note19">19</a> illustrates an example which appears to have been oval +by design, differing in this respect from anything found in De Chelly. +Most of the kivas have an interior bench, about a foot wide and +2 feet above the floor. This bench is sometimes continuous around +the whole interior, sometimes extends only partly around. Wherever the +chimney-like structure is attached to a kiva the bench is omitted or +broken at that point. The kiva wall on the floor level is always +continuous except before the chimney-like feature. The most elaborate +system of benches and buttresses seen in the canyon occurs in the +principal kiva of the Mummy Cave ruin. This is shown in the ground plan, +<a href = "#fig16">figure 16</a>, and also in <a href = "#fig82">figures +82</a> and <a href = "#fig83">83</a>. In the ruins of the Mancos, +Nordenskiöld found kivas in which this feature is carried much further. +He illustrates<a class = "tag" name = "tag20" id = "tag20" href = +"#note20">20</a> an example with a complete bench regularly divided into +six equal parts by an equal number of buttresses or pillars (properly +pilasters) extending out flush with the front of the bench. This is said +<span class = "pagenum">178</span> +<a name = "page178" id = "page178"> </a> +<!--png 421--> +to be a typical example, to which practically all the kivas conform. It +has also the chimney-like structure, to be described later. Like the +rectangular kivas of Tusayan the circular structures of De Chelly have +little niches in the walls. Probably these were places of deposit for +certain paraphernalia used in the ceremonies.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig72" id = "fig72"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig72.png" width = "438" height = "234" +alt = "wall decoration" title = "wall decoration"> +</p> +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 72</span>—Kiva decoration in +white.</p> + +<table class = "figfloat" summary = "illustration with caption"> +<tr> +<td class = "picture"> +<a name = "fig73" id = "fig73"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig73.png" width = "213" height = "359" +alt = "pictograph" title = "pictograph"> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 73</span>—Pictograph in white.<a +class = "tag" href = "#noteA">A</a> +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>Some of the kivas have an interior decoration consisting of a band +with points. Figure 72 shows an example that occurs in ruin No. <a name += "ruin10e" id = "ruin10e">10</a> in De Chelly, in the north kiva. The +band, done in white, is about 18 inches below the bench, and its top is +broken at intervals into groups of points rising from it, four points in +each group. In the north kiva the interior wall is decorated by a series +of vertical bands in white. One series occurs on the vertical face of +the bench; the bands are 2 inches wide and 8 inches apart. Another +series occurs on the wall, and consists of bands 2½ to 3 inches wide, +about 2 feet high and 12 to 14 inches apart. The bands were +observed only on the southern and western sides of the kiva, but +originally there may have been others on the north and east.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">179</span> +<a name = "page179" id = "page179"> </a> +<!--png 422--> + +<p>In ruin No. <a name = "ruin4b" id = "ruin4b">4</a> there is a similar +series of bars, but in this instance they occur on the cliff wall back +of the rooms. They are shown in figure 73. +<span class = "pagenum">180</span> +<a name = "page180" id = "page180"> </a> +<!--png 423--> +There are four bars or upright bands, done in white paint, and +surmounted by four round dots or spots. To the left of the four bars, +level with their tops, there is a small triangle, also in white. The +bars are 30 inches long and 4 inches wide. The upper dots are nearly +2 feet above, the tops of the bars. It is evident that this figure +was designed to be seen from a distance. Figure 74 shows some markings +on the cliff wall back of ruin No. <a name = "ruin37b" id = +"ruin37b">37</a>.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig74" id = "fig74"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig74.png" width = "434" height = "197" +alt = "markings on cliff wall" title = "markings on cliff wall"> +</p> +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 74</span>—Markings on cliff wall, +ruin No. 37.<a class = "tag" href = "#noteA">A</a></p> + +<p>Examples almost identical with those shown here are abundant in the +Mancos ruins. It was probable they are of ceremonial rather than of +decorative origin, and in this connection it may be stated that Mr Frank +H. Cushing has observed in Zuñi the ceremony of marking the sides of a +kiva hatchway with white bars closely resembling those shown in <a href += "#fig73">figure 73</a>. This ceremony occurs once in four years, and +the purpose of the marks is said to be to indicate the cardinal +directions. In the ceremonials of the Pueblo Indians it is necessary to +know where the cardinal points are; a prayer, for instance, is often +addressed to the north, west, south, and east, and when such ceremonials +were performed in a circular chamber some means by which the direction +could be determined was essential.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">181</span> +<a name = "page181" id = "page181"> </a> +<!--png 424--> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig75" id = "fig75"> </a> +<a href = "images/figures/fig75.png"> +<img src = "images/figures/fig75thumb.png" width = "530" height = "273" +alt = "decorative band on wall" title = "decorative band on wall"></a> +</p> +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 75</span>—Decorative band in kiva +in Mummy Cave ruin.<br> +<a href = "images/figures/fig75.png">Larger View</a></p> + +<table class = "figfloat" summary = "illustration with caption"> +<tr> +<td class = "picture"> +<a name = "fig76" id = "fig76"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig76.png" width = "244" height = "756" +alt = "decorative band on wall" title = "decorative band on wall"> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 76</span>—Design employed<br> +in decorative band.<a class = "tag" href = "#noteA">A</a> +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>In the principal kiva in Mummy Cave ruin, however, there is a painted +band on the front of the bench which appears to be really an attempt at +decoration. Over the white there is a band 4 or 5 inches wide, +consisting of a meander done in red. This is shown in figure 75, and in +detail in figure 76. The design is similar to that used today. Its +importance arises not so much from this as from the fact that it is +difficult to regard this as other than ornamentation, and the Pueblo +architect had not yet reached the stage of ornamented construction. The +ruins in the Mancos canyon and the Mesa <ins class = "correction" title += "spelling unchanged">Verdé</ins> country obviously represent a later +stage in development than those in De Chelly, yet nowhere in that region +do we find the counterpart of the decoration in Mummy Cave kiva. Bands +with points occur, sometimes on walls of rectangular rooms. One such is +illustrated by Chapin,<a class = "tag" name = "tag21" id = "tag21" href += "#note21">21</a> who also shows a variety of the meander, treated, +however, as a pictograph and without reference to its decorative value. +Similar bands are shown also by Nordenskiöld,<a class = "tag" name = +"tag22" id = "tag22" href = "#note22">22</a> but always with three +points, instead of four, which were done in red. Figure 77 shows some +pictographs somewhat resembling the Mancos examples. These occur at the +point marked <a name = "ruin1b" id = "ruin1b">1</a> on the map, in +connection with a small storage cist already described.</p> + +<p>No kiva has been found in De Chelly with a roof in place. Nearly all +of them are inclosed in rectangular chambers, and it seems more than +probable that the roofing of the kiva was simply the roofing of the +inclosing chamber. As a rule the inclosing rectangular walls were +erected at the same time as the kiva proper, and the outside of the +inner circular wall was not finished at all. In a few instances the +space +<span class = "pagenum">182</span> +<a name = "page182" id = "page182"> </a> +<!--png 425--> +between the outer rectangular and inner circular wall was filled in +solid, or perhaps was so constructed, but usually the walls are separate +and distinct.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig77" id = "fig77"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig77.png" width = "436" height = "283" +alt = "pictographs" title = "pictographs"> +</p> +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 77</span>—Pictographs in Canyon de +Chelly.<a class = "tag" href = "#noteA">A</a></p> + + +<h6 class = "section"> +<a name = "details_chimney" id = "details_chimney">CHIMNEY-LIKE +STRUCTURES</a></h6> + +<p>There are peculiar structures found in some of the ruins, whose use +and object are not clear. Reference has already been made to them in the +descriptions of several ruins, and for want of a better name they have +been designated chimney-like structures. At the time that they were +examined they were supposed to be new, and the first hypothesis formed +was that they were abortive chimneys, but further examination showed +that this idea was not tenable. Subsequently Nordenskiöld's book on the +Cliff Dwellers of the Mesa Verde was published, and it appears therefrom +that this feature is very common in the region treated; so common as to +constitute the type.</p> + +<table class = "figfloat" summary = "illustration with caption"> +<tr> +<td class = "picture"> +<a name = "fig78" id = "fig78"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig78.png" width = "233" height = "320" +alt = "plan of chimney-like structure" +title = "plan of chimney-like structure"> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 78</span>—Plan of chimney-like<br> +structure in ruin No. 15. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>Figure 78 is a plan of one of these structures which occurs in ruin +No. <a name = "ruin15b" id = "ruin15b">15</a> in Canyon de Chelly. This +ruin has already been described in detail (<a href = "#page118">page +118</a>). The chimney-like structure is attached to a rectangular room +with rounded corners, which is supposed to have been a kiva, and which +was two stories high. Excavation revealed the floor level about 7½ feet +below where the roof was placed. In the center of the south wall there +is an opening 1.5 feet high and eighty-five one-hundredths of a foot +(10.2 inches) wide. The south wall is built over a large bowlder, and a +tunnel or opening passes under this to a rounded vertical shaft, about a +foot in diameter, which opens to the air. This perhaps is better shown +in the section (figure 79). At first sight this would appear to be a +chimney, but there are several objections to the idea. The interior of +the shaft is not blackened by smoke, and while the tunnel is somewhat +smoke-stained, the deposit is not so pronounced as on the walls of the +room. The front of the tunnel in the room has a lintel composed of a +single stick about an inch in diameter, as shown in the section. The +roof of the tunnel was the underside of the large bowlder mentioned, and +the stick lintel was of no use except to show that no fire could have +been built under it. The +<span class = "pagenum">183</span> +<a name = "page183" id = "page183"> </a> +<!--png 426--> +roof of the southern end of the tunnel, where it opens into the shaft, +is considerably lower than at the other end. The floor of the tunnel and +the sides were smoothly plastered, but the plastering does not appear to +have been subjected to the action of fire.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig79" id = "fig79"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig79.png" width = "436" height = "283" +alt = "section of chimney-like structure" +title = "section of chimney-like structure"> +</p> +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 79</span>—Section of chimney-like +structure in ruin 15.</p> + +<p>The interior of the room, like the circular kivas already described, +appears to have been plastered with a number of successive coats, all +except the last being heavily stained by smoke. If the structure were a +chimney, it was a dismal failure. The tunnel was made at the time the +wall was erected, and passes under the bowlder over which the wall was +built. A little east of the opening, inside the room, the bowlder shows +through the wall, projecting slightly beyond its face.</p> + +<p>Outside of the room the corner of the bowlder was chipped off, as +shown on the plan, to permit the rounding of the shaft, the east, west, +and south sides of which were built up with small pieces of stone, a +kind of lining of masonry. There was also an outside structure of +masonry, but how high above the ground it extended can not now be +determined. A small fragment of this masonry is still left on the upper +surface of the bowlder and is shown in the section.</p> + +<table class = "figfloat" summary = "illustration with caption"> +<tr> +<td class = "picture"> +<a name = "fig80" id = "fig80"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig80.png" width = "253" height = "373" +alt = "plan of chimney-like structure" +title = "plan of chimney-like structure"> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 80</span>—Plan of chimney-like<br> +structure in ruin No. 16. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>Figure 80 is a plan of another example, which is attached to the +circular kiva in ruin No. <a name = "ruin16f" id = "ruin16f">16</a>. +This ruin is described on <a href = "#page129">page 129</a>. The kiva +had an interior bench and the floor is 2 feet above its top. On the +south side nearest the cliff edge the bench is interrupted to give place +to a structure much like that described above. In this case, however, +there was no convenient bowlder, and the roof of the tunnel has broken +down so that the method of support can not be accurately determined. +Probably it consisted of slabs of rock, as the span is small, and a +number of large flat stones were removed from the tunnel in +excavating.</p> + +<p><span class = "pagenum">184</span> +<a name = "page184" id = "page184"> </a> +<!--png 427--> +The top of the tunnel is on the level of the top of the bench, as shown +in figure 81, which is a vertical section. An inspection of the plan +will show that the circular wall of the kiva is complete and that the +inclosing rectangular wall was added later. The shaft was built at a +still later period, and the line or junction marking its inner surface +shows plainly in the interior of the tunnel. The general view of the +ruin (<a href = "#plateLI">plate LI</a>) shows the exterior of the +shaft, and the horizontal timbers on which the masonry is supported are +shown in <a href = "#plateLII">plate LII</a>.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig81" id = "fig81"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig81.png" width = "397" height = "280" +alt = "section of chimney-like structure" +title = "section of chimney-like structure"> +</p> +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 81</span>—Section of chimney-like +structure in ruin No. 16</p> + +<p>In front of the tunnel a flat piece of stone was placed on the floor, +and in front of this again, about 2 feet from the mouth of the +tunnel, there was an upright mass of masonry composed of stone and mud, +and forming a curtain or screen before the opening. The original height +of this structure was the same as that of the interior bench.</p> + +<p>The inner surface of the rectangular inclosing wall is marked by a +line in the interior of the tunnel. Inside of this line, toward the +center of the kiva, the stones composing the wall are large; outside of +it they are small. The interior plastering of the kiva is not +smoke-blackened, but the coat next the surface is stained, as is also +the third coat underneath. The interior of the tunnel is not much +smoke-blackened, but it appears probable that part of its roof fell +while the structure was still in use, as there are a number of little +cavities in the masonry above its roof level filled with soot. A similar +effect might result from leaks or cavities between the flat roofing +stones. In excavating the tunnel a number of large lumps of clay were +found in it, and there is no doubt that they formed part of the roof. +Some of these had considerable quantities of grass mixed into them or +stuck to the clay on one side. Apparently dry grass was used in the +construction. A large fire could not have been built within the +tunnel.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig82" id = "fig82"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig82.png" width = "437" height = "391" +alt = "ground plan" title = "ground plan"> +</p> +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 82</span>—Plan of the principal +kiva in Mummy Cave ruin.</p> + +<p>The principal kiva in Mummy Cave ruin has an elaborate structure of +the kind under discussion. Figure 82 shows a plan of this kiva, of which +a general view has already been given (<a href = "#fig75">figure +75</a>). The bench +<span class = "pagenum">185</span> +<a name = "page185" id = "page185"> </a> +<!--png 428--> +extended only partly around the interior, which had a continuous surface +at the floor level, except on the southwest. At this point it is +interrupted to give place to an elaborate chimney-like structure. Figure +83 is a general view.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig83" id = "fig83"> </a> +<a href = "images/figures/fig83.png"> +<img src = "images/figures/fig83thumb.png" width = "424" height = "249" +alt = "chimney-like structure" title = "chimney-like structure"></a> +</p> +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 83</span>—Chimney-like structure in +Mummy Cave ruin.<br> +<a href = "images/figures/fig83.png">Larger View</a></p> + +<p>The wall surface on the southern side of the kiva has been extended +inward, as shown on the plan by a lighter shaded area. This was done at +some period subsequent to the completion of the kiva, but whether it had +any connection with the chimney-like structure could not be determined. +The curtain or screen before the opening, which seems to be an +invariable feature, is shown in both figures.</p> + +<p>In this example the tunnel does not pass through the masonry as in +those previously described, but occurs in the form of a covered trough, +shown in the illustration with the covering removed. It occupies the +middle third of a large recess in the main wall of the kiva, and is +connected at its outer end with a vertical square shaft about a foot +wide. This shaft is separated from the recess above the bench level by a +wall only a few inches thick, composed of a single layer of stones. That +portion of it which is above the tunnel is supported by a single round +stick of wood, as shown in figure 83. The south or inner opening of the +tunnel is reduced to two-thirds, of the width elsewhere by a framing +composed of bundles of sticks bound together with withes and heavily +coated with mud mortar. This was not placed flush with the inner face, +but a few inches back, and the whole structure gives an effect of +unusual neatness and good workmanship.</p> + +<p>At various other points in the canyons examples of chimney-like +structures occur, none, however, constructed on the elaborate plan of +that last described. Two examples were found in the large rooms west of +the tower in the central portion of Mummy Cave ruin, and these are +<span class = "pagenum">186</span> +<a name = "page186" id = "page186"> </a> +<!--png 429--> +especially worthy of attention because they are attached to rectangular +rooms, which there is no reason to suppose were kivas. The first room +appears to have had a shaft only, without a niche or recess; the second +room west of the tower had a recess and a rounded shaft, while the +third-room had neither recess nor shaft.</p> + +<p>The usual form of this feature is that shown in <a href = +"#fig80">figures 80</a> and <a href = "#fig81">81</a>, and consists only +of a tunnel and shaft. There are not many examples in the canyons: +altogether there may be a dozen now visible, but excavations in the +village ruins would doubtless reveal others. Except the two in Mummy +Cave ruin last mentioned, and some doubtful examples to be described +later, they occur always as attachments to kivas, never to houses. Some +of them, like the Mummy Cave example, were certainly built at the same +time as the kivas, of which they formed a part; others were added to +kivas after those structures had been completed and used.</p> + +<p>The kiva in Casa Blanca ruin (shown in <a href = "#fig14">figure +14</a>) appears to have had an appendage of this sort, not constructed +after the usual manner, but added outside the rectangular wall and +composed of mud or adobe. At three other places in the lower ruin these +structures are found, all constructed of mud or adobe and all attached +to adobe walls. It is +<span class = "pagenum">188</span> +<a name = "page188" id = "page188"> </a> +<!--png 431--> +doubtful whether these three examples should be classed with the +preceding, but as they may have been used in the same manner they should +be mentioned here. Another doubtful example occurs in the upper part of +the same ruin and has already been described (<a href = "#page110">page +110</a>). It was constructed of stone at some time subsequent to the +completion of the wall against which it rests.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">187</span> +<a name = "page187" id = "page187"> </a> +<!--png 430--> +<p>Over <ins class = "correction" title = +"word omitted: 'years'?">twenty ago</ins> +Mr W. H. Holmes found a structure in +Mancos canyon which it now appears may be of this type. He illustrates +it by a ground plan and thus describes it:</p> + +<blockquote> +The most striking feature of this structure [ruin] is the round room, +which occurs about the middle of the ruin and inside of a large +rectangular apartment.... Its walls are not high and not entirely +regular, and the inside is curiously fashioned with offsets and box-like +projections. It is plastered smoothly and bears considerable evidence of +having been used, although I observed no traces of tire. The entrance to +this chamber is rather extraordinary, and further attests the peculiar +importance attached to it by the builders and their evident desire to +secure it from all possibility of intrusion. A walled and covered +passageway of solid masonry, 10 feet of which is still intact, leads +from an outer chamber through the small intervening apartments into the +circular one. It is possible that this originally extended to the outer +wall and was entered from the outside. If so, the person desiring to +visit the estufa [kiva] would have to enter an aperture about 22 inches +high by 30 wide and crawl in the most abject manner possible through a +tube-like passageway nearly 20 feet in length. My first impression was +that this peculiarly constructed doorway was a precaution against +enemies and that it was probably the only means of entrance to the +interior of the house, but I am now inclined to think this hardly +probable, and conclude that it was rather designed to render a sacred +chamber as free as possible from profane intrusion.<a class = "tag" name += "tag23" id = "tag23" href = "#note23">23</a> +</blockquote> + +<p>In this example the tunnel was much larger than usual and the +vertical shaft, if there were one, has been so much broken down that it +is no longer distinguishable. Nordenskiöld mentions a considerable +number of kivas with this attachment, and one which is described and +figured is said to be a type of all the kivas in that region, but an +inspection of his ground plans shows more kivas without this feature +than with it. In his description of a small ruin in Cliff canyon he +speaks of—</p> + +<blockquote> +... a circular room still in a fair state of preservation. The wall that +lies nearest the precipice is for the most part in ruins; the rest of +the room is well preserved. After about half a meter of dust and rubbish +had been removed, we were able to ascertain that the walls formed a +cylinder 4.3 meters in diameter. The thickness of the wall is throughout +considerable, and varies, the spaces between the points where the +cylinder touches the walls of adjoining rooms<a class = "tag" name = +"tag24" id = "tag24" href = "#note24">24</a> having been filled up with +masonry. The height of the room is 2 meters. The roof has long since +fallen in, and only one or two beams are left among the rubbish. To a +height of 1.2 meters from the floor the wall is perfectly even and has +the form of a cylinder, or rather of a truncate cone, as it leans +slightly inward. The upper portion, on the other hand, is divided by six +deep niches into the same number of pillars. The floor is of clay<ins +class = "correction" title = "comma invisible">,</ins> +<span class = "pagenum">189</span> +<a name = "page189" id = "page189"> </a> +<!--png 432--> +hard, and perfectly even. Near the center is a round depression or hole, +five-tenths of a meter deep and eight-tenths of a meter in diameter. +This hole was entirely full of white ashes. It was undoubtedly the +hearth. Between the hearth and the outer wall stands a narrow, curved +wall, eight-tenths of a meter high. Behind this wall, in the same plane +as the floor, a rectangular opening, 1 meter high and six-tenths of +a meter broad, has been constructed in the outer wall. This opening +forms the mouth of a narrow passage or tunnel of rectangular shape, +which runs 1.8 meters in a horizontal direction and then goes straight +upward, out into the open air. The tunnel lies under one of the six +niches, which is somewhat deeper than the others. The walls are built of +carefully hewn blocks of sandstone, the inner surface being perfectly +smooth and lined with a thin, yellowish plaster. On closer examination +of this plaster it is found to consist of several thin layers, each of +them black with soot. The plaster has evidently been repeatedly restored +as the walls became blackened with smoke. A few smaller niches and holes +in the walls, irregularly scattered here and there, have presumably +served as places of deposit for different articles; a bundle of pieces +of hide, tied with a string, was found in one of them. The lower part of +the wall, to a height of four-tenths of a meter, is painted dark red +around the whole room. This red paint projects upward in triangular +points, arranged in threes, and above them is a row of small round dots +of red.... Circular rooms, built and arranged on exactly the same plan +as that described above, reappear with exceedingly slight variations in +size and structure in every cliff dwelling except the very smallest +ones.... The number of estufas [kivas] varies in proportion to the size +of the buildings and the number of rooms, ... [The ruin described +contained two kivas.] ... The description of the first estufa applies in +every respect to the second, with the single exception that the whole +wall is coated with yellow plaster without any red painting. The wall +between the hearth and the singular passage or tunnel described above is +replaced by a large slab of stone set on end. It is difficult to say for +what purpose this tunnel has been constructed and the slab of stone or +the wall erected in front of it. As I have mentioned above, this +arrangement is found in all the estufas.<a class = "tag" name = "tag25" +id = "tag25" href = "#note25">25</a> +</blockquote> + +<p>The general similarity between the kivas of De Chelly and those of +the Mesa Verde region will be apparent from the above description. It +should be added that in the section which accompanies it the roof of the +tunnel appears to be supported by a series of small cross sticks, +although no information on this point is afforded by the test. The +examples which occur in De Chelly are apparently much ruder and more +primitive than those of the Mancos, and only one of them approaches the +latter in finish and elaboration.</p> + +<p>In another place<a class = "tag" name = "tag26" id = "tag26" href = +"#note26">26</a> Nordenskiöld mentions an example in which two small +sticks were incorporated in the masonry of the upper part of the tunnel +in a diagonal position. From this he rejects Holmes' explanation that +the passageway was used as an entrance to the kiva, nor does he find the +chimney hypothesis satisfactory. He states, further, that the use of +this feature as a ventilator seems highly improbable. In one place he +found the curtain or screen constructed not of masonry, but—</p> + +<blockquote> +... of thick stakes, driven into the ground close to each other, and +fastened together at the top with osiers. On the side nearest to the +hearth this wooden screen was covered with a thick layer of mortar, +probably to protect the timber from the heat.<a class = "tag" name = +"tag27" id = "tag27" href = "#note27">27</a> +</blockquote> + +<p><span class = "pagenum">190</span> +<a name = "page190" id = "page190"> </a> +<!--png 433--> +As stated elsewhere, the first hypothesis formed in the field as to the +purpose of these chimney-like structures was that they were abortive +chimneys, but this was found untenable. The next hypothesis, formed also +in the field, was that they were ceremonial in origin and use, but why +they should connect with the open air is not clear. If we could assume +that they were ventilators, the problem would be solved, but it is a far +cry from pueblo architecture to ventilation; a stride, as it were, over +many centuries. Ventilation according to this method—the +introduction of fresh air on a low level, striking on a screen a little +distance from the inlet and being thereby evenly distributed over the +whole chamber—is a development in house architecture reached only +by our own civilization within the last few decades.</p> + +<p>If the shaft and tunnel were in place, however, the screen might +follow as a matter of necessity. Entrance to the kivas is always through +the roof, a ceremonial requirement quite as rigidly adhered to today +among the Pueblos as it was formerly among their ancestors. The same +opening which gives access also provides an exit to the smoke from the +fire, which is invariably placed in the center of the kiva below it. +This fire is a ceremonial rather than a necessary feature, for in the +coldest weather the presence of a dozen men in a small chamber, +air-tight except for a small opening in the roof, very soon raises the +temperature to an uncomfortable degree, and the air becomes so fetid +that a white man, not accustomed to it, is nauseated in half an hour or +less. Such are the conditions in the modern kivas of Tusayan. In the +smaller structures of De Chelly they must have been worse. The fire is, +therefore, made very small and always of very dry wood, so as to +diminish as far as possible the output of smoke. Frank H. Cushing states +that in certain ceremonials which occur in the kivas it is considered +very necessary that the fire should burn brightly and that the flame +should rise straight from it. If this requirement prevailed in De +Chelly, a screen of some sort would surely follow the construction of a +shaft and tunnel.</p> + +<p>More or less smoke is generally present in the kivas when a fire is +burning, notwithstanding the care taken to prevent it. That a similar +condition prevailed in the kivas of De Chelly is shown by the +smoke-blackened plaster of the interiors. In some cases there was a room +over the kivas which must have increased the difficulty very much. There +can be little doubt that the chimney-like structures were not chimneys, +and no doubt at all that they did provide an efficient means of +ventilation, no matter what the intention of the builders may have been. +When we know more of the ceremonials of the Pueblo Indians, and when +extensive excavations have developed the various types and varieties of +these structures in the ruins, we may be able to determine their object +and use.</p> + + +<h6 class = "section"> +<a name = "details_traditions" id = +"details_traditions">TRADITIONS</a></h6> + +<p>It has often been stated concerning some given ruin or region that +the traditions of the present inhabitants of the country do not reach +them. In the case of Canyon de Chelly the same statement might be +<span class = "pagenum">191</span> +<a name = "page191" id = "page191"> </a> +<!--png 434--> +made, for more than 99 Navaho in 100, when asked what became of the +people who built the old houses in De Chelly, will state that a great +wind arose and swept them all away, which is equivalent to saying that +they do not know. There is a tradition in the Navaho tribe, however, now +very difficult to get, as it is confined to a few of the old priests. It +recites the occupancy of the canyon before the Navaho obtained +possession of it, but, curiously enough, this period is placed after the +Spanish invasion. It is even asserted that there were monks in De +Chelly, and Mummy Cave, Casa Blanca, and one other ruin have been +pointed out as the places where they were stationed. No version of this +tradition definite and complete enough for publication could be obtained +by the writer, but Dr. Washington Matthews, U.S.A., whose knowledge of +Navaho myths and traditions is so great that it can almost be termed +exhaustive, has obtained one and doubtless will publish it.</p> + +<p>The Hopi or Moki Indians, whose villages are some three days' journey +to the west, have also very definite traditions bearing on the occupancy +of De Chelly.<a class = "tag" name = "tag28" id = "tag28" href = +"#note28">28</a> This tribe, like others, is composed of a number of +related clans who reached their present location from various directions +and at various times; but, with a few exceptions, each of these clans +claims to have lived at one time or another in Canyon de Chelly. How +much truth there is in these claims can be determined only when the +entire region has been examined and thoroughly studied. In the meantime +it will probably be safe to assume that some, at least, of the ruins in +De Chelly are of Hopi origin.</p> + + +<h4 class = "chapter"> +<a name = "conclusions" id = "conclusions">CONCLUSIONS</a></h4> + +<p>To understand the ruins so profusely scattered over the ancient +pueblo country we must have some knowledge of the conditions under which +their inhabitants lived. Were nothing at all known, however, we would be +justified in inferring, from the results that have been produced, a +similarity of conditions with those prevailing among the pueblo tribes, +both formerly and now; and all the evidence so far obtained would +support that inference. There is no warrant whatever for the old +assumption that the "cliff dwellers" were a separate race, and the cliff +dwellings must be regarded as only a phase of pueblo architecture.</p> + +<p>More or less speculation regarding the origin of pueblo culture is +the usual and perhaps proper accompaniment of nearly all treatises +bearing on that subject. Early writers on the Aztec culture, aided by a +vague tradition of that tribe that they came from the north, pushed the +point of emigration farther and farther and still farther north, until +finally the pueblo country was reached. Pueblo ruins are even now known +locally as "Aztec ruins." Logically the inhabited villages should be +classed as "Aztec colonies," and such classification was not unusual +when the country came into the possession of the United States some +fifty years ago.</p> + +<p><span class = "pagenum">192</span> +<a name = "page192" id = "page192"> </a> +<!--png 435--> +As our knowledge of the pueblo culture increased, a gradual separation +between the old and the new took place, and we have as an intermediate +hypothesis many "Aztec ruins," but no "Aztec colonies." Finally, as a +result of still further knowledge, the ruins and the inhabited pueblos +are again brought together; several lines of investigation have combined +to show the continuity of the old and the present culture, and the +connection may be considered well established. But there is still a +disposition to regard the cliff ruins as a thing apart. The old idea of +a separate race of cliff dwellers now finds little credence, but the +cliff ruins are almost universally explained as the results of +extraordinary, primitive, or unusual causes.</p> + +<p>The intimate relation between the savage and his physical environment +has already been alluded to. Nature, or that part of nature which we +term physical environment, enters into and becomes part of the life of +the savage in a way and to an extent that we can hardly conceive. A +change of physical environment does not produce an immediate change in +the man or in his arts, but in time such must inevitably result. +Twenty-five years ago the savage of the plains and the savage of the +pueblo country were regarded as distinct races, "as different from each +other as light is from darkness;" yet the differences which appeared so +striking at first have become fewer and fewer as our knowledge of the +Indian tribes increased, and those which remain today can almost all be +attributed to a difference in physical environment.</p> + +<p>Linguistic researches have shown the close connection which exists +between the Hopi (Moki) and some of the plains (or so called "wild") +Indians. There is no doubt that at the time of the Spanish discovery, +some three hundred and fifty years ago, the Hopi were quite as far +advanced as the other pueblo tribes, and the conclusion is irresistible +that since it may reasonably be inferred that one tribe has made the +change from a nomadic to a sedentary life, other tribes also may have +done so. We may go even farther than this, and assume that a nomadic +tribe driven into the pueblo country, or drifting into it, would remain +as before under the direct influence of its physical environment, +although the environment would be a new one. Granting this, and the +element of time, and we will have no difficulty with the origin of +pueblo architecture.</p> + +<p>The complete adaptation of pueblo architecture to the country in +which it is found has been commented on. Ordinarily such adaptation +would imply two things—origin within the country, and a long +period of time for development—but there are several factors that +must be taken into consideration. If the architecture did not originate +in the country where it is found it would almost certainly bear, traces +of former conditions. Such survivals are common in all arts, and +instances of it are so common in architecture that no examples need be +cited. Only one of these survivals has been found in pueblo +architecture, but that one is very instructive; it is the presence of +circular chambers in groups of rectangular rooms, which occur in certain +regions. These chambers +<span class = "pagenum">193</span> +<a name = "page193" id = "page193"> </a> +<!--png 436--> +are called estufas or kivas and are the council houses and temples of +the people, in which the governmental and religious affairs of the tribe +are transacted. It is owing to their religious connection that the form +has been preserved to the present day, carrying with it the record of +the time when the people lived in round chambers or huts,</p> + +<p>In opposition to the hypothesis of local origin it might be stated +that there is no evidence of forms intermediate in development. The +oldest remains of pueblo architecture known are but little different +from recent examples. But it must be borne in mind that pueblo +architecture is of a very low order, so low that it hardly comes within +a definition of architecture as an art, as opposed to a craft. Except +for a few examples, some of which have already been mentioned, it was +strictly utilitarian in character; the savage had certain needs to +supply, and he supplied them in the easiest and most direct manner and +with material immediately at hand. The whole pueblo country is covered +with the remains of single rooms and groups of rooms, put up to meet +some immediate necessity. Some of these may have been built centuries +ago, some are only a few years or a few months old, yet the structures +do not differ from one another; nor, on the other hand, does the +similarity imply that the builder of the oldest example knew less or +more than his descendant today—both utilized the material at hand +and each accomplished his purpose in the easiest way. In both cases the +result is so rude that no sound inference of sequence can be drawn from +the study of individual examples, but in the study of large aggregations +of rooms we find some clues.</p> + +<p>The aggregation of many single rooms into one great structure was +produced by causes which have been discussed. It must not be forgotten +that the unit of pueblo construction is the single room, even in the +large, many-storied villages. This unit is often quite as rude in modern +work as in ancient, and both modern and ancient examples are very close +to the result which would be produced by any Indian tribe who came into +the country and were left free to work out their own ideas. Starting +with this unit the whole system of pueblo architecture is a natural +product of the country in which it is found and the conditions of life +known to have affected the people by whom it was practiced.</p> + +<p>Granting the local origin of pueblo architecture it would appear at +first sight that a very long period of time must have elapsed between +the erection of the first rude rooms and the building of the +many-storied pueblos, yet the evidence now available—that derived +from the ruins themselves, documentary evidence, and +traditions—all suggest that such was not necessarily the case. As +a record of events, or rather of a sequence of events, tradition, when +unsupported, has practically no value; but as a picture of life and of +the conditions under which a people lived it is very instructive and +full of suggestions, which, when followed out, often lead to the +uncovering of valuable evidence. The traditions of the pueblo tribes +record a great number of movements or +<span class = "pagenum">194</span> +<a name = "page194" id = "page194"> </a> +<!--png 437--> +migrations from place to place, the statements being more or less +obscured by mythologic details and accounts of magic or miraculous +occurrences. When numbers of such movements are recorded, it is safe to +infer that the conditions dictating the occupancy of sites were unstable +or even that the tribes were in a state of slow migration. When this +inference is supported by other evidence, it becomes much stronger, and +when the supporting evidence becomes more abundant, with no discordant +elements, the statement may be accepted as proved until disproved.</p> + +<p>The evident inferiority of the modern pueblos to some of the old +ruins has been urged as an argument against their connection. While +degeneration in culture is yet to be proved, degeneration of some +particular art under adverse conditions, such as war, continued famine, +or pestilence, is not an uncommon incident in history, and it can be +shown that under the peculiar conditions which prevailed in the pueblo +country such degeneration would naturally take place. One of the +peculiarities of pueblo architecture is that its results were obtained +always by the employment of the material immediately at hand. In the +whole pueblo region no instance is known where the material (other than +timber) was transported to any distance; on the contrary, it was usually +obtained within a few feet of the site where it was used. Hence, it +comes about that difference in character of masonry is often only a +difference in material. Starting with a tribe or several tribes of +plains Indians, who came into the pueblo country, we should probably see +them at first building houses such as they were accustomed to +build—round huts of skin or brush, perhaps partly covered with +earth, such as were found all over middle and eastern United States. +Supposing the tribe to have been not very warlike in character and +subsisting principally by horticulture, these settlements would +necessarily be confined to the vicinity of springs and to little valleys +where the crops could be grown. The general character of the country is +arid in the extreme, and only in favored spots is horticulture possible. +In a very short time these people would be forced to the use of stone +for buildings, for the whole country is covered with tabular sandstone, +often broken up into blocks and flakes ready for immediate use without +any preparation whatever. Timber and brush could be procured only with +difficulty, and often had to be carried great distances.</p> + +<p>It has been suggested that the rectangular form of rooms might have +been developed from the circular form by the crowding together upon +restricted sites of many circular chambers; but such a supposition seems +unnecessary. A structure of masonry designed to be roofed would +naturally be rectangular; in fact, the placing of a flat roof upon a +circular chamber was a problem whose solution was beyond the ability of +these people, as has already been shown. Along with this advance, or +perhaps preceding it, the social organization of the tribe, or its +division into clans and phratries, would manifest itself, and those who +"belong together" would build together. This requirement was a very +common one and was closely adhered to even a few years ago.</p> + +<p><span class = "pagenum">195</span> +<a name = "page195" id = "page195"> </a> +<!--png 438--> +Although degeneration in arts is common enough, a peculiar condition +prevailed in the pueblo region. So far as the architecture was concerned +war and a hostile human environment produced not degeneration but +development. This came about partly by reason of the peculiarities of +the country, and partly through the methods of war. The term war is +rather a misnomer in this connection, as it does not express the idea. +The result was not brought about by armed bodies of men animated by +hostile intentions or bent on extermination, although forays of this +kind are too common in later pueblo history, but rather by predatory +bands, bent on robbery and not indisposed to incidental killing. The +pueblos, with their fixed habitations and their stores of food, were the +natural prey of such bands, and they suffered, just as did, at a later +period, the Mexican settlements on the Rio Grande, with their immense, +flocks of sheep. It was constant annoyance and danger, rather than war +and pitched battles.</p> + +<p>The pueblo country is exceptionally rich in building material suited +to the knowledge and capacity of the pueblo builders. Had suitable +material been less abundant, military knowledge would have developed and +defensive structures would have been erected; but as such material could +be obtained everywhere, and there was no lack of sites, almost if not +quite equal to those occupied at any given time, the easiest and most +natural thing to do was to move. Owing to the nature of the hostile +pressure, such movements were generally gradual, not en masse; although +there is no doubt that movements of the latter kind have sometimes taken +place.</p> + +<p>These conclusions are not based on a study of the ruins in Canyon de +Chelly alone, which illustrate only one phase of the subject, but of all +the pueblo remains, or rather of the remains so far as they are now +known. They imply a rather sparsely settled country, occupied by a +comparatively small number of tribes and subtribes, moving from place to +place under the influence of various motives, some of which we know, +others we can only surmise. It was a slow but practically constant +migratory movement with no definite end or direction in view. The course +of this movement in a geographical way does not as yet reveal a +preponderance in any one direction; tribes and subtribes moved from east +to west and from west to east, from north to south and from south to +north, and many were irregular in their course, but the movements, so +far as they can now be discerned, were all within a circumscribed +area.</p> + +<p>There is no evidence of any movement from without into the pueblo +group, unless the close relation of the Hopi (Moki) language to the +other Shoshonean dialects be such evidence, and none of a movement from +within this area out of it, although such movements must have taken +place, at least in the early history of the region. It must be borne in +mind in this discussion that while we can assign approximate boundaries +to the ancient pueblo region on the north, east, and west, no limit can +as yet be fixed on the south. The arid country southward of Gila river +and northward of the Mexican boundary would be a great +<span class = "pagenum">196</span> +<a name = "page196" id = "page196"> </a> +<!--png 439--> +obstacle to a movement either north or south, but little as we know +about that region we do know that it was not an insurmountable obstacle. +The Casas Grandes of Janos, in Chihuahua, closely resemble the type of +ruins on the Gila river, in Arizona, of which the best example we now +have is the well-known Casa Grande ruin. We know that there are cliff +ruins in the Sierra Madre, but beyond this we know little. Concerning +the immense region which stretches from Gila river to the valley of +Mexico, over 1300 miles in length, we know practically nothing.</p> + +<p>In that portion of the pueblo region lying within the United States +migratory movements have, as a rule, been confined to very small areas, +each linguistic family moving within its own circumscribed region. Some +instances of movement away from the home region have taken place even in +historic times, as, for example, the migration of a considerable band of +Tewas from the Rio Grande to Tusayan, where they now are, and moreover, +this movement probably occurred en masse and over a considerable +distance; but there is little doubt that the usual procedure was +different.</p> + +<p>Canyon de Chelly was occupied because it was the best place in that +vicinity for the practice of horticulture. The cliff ruins there grew +out of the natural conditions, as they have in other places. It is not +meant that a type of house structure developed here and was transferred +subsequently to other places. When the geological and topographical +environment favored their construction, cliff outlooks were built; from +a different geological structure in certain regions cavate lodges +resulted; in other places there were "watch towers;" in still others +single rooms were built, either lone or in clusters, and these results +obtained quite as often if not oftener within the historic period as in +prehistoric times.</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding the possible division of the De Chelly ruins into +four well defined types, there is no warrant for the assumption of a +large population. The types are interrelated and to a large extent were +inhabited not contemporaneously but conjointly. There are about 140 +ruins in Canyon de Chelly and its branches, but few of them could +accommodate more than a very small population. Settlements large enough +to furnish homes for 50 or 60 people were rare. As not all of the sites +were occupied at one time, the maximum population of the canyon could +hardly have exceeded 400; it is more likely to have been 300.</p> + +<p>The character of the site occupied is one of the most important +elements to be studied in the examination of ruins in the pueblo +country. In De Chelly whatever defensive value the settlements had was +due to the character of the sites selected. It is believed, however, +that other considerations dictated the selection of the sites, and that +the defensive motive, if present at all, exercised very little influence +in this region. The sites here are always selected with a view to an +outlook over some adjacent area of cultivable land, and the structures +erected on them were industrial or horticultural, rather than military +or defensive.</p> + +<p><span class = "pagenum">197</span> +<a name = "page197" id = "page197"> </a> +<!--png 440--> +The masonry of the ruins and the constructive expedients employed by the +builders are an insurmountable obstacle in the way of the hypothesis +that the cliff ruins represent a primitive or intermediate stage in the +growth of pueblo architecture. The builders were well acquainted with +the principles and methods of construction employed in the best work +found in other regions; the inferiority of their work is due to special +conditions and to the locality. The presence of a number of extraneous +features, both in methods and principles employed, is further evidence +in the same line. These features are certainly foreign to this region, +some of them suggest even Spanish or Mexican origin, which implies +comparatively recent occupancy.</p> + +<p>The openings—doorways and windows—found in the ruins are +of the regular pueblo types. They are arranged as convenience dictated, +without any reference to the defensive motive, which, if it existed at +all, exercised less influence here than it did in the modern pueblos. +There is no evidence of the use of very modern features, such as the +paneled wooden doors found in the pueblos; nor, on the other hand, are +there any very primitive expedients or methods—none which can not +be found today in the modern villages.</p> + +<p>The roof, floors, and timber work are also essentially the same as +the examples found in the modern pueblos. The notable scarcity of +roofing timbers in the ruins can probably be explained by the hypothesis +of successive occupancies and subsequent or repeated use of material +difficult to obtain. So far as regards the use of timber as an element +of masonry construction the results obtained in De Chelly are rude and +primitive as compared with the work found in other regions.</p> + +<p>The immense number of storage cists found in De Chelly are a natural +outgrowth of the conditions there and support the hypothesis that the +cliff outlooks were merely farming shelters. The small size of many of +the settlements made the construction of storage cists a necessity. The +storage of water was very seldom attempted. A large proportion of the +cists found in De Chelly were burial places and of Navaho origin. As a +rule they are far more difficult of access than the ruins.</p> + +<p>There is no evidence of the influence of the defensive motive. +Defensive works on the approaches to sites are never found, nor can such +influence be detected in the arrangement of openings, in the character +of masonry, or in the ground plan. If the cliff ruins were defensive +structures, an influence strong enough to bring about the occupancy of +such inconvenient and unsuitable sites would certainly be strong enough +also to bring about some slight modifications in the architecture, such +as would render more suitable sites available. If we assume that the +cliff ruins were farming outlooks, occupied only during the farming +season, and then only for a few days or weeks at a time, the character +of the sites occupied by them, seems natural enough, for the same sites +are used by the Navaho today in connection with farming operations.</p> + +<p>The distribution of kivas in the ruins of De Chelly affords another +indication that the occupancy of that region was quiet and little +disturbed, +<span class = "pagenum">198</span> +<a name = "page198" id = "page198"> </a> +<!--png 441--> +and that the ruins were in no sense defensive structures. Kivas are +found only in permanent settlements, and the presence of two or three of +them in a small settlement comprising a total of five or six rooms +implies, first, that the little village was the home of two or more +families, and, second, that there was comparative if not entire immunity +from hostile incursions. If the conditions were otherwise, these small +settlements would have combined into larger ones, as was done in other +regions. Probably these small settlements with several kivas mark a late +period in the use of outlying sites. The position of the kivas in some +of the settlements on defensive sites, and their arrangement across the +front of the cove, suggest that such sites were first used for outlooks, +and that their occupancy by regular villages came at a later period.</p> + +<p>All of the now available traditions of the Navaho and of the Hopi +Indians support the conclusions reached from a study of the intrinsic +evidence of the ruins, that they represent a comparatively late period +in the history of pueblo architecture. It appears that some at least of +the ruins are of Hopi origin. It is certain that the ruins were not +occupied at one time, nor by one tribe or band.</p> + +<p>As criteria in development or in time the cliff ruins are valueless, +except in a certain restricted way. They represent simply a phase of +pueblo life, due more to the geological character of the region occupied +than to extraordinary conditions, and they pertain partly to the old +villages, partly to the more modern. Apparently they reached their +greatest (not their highest) development in the period immediately +preceding the last well-defined stage in the growth of pueblo +architecture, a stage in which most of the pueblos were at the time of +their discovery by the Spaniards, and in which some of them are now. +Reliance for defense was had on the site occupied, and outlying +settlements for horticultural purposes were very numerous, as they must +necessarily be also in the last stage—the aggregation of many +related villages into one great cluster.</p> + +<p>The cliff outlooks in Canyon de Chelly and in other regions, the +cavate lodges of New Mexico and Arizona, the "watch towers" of the San +Juan and of the Zuñi country, the summer villages attached to many of +the pueblos, the single-room remains found everywhere, even the brush +shelters or "kisis" of Tusayan, are all functionally analogous, and all +are the outgrowth of certain industrial requirements, which were +essentially the same throughout the pueblo country, but whose product +was modified by geological and topographical conditions. In the cliff +ruins of De Chelly we have an interesting and most instructive example +of the influence of a peculiar and sometimes adverse environment on a +primitive people, who entered the region with preconceived and, as it +were, fully developed ideas of house construction, and who left it +before those ideas were brought fully in accord with the environment, +but not before they were influenced by it.</p> + +<hr class = "mid"> + +<h4><a name = "footnotes" id = "footnotes">Footnotes</a></h4> + +<p class = "footnote"> +<a name = "note1" id = "note1" href = "#tag1">1.</a> +Thirty-first Congress, first session, Senate Ex. Doc. No. 64, +Washington, 1850.</p> + +<p class = "footnote"> +<a name = "note2" id = "note2" href = "#tag2">2.</a> +Western Wilds, and the Men who Redeem Them: Cincinnati, Philadelphia, +Chicago, Memphis, 1878.</p> + +<p class = "footnote"> +<a name = "note3" id = "note3" href = "#tag3">3.</a> +U.S. Geog. Surveys West of the 100th Meridian, Lieutenant George M. +Wheeler in charge; reports, vol. VII, Archæology; Washington, 1879, pp. +372-373, pl. xx.</p> + +<p class = "footnote"> +<a name = "note4" id = "note4" href = "#tag4">4.</a> +Bull. Am. Geog. Soc., 1886, No. 4; Ancient Habitations of the Southwest, +by James Stevenson.</p> + +<p class = "footnote"> +<a name = "note5" id = "note5" href = "#tag5">5.</a> +Century Magazine, October, 1890, vol. XL, No. 6, p. 806 et seq.</p> + +<p class = "footnote"> +<a name = "note6" id = "note6" href = "#tag6">6.</a> +U.S. Geol. Survey, F. V. Hayden in charge; 10th Ann. Rept. (for +1876), Washington, 1878.</p> + +<p class = "footnote"> +<a name = "note7" id = "note7" href = "#tag7">7.</a> +The Land of the Cliff Dwellers, by Frederick H. Chapin; Boston, +1892.</p> + +<p class = "footnote"> +<a name = "note8" id = "note8" href = "#tag8">8.</a> +Bull. Am. Geog. Soc., vol. XXIII, No. 4, 1891; The Cliff Dwellings of +the Cañons of the Mesa Verde.</p> + +<p class = "footnote"> +<a name = "note9" id = "note9" href = "#tag9">9.</a> +The Cliff Dwellers of the Mesa Verde, by G. Nordenskiöld; Stockholm +and Chicago, 1894.</p> + +<p class = "footnote"> +<a name = "note10" id = "note10" href = "#tag10">10.</a> +See Major C. E. Dutton's map of the plateau country in 6th Ann. +Rept. U.S. Geol. Survey, pl. xi. His report on "Mount Taylor and +the Zuñi plateau," of which this map is a part, presents a vivid picture +of the plateau country, and his descriptions are so clear and expressive +that any attempt to better them must result in failure. The statement of +the geologic and topographic features which is incorporated herein is +derived directly from Major Dutton's description, much of it being taken +bodily.</p> + +<p class = "footnote"> +<a name = "note11" id = "note11" href = "#tag11">11.</a> +Arch. Inst. of America, 5th Ann. Rept., p. 55; and Arch. Inst. of +America, Papers, American series, IV, p. 27.</p> + +<p class = "footnote"> +<a name = "note12" id = "note12" href = "#tag12">12.</a> +See a paper by the author on "Aboriginal remains in Verde valley, +Arizona," in 13th Ann. Rept. Bureau of Ethnology, p. 179 et +seq.</p> + +<p class = "footnote"> +<a name = "note13" id = "note13" href = "#tag13">13.</a> +The Cliff Dwellers of the Mesa Verde, pp. 9 and 114.</p> + +<p class = "footnote"> +<a name = "note14" id = "note14" href = "#tag14">14.</a> +Bull. Am. Geog. Soc., vol. xxiii, p. 598.</p> + +<p class = "footnote"> +<a name = "note15" id = "note15" href = "#tag15">15.</a> +Land of the Cliff Dwellers, pp. 149-150, pl. opp. p. 155.</p> + +<p class = "footnote"> +<a name = "note16" id = "note16" href = "#tag16">16.</a> +Cliff Dwellers of the Mesa Verde, pp. 52-53, fig. 28.</p> + +<p class = "footnote"> +<a name = "note17" id = "note17" href = "#tag17">17.</a> +8th Ann. Rept. Bur. Eth., "A study of Pueblo architecture in Tusayan and +Cibola," by Victor Mindeleff; Washington, 1891.</p> + +<p class = "footnote"> +<a name = "note18" id = "note18" href = "#tag18">18.</a> +Wheeler Survey Reports, vol. VII, Archæology, p. 327.</p> + +<p class = "footnote"> +<a name = "note19" id = "note19" href = "#tag19">19.</a> +Cliff Dwellers of the Mesa Verde, p. 63, fig. 36.</p> + +<p class = "footnote"> +<a name = "note20" id = "note20" href = "#tag20">20.</a> +Loc. cit., figs. 6 and 7, pp. 15-16.</p> + +<p class = "footnote"> +<a name = "note21" id = "note21" href = "#tag21">21.</a> +Land of the Cliff Dwellers, illustration, pp. 143, 152.</p> + +<p class = "footnote"> +<a name = "note22" id = "note22" href = "#tag22">22.</a> +Cliff Dwellers of the Mesa Verde, figs. 6, 7, 76, 77, and 78.</p> + +<p class = "footnote"> +<a name = "note23" id = "note23" href = "#tag23">23.</a> +10th Ann. Rept. U.S. Geol. and Geog. Survey of the Territories, +F. V. Hayden in charge (Washington, 1878); report on the "Ancient +ruins of Southwestern Colorado," by W. H. Holmes; p. 395, pl. +xxxvii.</p> + +<p class = "footnote"> +<a name = "note24" id = "note24" href = "#tag24">24.</a> +In the ground plan given there is no point shown where the walls of the +kiva touch adjoining rooms.</p> + +<p class = "footnote"> +<a name = "note25" id = "note25" href = "#tag25">25.</a> +Cliff Dwellers of the Mesa Verde, pp. 15-17, figs. 6 and 7.</p> + +<p class = "footnote"> +<a name = "note26" id = "note26" href = "#tag26">26.</a> +Loc. cit., p. 32.</p> + +<p class = "footnote"> +<a name = "note27" id = "note27" href = "#tag27">27.</a> +Loc. cit., p. 70.</p> + +<p class = "footnote"> +<a name = "note28" id = "note28" href = "#tag28">28.</a> +A résumé of the Hopi traditions was prepared by the writer from material +collected by the late A. M. Stephen, and published as chapter iii +of "A study of Pueblo architecture," op. cit.</p> + +<div class = "mynote"> +<p class = "footnote"> +<a name = "noteA" id = "noteA">A.</a> (Transcriber's Note)<br> +In Figures <a href = "#fig73">73</a>-<a href = "#fig74">74</a> and <a +href = "#fig76">76</a>-<a href = "#fig77">77</a> the patterning of the +dark background is an artifact of the scanning and image-preparation +process.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class = "mid"> + + +<h4><a name = "index" id = "index">INDEX</a></h4> + +<p class = "mynote"> +The term "Cliff dwellings" does not occur as an Index entry. The +cross-references are probably an error for "Cliff ruins."</p> + + +<table class = "index" summary = "part of index"> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Access</span> to cliff +Villages</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page144">144</a>, +<a href = "#page157">157</a>, +<a href = "#page158">158</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Acoma</span>, structural development +of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page155">155</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Adobe</span> blocks not +aboriginal</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page108">108</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>— construction in pueblo region</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page163">163</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>— walls in Casa Blanca</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page108">108</a>, +<a href = "#page109">109</a>, +<a href = "#page111">111</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Age</span> of ruin determined by +plastering</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page121">121</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Agriculture</span> of the +Navaho</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page087">87</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Architecture</span> of cliff +ruins</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page153">153</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>—, pueblo, character of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page193">193</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>—, pueblo, development of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page091">91</a>, +<a href = "#page193">193</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Arizona</span>, cliff ruins of Canyon +de Chelly</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page073">73</a>-<a href = +"#page198">198</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset" colspan = "2">—, <i>see</i> <span class = +"smallcaps">Cliff dwellings</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Army</span> of the West, conquest +by</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page079">79</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Aztecs</span>, cliff ruins attributed +to</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page191">191</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Bancroft</span>, H. H., cliff +ruins described by</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page081">81</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Bandelier</span>, A. F., on +classification of pueblo ruins</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page089">89</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Bat</span> trail in Canyon de +Chelly</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page157">157</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Beadle</span>, J. H., Canyon de Chelly +visited by</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page080">80</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>—, quoted on Canyon de Chelly</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page086">86</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<table class = "index" summary = "part of index"> +<tr> +<td width = "50%"><p><span class = "smallcaps">Bench</span> around cliff +kivas</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page121">121</a>, +<a href = "#page136">136</a>, +<a href = "#page137">137</a>, +<a href = "#page138">138</a>, +<a href = "#page177">177</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<table class = "index" summary = "part of index"> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>— in cliff outlook</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page151">151</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Bench</span>-like recess in cliff +kiva</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page124">124</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Bickford</span>, F. T., cliff ruins +described by</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page081">81</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Birdsall</span>, W. R., cliff ruins +described by</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page081">81</a>, +<a href = "#page163">163</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Bottom</span> lands, home villages +on</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page094">94</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Bowlders</span> used in cliff-dwelling +masonry</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page098">98</a>, +<a href = "#page100">100</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Burial cists</span> in Casa +Blanca</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page109">109</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>— in cliff ruins discussed</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page166">166</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset" colspan = "2">—, <i>see</i> +<span class = "smallcaps">Cists</span>; +<span class = "smallcaps">Navaho</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Buttress</span> in Casa Blanca</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page110">110</a>, +<a href = "#page162">162</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>— in cliff ruins</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page119">119</a>, +<a href = "#page125">125</a>, +<a href = "#page129">129</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>— in kivas</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page177">177</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Canyon de Chelly</span>, accessibility +of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page085">85</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>—, memoir on cliff ruins of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page073">73</a>-<a href = +"#page198">198</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>—, location of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page084">84</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset" colspan = "2">—, <i>see</i> +<span class = "smallcaps">Cliff dwellings</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Canyon del Muerto</span>, location +of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page085">85</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>—, ruins in, described</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page081">81</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Casa Blanca</span>, a name of two cliff +dwellings</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page145">145</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>— described</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page104">104</a>-<a href = +"#page111">111</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>— described by Simpson</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page079">79</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>—, jacal construction in</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page163">163</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>—, notched doorway in</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page164">164</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Casas Grandes</span>, resemblance of, +to Gila river remains</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page196">196</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Cave ruins</span>, classification +of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page155">155</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>— village in Canyon de Chelly</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page097">97</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan = "2"><span class = "smallcaps">Ceremonial chamber</span>, +<i>see</i> <span class = "smallcaps">Kiva</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Chaco</span> and old-world ruins +compared</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page080">80</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Chapin, F. H.</span>, cliff ruins +visited by</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page081">81</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>— on openings in Mancos ruins</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page165">165</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>— on kiva decoration</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page181">181</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Chelly</span>, origin of name +of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page079">79</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset" colspan = "2">—, <i>see</i> <span class = +"smallcaps">Canyon de Chelly</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Chimney-like structures</span> +discussed</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page182">182</a>-<a href = +"#page190">190</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>— in Casa Blanca</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page110">110</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>— in cliff kiva</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page125">125</a>, +<a href = "#page129">129</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>— in cliff outlook</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page144">144</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>— in cliff ruins</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page119">119</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>— in Mummy Cave ruin</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page113">113</a>, +<a href = "#page115">115</a>, +<a href = "#page116">116</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<table class = "index" summary = "part of index"> +<tr> +<td width = "50%"><p><span class = "smallcaps">Chinking</span> of +cliff-dwelling masonry</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page102">102</a>, +<a href = "#page103">103</a>, +<a href = "#page104">104</a>, +<a href = "#page117">117</a>, +<a href = "#page118">118</a>, +<a href = "#page123">123</a>, +<a href = "#page127">127</a>, +<a href = "#page142">142</a>, +<a href = "#page144">144</a>, +<a href = "#page148">148</a>, +<a href = "#page150">150</a>, +<a href = "#page151">151</a>, +<a href = "#page159">159</a>, +<a href = "#page160">160</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<table class = "index" summary = "part of index"> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Chin Lee valley</span>, ruins +in</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page080">80</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Cist</span>, burial, excavation +of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page101">101</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>—, burial, in cliff ruins</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page096">96</a>, +<a href = "#page130">130</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset" colspan = "2">—, <i>see</i> +<span class = "smallcaps">Burial cist</span>; +<span class = "smallcaps">Navajo</span>; +<span class = "smallcaps">Storage cist</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Clans</span>, localization of, in +pueblos</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page194">194</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Classification</span> of canyon +ruins</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page092">92</a>, +<a href = "#page093">93</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>— of pueblo ruins</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page089">89</a>, +<a href = "#page154">154</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Cliff</span> ruins, classification +of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page155">155</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Climate</span> of cliff ruin +region</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page083">83</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Constructive</span> expedients in cliff +dwelling</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page170">170</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Corn</span> cultivated by the +Navaho</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page084">84</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Cups</span> pecked in rock</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page138">138</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Cushing, F. H.</span>, on ceremonial +fire</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page190">190</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>—, on ceremonial renewal of kivas</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page177">177</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>—, on cliff ruins</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page153">153</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>—, on marking of kiva hatchway</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page180">180</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<table class = "index" summary = "part of index"> +<tr> +<td width = "50%"><p><span class = "smallcaps">Decoration</span> of +cliff house walls</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page102">102</a>, +<a href = "#page109">109</a>, +<a href = "#page113">113</a>, +<a href = "#page125">125</a>, +<a href = "#page147">147</a>, +<a href = "#page160">160</a>, +<a href = "#page177">177</a>-<a href = "#page181">181</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Defense</span>, absence of motive for, +in cliff ruins</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page101">101</a>, +<a href = "#page142">142</a>, +<a href = "#page153">153</a>, +<a href = "#page154">154</a>, +<a href = "#page170">170</a>, +<a href = "#page196">196</a>, +<a href = "#page197">197</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<table class = "index" summary = "part of index"> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>—, home villages located for</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page111">111</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>—, loopholes an evidence of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page135">135</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>—, expedients for, in cliff +dwellings</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page170">170</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Defensive sites</span>, to what +attributed</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page091">91</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Development</span> of cliff +dwellings</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page198">198</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>— of pueblo architecture</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page155">155</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Distribution</span> of cliff ruins in +De Chelly</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page156">156</a>-<a href = +"#page157">157</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset" colspan = "2">—, <i>see</i> +<span class = "smallcaps">Classification</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Domenech</span>, <i>Abbe</i> <span +class = "smallcaps">Em.</span>, reference by, to Casa Blanca</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page080">80</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<table class = "index" summary = "part of index"> +<tr> +<td width = "50%"><p><span class = "smallcaps">Doorways</span> in cliff +dwellings</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page102">102</a>, +<a href = "#page111">111</a>, +<a href = "#page125">125</a>, +<a href = "#page128">128</a>, +<a href = "#page134">134</a>, +<a href = "#page140">140</a>, +<a href = "#page145">145</a>, +<a href = "#page151">151</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<table class = "index" summary = "part of index"> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>—, notched, in cliff dwellings</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page138">138</a>, +<a href = "#page164">164</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>— partially closed</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page165">165</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset" colspan = "2">—, <i>see</i> +<span class = "smallcaps">Openings</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Drain</span> in Casa Blanca</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page110">110</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Dutton, C. E.</span>, cliff-ruin +region described by</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page082">82</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Én-a-tsé-gi</span>, Navaho name of +Canyon de Chelly</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page095">95</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Environment</span>, village sites +influenced by</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page153">153</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Farming shelters</span> +discussed</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page142">142</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Farming villages</span>, cliff ruins +classed as</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page156">156</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>— of the pueblos</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page156">156</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan = "2"><span class = "smallcaps">Fireplace</span>, <i>see</i> +<span class = "smallcaps">Chimney-like structure</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Floors</span> of cliff dwellings +discussed</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page165">165</a>, +<a href = "#page197">197</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<table class = "index" summary = "part of index"> +<tr> +<td width = "50%"><p><span class = "smallcaps">Foot-holes</span>, access +to cliff houses by means of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page132">132</a>, +<a href = "#page134">134</a>, +<a href = "#page142">142</a>, +<a href = "#page148">148</a>, +<a href = "#page158">158</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<table class = "index" summary = "part of index"> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Geography</span> of cliff-ruin +region</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page082">82</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Geology</span> of cliff-ruin +region</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page082">82</a>, +<a href = "#page086">86</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Granary</span> structure in cliff +ruin</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page097">97</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset" colspan = "2">—, <i>see</i> +<span class = "smallcaps">Cist</span>.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Hardacre, E. C.</span>, on ruins in +Canyon de Chelly</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page080">80</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Holmes, W. H.</span>, cliff ruins +described by</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page081">81</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>—, on chimney-like structures</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page188">188</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Hopi</span> origin of certain cliff +ruins</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page198">198</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>— tradition regarding cliff ruins</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page191">191</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset" colspan = "2">—, <i>see</i> +<span class = "smallcaps">Tusayan</span>.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Jacal</span> construction in Casa +Blanca</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page108">108</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>— construction in pueblo region</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page163">163</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Jackson, W. H.</span>, cliff ruins +described by</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page080">80</a>, +<a href = "#page081">81</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Keam, T. V.</span>, burial cist +excavated by</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page101">101</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Kern, E. H.</span>, Casa Blanca +sketched by</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page079">79</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Kini-na-e-kai</span>, Navaho name of +Casa Blanca</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page104">104</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Kisi</span> and cliff dwelling +analogous</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page198">198</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>— or brush shelter</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page092">92</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Kivas</span>, absence of, in farming +villages</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page150">150</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>—, distribution of, in cliff ruins</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page197">197</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>—, function of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page193">193</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>—, how entered</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page190">190</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>—, how-plastered</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page161">161</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<table class = "index" summary = "part of index"> +<tr> +<td width = "33%" class = "inset"><p>— in cliff ruins</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page102">102</a>, +<a href = "#page103">103</a>, +<a href = "#page118">118</a>, +<a href = "#page119">119</a>, +<a href = "#page121">121</a>, +<a href = "#page124">124</a>, +<a href = "#page135">135</a>, +<a href = "#page137">137</a>, +<a href = "#page138">138</a>, +<a href = "#page139">139</a>, +<a href = "#page141">141</a>, +<a href = "#page142">142</a>, +<a href = "#page143">143</a>, +<a href = "#page174">174</a>-<a href = "#page182">182</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<table class = "index" summary = "part of index"> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>— in Mummy Cave ruin</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page115">115</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>— in Pakashi-izini ruin</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page099">99</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>— in Tse-on-i-tso-si canyon</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page101">101</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>— of Casa Blanca described</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page107">107</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>— of unusual size</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page095">95</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>—, origin of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page091">91</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>—, prevalence of, in pueblo ruins</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page090">90</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Lintels</span> of cliff-ruin +openings</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page102">102</a>, +<a href = "#page114">114</a>, +<a href = "#page140">140</a>, +<a href = "#page164">164</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Loopholes</span> in cliff +houses</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page135">135</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Mancos canyon</span>, cliff ruins +in</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page081">81</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Masonry</span> deteriorated by +plastering</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page161">161</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<table class = "index" summary = "part of index"> +<tr> +<td width = "50%" class = "inset"><p>— of cliff houses</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page095">95</a>, +<a href = "#page098">98</a>, +<a href = "#page101">101</a>, +<a href = "#page102">102</a>, +<a href = "#page104">104</a>, +<a href = "#page128">128</a>, +<a href = "#page136">136</a>, +<a href = "#page137">137</a>, +<a href = "#page140">140</a>, +<a href = "#page142">142</a>, +<a href = "#page143">143</a>, +<a href = "#page144">144</a>, +<a href = "#page148">148</a>, +<a href = "#page149">149</a>, +<a href = "#page150">150</a>, +<a href = "#page159">159</a>, +<a href = "#page197">197</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<table class = "index" summary = "part of index"> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>—, rude, in cliff houses</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page132">132</a>, +<a href = "#page151">151</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset" colspan = "2">—, <i>see</i> +<span class = "smallcaps">Chinking</span>; +<span class = "smallcaps">Mortar</span>; +<span class = "smallcaps">Walls</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Matthews, Washington</span>, on Navaho +traditions regarding cliff ruins</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page191">191</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Mesa Verde</span>, cliff ruins +of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page081">81</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Moen-kapi</span>, a Hopi summer +village</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page092">92</a>, +<a href = "#page156">156</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Monument canyon</span>, location +of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page085">85</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Moran, Thomas</span>, Canyon de Chelly +ruins visited by</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page080">80</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Mortar</span>, character of, in cliff +house</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page127">127</a>, +<a href = "#page140">140</a>, +<a href = "#page160">160</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>—, source of, in cliff-house +building</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page126">126</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset" colspan = "2">—, <i>see</i> +<span class = "smallcaps">Masonry</span>; +<span class = "smallcaps">Plastering</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Mummy Cave ruin</span>, benches and +buttresses in</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page177">177</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>— described</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page081">81</a>, +<a href = "#page112">112</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>—, kiva in</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page176">176</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Navaho</span>, agriculture of +the</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page081">81</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>—, building material from cliff dwellings +used by</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page154">154</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<table class = "index" summary = "part of index"> +<tr> +<td width = "50%" class = "inset"><p>— burials in cliff +villages</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page109">109</a>, +<a href = "#page110">110</a>, +<a href = "#page115">115</a>, +<a href = "#page117">117</a>, +<a href = "#page130">130</a>, +<a href = "#page132">132</a>, +<a href = "#page134">134</a>, +<a href = "#page138">138</a>, +<a href = "#page142">142</a>, +<a href = "#page148">148</a>, +<a href = "#page150">150</a>, +<a href = "#page152">152</a>, +<a href = "#page158">158</a>, +<a href = "#page167">167</a>-<a href = "#page170">170</a>, +<a href = "#page197">197</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<table class = "index" summary = "part of index"> +<tr> +<td class = "inset" colspan = "2">— burials, <i>see</i> +<span class = "smallcaps">Cists</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>—, cliff ruins utilized by</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page096">96</a>, +<a href = "#page104">104</a>, +<a href = "#page152">152</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>—, expedition against the</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page079">79</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>— granaries in cliff ruins</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page097">97</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>— house sites in Canyon de Chelly</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page087">87</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>— houses, sites of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page152">152</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>—, peaches cultivated by the</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page088">88</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>— structures in cliff dwellings</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page140">140</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>— tradition of cliff dwellings</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page191">191</a>, +<a href = "#page198">198</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>— trails in Canyon de Chelly</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page157">157</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>— walls in cliff outlooks</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page152">152</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan = "2"><span class = "smallcaps">New Mexico</span>, +<i>see</i> +<span class = "smallcaps">Cliff dwellings</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Niches</span> in kiva walls</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page178">178</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Nordenskiöld, G.</span>, cliff ruins +classified by</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page092">92</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>—, cliff ruins described by</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page081">81</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>—, on an oval kiva</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page177">177</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>—, on chimney-like structures</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page188">188</a>, +<a href = "#page189">189</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>—, on kiva decoration</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page181">181</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>—, on Mesa Verde masonry</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page163">163</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>—, on openings in Mancos ruins</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page165">165</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Nutria</span>, a Zuñi summer +village</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page092">92</a>, +<a href = "#page156">156</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Ojo Caliente</span>, a Zuñi summer +village</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page092">92</a>, +<a href = "#page158">158</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>—, masonry of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page159">159</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Openings</span>, absence of, in cliff +houses</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page132">132</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>— in Casa Blanca walls</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page109">109</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>— in cliff kivas</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page125">125</a>, +<a href = "#page129">129</a>, +<a href = "#page175">175</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>— in cliff-dwelling walls</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page123">123</a>-<a href = +"#page124">124</a>, +<a href = "#page164">164</a>, +<a href = "#page197">197</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>— in Mummy Cave ruin walls</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page114">114</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">O'Sullivan, T. H.</span>, Casa Blanca +photographed by</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page080">80</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Outlooks</span> on restricted +areas</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page149">149</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>— or farming shelters discussed</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page142">142</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Oven-like structure</span> in cliff +ruin</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page127">127</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Ovens</span> not an aboriginal +feature</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page128">128</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Pakashi-izini</span> ruin in Del +Muerto</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page098">98</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Passageway</span> in Casa +Blanca</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page109">109</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>— in cliff dwelling</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page100">100</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Peaches</span>, groves of, in Canyon de +Chelly</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page088">88</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>— introduced by Spaniards</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page088">88</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Pescado</span>, a Zuñi summer +village</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page092">92</a>, +<a href = "#page156">156</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Petroglyphs</span> in cliff +villages</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page138">138</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<table class = "index" summary = "part of index"> +<tr> +<td width = "50%"><p><span class = "smallcaps">Pictographs</span> in +cliff ruins</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page098">98</a>, +<a href = "#page103">103</a>, +<a href = "#page113">113</a>, +<a href = "#page118">118</a>, +<a href = "#page126">126</a>, +<a href = "#page133">133</a>, +<a href = "#page144">144</a>, +<a href = "#page152">152</a>, +<a href = "#page178">178</a>-<a href = "#page181">181</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Plastering</span>, effect of, on +stonework</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page161">161</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>— of cliff ruin-walls</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page118">118</a>, +<a href = "#page120">120</a>, +<a href = "#page121">121</a>, +<a href = "#page129">129</a>, +<a href = "#page140">140</a>, +<a href = "#page144">144</a>, +<a href = "#page149">149</a>, +<a href = "#page151">151</a>, +<a href = "#page160">160</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<table class = "index" summary = "part of index"> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>— of kiva walls</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page121">121</a>, +<a href = "#page176">176</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Platforms</span> of masonry connected +with cliff ruins</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page132">132</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Population</span> of Casa +Blanca</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page105">105</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>— of cliff dwellings</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page098">98</a>, +<a href = "#page135">135</a>, +<a href = "#page196">196</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>— of Pakashi-izini ruin</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page099">99</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Pottery</span> fragments iu Casa +Blanca</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page111">111</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Pueblo ruins</span> classified</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page089">89</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset" colspan = "2">—, <i>see</i> <span class = +"smallcaps">Cliff Dwellings</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Putnam, F. W.</span>, cliff ruins +described by</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page080">80</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Reservoir</span> structure connected +with cliff village</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page126">126</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Roof</span> construction of Casa +Blanca</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page106">106</a>, +<a href = "#page111">111</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Roofs</span> of cliff dwellings +discussed</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page165">165</a>, +<a href = "#page197">197</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Rooms</span>, character of, in cliff +dwellings</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page095">95</a>, +<a href = "#page132">132</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Ruins</span>, pueblo, +classified</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page089">89</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset" colspan = "2">—, <i>see</i> +<span class = "smallcaps">Cliff dwellings</span>; +<span class = "smallcaps">Pueblo</span>.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Sandstorms</span> in Canyon de +Chelly</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page091">91</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Sheep</span> introduced by +Spaniards</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page162">162</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Simpson, J. H.</span>, Casa Blanca +visited by</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page104">104</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>—, on Navaho expedition</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page079">79</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<table class = "index" summary = "part of index"> +<tr> +<td width = "50%"><p><span class = "smallcaps">Sites</span>, +inaccessible, of cliff houses</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page093">93</a>, +<a href = "#page111">111</a>, +<a href = "#page133">133</a>, +<a href = "#page134">134</a>, +<a href = "#page153">153</a>, +<a href = "#page196">196</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<table class = "index" summary = "part of index"> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>— of pueblos, how determined</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page091">91</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Spanish</span> influence in +cliff-dwelling masonry</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page197">197</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>— monks in Canyon de Chelly</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page191">191</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>—, sheep introduced by</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page162">162</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Stephen A. M.</span>,, on Hopi +tradition of cliff ruins</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page191">191</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Steps</span>, absence of, in cliff +villages</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page157">157</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Stevenson, James</span>, Canyon de +Chelly visited by</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page081">81</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Storage</span> cists in cliff ruins +discussed</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page166">166</a>, +<a href = "#page197">197</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>— rooms in cliff village</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page130">130</a>, +<a href = "#page132">132</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset" colspan = "2">—, <i>see</i> +<span class = "smallcaps">Cist</span>; +<span class = "smallcaps">Granary</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Streams</span> in the cliff-ruin +region</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page084">84</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Summer villages</span> of +pueblos</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page092">92</a>, +<a href = "#page156">156</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Symbolism</span>, water, in pueblo +pictography</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page126">126</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Taboo</span> of cliff-ruin timber by +Navaho</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page166">166</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Taos</span>, a many-storied +pueblo</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page155">155</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>—, circular kivas at</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page175">175</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Timber</span>, source of, of the +Hopi</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page166">166</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<table class = "index" summary = "part of index"> +<tr> +<td width = "50%" class = "inset"><p>— used in cliff-dwelling +construction</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page111">111</a>, +<a href = "#page113">113</a>, +<a href = "#page116">116</a>, +<a href = "#page121">121</a>, +<a href = "#page122">122</a>, +<a href = "#page124">124</a>, +<a href = "#page165">165</a>, +<a href = "#page171">171</a>, +<a href = "#page197">197</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<table class = "index" summary = "part of index"> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Traditions</span> regarding cliff +dwellings</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page190">190</a>-<a href = +"#page191">191</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Trails</span> in Canyon de +Chelly</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page157">157</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Tse-gi</span>, Navaho name of Canyon de +Chelly</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page079">79</a>, +<a href = "#page085">85</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Tse-i-ya-kin</span>, Navaho name of +Mummy Cave ruin</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page112">112</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Tse-on-i-tso-si canyon</span>, location +of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page085">85</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>—, ruin in</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page101">101</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Tunicha mountains</span>, reference +to</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page084">84</a>, +<a href = "#page085">85</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Tusayan</span>, masonry at</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page101">101</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>—, migration to, of Tewas</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page196">196</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>— villages, location of, when +discovered</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page091">91</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Vegetation</span> of cliff-ruin +region</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page083">83</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Walls</span>, finish of, in cliff +ruins</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page107">107</a>, +<a href = "#page113">113</a>, +<a href = "#page116">116</a>, +<a href = "#page124">124</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>—, retaining, in Canyon de Chelly</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page172">172</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Walpi</span>, former location +of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page093">93</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Washington</span>, <i>Col.</i>, Navaho +expedition under</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page079">79</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Watch towers</span> and cliff dwellings +analogous</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page198">198</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>— of pueblos</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page092">92</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Water</span> supply of Canyon de +Chelly</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page086">86</a>, +<a href = "#page088">88</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Wheeler Survey</span>, archeological +work under</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page080">80</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan = "2"><span class = "smallcaps">White House</span>, +<i>see</i> <span class = "smallcaps">Casa Blanca</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Whitewash</span> used in Casa +Blanca</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page109">109</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>— used in Mummy Cave ruin</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page115">115</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>— used on cliff houses</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page146">146</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Window</span> opening in cliff +outlook</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page148">148</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset" colspan = "2">—, <i>see</i> +<span class = "smallcaps">Opening</span>.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Yarrow, H. C.</span>, on kivas at +Taos</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page175">175</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Zuñi</span>, a many-storied +pueblo</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page155">155</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>—, character of masonry of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page163">163</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>—, farming villages of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page092">92</a>, +<a href = "#page156">156</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<br> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<hr class="full" noshade> +<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CLIFF RUINS OF CANYON DE CHELLY, ARIZONA***</p> +<p>******* This file should be named 19723-h.txt or 19723-h.zip *******</p> +<p>This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:<br /> +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/9/7/2/19723">http://www.gutenberg.org/1/9/7/2/19723</a></p> +<p>Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed.</p> + +<p>Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution.</p> + + + +<pre> +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/license">http://www.gutenberg.org/license)</a>. + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS,' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at http://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/pglaf. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at http://www.gutenberg.org/about/contact + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit http://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/pglaf + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. +To donate, please visit: http://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + +Each eBook is in a subdirectory of the same number as the eBook's +eBook number, often in several formats including plain vanilla ASCII, +compressed (zipped), HTML and others. + +Corrected EDITIONS of our eBooks replace the old file and take over +the old filename and etext number. The replaced older file is renamed. +VERSIONS based on separate sources are treated as new eBooks receiving +new filenames and etext numbers. + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org">http://www.gutenberg.org</a> + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + +EBooks posted prior to November 2003, with eBook numbers BELOW #10000, +are filed in directories based on their release date. If you want to +download any of these eBooks directly, rather than using the regular +search system you may utilize the following addresses and just +download by the etext year. + +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext06/">http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext06/</a> + + (Or /etext 05, 04, 03, 02, 01, 00, 99, + 98, 97, 96, 95, 94, 93, 92, 92, 91 or 90) + +EBooks posted since November 2003, with etext numbers OVER #10000, are +filed in a different way. The year of a release date is no longer part +of the directory path. The path is based on the etext number (which is +identical to the filename). The path to the file is made up of single +digits corresponding to all but the last digit in the filename. For +example an eBook of filename 10234 would be found at: + +http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/0/2/3/10234 + +or filename 24689 would be found at: +http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/4/6/8/24689 + +An alternative method of locating eBooks: +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/GUTINDEX.ALL">http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/GUTINDEX.ALL</a> + +*** END: FULL LICENSE *** +</pre> +</body> +</html> diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig1.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig1.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..59c9442 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig1.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig10.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig10.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..3e5c533 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig10.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig11.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig11.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c311ce8 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig11.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig12.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig12.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..0ffa587 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig12.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig13.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig13.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..9e51bcc --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig13.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig14.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig14.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..370f993 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig14.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig14thumb.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig14thumb.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..19bc2cf --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig14thumb.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig15.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig15.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e9a1591 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig15.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig15thumb.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig15thumb.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b81ec09 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig15thumb.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig16.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig16.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e7a09e2 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig16.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig16thumb.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig16thumb.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..93aed55 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig16thumb.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig17.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig17.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2ab2460 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig17.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig18.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig18.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a2283cc --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig18.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig19.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig19.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..3feb170 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig19.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig2.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig2.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..164d5c8 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig2.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig20.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig20.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..43893c0 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig20.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig21.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig21.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..0b6fb50 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig21.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig21thumb.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig21thumb.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b739c05 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig21thumb.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig22.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig22.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b26b436 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig22.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig23.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig23.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..9f82485 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig23.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig24.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig24.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..5a71724 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig24.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig24thumb.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig24thumb.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..5449954 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig24thumb.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig25.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig25.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4c9c04c --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig25.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig26.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig26.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..151f874 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig26.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig27.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig27.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..95a07b4 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig27.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig28.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig28.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..9a7974b --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig28.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig29.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig29.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..98d3485 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig29.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig29thumb.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig29thumb.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e828803 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig29thumb.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig3.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig3.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f7dbee6 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig3.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig30.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig30.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e7074bb --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig30.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig31.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig31.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..36d7e46 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig31.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig32.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig32.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a9830c1 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig32.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig33.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig33.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..0cea400 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig33.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig34.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig34.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..8815eeb --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig34.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig35.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig35.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..3cd204d --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig35.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig36.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig36.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..0c03b7b --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig36.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig37.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig37.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..8cdd2a0 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig37.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig38.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig38.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..0720728 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig38.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig39.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig39.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..5fcbe28 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig39.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig4.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig4.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c0fa299 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig4.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig40.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig40.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..7e226d7 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig40.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig41.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig41.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..662cbfd --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig41.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig42.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig42.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4910f15 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig42.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig43.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig43.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..cb05073 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig43.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig44.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig44.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..0bea931 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig44.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig45.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig45.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..158a12c --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig45.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig46.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig46.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..42c1edc --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig46.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig47.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig47.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c7b0131 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig47.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig48.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig48.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..007a0fa --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig48.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig49.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig49.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..cbef512 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig49.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig5.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig5.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..0b4befb --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig5.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig50.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig50.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a8739ad --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig50.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig51.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig51.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..7fab108 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig51.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig52.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig52.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..84e6614 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig52.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig53.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig53.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d2841aa --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig53.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig54.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig54.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..8ec5492 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig54.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig55.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig55.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..153565a --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig55.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig56.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig56.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..89c7a3e --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig56.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig57.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig57.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..aaff1ec --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig57.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig58.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig58.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..447b1e8 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig58.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig59.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig59.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..7d7b3df --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig59.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig6.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig6.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2f69450 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig6.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig60.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig60.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..694fb7b --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig60.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig61.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig61.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..717d9cd --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig61.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig62.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig62.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..832defc --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig62.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig63.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig63.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d1aca80 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig63.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig64.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig64.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c94566e --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig64.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig65.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig65.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..77f5bfe --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig65.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig65a.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig65a.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..32a3bd0 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig65a.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig65b.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig65b.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..6d30718 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig65b.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig66.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig66.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..351e2c1 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig66.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig67.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig67.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2be5234 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig67.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig68.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig68.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..bb5a258 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig68.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig69.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig69.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e8c8491 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig69.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig6thumb.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig6thumb.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..5c9bd17 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig6thumb.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig7.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig7.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e9b9900 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig7.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig70.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig70.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ed48215 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig70.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig71.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig71.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1a7b94c --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig71.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig72.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig72.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..28232fd --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig72.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig73.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig73.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..adabc13 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig73.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig74.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig74.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..758405a --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig74.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig75.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig75.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b193e7a --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig75.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig75thumb.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig75thumb.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..00f58b9 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig75thumb.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig76.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig76.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..aefda75 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig76.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig77.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig77.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1ce1ef7 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig77.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig78.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig78.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1cb7bcd --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig78.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig79.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig79.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..6643cbf --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig79.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig8.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig8.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2081b8f --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig8.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig80.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig80.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..74f5255 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig80.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig81.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig81.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..8b09aa9 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig81.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig82.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig82.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..87e644d --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig82.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig83.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig83.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d04ef3d --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig83.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig83thumb.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig83thumb.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..3a73c94 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig83thumb.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/figures/fig9.png b/19723-h/images/figures/fig9.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..7dfba86 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/figures/fig9.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/plates/plate41.png b/19723-h/images/plates/plate41.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..af31b76 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/plates/plate41.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/plates/plate41thumb.png b/19723-h/images/plates/plate41thumb.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..9081b0f --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/plates/plate41thumb.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/plates/plate42.png b/19723-h/images/plates/plate42.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e6c1805 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/plates/plate42.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/plates/plate42thumb.png b/19723-h/images/plates/plate42thumb.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..60509f5 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/plates/plate42thumb.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/plates/plate43.png b/19723-h/images/plates/plate43.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4321238 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/plates/plate43.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/plates/plate43full.png b/19723-h/images/plates/plate43full.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..362b920 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/plates/plate43full.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/plates/plate43thumb.png b/19723-h/images/plates/plate43thumb.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1c9934d --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/plates/plate43thumb.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/plates/plate44.png b/19723-h/images/plates/plate44.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b469be8 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/plates/plate44.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/plates/plate45.png b/19723-h/images/plates/plate45.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2d95d56 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/plates/plate45.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/plates/plate46.png b/19723-h/images/plates/plate46.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..96d65ed --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/plates/plate46.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/plates/plate47.png b/19723-h/images/plates/plate47.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..35fd13f --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/plates/plate47.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/plates/plate48.png b/19723-h/images/plates/plate48.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..31d5412 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/plates/plate48.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/plates/plate49.png b/19723-h/images/plates/plate49.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1feaec0 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/plates/plate49.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/plates/plate50.png b/19723-h/images/plates/plate50.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f6b79a2 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/plates/plate50.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/plates/plate51.png b/19723-h/images/plates/plate51.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e7e80e5 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/plates/plate51.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/plates/plate52.png b/19723-h/images/plates/plate52.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..8e2dc2c --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/plates/plate52.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/plates/plate53.png b/19723-h/images/plates/plate53.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4d70721 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/plates/plate53.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/plates/plate54.png b/19723-h/images/plates/plate54.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..627d31f --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/plates/plate54.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/plates/plate55.png b/19723-h/images/plates/plate55.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..50eed11 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/plates/plate55.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/plates/plate56.png b/19723-h/images/plates/plate56.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..75db947 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/plates/plate56.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/plates/plate57.png b/19723-h/images/plates/plate57.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..730478e --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/plates/plate57.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/plates/plate58.png b/19723-h/images/plates/plate58.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..9acd9fb --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/plates/plate58.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/plates/plate59.png b/19723-h/images/plates/plate59.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..cee34f5 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/plates/plate59.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/plates/plate60.png b/19723-h/images/plates/plate60.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..5fbfdf0 --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/plates/plate60.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/plates/plate61.png b/19723-h/images/plates/plate61.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1c7835a --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/plates/plate61.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/plates/plate62.png b/19723-h/images/plates/plate62.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..575584c --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/plates/plate62.png diff --git a/19723-h/images/plates/plate63.png b/19723-h/images/plates/plate63.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..35cd73e --- /dev/null +++ b/19723-h/images/plates/plate63.png |
