initial commit of ebook 19723HEADmain

1 files changed, 5929 insertions, 0 deletions

diff --git a/19723.txt b/19723.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9104f45
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19723.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,5929 @@
+The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Cliff Ruins of Canyon de Chelly, Arizona,
+by Cosmos Mindeleff
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: The Cliff Ruins of Canyon de Chelly, Arizona
+       Sixteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1894-95, Government Printing Office, Washington, 1897, pages 73-198
+
+
+Author: Cosmos Mindeleff
+
+
+
+Release Date: November 6, 2006  [eBook #19723]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CLIFF RUINS OF CANYON DE
+CHELLY, ARIZONA***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Louise Hope, Carlo Traverso, and the Project Gutenberg
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team (https://www.pgdp.net/) from psge
+images generously made available by the Bibliothèque nationale de France
+(BnF/Gallica) (http://gallica.bnf.fr/)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original illustrations.
+      See 19723-h.htm or 19723-h.zip:
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/9/7/2/19723/19723-h/19723-h.htm)
+      or
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/9/7/2/19723/19723-h.zip)
+
+      This document is taken from the _Sixteenth Annual Report of
+      the Bureau of Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian
+      Institution_, 1894-95, Government Printing Office,
+      Washington, 1897, pages 73-198. Images of the original pages
+      are available through the Bibliotheque nationale de France
+      (BnF/Gallica) (http://gallica.bnf.fr/).
+
+
+Transcriber's Note:
+
+      Typographical errors are listed at the end of the text.
+      Brackets within quotations are in the original.
+
+
+
+
+
+THE CLIFF RUINS OF CANYON DE CHELLY, ARIZONA
+
+by
+
+COSMOS MINDELEFF
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+                                                                Page
+  Introduction                                                    79
+    History and literature                                        79
+    Geography                                                     82
+  Classification and descriptions                                 89
+    Ruins of the pueblo region                                    89
+      I--Old villages on open sites                               93
+     II--Home villages on bottom lands                            94
+    III--Home villages located for defense                       111
+     IV--Cliff outlooks or farming shelters                      142
+  Details                                                        153
+    Sites                                                        153
+    Masonry                                                      159
+    Openings                                                     164
+    Roofs, floors, and timber work                               165
+    Storage and burial cists (Navaho)                            166
+    Defensive and constructive expedients                        170
+    Kivas or sacred chambers                                     174
+    Chimney-like structures                                      182
+    Traditions                                                   190
+  Conclusions                                                    191
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+Plate                                                           Page
+   XLI. Map of the ancient pueblo region,
+            showing location of Canyon de Chelly                  79
+  XLII. Map of Canyon de Chelly and its branches                  85
+ XLIII. Detailed map of part of Canyon de Chelly,
+            showing areas of cultivable land                      93
+  XLIV. Section of old walls, Canyon de Chelly                    95
+   XLV. General view of ruin on bottom land,
+            Canyon del Muerto                                     97
+  XLVI. Village ruin in Canyon de Chelly                         103
+ XLVII. Casa Blanca ruin, Canyon de Chelly                       105
+XLVIII. Mummy cave, central and eastern part                     112
+  XLIX. Eastern cove of Mummy cave                               115
+     L. Reservoir in ruin No. 10                                 127
+    LI. Small village, ruin No. 16, Canyon de Chelly             129
+   LII. Walls resting on refuse in ruin No. 16                   131
+  LIII. Cliff outlook in lower Canyon de Chelly                  149
+   LIV. Cliff ruin No. 14                                        151
+    LV. Site marked by pictographs                               153
+   LVI. Site difficult of approach                               159
+  LVII. Masonry in Canyon de Chelly                              161
+ LVIII. Chinked walls in Canyon de Chelly                        163
+   LIX. A partly plastered wall                                  165
+    LX. Plastered wall in Canyon de Chelly                       167
+   LXI. Storage cist in Canyon de Chelly                         169
+  LXII. Navaho burial cists                                      171
+ LXIII. Kivas in ruin No. 10,
+            showing second-story walls                           173
+
+Figure                                                          Page
+    1. Ground plan of an old ruin in Canyon del Muerto            95
+    2. Ground plan of a ruin on bottom land
+           in Canyon del Muerto                                   96
+    3. Ground plan of small ruin in Canyon de Chelly              96
+    4. Granary in the rocks, connected with a ruin                97
+    5. Ground plan of a ruin in a cave                            98
+    6. Ground plan of Pakashi-izini ruin, Canyon del Muerto       99
+    7. Ground plan of a ruin in Canyon del Muerto                100
+    8. Ground plan of a ruin in Tseonitsosi canyon               100
+    9. Ground plan of a much obliterated ruin                    101
+   10. Ground plan of a ruin in Canyon de Chelly                 101
+   11. Ground plan of a village ruin                             103
+   12. Ground plan of kivas in Canyon de Chelly                  103
+   13. Ground plan of a small ruin on bottom land                104
+   14. Ground plan of the upper part of Casa Blanca ruin         105
+   15. Ground plan of the lower part of Casa Blanca ruin         106
+   16. Ground plan of Mummy Cave ruin                            113
+   17. Ruin in a rock cove                                       117
+   18. Ground plan of a ruin in a rock cove                      117
+   19. Ground plan of a ruin on a ledge                          118
+   20. Ground plan of ruin No. 31, Canyon de Chelly              119
+   21. Ground plan of ruin No. 32, Canyon de Chelly              120
+   22. Section of a kiva wall                                    122
+   23. Ruin No. 10 on a ledge in a cove                          123
+   24. Ground plan of ruin No. 10                                124
+   25. Oven-like structure in ruin No. 10                        127
+   26. Plan of oven-like structure                               128
+   27. Ground plan of a small village, ruin No. 16               129
+   28. Ruins on a large rock                                     130
+   29. Ground plan of ruins No. 49                               131
+   30. Ruins on an almost inaccessible site                      133
+   31. Ground plan of a large ruin in Canyon del Muerto          134
+   32. Ground plan of a small ruin in Canyon del Muerto          135
+   33. Ground plan of a small ruin                               135
+   34. Plan of a ruin of three rooms                             136
+   35. Ground plan of a small ruin, with two kivas               136
+   36. Ground plan of a small ruin, No. 44                       137
+   37. Ground plan of a ruin on a rocky site                     137
+   38. Rock with cups and petroglyphs                            138
+   39. Ground plan of a ruin in Canyon de Chelly                 139
+   40. Site showing recent fall of rock                          140
+   41. Ruin No. 69 in a branch canyon                            140
+   42. Ground plan of a small ruin in Canyon del Muerto          140
+   43. Ground plan of a small ruin                               141
+   44. Plan of a ruin with curved inclosing wall                 141
+   45. Ground plan of ruin No. 34                                142
+   46. Ground plan of cliff outlook No. 35                       143
+   47. Plan of a cliff outlook                                   143
+   48. Plan of cliff ruin No. 46                                 144
+   49. Plan of cliff room with partitions                        145
+   50. Plan of a large cliff outlook in Canyon del Muerto        145
+   51. Plan of a cluster of rooms in Canyon del Muerto           146
+   52. White House ruin in Tseonitsosi canyon                    146
+   53. Ground plan of a ruin in Tseonitsosi canyon               147
+   54. Plan of rooms against a convex cliff                      147
+   55. Small ruin with curved wall                               147
+   56. Ground plan of a cliff outlook                            148
+   57. Plan of cliff outlook No. 14, in Canyon de Chelly         148
+   58. Ground plan of outlooks in a cleft                        149
+   59. Plan of a single-room outlook                             149
+   60. Three-room outlook in Canyon del Muerto                   150
+   61. Plan of a two-room outlook                                150
+   62. Plan of outlook and burial cists, No. 64                  150
+   63. Plan of rectangular room, No. 45                          151
+   64. Rectangular single room                                   151
+   65. Single-room remains                                       152
+   66. Site apparently very difficult of access                  158
+   67. Notched doorway in Canyon de Chelly                       164
+   68. Cist composed of upright slabs                            169
+   69. Retaining walls in Canyon de Chelly                       172
+   70. Part of a kiva in ruin No. 31                             175
+   71. Plan of part of a kiva in ruin No. 10                     176
+   72. Kiva decoration in white                                  177
+   73. Pictograph in white                                       178
+   74. Markings on cliff wall, ruin No. 37                       178
+   75. Decorative band in kiva in Mummy Cave ruin                179
+   76. Design employed in decorative band                        180
+   77. Pictographs in Canyon de Chelly                           181
+   78. Plan of chimney-like structure in ruin No. 15             182
+   79. Section of chimney-like structure in ruin No. 15          183
+   80. Plan of chimney-like structure in ruin No. 16             184
+   81. Section of chimney-like structure in ruin No. 16          185
+   82. Plan of the principal kiva in Mummy Cave ruin             186
+   83. Chimney-like structure in Mummy Cave ruin                 187
+
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XLI (Map)
+  Ancient Pueblo Region
+  Showing Location of Canyon De Chelly]
+
+
+
+
+THE CLIFF RUINS OF CANYON DE CHELLY, ARIZONA
+
+
+By Cosmos Mindeleff
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+HISTORY AND LITERATURE
+
+Although Canyon de Chelly is one of the best cliff-ruin regions of the
+United States, it is not easily accessible and is practically unknown.
+At the time of the conquest of this country by the "Army of the West" in
+1846, and of the rush to California in 1849, vague rumors were current
+of wonderful "cities" built in the cliffs, but the position of the
+canyon in the heart of the Navaho country apparently prevented
+exploration. In 1849 it was found necessary to make a demonstration
+against these Indians, and an expedition was sent out under the command
+of Colonel Washington, then governor of New Mexico. A detachment of
+troops set out from Santa Fe, and was accompanied by Lieutenant
+(afterward General) J. H. Simpson, of the topographical engineers, to
+whose indefatigable zeal for investigation and carefulness of
+observation much credit is due. He was much interested in the archeology
+of the country passed over and his descriptions are remarkable for their
+freedom from the exaggerations and erroneous observations which
+characterize many of the publications of that period. His journal was
+published by Congress the next year[1] and was also printed privately.
+
+    [Footnote 1: Thirty-first Congress, first session, Senate Ex. Doc.
+    No. 64, Washington, 1850.]
+
+The expedition camped in the Chin Lee valley outside of Canyon de
+Chelly, and Lieutenant Simpson made a side trip into the canyon itself.
+He mentions ruins noticed by him at 41/2, 5, and 7 miles from the mouth;
+the latter, the ruin subsequently known as Casa Blanca, he describes at
+some length. He also gives an illustration drawn by R. H. Kern, which is
+very bad, and pictures some pottery fragments found near or in the ruin.
+The name De Chelly was apparently used before this time. Simpson
+obtained its orthography from Vigil, secretary of the province (of New
+Mexico), who told him it was of Indian origin and was pronounced
+_chay-e_. Possibly it was derived from the Navaho name of the place,
+Tse-gi.
+
+Simpson's description, although very brief, formed the basis of all the
+succeeding accounts for the next thirty years. The Pacific railroad
+surveys, which added so much to our knowledge of the Southwest, did not
+touch this field. In 1860 the Abbe Domenech published his "Deserts of
+North America," which contains a reference to Casa Blanca ruin, but his
+knowledge was apparently derived wholly from Simpson. None of the
+assistants of the Hayden Survey actually penetrated the canyon, but one
+of them, W. H. Jackson, examined and described some ruins on the Rio de
+Chelly, in the lower Chin Lee valley. But in an article in Scribner's
+Magazine for December, 1878, Emma C. Hardacre published a number of
+descriptions and illustrations derived from the Hayden corps, among
+others figures one entitled "Ruins in Canon de Chelly," from a drawing
+by Thomas Moran. The ruin can not be identified from the drawing.
+
+This article is worth more than a passing notice, as it not only
+illustrates the extent of knowledge of the ruins at that time (1878),
+but probably had much to do with disseminating and making current
+erroneous inferences which survive to this day. In an introductory
+paragraph the author says:
+
+  Of late, blown over the plains, come stories of strange newly
+  discovered cities of the far south-west; picturesque piles of
+  masonry, of an age unknown to tradition. These ruins mark an era
+  among antiquarians. The mysterious mound-builders fade into
+  comparative insignificance before the grander and more ancient
+  cliff-dwellers, whose castles lift their towers amid the sands of
+  Arizona and crown the terraced slopes of the Rio Mancos and the
+  Hovenweap.
+
+Of the Chaco ruins it is said:
+
+  In size and grandeur of conception, they equal any of the present
+  buildings of the United States, if we except the Capitol at
+  Washington, and may without discredit be compared to the Pantheon
+  and the Colosseum of the Old World.
+
+In the same year Mr J. H. Beadle gave an account[2] of a visit he made
+to the canyon. He entered it over the Bat trail, near the junction of
+Monument canyon, and saw several ruins in the upper part. His
+descriptions are hardly more than a mention. Much archeologic data were
+secured by the assistants of the Wheeler Survey, but it does not appear
+that any of them, except the photographer, visited Canyon de Chelly. In
+the final reports of the Survey there is an illustration of the ruin
+visited by Lieutenant Simpson about thirty years before.[3] The
+illustration is a beautiful heliotype from a fine photograph made by
+T. H. O'Sullivan, but one serious defect renders it useless; through
+some blunder of the photographer or the engraver, the picture is
+reversed, the right and left sides being interchanged, so that to see it
+properly it must be looked at in a mirror. The illustration is
+accompanied by a short text, apparently prepared by Prof. F. W. Putnam,
+who edited the volume. The account by Simpson is quoted and some
+additional data are given, derived from notes accompanying the
+photograph. The ruin is said to have "now received the name of the Casa
+Blanca, or White House," but the derivation of the name is not stated.
+
+    [Footnote 2: Western Wilds, and the Men who Redeem Them:
+    Cincinnati, Philadelphia, Chicago, Memphis, 1878.]
+
+    [Footnote 3: U.S. Geog. Surveys West of the 100th Meridian,
+    Lieutenant George M. Wheeler in charge; reports, vol. VII,
+    Archaeology; Washington, 1879, pp. 372-373, pl. xx.]
+
+In 1882 Bancroft could find no better or fuller description than
+Simpson's, which he uses fully, and reproduces also Simpson's (Kern's)
+illustration. In the same year investigation by the assistants of the
+Bureau of Ethnology was commenced. Colonel James Stevenson and a party
+visited the canyon, and a considerable amount of data was obtained. In
+all, 46 ruins were visited, 17 of which were in Del Muerto; and
+sketches, ground plans, and photographs were obtained. The report of the
+Bureau for that year contains an account of this expedition, including a
+short description of a large ruin in Del Muerto, subsequently known as
+Mummy Cave. A brief account of the trip was also published elsewhere.[4]
+The next year a map of the canyon was made by the writer and many new
+ruins were discovered, making the total number in the canyon and its
+branches about 140. Since 1883 two short visits have been made to the
+place, the last late in 1893, and on each trip additional material was
+obtained. In 1890 Mr F. T. Bickford[5] published an account of a visit
+to the canyon, illustrated with a series of woodcuts made from the
+photographs of the Bureau. The illustrations are excellent and the text
+is pleasantly written, but the descriptions of ruins are too general to
+be of much value to the student.
+
+    [Footnote 4: Bull. Am. Geog. Soc., 1886, No. 4; Ancient
+    Habitations of the Southwest, by James Stevenson.]
+
+    [Footnote 5: Century Magazine, October, 1890, vol. XL, No. 6, p.
+    806 et seq.]
+
+In recent years several publications have appeared which, while not
+bearing directly on the De Chelly ruins, are of great interest, as they
+treat of analogous remains--the cliff ruins of the Mancos canyon and the
+Mesa Verde. These ruins were discovered in 1874 by W. H. Jackson and
+were visited and described in 1875 by W. H. Holmes,[6] both of the
+Hayden Survey. This region was roamed over by bands of renegade Ute and
+Navaho, who were constantly making trouble, and for fifteen years was
+apparently not visited by whites. Recent exploration appears to have
+been inaugurated by Mr F. H. Chapin, who spent two summers in the Mesa
+Verde country. Subsequently he published the results of some of his
+observations in a handsome little volume.[7] In 1891 Dr W. R. Birdsall
+made a flying trip to this region and published an account[8] of the
+ruins he saw the same year. At the time of this visit a more elaborate
+exploration was being carried on by the late G. Nordenskioeld, who made
+some excavations and obtained much valuable data which formed the basis
+of a book published in 1893.[9] This is the most important treatise on
+the cliff ruins that has ever been published, and the illustrations can
+only be characterized as magnificent. All of these works, and especially
+the last named, are of great value to the student of the cliff ruins
+wherever located, or of pueblo architecture.
+
+    [Footnote 6: U.S. Geol. Survey, F. V. Hayden in charge; 10th Ann.
+    Rept. (for 1876), Washington, 1878.]
+
+    [Footnote 7: The Land of the Cliff Dwellers, by Frederick H.
+    Chapin; Boston, 1892.]
+
+    [Footnote 8: Bull. Am. Geog. Soc., vol. XXIII, No. 4, 1891; The
+    Cliff Dwellings of the Canons of the Mesa Verde.]
+
+    [Footnote 9: The Cliff Dwellers of the Mesa Verde, by
+    G. Nordenskioeld; Stockholm and Chicago, 1894.]
+
+
+GEOGRAPHY
+
+The ancient pueblo culture was so intimately connected with and
+dependent on the character of the country where its remains are found
+that some idea of this country is necessary to understand it. The limits
+of the region are closely coincident with the boundaries of the plateau
+country except on the south, so much so that a map of the latter,[10]
+slightly extended around its margin, will serve to show the former. The
+area of the ancient pueblo region may be 150,000 square miles; that of
+the plateau country, approximately, 130,000.
+
+    [Footnote 10: See Major C. E. Dutton's map of the plateau country
+    in 6th Ann. Rept. U.S. Geol. Survey, pl. xi. His report on "Mount
+    Taylor and the Zuni plateau," of which this map is a part,
+    presents a vivid picture of the plateau country, and his
+    descriptions are so clear and expressive that any attempt to
+    better them must result in failure. The statement of the geologic
+    and topographic features which is incorporated herein is derived
+    directly from Major Dutton's description, much of it being taken
+    bodily.]
+
+The plateau country is not a smooth and level region, as its name might
+imply; it is extremely rugged, and the topographic obstacles to travel
+are greater than in many wild mountain regions. It is a country of
+cliffs and canyons, often of considerable magnitude and forming a bar to
+extended progress in any direction. The surface is generally smooth or
+slightly undulating and apparently level, but it is composed of a series
+of platforms or mesas, which are seldom of great extent and generally
+terminate at the brink of a wall, often of huge dimensions. There are
+mesas everywhere; it is the mesa country.
+
+Although the strata appear to be horizontal, they are slightly tilted.
+The inclination, although slight, is remarkably persistent, and the
+thickness of the strata remains almost constant. The beds, therefore,
+extend from very high altitudes to very low ones, and often the
+formation which is exposed to view at the summit of an incline is lost
+to view after a few miles, being covered by some later formation, which
+in turn is covered by a still later one. Each formation thus appears as
+a terrace, bounded on one side by a descending cliff carved out of the
+edges of its own strata and on the other by an ascending cliff carved
+out of the strata which overlie it. This is the more common form,
+although isolated mesas, bits of tableland completely engirdled by
+cliffs, are but little less common.
+
+The courses of the margins of the mesas are not regular. The cliffs
+sometimes maintain an average trend through great distances, but in
+detail their courses are extremely crooked; they wind in and out,
+forming alternate alcoves and promontories in the wall, and frequently
+they are cut through by valleys, which may be either narrow canyons or
+interspaces 10 or even 20 miles wide.
+
+The whole region has been subjected to many displacements, both flexures
+of the monoclinal type and faults. Some of these flexures attain a
+length of over 80 miles and a displacement of 3,000 feet, and the faults
+reach even a greater magnitude. There is also an abundance of volcanic
+rocks and extinct volcanoes, and while the principal eruptions have
+occurred about the borders of the region, extending but slightly into
+it, traces of lesser disturbances can be found throughout the country.
+It has been said that if a geologist should actually make the circuit of
+the plateau country, he could so conduct his route that for
+three-fourths of the time he would be treading upon volcanic materials
+and could pitch his camp upon them every night. The oldest eruptions do
+not go back of Tertiary time, while some are so recent as probably to
+come within the historic period--within three or four centuries.
+
+The strata of the plateau country are remarkable for their homogeneity,
+when considered with reference to their horizontal extensions; hardly
+less so for their diversity when considered in their vertical relation.
+Although the groups differ radically from each other, still each
+preserves its characteristics with singularly slight degrees of
+variation from place to place. Hence we have a certain amount of
+similarity and monotony in the landscape which is aided rather than
+diminished by the vegetation; for the vegetation, like the human
+occupants of this country, has come under its overpowering influence.
+The characteristic landscape consists of a wide expanse of featureless
+plains, bounded by far-off cliffs in gorgeous colors; in the foreground
+a soil of bright yellow or ashy gray; over all the most brilliant
+sunlight, while the distant features are softened by a blue haze.
+
+The most conspicuous formation of the whole region is a massive
+bright-red sandstone out of which have been carved "the most striking
+and typical features of those marvelous plateau landscapes which will be
+subjects of wonder and delight to all coming generations of men. The
+most superb canyons of the neighboring region, the Canyon de Chelly and
+the Del Muerto, the lofty pinnacles and towers of the San Juan country,
+the finest walls in the great upper chasms of the Colorado, are the
+vertical edges of this red sandstone."
+
+Of the climate of the plateau country it has been said that in the large
+valleys it is "temperate in winter and insufferable in summer; higher up
+the summers are temperate and the winters barely sufferable." It is as
+though there were two distinct regions covering the same area, for there
+are marked differences throughout, except in topographic configuration,
+between the lowlands and the uplands or high plateaus. The lowlands
+present an appearance which is barren and desolate in the extreme,
+although the soil is fertile and under irrigation yields good crops.
+Vegetation is limited to a scanty growth of grass during a small part of
+the year, with small areas here and there scantily covered by the
+prickly greasewood and at intervals by clumps of sagebrush; but even
+these prefer a higher level, and develop better on the neighboring mesas
+than in the valleys proper. The arborescent growth consists of sparsely
+distributed cottonwoods and willows, closely confined to the river
+bottoms. On intermediate higher levels junipers and cedars appear, often
+standing so closely together as to seriously impede travel, but they are
+confined to the tops of mesas and other high ground, the valleys being
+generally clear or covered with sagebrush. Still higher up yellow pines
+become abundant and in places spread out into magnificent forests, while
+in some mountain regions scrub oak, quaking asp, and even spruce trees
+are abundant.
+
+In the mountain regions there is often a reasonable amount of moisture,
+and some crops, potatoes for example, are grown there without
+irrigation; but the season is short. In the Tunicha mountains the Navaho
+raise corn at an altitude of nearly 8,000 feet, but they often lose the
+crop from drought or from frost. On the intermediate levels and in the
+lowlands cultivation by modern methods is practically impossible without
+irrigation, except in a few favored localities, where a crop can be
+obtained perhaps two years or three years in five. But with a minute
+knowledge of the climatic conditions, and with methods adapted to meet
+these conditions, scanty crops can be and are raised by the Indians
+without irrigation throughout the whole region; but everywhere that
+water can be applied the product of the soil is increased many fold.
+
+Near the center of the plateau country, in the northeastern corner of
+Arizona, a range of mountains crosses diagonally from northwest to
+southeast, extending into New Mexico. In the north an irregular cluster
+of considerable size, separated from the remainder of the range, is
+called the Carrizo; and the range proper has no less than three names
+applied to different parts of it. The northern end is known as the
+Lukachukai, the central part as the Tunicha, and the southern part as
+the Chuska or Choiskai mountains, all Navaho names. The two former
+clusters attain an altitude of 9,500 feet; the Tunicha and the Chuska
+are about 9,000 feet high, the latter having a flat top of considerable
+area.
+
+On the east these mountains break down rather abruptly into the broad
+valley of the Chaco river, or the Chaco wash, as it is more commonly
+designated; on the west they break down gradually, through a series of
+slopes and mesas, into the Chin Lee valley. Canyon de Chelly has been
+cut in the western slope by a series of small streams, which, rising
+near the crest of the mountain, combine near its head and flow in a
+general westerly direction. The mouth of the canyon is on the eastern
+border of the Chin Lee valley. It is 60 miles south of the Utah boundary
+and 25 miles west of that of New Mexico; hence it is 60 miles east and a
+little north from the old province of Tusayan, the modern Moki, and 85
+miles northwest from the old province of Cibola, the modern Zuni. Its
+position is almost in the heart of the ancient pueblo region; the Chaco
+ruins lie about 80 miles east, and the ruins of the San Juan from 60 to
+80 miles north and northeast.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XLII
+  Map of Canyon De Chelly and Its Branches
+  Surveyed by Cosmos Mindeleff]
+
+The geographic position of Canyon de Chelly has had an important effect
+on its history, forming as it does an available resting place in any
+migratory movement either on the north and south line or east and west.
+The Tunicha mountains are a serious obstacle to north and south movement
+at the present day, but less so than the arid valleys which border them.
+Except at one place, and that place is difficult, it is almost
+impossible to cross the mountains with a wheeled vehicle, but there are
+innumerable trails running in all directions, and these trails are in
+constant use by the Navaho, except in the depths of winter. The mountain
+route is preferable, however, to the valley roads, where the traveler
+for several days is without wood, with very little water and forage, and
+his movements are impeded by deep sand.
+
+To the traveler on foot, or even on horseback, Canyon de Chelly is
+easily accessible from almost any direction. Good trails run northward
+to the San Juan and northeastward over the Tunicha mountains to the
+upper part of that river; Fort Defiance is but half a day's journey to
+the southeast; Tusayan and Zuni are but three days distant to the
+traveler on foot; the Navaho often ride the distance in a day or a day
+and a half. The canyon is accessible to wagons, however, only at its
+mouth.
+
+The main canyon, shown on the map (plate XLII) as Canyon de Chelly and
+known to the Navaho as Tse-gi, is about 20 miles long. It heads near
+Washington pass, within a few miles of the crest of the mountain, and
+extends almost due west to the Chin Lee valley. The country descends by
+a regular slope from an altitude of about 7,500 feet at the foot of the
+main crest to about 5,200 feet in the Chin Lee valley, 25 miles west,
+and is so much cut up locally by ravines and washes that it is
+impassable to wagons, but it preserves throughout its mesa-like
+character.
+
+About 3 miles from its mouth De Chelly is joined by another canyon
+almost as long, which, heading also in the Tunicha mountains, comes in
+from the northeast. It is over 15 miles long, and is called on the map
+Canyon del Muerto; the Navaho know it as En-a-tse-gi. About 13 miles
+above the mouth of the main canyon a small branch comes in from the
+southeast. It is about 10 miles long, and has been called Monument
+canyon, on account of the number of upright natural pinnacles of rock in
+it. In addition to those named there are innumerable small branches,
+ranging in size from deep coves to real canyons a mile or two long.
+Outside of De Chelly, and independent of it, there is a little canyon
+about 4 miles long, called Tse-on-i-tso-si by the Navaho. At one point
+near its head it approaches so near to De Chelly that but a few feet of
+rock separate them.
+
+On the western side of the mountains there are a number of small
+perennial streams fed by springs on the upper slopes. Several of these
+meet in the upper part of De Chelly, others in Del Muerto, and in the
+upper parts of these canyons there is generally water. But, except at
+the time of the autumn and winter rains and in the spring when the
+mountain snows are melting, the streams are not powerful enough to carry
+the water to the mouth of the canyon. The flow is absorbed by the deep
+sand which forms the stream bed. Ordinarily it is difficult to procure
+enough water to drink less than 8 or 10 miles from the mouth of De
+Chelly, but occasionally the whole stream bed, at places over a quarter
+of a mile wide, is occupied by a raging torrent impassable to man or
+beast. Such ebullitions, however, seldom last more than a few hours.
+Usually water can be obtained anywhere in the bottom by sinking a
+shallow well in the sand, and it is by this method that the Navaho, the
+present occupants of the canyon, obtain their supply.
+
+The walls of the canyon are composed of brilliant red sandstone,
+discolored everywhere by long streaks of black and gray coming from
+above. At its mouth it is about 500 feet wide. Higher up the walls
+sometimes approach to 300 feet of each other, elsewhere broadening out
+to half a mile or more; but everywhere the wall line is tortuous and
+crooked in the extreme, and, while the general direction of De Chelly is
+east and west, the traveler on the trail which runs through it is as
+often headed north or south. Del Muerto is even more tortuous than De
+Chelly, and in places it is so narrow that one could almost throw a
+stone across it.
+
+At its mouth the walls of Canyon de Chelly are but 20 to 30 feet high,
+descending vertically to a wide bed of loose white sand, and absolutely
+free from talus or debris. Three miles above Del Muerto comes in, but
+its mouth is so narrow it appears like an alcove and might easily be
+overlooked. Here the walls are over 200 feet high, but the rise is so
+gradual that it is impossible to appreciate its amount. At the point
+where Monument canyon comes in, 13 miles above the mouth of De Chelly,
+the walls reach a height of over 800 feet, about one-third of which
+consists of talus.
+
+The rise in the height of the walls is so gradual that when the canyon
+is entered at its mouth the mental scale by which we estimate distances
+and magnitudes is lost and the wildest conjectures result. We fail at
+first to realize the stupendous scale on which the work was done, and
+when we do finally realize it we swing to the opposite side and
+exaggerate. At the junction of Monument canyon there is a beautiful rock
+pinnacle or needle standing out clear from the cliff and not more than
+165 feet on the ground. It has been named, in conjunction with a
+somewhat similar pinnacle on the other side of the canyon, "The
+Captains," and its height has been variously estimated at from 1,200 to
+2,500 feet. It is less than 800. A curious illustration of the effects
+of the scenery in connection with this pinnacle may not be amiss. The
+author of Western Wilds (Cincinnati, 1878) thus describes it:
+
+  But the most remarkable and unaccountable feature of the locality is
+  where the canyons meet. There stands out 100 feet from the point,
+  entirely isolated, a vast leaning rock tower at least 1,200 feet
+  high and not over 200 thick at the base, as if it had originally
+  been the sharp termination of the cliff and been broken off and
+  shoved farther out. It almost seems that one must be mistaken; that
+  it must have some connection with the cliff, until one goes around
+  it and finds it 100 feet or more from the former. It leans at an
+  angle from the perpendicular of at least 15 degrees; and lying down
+  at the base on the under side, by the best sighting I could make, it
+  seemed to me that the opposite upper edge was directly over me--that
+  is to say, mechanically speaking, its center of gravity barely falls
+  with the base, and a heave of only a yard or two more would cause it
+  to topple over. (Page 257.)
+
+The dimensions have already been given. The pinnacle is perfectly plumb.
+
+The rock of which the canyon walls are formed is a massive sandstone in
+which the lines of bedding are almost completely obliterated. It is
+rather soft in texture, and has been carved by atmospheric erosion into
+grotesque and sometimes beautiful forms. In places great blocks have
+fallen off, leaving smooth vertical surfaces, extending sometimes from
+the top nearly to the stream bed, 400 feet or more in height and as much
+in breadth. In the lower parts of the canyons the walls, sometimes of
+the character described, sometimes with the surfaces and angles smoothed
+by the flying sand, are generally vertical and often overhang,
+descending sheer to the canyon bottom without talus or intervening
+slopes of debris. The talus, where there is any, is slight and consists
+of massive sandstone of the same character as the walls, but much
+rounded by atmospheric erosion. The enlarged map (plate XLIII) shows
+something of this character.
+
+Near its mouth the whole bottom of the canyon consists of an even
+stretch of white sand extending from cliff to cliff. A little higher up
+there are small areas of alluvium, or bottom land, in recesses and coves
+in the walls and generally only a foot or two above the stream bed.
+Still higher up these areas become more abundant and of greater extent,
+forming regular benches or terraces, generally well raised above the
+stream bed. At the Casa Blanca ruin, 7 miles up the canyon, the bench is
+8 or 10 feet above the stream. Each little branch canyon and deep cove
+in the cliffs is fronted by a more or less extended area of this
+cultivable bottom land. Ten miles up the talus has become a prominent
+feature. It consists of broken rock, sand, and soil, generally overlying
+a slope of massive sandstone, such as has been described, and which
+occasionally crops out on the surface. With the development of the talus
+the area of bottom land dwindles, and the former encroaches more and
+more until a little above the junction of Monument canyon the bottom
+land is limited to narrow strips and small patches here and there.
+
+These bottom lands are the cultivable areas of the canyon bottom, and
+their occurrence and distribution have dictated the location of the
+villages now in ruins. They are also the sites of all the Navaho
+settlements in the canyon. The Navaho hogans are generally placed
+directly on the bottoms; the ruins are always so located as to overlook
+them. Only a very small proportion of the available land is utilized by
+the Navaho, and not all of it was used by the old village builders. The
+Navaho sites, as a whole, are far superior to the village sites.
+
+The horticultural conditions here, while essentially the same as those
+of the whole pueblo region, present some peculiar features. Except for a
+few modern examples there are no traces of irrigating works, and the
+Navaho work can not be regarded as a success. The village builders
+probably did not require irrigation for the successful cultivation of
+their crops, and under the ordinary Indian methods of planting and
+cultivation a failure to harvest a good crop was probably rare. After
+the Harvest season it is the practice of the Navaho to abandon the
+canyon for the winter, driving their flocks and carrying the season's
+produce to more open localities in the neighboring valleys. The canyon
+is not a desirable place of residence in the winter to a people who live
+in the saddle and have large flocks of sheep and goats, but there is no
+evidence that the old inhabitants followed the Navaho practice.
+
+During most of the year there is no water in the lower 10 miles of the
+canyons, where most of the cultivable land is situated. The autumn rains
+in the mountains, which occur late in July or early in August, sometimes
+send down a little stream, which, however, generally lasts but a few
+days and fails to reach the mouth of the canyon. Late in October, or
+early in November, a small amount comes down and is fairly permanent
+through the winter and spring. The stream bed is even more tortuous than
+the canyon it occupies, often washing the cliffs on one side, then
+passing directly across the bottom and returning again to the same side,
+the stream bed being many times wider than the stream, which constantly
+shifts its channel. In December it becomes very cold and so much of the
+stream is in shade during a large part of the day that much of the water
+becomes frozen and, as it were, held in place. In the warm parts of the
+day, and in the sunshine, the ice is melted, the stream resumes its
+flow, and so gradually pushes its way farther and farther down the
+canyon. But some sections, less exposed to warmth than others, retain
+their ice during the day. These points are flooded by the water from
+above, which is again frozen during the night and again flooded the next
+day, and so on. In a short time great fields of smooth ice are formed,
+which render travel on horseback very difficult and even dangerous.
+This, and the scant grazing afforded by the bottom lands in winter,
+doubtless is the cause of the annual migration of the Navaho; but these
+conditions would not materially affect a people living in the canyon who
+did not possess or were but scantily supplied with horses and sheep. The
+stream when it is flowing is seldom more than a foot deep, generally
+only a few inches, except in times of flood, when it becomes a raging
+torrent, carrying everything before it. Hence irrigation would be
+impracticable, even if its principles were known, nor is it essential
+here to successful horticulture.
+
+One of the characteristic features of the canyons at the present day is
+the immense number of peach trees within them. Wherever there is a
+favorable site, in some sheltered cove or little branch canyon, there is
+a clump of peach trees, in some instances perhaps as many as 1,000 in
+one "orchard." When the peaches ripen, hundreds and even thousands of
+Navaho flock to the place, coming from all over the reservation, like an
+immense flock of vultures, and with disastrous results to the food
+supply. A few months after it is difficult to procure even a handful of
+dried fruit. The peach trees are, of course, modern. They were
+introduced into this country originally by the Spanish monks, but in De
+Chelly there are not more than two or three trees which are older than
+the last Navaho war. At that time, it is said, the soldiers cut down
+every peach tree they could find. But, aside from the peaches, De Chelly
+was until recently the great agricultural center of the Navaho tribe,
+and large quantities of corn, melons, pumpkins, beans, etc, were and are
+raised there every year. Under modern conditions many other localities
+now vie with it, and some surpass it in output of agricultural products,
+but not many years ago De Chelly was regarded as the place par
+excellence.
+
+It will be clear, therefore, that prior to very recent times De Chelly
+would be selected by almost any tribe moving across the country, and,
+barring a hostile prior occupancy, would be the most desirable place for
+the pursuit of horticultural operations for many miles in any direction.
+The vicinity of the Tunicha mountains, which could be reached in half a
+day from any part of the canyons, and which must have abounded in game,
+for even now some is found there, would be a material advantage. The
+position of the canyon in the heart of the plateau country and of the
+ancient pueblo region would make it a natural stopping place during any
+migratory movement either north and south or east and west, and its
+settlement was doubtless due to this favorable position and to the
+natural advantages it offered. This settlement was effected probably not
+by one band or tribe, nor at one time, but by many bands at many times.
+Probably the first settlements were very old; certainly the last were
+very recent.
+
+
+
+
+CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTIONS
+
+
+RUINS OF THE PUEBLO REGION
+
+No satisfactory general classification of the ruins of the ancient
+pueblo region has yet been made; possibly because the material in hand
+is not sufficiently abundant. There are thousands of ruins scattered
+over the southwest, of many different types which merge more or less
+into each other. In 1884 Mr A. F. Bandelier, whose knowledge of the
+archeology of the southwest is very extensive, formulated a
+classification, and in 1892, in his final report,[11] he announces that
+he has nothing to change in it. The classification is as follows:
+
+I. Large communal houses several stories high.
+
+  (_a_) Composed of one or two, seldom three, extensive buildings,
+  generally so disposed as to surround an interior court.
+
+  (_b_) Polygonal pueblos.
+
+  (_c_) Scattered pueblos, composed of a number of large many-storied
+  houses, disposed in a more or less irregular manner; sometimes in
+  irregular squares or on a line.
+
+  (_d_) Artificial caves, resembling in number, size, and disposition
+  of the cells the many-storied communal dwelling.
+
+  (_e_) Many-storied dwellings, with artificial walls, erected inside
+  of natural caves of great size.
+
+II. Detached family dwellings, either isolated or in groups forming
+villages.
+
+    [Footnote 11: Arch. Inst. of America, 5th Ann. Rept., p. 55; and
+    Arch. Inst. of America, Papers, American series, IV, p. 27.]
+
+Many hundreds of ruins have been examined by Mr Bandelier, and doubtless
+the classification above afforded a convenient working basis for the
+region with which he is most familiar, the basin of the Rio Grande and
+its tributaries. It does not apply very well to the western part of the
+pueblo region.
+
+The distinguishing characteristics of the first group (of five
+classes)--houses several stories high--are as follows: Each building
+consisted of an agglomeration of a great number of small cells, without
+any larger halls of particularly striking dimensions. All the buildings,
+except outhouses or additions, were at least two stories high, and the
+lower story was entered only from the roof. The various stories receded
+from the bottom to the top. The prevalence of the estufa (kiva)
+generally, or often, circular in form.
+
+Ruins of class II--detached family dwellings--consist sometimes of a
+single room; more often of several rooms. The rooms are generally built
+of stone, although examples constructed of mud and adobe are also found
+in certain regions. The average size of the room is larger than in the
+communal building, and there is a gradual increase in size of rooms from
+north to south. There are front doorways and light and air holes are
+larger than in the communal houses. Mr Bandolier suggests that the
+detached family dwelling was the early type, and that only when enemies
+began to threaten were the communal houses resorted to for purposes of
+defense.
+
+This classification is apparently based on external form alone, without
+taking into account the numerous influences which modify or produce
+form; and while no doubt it was sufficient for field use, it is not
+likely to be permanently adopted; for there does not appear to be any
+essential or radical difference between the various classes. Moreover,
+there does not appear to be any place in the scheme for the cliff ruins
+of the variety especially abundant in De Chelly and found in many other
+localities, unless indeed such ruins come under class II--detached
+family dwellings; yet this would imply precedence in time, and the ruins
+themselves will not permit such an inference.
+
+The essential uniformity of types which prevails over the immense area
+covered by the ancient pueblo ruins is a noteworthy feature, and any
+system of classification which does not take it into account must be
+considered as only tentative. What elements should be considered and
+what weight assigned to each in preparing a scheme of classification is
+yet to be determined, but probably one of the most important elements is
+the character of the site occupied, with reference to its convenience
+and defensibility. There are great differences in kind between the great
+valley pueblos, located without reference to defense and depending for
+security on their size and the number of their population, of which Zuni
+and Taos are examples, and the villages which are located on high mesas
+and projecting tongues of rock; in other words, on defensive sites where
+reliance for security was placed on the character of the site occupied,
+such as the Tusayan villages of today. Within each of these classes
+there are varieties, and there are also secondary types which pertain
+sometimes to one, sometimes to the other, and sometimes to both. Such
+are the cliff ruins, the cavate lodges, and the single house remains.
+
+The unit of pueblo architecture is the single cell, and in its
+development the highest point reached is the aggregation of a great
+number of such cells into one or more clusters, either connected with or
+adjacent to each other. These cells were all the same, or essentially
+so; for while differentiation in use or function had been or was being
+developed at the time of the Spanish conquest, differentiation in form
+had not been reached. The kiva, of circular or rectangular shape, is a
+survival and not a development.
+
+Large aggregations of many cells into one cluster are the latest
+development of pueblo architecture. They were immediately preceded by a
+type composed of a larger number of smaller villages, located on sites
+selected with reference to their ease of defense, and apparently the
+change from the latter to the former type was made at one step, without
+developing any intermediate forms. The differences between the largest
+examples of villages on defensive sites and the smallest appear to be
+only differences of size. Doubtless in the early days of pueblo
+architecture small settlements were the rule. Probably these settlements
+were located in the valleys, on sites most convenient for horticulture,
+each gens occupying its own village. Incursions by neighboring wild
+tribes, or by hostile neighbors, and constant annoyance and loss at
+their hands, gradually compelled the removal of these little villages to
+sites more easily defended, and also forced the aggregation of various
+related gentes into one group or village. At a still later period the
+same motive, considerably emphasized perhaps, compelled a further
+removal to even more difficult sites. The Tusayan villages at the time
+of the Spanish discovery were located on the foothills of the mesas, and
+many pueblo villages at that period occupied similar sites. Actuated by
+fear of the Ute and Comanche, and perhaps of the Spaniards, the
+inhabitants soon after moved to the top of the mesa, where they now are.
+Many villages stopped at this stage. Some were in this stage at the time
+of the discovery--Acoma, for example. Finally, whole villages whose
+inhabitants spoke the same language combined to form one larger village,
+which, depending now on size and numbers for defense, was again located
+on a site convenient for horticulture.
+
+The process sketched above was by no means continuous. The population
+was in slow but practically constant movement, much the same as that now
+taking place in the Zuni country; it was a slow migration. Outlying
+settlements were established at points convenient to cultivable fields,
+and probably were intended to be occupied only during the summer.
+Sometimes these temporary sites might be found more convenient than that
+of the parent village, and it would gradually come about that some of
+the inhabitants would remain there all the year. Eventually the
+temporary settlement might outgrow the parent, and would in turn put out
+other temporary settlements. This process would be possible only during
+prolonged periods of peace, but it is known to have taken place in
+several regions. Necessarily hundreds of small settlements, ranging in
+size from one room to a great many, would be established, and as the
+population moved onward would be abandoned, without ever developing into
+regular villages occupied all the year. It is believed that many of the
+single house remains of Mr Bandelier's classification[12] belong to this
+type, as do also many cavate lodges, and in the present paper it will be
+shown that some at least of the cliff ruins belong to the same category.
+
+    [Footnote 12: See a paper by the author on "Aboriginal remains in
+    Verde valley, Arizona," in 13th Ann. Rept. Bureau of Ethnology, p.
+    179 et seq.]
+
+The cliff ruins are a striking feature, and the ordinary traveler is apt
+to overlook the more important ruins which sometimes, if not generally,
+are associated with them. The study of the ruins in Canyon de Chelly has
+led to the conclusion that the cliff ruins there are generally
+subordinate structures, connected with and inhabited at the same time as
+a number of larger home villages located on the canyon bottom, and
+occupying much the same relation to the latter that Moen-kapi does to
+Oraibi, or that Nutria, Pescado, and Ojo Caliente do to Zuni; and that
+they are the functional analogues of the "watch towers" of the San Juan
+and of Zuni, and the brush shelters or "kisis" of Tusayan: in other
+words, they were horticultural outlooks occupied only during the farming
+season.
+
+Mr G. Nordenskioeld, who examined a number of cliff and other ruins in
+the Mancos canyon and the Mesa Verde region, adopts[13] a very simple
+classification, as follows:
+
+   I. Ruins in the valleys, on the plains, or on the plateaus.
+  II. Ruins in caves in the walls of the canyons, subdivided as follows:
+      (a) Cave dwellings, or caves inhabited without the erection
+         of any buildings within them.
+      (b) Cliff dwellings, or buildings erected in caves.
+
+    [Footnote 13: The Cliff Dwellers of the Mesa Verde, pp. 9 and 114.]
+
+From its topographic character it might be expected that the Canyon de
+Chelly ruins would hardly come within a scheme of classification based
+upon those found in the open country; and here, if anywhere, we should
+find corroboration of the old idea that the cliff ruins were the homes
+and last refuge of a race harassed by powerful enemies and finally
+driven to the construction of dwellings in inaccessible cliffs, where a
+last ineffectual stand was made against their foes; or the more recent
+theory that they represent an early stage in the development of pueblo
+architecture, when the pueblo builders were few in number and surrounded
+by numerous enemies. Neither of these theories are in accord with the
+facts of observation. The still later idea that the cliff dwellings were
+used as places of refuge by various pueblo tribes who, when the occasion
+for such use was passed, returned to their original homes, or to others
+constructed like them, may explain some of the cliff ruins, but if
+applicable at all to those of De Chelly, it applies only to a small
+number of them.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XLIII
+  Detailed Map of Part of Canyon De Chelly
+  Showing Areas of Cultivatable Land]
+
+The ruins of De Chelly show unmistakably several periods of occupancy,
+extending over considerable time and each fairly complete. They fall
+easily into the classification previously suggested, and exhibit various
+types, but the earliest and the latest forms are not found. In the
+descriptions which follow the classification below has been employed:
+
+    I--Old villages on open sites.
+   II--Home villages on bottom lands.
+  III--Home villages located for defense.
+   IV--Cliff outlooks or farming shelters.
+
+
+I--OLD VILLAGES ON OPEN SITES
+
+In the upper part of the canyon, and extending into what we may call the
+middle region, there are a number of ruins that seem to be out of place
+in this locality. They are exactly similar to hundreds of ruins found in
+the open country; such, for example, as the older villages of Tusayan,
+located on low foothills at the foot of the mesa, and the peculiar
+topographic characteristics of the location have not made the slightest
+impression on them. These ruins are located on gentle slopes, the
+foothills of the talus, as it were, away from the cliffs, and are now
+marked only by scattered fragments of building stone and broken pottery.
+The ground plans are in all cases indistinguishable; in only a few
+instances can even a short wall line be traced. They seem to have been
+located without special reference to large areas of cultivable land,
+although they always command small areas of such land. There is a
+remarkable uniformity in ruins of this type in character of site
+occupied, outlook, and general appearance. They are always close to the
+stream bed, seldom more than 10 or 12 feet above it, and the sites were
+chosen apparently without any reference to their defensibility. A
+typical example occurs at the point marked 60 on the detailed map (plate
+XLIII), another occurs at 58, and another at 52. One of the largest
+examples is in the lower part of the canyon. At the junction of Del
+Muerto there is a large mass of rock standing out alone and extending
+nearly to the full height of the canyon walls. On the south it is
+connected with the main wall back of it by a low tongue of rock,
+sparsely covered in places by soil and sand, and on the top of this
+tongue or saddle there is a large ruin of the type described, but no
+ground plan can now be made out. Possibly the obliterated appearance of
+this ruin and of others of the same class is due to the use of the
+material, ready to hand and of the proper size, in later structures. It
+is known that a similar appearance was produced in Tusayan by such a
+cause. The old village of Walpi, on a foothill below the mesa point and
+the site of the village at the time of the Spanish conquest, presents an
+appearance of great antiquity, although it was partly occupied so late
+as fifty years ago. When the movement to the summit of the mesa became
+general, the material of the old houses was utilized in the construction
+of the new ones, and at the present day it can almost be said that not
+one stone remains above another. So complete is the obliteration that no
+ground plan can be made out.
+
+If similar conditions prevailed in De Chelly, there might be many more
+ruins of this class than those so far discovered. Even those found are
+not easily distinguished and might easily be passed over. Possibly there
+were small ruins of this type scattered over the whole canyon bottom. An
+example which occurs at the point marked 12 on the map, and shown in
+plate XLIV, presents no trace on the surface except some potsherds,
+which in this locality mean nothing. The site is a low hill or end of a
+slope, the top of which is perhaps 25 feet above the stream bed, but
+separated from it by a belt of recent alluvium carpeted with grass. The
+hill itself was formed of talus, covered with alluvium, all but a small
+portion of which was subsequently cut away, leaving an almost vertical
+face 15 or 18 feet high. In this face the ends or vertical sections of
+several walls can be seen; one of them is nearly 3 feet thick and
+extends 4 feet below the present ground surface.
+
+The filling of these ruins to a depth of 4 or 5 feet and the almost
+complete absence of surface remains or indications does not necessarily
+imply a remote antiquity, although it suggests it. During the fall and
+early winter months tremendous sand storms rage in the canyon; the wind
+sweeps through the gorge with an almost irresistible power, carrying
+with it such immense quantities of sand that objects a few hundred feet
+distant can not be distinguished. These sand storms were and are potent
+factors in producing the picturesque features of the red cliffs forming
+the canyon walls; but they are constructive as well as destructive, and
+cavities and hollow places in exposed situations such as the canyon
+bottom are soon filled up. The stream itself is also a powerful agent of
+destruction and construction; during flood periods banks of sand and
+alluvium are often cut away and sometimes others are formed. Yet there
+are reasons for believing that the old village ruins on open sites, now
+almost obliterated, mark the first period in the occupancy of the
+canyon, perhaps even a period distinctly separated from the others.
+Excavation on these sites would probably yield valuable results.
+
+
+II--HOME VILLAGES ON BOTTOM LANDS
+
+Ruins comprised in the second class are located on the bottom lands,
+generally at the base of a cliff, and without reference to the
+defensibility of the site. They are, as a rule, much broken down, and
+might perhaps be classed with the ruins already described, but there are
+some distinctive features which justify us in separating them. Ruins of
+this class are always located either at the base of a cliff or in a cove
+under it, on the level or raised but slightly above the bottom land, and
+sometimes at a considerable distance from the stream. The ground plans
+can generally be distinguished, and in many instances walls are still
+standing--sometimes to a height of three stories. The ground plans
+reflect more or less the character of the site they occupy, and we would
+be as much surprised to find plans of their character in the open
+country as we are to see plans of class I within the canyon. Unlike the
+ground plans of class I, those of this group were laid out with direct
+reference to the cliff behind them, and which formed, as it were, a part
+of them.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XLIV
+  Section of Old Walls, Canyon De Chelly]
+
+In point of size, long period of occupancy, and position these villages
+were the most important in the canyon. The ruins often cover
+considerable areas and almost invariably show the remains of one or more
+circular kivas. Sometimes they are located directly upon the bottom
+land, more often they occupy low swells next the cliff, rising perhaps
+10 feet above the general level and affording a fine view over it.
+Sometimes they are found in alcoves at the base of the cliff, but they
+always rest on the bottom land which extends into them; these merge
+insensibly into the next class--village ruins on defensible sites--and
+the distinction between them is partly an arbitrary one, as is also that
+between the last mentioned and the cliff ruins proper.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 1--Ground plan of an old ruin in Canyon del
+  Muerto.]
+
+Figure 1 is a ground plan of a small ruin located in Del Muerto, on the
+bottom lands near its mouth. No standing walls now remain, but there is
+no doubt that the village at one time covered much more ground than that
+shown on the plan. There are now remains of sixteen rooms on the ground,
+in addition to two kivas. There is a shallow alcove in the cliff at the
+ground level, and the overhanging cliff gave the village some protection
+overhead. Plate XLV shows another example in Del Muerto, the largest in
+that canyon. The walls are still standing to a height of three stories
+in one place, and the masonry is of high class. The back cliff has not
+entered into the plan here to the same extent that it generally does.
+Figure 2, a ground plan, exhibits only that portion of the area of the
+ruin on which walls are still standing. It shows about 20 rooms on the
+ground, exclusive of three or perhaps four kivas. The rooms are small as
+a rule, rectangular, and arranged with a more than ordinary degree of
+regularity. One room still carries its roof intact, as shown on the
+plan. In the center of the ruin are the remains of a very large kiva,
+over 36 feet in diameter. It is now so much broken down that but little
+can be inferred as to its former condition, except that there was
+probably no interior bench, as no remains of such a structure can now be
+distinguished. The size of this kiva is exceptional, and it is very
+probable that it was never roofed. The structures within the kiva, shown
+on the ground plan, are Navaho burial cists. West of the large kiva
+there were two others, less than 20 feet in diameter. One of these was
+circular; the other was irregular in shape, perhaps more nearly
+approaching an oval form. At no fewer than five places within the ruin
+there are comparatively recent Navaho burials.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 2--Ground plan of a ruin on bottom land in
+  Canyon del Muerto.]
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 3--Ground plan of a small ruin in Canyon de
+  Chelly.]
+
+Figure 3 is a ground plan of a small and very compact village, situated
+on the south side of the canyon at the point marked 28 on the detailed
+map. It is located on a slightly raised part of the bottom, commanding
+an outlook over a large area now under cultivation by the Navaho. The
+wall lines are remarkably, although not perfectly, regular, and show at
+least 25 rooms; there were probably others to the northward and
+eastward. The rooms are now almost filled with debris, but two of them
+are still intact, being kept in order by the Navaho and used for the
+storage of corn. The roofs of both these rooms are now on the ground
+level. The covered room nearest the cliff, shown on the plan, has been
+divided into two small compartments by a wall through the middle; access
+to each of these is obtained by a framed trapdoor in the roof about a
+foot square. This dividing wall is probably of Navaho origin, as the
+separate rooms formed by it are too small for habitation and the masonry
+is very rough. A short distance to the north along the cliff there is a
+Navaho house, roughly rectangular in plan, which was constructed of
+stone obtained from this site. The masonry of the ruin presents a very
+good face, not due to chinking, however, which was but slightly
+practiced, but to the careful selection of material. Some of the stones
+show surface pecking.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XLV
+  General View of Ruin on Bottom Land, Canyon Del Muerto]
+
+About 300 feet above or southeast of this ruin there are the remains of
+two small rooms which were placed against the cliff. They are of the
+same general character as those described, and doubtless formed part of
+the same settlement. Between the two occurs a curious feature. A large
+slab of rock, 280 feet long and not more than 12 feet thick at any
+point, has split off from the cliff and dropped down to the ground,
+where it remains on edge. This slab is triangular in elevation and about
+50 feet high at the apex. Between it and the cliff, in the upper part,
+there is a space from 2 to 21/2 feet wide. This is easily accessible from
+the north, on the edge of the slab, and can be reached from the southern
+end, but with much difficulty. Figure 4 shows this feature and its
+relation to the ruin. There is no doubt that this was a granary or huge
+storage bin, and probably the two rooms on the south were placed there
+to guard that end; the northern end, of more easy access, being
+protected by the village itself. It was well adapted to this purpose--a
+fact that the Navaho have not been slow to appreciate. They have
+constructed small bins near the northern end, shown on the plan, and
+beyond this timbers have been wedged in so as to furnish a means of
+closing the cleft. In the cleft itself cross walls have been
+constructed, dividing it into several compartments. The interior forms a
+convenient dry, airy space, and at the time it was visited the floor was
+covered with a litter of cornhusks.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 4--Granary in the rocks, connected with a ruin.]
+
+Almost directly opposite this ruin, on the other side of the canyon, are
+the remains of a village that might properly be called a cave village.
+At this point a large rock stands out from the cliff and in it there is
+a cavity shaped almost like a quarter sphere. Its greatest diameter is
+45 feet and its height about 20 feet. The bottom land here is 10 or 12
+feet above the stream bed and slopes up gradually toward the cliff,
+forming the bottom of the cave, which is perhaps 18 or 20 feet above the
+stream and some distance from it. The cave commands an extensive outlook
+over the cultivable lands below it and those extending up a branch
+canyon a little above.
+
+The whole bottom of the cave is covered by remains of rooms, shown in
+plan in figure 5. The population could not have been greater than 10 or
+12 persons, yet the remains of two kivas are clearly shown. Both were in
+the front of the cave, adjoining but not connected with each other, and
+were about 12 feet in diameter. Both had interior benches, extending in
+one perhaps completely around, in the other only partly around. The
+rooms are very irregular in shape and in size, ranging from 8 by 10 feet
+to 3 by 4 feet, but the latter could be used only for storage. The
+masonry is not of fine grade, although good; but not much detail can be
+made out, as the place has been used as a sheepfold by the Navaho and
+the ground surface has been filled up and smoothed over.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 5--Ground plan of a ruin in a cave.]
+
+The largest ruin in the canyons is that shown in plan in figure 6. It is
+situated in Del Muerto, on the canyon bottom at the base of a cliff, and
+is known to the Navaho as Pakashi-izini (the blue cow). The name was
+derived probably from a pictograph of a cow done in blue paint on the
+canyon wall back of the ruin. Traces of walls extend over a narrow belt
+against the cliffs about 400 feet long and not over 40 feet wide, and
+over this area many walls are still standing. Scattered over the site
+are a number of large bowlders. No attempt to remove these was made, but
+walls were carried over and under them, and in some cases the direction
+of a wall was modified to correspond with a face of a bowlder.
+
+The settlement may have consisted of two separate portions, divided by a
+row or cluster of large bowlders. The group shown on the right of the
+plan was very compactly built, in one place being four rooms deep, but
+no traces of a kiva can be seen in it, nor does there appear to be any
+place where a kiva could be built within the house area or immediately
+adjacent to it. At present 14 or 15 rooms may be traced on the ground
+and the whole structure may have comprised 30 rooms. The wall lines are
+not regular. In the western end of the structure there is a narrow
+passageway into a large room in the center. Such passageways, while
+often seen in the valley pueblos, are rare in these canyons. The three
+rooms to the south of the passageway appear to have been added after the
+rest of the structure was completed, and diminished in size regularly by
+a series of steps or insets in the northern or passage wall.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 6--Ground plan of Pakashi-izini ruins, Canyon
+  del Muerto.]
+
+The other portion of the ruin shows the remains of about 40 rooms on the
+ground, in addition to three kivas; there may have been 60 rooms in this
+part of the settlement, or 85 or 90 rooms altogether. The population
+could not have been over 55 or 60 persons, or about 12 families. In
+other words, it appears that, owing to the peculiarities of conditions
+under which they lived, and of the ground plan which resulted, the
+largest settlement of this class in the canyons, extending over 400 feet
+in one direction, provided homes for a very limited number of people. As
+it is probable that each family had one or more outlooks, occupied in
+connection with their horticultural operations, it will readily be seen
+that only a small number of inhabitants might leave a large number of
+house remains, and that it is not necessary to assume either a large
+population or a long period of occupancy.
+
+The kivas are clustered in the lower end of the settlement, and all
+appear to have been inclosed within walls or other buildings. Two of
+them are fairly well preserved; of the third only a fragment remains.
+The inclosure of the kivas is a suggestive feature, which will be
+discussed later, as will also the square shaft shown on the plan as
+attached to the principal kiva.
+
+It will be noticed that in several places where bowlders occur within
+the limits of the settlement they have been incorporated into the walls
+and form part of them. In two places they have altered the direction of
+walls and produced irregularities in the plan. Elsewhere the face of a
+rock has been prolonged by a wall carried out to continue it, as in the
+front wall of the principal kiva apartment. This apartment appears to
+have been entered from the west through a passageway. This is an
+anomalous feature and suggests modernness.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 7--Ground plan of a ruin in Canyon del Muerto.]
+
+Figure 7 is a ground plan of another ruin in Del Muerto. There is a
+slight cove or bay in the cliff at the point where the ruin occurs, and
+the ground, which is on the level of the bottom lands, is strewn with
+large bowlders, as in the example last described. But few remains of
+walls are now observable, and there are traces of only one kiva. This
+was situated near the outer edge of the settlement. The wall lines are
+irregular and the disposition and size of the bowlders are such that it
+is improbable that this site was ever occupied by a large cluster of
+rooms. On the left of the plan will be seen a small room or storage cist
+still intact. At the point marked > in the center of the site a burial
+cist was found and excavated in 1884 by Mr Thomas V. Keam. It contained
+the remains of a child, almost perfectly desiccated. It is said that
+when the remains were first removed the color of the iris could be
+distinguished. The specimen was subsequently deposited in the National
+Museum.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 8--Ground plan of a ruin in Tseonitsosi canyon.]
+
+A ruin which occurs in Tse-on-i-tso-si canyon, near the mouth of De
+Chelly, is shown in plan in figure 8. There were two kivas, one of which
+was benched. The number of rooms connected with them is remarkably
+small--there could not have been more than six, if there were that
+many--and the character of the site is such as to preclude the
+possibility of other rooms in the immediate vicinity. Some of the walls
+are still standing, and exhibit a fair degree of skill in masonry.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 9--Ground plan of a much obliterated ruin.]
+
+A type of which there are many examples is shown in plan in figure 9.
+These ruins occur on the flat, next the cliff, which is seldom bayed and
+overhangs but slightly. They are usually so much obliterated that only
+careful scrutiny reveals the presence of wall lines, and walls standing
+to a height of 6 inches above the ground are rare. In the example
+illustrated no traces of a kiva can be found, but the almost complete
+destruction of the walls might account for this. There is every reason
+to suppose that these ruins are of the same class as those described
+above, the remains of home villages located without reference to
+defense, and no reason to suppose otherwise. They are probably instances
+where, owing to exposed situation, early abandonment, and possibly also
+proximity to later establishments, destruction has proceeded at a
+greater rate than in other examples.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 10--Ground plan of a ruin in Canyon de Chelly.]
+
+Ruins of the class under discussion were not confined to any part of the
+canyons, but were located wherever the conditions were favorable. An
+example which occurs in the lower part of the canyon, at the point
+marked 3 on the map, is shown in plan in figure 10. It occurs at the
+back of a deep cove in a little branch canyon, and was at one time quite
+an extensive village. It was located on a slight slope or raised place
+next the cliffs and overhung by them. A stone dropped from the top of
+the cliffs would fall 45 or 50 feet out from their base. There are
+remains of three kivas. The central one, which was 12 feet in diameter,
+still shows nearly all its periphery, and the wall is in one place
+3 feet high. The western kiva is now almost obliterated, but it can
+still be made out, and shows a diameter of 15 feet. It is 50 feet west
+of the central kiva and on a level about 8 feet below it, being only
+about 3 feet above the bottom land. East of the central kiva, and
+between it and a large bowlder, there was another, of which only a part
+now remains.
+
+North of the central kiva, and extending nearly to the cliff behind,
+there are remains of rooms. One corner is still standing to a height of
+3 to 4 feet. The western wall was smoothly plastered outside and was
+pierced by a narrow notched doorway. The northern wall has an opening
+still intact, shown in plate LVIII; it is 2 feet high and 14 inches
+wide, with a lintel composed of six small sticks about an inch in
+diameter, laid side by side. The sticks are surmounted by a flat stone,
+very roughly shaped and separated from them by an inch of mud plaster or
+mortar. The masonry is exceptionally well executed, that of the northern
+wall being composed of large stones carefully chinked and rubbed down.
+The chinking appears to have been carried through in bands, producing a
+decorative effect, resembling some of the masonry of the Chaco ruins.
+The western wall is composed of larger stones laid up more roughly with
+less chinking, and appears to have been a later addition. On the back
+wall of the cave are marks of walls showing a number of additional
+rooms, and there is no doubt that at one time there was quite an
+extensive settlement here.
+
+Around the corner from the last example, as it were (at the point marked
+4 on the map), and at the mouth of a little canyon that opens out from
+the head of the cove, the ruin shown in plate XLVI occurs. The village
+was located on the canyon bottom, in a shallow cove hardly 25 feet deep,
+but the view over the bottom is almost closed by a large sand dune, bare
+on top and but scantily covered on the sides with grass and weeds. Were
+it not for this dune, the site of the ruin would command one of the best
+areas of cultivable land in the canyon, but apparently an extensive
+outlook was not a desideratum. The slight elevation of the site above
+the level of the bottom lands is shown in the illustration.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XLVI
+  Village Ruin in Canyon De Chelly]
+
+The village was not a large one, having been occupied probably by only
+two families, yet there are traces of two kivas. That on the west is so
+far obliterated that its outline can be made out only with difficulty.
+That on the east still shows a part of its wall to a height of about a
+foot. The plan, figure 11, shows the general arrangement. Some of the
+walls are still standing to a height of 2 or 3 feet, and at the eastern
+end of the ruin there is a room with walls 6 feet high. More than the
+usual amount of mud mortar was used in the construction of the walls of
+this room, and the interstices were filled with this, chinking with
+small stones being but slightly practiced. The masonry of the other
+walls is rougher, with even less chinking, and some of them show later
+additions which did not follow the main lines. The eastern room had two
+openings and the tops of the walls are apparently finished, for there
+are no marks of roof timbers. The room may have been roofless, but the
+same effect might have been produced by recent Navaho repairs and
+alterations. In the exterior wall, at the southeastern corner, there is
+a series of hand-holes, as though access to the interior were sometimes
+had in this way, but the hand-holes are later than the wall. On the back
+wall of the cove there are a number of pictographs.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 11--Ground plan of a village ruin.]
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 12--Ground plan of kivas in Canyon de Chelly.]
+
+Just above the mouth of Del Muerto and on the opposite side of the main
+canyon, at the point marked 17 on the map, there was a village on the
+canyon bottom. It overlooked a fine stretch of cultivable land on both
+sides of the canyon. There is a large isolated mass of rock here, nearly
+as high as the cliffs on either side, and connected with those back of
+it by a slope of talus and debris, partly bare rock, partly covered with
+sand dunes. At the point where the ruin occurs the rock is bare and
+about 40 feet high, partly overhanging the site. The remains, shown in
+plan in figure 12, occupy the summit of a hill about 10 feet high,
+composed principally of debris of walls. Only a few faint traces now
+remain, but two kivas are still clearly distinguishable. The one on the
+south had an interior bench, which apparently extended around it. The
+other shows walls 2 feet high, and has been plastered with a number of
+successive coats. The small wall on the extreme right of the plan is
+composed of almost pure mud.
+
+There are a number of ruins in the canyons of the type shown in figure
+13. They are generally located directly on the bottom, and seldom as
+much as 5 feet above it, within coves or under overhanging cliffs; they
+are always of small area, and generally so far obliterated that no walls
+or wall remains are now visible. The obliteration is due not so much to
+antiquity, which may or may not have been a cause, but to the character
+of the site they occupied. They are always in sheltered situations, and
+being on the canyon bottom are much used by the Navaho as sheepfolds and
+have been so used for years. Sometimes, although rarely, faint traces of
+kivas can be made out.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 13--Ground plan of a small ruin on bottom land.]
+
+The example illustrated occurs at the point marked 43 on the map. It is
+situated in a cove in a point of rock jutting out from the main cliff.
+The rock is about 60 feet high and the cove about 30 feet deep, and the
+remains are but a few feet above the level of the bottom land outside.
+The walls are composed of rather small stones; the interstices were
+chinked with spawls, and the masonry was laid up with an abundance of
+mud mortar. The back wall of the cove is considerably blackened by
+smoke.
+
+One of the most striking and most important ruins in the canyon is shown
+in plan in figures 14 and 15. This is the ruin seen by Lieutenant
+Simpson in 1849 and subsequently called Casa Blanca. It is also known
+under the equivalent Navaho term, Kini-na e-kai or White House. The
+general character of the ruin is shown in plate XLVII, which is from a
+photograph. At first sight this ruin appears not to belong to this
+class, or rather to belong both to this class and the succeeding one
+composed of villages located with reference to defense; but, as will
+appear later, it has nothing in common with the latter.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XLVII
+  Casa Blanca Ruin, Canyon De Chelly]
+
+In its present condition the ruin consists of two distinct parts--a
+lower part, comprising a large cluster of rooms on the bottom land
+against the vertical cliff, and an upper part which was much smaller and
+occupied a cave directly over the lower portion and was separated from
+it only by some 35 feet of vertical cliff. There is evidence, however,
+that some of the houses in the lower settlement were four stories high
+against the cliff, and in fact that the structures were practically
+continuous; but for convenience of description we may regard the ruin as
+composed of two.
+
+The lower ruin covers an area of about 150 by 50 feet, raised but a few
+feet above the bottom land, probably by its own debris. Within this area
+there are remains of 45 rooms on the ground, in addition to a circular
+kiva. On the east side there are walls still standing to a height of 12
+and 14 feet. It is probable that the lower ruin comprised about 60
+rooms, which, with a liberal allowance for the rooms in the cave, would
+make a total of 80. This would furnish accommodations for a maximum of
+10 or 12 families or a total population of 50 or 60 persons. It is
+probable, however, that this estimate is excessive and that the total
+population at any one time did not exceed 30 or 40 persons.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 14--Ground plan of the lower part of Casa Blanca
+  ruin.]
+
+The ground plans shown are the result of a very careful survey, plotted
+on the ground on a large scale (10 feet to 1 inch--1:120), and the
+irregularities shown were carefully noted and put down at the time.
+These irregularities, which are commonly ignored in the preparation of
+plans of ruins, are of the highest importance. From them the sequence of
+construction can often be determined.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 15--Ground plan of the upper part of Casa Blanca
+  ruin.]
+
+The walls of the lower ruin are somewhat obscured by loose debris, of
+which a large amount is lying about. Roof debris is especially abundant;
+it consists of small twigs and lumps of clay, with ends of beams
+projecting here and there. The principal walls occur in the eastern
+part, where some of them are 2 feet thick and still standing to a height
+of 10 and 12 and in one place of 14 feet. An inspection of the plan will
+show that, as is invariably the case where a wall rises to a height of
+more than one story, the lower part is massive and the upper wall sets
+back 5 or 6 inches, reducing its thickness by that amount. All the heavy
+walls occur either about the kiva or east of it. Apparently these walls
+were built first especially heavy and massive, and afterward, when upper
+stories were added, it was not found necessary to carry them up the full
+thickness. It will be noticed that the wall extending eastward from the
+corner of the kiva, and which is from a foot to 6 feet high at the
+present time, extends through the heavy wall which crosses it 33 feet to
+the east, and is continuous to its termination about 50 feet east,
+against another heavy wall. The last-mentioned wall is also continuous
+from the cliff out to the front of the ruin, a distance of about 46
+feet.
+
+The heavy walls of the lower ruin are immediately under the upper cave.
+Back of them the cliff presents an almost smooth face of rock, 35 feet
+high and slightly overhanging. On this rock face there are marks which
+show that formerly there were upper stories, the rooms of which are
+outlined upon it. The rock surface was coated in places with a thin wash
+of clay, doubtless to correspond with the other walls of the rooms, but
+this coating was necessarily omitted where the partition walls and roofs
+and floors abutted on the rock. This is shown in plate XLVII. Although
+the marks are now so faint as to be easily overlooked, at a certain hour
+in the day, when the light falls obliquely on the rock, they can be
+clearly made out. At a point about 50 feet east of the kiva the
+structure was three stories higher than it is now. The roof of the upper
+story was within 4 feet of the floor of the cave, and under the gap or
+gateway in front of the main room above. West of this point there are
+the marks of but two stories additional. Farther west the structure rose
+again, but not to the height attained on the east.
+
+The kiva was placed directly against the cliff. This is an unusual
+arrangement; but it will be noticed that the walls in front of it are of
+a different character from those on the east, and it is probable that
+when the kiva was built it opened to the air. The kiva is also anomalous
+in its construction. It presents the usual features of the inner
+circular chamber and an inclosing rectangular wall, but in this case the
+intermediate space was filled in solidly, and perhaps was so
+constructed. The kiva is still 6 feet deep inside, which must be nearly
+its maximum depth, and the roof was probably placed at a level not more
+than a foot or two above the present top. Whether the village was placed
+on a slight raise, or on the flat, level with the bottom land about it,
+and subsequently filled up with the debris of masonry, etc, can not be
+determined without excavation; but the top of the kiva is now 16 feet
+above the general level of the bottom land, and its bottom 10 feet above
+that level. It is possible that the kiva was much deeper than now
+appears, as no sign of the usual interior bench can be seen above the
+present ground surface, nor can any connection with the chimney-like
+structure to the south of it be determined, yet such connection must
+have existed. Probably not only this kiva but the whole ruin would well
+repay excavation.
+
+The interior of the kiva was not exactly circular, being a little
+elongated northeast and southwest. The inclosing wall on the east is
+still standing in one place to a height of 5 feet above the top of the
+kiva structure, and about a foot above that level is marked by a
+setback, which reduces its thickness. Apparently the upper part was
+added at a date some time subsequent to the completion of the kiva
+structure, as the wall on the south, now some 3 feet above the level
+mentioned, does not conform to the lower exterior wall on which it was
+placed. On the western side there is another fragment of the upper
+inclosing wall. Both this wall and the one on the south are less than 15
+inches in thickness.
+
+West of the kiva there are remains of other stone walls which differ in
+character from those on the east. They are now usually less than 3 feet
+high; they were 12 to 15 inches thick, and the lines are very irregular.
+South of the kiva, in the center of the ruin, there are other stone
+walls even thinner and more irregularly placed than those on the west,
+but most of the walls here are of adobe. As the use of adobe blocks is
+not an aboriginal feature, the occurrence of these walls is a matter of
+much interest, especially as they are so intimately associated with the
+stonework that it is not always an easy matter to separate them.
+
+The occurrence and distribution of adobe walls is shown on the ground
+plan. They are not found as subordinate walls, dividing larger rooms,
+except perhaps in one instance; but apparently this method of
+construction was employed when it was desired to add new rooms to those
+already constructed. No room with walls constructed wholly of adobe can
+be made out, but walls of this character closing one side of a room are
+common, and rooms with two or even three sides of adobe are not
+uncommon. There are some instances in which part of a wall is stone and
+part adobe, and also instances in which the lower wall, complete in
+itself, is of stone, while the upper part, evidently a later addition,
+is of adobe; such, for example, is the cross wall in the eastern tier,
+about 30 feet from the cliff.
+
+The mere occurrence of adobe here is evidence of the occupancy of this
+site at a period subsequent to the sixteenth century--we might almost
+say subsequent to the middle of the seventeenth; but its occurrence in
+this way and in such intimate association with the stone walls indicates
+that the occupancy was continuous from a time prior to the introduction
+of adobe construction to a period some time subsequent to it. This
+hypothesis is supported by other evidence, which will appear later.
+Attention may here be directed to the fact that there are four
+chimney-like structures in the lower ruin, all of adobe, and all, except
+the one which pertains to the kiva, attached to adobe walls.
+
+On the western margin of the ruin, and nowhere else within it, there are
+traces of another kind of construction which was not found elsewhere
+within the canyon. This method is known to the Mexicans as "jacal," and
+much used by them. It consists of a row of sticks or thin poles set
+vertically in the ground and heavily plastered with mud. At present not
+one of these walls remains to a height of 6 inches above the ground, but
+the lines of poles broken off at the ground level are still visible. The
+ground at this point is but 3 or 4 feet above the general level of the
+bottom. The ground plan shows the occurrence of these wall remains on
+the western edge of the site. They are all outside of but attached to
+what was formerly the exterior wall on that side.
+
+There are remains of four Navaho burial cists in the lower ruin, at the
+points shown on the ground plan. These are constructed of stones and mud
+roughly put together in the ordinary manner, forming thin, rounded
+walls; but these can not be confounded with the other methods of
+construction described. Three of the cists have long been in ruins and
+broken down; the one on the east is but a few years old.
+
+Access to the upper ruin can now be had only with much difficulty. In
+the western end of the cave there is a single room placed on the cliff
+edge, and between this and the end of a wall to the right a small stick
+has been embedded in the masonry at a height of about 2 feet from the
+rock. The cliff here is vertical and affords no footing, but by throwing
+a rope over the stick a man can ascend hand over hand. During the period
+when the houses were occupied, access was had in another and much easier
+way, through a doorway or passageway nearly in the center of the ruin
+and directly over the point where the lower village was four stories
+high. The roof of the lower structure was less than 4 feet below the
+floor of the cave; yet there is no doubt that a doorway or passageway
+existed also at the western end of the cave, as the western end of the
+wall on the right of the stick is neatly finished and apparently
+complete.
+
+The principal room in the upper ruin is situated nearly in the center of
+the cave, and is the one that has given the whole ruin its name. The
+walls are 2 feet thick, constructed of stone, 12 feet high in front and
+7 feet high on the sides and inside. The exterior was finished with a
+coat of whitewash, with a decorative band in yellow; hence the name of
+Casa Blanca or White House. West of the principal room there is a
+smaller one, which appears to be a later addition. The walls of this
+room are only 7 inches thick, of adobe on the sides and back and of
+small stones in front. The top of the wall is about 2 feet below the top
+of the wall on the east. The coat of whitewash and the yellow decorative
+band are continuous over both rooms, but the white coat was also applied
+to the exterior western wall of the main room. In the main room there is
+a series of small sticks, about half an inch in diameter, projecting 8
+inches from the wall and on a line 3 or 4 inches under where the roof
+was.
+
+The small room in the eastern end of the cave was located on a kind of
+bench or upper level, and was constructed partly of stone and partly of
+adobe. The stone part is the upper portion of the eastern half. On the
+west there is a small opening or window, with an appliance for closing
+it. It is probable that this room was used only for storage. In the
+western end of the cave there is another single room, which is clearly
+shown in plate XLVII. The front wall is 11 feet high outside and 5 feet
+high inside. The lower portion is stone, the upper part and sides are
+adobe, and the side walls rest on nearly 2 feet of straw, ashes, etc.
+The buttress shown in the illustration is of stone and the front wall
+that it supports is slightly battened. A close inspection of the
+illustration will show that this wall rests partly on horizontal timber
+work, a feature which is repeated in several walls in the main cluster
+of the ruins.
+
+The use of timber laid horizontally under a wall is not uncommon, and as
+it will be discussed at greater length in another place, it may be
+dismissed here with the statement that as a rule it failed to accomplish
+the purpose intended. But the use of the buttress is an anomalous
+feature which it is difficult to believe was of aboriginal conception.
+Its occurrence in this ruin together with so many other unaboriginal
+features is suggestive.
+
+The walls of the principal room and of the rooms immediately in front of
+it are constructed of stone; all the other walls in the upper ruin are
+of adobe or have adobe in them. The two rooms on the east and two walls
+of the room adjoining on the west are wholly of adobe, about 7 inches
+thick and now 3 and 4 feet high. In the southeast corner of the second
+room from the east there is an opening through the front wall which may
+have been a drain. It is on the floor level, round, 5 inches in
+diameter, and smoothly plastered. In the fourth room from the east there
+is a similar hole. Both of these discharge on the edge of the cliff, and
+it is difficult to imagine their purpose unless they were expedients for
+draining the rooms; but this would imply that the rooms were not roofed.
+Although the cliff above is probably 500 feet high, and overhangs to the
+degree that a rock pushed over its edge falls 15 feet or more outside of
+the outermost wall remains, and over 70 feet from the foot of the cliff,
+still a driving storm of rain or snow would leave considerable
+quantities of water in the front rooms if they were not roofed, and some
+means would have to be provided to carry it off.
+
+In the same room, the fourth from the east, there are the remains of a
+chimney-like structure, the only one in the upper ruin. It is in the
+northeast corner, at a point where the wall has fallen and been replaced
+by a Navaho burial cist also fallen in ruin, and was constructed of
+stone. There is no doubt that it was added some time after the walls
+were built, as it has cracked off from the wall on the east, which shows
+at that point its original finish. In the eastern wall of this room
+there is a well-finished opening, and at the corresponding point in the
+wall of the room on the right, the third wall from the east, there is
+another. The latter wall is of adobe, or rather there are two adobe
+walls built side by side; one, the eastern, considerably thinner than
+the other. The opening extends through both walls; it was neatly
+finished and was closed by a thin slab of stone plastered in with mud.
+It has the appliance for closing mentioned above and described later
+(page 165). Most of the openings in the walls appear to have been closed
+up at the time the houses were abandoned.
+
+The front wall of the main room is 12 feet high in front and was stepped
+back 6 inches at half its height from the ground. The stepback is
+continued through the front wall of the small room on the west. Near the
+center of the main room there is a well-finished doorway, directly over
+the point where a cross wall in front of it comes in. This opening was
+originally a double-notched or T-shape doorway, but at a later period
+was filled up so as to leave only a rectangular orifice. The principal
+entrance to the upper ruin was in front of this opening and a little to
+the left of it. It will be noticed from an inspection of the plan that
+the room into which this entrance opened was divided at a point about
+4 feet back from the cliff edge by a stone wall not more than half the
+thickness of the walls on either side of it. This cross wall is still
+6 feet high on the side nearest the cliff, but there is no evidence of a
+doorway or opening through it. The back rooms must have been reached by
+a ladder in front, thence over the roof of the room. The cliff entrance
+was a narrow doorway left in the front wall. The ends of the walls on
+either side were smoothly finished, as in the western doorway.
+
+There are many lumps of clay scattered about on the ground, some showing
+impressions of small sticks. Apparently they are the debris of roofs.
+There are also some fragments of pottery, principally corrugated ware.
+The adobe walls in the upper ruin rest generally on rock, sometimes on
+ashes and loose debris; in the lower ruin they rest usually on stone
+foundations. The occurrence in this ruin of many features that are not
+aboriginal suggests that it was one of the last to be abandoned in the
+canyon, but there are certain features which make it seem probable that
+the upper portion continued to be inhabited for some time after the
+lower portion. The contrivance for closing openings is identical with
+examples found in the Mesa Verde region, and it is probable that an
+intimate connection between the two existed.
+
+
+III--HOME VILLAGES LOCATED FOR DEFENSE
+
+The distinction between home villages located on bottom lands absolutely
+without reference to the defensive value of the site, and other villages
+located on defensive sites, is to some extent an arbitrary one. The
+former, which are always located at the base of or under an overhanging
+cliff, sometimes occupy slightly raised ground which overlooks the
+adjacent land, and the latter are sometimes so slightly raised above the
+bottoms they overlook as hardly to come within the classification.
+Moreover, ruins in their present condition sometimes belong to both
+classes, as in the example last described. Yet a general distinction may
+be drawn between the classes, in that the former are generally located
+directly upon the bottom land and invariably without thought or regard
+to the defensive value of the site, while in the latter the effect of
+this requirement is always apparent.
+
+The class of ruins which has been designated as the remains of villages
+located for defense comprises all the most striking remains in the
+canyon, many of which may properly be termed cliff ruins. The
+characteristics of the class are: A site more or less difficult of
+access--generally an elaborate ground plan, although sometimes they
+consist of only a few rooms--and the invariable presence of the kiva or
+estufa, here always circular in form. The largest ruin of this class
+occurs in Del Muerto, and is known as Mummy Cave ruin. It is called by
+the Navajo Tse-i-ya-kin. It is situated in the upper part of the canyon,
+near the junction of a small branch, and has an extensive outlook.
+
+At a height of about 80 feet above the top of a gentle slope of earth
+and loose rock, and perhaps 300 feet above the stream bed, there are two
+coves in the rock, connected by a narrow bench. The western cove is
+about 100 feet across and its back is perhaps 75 feet from the front
+wall of the cliff. The eastern cove is over 200 feet across and perhaps
+100 feet deep, while the connecting ledge is about 110 feet long. Ruins
+occur on the central ledge and on similar ledges in the back parts of
+both coves.
+
+The western or smaller cove is accessible only from the ledge, which in
+turn can be approached only from the eastern cove. The smaller cove had
+a row of little rooms across the back and there are traces of walls on
+the slope in front of these. Fourteen rooms can now be made out on the
+ground; altogether there may have been 20 rooms in this portion.
+Practically all the available space on the ledge was occupied by rooms,
+and 10, all of considerable size, can now be traced. The total number in
+this portion was 14 or 15. The eastern cove contained the largest part
+of the settlement. The back part is occupied by a ledge about 50 feet
+wide entirely covered by remains of walls. Some 44 rooms can now be made
+out on the ground, in addition to 3 or perhaps 4 circular kivas, and the
+whole number of rooms may have been 55. Assuming, then, that the various
+portions of the ruin were inhabited at the same time, we would have a
+total of 90 rooms; but, as many of them could be used only for storage,
+the population could not have been more than 60 persons.
+
+The rooms in the western cove are fairly uniform in size and were
+probably habitations, for they are all too large to be classed as
+storage rooms. There was no kiva in this portion, however, nor any
+unoccupied place where a kiva might have been placed. It seems clear,
+therefore, that this portion was either an appendage of the other or was
+occupied at a later period; in either case it was constructed at a date
+subsequent to the remains in the eastern cove.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XLVIII
+  Mummy Cave, Central and Eastern Part]
+
+The intermediate ledge, which is about 110 feet long and about 30 feet
+wide, was practically all occupied by a row of seven rooms, some of them
+of more than one story. These rooms are exceptionally large--larger than
+any group of rooms in the canyon or in this part of the country. The
+outside or front wall is more than 20 feet from the cliff back of it,
+and the rooms are from 10 to 15 feet wide. Figure 16, which is a ground
+plan of the ruin, shows the exceptional size of these rooms. All of them
+were at least two stories high; some were three. The walls in this
+portion are generally 2 feet or more thick and exceptionally well
+constructed. Its eastern end is still standing to a height of three
+stories, and carries a roof intact, giving a tower-like effect to that
+portion. Originally this portion rose but one story above the other
+rooms. Throughout nearly all its length the front wall shows part of the
+upper story, which is also marked on the cliff wall by a thin wash of
+clay, in the same manner as in the Casa Blanca ruin. The two rooms west
+of the tower were surmounted by a single large room. The cliff wall is
+coated with a thin wash of yellowish clay, and no mark of a cross wall
+or partition can be seen upon it. There are no openings between the
+three eastern rooms on the ground floor. The first room to the west of
+the tower has a square chimney-like shaft, and a niche or alcove
+connected with it. The second room also has a niche and a rounded shaft.
+The third room has neither niche nor shaft.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 16--Ground plan of Mummy Cave ruin.]
+
+The front wall was exceptionally heavy, but the upper portion has fallen
+inward, forming a heavy mass of debris against it. The east and south
+sides of the tower, for about 5 feet of its height, are decorated by
+inlaying small stones 1 to 2 inches long and half an inch thick. The
+same decoration occurs at intervals down the front wall, but
+irregularly. This feature is not chinking, such as has been described,
+and has no constructive value, but is purely decorative. Back of the
+rooms west of the tower there are some old pictographs on the cliff wall
+at the place where the roof abutted on it. Here the wash of clay before
+mentioned was necessarily omitted. In the first room there is a
+pictograph of a man, in the second a semicircle, both done in
+light-green paint.
+
+The lower part of the outer corner of the tower has fallen out. At this
+point there was a small doorway or opening, which was the only entrance
+on the south or east. The corner which has fallen was apparently
+supported by three or four sticks laid horizontally on the rock at an
+angle of 45 degrees with either wall. The giving way of the timber
+support apparently caused the fall of the corner, but why a structure
+otherwise so substantial should be placed on such frail support, when a
+filling of masonry was both easy and practicable, is not clear.
+
+The doorway mentioned is the only opening into the ground-floor room in
+the tower. Connection with the rooms on the west was through a large
+doorway in the western wall of the second story, and in the story above
+there was a similar opening. These are shown in plate XLVIII, which is a
+general view of the central portion of the eastern cove.
+
+The lintels of the openings in the central part are formed of round
+sticks, about 3 inches in diameter, matched, and bound together with
+withes. These withes may be seen in places where the mud plaster has
+fallen away. The stick lintels occur only in the central portion; the
+windows and doorways of the other portions of the ruin, some fine
+examples of which remain, are always finished with stone lintels and
+sometimes with stone jambs.
+
+A little east of the center of the front wall there is a large rock, or
+rather a pile of large rocks, near the outer edge of the ledge. This is
+shown in the illustration. Instead of removing this obstruction the wall
+was built under and over it. Near the western end of the front wall
+there is a large doorway or opening. Access to the western cove was
+along the narrow edge of the ledge under the front wall, thence through
+this doorway. The doorway gave entrance to a very narrow space, less
+than 4 feet square, surrounded by a heavy wall with a doorway through
+the left or western wall into the last apartment of the series. Through
+the western wall of this apartment a doorway opened on the end of the
+ledge and the western cove. This principal entrance is shown in plate
+XLVIII. Its size is exceptional, it being about 6 feet high. A little
+below the top there is a single stick across it, and a similar
+contrivance was found in place in the openings in the tower, but it does
+not occur in the opening in the cross wall. The same feature is found in
+the modern pueblos, where the stick forms the support of a blanket
+draped to close the opening.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XLIX
+  Eastern Cove of Mummy Cave]
+
+A little east of the doorway in the front wall there is a small opening
+near the ground, through which can be seen what appears to be a roof. It
+is but 2 feet above the ground, however, and very roughly constructed.
+It consists of a layer of cedar logs; above this a layer of small
+sticks, and above this again slabs of stone and mud. It occurs under a
+narrow room or passage, shown on the plan, and seems to have been the
+floor of that room rather than a roof of a space below.
+
+Roofing or flooring beams project from the tower on three sides. They
+are all rounded and carefully selected or matched. Those of the lower
+story or first roof are 41/2 inches in diameter, those of the story above
+about 3 inches, while those of the roof, which occur in pairs, are about
+21/2 inches. They all, except those of the lower story, project about
+2 feet from the wall. All the beams are from 18 inches to 2 feet apart,
+and the roof is formed of canes or willow sticks less than half an inch
+in diameter laid very neatly in patterns. The work here is by far the
+best in any part of the canyon. The beams of the first floor are
+represented only by the ends which pass through the walls, the middle
+portion being gone.
+
+The cliff wall forming one side of the rooms in the tower was coated
+with a wash of yellowish clay to correspond with the other sides. It
+shows bare rock at the points where the floors abutted against it. The
+roof of the second story or middle room was 10 inches thick, and the
+marks are on the same level as those of the rooms over the west of the
+tower. There are also beam holes in the third story about 4 feet above
+its floor, but extending only from the cliff out to its opening.
+
+A singular feature occurs in the tower, which is difficult to explain.
+The upper part of the third-story room was coated in the interior with
+whitewash, which appears to have been carelessly applied. Small
+quantities struck the setback at the floor level and spattered over the
+wall below--that of the second-story room. In one case a considerable
+quantity of the whitewash struck the top of a beam in what would be the
+roof of the second story and scattered over the wall surface below it.
+It is therefore clear that at the time when the whitewash was applied,
+which was either at the time or subsequent to the habitation of the
+rooms, there was no floor to the third-story room nor roof to the second
+story. The stains of whitewash never go below the floor level of the
+second story.
+
+The house remains in the eastern cove are partly shown in plate XLIX,
+which is from a photograph. The point of view is from the ledge in front
+of the tower. The ruins rest on a ledge in the back of the cove formed
+of debris well compacted and apparently consisting partly of sheep dung.
+The rooms are small, sometimes three deep against the back of the cove,
+and many of them could only have been used for storage. The principal
+structure is the western kiva, with its chimney-like attachments. This
+is described at length on pages 177, 179, 186, and 187. Adjoining it on
+the east is another kiva, part of whose wall is still two stories high,
+and clearly shown in the illustration. Some 50 or 60 feet to the east or
+southeast there is another circular structure, which apparently had no
+interior bench. The small semicircular structure shown on the plan and
+in the illustration, which rests against and is roofed by the rock, is a
+Navaho burial cist, and another of these cists, of large size, occurs
+west of the principal kiva; but the ruin as a whole contains much less
+evidence of Navaho work than those farther down the canyon.
+
+Many of the walls are built entirely of small pieces of stone, not more
+than 3 or 4 inches long by 2 inches wide and half an inch to an inch and
+a half thick. This construction is especially noticeable in inner walls.
+The joints are carefully plastered, evidently with the hand, but the mud
+is seldom allowed to cover the stone. It appears to have been applied
+externally, in pellets about the size of a walnut. The general thickness
+of walls is about 15 inches, although on the intermediate ledge they are
+over 2 feet, but some of the less important walls consist of a single
+layer, 6 to 8 inches thick. Walls are sometimes seen here supported by
+vertical timbers incorporated in them after the manner later described
+at some length. Ends of logs project here and there from the debris on
+the slope, but probably many of them are the debris of roofs.
+
+The peculiar and anomalous features presented by the remains on the
+intermediate ledge seem to require some explanation. This portion of the
+ruin is not only different from the other portions, but different also
+from anything else in the canyon, and the difference is not one of
+degree only. Doubtless systematic excavation in the various parts of the
+ruin would afford an explanation. In the absence of such work we can
+only speculate on the problem.
+
+The occurrence of two chimney-like shafts in connection with the
+rectangular rooms west of the tower is significant. Nowhere else in the
+canyons, except in the Casa Blanca ruin, do these structures occur, so
+far as known, except in connection with circular kivas. As regards the
+ruin named, it is almost certain that it was occupied in the historic
+period, probably in the seventeenth century.
+
+The division of the ruin into three separate parts, the absence of kivas
+in the western cove, and the method of access to that portion all
+attract attention. If there were monks or other Spaniards in the
+settlement, the explanation would be plain; they and those of the
+natives allied with them would occupy the central ledge, and the
+anomalous features would be natural under the circumstances. Such a
+hypothesis would explain also the source of the many unaboriginal
+features which are found in other parts of the canyon, but there is no
+direct evidence to support it. It should be mentioned, however, that the
+walls here rest on about half an inch of substance which resembles
+compacted sheep dung. If the substance is really such, the walls must
+have been built within the historic period.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 17--Ruin in a rock cove.]
+
+At the point marked 48 on the map there is a ruin which resembles
+somewhat in its location an example previously described (page 98). It
+is situated in a cove in a jutting point of rock, forming part of the
+talus slope, and is about 20 feet above the bottom, which it overlooks.
+Figure 17 shows the character of the site, and figure 18 is a ground
+plan. At the back of the cove a row of small rooms, five or six in
+number, was built against the rock. In front of these there were two
+kivas and perhaps other rooms. Only fragments of these now remain, but
+it can still be seen that both kivas had interior benches, and that the
+western one has been plastered with several successive coats--at least
+four. There are no pictographs on the back wall, and but little
+staining by smoke. The masonry is rather rough, consisting of large
+stones, pretty well chinked with small spawls.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 18--Ground plan of a ruin in a rock cove.]
+
+Some of the walls were plastered. The western end of the ruin has been
+partially restored by the Navaho and used for burial cists, and other
+cists have been built on the site independent of the old walls, as shown
+on the plan. Figure 19 is a ground plan of a ruin on a ledge near the
+mouth of Del Muerto, at the point marked 15 on the map. It is situated
+at the back of a considerable bay, directly opposite a large rock at the
+mouth of Del Muerto, and overlooked the whole of the bottom land in the
+bay. The houses were built on a bench or ledge, about 30 feet wide,
+overhung by the cliff above and dropping down almost vertically to the
+bottom land, about 40 feet below, but on the east access to the bench
+was easy by a slope of talus extending up to it. The site was covered
+with bowlders, and walls have been built over and under them. The
+masonry is good, and was composed of larger stones than usual, carefully
+chinked with spalls, the work being well done.
+
+There were but 10 rooms on the ground, in addition to one circular kiva;
+some of these rooms are too small for habitation, and one of them
+appears to have been a rectangular kiva. On the same bench, about 100
+feet westward, however, there are traces of other rooms, the walls of
+which were very thin. The cliffs back of the ruin and for 200 feet west
+of it are covered with pictographs in white and colors.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 19--Ground plan of a ruin on a ledge.]
+
+Near the center of that portion of the ruin shown on the ground plan
+there is a large room which may have been a rectangular kiva. The walls
+are over 2 feet thick in the first story, diminishing at the roof level
+by a step or setback to the ordinary thickness of about a foot. These
+walls, as usual in such structures, were about 2 feet thick; they are
+slightly curved, the front wall markedly so, and the interior corners
+are well rounded. No reason for this curvature is apparent, and it is
+certainly not dictated by the occurrence of the rock over which the wall
+is built, as only the point of this rock comes through the wall in the
+western side of the front wall. There may have been an opening into the
+room through the eastern wall connecting it with the room on that side,
+as the masonry is there broken down; but this is doubtful, as the
+eastern room itself has no exterior opening. It is more probable that
+the large room was entered through the roof, for the thin wall of the
+second story shows in front one side of a well-finished doorway.
+
+Just outside of the heavy front wall there is a round hole in the
+ground, the remains of a vertical shaft connected with the interior of
+the room. The hole is about a foot in diameter, and is neatly plastered
+inside, and appears to have been a chimney or a chimney-like structure
+such as occur in connection with the kivas in other ruins. It will later
+be discussed in detail.
+
+The circular kiva occupies the western end of that part of the room
+shown in the plan. It was 15 feet in diameter, and is exceptionally well
+built. The wall is standing for about half of its circumference, and was
+so neatly finished that the interior coating of plaster was apparently
+omitted. There are no traces of inclosing rectangular walls; the
+thickness of the kiva walls and the exceptionally large stones used in
+parts of it suggest that the kiva stood alone. So far as the walls
+remain standing, an interior bench can be traced, about 2 feet wide and
+6 feet below the top of the outside wall. On the southeastern side, in
+the interior, there is a buttress or projection, which terminates the
+bench at this point.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 20--Ground plan of ruin No. 31, Canyon de
+  Chelly.]
+
+The walls between the rectangular room described and the circular kiva
+are thin and very irregularly laid out. In front of the rectangular room
+and on the edge of the bench, which is here but a few feet above the
+talus, a rather heavy wall has been built over the top of a rock, and
+inside or to the north of it another wall has been placed, hardly 2 feet
+distant. These walls are connected at the eastern end by a thin cross
+wall, now but slightly above the ground surface and notched like a
+doorway. Below the notch a slab of stone has been placed and was
+apparently used as a step. The purpose of these walls is not clear, but
+they may have constituted an entrance or passageway to the village. If
+so, we have here a very efficient defensive expedient and a decided
+anomaly in cliff-village architecture.
+
+At the point marked 31 on the map there is a small ruin on a ledge about
+150 feet above the bottom and difficult of access. The site overlooks
+considerable areas of bottom land on both sides of the canyon, and was
+probably connected with and formed part of a larger ruin on the same
+ledge and east of it, which will next be described. On this site there
+are remains of half a dozen rooms or more and of one circular kiva,
+which was 20 feet in diameter. (See ground plan, figure 20.) The site
+has been much filled up, and the kiva appears as a cylindrical
+depression, flush with the ground outside, but 3 to 5 feet deep inside.
+The walls are rather thin and smoothly plastered inside. On the south
+side there is an opening extending down to the floor level and opening
+directly on the sharply sloping rock. This feature will later be
+discussed at some length. The walls to the west of the kiva are still 14
+or 15 feet high, showing two stories, and were well constructed and
+smoothly plastered. The interior of the kiva shows a number of
+successive coats of plastering--at least eight.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 21--Ground plan of ruin No. 32, Canyon de
+  Chelly.]
+
+Immediately above the last-mentioned ruin, and on the same ledge, occur
+the remains of a large settlement, shown in plan in figure 21. It will
+be noticed that here, as in some of the previous examples described, the
+general arrangement consists of a row of rooms against the cliff, with
+the kivas in front. There were at least 17 rooms in line, and there
+may have been as many as 30 to 50 rectangular rooms in the village,
+scattered over an area nearly 200 feet long by 65 feet wide, but not all
+of this area was covered. Three kivas are still clearly shown.
+
+This ruin is especially interesting on account of the site it occupies.
+The walls were placed on sharply sloping rock and in some cases on
+loose debris, and numerous expedients were resorted to to prevent them
+from slipping down the slope. The fact that these expedients were not
+successful makes them more interesting. Upright logs were inclosed in
+the walls and anchored in holes drilled in the rock below; horizontal
+logs were built into the masonry as ties and placed below it, and heavy
+retaining walls were erected. These constructive expedients will later
+be discussed at greater length.
+
+The whole slope is more or less covered with debris, and there is no
+doubt that this was at one time a considerable settlement. The cliff
+walls near the east end show traces of two stories, and in one place of
+three stories, which formerly rested against them. Moreover, the number
+of successive coats of plaster in the kiva shows an extended occupancy,
+an inference which is further supported by the variety of expedients
+which were adopted to hold the walls in place.
+
+The marked irregularity of the five eastern rooms as compared with the
+regular series west of them will be noticed on the plan. These eastern
+rooms must have been added at a period subsequent to the completion of
+the others. The marks of a second and third story occur on the cliff
+back of this cluster, and there is no doubt that it was an important
+part of the settlement. West of the area shown on the plan traces of
+walls occur on the slope and among the debris for a distance of over 100
+feet.
+
+Parts of three kivas can now be seen on the ground, and this was
+probably the total number in the settlement. The fronts of all of them
+have fallen out, notwithstanding various expedients that were employed
+to hold them in place. The western wall of the western kiva is part of
+the rectangular system and was apparently in place before the kiva was
+built. A triangular block which formed the junction in front of this
+kiva and the central one has slipped down and new walls were afterward
+built to restore the kivas to their original shape. The central kiva has
+an interior bench, which was, however, added after the structure was
+completed, and in fact after the front had been replaced. The second
+falling off of the front has left a fine section of the wall, and the
+changes which have taken place are plainly shown in it.
+
+That the interior bench was added long after the original kiva had been
+completed and occupied is shown by the occurrence between it and the
+wall of nearly an inch of plaster composed of separate coatings, each
+smoke-blackened, varying from the thickness of a piece of heavy paper
+up to an eighth of an inch or more. If one of these coatings were added
+each year, twelve or fifteen years at least must have elapsed between
+the building of the kiva and the construction of the interior bench. The
+original floor of the kiva was composed of a layer of mud mortar about
+an inch thick, and extends through under the bench, the top of which is
+about 3 feet above it; Under this floor there is a straight wall at
+right angles to the cliff and extending some 4 feet toward the center of
+the kiva; what is left of it is just under the floor level.
+
+There is a suggestion in this that the site of the kiva was originally
+occupied by rectangular rooms, and there is a further suggestion, in the
+end sections referred to, that the kiva had at some period fallen into
+decay and was subsequently rebuilt. All this occurred before the first
+falling out of the front.
+
+The section shows that the original walls were not so thick as the
+present ones, and that there was formerly a slight setback in the wall
+of 21/2 or 3 inches at the level of the present bench, reducing the
+thickness of the wall by that amount. The original outside wall on the
+east extends only 6 inches above this setback. The upper portion of the
+exterior wall was added at the same time that the bench was constructed
+and is the same thickness as the lower part of the original wall. Figure
+22 will make clear the changes which have taken place.
+
+There was a recess of some kind in the original wall on the east and a
+similar one on the west side, but they have been filled up by the later
+additions. The upright logs which were built into the masonry are
+incorporated in the older walls. Under the floor, and apparently under
+the walls themselves, there is a layer nearly a foot thick of loose
+debris consisting of cornstalks, corn leaves, ashes, and loose dirt.
+The floor of the east circular room, which still covers about half the
+interior, rests similarly on a layer of ashes. The expedients employed
+to hold the front walls of these kivas in place are later discussed at
+some length.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 22--Section of a kiva wall.]
+
+Figure 23 shows the character of site occupied by a village ruin of some
+size situated in the first cove in the cliff wall below the mouth of
+Canyon del Muerto. The cliff here is about 300 feet high and the ruin
+is located on a ledge in a cove about 70 feet above the stream bed.
+Although seemingly very difficult to reach, the ruin is of comparatively
+easy access without artificial aid. The cavity was caused apparently by
+the occurrence of a pocket of material softer than that about it, and
+this softer material has weathered out, showing very strongly the lines
+of cross bedding, which, in the massive rock on either side, have been
+almost entirely obliterated. The strata are inclined at an angle and the
+edges project from a few inches to about a foot, forming a series of
+little benches tilted up at an angle of about 45 degrees. By the
+exercise of some agility, one can ascend along these benches. About
+halfway between the site of the ruin and the stream bed there is a
+narrow horizontal bench, and again halfway between this bench and the
+ruin there is another, about 55 feet above the stream. Access to the
+ruins is greatly facilitated by these intermediate ledges.
+
+The bench on which the ruin occurs is about 250 feet long and generally
+about 20 feet wide, the surface being almost flat. There are structures
+on the extreme northern and on the extreme southern ends, but a
+considerable part of the intermediate area was not occupied. Reference
+to the ground plan (figure 24) will show that most of the buildings
+occur on the northern half of the ledge, which was fairly well filled by
+them. Many of the walls in this portion are apparently underlaid by a
+foot or more of ashes, sheep dung, domestic refuse, cornhusks, etc.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 23--Ruin No. 10 on a ledge in a cove.]
+
+The room which is shown in the center of the plan, at the southern end
+of the main group, stood alone and was the largest rectangular room in
+the village. It covered an area 15 feet by 9 feet inside the walls,
+which are now 5 or 6 feet high. The masonry is very good, although
+chinking with spalls was but slightly employed to finish the exterior;
+inside it is more apparent. The western wall was built over the edge of
+the sloping rock forming the back of the cove, as shown on the plan, and
+this rock projects below the wall into the room. There were apparently
+no openings in the walls, except some very small ones on the eastern
+side, near the floor level. In the southern wall a piece of rough timber
+was inlaid in the masonry, about 5 feet above the floor, flush with the
+wall inside and extending nearly through it. This piece of timber was
+crooked and its bend determined the wall line, which is bowed outward,
+as shown on the ground plan. This feature will be discussed later.
+
+There were two circular kivas in the village, one of which was unusually
+small, being only about 10 feet in diameter north and south; the
+east-and-west diameter is a trifle smaller. There was apparently no
+bench in the interior, but on the western or northwestern side there
+is a bench-like recess of about a foot which occupies 7 feet of the
+circumference. The whole interior was covered with a number of washes
+of clay, applied one over another, forming a coating now nearly
+three-quarters of an inch thick. This is cracked and peeled off
+in places, and in the section eighteen coats, generally about one
+thirty-second of an inch thick, may be counted. Each coat or plastering
+is defined by a film of smoke-blackened surface.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 24--Ground plan of ruin No. 10.]
+
+On a level about 2 feet above the bench and about 5 feet above the
+present ground surface, there seems to have been some kind of roof. The
+stones here project into the interior slightly beyond the wall surface,
+and the plaster seems to curve inward. This point or level is from 6 to
+18 inches below the top of the wall, and here there are remains of
+occasional small sticks, about an inch in diameter, which projected into
+the kiva. They are irregularly disposed and probably had no connection
+with the roof, but there are no traces of heavier timbers above them. In
+the interior a white band with points completely encircled the kiva. The
+top of this band is about a foot above the present ground surface and
+about 18 inches below the bench on the western side. It is illustrated
+in figure 72.
+
+The exterior wall of the kiva was very roughly laid up, and some of the
+lower stones were set on edge, which is rather an anomalous feature.
+There is no evidence that the structure was ever inclosed in rectangular
+walls, as was the usual custom; in fact, the occurrence of other walls
+near it would apparently preclude such an arrangement. The wall which
+runs north or northwest from the kiva, joining it to the cliff wall
+behind, is pierced by a doorway some feet above the ground, and in front
+of or below this doorway there is a buttress or step of solid masonry,
+shown on the plan. There was apparently an open space between this
+doorway and the next wall to the north. The room entered through the
+doorway was very small, and its roof, formed by the overhanging cliff,
+is much blackened by smoke.
+
+The main or north kiva was 15 feet in diameter on the floor, with a
+bench a foot wide extending around it. The external diameter is over 20
+feet. The interior was decorated by bands and dots in white, which are
+described at length in another place (page 178). The roof was 51/2 feet
+above the bench, and there is a suggestion that it rested on a series of
+beams extending north and south, but this is not certain.
+
+On the southeastern side, at the point where the kiva comes nearest the
+edge of the cliff, there was a narrow opening or doorway not more than
+15 inches wide. This was the only entrance to the interior, except
+through the roof, and it opens directly on the edge of the cliff, so
+that it is very difficult, although not impossible, to pass it. In front
+of the opening a little platform was built on the sloping edge of the
+cliff, as though entrance was had from the lower bench by artificial
+means, but it is more probable that this feature is all that remains of
+a chimney-like structure.
+
+Above this kiva there was apparently a living room, the walls of which,
+where they still remain on the north and west sides, were approximately
+straight, but the corners were rounded. The roof was formed by the
+overhanging cliff and the interior walls were whitewashed. The kiva
+walls were about 18 inches thick, but on the west side, in the small
+room between the kiva and the cliff, the masonry is much heavier, the
+lower part extending into the room a foot farther than the upper. This
+is caused by the wall of the second-story room above setting in toward
+the east or center of the kiva. This upper wall was supported by a beam,
+part of which is still in place. The small room behind is much blackened
+by smoke.
+
+The exterior wall of the main kiva on the northwest side is very rough.
+On the northeast and southeast, however, it is covered by straight walls
+which are well finished. The western end of the north wall is joined to
+the exterior circular wall of the kiva, at the point shown on the plan,
+by a short flying wall whose purpose is not clear. It extends to what
+may have been the roof of the kiva, but underneath it is open. The
+triangular cavity formed by it is too small to permit the passage of a
+person, and was available only from the second story.
+
+The site of these ruins commands an extensive prospect, including
+several small areas of good bottom land, one of which lies directly in
+front of it; but the number of other ruins in the cove suggests that
+there was once a much larger area of bottom land here, and this
+suggestion is supported by the presence of several large cottonwood
+trees, now standing out in the midst of the sand, in the bed of the
+stream, where these trees never grow. Some of these trees are not yet
+entirely dead, indicating that the change in the bed of the stream was a
+recent one. Against the foot of the talus, just above the ruin, there is
+a narrow strip of bottom land, about 3 feet above the stream bed, and on
+it a single tree, still alive, but inclined at an angle. In the stream
+bed, above and below the ruin, there are large trees, of which only
+one or a few branches are still alive. The position of the cove with
+reference to the stream bed made the bottom lands here especially
+subject to erosion when the stream assumed its present channel and they
+were gradually worn away.
+
+The western end of the ledge was occupied by a structure whose use at
+first sight is not apparent. The wall, as shown on the plan, is curved,
+very thick and heavy, and built partly over the sloping rock forming the
+back of the cave. The front wall is 3 feet thick, and its top, now
+level, is about 5 feet above a narrow bench in front of it. There is no
+doorway or other opening into it, and access into its interior was had
+over the steep sloping rock to the north by means of hand-holes in the
+rock. These are shown in plate L. The interior appears to have been
+plastered.
+
+This structure measures 15 by 5 feet inside, there being no wall on the
+north, as the east wall merges into the sloping rock. The foot-holes in
+the rock, before referred to, are at this end, nearest the village, and
+appear to be in several series. The structure is so situated that the
+sun shines on it only a few hours each day, and it seems more than
+probable that it was a reservoir. The bed of the stream, the channel
+followed in low water, sweeps against the base of the cliff below this
+point, and by carrying water 20 feet it would be directly beneath and
+about 50 feet below it. Finally, the cliff wall above this point is
+decorated with pictographs of tadpoles and other water symbols in common
+use among the pueblos, and these do not occur elsewhere on this site. In
+the southwestern corner of the structure, near the bottom, there was an
+opening about 18 inches high, which was carefully filled up from the
+inside and plastered. This may have been an outlet by which the water
+was discharged when the reservoir was cleaned out. The wall has caved in
+slightly above it. The mud mortar used in building this structure and
+the other walls was necessarily brought from below.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate L
+  Reservoir in Ruin No. 10 ]
+
+About 25 feet east of the reservoir there are remains of a small single
+room, rectangular, with a circular addition, shown on the ground plan.
+The walls are well chinked and well constructed, the mud mortar being
+used when about the consistency of modeling clay. In front of this room,
+about 5 feet distant and on the edge of the sloping rock, a hole has
+been pecked into the solid rock of the ledge. This hole is 12 inches
+wide on top, slightly tapering, 10 inches deep on the upper side, and
+4 inches on the lower. Twelve feet to the northeast there is a similar
+hole, and below it, distant 10 inches, another, and beyond this others,
+distributed generally along the foot of the sloping rock forming the
+back of the ledge, but sometimes farther out on the flat floor. Probably
+these holes mark the sites of upright posts supporting a drying scaffold
+or frame, the horizontal poles of which extended backward to the wall of
+the cliff.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 25--Oven-like structure in ruin No. 10.]
+
+Near the center of the ledge, at the point shown on the plan, there are
+some remains which strongly suggest the Mexican oven. The bed rock,
+which is here nearly flat, was removed to a depth of about 4 inches over
+a rectangular area measuring 4 feet north, and south by 31/2 feet. There
+were natural fissures in the rock on the north and west sides which left
+clean edges. The southern edge appears to have been smashed off with a
+rock. The eastern side required no dressing, as it was at a slightly
+lower level, and it was to reach this level that the rock was removed.
+In the rectangular space described there was a circular, dome-shape
+structure, about 3 feet in diameter, composed of mud and sticks, with a
+scant admixture of small stones. This is shown in figure 25, and in plan
+in figure 26. The walls were about 3 inches thick, and from their slope
+the structure could not have been over 3 feet high. The mud which
+composed the walls was held together by thin sticks or branches,
+incorporated in it and curved with the wall--apparently some kind of
+a vine twisted together and incorporated bodily. On the edge of the
+rectangular space there is a drilled hole, 3 inches in diameter, shown
+in the illustration. Three feet to the south there is another, 6 inches
+in diameter.
+
+If this structure was a dome-shape oven, and it is difficult to imagine
+it anything else, its occurrence here is important. It is well known
+that the dome-shape oven, which is very common in all the pueblos, in
+some villages being numbered by hundreds, is not an aboriginal feature,
+but was borrowed outright from the Mexicans. If the structure above
+described was an oven, it is clear evidence of the occupancy of these
+ruins within the historic period--it might almost be said within the
+last century. No other structure of the kind was found in the canyon,
+however, and it should be stated that the ovens of the pueblos are as
+a rule rather larger in size than this and usually constructed of small
+stones and mud--sometimes of regular masonry plastered. There is a
+suggestion here, which is further borne out by the chimney-like
+structures to be discussed later, that only the idea of these structures
+was brought here, without detailed knowledge of how to carry it out--as
+if, for example, they were built by novices from description only.
+
+Figure 27 is the ground plan of a small village ruin situated at the
+mouth of Del Muerto at the point marked 16 on the map. The site, which
+is an excellent one, but rather difficult of access, overlooks the
+bottom land at the junction of the canyons and a long strip on the
+opposite side, together with a considerable area above. The approach is
+over smooth sandstone inclined at such an angle as to make it difficult
+to maintain a footing, but the ruin can be reached without artificial
+aid.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 26--Plan of oven-like structure.]
+
+The village was not of large extent and contained but one kiva, but the
+walls were well constructed and the masonry throughout is exceptionally
+good. The exterior wall of the western rooms was constructed of small
+stones neatly laid. The eastern room of the two was built after the
+other, and entrance was had by an almost square opening 2 feet from
+the ground. To facilitate ingress, a notch was dug in the wall about
+8 inches from the ground. There was no communication between the rooms,
+the western room being entered by a small doorway on the western side,
+about 8 inches from the ground, 3 feet high and 14 inches wide. There
+was no plastering in the interior of these rooms.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate LI
+  Small Village, Ruin No. 16, Canyon De Chelly]
+
+The kiva is 15 feet in diameter on the floor, and about 23 feet in its
+exterior diameter. The walls are 3 feet thick above the bench level and
+4 feet thick below it. The interior was plastered with a number of
+successive coats, probably four or five in all; but although the wall is
+still standing to a height of 4 feet or more above the bench, there are
+gaps on the eastern and western sides which render it impossible to say
+whether doorways were there or not. The eastern break exposes the
+western side of the inclosing wall, which is smoothly finished as though
+there were originally a recess here. There are rectangular inclosing
+walls on the east and south; the northern side was formed by the cliff
+against which the kiva rests, while on the west there are no traces of
+an inclosing wall. The triangular spaces formed by the inclosing walls
+on the northeast and southeast sides of the kiva were not filled up in
+the customary manner, but appear to have been preserved as storerooms.
+The southeastern space was connected with the kiva by a narrow doorway,
+shown in the plan, and another doorway, completely sealed, led from this
+space into the room adjoining on the east. The latter doorway had not
+been used for a long time prior to the abandonment of the ruin, and its
+opening into the rectangular room was carefully concealed from that side
+by several successive coats of plaster.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 27--Ground plan of a small village, ruin No. 16.]
+
+On the south side of the kiva and outside the rectangular wall is a
+square buttress or chimney-like construction, 4 by 3 feet, inclosing a
+shaft 10 by 5 inches. This feature will be discussed in another place.
+It was added after the wall was completed, and embedded in it, about a
+foot from the ground, is a heavy beam about 5 inches in diameter. Plate
+LI, which shows the whole front of the village, will make this feature
+clear. The beam projects from the kiva wall at or under the floor
+level, and seems to have no reference to the shaft, which is, however,
+shouldered to accommodate it. Similar beams project from the walls to
+the east, about 8 inches above the bed rock.
+
+In the room east of the kiva no doorway was found. The walls are still
+intact to a minimum height of 6 feet from the floor, except in the
+southeast corner, where they are 3 feet. The opening described, which
+occurs in the southwest corner of the room, was 4 feet from the floor;
+and in the southeast corner, where the wall is broken down, there now
+are remains of one side of a similar opening on the same level. No
+stains of smoke are found on the exterior coat of plaster in this room,
+but the coats underneath were much blackened. The room north of the one
+described, and adjoining the kiva, was also without a doorway, unless it
+existed in the northeast corner, next the cliff, where no trace of walls
+now remains. The walls of this room, now 6 feet high, were plastered and
+show old smoke stains. The wall on the western side of the kiva is very
+rough, as though at one time another wall existed outside of it. This is
+shown in plate LII, which shows also the debris, consisting of ashes,
+sheep dung, and refuse, well compacted, upon which the wall rests.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 28--Ruins on a large rock.]
+
+West of the kiva and on the extreme edge of the cliff are the remains of
+two small apartments, a trifle below the surface of the ledge and with a
+3-foot wall on the south. These are too small for habitations, and were
+used probably for the storage of corn. About 100 feet west of the group
+described, on the same bench, there are remains of a large room, divided
+into two, and of quite rough construction. It contains several Navaho
+dead and may be of Navaho origin.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate LII
+  Walls Resting on Refuse in Ruin No. 16]
+
+A type of site which is abundant in the San Juan country and is found in
+other regions, but is very rare in this, is shown in figure 28. This
+example, which occurs in the upper part of Del Muerto, is the only one
+of its kind in the canyons. A large mass of rock, smoothed and rounded
+by atmospheric erosion, but still connected with the cliff at one point,
+juts out into the bottom, a large area of which is commanded by it. At
+three different levels there are remains of rooms, the group on the
+summit being the largest. It is doubtful whether any of these remains
+represent permanent villages, but it is possible that the uppermost one
+did. It is therefore included in this place.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 29--Ground plan of ruins No. 49]
+
+At the point marked 49 on the map there is a ruin or group of ruins
+which presents some anomalous features. Figure 29 shows in detail the
+distribution of the remains. The rooms were located on narrow benches in
+the cliff, the principal part on a high, narrow bench, 40 or 50 feet
+above the top of the talus and over 300 feet above the canyon bottom.
+Access to the upper ledge from the top of the talus is exceedingly
+difficult, requiring a climb over almost vertical rock for 40 feet.
+Above the ledge there is massive sandstone, but below it for 100 feet or
+more there is an area of cross bedding, and the rock has an almost
+vertical cleavage, apparently standing upright in thin slabs 2 to 6
+inches thick. Access was had by aid of the rough projections of the
+slabs, aided where necessary by hand and foot holes pecked in the rock.
+At several places little platforms of masonry have been built.
+
+At the northern end of the upper ledge there are five small cells
+occupying its whole width, and whose front wall follows the winding
+ledge. The walls are about 5 feet high, and their tops bear the marks of
+the poles which carried the roof. There are no exterior openings, nor is
+there any evidence of a means of communication between the rooms; but in
+the second room from the south two stones project from the wall inside,
+near the southeastern corner, forming rude steps, doubtless to a
+trapdoor in the roof. These cells could hardly have been used as
+habitations. The floors are covered with many lumps of clay, which
+apparently formed part of the roof.
+
+To the south of this cluster of cells there was a large room of
+irregular shape on a level about 8 feet higher. The remainder of the
+ledge, which is about on the same level as this large room, is almost
+covered with large bowlders, but at several points on it other remains
+of walls occur. The largest room of all was near its center. It was
+built against the cliff, which formed one of its sides, and measured
+about 16 by 6 feet. There are no evidences of any partitions or roof,
+the latter probably being formed by the overhanging rock. As the room
+was built partly on the sloping rock, the floor is very uneven. It could
+hardly have been used as a habitation, but may have been employed for
+the storage of water.
+
+The southern end of the lower ledge merges into the head of the talus,
+the northern part drops down by a sharply sloping and in places an
+almost vertical wall of about 30 feet; thence it descends to the bottom
+by a long slope of bare rock, generally passable on foot. The lower
+ledge is about 50 feet above the upper. Upon it are scattered the
+remains of a few rooms of the same general character as those above, but
+smaller. Many of these have been utilized for modern Navaho burials, and
+perhaps some of them were constructed for that purpose. If these rooms
+were used as habitations, it must have been under very peculiar
+circumstances; moreover, the site is hardly suited for such a purpose,
+having the sunshine less than half of the day. In this respect it is
+anomalous.
+
+At the southern end of the ledge there is a large angular bowlder, one
+edge of which rests against the cliff wall and is free from the ground.
+Under this the walls of a small room can be seen. The cliff formed one
+side of the room and the bowlder acted as a roof. On the extreme
+northern end of the ledge, 200 feet distant from the nearest room, there
+are remains of a structure standing alone. The masonry is much rougher
+than that of the other rooms, and, although the walls are now about
+6 feet high, there is no evidence of any doorway or opening into the
+room.
+
+On the surface of the sloping rock, at this point nearly flat, there are
+traces of a circular kiva 18 or 20 feet in diameter. These traces occur
+at a point about midway between the southern and northern ends of the
+lower ledge and some 30 feet below it. The cliff walls, both of the
+lower and upper ledges, are covered with pictographs in white, red, and
+yellow.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 30--Ruin on an almost inaccessible site.]
+
+The location and character of this site and the character of the remains
+suggest that most if not all of the rooms which can now be traced were
+used for storage only. For this purpose the site is well adapted. But
+the remains of the circular kiva at the foot of the lower ledge show
+plainly that there were at one time some habitations here. Doubtless
+these were located on the smooth rock at the foot of the cliff, and the
+disappearance of all traces of walls may be due to the subsequent use of
+the material by the Navaho for the construction of burial cists, in
+which the site abounds. There still remains on the ground a fair amount
+of broken stone, suitable for building, but no lines of wall are now
+traceable.
+
+Figure 30 shows one of the most inaccessible sites in the canyon. It
+occurs at the point marked 62 on the map, where there is a narrow ledge
+nearly 400 feet above the stream. The approach is over bare rock,
+sharply sloping, but passable at two points by an active man accustomed
+to climbing. Both of these points are near the western or left-hand end
+of the ruin; toward the right the rock becomes vertical. Immediately
+below this ruin there are the remains of a large settlement on a low
+spur near the stream, now much obliterated, and above and below it on
+suitable sites there were a number of small settlements which may have
+been connected with it.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 31--Ground plan of a large ruin in Canyon del
+  Muerto.]
+
+There were a number of rooms scattered along the ledge which appear to
+have been used as habitations. The overhanging cliff is so close that in
+a number of cases it formed the roof of the room, and the whole site was
+an inconvenient and dangerous one. The rooms on the east rest on a large
+block which has split off from the wall since the walls were built, and
+now hangs apparently ready to drop at any moment.
+
+At the time this site was inhabited access was had over the smooth
+rounded rock on the west. Here hand and foot holes have been pecked in
+the steep places, but as the rock is much exposed to atmospheric erosion
+these holes are now almost obliterated. After ascending the rock the
+village was entered through a doorway in a wall of exceptional
+thickness, shown on the left of the drawing. The room which was entered
+through this doorway appears to have been placed at this point to
+command the entrance to the village. The wall is exceptionally heavy and
+was pierced with oblique loopholes commanding a narrow bench immediately
+in front of it. This appears to have been a purely defensive expedient,
+and as such is unique.
+
+The site commands an extensive outlook over the canyon bottom, including
+several areas of cultivable land, and while it may have been occupied as
+a regular village, such occupancy could not have been long continued.
+Altogether the site and the character of the house remains are anomalous
+and doubtless resulted from anomalous conditions.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 32--Ground plan of a small ruin in Canyon del
+  Muerto.]
+
+Figure 31 is a ground plan of a large ruin in Del Muerto. It occupied
+almost the whole available area of the ledge on which it is situated,
+and over 40 rooms can now be made out on the ground, in addition to 3
+circular kivas. The settlement may have comprised between 80 and 100
+rooms, which would accommodate 15 to 20 families. The size is very
+unusual, and the presence of but 3 kivas would indicate that the
+families were closely related. There are other examples of this
+character in the canyons, but not so large as the one illustrated.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 33--Ground plan of a small ruin.]
+
+Figure 32 illustrates a type which is more common. Here we have the
+usual arrangement of rooms along the cliff, with a kiva in front of
+them. There were altogether not over 10 or 12 rooms, and they were
+probably occupied by one family. Figure 33 shows a kind rather more
+abundant than the last, and consisting like it of one circular kiva with
+rooms back of and between it and the cliff. Ruins of this type are
+generally well protected by an overhanging cliff. Figure 34 is another
+example, in which only three rectangular rooms can be made out. The site
+here is almost covered with large bowlders. All these examples occur in
+Del Muerto.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 34--Plan of a ruin of three rooms.]
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 35--Ground plan of a small ruin, with two kivas.]
+
+Figure 35 is a ground plan of a small ruin which occurs at the point
+marked 36 on the map. It is situated in a shallow cove at the head of
+the talus, 200 or 300 feet above the bottom, and is of comparatively
+easy access. There is but a small amount of cultivable bottom land
+immediately below it, but it commands extensive areas on the opposite
+site of the canyon and in the lower part of a branch on that side. There
+are but few remains of rooms other than parts of two kivas, but there is
+no question that there was at one time a considerable number here. Both
+kivas had interior benches, and were of small size, plastered in the
+interior. The masonry is fair to good. On the highest point of the
+bowlder shown on the right of the plan there is a fragment of compacted
+sheep dung and soil, which is now 6 feet above the ground. It is all
+that remains of a layer of some thickness which must have been deposited
+when the surface was filled up to or nearly to the top of the rock.
+Possibly there was a wall outside and only the intermediate space was
+filled.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 36--Ground plan of a small ruin, No. 44.]
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 37--Ground plan of a ruin on a rocky site.]
+
+Figure 36 is the ground plan of a somewhat similar ruin which occurs at
+the point marked 44 on the map. It is situated on the top of the talus,
+against the cliff, and commands a fine outlook over the cultivable lands
+in the cove below it and on the canyon bottom proper. There are but few
+wall remains, but two kivas can still be made out. There is no ledge
+here, and the walls were built on loose debris of rocks and talus. The
+builders had some trouble in holding the walls in place, and only partly
+succeeded in doing so. About one-half of the principal kiva is standing,
+showing masonry composed of exceptionally large stones, roughly chinked.
+The other, or western kiva, was similarly constructed, and both had
+interior benches. The front of the western kiva fell out, the builders
+being unable to tie it or to hold it in place on its loose foundation,
+and other walls were constructed inside of it, as shown on the plan.
+There were other walls outside the main kiva, apparently rectangular
+inclosing walls. This example is interesting because the masonry was
+constructed on a foundation of loose debris, not on bed rock, and the
+knowledge possessed by the builders was not sufficient to enable them to
+overcome the natural difficulties of the site. Although ultimately the
+village had to be abandoned as a failure, it was certainly occupied for
+some years, and this occupancy suggests that there was some strong
+objection to the lower part of the canyon. It illustrates, moreover, the
+importance which was attached to a command or outlook over extensive
+cultivable areas, as to obtain such an outlook the builders were content
+to occupy even such an unsuitable site as the one described.
+
+Figure 37 shows a small ruin similar to those described, but located on
+a site almost covered with large bowlders. The principal structure now
+remaining is a circular kiva, which, contrary to the usual plan, was
+placed close up against the cliff; possibly the cliff formed part of the
+back wall. Large bowlders so closely hemmed in the structure that there
+was neither space nor necessity for an inclosing wall. The kiva was
+benched for about half of its circumference.
+
+Under the large bowlder to the right of the kiva a complete room had
+been built, with a doorway of the usual type through the front wall.
+Scattered remnants of other walls may be seen here and there, but none
+show well-defined rooms. Petroglyphs are quite numerous, and one small
+bowlder to the left of and next to the kiva is covered with cups, dots,
+and carvings. It is shown in figure 38.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 38--Rock with cups and petroglyphs]
+
+Figure 39 shows a ruin where the site was not so restricted. One
+well-defined room and two kivas still remain, and there are traces of
+other chambers. The main kiva formed part of a compact little group of
+rooms, of which it occupied the front, and appears to have been inclosed
+by a curved wall of rough construction. A curved inclosing wall is an
+anomalous feature, and it is not at all certain that it occurs here, as
+the wall is so much broken down that its lines can not now be clearly
+made out. Excavation would doubtless determine this, as the whole site
+has been much filled up with sand and loose earth.
+
+The second kiva, which was about the same size as the first, was
+situated some little distance from the other, and on the outer edge of
+the little platform or bench on which the settlement was located. It
+still shows about half of its wall. The rectangular room near the main
+kiva still stands to a height of 3 and 4 feet. The wall nearest the kiva
+is pierced by a number of small openings, and by a neatly finished
+double-notched doorway, which is illustrated in another place (figure
+67).
+
+The whole front of the site has been filled up to a probable depth of
+several feet, and a number of Navaho burials have been made on it. These
+are shown on the plan by shaded spots. Owing to the soft ground
+underneath, it was easier to excavate a hole and wall it up than to
+construct the regular surface cist, and the former plan was followed.
+
+Although many of the sites are covered with bowlders and blocks of stone
+fallen from above, which often occur among and even over walls, close
+inspection generally shows that the walls were constructed after the
+rocks fell. There are two instances, however, which are doubtful, and in
+one (shown in figure 40) it appears that large blocks of rock have
+fallen since the walls were constructed. Such falls of rock are not
+uncommon now in the fall and winter months, when frost and seepage from
+the melting snow sometimes split off huge fragments.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 39--Ground plan of a ruin in Canyon de Chelly.]
+
+The site mentioned occurs at the point marked 47 on the map. It is in a
+cove under a mass of rock which juts out from the cliff, and is about 30
+feet above the bottom, on the edge of a slope of loose rock which
+extends some distance above it. At the top of the talus, over 200 feet
+above, there is another ruin, which was probably only an outlook, as no
+trace of a kiva can be found, and it is possible that the lower site was
+connected with and formed part of the upper one. The lower site
+contained a circular kiva, only a small portion of which now remains,
+and the ground is covered with blocks of rock which must have fallen
+since the walls were built. They appear to have fallen quite recently.
+It can still be seen that the kiva had an interior bench, and that there
+was a room, or perhaps rooms, between it and the back of the cove; but
+beyond this nothing can now be made out.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 40--Site showing recent fall of rock.]
+
+There are many favorable sites in the branch canyons, but not many of
+them are occupied, possibly because in the upper parts of these canyons
+the bottom land is of small area and is sometimes rough, being composed
+of numerous small hillocks. The flat bottom lands of the canyon proper
+are much easier to cultivate, but the sites in the side canyons offered
+much better facilities for defense. Figure 41 shows the plan of a ruin
+which occurs at the point marked 69 on the map, on the western side of a
+branch canyon through which passes the trail to Fort Defiance. It is
+situated in a shallow cove at the top of the talus and overlooks an
+extensive area of fine bottom land below it. At the eastern end there is
+a single room about 10 feet long; its front wall extends up to the
+overhanging rock, which forms the roof of the room. A small cist has
+been built against it on the west.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 41--Ruin No. 69, in a branch canyon.]
+
+About 60 feet west, on the same ledge, there are remains of other rooms
+which rested probably on the talus. Several rooms can be made out, but
+only one shows standing walls. This is on the western end, and the walls
+are now about 5 feet high. Four feet from the top of the wall there is a
+clear line of demarcation extending horizontally across it. Below this
+line the masonry consists of large flat slabs of rock laid in mud
+mortar, which was used nearly dry and stuffed into the cracks to some
+extent. Above the line the stones were carefully selected and the work
+was well done, the whole being finished by a thin coat of plaster. There
+is no opening in the lower part, but in the upper part there is a neatly
+finished doorway 3 feet high and slightly tapering. The bottom of this
+opening extends 2 inches below the line, and the lintel is composed of a
+large slab of stone a trifle wider than the thickness of the wall, but
+fitted flush on the outside.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 42--Ground plan of a small ruin in Canyon del
+  Muerto.]
+
+On a bench about 100 feet higher than the ruin described there are two
+small rooms, extending up to the overhanging rock above them. These
+rooms, which may be of Navaho origin, were reached by means of a narrow
+ledge extending from the top of a slope of loose rock and debris about
+300 yards to the southward, or up the canyon.
+
+Figure 42 is a ground plan of a small ruin in Del Muerto in which the
+usual preponderance of rectangular rooms is illustrated. The site was
+restricted, but there is an apparent attempt to carry out the usual
+arrangement of a row of rooms against the cliff, with a kiva in front.
+Probably only three of the rooms shown were used as habitations. The
+plan of the kiva, which occurs in the center, was somewhat marred by a
+large bowlder, which must have projected into it, but apparently no
+attempt was made to dress off the projecting point.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 43--Ground plan of a small ruin.]
+
+Figure 43 is the plan of a ruin located on a more open site. Only a few
+walls now remain, but there is no doubt that at one time more of the
+site was covered than now appears. There are remains of two, and perhaps
+of three, circular kivas.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 44--Plan of a ruin with curved inclosing wall.]
+
+Figure 44 shows a ruin in which the plan is somewhat more elaborated.
+There are remains of several well-defined rooms, and two kivas are still
+fairly well preserved. The ledge is narrow and the rooms are stretched
+along it, with kivas at either end. That on the east was benched nearly
+all around its interior, and the outside inclosing wall, on the east,
+apparently follows the curve. An example in which this feature occurs
+has been mentioned above (page 138). It is very rare, but in this case
+the evidence is clearer than in the one previously described. The
+western kiva, somewhat smaller than the other, was also benched, and had
+an exterior shaft, like those mentioned above and later described at
+length.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 45--Ground plan of ruin No. 34.]
+
+Figure 45 is a plan of a small ruin of the same type, which occurs in
+the middle region of De Chelly. It occupies the site marked 34 on the
+map, and is situated in a niche in a deep cove, where the outlook is
+almost completely obscured by a large sand dune in front of it. It
+comprised one circular kiva and four rectangular rooms, but, contrary to
+the usual result, the latter are fairly well preserved, while the former
+is almost completely obliterated. This may be due to the use of the
+rectangular rooms as sites for Navaho burial cists, of which there are
+no fewer than six here, and possibly the kiva walls furnished the
+necessary building material for the construction of the cists. The old
+masonry is of good quality, the outside wall being formed of selected
+stones of medium size, well laid and carefully chinked. Most of the
+walls were plastered inside. In a cleft in the rock to the right of this
+ruin there is a kind of cave, with foot-holes leading up the rock to it,
+and quite difficult of access. It formerly may have been used for
+storage, but at present contains only some remains of Navaho burials.
+
+
+IV--CLIFF OUTLOOKS OR FARMING SHELTERS
+
+Ruins comprised in the class of cliff outlooks, or farming shelters, are
+by far the most numerous in the canyon. They were located on various
+kinds of sites, but always with reference to some area of cultivable
+land which they overlooked, and seldom, if ever, was the site selected
+under the influence of the defensive motive. It is not to be understood
+that such motive was wholly absent; it may have been present in some
+cases, but the dominating motive was always convenience to some adjacent
+area of cultivable land.
+
+The separation of this class of ruins from the preceding village ruins,
+while clear and definite enough in the main, is far from absolute. The
+sole criterion we have is the presence or absence of the kiva, as the
+sites occupied are essentially the same; but this test is in a general
+way sufficient. It is possible that in certain cases the kiva is so far
+obliterated as to be no longer distinguishable, but the number of cases
+in which this might have occurred is comparatively small. The kivas, as
+a rule, were more solidly constructed than the other rooms, and, as the
+preceding ground plans show, sometimes survived when the rectangular
+rooms connected with them have entirely disappeared.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 46--Ground plan of cliff outlook No. 35.]
+
+Figure 46 is the plan of an outlook in the same cove as the last example
+of village ruin illustrated, and only 200 or 300 yards south of it. It
+may have been connected with that ruin, but could not in itself have
+been a village, as there are no traces of a kiva on the site, and hardly
+room enough for one on the bench proper. At the extreme northern end
+there are traces of walls on the rocks at a lower level.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 47--Plan of a cliff outlook.]
+
+The walls which were at right angles to the cliff were not carried back
+to it after the usual manner, but stopped about 3 feet from it, and the
+rooms were closed by a back wall running parallel to the cliff, and
+about 3 feet from it. This wall rises to a height of about 4 feet before
+it meets the overhanging cliff, and consequently there is a long narrow
+passageway, about 3 feet high and 3 feet wide on the bottom, between it
+and the cliff. A small man might wriggle through, but with difficulty.
+
+The ruin commands a fine outlook over the cove. The masonry is good,
+being composed of selected stone well chinked with small spalls, and
+sometimes with bits of clay pressed in with the fingers.
+
+Figure 47 shows a ruin located at the point marked 37 on the map. There
+is a high slope of talus here, the top of which is flat and of
+considerable area.
+
+The ruin is invisible from below in its present condition, but the site
+commands a fine outlook over several considerable areas of bottom land.
+The walls are now much obliterated and worked over by the Navaho, but
+the remains are scattered over quite an extensive area and may have been
+at one time an extensive settlement; however, no traces of a kiva can
+now be seen. Marks on the cliff show that some of the houses had been
+three stories high. Some places on the cliff, which were apparently
+back-walls of rooms, were plastered and coated with white, and there are
+many pictographs on the rock. The masonry is of fair quality, but the
+stones were laid with more mortar than usual.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 48--Plan of cliff ruin No. 46.]
+
+Figure 48 is a ground plan of a ruin which occurs at the point marked 46
+on the map. It is situated in a cove in the rock at the top of the
+talus, 300 or 400 feet above the bottom, and immediately above the
+rectangular single room described and illustrated on page 151. It
+commands an extensive outlook over the bottom lands on both sides of the
+canyon and above. The cove is about 40 feet deep, and, though so high
+up, has been used as a sheep close, and doubtless some of the walls have
+been covered up. Four rooms are still standing in two little clusters of
+two rooms each. The walls of the rooms on the west are composed of large
+stones laid in plenty of mud mortar and plastered inside and out; those
+of the eastern portion were built of small stones, chinked but not
+plastered. One of the rooms is blackened by smoke in the corner only, as
+though there had been some chimney structure here, which subsequently
+had fallen away. The cliff walls back of the eastern part are heavily
+smoke-blackened; back of the western portion there are no stains. There
+is now no trace of a circular kiva, but there is a heavy deposit of
+sheep dung on the ground which might cover up such traces if they
+existed. This site commands one of the best outlooks in the canyon, but
+access, while not very difficult, is inconvenient on account of the
+great height above the bottom.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 49--Plan of cliff room with partitions.]
+
+Figure 49 shows a common type of ruin in this class. The original
+structure appears to have contained one or two good rooms, which by
+subsequent additions have been divided into several. These later
+additions may have been made by the Navaho, who used the building
+material on the ground; at any rate the structure is now merely a
+cluster of storage cists.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 50--Plan of a large cliff outlook in Canyon del
+  Muerto.]
+
+One of the most extensive ruins of the cliff-outlook type situated in
+Canyon del Muerto is shown in figure 50. The plan shows at least eight
+rooms stretched along the cliff at the top of the talus. Figure 51 shows
+five rooms arranged in a cluster. One of these is still complete, the
+walls extending to the overhanging rock above which formed the roof. It
+will be noticed that the front room was set back far enough to allow
+access to the central room through a doorway in the corner. This was a
+convenience, rather than a necessity, for many of the rooms in ruins of
+this class were entered only through other rooms or through the roof,
+and a direct opening to the outer air was not considered a necessity;
+probably because these rooms in the cliff, which have been termed
+outlooks, were not in any sense watch towers, but rather places of abode
+during the harvest season, where the workers in the field lived when not
+actually employed in labor, and where the fields tinder cultivation
+could always be kept in view--an arrangement quite as necessary and
+quite as extensively practiced now as it was formerly.
+
+Figure 52 shows a cluster of rooms in the little canyon called
+Tseonitsosi. This is another Casa Blanca, or White House, and, oddly
+enough, it resembles its namesake in De Chelly, not only in the coat of
+whitewash applied to the front of the main room, but in having a
+subordinate room to the left, over which the wash extends, and in the
+character of the site it occupies. The principal part of the structure
+was built in a cave, 18 or 20 feet from the ground, across the front of
+which walls extended as in the other Casa Blanca, and, like that ruin,
+there are also some ruins at the foot of the cliff, on the flat. Figure
+53 is a ground plan. The resemblance to the other Casa Blanca, however,
+goes no further. The ruin here illustrated represents a very small
+settlement, hardly more than half a dozen rooms in all, and there is no
+trace of a circular kiva, or other evidence of permanent habitation. It
+is possible that the space between the edge of the floor of the cave
+above and the whitened house back of it was occupied by some sort of
+structure, but no evidence now remains which would warrant such a
+hypothesis, except that the door of the white house is now about 4 feet
+above the ground. The cave is only 40 feet long and a little over 10
+feet deep, and there is not room on the floor for more than three or
+four rooms, in addition to those shown on the plan. The room on the
+right still preserves its roof intact, showing the typical pueblo roof
+construction. It has a well-preserved doorway, and three other openings
+may be seen in the main room.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 51--Plan of a cluster of rooms In Canyon del
+  Muerto.]
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 52--White House ruin in Tseonitsosi canyon.]
+
+Apparently some effort at ornamentation was made here. The whitewash was
+not applied to the fronts of the two back rooms so as to cover all of
+them, but in a broad belt, leaving the natural yellowish-gray color of
+the plastering in a narrow band above and a broad band below it.
+Moreover, the principal opening of the larger room was specially
+treated; in the application of the whitewash a narrow border or frame of
+the natural color was left surrounding it. The attempt to apply
+decoration not utilitarian in character is rare among the ruins here. It
+implies either a late period in the occupancy of this region, or an
+occupancy of the site by a people who had practiced this method of
+house-building longer or under more favorable conditions than the
+others.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 53--Ground plan of a ruin in Tseonitsosi canyon.]
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 54--Plan of rooms against a convex cliff.]
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 55--Small ruin with curved wall.]
+
+Figure 54 shows an arrangement of rooms along a narrow ledge at the top
+of the talus, where the cliff wall is not coved or concave, but convex.
+Some of these little rooms may have been used only for storage, but
+others were undoubtedly habitations. Figure 55 shows an example in which
+the back wall is curved, as though it was either built over an old kiva
+or an attempt was made to convert a rectangular room into a kiva. There
+were originally three rooms in the cluster, only one of which remains,
+but that one is of unusual size, measuring about 15 by 10 feet. If the
+room was used solely as a habitation, there was no necessity for the
+back wall, as the side walls continue back to the cliff. Including the
+little cove on the left, there are seven Navaho burial places on this
+site.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 56--Ground plan of a cliff outlook.]
+
+Plate LIII shows an outlook in the lower part of De Chelly, at the point
+marked 6 on the map. The lower part of the cliff here flares out
+slightly, forming a sharp slope; where it meets the vertical rock there
+is a small bench, on which the ruin is situated. It is apparently
+inaccessible, but close examination shows a long series of hand and foot
+holes extending up a cleft in the rock, and forming an easy ascent. The
+site commands a good outlook over the bottom lands.
+
+The ruin consists of three rectangular rooms arranged side by side
+against the cliff, and a kind of curved addition on the east. Figure 56
+is a ground plan. The walls are still standing from a foot to 4 feet
+high, and produce the impression of being unfinished; although carefully
+chinked, they were neither plastered nor rubbed down. The two western
+rooms were built first, and the eastern wall extends through the front.
+East of these rooms there is a small rectangular chamber, and east of
+this again a low curved wall forming a little chamber or cist of
+irregular form (not shown in the plan). The front wall was extended
+beyond this and brought in again to the cliff on a curve, forming
+another small cist of irregular shape. This and the little chamber west
+of it were doubtless used for storage. They resemble in plan Navaho
+cists, but the masonry, which is exactly like the other walls here, will
+not permit the hypothesis of Navaho construction. Except for some slight
+traces in the northwest corner of the west room, there are no smoke
+stains about, nor are there any pictographs on the cliff walls. The
+western room was pierced by a window opening which was subsequently
+filled up, possibly by the Navaho, who have five burial cists here.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 57--Plan of cliff outlook No. 14, in Canyon de
+  Chelly.]
+
+Figure 57 is the plan of a small outlook which occurs at the point
+marked 14 on the map. Opposite the mouth of Del Muerto there is an
+elevated rocky area of considerable extent, perhaps 50 feet above the
+bottom, but shelving off around the edges. Near the cliff this is
+covered by sand dunes and piles of broken rock; farther out there is a
+more level area covered thinly with sand and soil, and here there is a
+large ruin of the old obliterated type already described (page 93).
+
+  [Illustration: Plate LIII
+  Cliff Outlook in Lower Canyon De Chelly]
+
+Near the edges the rock becomes bare again, and is 20 to 30 feet high,
+descending sheer or with an overhang to the bottoms or to the stream
+bed. On the western side, facing north, the ruin illustrated occurs. It
+is a mere cubby hole, and was evidently located for the area of
+cultivable land which lies before it, and which it almost completely
+commands. The cavity is about 12 feet above the ground and appears to
+have been divided by cross walls into three rooms, two of which were
+quite small. The back room was small, dark, and not large enough to
+contain a human body unless it was carefully packed in, and at various
+points along the back wall there are seeps of water. The interior of the
+little room was very wet and moldy at the time when it was examined, in
+winter, but in the summer time is probably dry enough.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 58--Ground plan of outlooks in a cleft.]
+
+The masonry is fair and the surface is finished with plaster. The open
+space in front of the small back room and the outer wall of the room
+itself are much blackened by smoke, as though the inhabitant lived here
+and used the small room only to store his utensils and implements. A
+small room on the east must have been used for a similar purpose. Both
+of these rooms were entered through narrow doorways opening on the
+principal space. The site is an ideal one for a lookout, but not well
+suited for a habitation. Plate LIV shows its character.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 59--Plan of a single-room outlook.]
+
+Cliff outlooks are often found on sites whose restricted areas preclude
+all possibility that they formed parts of larger settlements since
+obliterated. The ruin just described is an example. Another instance
+which occurs in Del Muerto is shown in figure 58. Here a deep cleft in
+the rock was partly occupied by two or three rooms. There was room for
+more, but apparently no more were built. There was not room, however,
+for even a small village. There are several other examples in the canyon
+almost identical with these, but this type is not nearly so abundant as
+the succeeding. Figure 59 is a plan of a ruin near the mouth of Del
+Muerto. It was a single room, situated on a ledge perhaps 30 or 40 feet
+above the bottom land which it overlooked and of easy access. This is
+the most common type of outlook or cliff ruin, and it might almost be
+said that they number hundreds, sometimes consisting of one room alone,
+sometimes of two or even three The general appearance of these outlooks
+is shown in figure 60, which shows an example containing three rooms.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 60--Three-room outlook in Canyon del Muerto.]
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 61--Plan of a two-room outlook.]
+
+Figure 61 is a ground plan of an example containing two rooms, which
+occurs below the large ruin described before (No. 31, page 119), and
+figure 62 shows an example with one room, obscured and built over with
+Navaho cists. This site is located in the upper part of the canyon, on
+top of the talus, about 100 feet above the stream, and commands an
+outlook over several areas of bottom land on both sides. The walls are
+built about 10 feet high, and are composed of medium-size stones laid in
+courses and carefully chinked with small spalls. The southwestern corner
+of the room is broken down, but the eastern wall is still standing, and
+shows a well-finished opening on that side. There are several Navaho
+burial cists on this site.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 62--Plan of outlook and burial cists, No. 64.]
+
+  [Illustration: Plate LIV
+  Cliff Ruin No. 14]
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 63--Plan of rectangular room No. 45.]
+
+Figure 63 is the plan of a type of ruin which is rather anomalous in the
+canyon. It occurs at the point marked 45 on the map, and occupies a
+small flat area almost on top of the talus 300 feet or more above the
+stream bed. It is just below the ruin described and illustrated on page
+144 (figure 48), and hardly 20 feet distant from it, and yet it does not
+appear to have been connected with it. It consists of a single large
+room, 20 feet long by 111/2 feet wide outside, and the site commands an
+extensive prospect over bottom lands on both sides of the canyon, and
+above, but the only opening in the wall on that side is a little
+peephole 6 inches square and 2 feet from the ground. This is sufficient,
+however, to command nearly the whole outlook. There is a doorway on the
+eastern side, one side of which, fairly well finished, remains. There
+was apparently no other opening, unless one existed on the western side,
+where, in the center, the wall is broken down to within 2 feet of the
+ground. Along the western side of the room, at the present ground
+surface, there are remains of a bench about a foot wide; the eastern
+side is covered above this level.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 64--Rectangular single room.]
+
+The masonry is very rough and chinked only with large stones. The
+interior is roughly plastered in places, and small pieces of stone are
+stuck on flat. The corners are rounded. Externally the masonry has the
+appearance of stones laid without mortar, like a Navaho stone corral,
+and were it not for the occurrence of other similar remains, it might be
+regarded as of Navaho or white man's construction, as the size, site,
+plan, and masonry are all anomalous. Figure 64 shows an example,
+however, closely resembling the one described in these features, and
+figure 65 shows another. Altogether there are four or five examples,
+distributed over a considerable area.
+
+Somewhat similar wall remains are seen in places on the canyon bottom,
+where they are always of modern Navaho origin, and it is quite possible
+that the ruins above mentioned should be placed in the same category. It
+will be noticed that in the plan the doorway or entrance opening is on
+the eastern side--an invariable requirement of Navaho house
+constructions; but it is only within recent times that the Navaho have
+constructed permanent, rectangular abodes, and even now such houses are
+rarely built. It is difficult to understand, moreover, why recourse
+should be had to such inconvenient sites, if the structures are of
+Navaho origin, as these Indians always locate their hogans on the bottom
+lands, or on some slight rise overlooking them.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 65--Single-room remains.]
+
+Distributed throughout the canyons, wherever a favorable situation could
+be found, there are a great number of sites resembling those of the
+cliff outlooks, but showing now no standing wall. There is always some
+evidence of human occupancy, often many pictographs on the back wall, as
+in an example in the lower part of the canyon shown in plate LV. This
+occurs at point 2 on the map, in a cove perhaps 100 feet across, with
+caves on the northern and southern sides.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate LV
+  Site Marked by Pictographs]
+
+In the southern cave there are no traces of masonry, but the back of the
+cave is covered with hand prints and pictographs of deer, as shown in
+the plate. In the northern cave there are traces of walls. Many of the
+sites do not show the faintest trace of house structures; some of them
+have remains of storage cists, and many have remains of Navaho burial
+cists, associated with pictographs not of Navaho origin. Some idea of
+the number and distribution of these sites may be obtained from the
+following list, wherein the numbers represent the location shown on the
+detailed map: 2, 8, 9, 11, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, 25, 26, 30, 38, 39, 40,
+42, 43, 53, 54, 57, and 66--in all 21 sites which occur between the
+mouth of De Chelly and the junction of Monument canyon, 13 miles above.
+Beyond this point they are rare, as the areas of cultivable land become
+scarce. A similar distribution prevails in Del Muerto.
+
+
+
+
+DETAILS
+
+
+SITES
+
+The character of the site occupied by a ruin is a very important feature
+where the response to the physical environment is as ready and complete
+as it is in the ancient pueblo region. This feature has not received the
+attention it deserves, for it is more than probable that in the ultimate
+classification of ruins that will some day be formulated the site
+occupied will be one of the principal elements considered, if not the
+most important. The site is not so important per se, but must be
+considered with reference to the specific character of the ruin upon it,
+its ground plan, the character of other ruins in the vicinity which may
+have been connected with it, and its topographic environment. The
+character and ground plan of a cliff ruin would be so much out of place
+on an open valley site that it would immediately attract attention. The
+reverse is equally remarkable.
+
+Considering all that has been written about the cliff ruins as defensive
+structures, it is strange how little direct evidence there is to support
+the hypothesis; how few examples can be cited which show anything that
+can be construed as the result of the defensive motive except the
+general impression produced on the observer. Nor, on the other hand, do
+these ruins as a whole give any support to the theory that they
+represent an intermediate stage in the development of the pueblo people.
+Some few may, perhaps those examined by Mr F. H. Cushing south and east
+of Zuni do; but more than 99 per cent of them give more support to a
+theory that they are the ultimate development of pueblo architecture
+than to the other hypothesis, for they contain in themselves evidence of
+a knowledge of construction equal and even superior to that shown in
+many of the modern pueblo villages. The only thing anomalous or
+distinctive about the cliff ruins, considered as an element of pueblo
+architecture, is the character of site occupied. If this were dictated
+by the defensive motive, it would seem reasonable to suppose that the
+same motive would have some direct influence on the structures, yet
+examples where it has affected the arrangement of rooms or ground plan
+or the character of the masonry are exceedingly rare and generally
+doubtful.
+
+It is well to specify that in the preceding remarks the term cliff ruin
+has been applied to small settlements, comprising generally less than
+four rooms, sometimes only one or two, and usually located on high and
+almost inaccessible sites. These are comprised in class IV of the
+classification here followed. Regular villages located in the cliffs or
+on top of the talus (class III) are a different matter. These have
+nothing in common with the small ruins, except that sometimes there is a
+similarity of site. Doubtless in some of these ruins the defensive
+motive operated to a certain extent. In classes I and II, however, the
+influence of the defensive motive, in so far as it affected the
+character of site chosen, is conspicuous by its absence. As there is no
+evidence that the cliff ruins of class IV were separate and distinct
+from the other ruins, but the contrary, the defensive motive may be
+assigned a very subordinate place among the causes which produced that
+phase of pueblo architecture found in Canyon de Chelly.
+
+An hypothesis as to the order in which sites of the various classes were
+occupied can not be based on the present condition of the ruins. It is
+more than likely that the older ruins served as quarries of building
+material for succeeding structures erected near them, and probably some
+of the cliff ruins themselves served in this way for the erection of
+others, for there are many sites from which the building stone has been
+almost entirely removed; yet there is no doubt that these sites were
+formerly occupied. The Navaho also have contributed to the destruction.
+Notwithstanding their horror of contact with the remains of the dead,
+quite a number of buildings have been erected by these Indians with
+material derived from adjacent ruins. It is evident that the gathering
+of this material would be a much lighter task than to quarry and prepare
+it, no matter how roughly the latter might be done.
+
+In a study of some ruins in the valley of the Rio Verde, made a few
+years ago, a suggestion was made of the order in which ruins of various
+kinds succeeded one another--a sort of chronologic sequence, of which
+the beginning in time could not be determined. Studies of the ruins and
+inhabited villages of the old province of Tusayan (Moki) and Cibola
+(Zuni), and a cursory examination of ruins on Gila river, show that they
+all fall easily into the same general order, which is somewhat as
+follows:
+
+1. The earliest form of pueblo house is doubtful. As a rule, in most
+localities the earliest forms are already well advanced. As it is now
+known that the ancient pueblo region was not inhabited by a vast number
+of people, but by a comparatively small number of little bands, each in
+constant though slow movement, this condition is what we would expect to
+find. It is probable that the earliest settlements consisted of single
+houses or small clusters located in valleys convenient to areas of
+cultivable land and on streams or near water.
+
+2. The next step gives us villages, generally of small size, located on
+the foothills of mesas and overlooking large areas of good land which
+were doubtless under cultivation. This class comprises more examples
+perhaps than any other, and many of them come well within the historic
+period, such as six of the seven villages of Tusayan at the time of the
+Spanish conquest in 1540, all of the Cibolan villages of the same date,
+and some of the Rio Grande pueblos of that time.
+
+3. In some localities, though not in all, the small villages were at a
+later period moved to higher and more inaccessible sites. This change
+has taken place in Tusayan within the historic period, and in fact was
+not wholly completed even fifty years ago. The pueblo of Acoma was in
+this stage at the time of the conquest, and has remained so to the
+present day. As a rule each of the small villages preserved its
+independence, but in some cases they combined together to occupy
+together a high defensive site. Such combination is, however, unusual.
+
+4. The final stage in the development of pueblo architecture is the
+large, many-storied, or beehive village, located generally in the midst
+of broad valleys, depending on its size and population for defense, and
+usually adjacent to some stream. In this class of structure the
+defensive motive, in so far as it affected the choosing of the site,
+entirely disappears. The largest existing pueblo, Zuni, made this step
+early in the eighteenth century; the next largest, Taos, was probably in
+this stage in 1540, and has remained so since. In some cases ruins on
+foothill sites (2) have merged directly into many-storied pueblos on
+open sites (4), without passing through an intermediate stage.
+
+There is another step in the process of development which is now being
+taken by many pueblos, which, although an advance from the industrial
+point of view, is to the student of architecture degeneration. This
+consists of a return to single houses located in the valleys and on the
+bottom lands wherever convenience to the fields under cultivation
+required. This movement is hardly twenty years old, but is proceeding at
+a steadily accelerating pace, and its ultimate result is the complete
+destruction of pueblo architecture. Whatever we wish to know of this
+phase of Indian culture must be learned now, for two generations hence
+probably nothing will remain of it.
+
+This hasty sketch will illustrate some of the difficulties that lie in
+the way of a complete classification of the ruins of the pueblo country.
+It is impossible to arrange them in chronologic sequence, because they
+are the product of different tribes who at different times came under
+the influence of analogous causes, and results were produced which are
+similar in themselves but different in time. It is believed, however,
+that the classification suggested exhibits a cultural sequence and
+probably within each tribe a chronologic order.
+
+In this classification no mention has been made of the cliff and cave
+ruins. These structures belong partly to class III, villages on
+defensive sites, and partly to a subclass which pertained to a certain
+extent to all the others. In the early stages of pueblo architecture the
+people lived directly on the laud they tilled. Later the villages were
+located on low foothills overlooking the land, but in this stage some of
+the villages had already attained considerable size and the lands
+overlooked by them were not sufficient for their needs. As a consequence
+some of the inhabitants had to work fields at a distance from the home
+village, and as a matter of convenience small temporary shelters were
+erected near by. In a still later stage, when the villages were removed
+to higher and more easily defended sites, the number of farming shelters
+must have largely increased, as suitable sites which also commanded
+large areas of good land could not often be found. At a still later
+stage, when the inhabitants of a number of small villages combined to
+form one large one, this difficulty was increased still more, and it is
+probable that in this stage the construction of outlying farming
+settlements attained its maximum development. Often whole villages of
+considerable size, sometimes many miles from the home pueblo, were
+nothing more than farming shelters. These villages, like the single-room
+shelters, were occupied only during the farming season; in the winter
+the inhabitants abandoned them completely and retired to the home
+village.
+
+Some farming villages, such as those described above, are still in use
+among the pueblos. The little village of Moen-Kapi, attached to Oraibi,
+but 75 miles distant from it, is an example. There are also no fewer
+than three villages in the Zuni country of the same class. Nutria,
+Pescado, and Ojo Caliente are summer villages of the Zuni, although
+distant from that pueblo from 15 to 25 miles. It is significant that
+none of these subordinate villages possess a kiva. It is believed that
+the cliff ruins and cavate lodges, which are merely variants of each
+other due to geological conditions, were simply farming shelters of
+another type, produced by a certain topographic environment.
+
+The importance which it is believed should attach to the site on which a
+ruin is found will be apparent from the above. It was certainly a
+prominent element in the De Chelly group. A study of the detailed map
+here published will illustrate how completely the necessity for
+proximity to an area of cultivable land has dominated the location of
+the settlements, large and small; and a visit to the place itself would
+show how little influence the defensive motive has exercised. Near the
+mouth of the canyon, where cultivable areas of land are not many, there
+are few ruins, but those which do occur overlook such lands. In the
+middle portion, where good lands are most abundant, ruins also are most
+abundant; while above this, as the rocky talus develops more and more,
+the ruins become fewer and fewer; and in the upper parts of the canyon,
+beyond the area shown on the map, they are located at wide distances
+apart, corresponding to little areas of good land so located. Not all of
+the available land was utilized, and only a small percentage of the
+available sites were built upon. Between the mouth of De Chelly and the
+junction of Monument canyon, 13 miles above, there are seventy-one
+ruins. A fair idea of their distribution may be obtained from a study of
+the detailed map (plate XLIII), in conjunction with the following
+figures:
+
+  I. Old villages on open sites occur at the points marked 12, 41, 52,
+    17_a_, 55, 60, 61, and 67; in all, nine sites; principally in the
+    upper part of the canyon.
+
+  II. Home villages on bottom lands, located without reference to
+    defense, occupy sites 3, 4, 17, 20, 28, 48, and 51; in all, seven
+    sites. Probably there are many more ruins of this class and the
+    preceding, now so far obliterated as to be overlooked or
+    indistinguishable.
+
+  III. Home villages on defensive sites occur at the points marked
+    5, 10, 13, 15, 16, 27, 31, 32, 34, 36, 37, 40, 44, 47, 59, 62,
+    and 66; in all, seventeen. This includes many sites where the
+    settlements were very small, often only a few rooms, but there
+    is always at least one kiva.
+
+  IV. Cliff outlooks and farming shelters occupy sites 2, 6, 7, 8, 9,
+    11, 14, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 29, 30, 33, 35, 38, 39,
+    42, 43, 45, 46, 49, 50, 53, 54, 56, 57, 64, 63, 65, 68, 69, and
+    70; in all, thirty-seven, or more than half. Some of these sites
+    are now marked only by Navaho remains, and possibly a small
+    percentage of them are of Navaho making, but the sites which are
+    clearly and unmistakably Navaho are not mentioned here. Of all the
+    sites only one (No. 7) is actually inaccessible without artificial
+    aid.
+
+The absence of any attempt to improve the natural advantages of the
+sites is remarkable. No expedients were employed to make access either
+easier or more difficult, except that here and there series of hand and
+foot holes have been pecked in the rock. Steps, either constructed of
+masonry or cut in the rock, such as those found in the Mancos canyon and
+the Mesa Verde region, are never seen here. The cavities in which the
+ruins occur are always natural; they are never enlarged or curtailed or
+altered in the slightest degree, and very rarely is the cavity itself
+treated as a room, although there are some excellent sites for such
+treatment. The back wall of a cove is often the back wall of a village,
+but aside from this the natural advantages of the sites were seldom
+realized.
+
+The settlements were always located with reference to the canyon bottom,
+and access was never had from above, notwithstanding that in some cases
+access from above was easier than from below. Yet the inhabitants must
+necessarily have obtained their supply of firewood from above, as the
+quantity in the canyons, especially in that part where most of the ruins
+occur, is very limited. The Navaho throw the wood over the cliffs,
+afterward gathering up the fragments below and carrying them on their
+backs to their hogans at various points on the canyon bottom. The crash
+of falling logs, dropped or pushed over the edge of a cliff, sometimes
+400 or 500 feet high, is not an infrequent sound in the canyon, and is
+at first very puzzling to the visitor.
+
+The canyon walls are so nearly vertical, or rather so large a proportion
+is vertical, that egress or ingress, except at the mouth of the canyon,
+is a matter of great difficulty. Near the junction of Monument canyon,
+13 miles above the mouth of De Chelly, there is a practicable horse
+trail ascending a narrow gorge to the southeast. The Navaho call it the
+Bat trail, on account of its difficulties. Another horse trail crosses
+Del Muerto some 8 or 10 miles above its mouth. With these exceptions
+there is no point where a horse can get into the canyons or out of them,
+but there are dozens of places where an active man, accustomed to it,
+can scale the walls by the aid of foot-holes which have been pecked in
+the rock at the most difficult places. These foot trails are in constant
+use by the Navaho, who ascend and descend by them with apparent ease,
+but it is doubtful whether a white man could be induced to climb them,
+except perhaps under the stress of necessity. There are even some trails
+over which sheep and goats are driven in and out of the canyon, but
+anyone who had not seen the flocks actually passing over the rocks would
+declare such a feat impossible. Some of these trails at least are of
+Navaho origin. Whether any of them were used by the former dwellers in
+the canyon can not now be determined; it seems probable that some of
+them were.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 66--Site apparently very difficult of access.]
+
+  [Illustration: Plate LVI
+  Site Difficult of Approach]
+
+Plate LVI shows a characteristic site in the lower part of the canyon.
+It occurs at the point marked 8 on the map, and is now quite difficult
+of approach, owing to the wearing away or weathering of a long line of
+foot-holes in the sloping rock, but formerly access was easy enough. It
+is now marked by a cluster of Navaho burial cists. Figure 66 shows an
+example that occurs in De Chelly, about 8 miles above the junction, of
+Monument canyon. At first glance, and at a distance, this site appears
+to be really inaccessible, but a close inspection of the figure will
+show that it could be reached with comparative little difficulty over
+the rounded mass of rock shown to the left. By cutting off that side of
+the figure it could be made to serve as an illustration of a wholly
+inaccessible ruin.
+
+
+MASONRY
+
+The ancient pueblo builder, like his modern successor, was so closely in
+touch with nature, so dependent on his immediate physical surroundings,
+that variations in some at least of his arts are more natural and to be
+expected than uniformity. Especially is this true of the art of
+construction, and variations in masonry are more often than not the
+result of variations in the material employed, which is nearly always
+that most convenient to hand. Yet there were other conditions that
+necessarily influenced it, such, for example, as the character of the
+structure to be erected, whether permanent or temporary. The summer
+village of Ojo Caliente presents a type of masonry much ruder than any
+found in the home village of Zuni, although both were built and occupied
+by the same people at the same time.
+
+Within the limits of Canyon de Chelly, where the physical conditions and
+the character of material are essentially uniform, a considerable
+variation in the masonry is found, implying that some conditions other
+than the usual ones have influenced it. Were the masonry of one class of
+ruins inferior or superior throughout to that of another it might be
+easily explained, but variations within each class are greater than
+those between classes. Conditions analogous to those which prevailed in
+the case of Ojo Caliente and Zuni may have governed here, or there may
+have been other conditions of which we now know nothing. It may be that
+sites originally occupied as farming shelters subsequently became
+regular villages, as has happened in other regions. The position of the
+kivas in many of the ruins suggests this. As a whole the masonry is
+inferior to that found in the Mancos canyon and the Chaco, and superior
+to that of Tusayan, but, as in Tusayan, where the masonry is sometimes
+very roughly constructed, the builders were well acquainted with the
+methods which produced the finer and better work.
+
+The highest type of masonry in the pueblo system of architecture
+consists of small blocks of stone of nearly uniform size, dressed, and
+laid in courses, and rubbed down in situ. No attempt was made to break
+joints. This system requires the careful preparation of the material
+beforehand, and examples of it are not very common in Canyon de Chelly.
+As a variant we have walls composed of stones of fairly uniform size,
+laid with the best face out and with the interstices chinked with small
+spalls. The chinking is carried to such an extent in some places, as in
+the Chaco ruins, that the walls present the effect of a mosaic composed
+of small spalls. Chinking is almost a universal practice, and in some
+localities had passed, or was passing, from a mere constructive to a
+real decorative feature. Here we have the beginning of that architecture
+which has been defined by Ferguson as "ornamental and ornamented
+construction"--in other words, of architecture as an art rather than as
+a craft.
+
+The use of an exterior finish of plaster was conducive to poor masonry.
+Such plastering is found throughout the region, but it is much more
+abundant in the modern than in the ancient work. Perhaps we may find in
+this a suggestion of relative age; not in the use of plastering, but in
+its prevalence.
+
+Pueblo masonry is composed of very small units, and the results obtained
+testify to the patience and industry of the builders rather than to
+their knowledge and skill. In fact, their knowledge of construction was
+far more limited than would at first sight be supposed. The marked
+tabular character of the stone used rendered but a small amount of
+preparation necessary for even the best masonry. For over 90 per cent of
+it there was no preparation other than the selection of material. The
+walls and buildings were always modified to suit the ground, never the
+reverse, and instances in which the site was prepared are very rare, if
+not indeed unknown. There are no such instances in De Chelly, where
+sites were often irregular, and a small amount of work would have
+rendered them much more desirable.
+
+Plate LVII shows a type of masonry which is quite common in De Chelly.
+It is the west room of ruin 16, near the mouth of Del Muerto. An attempt
+at regularity, and possibly at decorative effect, is apparent in the use
+of courses of fairly uniform thickness, alternating with other courses
+or belts composed of small thin fragments. Beautiful examples of masonry
+constructed on this method occur in the Chaco ruins, but here, while the
+method was known, the execution was careless or faulty. Chinking with
+small spalls has been extensively practiced and gives the wall an
+appearance of smoothness and finish. A similar wall, rather better
+constructed, occurs at the point marked 3 on the map, and in this case
+the stones composing the wall were rubbed down in situ. Another wall,
+which occurs in the same ruin, is shown in plate LVIII. In places very
+large stones have been used, larger than one man could handle
+conveniently, but the general effect of the wall face is very good. This
+effect was obtained by placing the best face of the stone outward and by
+careful chinking.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate LVII
+  Masonry in Canyon De Chelly]
+
+Chinking was sometimes done, not with slips of stone driven in with a
+hammer, after the usual style, but with bits of mud pressed in with the
+fingers. The mud was used when about the consistency of modeling clay,
+and bears the imprints of the fingers that applied it; even the skin
+markings show clearly and distinctly. From this use of mud to its use as
+an exterior plaster there is but a short step; in fact, examples which
+are intermediate can be seen throughout the canyon. In places mud has
+been applied to small cracks and cavities in larger quantities than was
+necessary, and the excess has been smoothed over the adjacent stones
+forming a wall partly plastered, or plastered in patches. Plate LIX,
+which shows the interior of a room in ruin 10, will illustrate this.
+Here the process has been carried so far that the wall is almost
+plastered, but not quite. In plastered walls the process was carried a
+step farther, and the surface was finished by the application of a final
+coat of mud made quite liquid. The interior plastering of kivas was
+always much more carefully done than that of any other walls. Owing to
+blackening by smoke and recoating, the thickness of the plastering in
+kivas can be easily made out. Often it is as thin as ordinary paper.
+
+Plate LX shows walls in which an abundance of mud mortar was used, and
+the effect is that of a plastered wall. The difference between these
+walls and those shown in plate LVII is only one of degree, the wall
+shown in plate LIX being of an intermediate type. No instance occurs in
+the canyon where a coating of mud was evenly applied to the whole
+surface of a wall, in the way, for example, that stucco is used by us.
+It seems probable, therefore, that the application of plaster as a
+finish grew out of the use of stone spalls for chinking, and its
+prevalence in modern as compared with old structures is suggestive. It
+is not claimed, however, that because we have examples of the
+intermediate stages in De Chelly that the process was developed there.
+The step is such a slight one that it might have been made in a hundred
+different localities at a hundred different times or at one time; but it
+is well to note that in any given group of ruins or locality it is
+likely to be later than masonry chinked with stones. Surface finishing
+in mud plaster is the prevailing method at the present day, and
+well-executed masonry of stone carefully chinked is almost invariably
+ancient. The use of surface plaster is largely responsible for the
+deterioration of stonework that has taken place since the beginning of
+the historic period. The modern village of Zuni, which dates from the
+beginning of the eighteenth century, although built on the site of an
+older village, is essentially a stone-built village, though that fact
+would never appear from a cursory examination, so completely is the
+stonework covered by surface plaster.
+
+In Tusayan (Moki) walls have been observed in progress of erection. The
+stones were laid up dry, and some time after, when the rains came and
+pools of water stood here and there in pockets on the mesa top, mud
+mortar was mixed and the interstices were filled. This method saved the
+transportation of water from the wells below up to the top of the mesa,
+a task entailing much labor. Doubtless a similar method was followed in
+De Chelly, where the stream bed carries water only during a part of the
+year. But stone was also actually laid in mud mortar, as shown in plate
+LII, which illustrates a rough type of masonry.
+
+It is probable that the practice of chinking grew up out of the scarcity
+of water, when walls were erected during the dry season and finished
+when the rains made the manufacture of mud mortar less of a task. The
+rough wall shown in the illustration is the outside of an interior wall
+of a kiva, and it was probably covered by the rectangular inclosing wall
+that came outside of it. It will be noticed that chinking, both with mud
+and with spalls, was extensively practiced and seems here to have been
+an essential part of the construction. In this example it could have no
+relation to the finish of the wall, for the wall was not finished.
+
+Much of the masonry in the canyon is of the type described, but examples
+differ widely in degree of finish and in material selected. Some of the
+walls appear very rough and even crude, so much so that they almost
+appear to be the first efforts of a people at an unknown art, but a
+closer inspection shows that even the rudest walls were erected with a
+knowledge of the principles which were followed in the best ones, and
+that the difference resulted only from the care or lack of care
+employed. The rudest walls are much superior to the masonry of the
+Navaho cists which are found in conjunction with them and which are
+constructed on a different method.
+
+Although walls were often built on sloping rock, and the builders had
+experience and at times disastrous experience to guide them, the
+necessity for a fiat and solid foundation was never appreciated. Walls
+were sometimes built on loose debris; even refuse which had been covered
+and formed an artificial soil was considered sufficient. There are many
+instances in the canyon where lack of foresight or lack of knowledge in
+this respect has brought about the destruction of walls. Walls resting
+on foreign material occur throughout the region; they are not confined
+to anyone class of ruins or to any part of the canyon, but are found as
+much or more in the most recent as in the most ancient examples. Mummy
+Cave ruin and Casa Blanca are good examples. In the latter the small
+room on the left of the upper group (plate XLVII) is especially
+interesting. The side walls appear to rest on a deposit of refuse nearly
+2 feet thick, which in turn rests on the sloping rock. The front wall is
+supported by a buttress as shown; without this support it would
+certainly have been pushed out. The buttress appears to have been built
+at the same time as the front wall, although its use in this way is not
+aboriginal. The whole arrangement is such as would result if this room,
+originally represented by a low front wall perhaps, were constructed
+when the site became inadequate and consequently at a late period in its
+occupancy.
+
+The character of the refuse and debris upon which some of the walls rest
+is worth notice. It is well known that sheep were introduced into this
+country by the Spaniards, and the presence in the ruins of sheep dung,
+or of a material which closely resembles it, is important. Much of this
+is due to subsequent Navaho occupancy, and many ruins are used today by
+these Indians as sheepfolds. It is said, moreover, that at the time of
+the Navaho war, when the soldiers bayoneted all the sheep they could
+find, large flocks were driven up into some cliff ruins that are almost
+inaccessible, and kept there for a time in security. But many instances
+are found where the walls rest directly upon layers of compacted dung.
+An example is shown in plate LII, and others are mentioned in the text
+under the descriptions of various ruins.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate LVIII
+  Chinked Walls in Canyon De Chelly]
+
+It has been suggested that the compacted dung found in the ruins was the
+product not of sheep, but of some other domesticated animal which
+existed in this country at the time of the first Spanish invasion, but
+the evidence to support this hypothesis is so very slight that so far
+the suggestion is only a suggestion. Not the slightest trace of this
+animal has been found, although it is alleged that it was domesticated
+among the pueblos three hundred and fifty years ago.
+
+Although the idea of a strengthening or supporting buttress is thought
+to be a foreign introduction, a hypothesis that is strengthened by the
+occurrence of other features, the masonry itself is aboriginal in its
+principles and probably also in execution. The conservatism of the
+Indian mind in such matters is well known. The Zuni today use stone more
+than adobe, although for a hundred years or more there has been an adobe
+church in the midst of the village.
+
+Adobe construction in this region is only partially successful. North of
+the Gila river, in the plateau country, the climate is not suited to it;
+the rains are too heavy and the frosts are destructive. Constant
+vigilance and prompt repairs are necessary, and even then the adobe work
+is not satisfactory. Certainly in the northern part of the country the
+aborigines would not have developed this method of construction in the
+face of the difficulties with which it is surrounded; yet there are
+examples of adobe work in some of the most important ruins in De Chelly,
+as has already been stated. The fact that the only previously known
+examples of adobe work occur in ruins which are known to have been
+inhabited subsequent to the Spanish conquest, such as the ruin of
+Awatobi, in Tusayan, is suggestive. Moreover, adobe construction in this
+region belongs to a late period; for the walls are almost always very
+thin, usually 6 or 7 inches. The old type of massive walls, 2 or even
+3 feet thick, are seldom or never found constructed of adobe, although
+such thickness is more necessary in this material than in stone.
+
+There is another method of construction which, although not masonry,
+should be noticed here. This is the equivalent of the Mexican "jacal"
+construction, and consists of series of poles or logs planted vertically
+in the ground close to each other and plastered with mud either outside
+or on both sides. The only example of this found in the canyon occurs in
+the western part of the lower Casa Blanca ruin, and has already been
+mentioned. Did it not occur elsewhere it could be dismissed here as
+simply another item of evidence of the modern occupancy of the ruin, but
+Dr W. R. Birdsall mentions walls in the Mesa Verde ruins which are
+"continued upward upon a few tiers of stone by wickerwork heavily
+plastered inside and outside"[14] and Nordenskioeld mentions a similar
+construction in the interior of a kiva. Whether a similar foundation or
+lower part of stone existed in the Casa Blanca ruin could not be
+determined without excavation.
+
+    [Footnote 14: Bull. Am. Geog. Soc., vol. xxiii, p. 598.]
+
+
+OPENINGS
+
+The ruins in De Chelly are so much broken down that few examples of
+openings now remain; still fewer are yet intact; but there is no doubt
+that they are of the regular pueblo types. Most of the openings in the
+De Chelly ruins are rectangular, of medium size, neither very large nor
+very small, with unfinished jambs and sills, and with a lintel such as
+that shown in plate LVIII, composed of one or two series of light
+sticks, sometimes surmounted by a flat stone slab. This example occurs
+at the point marked 3 on the map, in what was formerly an extensive
+village. The wall on the left, now covered by loosely piled rocks, was
+pierced by a narrow notched doorway. The opening shown in the
+illustration, which is in the northern wall, is 2 feet high and 14
+inches wide; its sill is about 18 inches from the ground. The lintel is
+composed of six small sticks, about an inch in diameter, surmounted by a
+flat slab of stone, very roughly shaped, and separated from the sticks
+by 2 inches of mud mortar.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 67--Notched doorway in Canyon de Chelly.]
+
+Plate LVII shows an opening which occurs in ruin No. 16. The building
+consisted of two rooms, between which there was no communication. The
+eastern room was entered by the doorway shown in the illustration, which
+is 2 feet above the ground and 2 feet high. To facilitate ingress a
+notch was dug in the wall about 8 inches from the ground. The western
+room was entered through a large doorway, shown in plate LI. The sill is
+about 8 inches above the ground; the opening is 3 feet high and 14
+inches wide. The lintel is composed of small sticks, with a slab of
+stone above them, and the top of the opening and perhaps the sides were
+plastered.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate LIX
+  A Partly Plastered Wall]
+
+The notched or T-shape doorway, which is quite common in the Mesa Verde
+ruins and in Tusayan, is not abundant in De Chelly, but some examples
+can be seen there. One is shown in figure 67, which illustrates the
+type. There is no doubt that doorways of this kind developed at a time
+when no means existed for closing the opening, except blankets or skins,
+and when loads were carried on the backs of men. It often happened that
+doorways originally constructed of this style were afterward changed by
+partial filling to square or rectangular openings. The principal doorway
+in the front wall of the White House proper was originally of T-shape;
+at some later period, but before the white coating was applied, the
+left-hand wing and the standard below it were filled in, leaving an
+almost square opening. This later filling is not uncommon in De Chelly,
+and is often found in Tusayan, where openings are sometimes reduced for
+the winter season and enlarged again in the summer. Many openings are
+completely closed, either by filling in with masonry or by a stone slab,
+and examples of both of these methods are found in De Chelly. In the
+third wall from the east, in the upper part of Casa Blanca ruin, there
+is a well-finished doorway sealed by a thin slab of stone set in mud. On
+the right side of the opening, about the middle, a loop or staple of
+wood has been built into the wall, and in the corresponding place on the
+left side a stick about half an inch in diameter projects. An opening
+into the small room west of the White House proper has a similar
+contrivance, and another example occurs in the front wall of the small
+single room in the eastern end of the ruin. Oddly enough the three
+examples that occur in this ruin are all found in adobe walls.
+
+This feature appears to have been a contrivance for temporarily closing
+openings which were provided with stone slabs, and the latter were
+sealed in place with mud mortar when it was desired to close the room
+permanently. Examples, identical even in details, have been found in the
+Mancos canyon, and one is described and illustrated by Chapin,[15] who
+states that the slab was 141/2 inches wide at one end, 151/2 at the other,
+and 25 inches high, with an average thickness of an inch. He mentions
+staples on both sides. Nordenskioeld[16] illustrates another or possibly
+the same example. He notes, however, an inner frame composed of small
+sticks and mud against which the slab rested. He thinks the notched
+doorways belonged to rooms most frequented in daily life, while the
+others belonged in general to storerooms or other chambers requiring a
+door to close them.
+
+    [Footnote 15: Land of the Cliff Dwellers, pp. 149-150, pl. opp.
+    p. 155.]
+
+    [Footnote 16: Cliff Dwellers of the Mesa Verde, pp. 52-53, fig. 28.]
+
+Taken as a whole, the settlements in De Chelly appear to have been well
+provided with doorways and other openings, and there is no perceptible
+difference in this respect between the various classes of ruins.
+Openings were freely left in the walls, wherever convenience dictated,
+and without regard to the defensive motive, which, in the large valley
+pueblos, brought about the requirement that all the first-story rooms
+should be entered from the roof, a requirement which has only recently
+given way to the greater convenience of an entrance on the ground level.
+
+
+ROOFS, FLOORS, AND TIMBER WORK
+
+In the pueblo system of construction roofs and floors are the same; in
+other words, the roof of one room is the floor of the room above, and
+where a room or house is but one story high no change in the method of
+construction is made. The erection of walls was only a question of time,
+as the unit of the masonry is small; but the construction of a roof was
+a much harder task, as the beams were necessarily brought from a
+distance, sometimes a very long distance. The Tusayan claim that some of
+the timbers used in the construction of the mission buildings, which
+were established prior to the insurrection of 1680, were brought on the
+backs of men from San Francisco mountains, a distance of over 100 miles,
+and references to the transportation of timber over long distances are
+not uncommon in Pueblo traditions. In De Chelly great difficulty must
+have been experienced in procuring an adequate supply, as in that
+portion of the canyon where most of the ruins occur no suitable trees
+grow. Doubtless in many cases, where the location, under overhanging
+cliffs permitted, roofs were dispensed with, but this alone would not
+account for the dearth of timber found in the ruins. If we suppose the
+canyon to have been the scene of a number of occupancies instead of one,
+the absence of timber work, as well as the much obliterated appearance
+of some of the ruins, would be explained, for the material would be used
+more than once, perhaps several times. The Navaho would not use the
+timber in cliff ruins under any circumstances, and they would rather
+starve than eat food cooked with it. Many of the cliff outlooks, being
+occupied only during the farming season and being also fairly well
+sheltered, were probably roofless.
+
+Timber was used as an aid to masonry construction in two ways--as a
+foundation and as a tie. Many instances can be seen where the walls rest
+on beams, running, not with them, but across them. These beams were
+placed directly on the rock, and the front walls rested partly on their
+ends and partly on the rock itself. Plate LII shows the end of one of
+these beams. In nine cases out of ten the beams do not appear to have
+served any useful end, but perhaps if the walls were removed down to the
+foundations the purpose would be clear. Sometimes a beam was placed on
+the rock in the line of the wall above it. The single or separate room
+occupying the western end of the upper cave in the Casa Blanca ruin is
+an example of this use. The front wall rests on beams, as shown in plate
+XLVI. Some of the back adobe walls in the eastern part of the upper ruin
+rest on timbers, and instances of this feature are not uncommon in other
+parts of the canyon. The southeastern corner of the tower in Mummy Cave
+ruin in Del Muerto rested on timbers apparently laid over a small cavity
+or hole in the rock. The timber was not strong enough to support the
+weight placed upon it, and consequently gave way, letting the corner of
+the tower fall out.
+
+Cross walls were sometimes tied to front or back walls by timbers built
+into them, but this method, of which fine examples can be seen in the
+Chaco ruins, was but slightly practiced here. Timber was used also to
+prevent the slipping of walls on sloping sites, being placed vertically
+and built into the masonry; but as this use is a constructive expedient
+it is discussed under that head.
+
+
+STORAGE AND BURIAL CISTS
+
+Facilities for the storage of grain and other produce are essential in
+the pueblo system of horticulture, as in any other. As a result, storage
+cists are found everywhere. In the modern pueblos the inner dark rooms,
+which would otherwise be useless, provide the necessary space, but in
+the settlements in De Chelly, which were very small as a rule, there
+were few such rooms, and special structures had to be erected. These
+differed from the dwelling rooms only in size, although as a rule,
+perhaps, the openings by which they were entered were not so large as
+those of the dwellings and were sometimes, possibly always, provided
+with some means by which they could be closed.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate LX
+  Plastered Wall in Canyon De Chelly]
+
+Immense numbers of these storage cists are found in the canyon, some of
+them with masonry so roughly executed that it is difficult to
+discriminate between the old pueblo and the modern Navaho work.
+Sometimes these cists or small rooms form part of a village, more often
+they are attached to the cliff outlooks, and not infrequently they stand
+alone on sites overlooking the lands whose product they contained. It is
+probable that many of the cliff outlooks themselves were used quite as
+much for temporary storage as for habitations during the farming season.
+These two uses, although quite distinct, do not conflict with each
+other. Doubtless many excellent sites, now marked only by the remains of
+storage cists, were occupied also during the summer as outlooks without
+the erection of any house structures. Some of the modern pueblos now use
+temporary shelters of brush for outlooks.
+
+It is not meant that the crops when gathered were placed in these cists
+and kept there until used. The harvest was, as a rule, permanently
+stored in the home villages, and the cists were used only for temporary
+storage. Doubtless the old practice resembled somewhat that followed by
+the Navaho today. The harvest is gathered at the proper time and what is
+not eaten at once is hidden away in cists of old or modern construction.
+If it is well hidden, the grain may remain in the cists for a long time
+if not withdrawn for consumption; but as a rule it is taken away a few
+months later. The annual emigration of the Navaho commences soon after
+the harvest, and at intervals during the winter and spring, and in
+summer, if the supply is not then exhausted, visits are paid to the
+cists and portions of the grain are carried away.
+
+A large proportion of the cists are of modern Navaho work, but that some
+of them were used by the pueblo people who preceded them seems probable
+from the similarity in horticultural methods, and from the small size of
+many of the villages. A village inhabited by half a dozen people was not
+uncommon; one which could accommodate more than fifty was rare.
+Moreover, some of the storage cists that occur in conjunction with
+dwellings differ from the latter only in size and in their separation
+from the other rooms. The masonry is quite as good as that of the
+houses, and much superior to the Navaho work.
+
+Plate LXI shows an example which occurs in the lower part of the canyon,
+at the point marked 1 on the map. It is placed on a little ledge or
+block of rock, 12 feet above the stream and about 8 feet above the
+bottom land below it. This is the first considerable area of bottom land
+in the canyon. The cist is 2 feet square inside and occupies the whole
+width of the rock. An exceptionally large amount of mud plaster was used
+on the walls, which are better finished outside than inside. Access was
+had by hand-holes in the rock, now almost obliterated. Originally the
+structure consisted of two or more rooms.
+
+A little below this site there are some well-executed pictographs, and
+on some rocks immediately to the right some crude work of the Navaho of
+the same sort. To the left of the cist a round hole 6 or 8 inches in
+diameter has been pecked into the almost vertical face of the rock. The
+purpose of this is not clear.
+
+The storage of water was so seldom attempted, or perhaps so seldom
+necessary, that only one example of a reservoir was found. This has
+already been described (page 126). If the cliff ruins were defensive
+structures, a supply of water must have been kept in them, and where
+this requirement was common, as it would be under the hypothesis,
+certainly some receptacle other than jars of pottery would be provided.
+Few, if any, of the cliff outlooks are so situated that a supply of
+water could be procured without descending to the stream bed, and
+without a supply of water the most impregnable site in the canyon would
+have little value.
+
+The number of burial cists in the canyon is remarkable; there are
+hundreds of them. Practically every ruin whose walls are still standing
+contains one or more, some have eight or ten. They are all of Navaho
+origin and in many of them the remains of Navaho dead may still be seen.
+Possibly the Navaho taboo of their own dead has brought about the
+partial taboo of the cliff dwellers' remains which prevails, and which
+is an element that must be taken into account in any discussion of the
+antiquity of the ruins.
+
+The burial cists are built usually in a corner or against a wall of a
+cliff dweller's house, but sometimes they are built against a cliff
+wall, and occasionally stand out alone. The masonry is always rough,
+much inferior to the old walls against which it generally rests, and
+usually very flimsy. The structures are dome-shape when standing alone,
+or in the shape of a section of a dome when placed against other walls.
+The natural bedding of the stone is sometimes wholly ignored, and in
+some cases the walls consist merely of thin slabs of stone on edge, held
+together with masses of mud, the whole presenting an average thickness
+of less than 3 inches. Such structures on ordinary sites would not last
+six months; protected as they are they might last for many years.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate LXI
+  Storage Cist in Canyon De Chelly]
+
+Not all the Navaho dead in the canyon find their last resting place in
+the ruins. Graves can be seen under bowlders and rocks high up on the
+talus; and in one place in De Chelly a number of little piles of stones
+are pointed out as the burial places of "many Americans," who, it is
+said, were killed by the Navaho in their last war. It is also said that
+in the olden days, when the Navaho considered De Chelly their stronghold
+and the heart of their country, the remains of prominent men of the
+tribe were often brought to the canyon for interment in the ruins. Such
+burials are still made, both in the ruins themselves and in cists on
+similar sites.
+
+As a whole the Navaho burial cists are much more difficult of access
+than the ruins, and some of them appear to be now really inaccessible, a
+statement which can be made of but few ruins. Some of them appear to
+have been reached from above. The agility and dexterity of the Navaho in
+climbing the cliffs is remarkable, and possibly some of the sites now
+apparently inaccessible are not so considered by them. As before stated,
+there are a number of Navaho foot trails out of the canyon, where
+shallow pits or holes have been pecked in the rock as an aid in the more
+difficult places, and similar aids were often employed to afford access
+to storage and burial cists. Plate LVI shows a site in the lower part of
+the canyon where such means have been employed. The pits in the rock are
+so much worn by atmospheric erosion that the ascent now is very
+dangerous. The cove or ledge to which they lead is about halfway up the
+cliff, and on it are a number of cists, one of them still intact, with a
+doorway. The masonry consists of large slabs of sandstone set on edge,
+sometimes irregularly one above another, the whole being roughly
+plastered inside and out. About 200 yards farther up the cove, on the
+same side, there is a series of foot holes leading to a small cave about
+halfway up, and thence upward and probably out of the canyon. They are
+probably of Navaho origin.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 68--Cist composed of upright slabs.]
+
+The use of stone on edge is apparently confined to these cists. Figure
+68 shows a structure which occurs a little above the ruin marked 37 on
+the map. The walls consist of thin slabs of stone set upright and
+roughly plastered where they meet. Instances of the use of stone in this
+way are not uncommon in the pueblo country, and there are a number of
+examples in De Chelly.
+
+As before stated, the typical Navaho burial cist is of dome shape. The
+roof or upper portion is supported on sticks so arranged as to leave a
+small square opening in the top. Apparently at some stage in its
+existence this hole is closed and sealed, but examples were examined
+which were very old and one which was but twenty-four hours old, but in
+neither case was the opening closed. Doubtless the opening has some
+ceremonial significance; it is not of any actual use, as it is too small
+to permit the passage of a human body. Plate LXII shows a typical cist
+in good order and another such broken down. These examples occur at the
+point marked 6 on the map, in the ruin shown in plate LIII. This site is
+of comparatively easy access, and there are many others equally easy or
+even more so, but, on the other hand, there are many Sites which now
+seem to be wholly inaccessible.
+
+
+DEFENSIVE AND CONSTRUCTIVE EXPEDIENTS
+
+The cliff ruins have always been regarded as defensive structures,
+sometimes even as fortresses, but in De Chelly whatever value they have
+in this respect is due solely to the sites they occupy. There are many
+places here where slight defensive works on the approaches to sites
+would increase their value a hundredfold, but such works were apparently
+never constructed. Furthermore, the ruins themselves never show even a
+suggestion of the influence of the defensive motive, except in the two
+possible instances already mentioned. The ordinary or dwelling-house
+plan has not been at all modified, not even to the extent that it has in
+the modern pueblos. If the cliff ruins were defensive structures it
+would certainly seem that an influence strong enough to bring about the
+occupancy of such inconvenient and unsuitable sites would also be strong
+enough to bring about some modifications in the architecture,
+modifications which would render more suitable sites available. The
+influence of the physical environment on pueblo architecture, and the
+sensitiveness of the latter to such influence, has already been
+commented on. Moreover, it also has been stated that, so far as known,
+but one instance occurs in the canyon where provision was made for the
+storage of water; yet without water the strongest "fortress" in the
+canyon could not withstand a siege of forty-eight hours. Further,
+assuming that the structures were defensive, and well prepared to resist
+attack, if necessary, for several days, only a few such attacks would be
+required to cause their abandonment, for the crops on the canyon bottom,
+practically the sole possessions of the dwellers in the canyon, would
+necessarily be lost.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate LXII
+  Navaho Burial Cists]
+
+These are some of the difficulties that stand in the way of the
+assumption that the cliff ruins were defensive structures or permanent
+homes. If, however, we adopt the hypothesis that they were farming
+outlooks occupied only during the farming season, and then only for a
+few days or weeks at a time, after the manner that such outlooks are
+used by the Pueblo Indians at the present time, most of the difficulties
+vanish.
+
+The apparent inaccessibility of many of the sites disappears on close
+examination, and we must not forget that places really difficult of
+access to us would not necessarily be so regarded by a people accustomed
+to that manner of life. Many locations which could not be surpassed as
+defensive sites were not occupied, while others much inferior in this
+respect were built upon. It was very seldom that the natural conditions
+were modified, even to the extent of selecting a route of access other
+than that which, would naturally be followed, and, of course, the
+easiest route for the cliff dwellers would be also the easiest route for
+their enemies. In many cases the easiest way of access, which was the
+one used by the cliff dwellers, was not direct. It was not commanded by
+the immediate site of the dwellings, except in its upper part, and in
+some cases not at all. Enemies could climb to the very doors of the
+houses before they could be seen or attacked. The absence of military
+knowledge and skill, and of any attempt to fortify or strengthen a site,
+or even to fully utilize its natural defensive advantages, is
+characteristic of the cliff ruins of De Chelly. If the cliff dwellers
+were driven to the use of such places by a necessity for defense, this
+absence is remarkable, especially as there is evidence that the
+settlements were occupied for a number of, perhaps a great many, years.
+
+Under the head of constructive expedients we have a different result.
+The difficulties which came from the occupancy of exceptional sites were
+promptly reflected in the construction, and unusual ways and methods
+were adopted to overcome them. These methods are the more interesting in
+that they were not always successful. It sometimes happened that walls
+had to be placed on a foundation of smooth, sloping rock. In such cases
+the rock was never cut away, but timbers were employed to hold the wall
+in place. In some instances the timbers were laid at right angles to the
+line of front wall, at points where cross walls joined it inside. The
+front wall thus rested partly on the ends of timbers and partly on rock,
+while the other ends of the timbers were held in place by the cross
+walls built upon them. An example of this construction is shown in plate
+LII. In other instances, where the surface was irregular but did not
+slope much, timbers were laid on the wall lines and the masonry rested
+partly upon them. An example of this occurs in the Casa Blanca ruin,
+shown in plate XLVII. Still another method of using timber in masonry
+occurs in a number of ruins. It was seldom effective and apparently was
+confined to this region. This consists of the incorporation into the
+masonry of upright logs. Figure 69 shows an example that occurs at the
+point marked 32 on the map. The site here is an especially difficult
+one, as the builders were compelled to place walls not only on sloping
+rock foundations, but also on loose debris, and the vertical timber
+support is quite common. The three kivas which are shown on the plan
+occupied the front of the village, and their front walls have fallen
+out. Apparently the same accident has happened at least once, if not
+several times, before, and a fragment of a previous front wall has
+slipped down 3 or 4 feet, and was left there when the kiva was repaired.
+The round dots shown on the plan, two in the wall of the central kiva
+and one on the east, represent vertical timbers incorporated in the
+masonry. The tops of these logs reach the level of the top of the bench
+in the kiva, and their lower ends rest in cavities in the rocks. The
+eastern one was removed and was found to be about 2 feet long. The upper
+half was charred, although formerly inclosed completely in the masonry,
+as though it had been burned off to the required length. The lower end
+was hacked off with some blunt implement, and as nearly squared as it
+could be done with such means. It was set into a socket or hole pecked
+in the solid rock and plastered in with clay. In the outer portion of
+the eastern wall of the central kiva there are many marks of sticks,
+3 to 4 inches in diameter and placed vertically.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 69--Retaining walls in Canyon de Chelly.]
+
+Although timbers as an aid to masonry occur in many ruins, they
+predominate in those which have been suggested as the sites most
+recently occupied; but in the Chaco ruins timber has been used
+extensively and much more skillfully than here. Instances occur where a
+cross wall has been tied into a front wall with timber, and so effective
+was the device that in one instance a considerable section of cross wall
+can be seen suspended in the air, being completely broken out below and
+now supported wholly by the ties. Instances can also be seen where
+partition walls are supported on crossbeams at some distance from the
+ground, forming large and convenient openings between rooms; but nothing
+of that kind was seen in De Chelly. In the latter region wherever
+horizontal timbers are used for the support of masonry they rest on the
+bed rock.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate LXIII
+  Kiva in Ruin No. 10, Showing Second-Story Walls]
+
+The same ruin (No. 32) contains an elaborate system of retaining avails,
+which are shown partly in figure 69. At first a retaining wall was built
+immediately in front of the main kiva, which is now 5 feet high outside.
+Apparently this did not serve the purpose intended, for another and much
+heavier wall was built immediately next to it. This wall is 4 feet
+thick, flush on top and inside, but 10 feet high outside. At half its
+height it has a step back of 6 inches. It would seem that even this
+heavy construction did not suffice, and still another wall was built
+outside of and next to it. This wall is nearly or quite as heavy as the
+one described, and its top is on the level of the foot of that wall, but
+it is 12 feet high outside. Something of the character of the site may
+be inferred from the arrangement of these walls, which have a combined
+vertical fall of 27 feet in a horizontal distance of less than 15 feet.
+The outer or lower wall has a series of very heavy timbers projecting
+from its face; these are placed irregularly. It should be noted that
+access to this village was from the bench on either side, and that it
+could not be reached from the front, where these walls occur. There are
+other walls on the lower slope, similarly reinforced.
+
+A little to the right of the point where these retaining walls occur
+there is a room in which horizontal beams have been incorporated in the
+masonry. A similar use of timber occurs in ruin No. 16 and is shown in
+plate LX. Why timber should be used in this way is not clear. It may be
+that when the supply was placed on the ground the builders found that
+they had more timber than was needed for a roof and used the excess in
+the wall rather than bring up more stone. The posts which were placed
+vertically and built into the wall were always short; perhaps they were
+fragments or ends cut from roofing timbers that were found to be too
+long. In many instances they failed to hold the walls, and possibly the
+pit holes in sloping rock, which are numerous on some sites, indicate
+places where this expedient was formerly employed.
+
+It is singular that the necessity for such expedients did not develop
+the idea of a buttress. On this site such an expedient would have saved
+an immense amount of work. In only one place in the canyon was a
+buttress found. This was in the Casa Blanca ruin, shown in plate XLVII.
+There is no doubt that in this place the buttress was used with a full
+knowledge of its principles, and but little doubt that the idea was
+imported at a late, perhaps the latest, period in the occupancy of that
+site. Had it been known before, it would have been used in other places
+where there was great need for it, not so much to prevent the slipping
+of walls as to supersede the construction of walls 4 feet thick or more,
+and to strengthen outside walls which were likely to give way at any
+time from the outward thrust upon them.
+
+Altogether the constructive expedients employed in De Chelly suggest the
+introduction of plans and methods adapted to other regions and other
+conditions into a new region with different requirements, and that
+occupancy of the latter region did not continue long enough to conform
+the methods to the new conditions.
+
+
+KIVAS OR SACRED CHAMBERS
+
+The kivas, or estufas as they formerly were called, are sacred chambers
+in which the civil and religious affairs of the tribe are transacted,
+and they also form a place of resort, or club, as it were, for the men.
+Their functions are many and varied, but as this subject has already
+been discussed at length[17] it need not be enlarged upon here. In
+Tusayan the kivas are rectangular and separated from the houses; in Zuni
+and in some other pueblos they are also rectangular, but are
+incorporated in the house clusters--a feature doubtless brought about by
+the repressive policy of the Spanish monks. In some of the pueblos, as
+in Taos, they are circular, and in many of the older ruins the same form
+is found. In the large ruins of Chaco canyon the kivas occur in groups
+arranged along the inner side of the rooms; always, where the ground
+plan is such as to permit it, arranged on the border of an inner court.
+In Canyon de Chelly the kivas are always circular and are placed
+generally on the outer edge of the settlement, which is usually the
+front.
+
+    [Footnote 17: 8th Ann. Rept. Bur. Eth., "A study of Pueblo
+    architecture in Tusayan and Cibola," by Victor Mindeleff;
+    Washington, 1891.]
+
+As the function of the kivas is principally a religious one, they are
+found only in permanent villages where religious ceremonies were
+performed. They are never found in subordinate settlements, or farming
+villages, or outlooks, unless such settlements came to be inhabited all
+the year--in other words, until they became permanent villages. The
+habits and requirements of the Pueblo people make it essential that a
+permanent village should have one or more kivas, and we have in the
+presence of these structures a criterion by which the character of a
+village or ruin may be determined. As the kivas in De Chelly are always
+circular, they can generally be easily distinguished.
+
+The circular kiva is unquestionably a survival in architecture--a relic
+of the time when the Pueblo people dwelt in circular lodges or huts--and
+its use in conjunction with a rectangular system entailed many
+difficulties and some awkward expedients to overcome them. The main
+problem, how to use the two systems together, was solved by inclosing
+the circular chamber in a rectangular cell, and this expedient aided in
+the solution of the hardly less important problem of roofing. The roof
+of the kiva was the roof of the chamber that inclosed it.
+
+It seems to have been a common requirement throughout the pueblo country
+that the kiva should be wholly or partly underground. So strong was this
+requirement in Tusayan that the occurrence of natural clefts and
+fissures in the rock of the mesa top has dictated the location of the
+kivas often at some distance from the houses. But in De Chelly there
+were some sites where the requirement could not be filled without
+extensive rock excavation wholly beyond the power of the builders. Here
+then it seems that other requirements were strong enough to overcome the
+ceremonial necessity for partly subterranean structures, for examples of
+that kind are comparatively rare. In all of the ruins on the canyon
+bottom the requirement could be filled, and as many of the villages on
+defensive sites were constructed after the site itself had been partly
+filled up with loose debris, it could also be filled in those cases.
+There are also instances where the bottom of the kiva rests directly on
+the rock, while outside the walls the site was covered deep with
+artificial debris. But it would be difficult to determine what was the
+surface of the ground when the kiva was in use.
+
+The size and character of the kivas in De Chelly, and their relations to
+the other rooms about them, are shown in the ground plans preceding.
+Some have walls still standing to a height of 6 feet above the ground,
+but this could not have been the total height. Dr H. C. Yarrow, U.S.A.,
+in 1874 examined one of the five large circular kivas in Taos. He
+states[18] that it was 25 or 30 feet in diameter, arched above, and 20
+feet high. Around the wall, 2 feet from the ground, there was a hard
+earthen bench, and in the center a fireplace about 2 by 3 feet.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 70--Part of a kiva in ruin No. 31.]
+
+Entrance to the kivas is invariably from the roof by a ladder. This
+appears to be a ceremonial requirement. Doorways at the ground level are
+not only unknown, but also impracticable; but in De Chelly there are
+some puzzling features which might easily be mistaken for such doorways.
+The principal kiva in the ruin, which occurs at the point marked 10 on
+the map, and described above (page 123, figure 24), is on the edge of
+the ledge, and its outer wall is so close as to make a passage
+difficult, although not impossible. At the point where the curved wall
+comes nearest the cliff there is a narrow gap or opening, not more than
+15 inches wide. In front of this there appears to be a little platform
+on the sloping rock, 2 feet long, 10 inches wide, and now about a foot
+high. At first sight this would be taken for a doorway so arranged that
+access to the kiva could be obtained only from below; but a closer
+examination shows that this was probably only what remains of a
+chimney-like structure, such as those described later.
+
+    [Footnote 18: Wheeler Survey Reports, vol. VII, Archaeology,
+    p. 327.]
+
+In ruin 31 there is another example. The kiva here was about 20 feet in
+diameter, with rather thin walls smoothly plastered inside. On the inner
+side the walls are from 3 to 5 feet high; outside they are generally
+flush with the ground. The kiva is not a true circle, but is slightly
+elongated north and south. On the south side, nearest the edge of the
+ledge, there is an opening, shown in figure 70. The opening is 6 feet 3
+inches wide, and the ends of the curved walls terminate in smoothly
+finished surfaces. In front of it there are remains of two walls, about
+a foot apart, and so arranged as to form an apparent passageway into the
+interior of the kiva. These seem to be a kind of platform, like that
+just described, but close inspection shows the walls, which can be
+traced to within 6 inches of the inner wall of the kiva. This also may
+be the remains of a chimney-like structure. There are other points in
+the canyon where the same feature occurs, but in none of them is the
+evidence of an opening or doorway more definite than in the examples
+described.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 71--Plan of part of a kiva in ruin No. 10.]
+
+The masonry of the kivas is always as good as that of any other
+structure on the site, and generally much better. The walls are usually
+massive; sometimes they are 3 feet thick in the upper part and 4 feet in
+the lower portion, where the bench occurs. In a few cases the kiva has
+an upper or second story, but when this occurs no attempt is made to
+preserve the circular form, and the upper rooms are really rectangular
+with much rounded corners. Plate XLIX shows a second-story kiva wall in
+Mummy Cave ruin, and plate LXIII one in ruin No. 10 in De Chelly. The
+latter occurs over the principal kiva, and the walls which are still
+standing on the north and west sides are approximately straight, but the
+corners are much rounded. Figure 71 is a detailed plan of part of the
+kiva, showing the arrangement of the upper walls. The kiva walls are
+about 18 inches thick. On the north side the upper wall is supported by
+a heavy beam, part of which is still in place. Under the north-east
+corner of the upper room there is a little triangular space formed by a
+short connecting wall, shown on the plan. This is really a flying wall,
+covering only the upper portion of the space, and its purpose is not
+clear, as the opening left is not large enough to permit the passage of
+a person, and was available only from the second story.
+
+Apparently the greatest care was bestowed on the construction and finish
+of the kivas. The exterior of the circular wall is often rough and
+unfinished, but this is probably because the whole structure was
+generally inclosed within rectangular walls. The interior was plastered,
+often with a number of coats. The southern kiva in ruin No. 10 shows a
+number of these on its interior surface, applied one after another, and
+now forming a plastering nearly three-quarters of an inch thick. In its
+section 18 distinct coats can be counted, separated one from the other
+by a thin film of smoke-blackened surface. The kiva in ruin No. 16 has 4
+or 5 coats, that in ruin No. 31 shows at least 8. In the last example
+the last coat was not decorated, but some of the underlying ones were.
+
+Kivas are used, principally in the autumn and winter, when the farming
+season is over and the ceremonies and dances take place. It is probable,
+therefore, that each coat of plaster means at least a year in the
+history of the kiva, which would indicate that some of the sites were
+occupied about twenty years. But Mr Frank H. Cushing has observed in
+Zuni a ceremony, part of which is the refinishing of the kiva interior,
+and this occurs only once in four years. This would give a maximum
+occupancy of about eighty years to some of the kivas; the ruins as a
+whole would hardly justify an hypothesis of a longer occupancy than
+this. In Tusayan the interior of the kiva is plastered by the women once
+every year at the feast of Powamu (the fructifying moon).
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 72--Kiva decoration in white.]
+
+The kivas are seldom true circles, being usually elongated one way or
+another. Some instances occur which are rectangular, such as the room
+shown in figure 19, which was apparently a kiva. Nordenskioeld[19]
+illustrates an example which appears to have been oval by design,
+differing in this respect from anything found in De Chelly. Most of the
+kivas have an interior bench, about a foot wide and 2 feet above the
+floor. This bench is sometimes continuous around the whole interior,
+sometimes extends only partly around. Wherever the chimney-like
+structure is attached to a kiva the bench is omitted or broken at that
+point. The kiva wall on the floor level is always continuous except
+before the chimney-like feature. The most elaborate system of benches
+and buttresses seen in the canyon occurs in the principal kiva of the
+Mummy Cave ruin. This is shown in the ground plan, figure 16, and also
+in figures 82 and 83. In the ruins of the Mancos, Nordenskioeld found
+kivas in which this feature is carried much further. He illustrates[20]
+an example with a complete bench regularly divided into six equal parts
+by an equal number of buttresses or pillars (properly pilasters)
+extending out flush with the front of the bench. This is said to be a
+typical example, to which practically all the kivas conform. It has also
+the chimney-like structure, to be described later. Like the rectangular
+kivas of Tusayan the circular structures of De Chelly have little niches
+in the walls. Probably these were places of deposit for certain
+paraphernalia used in the ceremonies.
+
+    [Footnote 19: Cliff Dwellers of the Mesa Verde, p. 63, fig. 36.]
+
+    [Footnote 20: Loc. cit., figs. 6 and 7, pp. 15-16.]
+
+Some of the kivas have an interior decoration consisting of a band with
+points. Figure 72 shows an example that occurs in ruin No. 10 in De
+Chelly, in the north kiva. The band, done in white, is about 18 inches
+below the bench, and its top is broken at intervals into groups of
+points rising from it, four points in each group. In the north kiva the
+interior wall is decorated by a series of vertical bands in white. One
+series occurs on the vertical face of the bench; the bands are 2 inches
+wide and 8 inches apart. Another series occurs on the wall, and consists
+of bands 21/2 to 3 inches wide, about 2 feet high and 12 to 14 inches
+apart. The bands were observed only on the southern and western sides of
+the kiva, but originally there may have been others on the north and
+east.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 73--Pictograph in white.]
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 74--Markings on cliff wall, ruin No. 37.]
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 75--Decorative band in kiva in Mummy Cave ruin.]
+
+In ruin No. 4 there is a similar series of bars, but in this instance
+they occur on the cliff wall back of the rooms. They are shown in figure
+73. There are four bars or upright bands, done in white paint, and
+surmounted by four round dots or spots. To the left of the four bars,
+level with their tops, there is a small triangle, also in white. The
+bars are 30 inches long and 4 inches wide. The upper dots are nearly
+2 feet above, the tops of the bars. It is evident that this figure was
+designed to be seen from a distance. Figure 74 shows some markings on
+the cliff wall back of ruin No. 37.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 76--Design employed in decorative band.]
+
+Examples almost identical with those shown here are abundant in the
+Mancos ruins. It was probable they are of ceremonial rather than of
+decorative origin, and in this connection it may be stated that Mr Frank
+H. Cushing has observed in Zuni the ceremony of marking the sides of a
+kiva hatchway with white bars closely resembling those shown in figure
+73. This ceremony occurs once in four years, and the purpose of the
+marks is said to be to indicate the cardinal directions. In the
+ceremonials of the Pueblo Indians it is necessary to know where the
+cardinal points are; a prayer, for instance, is often addressed to the
+north, west, south, and east, and when such ceremonials were performed
+in a circular chamber some means by which the direction could be
+determined was essential.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 77--Pictographs in Canyon de Chelly.]
+
+In the principal kiva in Mummy Cave ruin, however, there is a painted
+band on the front of the bench which appears to be really an attempt at
+decoration. Over the white there is a band 4 or 5 inches wide,
+consisting of a meander done in red. This is shown in figure 75, and in
+detail in figure 76. The design is similar to that used today. Its
+importance arises not so much from this as from the fact that it is
+difficult to regard this as other than ornamentation, and the Pueblo
+architect had not yet reached the stage of ornamented construction. The
+ruins in the Mancos canyon and the Mesa Verde country obviously
+represent a later stage in development than those in De Chelly, yet
+nowhere in that region do we find the counterpart of the decoration in
+Mummy Cave kiva. Bands with points occur, sometimes on walls of
+rectangular rooms. One such is illustrated by Chapin,[21] who also shows
+a variety of the meander, treated, however, as a pictograph and without
+reference to its decorative value. Similar bands are shown also by
+Nordenskioeld,[22] but always with three points, instead of four, which
+were done in red. Figure 77 shows some pictographs somewhat resembling
+the Mancos examples. These occur at the point marked 1 on the map, in
+connection with a small storage cist already described.
+
+    [Footnote 21: Land of the Cliff Dwellers, illustration, pp. 143,
+    152.]
+
+    [Footnote 22: Cliff Dwellers of the Mesa Verde, figs. 6, 7, 76,
+    77, and 78.]
+
+No kiva has been found in De Chelly with a roof in place. Nearly all of
+them are inclosed in rectangular chambers, and it seems more than
+probable that the roofing of the kiva was simply the roofing of the
+inclosing chamber. As a rule the inclosing rectangular walls were
+erected at the same time as the kiva proper, and the outside of the
+inner circular wall was not finished at all. In a few instances the
+space between the outer rectangular and inner circular wall was filled
+in solid, or perhaps was so constructed, but usually the walls are
+separate and distinct.
+
+
+CHIMNEY-LIKE STRUCTURES
+
+There are peculiar structures found in some of the ruins, whose use and
+object are not clear. Reference has already been made to them in the
+descriptions of several ruins, and for want of a better name they have
+been designated chimney-like structures. At the time that they were
+examined they were supposed to be new, and the first hypothesis formed
+was that they were abortive chimneys, but further examination showed
+that this idea was not tenable. Subsequently Nordenskioeld's book on the
+Cliff Dwellers of the Mesa Verde was published, and it appears therefrom
+that this feature is very common in the region treated; so common as to
+constitute the type.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 78--Plan of chimney-like structure in ruin
+  No. 15.]
+
+Figure 78 is a plan of one of these structures which occurs in ruin No.
+15 in Canyon de Chelly. This ruin has already been described in detail
+(page 118). The chimney-like structure is attached to a rectangular room
+with rounded corners, which is supposed to have been a kiva, and which
+was two stories high. Excavation revealed the floor level about 71/2 feet
+below where the roof was placed. In the center of the south wall there
+is an opening 1.5 feet high and eighty-five one-hundredths of a foot
+(10.2 inches) wide. The south wall is built over a large bowlder, and a
+tunnel or opening passes under this to a rounded vertical shaft, about a
+foot in diameter, which opens to the air. This perhaps is better shown
+in the section (figure 79). At first sight this would appear to be a
+chimney, but there are several objections to the idea. The interior of
+the shaft is not blackened by smoke, and while the tunnel is somewhat
+smoke-stained, the deposit is not so pronounced as on the walls of the
+room. The front of the tunnel in the room has a lintel composed of a
+single stick about an inch in diameter, as shown in the section. The
+roof of the tunnel was the underside of the large bowlder mentioned, and
+the stick lintel was of no use except to show that no fire could have
+been built under it. The roof of the southern end of the tunnel, where
+it opens into the shaft, is considerably lower than at the other end.
+The floor of the tunnel and the sides were smoothly plastered, but the
+plastering does not appear to have been subjected to the action of fire.
+
+The interior of the room, like the circular kivas already described,
+appears to have been plastered with a number of successive coats, all
+except the last being heavily stained by smoke. If the structure were a
+chimney, it was a dismal failure. The tunnel was made at the time the
+wall was erected, and passes under the bowlder over which the wall was
+built. A little east of the opening, inside the room, the bowlder shows
+through the wall, projecting slightly beyond its face.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 79--Section of chimney-like structure in
+  ruin 15.]
+
+Outside of the room the corner of the bowlder was chipped off, as shown
+on the plan, to permit the rounding of the shaft, the east, west, and
+south sides of which were built up with small pieces of stone, a kind of
+lining of masonry. There was also an outside structure of masonry, but
+how high above the ground it extended can not now be determined. A small
+fragment of this masonry is still left on the upper surface of the
+bowlder and is shown in the section.
+
+Figure 80 is a plan of another example, which is attached to the
+circular kiva in ruin No. 16. This ruin is described on page 129. The
+kiva had an interior bench and the floor is 2 feet above its top. On the
+south side nearest the cliff edge the bench is interrupted to give place
+to a structure much like that described above. In this case, however,
+there was no convenient bowlder, and the roof of the tunnel has broken
+down so that the method of support can not be accurately determined.
+Probably it consisted of slabs of rock, as the span is small, and a
+number of large flat stones were removed from the tunnel in excavating.
+
+The top of the tunnel is on the level of the top of the bench, as shown
+in figure 81, which is a vertical section. An inspection of the plan
+will show that the circular wall of the kiva is complete and that the
+inclosing rectangular wall was added later. The shaft was built at a
+still later period, and the line or junction marking its inner surface
+shows plainly in the interior of the tunnel. The general view of the
+ruin (plate LI) shows the exterior of the shaft, and the horizontal
+timbers on which the masonry is supported are shown in plate LII.
+
+In front of the tunnel a flat piece of stone was placed on the floor,
+and in front of this again, about 2 feet from the mouth of the tunnel,
+there was an upright mass of masonry composed of stone and mud, and
+forming a curtain or screen before the opening. The original height of
+this structure was the same as that of the interior bench.
+
+The inner surface of the rectangular inclosing wall is marked by a line
+in the interior of the tunnel. Inside of this line, toward the center of
+the kiva, the stones composing the wall are large; outside of it they
+are small. The interior plastering of the kiva is not smoke-blackened,
+but the coat next the surface is stained, as is also the third coat
+underneath. The interior of the tunnel is not much smoke-blackened, but
+it appears probable that part of its roof fell while the structure was
+still in use, as there are a number of little cavities in the masonry
+above its roof level filled with soot. A similar effect might result
+from leaks or cavities between the flat roofing stones. In excavating
+the tunnel a number of large lumps of clay were found in it, and there
+is no doubt that they formed part of the roof. Some of these had
+considerable quantities of grass mixed into them or stuck to the clay on
+one side. Apparently dry grass was used in the construction. A large
+fire could not have been built within the tunnel.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 80--Plan of chimney-like structure in ruin
+  No. 16.]
+
+The principal kiva in Mummy Cave ruin has an elaborate structure of the
+kind under discussion. Figure 82 shows a plan of this kiva, of which a
+general view has already been given (figure 75). The bench extended only
+partly around the interior, which had a continuous surface at the floor
+level, except on the southwest. At this point it is interrupted to give
+place to an elaborate chimney-like structure. Figure 83 is a general
+view.
+
+The wall surface on the southern side of the kiva has been extended
+inward, as shown on the plan by a lighter shaded area. This was done at
+some period subsequent to the completion of the kiva, but whether it had
+any connection with the chimney-like structure could not be determined.
+The curtain or screen before the opening, which seems to be an
+invariable feature, is shown in both figures.
+
+In this example the tunnel does not pass through the masonry as in those
+previously described, but occurs in the form of a covered trough, shown
+in the illustration with the covering removed. It occupies the middle
+third of a large recess in the main wall of the kiva, and is connected
+at its outer end with a vertical square shaft about a foot wide. This
+shaft is separated from the recess above the bench level by a wall only
+a few inches thick, composed of a single layer of stones. That portion
+of it which is above the tunnel is supported by a single round stick of
+wood, as shown in figure 83. The south or inner opening of the tunnel is
+reduced to two-thirds, of the width elsewhere by a framing composed of
+bundles of sticks bound together with withes and heavily coated with mud
+mortar. This was not placed flush with the inner face, but a few inches
+back, and the whole structure gives an effect of unusual neatness and
+good workmanship.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 81--Section of chimney-like structure in ruin
+  No. 16]
+
+At various other points in the canyons examples of chimney-like
+structures occur, none, however, constructed on the elaborate plan of
+that last described. Two examples were found in the large rooms west of
+the tower in the central portion of Mummy Cave ruin, and these are
+especially worthy of attention because they are attached to rectangular
+rooms, which there is no reason to suppose were kivas. The first room
+appears to have had a shaft only, without a niche or recess; the second
+room west of the tower had a recess and a rounded shaft, while the
+third-room had neither recess nor shaft.
+
+The usual form of this feature is that shown in figures 80 and 81, and
+consists only of a tunnel and shaft. There are not many examples in the
+canyons: altogether there may be a dozen now visible, but excavations in
+the village ruins would doubtless reveal others. Except the two in Mummy
+Cave ruin last mentioned, and some doubtful examples to be described
+later, they occur always as attachments to kivas, never to houses. Some
+of them, like the Mummy Cave example, were certainly built at the same
+time as the kivas, of which they formed a part; others were added to
+kivas after those structures had been completed and used.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 82--Plan of the principal kiva in Mummy Cave
+  ruin.]
+
+The kiva in Casa Blanca ruin (shown in figure 14) appears to have had an
+appendage of this sort, not constructed after the usual manner, but
+added outside the rectangular wall and composed of mud or adobe. At
+three other places in the lower ruin these structures are found, all
+constructed of mud or adobe and all attached to adobe walls. It is
+doubtful whether these three examples should be classed with the
+preceding, but as they may have been used in the same manner they should
+be mentioned here. Another doubtful example occurs in the upper part of
+the same ruin and has already been described (page 110). It was
+constructed of stone at some time subsequent to the completion of the
+wall against which it rests.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 83--Chimney-like structure in Mummy Cave ruin.]
+
+Over twenty ago Mr W. H. Holmes found a structure in Mancos canyon which
+it now appears may be of this type. He illustrates it by a ground plan
+and thus describes it:
+
+  The most striking feature of this structure [ruin] is the round
+  room, which occurs about the middle of the ruin and inside of a large
+  rectangular apartment.... Its walls are not high and not entirely
+  regular, and the inside is curiously fashioned with offsets and
+  box-like projections. It is plastered smoothly and bears considerable
+  evidence of having been used, although I observed no traces of tire.
+  The entrance to this chamber is rather extraordinary, and further
+  attests the peculiar importance attached to it by the builders and
+  their evident desire to secure it from all possibility of intrusion.
+  A walled and covered passageway of solid masonry, 10 feet of which
+  is still intact, leads from an outer chamber through the small
+  intervening apartments into the circular one. It is possible that
+  this originally extended to the outer wall and was entered from the
+  outside. If so, the person desiring to visit the estufa [kiva] would
+  have to enter an aperture about 22 inches high by 30 wide and crawl
+  in the most abject manner possible through a tube-like passageway
+  nearly 20 feet in length. My first impression was that this
+  peculiarly constructed doorway was a precaution against enemies and
+  that it was probably the only means of entrance to the interior of
+  the house, but I am now inclined to think this hardly probable, and
+  conclude that it was rather designed to render a sacred chamber as
+  free as possible from profane intrusion.[23]
+
+    [Footnote 23: 10th Ann. Rept. U.S. Geol. and Geog. Survey of the
+    Territories, F. V. Hayden in charge (Washington, 1878); report on
+    the "Ancient ruins of Southwestern Colorado," by W. H. Holmes;
+    p. 395, pl. xxxvii.]
+
+In this example the tunnel was much larger than usual and the vertical
+shaft, if there were one, has been so much broken down that it is no
+longer distinguishable. Nordenskioeld mentions a considerable number of
+kivas with this attachment, and one which is described and figured is
+said to be a type of all the kivas in that region, but an inspection of
+his ground plans shows more kivas without this feature than with it. In
+his description of a small ruin in Cliff canyon he speaks of--
+
+  ... a circular room still in a fair state of preservation. The wall
+  that lies nearest the precipice is for the most part in ruins; the
+  rest of the room is well preserved. After about half a meter of dust
+  and rubbish had been removed, we were able to ascertain that the
+  walls formed a cylinder 4.3 meters in diameter. The thickness of the
+  wall is throughout considerable, and varies, the spaces between the
+  points where the cylinder touches the walls of adjoining rooms[24]
+  having been filled up with masonry. The height of the room is 2
+  meters. The roof has long since fallen in, and only one or two beams
+  are left among the rubbish. To a height of 1.2 meters from the floor
+  the wall is perfectly even and has the form of a cylinder, or rather
+  of a truncate cone, as it leans slightly inward. The upper portion,
+  on the other hand, is divided by six deep niches into the same
+  number of pillars. The floor is of clay, hard, and perfectly even.
+  Near the center is a round depression or hole, five-tenths of a
+  meter deep and eight-tenths of a meter in diameter. This hole was
+  entirely full of white ashes. It was undoubtedly the hearth. Between
+  the hearth and the outer wall stands a narrow, curved wall,
+  eight-tenths of a meter high. Behind this wall, in the same plane as
+  the floor, a rectangular opening, 1 meter high and six-tenths of a
+  meter broad, has been constructed in the outer wall. This opening
+  forms the mouth of a narrow passage or tunnel of rectangular shape,
+  which runs 1.8 meters in a horizontal direction and then goes
+  straight upward, out into the open air. The tunnel lies under one of
+  the six niches, which is somewhat deeper than the others. The walls
+  are built of carefully hewn blocks of sandstone, the inner surface
+  being perfectly smooth and lined with a thin, yellowish plaster. On
+  closer examination of this plaster it is found to consist of several
+  thin layers, each of them black with soot. The plaster has evidently
+  been repeatedly restored as the walls became blackened with smoke.
+  A few smaller niches and holes in the walls, irregularly scattered
+  here and there, have presumably served as places of deposit for
+  different articles; a bundle of pieces of hide, tied with a string,
+  was found in one of them. The lower part of the wall, to a height of
+  four-tenths of a meter, is painted dark red around the whole room.
+  This red paint projects upward in triangular points, arranged in
+  threes, and above them is a row of small round dots of red....
+  Circular rooms, built and arranged on exactly the same plan as that
+  described above, reappear with exceedingly slight variations in size
+  and structure in every cliff dwelling except the very smallest
+  ones.... The number of estufas [kivas] varies in proportion to the
+  size of the buildings and the number of rooms, ... [The ruin
+  described contained two kivas.] ... The description of the first
+  estufa applies in every respect to the second, with the single
+  exception that the whole wall is coated with yellow plaster without
+  any red painting. The wall between the hearth and the singular
+  passage or tunnel described above is replaced by a large slab of
+  stone set on end. It is difficult to say for what purpose this
+  tunnel has been constructed and the slab of stone or the wall
+  erected in front of it. As I have mentioned above, this arrangement
+  is found in all the estufas.[25]
+
+    [Footnote 24: In the ground plan given there is no point shown
+    where the walls of the kiva touch adjoining rooms.]
+
+    [Footnote 25: Cliff Dwellers of the Mesa Verde, pp. 15-17, figs. 6
+    and 7.]
+
+The general similarity between the kivas of De Chelly and those of the
+Mesa Verde region will be apparent from the above description. It should
+be added that in the section which accompanies it the roof of the tunnel
+appears to be supported by a series of small cross sticks, although no
+information on this point is afforded by the test. The examples which
+occur in De Chelly are apparently much ruder and more primitive than
+those of the Mancos, and only one of them approaches the latter in
+finish and elaboration.
+
+In another place[26] Nordenskioeld mentions an example in which two small
+sticks were incorporated in the masonry of the upper part of the tunnel
+in a diagonal position. From this he rejects Holmes' explanation that
+the passageway was used as an entrance to the kiva, nor does he find the
+chimney hypothesis satisfactory. He states, further, that the use of
+this feature as a ventilator seems highly improbable. In one place he
+found the curtain or screen constructed not of masonry, but--
+
+  ... of thick stakes, driven into the ground close to each other, and
+  fastened together at the top with osiers. On the side nearest to the
+  hearth this wooden screen was covered with a thick layer of mortar,
+  probably to protect the timber from the heat.[27]
+
+    [Footnote 26: Loc. cit., p. 32.]
+
+    [Footnote 27: Loc. cit., p. 70.]
+
+As stated elsewhere, the first hypothesis formed in the field as to the
+purpose of these chimney-like structures was that they were abortive
+chimneys, but this was found untenable. The next hypothesis, formed also
+in the field, was that they were ceremonial in origin and use, but why
+they should connect with the open air is not clear. If we could assume
+that they were ventilators, the problem would be solved, but it is a far
+cry from pueblo architecture to ventilation; a stride, as it were, over
+many centuries. Ventilation according to this method--the introduction
+of fresh air on a low level, striking on a screen a little distance from
+the inlet and being thereby evenly distributed over the whole
+chamber--is a development in house architecture reached only by our own
+civilization within the last few decades.
+
+If the shaft and tunnel were in place, however, the screen might follow
+as a matter of necessity. Entrance to the kivas is always through the
+roof, a ceremonial requirement quite as rigidly adhered to today among
+the Pueblos as it was formerly among their ancestors. The same opening
+which gives access also provides an exit to the smoke from the fire,
+which is invariably placed in the center of the kiva below it. This fire
+is a ceremonial rather than a necessary feature, for in the coldest
+weather the presence of a dozen men in a small chamber, air-tight except
+for a small opening in the roof, very soon raises the temperature to an
+uncomfortable degree, and the air becomes so fetid that a white man, not
+accustomed to it, is nauseated in half an hour or less. Such are the
+conditions in the modern kivas of Tusayan. In the smaller structures of
+De Chelly they must have been worse. The fire is, therefore, made very
+small and always of very dry wood, so as to diminish as far as possible
+the output of smoke. Frank H. Cushing states that in certain ceremonials
+which occur in the kivas it is considered very necessary that the fire
+should burn brightly and that the flame should rise straight from it. If
+this requirement prevailed in De Chelly, a screen of some sort would
+surely follow the construction of a shaft and tunnel.
+
+More or less smoke is generally present in the kivas when a fire is
+burning, notwithstanding the care taken to prevent it. That a similar
+condition prevailed in the kivas of De Chelly is shown by the
+smoke-blackened plaster of the interiors. In some cases there was a room
+over the kivas which must have increased the difficulty very much. There
+can be little doubt that the chimney-like structures were not chimneys,
+and no doubt at all that they did provide an efficient means of
+ventilation, no matter what the intention of the builders may have been.
+When we know more of the ceremonials of the Pueblo Indians, and when
+extensive excavations have developed the various types and varieties of
+these structures in the ruins, we may be able to determine their object
+and use.
+
+
+TRADITIONS
+
+It has often been stated concerning some given ruin or region that the
+traditions of the present inhabitants of the country do not reach them.
+In the case of Canyon de Chelly the same statement might be made, for
+more than 99 Navaho in 100, when asked what became of the people who
+built the old houses in De Chelly, will state that a great wind arose
+and swept them all away, which is equivalent to saying that they do not
+know. There is a tradition in the Navaho tribe, however, now very
+difficult to get, as it is confined to a few of the old priests. It
+recites the occupancy of the canyon before the Navaho obtained
+possession of it, but, curiously enough, this period is placed after the
+Spanish invasion. It is even asserted that there were monks in De
+Chelly, and Mummy Cave, Casa Blanca, and one other ruin have been
+pointed out as the places where they were stationed. No version of this
+tradition definite and complete enough for publication could be obtained
+by the writer, but Dr. Washington Matthews, U.S.A., whose knowledge of
+Navaho myths and traditions is so great that it can almost be termed
+exhaustive, has obtained one and doubtless will publish it.
+
+The Hopi or Moki Indians, whose villages are some three days' journey to
+the west, have also very definite traditions bearing on the occupancy of
+De Chelly.[28] This tribe, like others, is composed of a number of
+related clans who reached their present location from various directions
+and at various times; but, with a few exceptions, each of these clans
+claims to have lived at one time or another in Canyon de Chelly. How
+much truth there is in these claims can be determined only when the
+entire region has been examined and thoroughly studied. In the meantime
+it will probably be safe to assume that some, at least, of the ruins in
+De Chelly are of Hopi origin.
+
+    [Footnote 28: A resume of the Hopi traditions was prepared by the
+    writer from material collected by the late A. M. Stephen, and
+    published as chapter iii of "A study of Pueblo architecture,"
+    op. cit.]
+
+
+
+
+CONCLUSIONS
+
+
+To understand the ruins so profusely scattered over the ancient pueblo
+country we must have some knowledge of the conditions under which their
+inhabitants lived. Were nothing at all known, however, we would be
+justified in inferring, from the results that have been produced, a
+similarity of conditions with those prevailing among the pueblo tribes,
+both formerly and now; and all the evidence so far obtained would
+support that inference. There is no warrant whatever for the old
+assumption that the "cliff dwellers" were a separate race, and the cliff
+dwellings must be regarded as only a phase of pueblo architecture.
+
+More or less speculation regarding the origin of pueblo culture is the
+usual and perhaps proper accompaniment of nearly all treatises bearing
+on that subject. Early writers on the Aztec culture, aided by a vague
+tradition of that tribe that they came from the north, pushed the point
+of emigration farther and farther and still farther north, until finally
+the pueblo country was reached. Pueblo ruins are even now known locally
+as "Aztec ruins." Logically the inhabited villages should be classed as
+"Aztec colonies," and such classification was not unusual when the
+country came into the possession of the United States some fifty years
+ago.
+
+As our knowledge of the pueblo culture increased, a gradual separation
+between the old and the new took place, and we have as an intermediate
+hypothesis many "Aztec ruins," but no "Aztec colonies." Finally, as a
+result of still further knowledge, the ruins and the inhabited pueblos
+are again brought together; several lines of investigation have combined
+to show the continuity of the old and the present culture, and the
+connection may be considered well established. But there is still a
+disposition to regard the cliff ruins as a thing apart. The old idea of
+a separate race of cliff dwellers now finds little credence, but the
+cliff ruins are almost universally explained as the results of
+extraordinary, primitive, or unusual causes.
+
+The intimate relation between the savage and his physical environment
+has already been alluded to. Nature, or that part of nature which we
+term physical environment, enters into and becomes part of the life of
+the savage in a way and to an extent that we can hardly conceive. A
+change of physical environment does not produce an immediate change in
+the man or in his arts, but in time such must inevitably result.
+Twenty-five years ago the savage of the plains and the savage of the
+pueblo country were regarded as distinct races, "as different from each
+other as light is from darkness;" yet the differences which appeared so
+striking at first have become fewer and fewer as our knowledge of the
+Indian tribes increased, and those which remain today can almost all be
+attributed to a difference in physical environment.
+
+Linguistic researches have shown the close connection which exists
+between the Hopi (Moki) and some of the plains (or so called "wild")
+Indians. There is no doubt that at the time of the Spanish discovery,
+some three hundred and fifty years ago, the Hopi were quite as far
+advanced as the other pueblo tribes, and the conclusion is irresistible
+that since it may reasonably be inferred that one tribe has made the
+change from a nomadic to a sedentary life, other tribes also may have
+done so. We may go even farther than this, and assume that a nomadic
+tribe driven into the pueblo country, or drifting into it, would remain
+as before under the direct influence of its physical environment,
+although the environment would be a new one. Granting this, and the
+element of time, and we will have no difficulty with the origin of
+pueblo architecture.
+
+The complete adaptation of pueblo architecture to the country in which
+it is found has been commented on. Ordinarily such adaptation would
+imply two things--origin within the country, and a long period of time
+for development--but there are several factors that must be taken into
+consideration. If the architecture did not originate in the country
+where it is found it would almost certainly bear, traces of former
+conditions. Such survivals are common in all arts, and instances of it
+are so common in architecture that no examples need be cited. Only one
+of these survivals has been found in pueblo architecture, but that one
+is very instructive; it is the presence of circular chambers in groups
+of rectangular rooms, which occur in certain regions. These chambers are
+called estufas or kivas and are the council houses and temples of the
+people, in which the governmental and religious affairs of the tribe are
+transacted. It is owing to their religious connection that the form has
+been preserved to the present day, carrying with it the record of the
+time when the people lived in round chambers or huts,
+
+In opposition to the hypothesis of local origin it might be stated that
+there is no evidence of forms intermediate in development. The oldest
+remains of pueblo architecture known are but little different from
+recent examples. But it must be borne in mind that pueblo architecture
+is of a very low order, so low that it hardly comes within a definition
+of architecture as an art, as opposed to a craft. Except for a few
+examples, some of which have already been mentioned, it was strictly
+utilitarian in character; the savage had certain needs to supply, and he
+supplied them in the easiest and most direct manner and with material
+immediately at hand. The whole pueblo country is covered with the
+remains of single rooms and groups of rooms, put up to meet some
+immediate necessity. Some of these may have been built centuries ago,
+some are only a few years or a few months old, yet the structures do not
+differ from one another; nor, on the other hand, does the similarity
+imply that the builder of the oldest example knew less or more than his
+descendant today--both utilized the material at hand and each
+accomplished his purpose in the easiest way. In both cases the result is
+so rude that no sound inference of sequence can be drawn from the study
+of individual examples, but in the study of large aggregations of rooms
+we find some clues.
+
+The aggregation of many single rooms into one great structure was
+produced by causes which have been discussed. It must not be forgotten
+that the unit of pueblo construction is the single room, even in the
+large, many-storied villages. This unit is often quite as rude in modern
+work as in ancient, and both modern and ancient examples are very close
+to the result which would be produced by any Indian tribe who came into
+the country and were left free to work out their own ideas. Starting
+with this unit the whole system of pueblo architecture is a natural
+product of the country in which it is found and the conditions of life
+known to have affected the people by whom it was practiced.
+
+Granting the local origin of pueblo architecture it would appear at
+first sight that a very long period of time must have elapsed between
+the erection of the first rude rooms and the building of the
+many-storied pueblos, yet the evidence now available--that derived from
+the ruins themselves, documentary evidence, and traditions--all suggest
+that such was not necessarily the case. As a record of events, or rather
+of a sequence of events, tradition, when unsupported, has practically no
+value; but as a picture of life and of the conditions under which a
+people lived it is very instructive and full of suggestions, which, when
+followed out, often lead to the uncovering of valuable evidence. The
+traditions of the pueblo tribes record a great number of movements or
+migrations from place to place, the statements being more or less
+obscured by mythologic details and accounts of magic or miraculous
+occurrences. When numbers of such movements are recorded, it is safe to
+infer that the conditions dictating the occupancy of sites were unstable
+or even that the tribes were in a state of slow migration. When this
+inference is supported by other evidence, it becomes much stronger, and
+when the supporting evidence becomes more abundant, with no discordant
+elements, the statement may be accepted as proved until disproved.
+
+The evident inferiority of the modern pueblos to some of the old ruins
+has been urged as an argument against their connection. While
+degeneration in culture is yet to be proved, degeneration of some
+particular art under adverse conditions, such as war, continued famine,
+or pestilence, is not an uncommon incident in history, and it can be
+shown that under the peculiar conditions which prevailed in the pueblo
+country such degeneration would naturally take place. One of the
+peculiarities of pueblo architecture is that its results were obtained
+always by the employment of the material immediately at hand. In the
+whole pueblo region no instance is known where the material (other than
+timber) was transported to any distance; on the contrary, it was usually
+obtained within a few feet of the site where it was used. Hence, it
+comes about that difference in character of masonry is often only a
+difference in material. Starting with a tribe or several tribes of
+plains Indians, who came into the pueblo country, we should probably see
+them at first building houses such as they were accustomed to
+build--round huts of skin or brush, perhaps partly covered with earth,
+such as were found all over middle and eastern United States. Supposing
+the tribe to have been not very warlike in character and subsisting
+principally by horticulture, these settlements would necessarily be
+confined to the vicinity of springs and to little valleys where the
+crops could be grown. The general character of the country is arid in
+the extreme, and only in favored spots is horticulture possible. In a
+very short time these people would be forced to the use of stone for
+buildings, for the whole country is covered with tabular sandstone,
+often broken up into blocks and flakes ready for immediate use without
+any preparation whatever. Timber and brush could be procured only with
+difficulty, and often had to be carried great distances.
+
+It has been suggested that the rectangular form of rooms might have been
+developed from the circular form by the crowding together upon
+restricted sites of many circular chambers; but such a supposition seems
+unnecessary. A structure of masonry designed to be roofed would
+naturally be rectangular; in fact, the placing of a flat roof upon a
+circular chamber was a problem whose solution was beyond the ability of
+these people, as has already been shown. Along with this advance, or
+perhaps preceding it, the social organization of the tribe, or its
+division into clans and phratries, would manifest itself, and those who
+"belong together" would build together. This requirement was a very
+common one and was closely adhered to even a few years ago.
+
+Although degeneration in arts is common enough, a peculiar condition
+prevailed in the pueblo region. So far as the architecture was concerned
+war and a hostile human environment produced not degeneration but
+development. This came about partly by reason of the peculiarities of
+the country, and partly through the methods of war. The term war is
+rather a misnomer in this connection, as it does not express the idea.
+The result was not brought about by armed bodies of men animated by
+hostile intentions or bent on extermination, although forays of this
+kind are too common in later pueblo history, but rather by predatory
+bands, bent on robbery and not indisposed to incidental killing. The
+pueblos, with their fixed habitations and their stores of food, were the
+natural prey of such bands, and they suffered, just as did, at a later
+period, the Mexican settlements on the Rio Grande, with their immense,
+flocks of sheep. It was constant annoyance and danger, rather than war
+and pitched battles.
+
+The pueblo country is exceptionally rich in building material suited to
+the knowledge and capacity of the pueblo builders. Had suitable material
+been less abundant, military knowledge would have developed and
+defensive structures would have been erected; but as such material could
+be obtained everywhere, and there was no lack of sites, almost if not
+quite equal to those occupied at any given time, the easiest and most
+natural thing to do was to move. Owing to the nature of the hostile
+pressure, such movements were generally gradual, not en masse; although
+there is no doubt that movements of the latter kind have sometimes taken
+place.
+
+These conclusions are not based on a study of the ruins in Canyon de
+Chelly alone, which illustrate only one phase of the subject, but of all
+the pueblo remains, or rather of the remains so far as they are now
+known. They imply a rather sparsely settled country, occupied by a
+comparatively small number of tribes and subtribes, moving from place to
+place under the influence of various motives, some of which we know,
+others we can only surmise. It was a slow but practically constant
+migratory movement with no definite end or direction in view. The course
+of this movement in a geographical way does not as yet reveal a
+preponderance in any one direction; tribes and subtribes moved from east
+to west and from west to east, from north to south and from south to
+north, and many were irregular in their course, but the movements, so
+far as they can now be discerned, were all within a circumscribed area.
+
+There is no evidence of any movement from without into the pueblo group,
+unless the close relation of the Hopi (Moki) language to the other
+Shoshonean dialects be such evidence, and none of a movement from within
+this area out of it, although such movements must have taken place, at
+least in the early history of the region. It must be borne in mind in
+this discussion that while we can assign approximate boundaries to the
+ancient pueblo region on the north, east, and west, no limit can as yet
+be fixed on the south. The arid country southward of Gila river and
+northward of the Mexican boundary would be a great obstacle to a
+movement either north or south, but little as we know about that region
+we do know that it was not an insurmountable obstacle. The Casas Grandes
+of Janos, in Chihuahua, closely resemble the type of ruins on the Gila
+river, in Arizona, of which the best example we now have is the
+well-known Casa Grande ruin. We know that there are cliff ruins in the
+Sierra Madre, but beyond this we know little. Concerning the immense
+region which stretches from Gila river to the valley of Mexico, over
+1300 miles in length, we know practically nothing.
+
+In that portion of the pueblo region lying within the United States
+migratory movements have, as a rule, been confined to very small areas,
+each linguistic family moving within its own circumscribed region. Some
+instances of movement away from the home region have taken place even in
+historic times, as, for example, the migration of a considerable band of
+Tewas from the Rio Grande to Tusayan, where they now are, and moreover,
+this movement probably occurred en masse and over a considerable
+distance; but there is little doubt that the usual procedure was
+different.
+
+Canyon de Chelly was occupied because it was the best place in that
+vicinity for the practice of horticulture. The cliff ruins there grew
+out of the natural conditions, as they have in other places. It is not
+meant that a type of house structure developed here and was transferred
+subsequently to other places. When the geological and topographical
+environment favored their construction, cliff outlooks were built; from
+a different geological structure in certain regions cavate lodges
+resulted; in other places there were "watch towers;" in still others
+single rooms were built, either lone or in clusters, and these results
+obtained quite as often if not oftener within the historic period as in
+prehistoric times.
+
+Notwithstanding the possible division of the De Chelly ruins into four
+well defined types, there is no warrant for the assumption of a large
+population. The types are interrelated and to a large extent were
+inhabited not contemporaneously but conjointly. There are about 140
+ruins in Canyon de Chelly and its branches, but few of them could
+accommodate more than a very small population. Settlements large enough
+to furnish homes for 50 or 60 people were rare. As not all of the sites
+were occupied at one time, the maximum population of the canyon could
+hardly have exceeded 400; it is more likely to have been 300.
+
+The character of the site occupied is one of the most important elements
+to be studied in the examination of ruins in the pueblo country. In De
+Chelly whatever defensive value the settlements had was due to the
+character of the sites selected. It is believed, however, that other
+considerations dictated the selection of the sites, and that the
+defensive motive, if present at all, exercised very little influence in
+this region. The sites here are always selected with a view to an
+outlook over some adjacent area of cultivable land, and the structures
+erected on them were industrial or horticultural, rather than military
+or defensive.
+
+The masonry of the ruins and the constructive expedients employed by the
+builders are an insurmountable obstacle in the way of the hypothesis
+that the cliff ruins represent a primitive or intermediate stage in the
+growth of pueblo architecture. The builders were well acquainted with
+the principles and methods of construction employed in the best work
+found in other regions; the inferiority of their work is due to special
+conditions and to the locality. The presence of a number of extraneous
+features, both in methods and principles employed, is further evidence
+in the same line. These features are certainly foreign to this region,
+some of them suggest even Spanish or Mexican origin, which implies
+comparatively recent occupancy.
+
+The openings--doorways and windows--found in the ruins are of the
+regular pueblo types. They are arranged as convenience dictated, without
+any reference to the defensive motive, which, if it existed at all,
+exercised less influence here than it did in the modern pueblos. There
+is no evidence of the use of very modern features, such as the paneled
+wooden doors found in the pueblos; nor, on the other hand, are there any
+very primitive expedients or methods--none which can not be found today
+in the modern villages.
+
+The roof, floors, and timber work are also essentially the same as the
+examples found in the modern pueblos. The notable scarcity of roofing
+timbers in the ruins can probably be explained by the hypothesis of
+successive occupancies and subsequent or repeated use of material
+difficult to obtain. So far as regards the use of timber as an element
+of masonry construction the results obtained in De Chelly are rude and
+primitive as compared with the work found in other regions.
+
+The immense number of storage cists found in De Chelly are a natural
+outgrowth of the conditions there and support the hypothesis that the
+cliff outlooks were merely farming shelters. The small size of many of
+the settlements made the construction of storage cists a necessity. The
+storage of water was very seldom attempted. A large proportion of the
+cists found in De Chelly were burial places and of Navaho origin. As a
+rule they are far more difficult of access than the ruins.
+
+There is no evidence of the influence of the defensive motive. Defensive
+works on the approaches to sites are never found, nor can such influence
+be detected in the arrangement of openings, in the character of masonry,
+or in the ground plan. If the cliff ruins were defensive structures, an
+influence strong enough to bring about the occupancy of such
+inconvenient and unsuitable sites would certainly be strong enough also
+to bring about some slight modifications in the architecture, such as
+would render more suitable sites available. If we assume that the cliff
+ruins were farming outlooks, occupied only during the farming season,
+and then only for a few days or weeks at a time, the character of the
+sites occupied by them, seems natural enough, for the same sites are
+used by the Navaho today in connection with farming operations.
+
+The distribution of kivas in the ruins of De Chelly affords another
+indication that the occupancy of that region was quiet and little
+disturbed, and that the ruins were in no sense defensive structures.
+Kivas are found only in permanent settlements, and the presence of two
+or three of them in a small settlement comprising a total of five or six
+rooms implies, first, that the little village was the home of two or
+more families, and, second, that there was comparative if not entire
+immunity from hostile incursions. If the conditions were otherwise,
+these small settlements would have combined into larger ones, as was
+done in other regions. Probably these small settlements with several
+kivas mark a late period in the use of outlying sites. The position of
+the kivas in some of the settlements on defensive sites, and their
+arrangement across the front of the cove, suggest that such sites were
+first used for outlooks, and that their occupancy by regular villages
+came at a later period.
+
+All of the now available traditions of the Navaho and of the Hopi
+Indians support the conclusions reached from a study of the intrinsic
+evidence of the ruins, that they represent a comparatively late period
+in the history of pueblo architecture. It appears that some at least of
+the ruins are of Hopi origin. It is certain that the ruins were not
+occupied at one time, nor by one tribe or band.
+
+As criteria in development or in time the cliff ruins are valueless,
+except in a certain restricted way. They represent simply a phase of
+pueblo life, due more to the geological character of the region occupied
+than to extraordinary conditions, and they pertain partly to the old
+villages, partly to the more modern. Apparently they reached their
+greatest (not their highest) development in the period immediately
+preceding the last well-defined stage in the growth of pueblo
+architecture, a stage in which most of the pueblos were at the time of
+their discovery by the Spaniards, and in which some of them are now.
+Reliance for defense was had on the site occupied, and outlying
+settlements for horticultural purposes were very numerous, as they must
+necessarily be also in the last stage--the aggregation of many related
+villages into one great cluster.
+
+The cliff outlooks in Canyon de Chelly and in other regions, the cavate
+lodges of New Mexico and Arizona, the "watch towers" of the San Juan and
+of the Zuni country, the summer villages attached to many of the
+pueblos, the single-room remains found everywhere, even the brush
+shelters or "kisis" of Tusayan, are all functionally analogous, and all
+are the outgrowth of certain industrial requirements, which were
+essentially the same throughout the pueblo country, but whose product
+was modified by geological and topographical conditions. In the cliff
+ruins of De Chelly we have an interesting and most instructive example
+of the influence of a peculiar and sometimes adverse environment on a
+primitive people, who entered the region with preconceived and, as it
+were, fully developed ideas of house construction, and who left it
+before those ideas were brought fully in accord with the environment,
+but not before they were influenced by it.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+  [Transcriber's Note:
+  The term "Cliff dwellings" does not occur as an Index entry. The
+  cross-references are probably an error for "Cliff ruins."]
+
+Access to cliff Villages                               144, 157, 158
+Acoma, structural development of                                 155
+Adobe blocks not aboriginal                                      108
+  -- construction in pueblo region                               163
+  -- walls in Casa Blanca                              108, 109, 111
+Age of ruin determined by plastering                             121
+Agriculture of the Navaho                                         87
+Architecture of cliff ruins                                      153
+  --, pueblo, character of                                       193
+  --, pueblo, development of                                 91, 193
+Arizona, cliff ruins of Canyon de Chelly                      73-198
+  --, _see_ Cliff dwellings.
+Army of the West, conquest by                                     79
+Aztecs, cliff ruins attributed to                                191
+
+Bancroft, H. H., cliff ruins described by                         81
+Bandelier, A. F., on classification of pueblo ruins               89
+Bat trail in Canyon de Chelly                                    157
+Beadle, J. H., Canyon de Chelly visited by                        80
+  --, quoted on Canyon de Chelly                                  86
+Bench around cliff kivas                     121, 136, 137, 138, 177
+  -- in cliff outlook                                            151
+Bench-like recess in cliff kiva                                  124
+Bickford, F. T., cliff ruins described by                         81
+Birdsall, W. R., cliff ruins described by                    81, 163
+Bottom lands, home villages on                                    94
+Bowlders used in cliff-dwelling masonry                      98, 100
+Burial cists in Casa Blanca                                      109
+  -- in cliff ruins discussed                                    166
+  --, _see_ Cists; Navaho.
+Buttress in Casa Blanca                                     110, 162
+  -- in cliff ruins                                    119, 125, 129
+  -- in kivas                                                    177
+
+Canyon de Chelly, accessibility of                                85
+  --, memoir on cliff ruins of                                73-198
+  --, location of                                                 84
+  --, _see_ Cliff dwellings.
+Canyon del Muerto, location of                                    85
+  --, ruins in, described                                         81
+Casa Blanca, a name of two cliff dwellings                       145
+  -- described                                               104-111
+  -- described by Simpson                                         79
+  --, jacal construction in                                      163
+  --, notched doorway in                                         164
+Casas Grandes, resemblance of, to Gila river remains             196
+Cave ruins, classification of                                    155
+  -- village in Canyon de Chelly                                  97
+Ceremonial chamber, _see_ Kiva.
+Chaco and old-world ruins compared                                80
+Chapin, F. H., cliff ruins visited by                             81
+  -- on openings in Mancos ruins                                 165
+  -- on kiva decoration                                          181
+Chelly, origin of name of                                         79
+  --, _see_ Canyon de Chelly.
+Chimney-like structures discussed                            182-190
+  -- in Casa Blanca                                              110
+  -- in cliff kiva                                          125, 129
+  -- in cliff outlook                                            144
+  -- in cliff ruins                                              119
+  -- in Mummy Cave ruin                                113, 115, 116
+Chinking of cliff-dwelling masonry           102, 103, 104, 117, 118,
+                                             123, 127, 142, 144, 148,
+                                                  150, 151, 159, 160
+Chin Lee valley, ruins in                                         80
+Cist, burial, excavation of                                      101
+  --, burial, in cliff ruins                                 96, 130
+  --, _see_ Burial cist; Navajo; Storage cist.
+Clans, localization of, in pueblos                               194
+Classification of canyon ruins                                92, 93
+  -- of pueblo ruins                                         89, 154
+Cliff ruins, classification of                                   155
+Climate of cliff ruin region                                      83
+Constructive expedients in cliff dwelling                        170
+Corn cultivated by the Navaho                                     84
+Cups pecked in rock                                              138
+Cushing, F. H.
+  --, on ceremonial fire                                         190
+  --, on ceremonial renewal of kivas                             177
+  --, on cliff ruins                                             153
+  --, on marking of kiva hatchway                                180
+
+Decoration of cliff house walls                   102, 109, 113, 125,
+                                                   147, 160, 177-181
+Defense, absence of motive for,
+    in cliff ruins                 101, 142, 153, 154, 170, 196, 197
+  --, home villages located for                                  111
+  --, loopholes an evidence of                                   135
+  --, expedients for, in cliff dwellings                         170
+Defensive sites, to what attributed                               91
+Development of cliff dwellings                                   198
+  -- of pueblo architecture                                      155
+Distribution of cliff ruins in De Chelly                     156-157
+  --, _see_ Classification.
+Domenech, _Abbe_ Em., reference by, to Casa Blanca                80
+Doorways in cliff dwellings   102, 111, 125, 128, 134, 140, 145, 151
+  --, notched, in cliff dwellings                           138, 164
+  -- partially closed                                            165
+  --, _see_ Openings.
+Drain in Casa Blanca                                             110
+Dutton, C. E., cliff-ruin region described by                     82
+
+En-a-tse-gi, Navaho name of Canyon de Chelly                      95
+Environment, village sites influenced by                         153
+
+Farming shelters discussed                                       142
+Farming villages, cliff ruins classed as                         156
+  -- of the pueblos                                              156
+Fireplace, _see_ Chimney-like structure.
+Floors of cliff dwellings discussed                         165, 197
+Foot-holes, access to cliff houses
+    by means of                              132, 134, 142, 148, 158
+
+Geography of cliff-ruin region                                    82
+Geology of cliff-ruin region                                  82, 86
+Granary structure in cliff ruin                                   97
+  --, _see_ Cist.
+
+Hardacre, E. C., on ruins in Canyon de Chelly                     80
+Holmes, W. H., cliff ruins described by                           81
+  --, on chimney-like structures                                 188
+Hopi origin of certain cliff ruins                               198
+  -- tradition regarding cliff ruins                             191
+  --, _see_ Tusayan.
+
+Jacal construction in Casa Blanca                                108
+  -- construction in pueblo region                               163
+Jackson, W. H., cliff ruins described by                      80, 81
+
+Keam, T. V., burial cist excavated by                            101
+Kern, E. H., Casa Blanca sketched by                              79
+Kini-na-e-kai, Navaho name of Casa Blanca                        104
+Kisi and cliff dwelling analogous                                198
+  -- or brush shelter                                             92
+Kivas, absence of, in farming villages                           150
+  --, distribution of, in cliff ruins                            197
+  --, function of                                                193
+  --, how entered                                                190
+  --, how-plastered                                              161
+  -- in cliff ruins                102, 103, 118, 119, 121, 124, 135,
+                               137, 138, 139, 141, 142, 143, 174-182
+  -- in Mummy Cave ruin                                          115
+  -- in Pakashi-izini ruin                                        99
+  -- in Tse-on-i-tso-si canyon                                   101
+  -- of Casa Blanca described                                    107
+  -- of unusual size                                              95
+  --, origin of                                                   91
+  --, prevalence of, in pueblo ruins                              90
+
+Lintels of cliff-ruin openings                    102, 114, 140, 164
+Loopholes in cliff houses                                        135
+
+Mancos canyon, cliff ruins in                                     81
+Masonry deteriorated by plastering                               161
+  -- of cliff houses                      95, 98, 101, 102, 104, 128,
+                                             136, 137, 140, 142, 143,
+                                        144, 148, 149, 150, 159, 197
+  --, rude, in cliff houses                                 132, 151
+  --, _see_ Chinking; Mortar; Walls.
+Matthews, Washington, on Navaho traditions
+    regarding cliff ruins                                        191
+Mesa Verde, cliff ruins of                                        81
+Moen-kapi, a Hopi summer village                             92, 156
+Monument canyon, location of                                      85
+Moran, Thomas, Canyon de Chelly ruins visited by                  80
+Mortar, character of, in cliff house                   127, 140, 160
+  --, source of, in cliff-house building                         126
+  --, _see_ Masonry; Plastering.
+Mummy Cave ruin, benches and buttresses in                       177
+  -- described                                               81, 112
+  --, kiva in                                                    176
+
+Navaho, agriculture of the                                        81
+  --, building material from
+          cliff dwellings used by                                154
+  -- burials in cliff villages               109, 110, 115, 117, 130,
+                                             132, 134, 138, 142, 148,
+                                         150, 152, 158, 167-170, 197
+  -- burials, _see_ Cists.
+  --, cliff ruins utilized by                           96, 104, 152
+  --, expedition against the                                      79
+  -- granaries in cliff ruins                                     97
+  -- house sites in Canyon de Chelly                              87
+  -- houses, sites of                                            152
+  --, peaches cultivated by the                                   88
+  -- structures in cliff dwellings                               140
+  -- tradition of cliff dwellings                           191, 198
+  -- trails in Canyon de Chelly                                  157
+  -- walls in cliff outlooks                                     152
+New Mexico, _see_ Cliff dwellings.
+Niches in kiva walls                                             178
+Nordenskioeld, G., cliff ruins classified by                       92
+  --, cliff ruins described by                                    81
+  --, on an oval kiva                                            177
+  --, on chimney-like structures                            188, 189
+  --, on kiva decoration                                         181
+  --, on Mesa Verde masonry                                      163
+  --, on openings in Mancos ruins                                165
+Nutria, a Zuni summer village                                92, 156
+
+Ojo Caliente, a Zuni summer village                          92, 158
+  --, masonry of                                                 159
+Openings, absence of, in cliff houses                            132
+  -- in Casa Blanca walls                                        109
+  -- in cliff kivas                                    125, 129, 175
+  -- in cliff-dwelling walls                       123-124, 164, 197
+  -- in Mummy Cave ruin walls                                    114
+O'Sullivan, T. H., Casa Blanca photographed by                    80
+Outlooks on restricted areas                                     149
+  -- or farming shelters discussed                               142
+Oven-like structure in cliff ruin                                127
+Ovens not an aboriginal feature                                  128
+
+Pakashi-izini ruin in Del Muerto                                  98
+Passageway in Casa Blanca                                        109
+  -- in cliff dwelling                                           100
+Peaches, groves of, in Canyon de Chelly                           88
+  -- introduced by Spaniards                                      88
+Pescado, a Zuni summer village                               92, 156
+Petroglyphs in cliff villages                                    138
+Pictographs in cliff ruins                    98, 103, 113, 118, 126,
+                                              133, 144, 152, 178-181
+Plastering, effect of, on stonework                              161
+  -- of cliff ruin-walls                     118, 120, 121, 129, 140,
+                                                  144, 149, 151, 160
+  -- of kiva walls                                          121, 176
+Platforms of masonry connected with cliff ruins                  132
+Population of Casa Blanca                                        105
+  -- of cliff dwellings                                 98, 135, 196
+  -- of Pakashi-izini ruin                                        99
+Pottery fragments iu Casa Blanca                                 111
+Pueblo ruins classified                                           89
+  --, _see_ Cliff Dwellings.
+Putnam, F. W., cliff ruins described by                           80
+
+Reservoir structure connected with cliff village                 126
+Roof construction of Casa Blanca                            106, 111
+Roofs of cliff dwellings discussed                          165, 197
+Rooms, character of, in cliff dwellings                      95, 132
+Ruins, pueblo, classified                                         89
+  --, _see_ Cliff dwellings; Pueblo.
+
+Sandstorms in Canyon de Chelly                                    91
+Sheep introduced by Spaniards                                    162
+Simpson, J. H., Casa Blanca visited by                           104
+  --, on Navaho expedition                                        79
+Sites, inaccessible, of cliff houses     93, 111, 133, 134, 153, 196
+  -- of pueblos, how determined                                   91
+Spanish influence in cliff-dwelling masonry                      197
+  -- monks in Canyon de Chelly                                   191
+  --, sheep introduced by                                        162
+Stephen, A. M., on Hopi tradition of cliff ruins                 191
+Steps, absence of, in cliff villages                             157
+Stevenson, James, Canyon de Chelly visited by                     81
+Storage cists in cliff ruins discussed                      166, 197
+  -- rooms in cliff village                                 130, 132
+  --, _see_ Cist; Granary.
+Streams in the cliff-ruin region                                  84
+Summer villages of pueblos                                   92, 156
+Symbolism, water, in pueblo pictography                          126
+
+Taboo of cliff-ruin timber by Navaho                             166
+Taos, a many-storied pueblo                                      155
+  --, circular kivas at                                          175
+Timber, source of, of the Hopi                                   166
+  -- used in cliff-dwelling construction     111, 113, 116, 121, 122,
+                                                  124, 165, 171, 197
+Traditions regarding cliff dwellings                         190-191
+Trails in Canyon de Chelly                                       157
+Tse-gi, Navaho name of Canyon de Chelly                       79, 85
+Tse-i-ya-kin, Navaho name of Mummy Cave ruin                     112
+Tse-on-i-tso-si canyon, location of                               85
+  --, ruin in                                                    101
+Tunicha mountains, reference to                               84, 85
+Tusayan, masonry at                                              101
+  --, migration to, of Tewas                                     196
+  -- villages, location of, when discovered                       91
+
+Vegetation of cliff-ruin region                                   83
+
+Walls, finish of, in cliff ruins                  107, 113, 116, 124
+  --, retaining, in Canyon de Chelly                             172
+Walpi, former location of                                         93
+Washington, Col., Navaho expedition under                         79
+Watch towers and cliff dwellings analogous                       198
+  -- of pueblos                                                   92
+Water
+  -- supply of Canyon de Chelly                               86, 88
+Wheeler Survey, archeological work under                          80
+White House, _see_ Casa Blanca.
+Whitewash used in Casa Blanca                                    109
+  -- used in Mummy Cave ruin                                     115
+  -- used on cliff houses                                        146
+Window opening in cliff outlook                                  148
+  --, _see_ Opening.
+
+Yarrow, H. C., on kivas at Taos                                  175
+
+Zuni, a many-storied pueblo                                      155
+  --, character of masonry of                                    163
+  --, farming villages of                                    92, 156
+
+
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+Errors and Anomalies
+
+   bowlder
+     _standard spelling for this publication_
+
+   among others figures one entitled ...
+     _wording unchanged: "other figures" or omit "figures"_
+   the interstices were / chinked with spawls
+   pretty well chinked with small spawls
+     _spelling in original: more often "spalls"_
+   numerous expedients were resorted to to prevent
+     _duplication "to to" not an error_
+   the Mesa Verde country
+     _"e" in original_
+   Over twenty ago Mr W. H. Holmes found
+     _missing word in original: probably "years"_
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CLIFF RUINS OF CANYON DE CHELLY,
+ARIZONA***
+
+
+******* This file should be named 19723.txt or 19723.zip *******
+
+
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/9/7/2/19723
+
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+https://www.gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at https://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/pglaf.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at https://www.gutenberg.org/about/contact
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit https://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/donate
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
+To donate, please visit:
+https://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     https://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
+