initial commit of ebook 19870HEAD main

author: Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> 2025-10-15 05:06:40 -0700
committer: Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> 2025-10-15 05:06:40 -0700
commit: b5c905d60b86191d7cd58db3ec2f5db6df49c93f (patch)
tree: 3b959b58d545ec4e9482ecd93f77820500dcca02
29 files changed, 26778 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6833f05
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.gitattributes
@@ -0,0 +1,3 @@
+* text=auto
+*.txt text
+*.md text
diff --git a/19870-0.txt b/19870-0.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dd14d7b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19870-0.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,8321 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Illuminated Manuscripts, by John W. Bradley
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Illuminated Manuscripts
+
+Author: John W. Bradley
+
+Release Date: November 19, 2006 [EBook #19870]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPTS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Project Rastko, Zoran Stefanovic, H.J. Bent
+and the Online Distributed Proofreaders Europe at
+http://dp.rastko.net.
+
+
+
+
+
+                             Illuminated
+                             Manuscripts
+
+                            John Bradley
+
+
+                            BRACKEN BOOKS
+                               LONDON
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+BOOK I
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+INTRODUCTORY
+
+What is meant by art?--The art faculty--How artists may be compared--The
+aim of illumination--Distinction between illumination and
+miniature--Definition of illumination--The first miniature
+painter--Origin of the term "miniature"--Ovid's allusion to his little
+book.
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+VELLUM AND OTHER MATERIALS
+
+Difference between vellum and parchment--Names of different
+preparations--The kinds of vellum most prized for illuminated books--The
+"parcheminerie" of the Abbey of Cluny--Origin of the term
+"parchment"--Papyrus.
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+WRITING
+
+Its different styles--Origin of Western alphabets--Various forms of
+letters--Capitals, uncials, etc.--Texts used in Western Europe--Forms of
+ancient writings--The roll, or volume--The codex--Tablets--Diptychs,
+etc.--The square book--How different sizes of books were produced.
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+GREEK AND ROMAN ILLUMINATION
+
+The first miniature painter--The Vatican Vergils--Methods of
+painting--Origin of Christian art--The Vienna Genesis--The
+Dioscorides--The Byzantine Revival.
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+BYZANTINE ILLUMINATION
+
+The rebuilding of the city of Byzantium the beginning of Byzantine
+art--Justinian's fondness for building and splendour--Description of
+Paul the Silentiary--Sumptuous garments--The Gospel-book of
+Hormisdas--Characteristics of Byzantine work--Comparative scarcity of
+examples--Rigidity of Byzantine rules of art--Periods of Byzantine
+art--Examples--Monotony and lifelessness of the style.
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+CELTIC ILLUMINATION
+
+Early liturgical books reflect the ecclesiastical art of their
+time--This feature a continuous characteristic of illumination down to
+the latest times--Elements of Celtic ornament--Gospels of St.
+Chad--Durham Gospels--Contrast of Celtic and Byzantine--St.
+Columba--Book of Kells--Details of its decoration.
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+CELTIC ILLUMINATION--_continued_
+
+The Iona Gospels--Contrast with Roman and Byzantine--Details--Treatment
+of animal forms--Colour schemes--The Gospel-book of St. Columbanus--That
+of Mael Brith Mac Durnan--The Lindisfarne Gospels--Cumdachs--Other
+book-shrines.
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+SEMI-BARBARIC ILLUMINATION
+
+Visigothic--Merovingian--Lombardic--Extinction of classic art--Splendid
+reign of Dagobert--St. Eloy of Noyon--The Library of Laon--Natural
+History of Isidore of Seville--Elements of contemporary art--Details of
+ornament--Symbolism--Luxeuil and Monte Cassino--Sacramentary of
+Gellone--"Prudentius"--"Orosius"--Value of the Sacramentary of Gellone.
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+DEVELOPMENT OF THE INITIAL
+
+The initial and initial paragraph the main object of decoration in
+Celtic illumination--Study of the letter L as an example--The I of "In
+principio" and the B of "Beatus Vir".
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+FIRST ENGLISH STYLES
+
+Transition from Iona to Lindisfarne--Influence of Frankish art--The
+"Opus Anglicum"--The Winchester school and its characteristics--Whence
+obtained--Method of painting--Examples--Where found and described.
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+CAROLINGIAN ILLUMINATION
+
+Why so-called--Works to be consulted--The Library of St. Gall--Rise and
+progress of Carolingian art--Account of various MSS.--Feature of the
+style--Gospels of St. Sernin--The Ada-Codex--Centres of
+production--Other splendid examples--The Alcuin Bible--The Gospel of St.
+Médard of Soissons.
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+MONASTIC ILLUMINATION
+
+Introductory--Monasteries and their work from the sixth to the ninth
+century--The claustral schools--Alcuin--Warnefrid and Theodulf--Clerics
+and monastics--The Golden Age of monasticism--The Order of St.
+Benedict--Cistercian houses--Other Orders--Progress of writing in
+Carolingian times--Division of labour.
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+MONASTIC ILLUMINATION--_continued_
+
+The copyist--Gratuitous labour--Last words of copyists--Disputes between
+Cluny and Citeaux--The Abbey of Cluny: its grandeur and influences--Use
+of gold and purple vellum--The more influential abbeys and their work in
+France, Germany, and the Netherlands.
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+OTHONIAN ILLUMINATION
+
+Departure from Carolingian--Bird and serpent--Common use of dracontine
+forms in letter-ornament--Influence of metal-work on the forms of
+scroll-ornament--The vine-stem and its developments--Introduction of
+Greek taste and fashion into Germany--Cistercian illumination--The
+Othonian period--Influence of women as patronesses and
+practitioners--German princesses--The Empress Adelheid of Burgundy--The
+Empress Theophano--Henry II. and the Empress
+Cunegunda--Bamberg--Examples of Othonian art.
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+FRANCONIAN ILLUMINATION
+
+The later Saxon schools--Bernward of Hildesheim--Tuotilo and Hartmut of
+St. Gallen--Portrait of Henry II. in MS. 40 at Munich--Netherlandish and
+other work compared--Alleged deterioration of work under the Franconian
+Emperors not true--Bad character of the eleventh century as to
+art--Example to the contrary.
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+ARTISTIC EDUCATION IN THE CLOISTER
+
+The "Manual"--Its discovery--Its origin and contents--Didron's
+translation--The "Compendium" of Theophilus--Its contents--English
+version by Hendrie--Benedictine and Cistercian illumination--How they
+differ--Character of monastic architects and artists.
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+THE RISE OF GOTHIC ILLUMINATION
+
+Germany the chief power in Europe in the twelfth century--Rise of
+Italian influence--The Emmeram MSS.--Coronation of Henry II.--The
+Apocalypse--The "Hortus Deliciarum"--Romanesque--MS. of Henry the
+Lion--The Niedermünster Gospels--Description of the MS.--Rise of
+Gothic--Uncertainty of its origin--The spirit of the age.
+
+
+BOOK II
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+THE GOLDEN AGE OF ILLUMINATION
+
+The Gothic spirit--A "zeitgeist" not the invention of a single artist
+nor of a single country--The thirteenth century the beginning of the new
+style--Contrast between North and South, between East and West, marked
+in the character of artistic leaf-work--Gradual development of Gothic
+foliage--The bud of the thirteenth century, the leaf of the fourteenth,
+and the flower of the fifteenth--The Freemasons--Illumination
+transferred from the monastery to the lay workshop--The Psalter of St.
+Louis--Characteristics of French Gothic illumination--Rise of the
+miniature as a distinct feature--Guilds--Lay artists.
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+RISE OF NATIONAL STYLES
+
+The fourteenth century the true Golden Age of Gothic
+illumination--France the cradle of other national styles--Netherlandish,
+Italian, German, etc.--Distinction of schools--Difficulty of assigning
+the _provenance_ of MSS.--The reason for it--MS. in Fitzwilliam Museum,
+Cambridge--The Padua Missal--Artists' names--Whence obtained.
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+FRENCH ILLUMINATION FROM THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY TO THE RENAISSANCE
+
+Ivy-leaf and chequered backgrounds--Occasional introduction of plain
+burnished gold--Reign of Charles VI. of France--The Dukes of Orleans,
+Berry, and Burgundy; their prodigality and fine taste for
+MSS.--Christine de Pisan and her works--Description of her "Mutation of
+Fortune" in the Paris Library--The "Roman de la Rose" and "Cité des
+Dames"--Details of the French style of illumination--Burgundian MSS.,
+Harl. 4431--Roy. 15 E. 6--The Talbot Romances--Gradual approach to
+Flemish on the one hand and Italian on the other.
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+ENGLISH ILLUMINATION FROM THE TENTH TO THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY
+
+Organisation of the monastic _scriptoria_--Professional outsiders: lay
+artists--The whole sometimes the work of the same practitioner--The
+Winchester Abbeys of St. Swithun's and Hyde--Their vicissitudes--St.
+Alban's--Westminster--Royal MS. 2 A 22--Description of style--The
+Tenison Psalter--Features of this period--The Arundel Psalter--Hunting
+and shooting scenes, and games--Characteristic pictures, grotesques, and
+caricatures--Queen Mary's Psalter--Rapid changes under Richard
+II.--Royal MS. 2 E. 9--Their cause.
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+THE SOURCES OF ENGLISH FIFTEENTH-CENTURY ILLUMINATION
+
+Attributed to the Netherlands--Not altogether French--The home of Anne
+of Bohemia, Richard II.'s Queen--Court of Charles IV. at Prag--Bohemian
+Art--John of Luxembourg, King of Bohemia--The Golden Bull of Charles
+IV.--Marriage of Richard II.--The transformation of English work owing
+to this marriage and the arrival of Bohemian artists in
+England--Influence of Queen Anne on English Art and
+Literature--Depression caused by her death--Examination of Roy. MS. 1 E.
+9 and 2 A. 18--The Grandison Hours--Other MSS.--Introduction of Flemish
+work by Edward IV.
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+ITALIAN ILLUMINATION
+
+Barbaric character of Italian illumination in the twelfth
+century--Ravenna and Pavia the earliest centres of revival--The
+"Exultet"--La Cava and Monte Cassino--The writers of early Italian MSS.
+not Italians--In the early fourteenth century the art is
+French--Peculiarities of Italian foliages--The Law Books--Poems of
+Convenevole da Prato, the tutor of Petrarch--Celebrated patrons--The
+Laon Boethius--The Decretals, Institutes, etc.--"Decretum Gratiani,"
+other collections and MSS.--Statuts du Saint Esprit--Method of
+painting--Don Silvestro--The Rationale of Durandus--Nicolas of Bologna,
+etc.--Triumphs of Petrarch--Books at San Marco, Florence--The Brera
+Graduals at Milan--Other Italian collections--Examples of different
+localities in the British Museum--Places where the best work was
+done--Fine Neapolitan MS. in the British Museum--The white-vine style
+superseded by the classical renaissance.
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+GERMAN ILLUMINATION FROM THE THIRTEENTH TO THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY
+
+Frederick II., _Stupor Mundi_, and his MS. on hunting--The Sicilian
+school mainly Saracenic, but a mixture of Greek, Arabic, and Latin
+tastes--The Franconian Emperors at Bamberg--Charles of Anjou--The House
+of Luxembourg at Prag--MSS. in the University Library--The Collegium
+Carolinum of the Emperor Charles IV.--MSS. at Vienna--The Wenzel
+Bible--The Weltchronik of Rudolf v. Ems at Stuttgard--Wilhelm v. Oranse
+at Vienna--The Golden Bull--Various schools--Hildesheimer Prayer-book at
+Berlin--The Nuremberg school--The Glockendons--The Brethren of the Pen.
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+NETHERLANDISH ILLUMINATION
+
+What is meant by the Netherlands--Early realism and study of
+nature--Combination of symbolism with imitation--Anachronism in
+design--The value of the pictorial methods of the old illuminators--The
+oldest Netherlandish MS.--Harlinda and Renilda--The nunnery at
+Maas-Eyck--Description of the MS.--Thomas à Kempis--The school of
+Zwolle--Character of the work--The use of green landscape
+backgrounds--The Dukes of Burgundy--Netherlandish artists--No miniatures
+of the Van Eycks or Memling known to exist--Schools of Bruges, Ghent,
+Liége, etc.--Brussels Library--Splendid Netherlandish MSS. at
+Vienna--Gerard David and the Grimani Breviary--British Museum--"Romance
+of the Rose"--"Isabella" Breviary--Grisailles.
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+THE FRENCH RENAISSANCE
+
+Communication with Italy--Renaissance not sudden--Origin of the schools
+of France and Burgundy--Touraine and its art--Fouquet--Brentano
+MSS.--"Versailles Livy"--Munich "Boccaccio," etc.--Perréal and
+Bourdichon--"Hours of Anne of Brittany"--Poyet--The school of
+Fontainebleau--Stained glass--Jean Cousin--Gouffier "Heures"--British
+Museum Offices of Francis I.--Dinteville Offices--Paris "Heures de
+Montmorency", "Heures de Dinteville," etc.
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE ILLUMINATION
+
+Late period of Spanish illumination--Isidore of Seville--Archives at
+Madrid--Barcelona--Toledo--Madrid--Choir-books of the Escorial--Philip
+II.--Illuminators of the choir-books--The size and beauty of the
+volumes--Fray Andrés de Leon and other artists--Italian
+influence--Giovanni Battista Scorza of Genoa--Antonio de Holanda,
+well-known Portuguese miniaturist in sixteenth century--His son
+Francesco--The choir-books at Belem--French invasion--Missal of
+Gonçalvez--Sandoval Genealogies--Portuguese Genealogies in British
+Museum--The Stowe Missal of John III.
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+ILLUMINATION SINCE THE INVENTION OF PRINTING
+
+The invention of printing--Its very slight affect on
+illuminating--Preference by rich patrons for written books--Work
+produced in various cities in the sixteenth century--Examples in German,
+Italian, and other cities, and in various public libraries up to the
+present time.
+
+MANUSCRIPTS THAT MAY BE CONSULTED
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+
+
+
+                     ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPTS
+
+                             BOOK I
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+INTRODUCTORY
+
+What is meant by art?--The art faculty--How artists may be compared--The
+aim of illumination--Distinction between illumination and
+miniature--Definition of illumination--The first miniature
+painter--Origin of the term "miniature"--Ovid's allusion to his little
+book.
+
+
+The desire for decoration is probably as old as the human race. Nature,
+of course, is the source of beauty, and this natural beauty affects
+something within us which has or is the faculty of reproducing the cause
+of its emotion in a material form. Whether the reproduction be such as
+to appeal to the eye or the ear depends on the cast of the faculty. In a
+mild or elementary form, probably both casts of faculty exist in every
+animated creature, and especially in the human being.
+
+Art being the intelligent representation of that quality of beauty which
+appeals to any particular observer, whoever exercises the faculty of
+such representation is an artist.
+
+Greatness or otherwise is simply the measure of the faculty, for in
+Nature herself there is no restriction. There is always enough of beauty
+in Nature to fill the mightiest capacity of human genius. Artists,
+therefore, are measured by comparison with each other in reference to
+the fraction of art which they attempt to reproduce.
+
+The art of illumination does not aim at more than the gratification of
+those who take pleasure in books. Its highest ambition is to make books
+beautiful.
+
+To some persons, perhaps, all ordinary books are ugly and distasteful.
+Probably they are so to the average schoolboy. Hence the laudable
+endeavour among publishers of school-books to make them attractive. The
+desire that books should be made attractive is of great antiquity. How
+far back in the world's history we should have to go to get in front of
+it we cannot venture to reckon. The methods of making books attractive
+are numerous and varied. That to which we shall confine our attention is
+a rather special one. Both its processes and its results are peculiar.
+Mere pictures or pretty ornamental letters in sweet colours and elegant
+drawing do not constitute illumination, though they do form essential
+contributions towards it; and, indeed, in the sixteenth century the
+clever practitioners who wished, in bright colours, to awaken up the old
+woodcuts used to call themselves illuminists, and the old German books
+which taught how the work should be done were called _Illuminir bücher_.
+Illuminists were not illuminators.
+
+In the twelfth century when, as far as we know, the word illuminator was
+first applied to one who practised the art of book decoration, it meant
+one who "lighted up" the page of the book with bright colours and
+burnished gold.
+
+These processes suggest the definition of the art. _Perfect illumination
+must contain both colours and metals_. To this extent it is in perfect
+unison with the other mediæval art of heraldry; it might almost be
+called a twin-sister.
+
+As an art it is much older than its name. We find something very like it
+even among the ancient Egyptians, for in the Louvre at Paris is a
+papyrus containing paintings of funeral ceremonies, executed in bright
+colours and touched in its high lights with pencilled gold. But after
+this for many centuries there remains no record of the existence of any
+such art until just before the Christian era. Then, indeed, we have
+mention of a lady artist who painted a number of miniature portraits for
+the great biographical work of the learned Varro. We must carefully
+observe, however, that there is a distinction between illumination and
+mere miniature painting. Sometimes it is true that miniatures--as _e.g._
+those of the early Byzantine artists, and afterwards those of Western
+Europe--were finished with touches of gold to represent the lights. This
+brought them into the category of illuminations, for while miniatures
+may be executed without the use of gold or silver, illuminations may
+not. There are thousands of miniatures that are not illuminations.
+
+At the period when illuminating was at its best the miniature, in its
+modern sense of a little picture, was only just beginning to appear as a
+noticeable feature, and the gold was as freely applied to it as to the
+penmanship or the ornament. But such is not the case with miniature
+painting generally.
+
+Lala of Cyzicus, the lady artist just referred to, lived in the time of
+Augustus Cæsar. She has the honour of being the first miniaturist on
+record, and is said to have produced excellent portraits "in little,"
+especially those of ladies, on both vellum and ivory. Her own portrait,
+representing her engaged in painting a statuette, is still to be seen
+among the precious frescoes preserved in the museum at Naples.
+
+The term "miniature," now applied to this class of work, has been
+frequently explained. It is derived from the Latin word _minium_, or red
+paint, two pigments being anciently known by this name--one the sulphide
+of mercury, now known also as "vermilion," the other a lead oxide, now
+called "red lead." It is the latter which is generally understood as the
+_minium_ of the illuminators, though both were used in manuscript work.
+The red paint was employed to mark the initial letters or sections of
+the MS. Its connection with portraiture and other pictorial subjects on
+a small scale is entirely owing to its accidental confusion by French
+writers with their own word _mignon_, and so with the Latin _minus_. In
+classical times, among the Romans, the "miniator" was simply a person
+who applied the _minium_, and had nothing to do with pictures or
+portraits at all, but with the writing. That the rubrication of titles,
+however, was somewhat of a luxury may be gathered from the complaint of
+Ovid when issuing the humble edition of his verses from his lonely exile
+of Tomi:--
+
+         "Parve (nec invideo) sine me liber ibis in urbem:
+          Hei mihi quo domino non licet ire tuo.
+          ...........................
+          Nec te purpureo velent vaccinia succo
+          Non est conveniens luctibus ille color.
+          _Nec titulus minio_, nec cedro carta notetur
+          Candida nec nigra cornua fronte geras."[1]
+
+                                   _Tristia_, Cl. 1, Eleg. 1.
+
+[1] "Go, little book, nor do I forbid,--go without me into that city
+where, alas! I may enter never more.... Nor shall whortleberries adorn
+thee with their crimson juice; that colour is not suitable for
+lamentations. Nor shall thy title be marked with minium, nor thy leaf
+scented with cedar-oil. Nor shalt thou bear horns of ivory or ebony upon
+thy front."
+
+There are many allusions in these pathetic lines which would bear
+annotation, but space forbids. The one point is the use of minium.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+VELLUM AND OTHER MATERIALS
+
+Difference between vellum and parchment--Names of different
+preparations--The kinds of vellum most prized for illuminated books--The
+"parcheminerie" of the Abbey of Cluny--Origin of the term
+"parchment"--Papyrus.
+
+
+As vellum is constantly spoken of in connection with illumination and
+illuminated books, it becomes necessary to explain what it is, and why
+it was used instead of paper.
+
+We often find writers, when referring to ancient documents, making use
+of the words parchment and vellum as if the terms were synonymous; but
+this is not strictly correct. It is true that both are prepared from
+skins, but the skins are different. They are similar, but not the same,
+nor, indeed, are they interchangeable. In point of fact, the skins of
+almost all the well-known domestic animals, and even of fishes, have
+been used for the purpose of making a material for writing upon.
+Specifically among the skins so prepared were the following: the
+ordinary lambskin, called "aignellinus"[2]; that prepared from stillborn
+lambs, called "virgin parchment."
+
+[2] Strictly _agnellinus_.
+
+From sheepskins was produced ordinary "parchment," and also a sort of
+leather called "basane" or "cordovan." Vellum was produced from
+calfskin; that of the stillborn calf being called "uterine vellum," and
+considered the finest and thinnest. It is often spoken of in connection
+with the exquisitely written Bibles of the thirteenth and fourteenth
+centuries as of the highest value.
+
+Besides these were the prepared skins of oxen, pigs, and asses; but
+these were chiefly used for bindings, though occasionally for leaves of
+account and other books liable to rough usage.
+
+Before the tenth century the vellum used for MSS. is highly polished,
+and very white and fine. Afterwards it becomes thick and rough,
+especially on the hair side. In the examination of certain MSS. the
+distinction of hair side and smooth side is of importance in counting
+the gatherings so as to determine the completeness, or otherwise, of a
+given volume. Towards the period of the Renaissance, however, the vellum
+gradually regains its better qualities.
+
+Thus it may be seen that the difference between vellum and parchment is
+not a mere difference of thickness; for while, in general, vellum is
+stouter than parchment, there is some vellum which is thinner than some
+parchment. Not only are they made from different kinds of skin, but the
+vellum used for illuminated books was, and still is, prepared with
+greater care than the parchment used for ordinary school or college
+treatises, or legal documents.
+
+The fabrication of both parchment and vellum in the Middle Ages was
+quite as important a matter as that of paper at the present time, and
+certain monastic establishments had a special reputation for the
+excellence of their manufacture. Thus the "parcheminerie," as it was
+called, of the Abbey of Cluny, in France, was quite celebrated in the
+twelfth century. One reason probably for this celebrity was the fact
+that Cluny had more than three hundred churches, colleges, and
+monasteries amongst its dependencies, and therefore had ample
+opportunities for obtaining the best materials and learning the best
+methods in use throughout literary Christendom. As to the name "vellum,"
+it is directly referable to the familiar Latin term for the hide or pelt
+of the sheep or other animal, but specially applied, as we have said, to
+that of the calf, the writing material thus prepared being termed
+_charta vitulina_--in French _vélin_, and in monastic Latin and English
+_vellum_.
+
+The name "parchment" had quite a different kind of origin. It is an old
+story, found in Pliny's _Natural History_ (bk. xiii. ch. 70), that the
+ancient use or revival of the use of parchment was due to the
+determination of King Eumenes II. of Mysia or Pergamos to form a library
+which should rival those of Alexandria, but that when he applied to
+Egypt for papyrus, the writing materials then in use, Ptolemy Epiphanes
+jealously refused to permit its exportation. In this difficulty Eumenes,
+we are told, had recourse to the preparation of sheepskins, and that
+from the place of its invention it was called _charta pergamena_.
+
+Pliny and his authority, however, were both wrong in point of history.
+Eumenes, who reigned from about 197 to 158 B.C., was not the inventor,
+but the restorer of its use (see Herodotus, v. 58). It was called in
+Greek μεμβράνα (2 Tim. iv. 13).
+
+We may mention, by the way, that neither vellum nor parchment are by any
+means the oldest materials known. Far older, and more generally used in
+Italy, Greece, and Egypt, was the material which has given us the name
+of our commonest writing material of to-day, viz. paper. The name of
+this older material was _papyrus_ (Gr. πάπυρος and χάρτης). As a writing
+material it was known in Egypt from remote antiquity. It was plentiful
+in Rome in the time of the Cæsars, and it continued, both in Grecian and
+Roman Egypt, to be the ordinary material employed down to the middle of
+the tenth century of our era. In Europe, too, it continued in common use
+long after vellum had been adopted for books, though more especially for
+letters and accounts. St. Jerome mentions vellum as an alternative
+material in case papyrus should fail (Ep. vii.), and St. Augustine (Ep.
+xv.) apologises for using vellum instead of papyrus.[3] Papyrus was also
+used in the early Middle Ages. Examples, _made up into
+book-form_--_i.e._ in leaves, with sometimes a few vellum leaves among
+them for stability--are still extant. Among such are some seven or eight
+books in various European libraries, the best known being the Homilies
+of St. Avitus at Paris, the Antiquities of Josephus at Milan, and the
+Isidore at St. Gall.
+
+[3] Thompson, _Greek and Latin Palæography_, p. 33.
+
+And in the Papal Chancery papyrus appears to have been used down to a
+late date in preference to vellum.[4]
+
+[4] Thompson, _op. cit._, p. 34; Aug. Molinier, _Les Manuscrits_,
+Prélim.; Lecoy de la Marche, _Les MSS. et la Miniature_, p. 24.
+
+In France papyrus was in common use in the sixth and seventh centuries.
+Merovingian documents dating from 625 to 692 are still preserved in
+Paris.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+WRITING
+
+Its different styles--Origin of Western alphabets--Various forms of
+letters--Capitals, uncials, etc.--Texts used in Western Europe--Forms of
+ancient writings--The roll, or volume--The codex--Tablets--Diptychs,
+etc.--The square book--How different sizes of books were produced.
+
+
+Seeing that illumination grew originally out of the decoration of the
+initial letters, our next point to notice is the penmanship. The
+alphabet which we now use is that formerly used by the Romans, who
+borrowed it from the Greeks, who in turn obtained it (or their
+modification of it) from the Phœnicians, who, lastly it is said,
+constructed it from that of the Egyptians. Of course, in these repeated
+transfers the letters themselves, as well as the order of them,
+underwent considerable alterations. With these we have here no concern.
+Our alphabet, _i.e._ the Roman and its variations, is quite sufficient
+for our story. In order to show as clearly as may be the varieties of
+lettering and the progress of penmanship from classical times to the
+revival of the old Roman, letters in the fifteenth century, we offer the
+following synopsis, which classifies and indicates the development of
+the different hands used by writers and illuminators of MSS. It is
+constructed on the information given in Wailly's large work on
+Palæography, and in Dr. de Grey Birch's book on the Utrecht Psalter. The
+former work affords excellent facsimiles, which, together with those
+given in the plates published by the Palæographical Society, will give
+the student the clearest possible ideas respecting these ancient
+handwritings.
+
+Omitting the cursive or correspondence hand, the letters used by the
+Romans were of four kinds--capitals (usually made angular to be cut in
+stone), rustic, uncials, and minuscules.
+
+The rounded capitals were intended to be used in penwork. Uncials differ
+from capitals only in the letters A, D, E, G, M, Q, T, V, for the sake
+of ease in writing. It is said that this class of letters was first
+called uncials from being made an inch (_uncia_) high, but this is mere
+tradition; the word is first used on Jerome's preface to the Book of
+Job. No uncials have ever been found measuring more than five-eighths of
+an inch in height.
+
+For the assistance of such students as may wish for examples we must
+refer to certain MSS. and reproductions in which the foregoing hands are
+exemplified.
+
+_CIRCA_ FOURTH CENTURY.
+
+_Capitals_, yet not pure.
+  The Vatican Vergil, No. 3225, throughout (Birch, p. 14; Silvestre's
+    _Paléographie universelle_, pl. 74).
+
+With regard to the relative antiquity of capitals and uncials, M. de
+Wailly observes: "The titles in pure uncials, but less than the text
+itself, give an excellent index to the highest antiquity. This is
+verified in MSS. 152, 2630, 107 of the Bibl. du Roi, etc. MSS. of the
+seventh or eighth century, whether on uncial or demi-uncial, or any
+other letter, are never constant in noting the title at the top of the
+page, or the kind of writing will vary, or if uncials be constantly
+used, the titles will not be smaller than the text. These variations
+become still greater in the following centuries. The ornaments which
+relieve the titles of each page commence about the eighth century" (i.
+p. 49 C).
+
+_Capitals_ and _Uncials_.
+  The Homilies of St. Augustine (Silvestre, pl. 74).
+  Augustine Opera, Paris Lib., 11641 (Palæograph. Soc., pl. 42, 43).
+
+_Rustic_.
+  The Second Vatican Vergil, No. 3867 (Wailly, pl. 2), called the
+    "Codex Romanus."
+
+SIXTH CENTURY.
+
+_Rustic_ and _Uncial_.
+  The Montamiata Bible (Birch, 35; Wailly, pl. 2, 4).
+
+_Rustic_ and _Minuscule_.
+  The Cambridge Gospels (Westwood, _Palæograph. Sacra Pictoria_, pl. 45).
+
+_Uncials_.
+  Gospels in Brit. Mus. Add. MS. 5463.
+  Paris Lib., Gregory of Tours (Silvestre, pl. 86).
+  Vienna Imp. Lib., Livy (Silvestre, pl. 75).
+  Brit. Mus., Harl. 1775 (Palæograph. Soc., pl. 16).
+
+SEVENTH CENTURY.
+
+_Uncials_ and _Minuscule_.
+  The St. Chad's Gospels in library of Lichfield Cathedral (Palæograph.
+    Soc., pl. 20, 21, 35).
+
+NINTH CENTURY.
+
+_Capitals_ and _Minuscules_.
+  Paris Lib., Bible of Charles the Bald.
+
+There is scarcely anything more difficult to judge than the true age of
+square capital MSS. or of pure uncials. Even the rustic capitals, like
+the first Vatican Vergil, No. 3225, are extremely rare. The letters in
+this MS. are about three-sixteenths of an inch high.
+
+
+TEXTS IN USE IN WESTERN EUROPE BEFORE THE AGE OF CHARLEMAGNE.
+
+_Lombardic._ The national hand of Italy. Founded on the old Roman
+cursive, it does not attain to any great beauty until the tenth or
+eleventh century. Examples may be seen in Palæographical Society, pl.
+95, and in the excellent lithographs published by the monks of Monte
+Cassino (_Paleografia artistica di Monte Cassino_, Longobardo-Cassinese,
+tav. xxxiv., etc.). A very fine example occurs in pl. xv., dated
+1087-88. Its characteristic letters are _a_, _e_, _g_, _t_.
+
+_Visigothic._ The national hand of Spain. Also founded on the old Roman
+cursive. It becomes an established hand in the eighth century, and lasts
+until the twelfth. Examples occur in Ewald and Lœwe, _Exempla Scripturæ
+Visigoticæ_, Heidelberg, 1883. It was at first very rude and illegible,
+but afterwards became even handsome. A fine example exists in the
+British Museum (Palæograph. Soc., pl. 48). Its characteristic letters
+are _g_, _s_, _t_.
+
+_Merovingian._ The national hand of France. A hand made up chiefly of
+loops and angles in a cramped, irregular way. Its derivation the same as
+the preceding. In the seventh century it is all but illegible. In the
+eighth it is much better, and almost easy to read.
+
+_Celtic_. The national hand of Ireland. It is founded on the demi-uncial
+Roman, borrowed as to type from MSS. taken to Ireland by missionaries.
+It is bold, clear, and often beautiful, lending itself to some of the
+most astonishing feats of penmanship ever produced.
+
+Such are the chief varieties of writing found in the MSS. produced
+before the great revival of the arts and learning which took place
+during the reign of Charles the Great (Karl der Grosse), known
+familiarly as Charlemagne.
+
+Wattenbach (_Schriftwesen_, _etc._) says that uncials date from the
+second century A.D. From examples still extant of the fifth and
+following centuries, it seems that while the Roman capitals were not
+uncommon, in Celtic MSS. the form generally adopted was the uncial. It
+was the form also usually chosen for ornamentation or imitation in those
+Visigothic, Merovingian, or Lombardic MSS., which made such remarkable
+use of fishes, birds, beasts, and plants for the construction of initial
+letters and principal words, of which we see so many examples in the
+elaborately illustrated Catalogue of the library at Laon by Ed. Fleury,
+and in that of Cambray, by M. Durieux. Most of these pre-Carolingian
+designs are barbarous in the extreme, dreadfully clumsy in execution,
+but they evince considerable ingenuity and a strong predilection for
+symbolism.
+
+Before concluding this chapter perhaps something should be said
+concerning the shape of books, though this is a matter somewhat outside
+the scope of our proper subject. Yet, as the brief digression will
+afford an opportunity for the explanation of certain terms used in MSS.,
+we will avail ourselves of it.
+
+The ancient form of writing upon skins and papyrus was that of the roll.
+The Hebrew, Arabic, or Greek terms for this do not concern us, but its
+Latin name was _volumen_, "something rolled," and from this we obtain
+our word volume. Such words as "explicit liber primus" etc., which we
+often find in early MSS., refer to this roll-form; _explicare_ in Latin
+meaning to unroll; hence, apropos of a chapter or book, to finish. When
+transferred to the square form, or codex, it simply means, "here ends
+book first," etc.
+
+The modern book shape first came into use with the beginning of the
+Christian era under the name of codex. Here it will be necessary to
+explain that _caudex_, _codex_, in Latin, meant a block of wood, and had
+its humorous by-senses among the Roman dramatists, as the word block has
+among ourselves, such as blockhead.[5] So _caudicalis provincia_ was a
+jocular expression for the occupation of wood-splitting.
+
+[5] Terence, _Heautont._, 5. 1, 4.
+
+Whether the word had originally any connection with _cauda_, "a tail,"
+is not here worth considering, as if so, it had long lost the
+connection; and when used to mean a book, had only the sense of a board,
+or a number of boards from two upwards, fastened together by means of
+rings passed through holes made in their edges.
+
+Probably the first use was as plain smooth boards only; examples of such
+are still in existence. Then of boards thinly covered with, usually,
+black wax. A pair of such tablets, wax-covered, was a common form of a
+Roman pocket-or memorandum-book. It was also used as a means of
+conveying messages, the reply being returned on the same tablets. The
+method was to write on the wax with a fine-pointed instrument called a
+style, the reverse end of which was flattened. When the person to whom
+the message was sent had read it, he (or she) simply flattened out the
+writing, smoothed it level, and then wrote the reply on the same wax.
+School-children did their exercises on these tablets, housewives and
+stewards kept their accounts on them, and on them literary people jotted
+down their ideas as they do now in their pocket-books. Extant examples
+of these early books, or tablets, are fairly numerous, and may be seen
+in most public museums. A codex of two leaves was called a diptych; of
+three, a triptych, etc. The codex form was used for legal documents,
+wills, conveyances, and general correspondence. Hence the Roman postman
+was called a _tabellarius_, the tablets containing correspondence being
+tied with a thread or ribbon and sealed. This custom of sending letters
+on tablets survived for some centuries after Augustan times. Wattenbach
+gives several interesting instances of their mediæval use.[6]
+
+[6] _Schriftwesen_, 48.
+
+Of course when the tablet gave place to the codex of skin or paper, the
+papyrus was too brittle and fragile for practical utility, and examples,
+as we have seen, were very rare; but vellum soon became popular. We may
+mention, in passing, that the papyrus roll gave us a word still in use
+in diplomatics, the word _protocol_. The first sheet of a papyrus roll
+was called the πρωτόκολλον. It usually contained the name of place and
+date of manufacture of the papyrus, and was stamped or marked with the
+name of the government officer who had charge of the department.
+
+In the vellum codex, though each leaf might have only one fold, and thus
+technically be considered as a folio, the actual shape of it was nearly
+square, hence its name of _codex quadratus_. When other forms of books,
+such as octavo, duo-decimo, etc., came into use, it was in consequence
+of the increased number of foldings. The gatherings, originally
+quaternions or quires, became different, and those who undertake to
+examine MSS. with respect to their completeness have to be familiar with
+the various methods.[7] This kind of knowledge, however, though useful,
+is by no means essential to the story of illumination.
+
+[7] Wattenbach, _Schriftwesen_; Madan, _Books in Manuscript_, _etc_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+GREEK AND ROMAN ILLUMINATION
+
+The first miniature painter--The Vatican Vergils--Methods of
+painting--Origin of Christian art--The Vienna Genesis--The
+Dioscorides--The Byzantine Revival.
+
+
+It has been already stated that the earliest recorded miniature painter
+was a lady named Lala of Cyzicus in the days of Augustus Cæsar, days
+when Cyzicus was to Rome what Brussels is to Paris, or Brighton to
+London. All her work, as far as we know, has perished. It was
+portraiture on ivory, probably much the same as we see in the miniature
+portraiture of the present day.
+
+But this was not illumination. The kind of painting employed in the two
+Vatican Vergils was, however, something approaching it. These two
+precious volumes contain relics of Pagan art, but it is the very art
+which was the basis and prototype of so-called Christian art of those
+earliest examples found in the catacombs and in the first liturgical
+books of Christian times.
+
+The more ancient of the two Vergils referred to, No. 3225, which Labarte
+(2nd ed., ii. 158) thinks to be a century older than the other, Sir M.D.
+Wyatt considered as containing "some of the best and most interesting
+specimens of ancient painting which have come down to us. The design is
+free and the colours applied with good effect, the whole presenting
+classical art in the period of decline, but before its final
+debasement." Whereas in the second MS., No. 3867, the style, though
+still classical, is greatly debased, and probably, in addition to this,
+by no means among the best work of its time. It is described as rough,
+inaccurate, and harsh. The method is of the kind called _gouache_,
+_i.e._ the colours are applied thickly in successive couches or layers,
+probably by means of white of egg diluted with fig-tree sap, and
+finished in the high lights with touches of gold (Palæograph. Soc., pl.
+114, 117). This finishing with touches of gold brings the work within
+the range of illumination. There is, indeed, wanting the additional
+ornamentation of the initial letter which would bring it fully into the
+class of mediæval work; but, such as it is, it may fairly claim to be
+suggestive of the future art. Indeed, certain points in the MS.
+3225--viz. that Zeus is always red and Venus fair, that certain costumes
+and colours of drapery are specially appropriated--would lead to the
+supposition that even then there existed a code of rules like those of
+the Byzantine Guide, and that therefore the art owed its origin to the
+Greeks.
+
+Between this MS. and the first known Christian book work there may have
+been many that have now perished, and which, had they remained, would
+have marked the transition more gradually. But even as they stand there
+is no appreciable difference between the earliest monuments of Christian
+art and those of the period which preceded them. Nor shall we find any
+break, any distinct start on new principles. It is one continuous series
+of processes--the gradual change of methods growing out of experience
+alone--not owing to any change of religion or the adoption of a new set
+of theological opinions. Of course we shall find that for a very long
+time the preponderance of illuminated MSS. will be towards liturgical
+works; and we shall also find that where the contents of the MS. are the
+same the subjects taken for illustration are also selected according to
+some fixed and well-known set of rules. We shall see the explanation of
+this by-and-by.
+
+The first example of a Christian illuminated MS. is one containing
+portions of the Book of Genesis in Greek preserved in the Imperial
+Library at Vienna. It is a mere fragment, only twenty-six leaves of
+purple vellum--that is, bearing the imperial stain--yet it contains
+eighty-eight pictures. We call them miniatures, but we must remember
+that by "miniator" a Roman bookseller would not understand what we call
+a miniaturist; and, as we have said, the word "illuminator" was not then
+known.
+
+This Vienna Genesis is not introduced among illuminated books,
+therefore, because of its miniatures--pictures we prefer to call
+them--but because the text is nearly all written in _gold_ and _silver_
+letters. The pictures, according to the Greek manner, are placed in
+little square frames. They were executed, no doubt, by a professional
+painter, not without technical skill and not hampered by monastic
+restrictions. The symbolism which underlies all early art is here shown
+in the allegorical figures (such as we shall meet with again in later
+Byzantine work), which are introduced to interpret the scene. We see the
+same thing in the catacombs. Being a relic of great importance, this
+Genesis codex has been often described and examples given of its
+pictures. Of course, in a little manual like the present we cannot
+pretend to exhibit the literature of our subject. We can scarcely do
+more than refer the reader to a single source. In this case perhaps we
+cannot do better than send the inquirer to the Victoria and Albert
+Museum at South Kensington.
+
+If we select another MS. of this early period it is the one which may be
+said to be the oldest existing MS. in which the ornamentation is worthy
+of as much notice as the pictures. We refer to the Collection of
+Treatises by Greek physicians on plants, fishing, the chase, and kindred
+matters in the same library as the Genesis fragment. It goes under the
+name of "Dioscorides," who was one of the authors, and dates from the
+beginning of the sixth century. The Genesis is a century older.
+Engravings from the Dioscorides are given in Labarte's _Arts
+industriels, etc._, pl. 78, and in Louandre's _Arts somptuaires, etc._,
+i., pl. 2, 3.
+
+Enough has been said on these earlier centuries to show quite clearly
+the character of the art known as Early Christian. It is simply a
+continuation of such art as had existed from classical times, and had,
+in fact, passed from the Greeks, who were artists, to the Romans, who
+were rarely better than imitators. It is carried on to the period when
+it again is nourished by Greek ideas in the Later Empire, and once more
+attains distinction in the splendid revival of art under the Emperor
+Justinian.
+
+NOTE.--Julius Capitolinus, in his Life of the exquisite Emperor Maximin,
+junior, mentions that the emperor's mother[8] made him a present of a
+copy of the poems of Homer, written in golden letters on purple[9]
+vellum. This is the earliest recorded instance of such a book in
+Christian times. Its date would be about 235 A.D.
+
+[8] Quædam parens sua.
+
+[9] Purpureos libros.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+BYZANTINE ILLUMINATION
+
+The rebuilding of the city of Byzantium the beginning of Byzantine
+art--Justinian's fondness for building and splendour--Description of
+Paul the Silentiary--Sumptuous garments--The Gospel-book of
+Hormisdas--Characteristics of Byzantine work--Comparative scarcity of
+examples--Rigidity of Byzantine rules of art--Periods of Byzantine
+art--Examples--Monotony and lifelessness of the style.
+
+
+The signal event which gave birth to mediæval illumination, or rather to
+the ideas which were thereby concentrated upon the production of
+magnificent books, was the rebuilding of the Imperial Palace and the
+Basilica of Constantine, henceforward to be known as the Church of
+Sancta Sophia, or the Divine Wisdom, at Byzantium. The Emperor Justinian
+had been reigning six years when a terrific fire, caused by the
+conflicts between the various seditions, called Circus factions, of the
+time, almost entirely destroyed not only his own palace and the great
+Christian church adjoining it, but the city of Constantinople itself. So
+important a scheme of reconstruction had probably never been forced upon
+a government since the great fire in Rome under Nero. Justinian, whose
+early training had been of the most economical kind, and whose
+disposition seemed to be rather inclined to parsimony than extravagance,
+now came out in his true character. For various reasons he had hitherto
+studiously concealed his master-passion; but this catastrophe of the
+fire, which seemed at first so disastrous, was really a stroke of
+fortune. It afforded the hitherto frugal sovereign the chance he had
+long waited for of spending without stint the hoarded savings of his two
+miserly predecessors, and gratifying his own tastes for magnificent
+architecture and splendour of apparel.
+
+Not only Asia, with its wealth of gold and gems, but all the known world
+capable of supplying material for the reconstructions, were called upon,
+and ivory, marbles, mosaics, lamps, censers, candelabra, chalices,
+ciboria, crosses, furniture, fittings, pictures--in short, everything
+that his own taste and the experience of four or five of the ablest
+architects of the time could suggest--administered to the gorgeous, the
+unspeakable splendour of the new edifices and their furniture.
+
+Paul the Silentiary, an eye-witness of the whole proceeding, has left a
+description in verse, and the accurate Du Fresne in prose, which enable
+us easily to trace how the Roman city of Constantine became transformed
+into the semi-oriental Byzantium of Justinian. During the two centuries
+which had elapsed since the days of the first Christian emperor many
+foreign luxuries had found their way into the Eastern capital. Byzantine
+jewellery and Byzantine silks were already famous. The patterns on the
+latter were not merely floral or geometrical, but four-footed animals,
+birds, and scenes from outdoor sports formed part of the embellishment,
+which, therefore, must have taken the place occupied in later times by
+the tapestries of Arras and Fontainebleau.
+
+Hitherto the Byzantines had imported their silks from Persia. After the
+rebuilding of the Basilica, Justinian introduced silk-culture into
+Greece. The garments ridiculed by Asterius, Bishop of Amasia, in the
+fourth century, were repeated in the sixth century. "When men," says he,
+"appear in the streets thus dressed, the passers-by look at them as at
+painted walls. Their clothes are pictures which little children point
+out to one another. The saintlier sort wear likenesses of Christ, the
+Marriage of Galilee...and Lazarus raised from the dead."
+
+On the robe of the Empress Theodora--the wife of Justinian, who is shown
+in one of the mosaics of St. Vitale at Ravenna as presenting rich gifts
+to that church--there is embroidered work along the border, showing the
+Adoration of the Magi. _Theodora pia_ was one among the many rôles
+played by that all-accomplished actress; but this seems to have been
+after her death. Like Lucrezia Borgia, perhaps, she was better than her
+reputation. With such surroundings liturgical books could not have
+existed without sharing in the universal luxury of enrichment. And, in
+point of fact, we still have records of such books. While Justinian
+reigned in Byzantium it happened that Hormisdas, a native of Frosinone,
+was Pope of Rome. He was a zealous eradicator of heresy (especially of
+the Eutychian and Manichæan), and in recognition of his services in this
+direction the Greek Emperor, with his thanks, sent him a great
+Gospel-book richly decorated, no doubt, with those splendid Eusebian
+canons and portraits of the Evangelists, the like of which we see in the
+Byzantine examples still preserved at Paris, in London, and elsewhere.
+Plates of beaten gold, studded with gems, formed the covers of the
+Gospel-book of Hormisdas.
+
+Nor was this sumptuous volume the only, or even a rare, example of its
+kind. We read that the art of book decoration had become a fashionable
+craze. No expense was spared in the search for costly materials. Colours
+were imported from India, Persia, and Spain, including vermilion and
+ultramarine, while the renowned Byzantine gold ink was manufactured from
+imported Indian gold. Persian calligraphers had taught its use afresh to
+the Byzantine scribes.
+
+If, as we may believe, the first object of the Roman miniatores was
+distinctness combined with beauty, we may now believe that the object of
+the Byzantine scribes was splendour. The progress had been from mere
+"cheirography" to calligraphy; now it was from calligraphy to
+chrysography and arguriography.
+
+This employment of gold and silver inks may be looked upon as the first
+step in the art of illumination as practised in the Middle Ages. And the
+preliminary to the use of metallic inks was attention to the tint of the
+vellum. The pioneers in this career of luxury no doubt had observed that
+very white vellum fatigued the eye. Hence, at first, they tinted or
+stained it with saffron, on one side at least, sometimes on both. Once
+begun, the tinting of the vellum extended to other colours. For works of
+the highest rank the favourite was a fine purple, the imperial colour of
+the Roman and Greek emperors. For chrysography, or gold-writing, the
+tint was nearly what we call crimson. For arguriography, or
+silver-writing, it became the bluish hue we call grape-purple. On the
+cooled purples vermilion ink was used instead of, or together with, the
+gold or silver. As the usage began with the Greeks, we may be sure that
+it came originally from Asia.
+
+The Emperor Nero, once having heard that an Olympic Ode of Pindar in
+letters of gold was laid up in one of the temples at Athens, desired
+that certain verses of his own should be similarly written and dedicated
+on the Altar of Jupiter Capitolinus at Rome. This was an imperial luxury
+several times repeated by other princes.
+
+After the official establishment of Christianity it became a common
+practice to have the greater liturgical books executed in the same
+costly fashion. And between the time of Constantine and that of Basil
+the Macedonian many a burning homily was directed against the custom,
+denounced as a sinful extravagance, which no doubt it was, but in vain
+until the fashion had worn itself out.
+
+It might fairly be expected, this being the case, that many examples of
+this kind of codex would still be in existence. But owing to war, fire,
+robbery, and other misfortunes but very few remain. One of the oldest
+and finest is the so-called _Codex Argenteus_, or Silver-book, now kept
+at Upsala, in Sweden, containing portions of the Gospels of the
+Mæsogothic Bishop Ulfilas. Originally the effect of the stamped or
+burnished silver on the rich purple of the vellum must have been very
+splendid, but now the action of the air has blackened it, as it has done
+in many other instances where silver was used in illumination. Even gold
+will gather tarnish, and in several such MSS. has turned of a rusty red.
+Gold ink was not invariably confined to tinted vellum; it was often used
+on the plain ground. The copy of the Old Testament in Greek, presented
+by the high priest Eleazar to King Ptolemy Philadelphus, was a roll of
+fine white vellum, upon which the text was written in letters of gold.
+
+To enter upon the antiquities of Greek palæography would lead us too far
+from our track in view of the brevity of our present survey. We
+therefore with some reluctance turn from this interesting topic to our
+more immediate subject. We may remark, however, that the great majority
+of Greek MSS. are written on vellum. In the eleventh century are found
+instances of what is called _charta bombycina_, or cotton-paper,
+appearing more plentifully in the twelfth century, but on the whole
+vellum is the chief material of Byzantine illuminated books. Much has
+been said about the want of life and total lack of variety of treatment
+in this school of art. To a very great extent the charge is just, yet it
+could scarcely be otherwise. The one circumstance which compelled
+Byzantine work to remain so long as if cast in one unalterable mould,
+and thus to differ so strangely from that of Western artists, was due to
+the fact that in very early Christian times the scribes and illuminators
+were enrolled into a minutely organised corporation originating
+primarily in monasticism, but by no means confined to the monastic
+Orders. Lay guilds existed, the regulations and methods of which were
+rigid beyond modern belief. So that, as a class, Byzantine art has
+acquired the reputation of a soulless adherence to mechanical rules and
+precedents, depriving it of originality and even of individuality, and
+therefore excluding the remotest scintilla of artistic genius. Of the
+great crowd of examples of ordinary work this may be true, but it
+certainly is not true of the best, by which it has the right to be
+judged, as we shall see from the examples referred to by-and-by.
+Certainly there is one invaluable particular in which Greek MSS. are
+superior to those of the West, Latin or otherwise. That is, they are
+much more frequently signed with the names, localities, and dates of the
+copyists and illuminators.
+
+It will be some help towards our knowledge of this school if we divide
+its existence into chronological sections or periods.
+
+1. From præ-Christianity to the Age of Justinian, _i.e._ down to the
+year 535. (Justinian reigned from 526 to 564.)
+
+This period marks the decadence of ancient art, but carries with it the
+characteristics and methods of the ancient Greek painters.
+
+2. From the Age of Justinian to the Iconoclastic paralysis of art under
+Leo III. the Isaurian, _i.e._ 564 to 726. (Leo reigned from 717 to 741.)
+
+During this period vast numbers of illuminated liturgical books were
+destroyed for religious or fanatical reasons, just as in our own
+Cromwellian times numbers of _Horæ_, Missals, etc., were destroyed as
+papistical and superstitious.
+
+This Edict of 726 did not absolutely put an end to all art in MSS. It
+only had the effect of excluding images of God, Christ, and the saints,
+as in Arabian and Persian MSS., leaving the artist the free use of
+flowers, plants, and line ornament, after the manner of the Mohammedan
+arabesques.
+
+3. From Leo III. to the Empress Irene, who restored the worship of
+images in part, _i.e._ from 741 to 785. (Irene ruled from 780 to 801.)
+
+This was a period of stagnation, though by no means of extinction of
+art.
+
+4. From Irene to Basil I. the Macedonian, _i.e._ from 801 to 867.
+
+A half-century and more of rapid renaissance to the most brilliant epoch
+of Byzantine art since the time of Justinian, if not the zenith of the
+school.
+
+Basil I. was a great builder--building, in fact, was his ruling
+passion--so that it may be said that he took Justinian for his model
+both as a ruler and as a patron of the arts. (He reigned from 867 to
+886.)
+
+5. From Basil the Macedonian to the Fall of Constantinople, _i.e._ from
+886 to 1453.
+
+Allowing for a few flashes of expiring skill in various reigns, this may
+be considered as a period of gradual but certain decline to a state
+worse than death, for though the monks of Greek and Russian convents
+still kept up the execution of MSS., it was only with the driest and
+most lifeless adhesion to the Manual. This so-called art still exists,
+but more like a magnetised corpse than a living thing.
+
+Examples of the first period are seldom met with. We have one signal
+specimen in the British Museum Add. MS. 5111, being two leaves only of a
+Gospel-book, and containing part of the Eusebian canons, or
+contents-tables of the Four Gospels, etc. The work is attributed to the
+time of Justinian himself. It is of the kind already referred to as
+probably affording the model of work to the early illuminators of France
+and Ireland, and as being like the Gospel-book of Hormisdas and those
+brought to England by Augustine in 596. Another example of the same
+Eusebian canons is found in Roy. MS. 1 E. vi.
+
+Of the fourth period--_i.e._ the ninth century--perhaps the most typical
+example is the Menologium (a sort of compound of a calendar and lives of
+the saints), now in the Vatican Library (MS. Gr. 1613). This MS. shows
+that the revival under Basil the Macedonian was a return not to Roman,
+but to ancient Greek art, the facial types being of the purest classical
+character.
+
+[Illustration:
+EVANG. GRÆCA
+6TH CENT.
+_Brit. Mus. Add. MS. 5111, fol. 13_]
+
+[Illustration:
+EVANG. GRÆCA
+9TH CENT.
+_Brit. Mus. Burney MS. 19 fol. 1 v._]
+
+In some of them we see the horizontal frown of the Homeric heroes
+(σύνοφρυς Οδυσσευς), and of the Georgian and Armenian races shown in the
+features of the Emperor Johannes Ducas. We have, too, the large
+Hera-like eye with its mystic gaze, which, in later Byzantine work,
+becomes first a gaze of lofty indifference, as in the portraits of the
+emperors and empresses, and lastly a stony and expressionless stare;
+still, if possible, more stony and glaring when transferred to Celtic
+and Carolingian Gospel-books. (See chapter on Carolingian Illumination.)
+
+Of this fourth period we might indeed point to many examples. One must
+suffice. It is the beautiful Greek Psalter, now at Paris (MS., p. 139),
+containing lovely examples of antique design, including remarkable
+personifications or allegorical figures. In this MS. is one of the most
+graceful personifications ever painted, that of _Night_, with her veil
+of gauze studded with stars floating overhead. The seven pictures from
+the Life of David are among the best ever put into a MS. But
+personification is carried to an extreme. Thus the Red Sea, the Jordan,
+Rivers, Mountains, Night, Dawn, etc., are all represented as persons.
+The drawings are really beautiful and the illuminated initials and
+general ornament in good taste.
+
+For other examples the reader may consult the British Museum Cat. of
+Addit. MSS., 1841-5, p. 87; also Du Sommerard, _Les Arts au Moyen-âge_,
+tom. v., 1846, pp. 107, 162-8, and album, 2e sér. pl. xxix., 8e sér.
+pl. xii.-xvi.
+
+It is noticeable in these Byzantine pictures that while the
+figure-painting is often really excellent, the design skilful, and the
+pose natural, the landscape, trees, etc., are quite symbolic and
+fanciful. The painters seem to have been utterly ignorant of
+perspective. Buildings, too, without any regard to relative proportion,
+are coloured merely as parts of a colour scheme. They are pink, pale
+green, yellow, violet, blue, just to please the eye. That the painter
+had a system of colour-harmony is plain, but he paid no regard to the
+facts of city life, unless, indeed, it was the practice of the mediæval
+Byzantines to paint the outside of their houses in this truly brilliant
+style. Possibly they did so; we have similar things in Italy even
+nowadays.
+
+No doubt the French illuminators of the thirteenth and fourteenth
+centuries drew from these sources both their perspective and their
+architectural colouring. As for ornamental illumination, the principal
+method of decoration was a square heading,[10] perhaps including a
+semicircular arch sweeping over several arcades, the corners and
+wall-space being occupied either with arabesque patterns, showing them
+to be after the time of Leo III., or with scrolls of line-ornament
+enriched with acanthus foliages. Under this the scribe has placed his
+title.
+
+[10] It has been thought to represent the Greek π, and to mean πύλη, a
+gate or door.
+
+[Illustration:
+CARVED IVORY COVER
+LATIN PSALTER OF MELLISENDA
+12TH CENT.
+_Brit. Mus. Egert. MS. 1139_]
+
+[Illustration:
+CODEX AURENS
+(GOLDEN GOSPELS OF ATHELSTAN)
+C. 835
+_Brit. Mus. Harl. MS. 2788, fol. 176_]
+
+Other examples have a square frame filled with the latter kind of
+scrolls and foliages, leaving a sort of open panel in the centre, in
+which is placed a small scene of sacred history or perhaps of country
+life. Sometimes the title, in golden letters, is surrounded with
+medallions containing heads of Christ and the Virgin, apostles, and
+saints. The peculiar interlacing bands of violet, yellow, rose, blue,
+etc., which are still often seen in Russian ornament, are also features
+of these Byzantine MSS.; but most of all is the lavish use of gold.
+Perhaps the fact most to be remembered about these MSS. is that the
+painters of them worked in a manner that was absolutely fixed and rigid,
+the rules of which are laid down in a manual called the _Guide to
+Painting_, a work which has been translated by M. Didron.
+
+So fixed and unalterable, indeed, is the manner that there is absolutely
+no difference to indicate relative antiquity between a MS. of the
+eleventh century and one of the sixteenth or even later, we might almost
+say, of the present day. In the matter of saint-images this is strictly
+true.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+CELTIC ILLUMINATION
+
+Early liturgical books reflect the ecclesiastical art of their
+time--This feature a continuous characteristic of illumination down to
+the latest times--Elements of Celtic ornament--Gospels of St.
+Chad--Durham Gospels--Contrast of Celtic and Byzantine--St.
+Columba--Book of Kells--Details of its decoration.
+
+
+In the earlier centuries of Christianity, when liturgical books were the
+chief occupation of the illuminator, it will need little pointing out to
+demonstrate that the page of the illuminated manuscript, where it
+contained more than the mere ornamental initial, was simply a mirror of
+the architectural decoration of the church in which it was intended to
+be used. Where the church enrichments consist, as on the Byzantine
+basilicas, of panellings, arcades, and tympana of gilded sculpture in
+wood or stone, with figures of saints, the pages of the Gospel-book bear
+similar designs. Where, as in the Romanesque, they are rich in mosaics,
+and fretted arcades interlacing each other, so are the illuminated Lives
+of the Saints, the Menologia, Psalters, and Gospel-books. Where, as in
+the Gothic cathedrals of the West--of France, Germany, or Italy--the
+stained glass is the striking feature of the interior, so it is with the
+illumination; it is a "vitrail"--a glass-painting on vellum. On this
+latter point we shall have more to say when we reach the period of
+Gothic illumination.
+
+Incidentally, also, the book reflects the minor arts in vogue at the
+period of its execution. Often in the illumination we may detect these
+popular local industries. We see mosaic enamelling, wood-and
+stone-carving, and lacquer-work, and as we approach the Renaissance,
+even gem-cutting and the delicate craft of the medallist. In Venice and
+the Netherlands we have the local taste for flower-culture; in Germany
+we find sculpture in wood and stone; in France the productions of the
+enameller and the goldsmith; until at length, in the full blaze of the
+Renaissance itself, we have in almost every land the same varieties of
+enrichment practised according to its own special style of work.
+
+It has been said that the oldest Celtic illuminated MSS. show no signs
+of classic, or even Byzantine, influence, yet the plan or framework of
+the designs makes use both of the cross and the arch, as used in the
+earliest Byzantine examples. The details, indeed, are quite different,
+and manifestly derived from indigenous sources. It may be, therefore,
+that the framework is merely a geometrical coincidence which could not
+well be avoided. The fact that the basis of pure Irish ornament _is_
+geometrical, and developed out of the prehistoric and barbarous art of
+the savages who preceded the Celts in Ireland; such art as is used on
+the carved shafts of spears, and oars, and staves of honour, and
+afterwards on stone crosses and metal-work, may account for the
+similarity of ideas in ornament developed by old Roman decorators in
+their mosaic pavements, and may reconcile, in some measure, the varied
+opinions of different writers who have approached the subject from
+different points of view. Westwood adhered to the theory of its being
+purely indigenous. Fleury, on the other hand, in his Catalogue of the
+MSS. in the Library at Laon, asserts that we owe the knots and
+interlacements to the influence of the painters, sculptors, and
+mosaicists of Rome. "These interlacings, cables, etc., there is no
+Gallo-Roman monument which does not exhibit them, and, only to cite
+local instances, the cord of four or five strands is seen in the
+beautiful mosaics discovered in profusion within the last five years
+(1857-62) at Blanzy, at Bazoches, at Vailly, and at Reims. It was from
+them that the Franks borrowed their knots and twists and ribbons for
+their belts and buckles, their rings and bracelets" (pt. i., p. 8).
+
+The elements, therefore, of book ornament, as used by the Celtic penmen,
+are such as were employed by the prehistoric and sporadic nations in the
+textile art in plaiting and handweaving, and afterwards transferred to
+that of metal-work. Terminals of animal, bird, or serpent form
+afterwards combine with the linear designs. The dog and dragon are
+common, as may be seen in the archaic vases produced by the Greeks
+before they came under the influence of ideas from Western Asia.
+
+Among Celtic artists, as among those of later times, the practice of
+working in various materials was common to the same individual, and
+Dagæus (d. 586) may compare with Dunstan, Eloy, Tuotilo, and others.
+
+To apply these observations to the style of illumination which now comes
+under our notice it may be said that if we allow the cross and arch to
+be copied from the Byzantine MSS. introduced from abroad, the details
+are undoubtedly supplied by the wickerwork and textile netting familiar
+to the everyday life of the artist. Assisted by the fertile imagination
+of bardic lore in snakes, dragons, and other mythic monsters of heroic
+verse, the illuminator produces a pencilled tapestry of textile fabric
+or flexile metal-work as marvellous as it is unique. No amount of
+description can give a true idea of what Celtic work is like; it must be
+seen to be comprehended. One glance at a facsimile of such a MS. as the
+Book of Kells or the Lindisfarne Gospels, or those of St. Chad at
+Lichfield, or wherever, as at St. Gall, such work is to be met with,
+will supersede the most laboured attempt at description. We must
+therefore at once refer the reader to the facsimile. When that has been
+inspected, we may proceed. In the first place it may be noted that with
+these Occidental MSS. begins the importance and development of the
+initial, which, indeed, as regards the illumination of Western Europe,
+is the very root of the matter. It is the development of the initial
+letter first into the bracket, then into the border, which forms the
+great distinction of the "Art of Paris," as Dante calls it, from that of
+Byzantium. The latter is almost always of a squared or tabular design,
+traced and painted on a ground of burnished gold. The former exhausts
+itself first in fantastic lacertine forms, twisted into the shapes of
+the commencing letters or words of the writing, to which the suggestion
+of some Byzantine MS, perhaps occasionally adds a frame. Next come
+birds, dogs, dragons, vine-stems, and spirals embedded in couches of
+colour; but, whatever its character, always it is the letter that
+governs and originates the ornament. Only at the very end of its life,
+when the border has completely eclipsed the initial, is the idea of
+origin forgotten. Then, indeed, we find the border treillages of
+flower-stem or leaf-work starting from meaningless points of the design,
+or scattered shapelessly at random.
+
+When we meet with work of this sort, we need no further proof that the
+real art is dead. We have before us in such a performance--a trade
+production--a mere object of commerce, valuable so far as it is the
+result of labour, but not as a work of art.
+
+According to the Abbé Geoghegan,[11] Christianity was known to the people
+of Ireland in the fourth century. The Greek Menology asserts that it was
+carried thither by Simon Zelotes, but this is contradicted by the Roman
+Breviary and the Martyrologists. Simeon Metaphrastes attributes it to
+St. Peter, Vincent of Beauvais to St. James. Unreliable as these
+traditions may be taken singly, they nevertheless agree in placing the
+conversion of Ireland at a very early date, probably, as Geoghegan says,
+in the fourth century. It is certain that about the middle of the sixth
+century an Irish prince of distinguished ancestry, and himself a saint,
+led a band of missionaries from Donegal to Iona. It is curious to
+observe that the event is almost contemporary with the renovations of
+Justinian at Byzantium, and only a short time before the founding of the
+famous Abbey of Monte Cassino by St. Benedict. Before the existence of
+the Benedictine Order there was a monastery at Durrow, in Ireland, and
+in this monastery the aforesaid prince was educated. His name was
+Columba. At least, so he is called, but whether it be merely in allusion
+to his mission--"the Dove"--or really a patronymic, it is hard to say.
+He was the messenger of peace to the natives of Iona, and even the name
+of the island seems to suggest an allusion to the Old Testament
+missionary to the Ninevites, Jonah. The Irish missionaries called the
+spot to which they went _I. columcille_, "the cell of the Dove's isle,"
+or Columba's cell. It is usually spoken of as the Monastery of Iona.
+Columba went on many other missions, but ultimately returned to his
+beloved Iona, where he died in 597, the year after the arrival of
+Augustine at Canterbury.
+
+[11] _Hist. de l'Irlande._
+
+His companions busied themselves with the transcription of the Gospels
+for the use of new converts, after the model of those they had seen and
+used at Durrow. It is even traditionally asserted that Columba himself
+took part in the work, and transcribed both a Psalter and a Gospel-book,
+moreover, that one of the Iona Gospel-books written by him is still in
+existence. This MS., whether the work of St. Columba or not, and
+probably it is not, is the earliest known monument of Irish calligraphic
+art. It is known as the Book of Kells, and there is no doubt that it is
+the most amazing specimen of penmanship ever seen. It is at once the
+most ancient, the most perfect, and the most precious example of Celtic
+art in existence. It exhibits the striking peculiarities and features of
+the style--the band work knots and interlacings, such as may be seen on
+the stone crosses which mark the burial-places of British and Irish
+chieftains. Witness, for instance, the Carew, or the Nevern Cross,
+described in the _Journal of the Archœlogical Institute_, iii. 71, which
+might be taken to represent an initial "I" wrought in stone. There is no
+foliage, no plant form at all. It is not, therefore, derivable from
+Romanesque, Byzantine, or Oriental ornament. It is indigenous, if not to
+Ireland, at least to those prehistoric Aryan tribes of which the Irish
+were a branch. Its basis is the art of weaving, and in some respects
+resembles the matting of Polynesia much more closely that the vine-stems
+of Sicily or the arabesques of Byzantium. Spirals occur that bewilder
+the eye, yet are so faultlessly perfect that only the magnifying-glass
+brings out the incredible accuracy of the drawing. Among them are
+mythological and allegorical beasts, snakes, and lizards--thought to
+represent demons, like the gargoyles of Gothic architecture--in every
+conceivable attitude of contortion and agony. There are also doves and
+fishes, but the latter, being sacred emblems together with the lamb, are
+seldom made grotesque. It was a monkish legend that the devil could take
+the shape of any bird or beast, except those of the dove and the lamb.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+CELTIC ILLUMINATION--_continued_
+
+The Iona Gospels--Contrast with Roman and Byzantine--Details--Treatment
+of animal forms--Colour schemes--The Gospel-book of St. Columbanus--That
+of Mael Brith Mac Durnan--The Lindisfarne Gospels--_Cumdachs_--Other
+book-shrines.
+
+
+We have seen that in both Roman and Byzantine MSS. the titles and
+beginnings of books were merely distinguished by a lettering in red or
+gold, rather smaller, in fact, than the ordinary text, but rendered
+distinct by the means referred to. The handwriting, too, is clear and
+legible, whether capital, uncial, or minuscule.
+
+In absolute contrast to all this the Iona Gospels have the first page
+completely covered with ornament. On the next the letters are of an
+enormous size, followed by a few words, not merely in _uncials_, but in
+characters varying from half an inch to two inches in height. The page
+opposite to each Gospel is similarly filled with decoration, separated
+into four compartments by an ornamented Greek cross. This may, of
+course, be simply a geometrical device in no way connected with Greece,
+but, taken in connection with other features, we see in it an indication
+of contact with Byzantine work and the side of illumination which deals
+rather with the tabular enrichment of the page than the development of
+the initial. Further, the writing, though large, is not easily legible,
+for it is involved, enclaved, and conjointed in a manner sufficiently
+puzzling to those who see it for the first time.
+
+The plaiting and inlaying are certainly borrowed from local usages, and
+the survival of the same kind of interlaced plaiting in the Scottish
+tartans is some evidence of the long familiarity of the Celtic race with
+the art of weaving. When we remember that some of the early illuminators
+were also workers in metals, we can understand that penmen like Dagæus,
+Dunstan, and Eloy had designs at their command producible by either
+method. So we see, both in the MS. and in the brooch and buckle, the
+same kind of design. Among the earliest animals brought into this Celtic
+work we find the dog and the dragon; the latter both wingless and
+winged, according to convenience or requirement. The dog is so common in
+some of the Celto-Lombardic MS., of which examples still exist at Monte
+Cassino, as almost to create a style; while the dragon survives to the
+latest period of Gothic art.
+
+Whatever is introduced into a Celtic illumination is at once treated as
+a matter of ornament. When the human figure appears it is remorselessly
+subjected to the same rules as the rest of the work; the hair and beard
+are spiral coils, the eyes, nostrils, and limbs are symmetrical
+flourishes. Colour is quite regardless of natural possibility. The hair
+and draperies are simply patterned as compartments of green or blue, or
+red or black, as may be required for the _tout ensemble_; the face
+remains white. Lightened tints are preferred to full colours, as pale
+yellow, pink, lavender, and light green. A very ludicrous device is made
+use of to denote the folds of the drapery; they are not darkened, there
+is no light and shade in Celtic work, but are simply lines of a strongly
+contrasting colour. The blue and red appear to be opaque, and therefore
+mineral colours; the rest are thin and transparent. Nothing can be more
+wayward than the colouring of the symbolic beasts of the Gospels. In the
+Evangeliary of St. Columbanus (not Columba, but the founder of Luxeuil
+and Bobbio, who died in 614) the Lion of St. Mark is an admirable beast
+in a suit of green-and-red chain armour in the form of mascles or
+lozenges. (See the illustration in Westwood's _Palæographia Sacra
+Pictoria_ of a figure page from the Gospels of Mael Brith Mac Durnan for
+a typical example.)[12]
+
+[12] See also an article by Westwood in _Journal Archæol. Inst._, vii.
+17, on "Irish Miniatures."
+
+The only point that might argue the freedom in Celtic work from
+Byzantine influence is the absence of gold, but perhaps this was only
+because the earlier Irish illuminators could not obtain it; we find it
+later on. In the Book of Kells and the Lambeth Gospels there is no gold.
+The former dates somewhere in the seventh century, not the sixth, as
+sometimes stated; the latter, shortly before 927. In the Lindisfarne
+Gospels (698-721) gold is used. In the Psalter of Ricemarchus, now in
+Trinity College, Dublin, are traces of silver. It is in connection with
+these Irish MSS. that decorated and jewelled cases, called _cumdachs_,
+make their appearance, such as the one attached to the Gospels of St.
+Moling in the Library of Trinity College, Dublin. These book-shrines are
+almost exclusively an Irish production. In other countries the idea was
+to adorn the volume itself with a splendid and costly binding, perhaps
+including gold, silver, and gems. In Ireland the idea of sacredness was
+carried out in another way. Instead of decorating the covers of the book
+itself, it was held, as in such a MS., for instance, as the Book of
+Durrow, to be too venerable a relic to be meddled with, and a box or
+case was made for it, on which they spent all their artistic skill.
+Generally the case is known as a _cumdach_; but one kind, called the
+_cathach_, was so closed that the book was completely concealed, and it
+was superstitiously believed that if it were opened some terrible
+calamity would overtake its possessors. Such was the _cathach_ of
+Tyrconnell. We must remember, however, that in this instance the keepers
+were not men of book-learning, but hardy warriors who carried the
+_cathach_ into battle as a charm and an incitement to victory.
+
+Of similar shrines, which were made for precious books by both the
+Greeks and Lombards, the oldest and most famous is that made for
+Theudelinde, wife of Agilulf, King of the Lombards, and given by her, in
+616, together with the famous iron crown and other relics, to the
+Cathedral of Monza, where they are still to be seen.
+
+The enrichment of the covers of books themselves, as distinct from the
+use of cases or shrines, has been usual in almost all ages and styles of
+decoration. When we come to speak of Carolingian MSS. we shall find
+several remarkable instances.
+
+We must now pass on from this curiously attractive theme of Celtic
+calligraphy to its contemporary styles of France, Germany, Spain, and
+Italy, only remarking by the way that no other style of its time had so
+marked an influence on the local _scriptoria_ into which it was
+introduced as this same Celtic of Ireland. It is not only traceable, but
+easily recognised all along the Rhine, in Burgundy, the Swiss Cantons,
+and Lombardy, until at length overwhelmed by the general introduction of
+Romanesque or Byzantine, which was restored and filtered through the
+Exarchate and the Lombard schools during the early days of the new
+Carolingian Empire.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+SEMI-BARBARIC ILLUMINATION
+
+Visigothic--Merovingian--Lombardic--Extinction of classic art--Splendid
+reign of Dagobert--St. Eloy of Noyon--The Library of Laon--Natural
+History of Isidore of Seville--Elements of contemporary art--Details of
+ornament--Symbolism--Luxeuil and Monte Cassino--Sacramentary of
+Gellone--"Prudentius"--"Orosius"--Value of the Sacramentary of Gellone.
+
+
+To reach the beginning's of these various degenerate and illiterate
+attempts at book-work we have only to watch the last expiring gleams of
+classic art beneath the ruthless footsteps of the barbarian invaders of
+the old Roman Empire.
+
+In the sixth century the light of the old civilisation was fast fading
+away. Perhaps we may look upon the so-called splendour of the reign of
+Dagobert in France as the spasmodic scintillations of its latest moments
+of existence. The kingdom of Dagobert, after 631, was almost an empire.
+For the seven years preceding his death, in 638, he ruled from the Elbe
+and the Saxon frontier to that of Spain, and from the Atlantic Ocean to
+the confines of Hungary. It was during his reign that we read of the
+skill in metal-work of the celebrated St. Eloy of Noyon, the rival of
+our own St. Dunstan.
+
+St. Eloy or Eligius (588-659) began his artistic career as the pupil of
+Abbo, the goldsmith and mint-master to Chlothaire II., and rose from the
+rank of a goldsmith to that of Bishop of Noyon. Among his handiwork were
+crowns, chalices, and crosiers, and he is reputed to have made the chair
+of bronze-gilt now in the National Library at Paris, called the
+_fauteuil_ of Dagobert, and many other works, which disappeared either
+during the wars of Louis XV. or those of the Revolution of 1789. He
+founded the Abbey of Solignac, near Limoges, and it is not improbable
+that the reputation of this city for metal-work and enamelling may be
+dated from his foundation. With such works as those of Eloy before them,
+it is difficult to believe that the wretched and puerile attempts at
+ornamental penmanship and illumination which are shown at Laon and other
+places as the work of this period can possibly represent the highest
+efforts of the calligrapher. But we must remember that St. Eloy was an
+extraordinary genius in his art, and that the bulk of the clergy, not to
+mention ordinary workmen, were very ignorant and ill-taught. Very few,
+indeed, were men who could be considered cultured. Gregory of Tours, the
+historian, and Venantius Fortunatus, the hymn-writer, are among the few.
+
+In the Library at Laon, M. Fleury describes a MS. of the Natural History
+of Isidore of Seville, which is looked upon as a work of reference both
+as regards art and learning. It was at one time a very popular book,
+being a Latin cyclopædia, dealing with the sciences and general
+knowledge of the time; yet the example referred to by M. Fleury shows us
+only a crowd of initials learnedly styled by the Benedictine authors and
+others "ichthio-morphiques" and "ornithoeides," _i.e._ made up of fishes
+and birds, and about equal in quality and finish to the efforts of a
+very ordinary schoolboy.
+
+These initials betray an utter decadence from the beautiful uncials of
+the fifth and sixth centuries, seen in the St. Germain's Psalter, for
+example, now in the National Library at Paris. The colours are coarse
+and badly applied, and even where brightest are utterly unrefined and
+without taste.
+
+Notwithstanding, however, the apparently total eclipse or extinction of
+Roman art in Gaul, or, as it must henceforth be called, France, it is
+claimed by M. Fleury[13] that the interlacements which constitute the
+principal feature of these earlier Merovingian MSS. are derived from the
+remains of Roman mosaics found profusely at Blanzy, Bazoches, and Reims.
+This may be so, but those mosaics would not account for the same
+features in the Irish work, for the Romans never reached Ireland as
+occupants or colonists.
+
+[13] See later.
+
+Take another example from the Laon collection, the History of Orosius.
+The first page is a type of the species to which it belongs, and,
+moreover, a good sample of the earliest efforts of all pictorial art. An
+ordinary rectangular cross occupies the centre of the page. The centre
+shows us the Lamb of the Apocalypse and St. John. On the arms are the
+beasts which typify the Evangelists--their emblems, as they are
+sometimes called. We notice that they are all symbolic, and not intended
+to be natural imitations of reality. The various animals scattered about
+the page are all symbolic--all have a mystical interpretation and
+_raison d'être_. A border-frame, passing behind each extremity of the
+cross, contains a number of dog-like animals, some plain, others
+spotted, while the body of the cross itself is occupied with attempts at
+foliage ornaments. In the left upper corner are the letters "X P I," in
+the right "I H V," thick foliage springing from the "I" and "V" and
+falling back over the monogram. In the lower corners are two fishes and
+two doves, each pair hanging to a penwork chain.
+
+The emblem of John, on the upper extremity of the cross, is an
+eagle-headed and winged man holding a book; its opposite one of Lucas at
+foot is a singularly conceived anthropoid and winged ox, also with a
+book. On the left Marcus, whose head is indescribable; and on the right
+Matthew, with human head, the rest of the figures being as before. The
+eye in all the figures is a most remarkable feature. Both in the
+pictures and the initials of this MS. the outline has been drawn in
+black ink, and the colours yellow, red, brown, and green applied
+afterwards.
+
+As the new masters of the West were not so much interested in the
+artistic remains of the mangled civilisation they were endeavouring to
+destroy as in mastery and military success, it was left for the
+monasteries and the church to see to the welfare of books and monuments.
+
+In the seventh century it was the monasteries that saved almost all we
+know of the preceding centuries. During the turmoil of the period from
+the fifth to the eighth century we find certain quiet corners where
+learning and the arts still breathed, grew, and dwelt in security.
+Lérins, founded by St. Honoratus of Aries; Luxeuil by Columbanus, Bobbio
+his last retreat; and, above all, Monte Cassino, the great pattern of
+monasticism, the Rule of whose founder was destined to become the basis
+of all later Orders, were each of them steadily labouring to rescue the
+civilisation daily threatened by the ravage of war, and to preserve it
+for the benefit of the ignorant hordes who, because of their ignorance,
+now only aimed at its entire destruction. We have seen how these monks
+and clerics, with more goodwill than ability, did their best to adorn
+the books which came into their hands. It is a poor show, but there is
+no better. It is absolutely our only record of how civilisation managed
+to struggle through the storm.
+
+Let us, then, be thankful even for the Laon "Orosius," for the
+Sacramentary of Gellone, and the Mozarabic Liturgies of Puy. They are
+among the links between ancient and mediæval art.
+
+As already stated, the handwriting of Merovingian MSS. is mainly an
+adaptation of the Roman uncial, as it is in Irish and Lombardic, or, we
+might say, everywhere else. Abbreviations we still uncommon. Where
+minuscules are used, the writing is not quite so legible as in the
+larger hands, but we are not met by the singular difficulties of some of
+the Lombardic texts.
+
+A few solitary texts of the earliest time are in capitals, such as the
+really handsome "Prudentius" of the Paris National Library, where the
+entire text of the great Christian poet is boldly inscribed in the
+centre of a large white page of vellum, like a series of separate
+inscriptions. The first few words are "rubrished" in the antique manner.
+The MS. is supposed to date previous to the year 527. A little later
+than this St. Columbanus founded the monastery of Luxeuil, and later
+still, viz. in 616, that of Bobbio.
+
+If we turn to the Visigothic area, including the South of France and the
+entire peninsula of Spain, our first and typical example is the
+celebrated Sacramentary of Gellone. This MS. dates, it is said, from the
+eighth century. It is written throughout in Visigothic uncials, though
+executed in the South of France. Its ornamentation is frankly barbaric.
+The colours used are yellow, red, and green. The great initials are
+double lined, and the interlinear space filled in with a flat tint of
+colour and lines of red dots, as in the Book of Kells occasionally
+follow the contours. Here, also, are the fish or bird-form letters as in
+the Laon "Orosius." Now and then occurs a tiny scene--perhaps a fight
+between two grotesque brutes, neither fish, nor fowl, nor beast known to
+the naturalist, but a horrible compound of the worst qualities of each.
+The human figure, when it occurs, is childishly shapeless. But the
+design and treatment, nevertheless, bear witness to a lively imagination
+and considerable knowledge of Christian symbolism. It is these mental
+qualities which, in spite of the manifest absence of manual skill,
+render the Gellone Evangeliary one of the most precious monuments of its
+time. Of the rest of the MSS. of this wretched period we will say
+nothing.
+
+          "Non ragioniam di lor', ma guard' e passa."
+
+We are glad to hurry on for another century or so, remembering that the
+leading idea now is the development of the initial letter.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+DEVELOPMENT OF THE INITIAL
+
+The initial and initial paragraph the main object of decoration in
+Celtic illumination--Study of the letter L as an example--The I of "In
+principio" and the B of "Beatus Vir."
+
+
+From the moment when the initial was placed beneath the miniature the
+object of the whole design was not to give prominence to the initial but
+to the picture. Until then, that is, whilst the initial remains above or
+beside or outside the picture, it is the initial we must watch for style
+and development. And therefore we seize on one letter among those of the
+latter part of the eighth century, because of the frequency of its
+occurrence in the Gospel-book or Evangeliary, one of the commonest books
+of the time. This the letter L of "Liber Generationis," etc., the
+commencing words of St. Matthew. This passage is always made of
+importance, and on the initial and arrangement of the words the artist
+expends his best efforts.
+
+Properly I should here display pictorially the series of which I speak.
+It would certainly be the quickest way of explaining the matter. But as
+this is out of the question for many reasons, and as the present little
+guide aims rather at showing the way than marching through it, the
+reader must be content to take its advice about where to look for
+examples which it cannot reproduce.
+
+Regarding the letter L as an index of time and style, first we may take
+the Irish L of the Book of Kells on p. 17, pt. 1, of Miss Stokes' _Early
+Christian Art in Ireland_. Note first the form of the letter, then the
+way it is filled up with ornament. Compare this, which dates from the
+seventh century, with a similar L in the Ada-Codex in the Town Library
+at Trèves, No. 22. A black and white copy of this is given in taf. 6 of
+Lamprecht Initial Ornamentik. This carries up the work to the second
+half of the eighth century. Next, say the L in the Town Archives at
+Cologne, No. 147. This belongs to the second half of the ninth century.
+The chief departure here is towards the knotted band work which figures
+so largely afterwards both in German and Italian book ornament, the form
+is still unchanged. But with the tenth century comes change of form as
+well as of mode of filling, as for example taf. 19 of Lamprecht, in
+which there is a complete alteration of treatment. The student may take
+for similar comparison also the I of "In principio" of St. John's
+Gospel, and the B of the first psalm in the Psalter, and carry the
+comparison on to the end of the fourteenth century, by referring to the
+MSS. in the British Museum and other public libraries, or in the
+numerous illustrated works to be found in those collections.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+FIRST ENGLISH STYLES
+
+Transition from Iona to Lindisfarne--Influence of Frankish art--The
+"Opus Anglicum"--The Winchester school and its characteristics--Whence
+obtained--Method of painting--Examples--Where found and described.
+
+
+The succession of the school of Iona shows us in the first examples of
+English illumination the type exemplified in the Book of Kells,
+modified, but not very much, by its transference to Lindisfarne.
+
+Whatever doubt may be felt as to the influence of Byzantine or
+Romanesque models on pure Irish work, such as the Book of Kells, there
+can be none as regards the Lindisfarne Gospels. In the first place we
+have gold both in the lettering and ornament. This MS., known also as
+the Durham Book (Brit. Mus., Nero D. iv.), was the work of Abbat
+Eadfrith, of Lindisfarne. It has been often described, as it is really a
+most precious example of eighth-century art in this country. No other
+MS. of its time is to be found in any continental scriptorium to be
+compared with it. It is not a collection of clumsy inartistic attempts
+at ornamental writing, but high-class, effective work, which should be
+seen and studied by every student of illumination.
+
+From its style of execution, its details of portraiture, and other
+features, it may be looked on as one of the earliest links between the
+two extremes of Oriental and Occidental Art.
+
+Another MS. in the British Museum (Vesp. A. 1), which combines the Roman
+method of painting as in the Vergils with the penwork of these
+Anglo-Celtic Gospel-books, may also repay careful examination.
+
+It is very possible that the celebrated _scriptoria_ of York and Jarrow
+may have been furnished with both MSS. and copyists from Rome, yet there
+can be little doubt that the intercourse with Durham would be quite as
+active. Nor is it less probable that similar intercourse would keep them
+_en rapport_ with Oxford, St. Alban's, Westminster, Glastonbury, and
+other _scriptoria_, so that in the eighth century England stood with
+respect to art second to no other country in the Christian world.
+
+During the ninth century active intercourse with the Frankish Empire
+enriched English churches and religious houses, especially Winchester,
+with examples of Byzantine and Roman models, which Charlemagne had
+introduced into his own palatine schools. From such secondary models as
+the Sacramentaries and Evangeliaries executed at Tours, Soissons, Metz,
+and other busy centres of production, English illuminators succeeded in
+forming a distinctive style of their own. In the French or, rather,
+Frankish MSS., while the richness of the gold and the beauty and
+delicacy of the colouring are in themselves most charming, and while
+certain features may in general be recognised as no doubt suggestive
+there is nothing which quite predicts the remarkable treatment which
+characterises the English work. "Opus Anglicum" was its distinctive
+title. The term, indeed, was applied to all English artistic productions
+more or less--embroidery among the rest. The women of England, says
+William of Poitiers, were famous for their needlework, the men excelled
+in metal-work and jewellery. But it was the illuminated Service Books
+that have perpetuated the term.
+
+From the Lindisfarne Gospels to the Winchester Benedictionals is a far
+cry--but Art is long and time is fleeting, hence many pages of
+intervening description must be omitted. We may, however, refer the
+reader to Westwood's _Palæographia Sacra Pictoria_, the Palæographical
+Society's publications, and other works, for enlightenment on this
+period. On the Rouen and Devonshire Benedictionals much interesting
+information may be found in vol. 24 of the _Archæologia_ and in the
+recent volume of the Bradshaw Society concerning them.
+
+The work is peculiar; and if we consider the treatment of foliage apart
+from the colour, we cannot but notice its similarity to the ivory
+carving observable in the consular diptychs. Ivory carving was then a
+popular artistic occupation. The foliage is graceful, the composition
+well-balanced, and the colour mostly bright body colour applied in the
+Greek manner. The fault of the heads is that they are too small for the
+figure, and of the draperies that the folds are overdone too much
+fluttering detail. The gilding differs from the Byzantine in not being
+laid on the vellum in the form of burnished leaf, but painted on like
+the colours, not only in the figures but in the framework and ornaments.
+
+The British Museum contains several characteristic examples, but, as has
+been said, the very finest are those at Rouen and in the library of the
+Duke of Devonshire.
+
+Perhaps no genuine example exists earlier than the Golden Charter of
+King Edgar of true Winchester illumination, executed forty years after
+the accession of Athelstan, whose Coronation Book (Brit. Mus., Tib. A.
+2) is most probably not English at all, but Carolingian of the finest
+type. Many other _scriptoria_ in England in the tenth century were
+equally busy with Winchester, but none could vie with the royal city in
+the production of illuminated books.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+CAROLINGIAN ILLUMINATION
+
+Why so-called--Works to be consulted--The Library of St. Gall--Rise and
+progress of Carolingian art--Account of various MSS.--Features of the
+style--Gospels of St. Sernin--The Ada-Codex--Centres of
+production--Other splendid examples--The Alcuin Bible--The Gospel of St.
+Médard of Soissons.
+
+
+Once more crossing the Channel let us now inquire what has been doing
+among the Franks since the Gellone Sacramentary, especially in the
+schools instituted by the Emperor Charles the Great. Materials for this
+inquiry are most abundant. One of the more important works on the
+subject is the lucid monograph of Dr. Rahn, of Zurich, on the Golden
+Psalter of Folchard at St. Gall, which deals more or less with the whole
+question of Carolingian art, while M. Léop. Delisle's brochure on the
+Evangeliary of St. Vaast of Arras gives us a copious account of the
+Franco-Saxon branch of it. Apart, however, from these sources of
+information, we have not a few original MSS. still extant, which, of
+course, more vividly speak for themselves, and only require pointing out
+to the student.
+
+The clearest method of study being to take things in the order of their
+creation, so in order to understand the "character of savage grandeur
+and naïve originality" which has been attributed to this style, it will
+be best to take up these MSS. chronologically. At the same time, if
+anyone merely wishes to know what the style is like at its best, Dr.
+Rahn must be his guide, as the Golden Psalter which he has selected for
+study is as splendid an example as perhaps may be found in the whole
+career of the art. We have noticed how the Irish missionary-artists
+carried their work to their continental settlements, how they planted
+their schools in Burgundy, Switzerland, and Lombardy. Of all their
+depositories, however, numerous as they are elsewhere, none is richer in
+the relics of their work than the celebrated abbey which takes its name
+of St. Gall from that disciple of St. Columbanus, who in 614 founded his
+little cell beside the Steinach, about nine miles south of the Lake of
+Constance. Under Charles Martel the cell had become a monastery, which
+he endowed as a Benedictine abbey. In 830 was founded its magnificent
+library of MSS. The library still exists, and at the present moment
+gives shelf-room to 1,800 MSS. and more than 41,700 printed books.
+Besides this, another, called the Town Library, founded in the sixteenth
+century, and containing 500 MSS. and 60,400 printed books, gives this
+upland, busy, modern manufacturing Swiss town no mean importance as a
+centre of literary culture. Physically it is probably the highest town
+in Europe, its street-level being very nearly 2,200 feet above that of
+the sea. Its libraries and museums are rich storehouses of mediæval
+treasures. The architect raves over its monastic buildings; the scholar
+and palæographer gloat over its books and MSS. In the libraries of St.
+Gall are some of the masterpieces of Irish Saxon, and Carolingian art,
+and its great Benedictine abbey under Grimald from 841, _i.e._ during
+the later Carolingian period, possessed one of the most active
+_scriptoria_ in Europe. To begin with the beginning, however, we must
+leave St. Gall, and, passing by some less important MSS., go back to the
+year 781 and the city of Toulouse. In that year, and in the Abbey of St.
+Sernin (Saturninus) in that city, was finished a wonderful and truly
+splendid manuscript of the Gospels as a present to the Emperor and his
+wife Hildegardis. This is our first example. It now is to be seen in the
+National Library, Paris (Nouv. acqu. Lat. 1203).
+
+Next comes the Evangeliary of Abbat Angilbert of Centula (now St.
+Riquier), near Abbeville, Charlemagne's son-in-law. This MS., executed
+about the year 793, is still preserved in the Town Library of Abbeville.
+In the same rank, but somewhat finer in execution, comes a third
+Evangeliary, that of St. Médard of Soissons, now in the National
+Library, Paris (No. 8850, Lat.).
+
+In these three MSS., reproductions from which are to be found in various
+modern works on art, the writing and ornamentation are the parts into
+which the artist puts his best work, not the figure drawing. Although in
+the St. Sernin MS. there is, in the Christ-figure, a distinct attempt at
+portraiture quite different from the coils and pen-flourishes which make
+up the Gospel-figures in the Irish and Merovingian MSS. Here the
+inspiration is clearly Greek, not Irish. The figure is draped in green
+and violet--seated on an embroidered cushion before a low castellated
+wall. The hair is light, and the chin beardless. The design shows a
+decided likeness to the consular ivory diptychs, and the painting
+follows the Eastern methods. In the details of ornament only are Irish
+features. Thus we trace in this MS. the sources of Carolingian art. The
+MS. being dated, is important as affording a means of comparison with
+other undated work. It was presented to St. Sernin on the occasion of
+the visit of the Emperor and Empress with their son, the amiable Louis
+"le Debonaire,"[14] just after the latter had been made King of
+Aquitaine. Godeschalk, the writer of it, on the last two leaves tells us
+that it took him seven years to accomplish. It is written throughout in
+gold and silver letters on purple vellum, and is, moreover, ornamented
+with borders, pictures, portraits, and panellings. At first it was kept
+in a _cumdach_ of silver, set with precious stones, but that has
+disappeared.
+
+[14] Mod. Fr. "Debonnaire."
+
+The Golden Gospels of St. Médard, like the Centula MS., are similar, but
+betoken an advance in both taste and execution. The figures are still
+rude and deformed, but the artist shows a laudable desire, an ambition,
+in fact, to imitate the work of better artists than himself.
+Nevertheless, the calligraphy and borderwork are the best parts of his
+performance. In this MS. the use of silver betrays a tendency to
+prodigality. In design, the influence of the artists who built the new
+church of San Vitale at Ravenna, a church which became the model for the
+Abbey of St. Médard itself, is quite manifest, yet perhaps need not be
+traced further than Soissons or Pavia. In certain of the illustrations,
+as, for instance, the "Fountain of Life," there is at once a likeness
+and a variation as compared with the same symbol in the Evangeliary of
+St. Sernin. They are both too intricate to describe, but of both it may
+be said that they show an intimate acquaintance with early Christian
+symbolism. The ivory carving and architecture of Ravenna have evidently
+been known to the director of these frames and backgrounds. In the year
+which saw the completion of Godeschalk's Gospels, Alcuin was at Parma,
+but when the St. Médard's Gospels were written he was Abbot of St.
+Martin's at Tours. It was the presence of Alcuin at the Court of
+Charlemagne that accounts for the prevalence of the Saxon character in
+the new and beautiful handwriting we now call Carolingian. It was the
+presence of Paul Warnefrid that accounts for much of the classic and
+most of the Lombardic features, both of the writing and the
+illumination. Many other scholars assisted these two in the various
+centres in which Alcuin established branches of the palatine schools.
+The intercourse with Italy and England was constant, and led to the
+frequent interchange of books, and community of methods and models.
+Another fine MS. of the same period (c. 780) is the Golden Ada-Codex of
+St. Mesmin or Maximin, of Trèves. In 1794 this MS. was taken from Trèves
+to Mainz; in 1815 it was transferred to Aix-la-Chapelle, and is now back
+again at Trèves. The externals of the Ada-Codex are very costly, its
+binding being a late Gothic pendant to the cover of the Echternach
+Evangeliary at Gotha. In the centre of the fore-cover there is a
+magnificent topaz,[15] with several imperial figures. Inside, the work is
+a handsome example of the early Carolingian.[16] It contains the four
+Gospels written by order of the "Mother and Lady Ada," sister of Charles
+the Great, Abbess of St. Mesmin. Next we have in the British Museum
+another grand example of the style as modified by English or Saxon
+influence. Also the Zurich Bible, of the same date, executed at
+Tours--and the Bamberg Bible, said to be a copy of the Alcuin Bible of
+the same school. Then follow the Drogo Sacramentary, presented by the
+Emperor to his natural son Drogo, Archbishop of Metz (826-855), perhaps
+illuminated at Metz, but of the same school as those above mentioned.
+
+[15] Or sardonyx (Lamprecht says topaz.)
+
+[16] A photograph of the cover is sold by F. Linz of Trèves.
+
+In our own National Library, again, we have the Athelstan Gospels (Harl.
+2788), also in all probability executed at Metz. At Paris (Nat. Lib.,
+Theol. Lat. 266) is the Evangeliary of Lothaire--a most beautiful
+example of gold-writing and ornament. So we might enumerate a score of
+splendid MSS., and classify them into their various minor schools. But
+such is not our object. All we want here is a general but clear idea of
+the style as a whole.
+
+To characterise it broadly by the names of its most important elements
+we should call it a Lombard-Saxon style--the interlacing bands and knots
+and other minor features and the main character of the writing being of
+Saxon origin, the classical foliages and manner of painting the figures
+and certain ideas of design Lombardic, strengthened by direct contact
+with the sources of the latter style. Whatever variations there may be,
+they can generally be accounted for according to locality and centre of
+production. We have instanced a few examples of the earlier time as
+showing the principal features of the style. Under the Emperor Charles
+the Great's grandson, Charles the Bald, Carolingian illumination reached
+its highest point of excellence, and the MSS. executed for him or his
+contemporaries accordingly give a correct idea of what Carolingian
+illuminators considered as good work. The chief centres were still Tours
+and Metz--the latter a branch of the former, but gradually developing
+distinct features of its own; and among the productions of these schools
+there still remain precious--we might say priceless--examples, such as
+the Vivien Bible of the Paris Library, so-called because presented by
+Count Vivien, Abbat of St. Martin's of Tours, to Charles the Bald in
+850.[17] It contains a fine picture of the presentation with _beardless_
+figures. It has also a number of exceedingly splendid initials showing
+strong Byzantine influence--capitals of columns of classic origin and
+traces of Merovingian in letter forms and ornamental details. It is like
+the Evangeliary of Lothaire, already mentioned, a most sumptuous example
+rich in silver and gold--the latter having a grand portrait of Lothaire
+seated on his throne. Both MSS. are in the National Library at Paris,
+the Vivien, No. 1 (Theol. Lat.), the Lothaire, No. 266. But the one
+example to which we would call the reader's attention, though among the
+earlier productions of the period, as not only most readily accessible,
+but most precious to the English student, is the celebrated Alcuin Bible
+in the British Museum (Add. MS. 10546). This venerable MS. is a copy of
+the Vulgate revised by Alcuin himself, and said to be exactly similar to
+the one at Bamberg. Biblical revision was perhaps the most important of
+his many literary occupations, and this volume is reasonably believed to
+be the actual copy prepared for presentation to Charlemagne under the
+reviser's own superintendence, possibly, in part at least, the work of
+his own hand. It is a large folio, finely written in a neat minuscule,
+mainly Saxon hand, with uncial initials in two columns. The miniatures,
+including their architectural details, are in the Roman manner, the
+ornaments partly Byzantine, partly Celtic. The great similarity of
+design between different manuscripts is strikingly exemplified by a
+comparison of three borders from (_a_) the Evangeliary of St. Vaast of
+Arras, fol. 28 _v._ (see Delisle); (_b_) the Evangel. in National
+Library, Paris, anc. fds. Lat. 257 (see Louandre), and Evangeliary No.
+309 Bibl. de Cambrai (see Durieux).
+
+[17] Plate in t. 1 of Louandre.
+
+Indeed, comparisons of this kind are very instructive frequently as
+suggestive of _provenance_, as each working centre would have its own
+set of models and designs. Of course, comparison of the MSS. themselves
+is out of the question, but the comparisons can often be effected by the
+student's having Louandre, Durieux, Fleury, Labarte, etc., by his side
+during the examination of any given period. The limits of our little
+book forbid our speaking of other examples of this splendid style, but
+we cannot conclude without noticing that in the opinion of M. Ferdinand
+Denis, the Golden Gospels of St. Médard of Soissons is the most
+beautiful Carolingian MSS. extant.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+MONASTIC ILLUMINATION
+
+Introductory--Monasteries and their work from the sixth to the ninth
+century--The claustral schools--Alcuin--Warnefrid and Theodulf--Clerics
+and monastics--The Golden Age of monasticism--The Order of St.
+Benedict--Cistercian houses--Other Orders--Progress of writing in
+Carolingian times--Division of labour.
+
+
+In the sixth century the monasteries, such as they were, necessarily
+kept themselves very quiet and unobtrusive. They were situated usually
+in out-of-the-way corners, solitudes apart from civilisation, or, at
+least, apart from the busy haunts of men. In the eighth century there is
+a marked difference. The Capitular of Aix-la-Chapelle, of 789, required
+that minor schools should be attached _to all monasteries and cathedral
+churches_ without exception, and that children of all ranks, _both noble
+and servile_, should be received into them. Also that the larger
+monasteries should open major schools in which the seven sciences of
+mathematics, astronomy, arithmetic, music, rhetoric, dialectics, and
+geography, were to be taught--and this in two ways. There were to be two
+sorts of schools--interior or _claustral_, intended for monastics only,
+and exterior or _canonical_, intended for secular students. These
+schools were under separate scholastics or masters, and lay students
+were received in the exterior schools as freely and fully as in the
+public schools of the present time. Mabillon[18] gives a list of some
+twenty-seven monastic and cathedral schools, by no means confined to
+great or wealthy cities, but well distributed throughout the Empire.
+
+[18] Præfat. in iv. Sæcul. 184.
+
+In the time of Charlemagne those most in repute were Tours, St. Gall,
+Fulda, Reims, and Hirsfeld.
+
+We have given the names of Alcuin and Paul Warnefrid as the chief
+promoters of the Carolingian Revival, but we should not omit that of
+Theodulf, of Orleans, the indefatigable school inspector of the time. He
+it was who assisted the artistic side of the movement by his ingenious
+contrivances as a writer and illustrator of school books. Undoubtedly it
+was from his suggestions that we so often find in mediæval scientific
+treatises of the driest kind those graphic and wonderful tabulations and
+edifices, labelled and turreted, which make Aristotle, Priscian, and
+Marcianus Capella, not only comprehensible, but attractive. Theodulf
+composed in simple and easy Latin verse--somewhat after the style of the
+_Propria quæ maribus_ our own childhood--the description of a supposed
+tree of science, which he had drawn and painted, on the trunk and
+branches of which were the figures and names of the seven liberal arts.
+At the foot sat Grammar--the basis of all learning--holding on her hand
+a lengthy rod (ominous for the tender student). On the right Rhetoric
+stretched forth her hand. On the left was Dialectic. Philosophy sat on
+the summit; the rest being disposed according to their relative
+importance. The whole was explained in the _Carmina de septem artibus_,
+in which the bishop, who was one of the famous poets of the age, strove
+in flowery language to render these dry-as-dust studies acceptable to
+the youthful understanding. Theodulf was a great scholar, and assisted
+Alcuin in the revision of the Bible, one copy of which he himself had
+written whilst still Abbat of Fleury, about 790. At the beginning of
+this Bible is a poem in golden letters on purple, and a preface in
+prose, also in golden letters, giving a synopsis of the several books.
+The text differs somewhat from the Alcuin Bible, as it is that of Jerome
+before Alcuin's revision. This MS. is now at Paris. Another Bible
+executed to the order of Theodulf is now in the Town Library at Puy.
+
+It seems incredible, after the efforts made by Charlemagne and his
+ministers for the maintenance of learning and the arts, that there
+should ever be any risk of a return to barbarism, but it is a fact that
+the dissolution of the Empire proved in certain localities the
+suspension of prosperity. Fortunately the monastics--especially the
+Benedictines--and the canons of the cathedrals still kept up the
+practice of copying books; but almost all the South of France,
+Languedoc, and Provence, always conservative, remained more or less
+illiterate. They produced poets and jongleurs, but seldom artists or
+scholars. And even in the North, where the capitular schools were most
+flourishing--as Paris, Reims, and Chartres--the general tendency was
+towards relapse. In High Germany it was even worse. In spite of all
+efforts of the clergy by the extension of secular schools, the laity
+preferred the excitement of chase and camp to the quiet humdrum of the
+schoolroom. Religion seemed to be regarded rather as a profession than a
+principle, quite right in its place, _i.e._ the Church and the
+monastery, but unsuited for active life. The wealthy land-owners,
+therefore, did not cease to endow religious houses or to build churches,
+but they left book-learning to the clerics. Accordingly the clerics and
+the monastics flourished exceedingly.
+
+From the beginning of the tenth century to the beginning of the
+thirteenth was the Golden Age of monasticism. The Order of St. Benedict
+scattered its foundations thickly over France and Western Germany, while
+its reformed colonies of Cluny, Citeaux, Clairvaux, and the Chartreuse
+again spread their settlements in all directions. Thus we find Cluny
+established in 910, Grammont in 1076, the Chartreuse in 1080, Citeaux in
+1098, Savigny in 1105, Tiron in 1109, Austin Canons in 1038,
+Premonstrants in 1120, Crutched Friars in 1169. In England, from 1100,
+scarcely a year passed by without the establishment of some fresh
+foundation. During the thirty-five years of the reign of Henry I. more
+than 150 religious houses were founded. And even during the disastrous
+reign of Stephen, in less than twenty years, no fewer than 100 houses of
+various Orders were established. The twelfth century in England was
+especially the age of monasteries.
+
+It is true that not very much in the way of original literature, except
+theological treatises, can be assigned to the three centuries referred
+to, but the unwearied labours of the copyist and illuminator did much to
+preserve the works which previous centuries had created. Of course, in
+so long a period changes were many and great. So great, indeed, that
+between a MS. of 850 and another of 1200 scarcely is there a common
+feature.
+
+From 850 to 1000 in France the Carolingian minuscule, from the first so
+clear and beautiful, remained with scarce a stroke of alteration. But
+immediately after the opening of the eleventh century a series of rapid
+changes set in, and by the beginning of the twelfth a new hand,
+perfectly clear and regular, but quite different from the Carolingian,
+had been formed, which lasted until it was superseded by the Gothic,
+while a system of contractions adopted because of the scarcity of
+parchment creates a fresh need for study apart from the peculiarities of
+personal habits. Side by side, too, with this there grows up a
+non-professional hand--the so-called cursive or running hand of the
+ordinary writer--in many cases, especially in deeds and other brief
+compositions, all but utterly illegible, except to the professional
+palæographer. Occasionally these autographs are of the highest
+importance and intensely interesting, as, for instance, when in an
+English MS. we come Across a note in the handwriting of Ordericus
+(Vitalis) or Matthew Paris.
+
+From 900 to 1200 the vast majority of MSS., illuminated and otherwise,
+were the work of monastics. Every house of any note had its room set
+apart for writing. The larger monasteries sometimes utilised the
+cloisters of the churches themselves, in recesses of which they had
+desks or tables placed for the copyist. Usually, however, they had a
+large common room called the scriptorium, where either the copyist and
+illuminator worked separately and each on his own account, or where a
+number of copyists awaited with pen and parchment the dictation by one
+of the fraternity of some work of which a number of copies had to be
+made. "No admittance except on business" was the rule of this chamber.
+There, under the direction of the _armarius_, the expert writers did
+their work.
+
+Sometimes a single monk executed the book from first to last by himself.
+He prepared the vellum, ruled it with the fine metal point, copied the
+text, painted the illuminations, put on the gilding, and even added the
+binding. Generally, however, the labour was divided--one monk scraped
+and polished the parchment; another ruled it; another wrote the text,
+leaving spaces for initials and miniatures; another put in the initials
+and did the gilding and flourishing with borders, etc.; and another
+painted the miniatures. This in the monasteries was done in the case of
+large and important MSS., and afterwards, when illuminating became a
+lay-craft, subdivision of labour was the common practice. Binding was
+done in a special apartment, and by one specially skilled therein.
+
+The _scriptorium_ was looked upon as a sort of sacred place, and the
+work of copying often considered as a labour of piety and love--entered
+upon with devout prayer, and solemnly blessed by the superior,
+especially in cases where the books to be written were Bibles, or
+connected with the services of the house, the Lives of the Saints, or
+Treatises on Theology.
+
+Very frivolous or absurd indeed are sometimes the inducements to
+copyists to do gratuitous work of this kind, such as that every letter
+transcribed paid for one sin of the copyist, and it is said that a
+certain monk--a heavy sinner--only owed his salvation to the fact that
+the number of letters in a Bible which he copied exceeded by a single
+unit the sum total of his sins.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+MONASTIC ILLUMINATION--_continued_
+
+The copyists--Gratuitous labour--Last words of copyists--Disputes
+between Cluny and Citeaux--The Abbey of Cluny: its grandeur and
+influences--Use of gold and purple vellum--The more influential abbeys
+and their work in France, Germany, and the Netherlands.
+
+
+Of course, only really expert calligraphers were employed on great and
+important works. In the monastery all such labour was gratuitous, that
+is, the copyist received no pecuniary remuneration, only his food and
+lodging. Yet even this had to be provided for. Hence the frequent
+requests for donations from the laity.
+
+To give a volume to a monastery did not always mean actually to present
+the book, but to stand the expense of its production in the monastery
+itself. In the case of specially distinguished penmen, their
+entertainment in a monastery was sometimes an expensive business. It was
+only in later times, however, when lay-artists were invited to reside in
+the monastery to do their work that money was paid for their services.
+Very often we find notices at the end of volumes that "So-and-so" had
+ordered the book to be written and illuminated at his expense, and an
+invocation for the gratitude of the reader and remembrance in his
+prayers is added, sometimes with the date to the very hour when the book
+was finished.
+
+The copyist's last words after his task was completed are often very
+full of weariness--sometimes pious, sometimes hankering after fleshly
+lusts, occasionally quite too dreadful to repeat. "May Christ recompense
+for ever him who caused this book to be written." At the end of a Life
+of St. Sebastian: "Illustrious martyr, remember the monk Gondacus who in
+this slender volume has included the story of thy glorious miracles. May
+thy merits assist me to penetrate the heavenly kingdom; and may thy holy
+prayers aid me as they have aided so many others who have owed to them
+the ineffable enjoyments both of body and soul." Wailly quotes the
+following: "Dextram scriptoris benedicat mater honoris" ("May the mother
+of honour bless the writer's right hand"). A very common ending is "Qui
+scripsit scribat semper cum Domino vivat" ("He who wrote, let him write;
+may he ever live with the Lord"). Another: "Explicit expliceat. Bibere
+scriptor eat" ("It is finished. Let it be finished, and let the writer
+go out for a drink"). Another ending is "Vinum scriptori reddatur de
+meliori" ("Let wine of the best be given to the writer"). And again:
+"Vinum reddatur scriptori, non teneatur" ("Let wine be given to the
+writer; let it not be withheld"). Here is the recompense wished for by a
+French monk: "Detur pro penâ scriptori pulcra puella" ("Let a pretty
+girl be given to the writer for his pains," or "as a penance") The monks
+enjoyed puns, as "bibere," a common pun on "vivere." One writer groans
+thus: "Scribere qui nescit, nullum putat esse laborem" ("Whoso knows not
+how to write, thinks it is no trouble").
+
+As time goes on, after the tenth century, it is noticeable that the more
+beautiful a manuscript becomes in its writing the less accurate becomes
+its Latinity. And so the monks who once were noted for learning,
+gradually lose their grip on Latin. The manuscripts executed in
+Benedictine abbeys became inaccurate--almost illiterate. Faults of
+ignorance of words; misrendering of proper names; blundering in the
+inept introduction of marginal notes and confounding such notes with the
+text, showing that the heart of the copyist was not in his work nor his
+head capable of performing it. His hand is simply a machine, which when
+it goes wrong does so without remorse and without shame. So in the
+greater houses, men were appointed whose sole business was to supervise
+the copyists--in fact, to supply the brains, while the scribe furnished
+the manipulation of the pen. Even they, however, did not always succeed
+to perfection, as very few of them were too well furnished with
+scholarship. There were not many Alcuins or Theodulfs in the twelfth
+century. What they did usually keep free from serious error were the
+books used in their own services. It was the aim, particularly among the
+Cistercian houses, to have their liturgical texts absolutely without
+fault. In respect of illumination, there was a great quarrel between the
+Abbey of Citeaux and that of Cluny. The great Abbey of Clugny (or Cluny)
+in ancient Burgundy was founded in 910, and in the course of a century
+or obtained a degree of splendour, influence, and prosperity unrivalled
+by any other mediæval foundation. It possessed enormous wealth and
+covered Western Europe with its affiliated settlements. Under Peter the
+Venerable, when the controversy began, it was the chief monastic centre
+of the Christian world. The words of Pope Urban II., when addressing the
+community, were: "Ye are the light of the world."
+
+The grand Basilica at Cluny was completed in 1131, and, until the
+erection of St. Peter's at Rome, was the largest church in Christendom,
+and even then was only ten feet shorter than the Roman edifice. The
+building is a masterpiece of architectural beauty and massiveness, being
+with its narthex added by Abbat Roland de Hainaut, no less in length
+than 555 feet. The splendour of the church, its gorgeous tombs and
+mausoleums, its huge coronals for lights of brass, silver, and gold--the
+grand candelabrum before the altar, with its settings of crystal and
+beryl--the mural painting of the cupola, and the general luxury and
+magnificence of the whole constituted an unpardonable sin in the eyes of
+the stern and self-denying Cistercians. Hence arose long disputes
+between the abbats of the two houses about tithes and other matters.
+Among the other matters were included questions of candlesticks and
+bindings and gildings of books. The two houses were long at variance on
+the right definition of luxury in living, and this variance may to this
+day be observed in their separate and distinct styles, both of
+architecture and the ornamentation of books. The use of gold was still
+continued in the older Benedictine abbeys, but was long forbidden in the
+Cistercian, almost all the ornament of the latter being confined to
+pen-drawing and the use of coloured inks. The employment of gold for the
+text of manuscripts so common in the ninth century became rare in the
+eleventh. Only here and there do we hear of such volumes. Where the gold
+lettering still lingers, it is confined to the first page or two, and
+the same may be said of the purple vellum. A certain monk, Adémar, who
+died at Jerusalem in 1034, wrote a Life of St. Martial of Limoges
+entirely in letters of gold; but it was quite an exceptional volume.
+Another example occurs in an Evangeliary, which was probably a copy of a
+ninth-century model, as at first glance it might be assigned to that
+age, but on closer examination it is found that in one of the borders is
+a medallion bearing the name of the Emperor Otho, showing that it cannot
+be later than the latter part of the tenth century. It is now in the
+National Library at Paris.
+
+Before speaking of Othonian illumination it may be well to refer to that
+of the Netherlands in these earlier centuries.
+
+The most ancient writings known in this district were charters and other
+documents, and the pious effusion of the occupants of the monasteries,
+such as St. Amand, Lobbes, Stavelot, etc.
+
+It was the revival of art and literature under Charlemagne that was the
+beginning of artistic calligraphy, then followed the production of books
+outside the monasteries, classical authors, chronicles, and mirrors of
+various sciences. In the eleventh century we find monastic books and
+others of which the ornamentation is sometimes even splendid, such as
+Psalters, Evangeliaries, Bibles, and Missals, glowing with gold and
+colours. Already the Abbeys of Stavelot and Liége were high-class
+centres of production. St. Martin's of Tournay had a famous scriptorium
+also, noted for the beauty of its writing and its grand initial letters.
+Immediately following St. Martin's, the Abbeys of Gembloux, St. Bavon at
+Ghent, and others, produced or acquired MSS. of the most sumptuous kind,
+and before the thirteenth century the Netherlands had established quite
+a distinguished reputation.
+
+In a later chapter we shall deal with the development of its remarkable
+schools, whose work eventually took rank, not only among the most
+artistic, but the most prolific in Europe.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+OTHONIAN ILLUMINATION
+
+Departure from Carolingian--Bird and serpent--Common use of dracontine
+forms in letter-ornament--Influence of metal-work on the forms of
+scroll-ornament--The vine-stem and its developments--Introduction of
+Greek taste and fashion into Germany--Cistercian illumination--The
+Othonian period--Influence of women as patronesses and
+practitioners--German princesses--The Empress Adelheid of Burgundy--The
+Empress Theophano--Henry II. and the Empress
+Cunegunda--Bamberg--Examples of Othonian art.
+
+
+Perhaps the first departure towards a new style arising out of the
+elements of Carolingian illumination is in the combination of the bird
+and serpent used for letter forms and continued into coils of vine-stem
+and foliage in combination with golden panelled frames or pilasters. The
+monsters thus produced seem to be a revival of the dracontine forms of
+the semi-barbarous Celtic and early Frankish arts. But the difference in
+elegance and refinement of drawing and beauty of colouring is very great
+indeed. Other animal forms are also made use of, nor is the human figure
+altogether absent. Sometimes entire letters are made up of the latter in
+various attitudes. Little scenes illustrative of the subject which the
+initial commences are often placed within it, as, for instance, in the B
+of the first psalm.[19]
+
+[19] A characteristic Othonian Evangeliary of the eleventh century,
+executed at the Abbey of Stavelot, may be seen in the Royal Library at
+Brussels.
+
+[Illustration:
+BIBLIA SACRA
+12TH CENT. (LATE)
+_Brit. Mus. Harl. MS. 2799, fol. 185 v._]
+
+[Illustration:
+EVANGELIA (PARIS USE)
+C. 1275
+_Brit. Mus. Add. MS. 17341, fol. 120 v._]
+
+Many twelfth-century initials look like designs in metal-work placed on
+the panelled grounds of coloured enamels. But the rapid development of
+the vine-stem coils out of the stemless foliages of the Carolingian and
+Winchester styles is one of the wonders of the early German revival
+after the accession of the Emperor Otho I. A still greater improvement
+takes place after the marriage of his son Otho II. to the Princess
+Theophano, daughter of Romanus II., attributable, no doubt, to a fresh
+accession of artistic enthusiasm from the home of the new Empress. In
+point of elegance of design, beauty of curve, adaptation of every part
+to its share in the composition, nothing could be finer than the initial
+letters of the Othonian period of illumination. The year 963 introduced
+Greek fashions and Greek artists into Germany, the results of which are
+at once traceable in the increased splendour of monastic illumination in
+that country. The details of Greek ornament become the fillings of the
+frames and panels of the large initials.
+
+The Cistercian illuminators, or rather calligraphers, while they
+constantly repudiate the golden splendour and monstrous follies of their
+rivals, absolutely excel in this same ornamental draughtsmanship. What,
+for example, could be finer than the pen-drawing of the great Arnstein
+Bible in the British Museum (Harl. 2800)? The ornament is mostly in a
+red ink, with flat-coloured blue, green, or yellow backgrounds, but it
+is not to be surpassed. No, the interlacements and coils, foliages and
+panels of the twelfth century are absolutely among the finest examples
+of ornamental lettering ever conceived. Illuminating seemed at this
+epoch to be more and more closely following the details of contemporary
+architecture, and so paving the way to the next great variety of the
+art, which is looked upon by some writers as the real beginning of
+mediæval illumination.
+
+It must be admitted, however, that the excellence limits itself to the
+ornament. The human figure is wretchedly incorrect--even barbarous. It
+may be asked why is this? How is it that while the decorative portion of
+an illuminated book is beautiful in the highest degree, both in line and
+colour, and yet occasionally the artist seems not to have the remotest
+idea of the true shape of hands and feet or any part of the human body?
+Of course the usual explanation offered is that monastic education did
+not permit the study of the nude, and hence the monkish ignorance of
+figure drawing. But that is scarcely an excuse for the monstrous hands
+and feet and exaggerated facial expression of the miniatures. The
+Italian monk Angelico, in spite of his monastic limitations, succeeded
+in a most graceful rendering of the figure, and a charming delicacy in
+the forms of the hands. As in some instances the artist does reach a
+fair standard, it must be admitted that where he does not is owing to
+actual inability in himself and not in his system. The three emperors
+who give the name of Othonian to the period immediately succeeding the
+Carolingian ruled Germany, and had much to do with the ruling of Italy,
+from 936, when Otho I., called the Great, succeeded Henry the Fowler
+about five years before the death of Athelstan, whose sister Eadgyth[20]
+was Otho's first wife. His mother Mathilda was the patroness of the
+cloister-schools for women, working in them personally. She herself
+taught her servants and maids the art of reading. Her daughter Mathilda,
+the famous Abbess of Quedlinburg, in 969 persuaded the Abbat Wittikind
+of Corvey to write the History of the Saxon Kings, Henry her father, and
+Otho her brother (now in the Royal Library at Dresden). Hazecha, the
+Treasury-mistress of Quedlinburg, also employed the monks of Corvey,
+with whose beautiful initial drawing she was greatly pleased, to
+illuminate her own Life of St. Christopher. The beautiful but imperious
+Princess Hedwig, another of Otho's sisters, read Virgil with Ekkehard of
+St. Gall, and taught the child Burchard Greek, while Otho's niece
+Gerberga, Abbess of Gandersheim, was the instructress of the celebrated
+Hrosvita, "the oldest German poetess." And this reminds us that at this
+time the women-cloisters of Germany and the Netherlands were among the
+most active centres of learning and book-production. The great monument
+of feminine erudition and artistic skill, called the "Hortus
+Deliciarum," was of a somewhat later time, but other examples still
+exist, among them the beautiful Niedermünster Gospels of the Abbess
+Uota, now at Munich. A wood-cut by Albert Dürer prefixed to the first
+edition of Hrosvita's works (Nürnberg, 1501) represents the nun Hrosvita
+kneeling before the Emperor and beside the Archbishop Wilhelm of Mainz
+presenting her book.[21] As to the literary labours of Hrosvita, this is
+not the place to discuss them. She is simply an incidental figure in our
+view of the brilliant Court of the Othos. A MS. of her works 500 years
+after her death was found among the dust of the cloister-library at St.
+Emmeram of Regensburg by Conrad Celtis, and, as we have seen, printed
+for the first time in 1501. Thus she stands out as an illustration of
+the fact often alluded to, of the importance of feminine foundations in
+the monastic scheme.
+
+[20] The chroniclers are rather confused as to the name of this Princess.
+
+[21] It is thought, however, by some that the figure behind is that of
+the Abbess--not the Archbishop. See Dürer Soc. Portfolio for 1900.
+
+Her picturesque story of the romantic adventures of Adelheid of
+Burgundy, her marriage in 947 to King Lothaire of Italy, her widowhood
+and perils, her misfortunes and eventual marriage to the Emperor Otho,
+reads more like a chapter from the _Morte d'Arthur_ or the _Arabian
+Nights_ than a veracious history of real people. The Empress Adelheid
+was, indeed, a remarkable woman, and the nun of Gandersheim is full of
+her praises. In her younger days she had been a zealous patron and
+protectress of the Abbey of Cluny, which stood on her native land of
+Burgundy, and her sympathies remained always with the religious houses.
+In this respect, indeed, she was a worthy successor of the pious
+Mathilda and her daughters. She died in her seventy-first year in her
+Abbey of Selz in Elsass, leaving a memory rich in benefits to the
+monastics, especially those of Cluny, and venerated as the patroness of
+many an illuminated volume of poems or theology, not to mention the
+liturgical books executed at her expense for use in her various
+foundations. The tenth century seems to have been an age of illustrious
+women. No sooner do we leave the story of Adelheid than we enter upon
+that of the young wife of Otho II., the Empress Theophano, daughter of
+the Greek Emperor, Romanus II. When little more than a child she was
+married to the son of Adelheid, he himself being in his twentieth year
+in the year 972, and in the city of Rome. The young Greek Princess who
+had been reared amid the luxury and splendour of the Eastern capital at
+once became the fashion--the manners of her Byzantine household became
+those of her Roman court, and were transplanted to her German home at
+Bamberg. Artists, limners, copyists, musicians, scholars, formed part of
+her retinue, and at once the German Court became the rival of those of
+England, Byzantium, Cordova, and Rome.
+
+It was, indeed, a Renaissance, an awakening in literature, art, and
+social life. Nor did its glory fade until eclipsed by the succeeding
+rivalries of France and Italy. Theophano survived her husband, who died
+in 983, and proved herself a capable Regent during the infancy of her
+son Otho III. She, however, did not live to see his early death, nor
+indeed to see that of the aged Adelheid, who survived her eight years,
+and died in the same year (999) as Otho's aunt, Matilda, Abbess of
+Quedlinburg.
+
+The death of Otho III. in 1002 did not affect materially the steady
+advance of monastic art. Bamberg, St. Gall, Corvey, Luxeuil, Bobbio,
+Monte Cassino continued their accustomed labours. Under the Capetian
+Kings the French foundations maintained the reputations they had won
+during the Carolingian times, while others were added from time to time
+throughout the Rhineland, Limousin, and the South of France, where the
+Romanesque or Byzantine tastes had not yet penetrated, and whose work
+therefore remained distinct from that of Italy and the German Empire.
+
+Henry II. and the Empress Cunigunda made Bamberg the great centre of
+German art, and it is to Bamberg, St. Gall, Luxeuil, Monte Cassino, and
+Magdeburg that we have to look for the finest productions of the
+eleventh century. Among the earlier works of the Othonian period we may
+mention the famous Gospel-book executed for the minister of Otho II.,
+Egbert, Archbishop of Trèves, and known as the Codex Egberti. It was
+written in 980 at Reichenau on the Lake of Constance (or Bodensee, as it
+is locally known) by two monks, Kerald and Heribert, whose dwarfish
+figures appear beneath that of the archbishop on the frontispiece. It
+contains fifty-seven illuminations and several folios of violet
+parchment with golden ornaments and lettering. But its pictures are
+rather remarkable, mostly the figures are too short and the limbs and
+extremities badly drawn, but in some of the statelier personages the
+error is reversed and they are too tall--this seems to be owing to Greek
+influence, while the Byzantine taste shows itself in the treatment of
+the border-foliages. Beasts are unnatural--demons and swine are alike,
+both in form and colour (Pub. Lib., Trèves).
+
+An Evangeliary, formerly in the Cathedral Treasury at Bamberg, but now
+in the Royal Library at Munich (Cimel. 58), is a good example of the
+kind of work that at first glance appears to be actually Carolingian
+both in the figures, attitudes, and treatment of drapery, but which on
+closer examination proves to be really due to the reign of Otho II. In
+this MS. the beginning of St. Matthew contains four medallions--two of
+Henry I. (the Fowler), one of Otho I., his son, and another of his
+grandson, Otho II. (Nat. Lib., Paris, Lat. 8851).
+
+A still more notable MS. is kept in the Munich Library (Cimel. 58),
+containing a two-paged picture of tributary cities bringing gifts to the
+Emperor Otho III. In the painting in this MS., notwithstanding the
+exaggerated solemnity of expression, the faces are well drawn and the
+features carefully modelled. The painting is in the Greek manner, as is
+also the general character of the draperies. The small, ill-drawn feet
+are by no means comparable with the heads.
+
+The Imperial crown is square, like those of the Magi in the Bremen MS.
+now in the Library of Brussels, or like that of Baldwin as Emperor of
+Constantinople. In the several enthronements which occur among the
+Imperial miniatures at Munich there are important and significant
+differences which might not be noticed unless pointed out.
+
+The changes in the shape and treatment of the orb, for instance, mean
+more than a mere advance in enrichment, or an improvement in artistic
+skill. The difference indicates a change in political usage. In the
+miniature of Charles it does not occur at all; in that of Otho III. it
+is a mere symbol; in that of Henry II. it is the actual emblem of
+sovereignty presented by the Pope to the Emperor, to be held by the
+latter in token of his investiture.
+
+It was Selden's opinion that the orb, surmounted by the cross, never
+appears in western art until the time of Henry II. Thus it is here one
+of the many seemingly insignificant details which, in the miniature art
+of the Middle Ages, contribute to the elucidation of History.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+FRANCONIAN ILLUMINATION
+
+The later Saxon schools--Bernward of Hildesheim--Tuotilo and Hartmut of
+St. Gallen--Portrait of Henry II. in MS. 40 at Munich--Netherlandish and
+other work compared--Alleged deterioration of work under the Franconian
+Emperors not true--Bad character of the eleventh century as to
+art--Example to the contrary.
+
+
+The MS. just referred to (Munich, Cimel. 58) brings us most probably to
+the time of the third. Otho, but it is really with his father's marriage
+to the Princess Theophano that the great revival in the arts began, and
+the names of St. Bruno of Cologne and Augsburg, Gerbert, Bernward of
+Hildesheim, Tuotilo, Salomon, Hartmut, Folchard, and Sintramn of St.
+Gallen, are, as it were, points of light and centres of expanding
+circles of artistic skill. Bruno and Gerbert are too well known to need
+any further remark. Bernward of Hildesheim, made bishop there in 992 by
+Theophano, and tutor to her son Otho III., "excelled no less in the
+mechanical than in the liberal arts. He was an excellent penman, a good
+painter, and as a household manager was unequalled." Such is Tangmar's
+tribute to his pupil's character. He was, indeed, an enthusiast in
+painting, mosaic, and metal-work, and used to collect all the objects of
+art he could lay hands on, to form a museum or studio for the
+instruction of a class of art students and workmen. The collection was
+formed mainly out of the numerous presents brought to the young Emperor
+from foreign, and especially Greek and Oriental, princes, and contained
+many examples of beautiful metal-work and Greek illumination. His own
+Cathedral of Hildesheim was supplied with jewelled service-books, in
+part at least the work of his own hand. The chalices and incense-burners
+and the massive golden corona or candelabrum of the cathedral were also
+the productions of his own workshops. The mural paintings, too, were
+executed by himself. His handiwork, so lovingly described by his old
+schoolmaster Tangmar, may still be seen in Hildesheim, where visitors to
+that quaint old Saxon city are told that the bronze gates of the
+cathedral and the jewelled crucifix were placed there by the venerable
+bishop himself in 1015, while in the cathedral-close rises a column
+adorned with bronze reliefs from the Life of Christ, authoritatively
+declared to be the work of his own hands--let us say they came out of
+his own workshops, in the year 1022, nearly a thousand years ago. St.
+Bernward was canonised by Celestine III. in 1194. His sarcophagus is in
+the crypt of the Basilica of St. Michael at Hildesheim. Of Tuotilo, the
+pupil of Moengall (or Marcellus), it is said that he was physically
+almost a giant; just the man, says his biographer, that you would choose
+for a wrestler. He was a good speaker, had a fine musical voice, was a
+capital carver in wood, and an accomplished illuminator. Like most of
+the earlier monks of St. Gallen, he was a clever musician, equally
+skilful with the trumpet and the harp. And the charm about it all was
+that he was always cheerful and in excellent spirits, and in consequence
+a general favourite. Nor is this all. Besides being teacher of music in
+the upper school to the sons of the nobility, he was classical tutor,
+and could preach both in Latin and Greek. His chief accomplishments,
+however, were music and painting, and on these his reputation mainly
+rests. He composed songs, which, like an Irish bard, he sang to the
+harp--the popular instrument of this Irish foundation. Being thus
+multifariously accomplished (he was, by the way, an excellent boxer), he
+was much in request, and by the permission of his abbot travelled to
+distant places. One of his celebrated sculptures was the image of the
+Blessed Virgin for the cathedral at Metz, said to be quite a
+masterpiece. Nay, he was even a mathematician and astronomer, and
+constructed an astrolabe or orrery, which showed the courses of the
+planets.
+
+This allusion to the astrolabe reminds us that it was Abbat Hartmut of
+St. Gallen, who was also an accomplished illuminator, who constructed a
+large map of the world--one of the extremely few that until that time
+the world had ever seen.
+
+St. Gallen and its artists, however, must not be permitted to monopolise
+our attention too long. The reader must for the rest refer to Dr. Rahn
+and the writers whom he quotes. Sometimes it is said that the
+illuminations of the eleventh century are proofs of the rapid decline of
+art, and to demonstrate the fact that they are frankly hideous, some
+writers bring forward instances such as the miniatures of a Missal,
+especially a Crucifixion, said to be at Paris,[22] and a MS. at Berlin
+said to have been executed in the earlier days of the Franconian dynasty
+(1034-1125) containing another Crucifixion, which, though not quite so
+horrible as the one just referred to, is sufficiently bad. These
+miniatures are irredeemably barbaric and not in any sense typical of the
+age. Such examples, in fact, can be found in any age and in any country.
+Were they really representative of the best art of the time, there might
+be an excuse for their reproduction, but they are not, and therefore no
+reliance can be placed on their evidence.
+
+[22] _Le Livre, etc._, par M.P. Louisy, Paris, 1886, 8°, p. 79.
+
+In the miniatures of MSS. executed for the Othos and Henrys of the early
+Saxon dynasty the worst they can be charged with, as compared with the
+periods before and after them, is slavish imitation. The portrait of
+Henry II. (Saint Henry, husband of Cunegunda) in MS. 40 at Munich is by
+no means barbaric--it is more Greek than anything else--but it is down
+to the smallest element of composition a direct imitation of the similar
+portrait of Charles the Bald in the Emmeram Gospels. It is not a copy,
+for there is a significant difference in the attitudes of the emperors.
+Henry holds a sceptre in his right hand and an orb in his left, like
+Otho III. in the miniature already described, whereas Charles is empty
+handed. Then both on the Emperor's head and on the smaller figures the
+crowns are different--the panelling of the Imperial canopy is different,
+and, of course, there is a different inscription. Lastly, it may be said
+that some of the differences are improvements. Another change is
+characteristic--Charles was beardless, Henry has a pointed beard.
+
+It is true this is an example belonging to the very brightest years of
+the Othonian revival. But to pass over other Saxon MSS., there are
+extant examples from Evroul (when Roger de Warenne, son of the great
+Earl of Surrey, practised as a scribe and illuminator on his retirement
+to that monastery), St. Martin's of Tournay, St. Amand, Benedictbeuern,
+Lobbes, and Weissobrunn could all boast accomplished calligraphers. The
+last establishment produced the celebrated Diemudis, who, though a
+woman, was distinguished by a most extraordinary activity and skill.
+
+Nor are these all that could be named, for by no means least among them
+we may quote Monte Cassino, many of whose elegant productions have been
+published by the present occupants of the monastery. Then the Greek
+miniaturists of the eleventh century are once more to the front. The
+famous Slav Evangeliary of Ostromir (1056-67) shows us a MS. probably
+executed for a governor of Novgorod, which contains by no means
+despicable work, whether in the figures of the evangelists or the
+ornamental borders. Of course, in Greek MSS. we know pretty well what to
+expect; fairly good ornament, rich details of embroidery, etc.,
+wilfulness of colour in architecture, mannerism in the attitudes and
+faces, but good, clever technic and bright gold.
+
+Lastly, there is the celebrated Evangeliary given to San Benedetto of
+Mantua by the Countess Matilda now in the Vatican, enriched with little
+miniatures from the Life of the Virgin, which Lanzi declares surpass
+everything else he ever saw of the same period.
+
+The Poitevin MS. at Poitiers, a biographical compilation of saints in
+honour of St. Radegonde, though nothing wonderful, is worth recording as
+a transitional example just before the close of the century. As an
+example of the latter part of a continual deterioration, it should be
+worse than anything preceding. Yet it is not so. It is certainly heavy
+and rather dull, and the drawing far from excellent, but it is also, on
+the other hand, far from "frankly horrible." In introducing examples of
+other schools into this chapter the writer's object has solely been to
+vindicate the illuminators of the eleventh century from the sweeping
+charge sometimes made against them of absolute deterioration. Of the
+school directly under our notice, the charge is certainly not true, and
+the wretched stuff cited in support of it can only be looked upon as
+accidental salvages of no artistic value whatever.
+
+In proof that the book-work of the eleventh century was not all
+worthless, we may refer to just one example. It is a MS. consisting of
+but a few fragments executed at Luxeuil under Abbat Gerard II. The
+remains are such as to cause regret for the loss of the rest. On one
+page Christ is shown seated on a rich _sella_ covered with an
+embroidered cushion in the manner of the consular diptychs. He is
+clothed in a pale yellow tunic, over which is worn a purple pallium with
+a white border. He is beardless, and his brown hair is kept close to the
+head and neck, and falls over the shoulders. The feet are nude and by no
+means ill-drawn. Surrounding the head is a cruciform nimbus enclosed in
+a circle--both cross and circle being pale green, the latter outlined
+with red. The chief fault of the head is the excessive length of the
+nose and the wide stare of the eyes. The right arm is raised somewhat as
+in the St. Sernin Evangeliary, but with the palm outwards, and much
+superior in drawing.
+
+The whole figure is painted on, or at least surrounded by, a golden
+background--so far indicating the Byzantine origin of the design. It is
+enclosed in a cusped aureola formed of several coloured bands of green,
+violet, and rose. This shows German taste. Eight circlets or medallions
+surround this figure of Christ, four of which contain the symbols of the
+evangelists; the other four--Isaiah, Daniel, Ezechiel, and Jeremiah. All
+hold portions of the band which connects them, and on which appears a
+series of inscriptions in Latin. These consist of passages from the
+Vulgate.
+
+The whole picture is placed in a square frame consisting of bands of
+various colours and gold outlined in red. The inner ground is chiefly
+blue, and the names of the prophets and evangelists are painted on it in
+white Roman capitals. Taken altogether it is a very splendid page, but
+even this is surpassed in gorgeous richness of ornament by the miniature
+of St. Mark. And the borders of other pages in this Luxeuil fragment are
+full of ornament, giving the impression that the work was imitated from
+that of the goldsmith and enameller. The figures and symbols of the
+evangelists in these early Gospel texts are fully explained after St.
+Jerome by Alcuin, whose revision of the Vulgate forms the text of the
+Durham Book already referred to.
+
+The "Manual" shortly to be mentioned differs somewhat in its explanation
+of these symbols. The curious combination called the "Tetra morph" is a
+compound of the four attributes or symbols into a single figure, to
+signify that the four evangelists give only one gospel, and ought not to
+be separated. It occurs frequently in Greek, but only seldom in Latin or
+Western iconography.[23]
+
+[23] On this figure see _Annales Archéologiques_, tom. 8, p. 206, etc.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+ARTISTIC EDUCATION IN THE CLOISTER
+
+The "Manual"--Its discovery--Its origin and contents--Didron's
+translation--The "Compendium" of Theophilus--Its contents--English
+version by Hendrie--Benedictine and Cistercian illumination--How they
+differ--Character of monastic architects and artists.
+
+
+About the twelfth century comes forward the mention of a certain manual
+minutely detailing every process of painting, and laying down rules for
+the due composition and arrangement of every subject to be represented
+in the sacred history and other books connected with divine service. How
+long such a manual had been in use is unknown, but it is thought that
+something of the kind must have existed from the time, at least, of
+Justinian, perhaps earlier. The manual here referred to was found by M.
+Didron at Sphigmenou, on Mt. Athos. This little monastery is said to
+have been founded by the Empress Pulcheria, sister of the Emperor
+Theodosius the Younger. She died in the year 453. Theodosius, it may be
+remembered, was himself an admirable penman and illuminator, so much so
+as to have acquired the cognomen of Kalligráphos.
+
+The monastery is built in a narrow valley by the seaside, between three
+little hills, and as it were "squeezed" in, and hence its name (in Greek
+σφιγμένος), which describes its situation exactly. It is occupied by
+about thirty unusually neat and orderly monks, who are justly proud of
+the few relics and curiosities which they exhibit to visitors. It was at
+Sphigmenou that Curzon saw the piece of _ancient_ jewellery set with
+diamonds and a Russian or Bulgarian MS. of the Gospels.
+
+The book which M. Didron found there is the copy of an older MS. which,
+it is said, was copied by Dionysius, one of the monks, from the works of
+the once celebrated master, Manuel Panselines of Thessalonica, who was
+the Giotto of the Byzantine school and flourished in the twelfth
+century. If by works the monk meant literary, it is most likely that it
+was the transcript of a still older document. If by works Dionysius
+meant paintings, it is a manual of his practice. One of his pupils, in
+order to propagate the art of painting which he had learnt at
+Thessalonica, writes down the series of subjects to be taken from the
+Bible, so as to epitomise the divine scheme of salvation, and describes
+the manner in which the events of the Old Testament, and the miracles
+and parables of the New, ought to be represented. He mentions the
+scrolls and inscriptions (such as we noticed in the Gospels of Luxeuil)
+belonging to each of the prophets and evangelists, with the names and
+characteristics of the principal saints in the order of the menologium
+or martyrology, and then goes on to direct how the subjects should be
+arranged on the walls and cupolas of the churches.
+
+The Manual of Dionysius is an abstract of this wide scheme, but is still
+very comprehensive. The copy of it seen by Didron was one belonging to a
+monk of Sphigmenou named Joasaph, who was himself a painter. It was
+"loaded with notes added by himself and his master, which in course of
+time would be incorporated, according to immemorial custom, in the
+text." In this way, indeed, the Manual has grown to what it is at
+present. A transcript of it may probably be found in every monastery
+belonging to the Greek Church. Another monk named Macarios, also a
+painter, had a fine copy of it laid open in his atelier, and his pupils
+read from it in turn, whilst the rest painted according to its
+directions. For the scheme itself we must refer the reader to the second
+volume of Didron's _Christian Iconography_, p. 193. Unfortunately the
+transcriber did not think it of sufficient importance or relevancy to
+copy the first part, as being purely technical and dealing merely with
+the art of painting. The scheme, therefore, only contains the part
+relating expressly to iconography. It is to be regretted, too, that this
+part also has been in some places considerably abridged, as dealing with
+Greek art and martyrology more copiously than, it was thought by the
+translator, would be interesting to English readers. There are numerous
+good and reliable introductory works dealing with early Christian art,
+besides the greater treatises to which the student who wants to pursue
+this line of research shall be directed later on. But there is another
+of these original manuals to which we must call attention, as especially
+dealing with the practice of monastic artists in the twelfth and
+following centuries.
+
+The one to which we now refer is quite distinct from the Greek Manual
+which we just mentioned, and by way of contrast may be called the Latin
+Manual as being originally composed in that language. Moreover, as the
+Greek Manual formed the guide and _vade mecum_ of all the painters of
+the Greek Church, so this Latin one became the indispensable monitor in
+all Latin foundations. Its origin was German, and said to be the
+compilation of a Benedictine monk who is variously spoken of as
+Rutgerius, Rugerius, Rotkerius, etc., and assigned by different editors
+and critics to either the eleventh, twelfth, or thirteenth centuries.
+Probably we shall not be far wrong in placing him about the middle of
+the twelfth. The treatise is known as _Diversarum Artium Schedula_, and
+the compiler of it calls himself simply _Theophilus presbiter humilis_,
+which, of course, records nothing but his personal modesty.
+
+It was at first attributed to Tuotilo of St. Gallen. This opinion was
+put forward by Lessing, but it had no foundation whatever beyond the
+fact of Tuotilo's well-known versatility.[24] Besides, Tuotilo lived in
+the ninth century. But really the question of attributions does not
+concern us here. It matters little who he was outside the Treatise, and
+certainly we shall not discuss the question further. It is with the
+Treatise that we are concerned. We shall simply call the author
+Theophilus, and his work the Compendium. Let us turn to it at once.
+
+[24] Tuotilo was renowned throughout all Germany as painter, architect,
+preacher, professor, musician, calligrapher, Latinist, Hellenist,
+sculptor, and astronomer.
+
+The Compendium, which is thus known to contain the working methods of
+all the monastic illuminators, mosaicists, glass painters, enamellers,
+and so forth, throughout Germany, Lombardy, and France, consists of
+three books, containing altogether one hundred and ninety-five chapters
+of definite and special instructions in artistic matters. Book I.,
+comprising forty chapters, treats of the preparation, mixture, and use
+of colours for wall-painting, panel, and parchment, _i.e._ for the
+decoration of churches, furniture, and books. It contains some most
+curious and valuable instructions for the employment of gold, silver,
+and other metals in the decoration of MSS.; how it should be applied;
+whether in leaf or as an ink; how raised and burnished, down to the
+minutest details of practice; how colours are to be tempered (_i.e._
+mixed); what _media_ or temperings are best for each colour, according
+to the surface to which it is to be applied. Such is the Compendium. We
+need not, therefore, wonder at its popularity and the estimation in
+which it was held.
+
+Thirty-one chapters on glass, glass painting, enamelling, etc., form a
+second book, and the third and last book contains some hundred and
+twenty-four chapters on gold and silver work--the art of the
+goldsmith--in cups, chalices, vases, candelabra, shrines, and so on. It
+is the first book that is of most interest to us, and had we space we
+would have liked to quote from its pages. But as it is we can only refer
+the reader to the work itself. It is to be met with in various forms and
+editions. First, we recommend the English translation by Robert Hendrie.
+The oldest MS. of the work is one of the twelfth century in the Library
+at Wolfenbüttel. The next is in the Imperial Library at Vienna.
+Fragments of other copies exist in several other public libraries, but
+the completest copy known is that in the Harl.[25] Collection of the
+British Museum used by Hendrie as the basis of his translation (8°,
+1847).
+
+[25] 1 Harl. MS. 3915.
+
+It was, as we have said, in the eleventh and twelfth centuries
+especially that the great abbeys were founded. And it cannot be too
+clearly stated that the principal abbatial churches--those most splendid
+monuments of architecture whose structure and dimensions are still the
+admiration of the most cultured critics, and in which all the rules of
+art were so marvellously applied--were the work of simple monks. The
+great Church of St. Benignus at Dijon (so often spoken of by writers on
+Burgundian art) was built in 1001, under Abbat William, assisted by a
+young monk named Hunaldus. The period between 1031 and 1060 saw the
+creation of the grand abbatial Church of St. Remi at Reims. In the words
+of the Comte de Montalembert: "From the very beginning of the Monastic
+Orders St. Benedict had provided in his Rule that there should be
+artists in the monasteries. He had imposed on the exercise of their art
+only one condition--humility." Hence it is that all we know of the
+author of the Compendium from himself is "humilis presbiter Theophilus."
+For the same reason Tuotilo and Folchard and Sintramn and the rest are
+never anxious to put their names upon their work. For the same reason
+the occurrence of an artist's name in a monastic MS. is quite
+exceptional and unexpected. The foresight of St. Benedict "was
+accomplished and his law faithfully fulfilled." The Benedictine
+monasteries soon possessed not only libraries but ateliers, where
+architecture, painting, mosaic, sculpture, metal-chasing, calligraphy,
+ivory carving, gem-setting, book-binding, and all the branches of
+ornamentation were studied and practised with equal care and success,
+without interfering in the least with the exact and austere discipline
+of the foundation. The teaching of these various arts formed an
+essential part of monastic education. "The greatest and most saintly
+abbeys were precisely those most renowned for their zeal in the culture
+of Art. St. Gallen in Germany, Monte Cassino in Italy, Cluny in France,
+were for centuries the mother-cities of Christian Art." And after the
+establishment of the reformed colony at Citeaux, the Cistercian Order
+became the one above all others which has left the most perfect
+edifices, and if the Cistercian illumination may not claim the splendour
+of some contemporary examples, it often excels them in soundness of
+design and severe correctness of execution.
+
+In saying that all this kind of work was executed by monks, we are
+speaking literally. The monks were not only the architects, but also the
+masons, and even the hodmen of their edifices. Nor were the superiors in
+this respect different from their humble followers. Whilst ordinary
+monks were often the architects-in-chief of the constructions, the
+abbats voluntarily accepted the rôle of labourers. During the building
+of the Abbey of Bee, in 1033, the founder and first abbat,
+grand-seigneur though he was, worked as a common mason's labourer,
+carrying on his back the lime, sand, and stones necessary for the
+builder. This was Herluin. Another Norman noble, Hugh, Abbat of Selby in
+Yorkshire, when, in 1096, he rebuilt in stone the whole of that
+important monastery, putting on the labourer's blouse, mixed with the
+other masons and shared their labours. Monks, illustrious by birth,
+distinguished themselves by sharing the most menial occupations. It is
+related of Roger de Warenne that when he retired to Evroul, he took up
+quite a serious rôle of this kind in cleaning the shoes of the brethren,
+and performing other offices which a mere cottager would have probably
+considered degrading.
+
+Occasionally in our school histories we come across the mention of a man
+like Dunstan, of whom it is related as a wonderful thing that he was at
+the same time a metal worker, architect, and calligrapher; but monastic
+biographies abound in such instances. We have already quoted several.
+"The same man was frequently," says Montalembert, "architect, goldsmith,
+bell-founder, miniaturist, musician, calligrapher, organ builder,
+without ceasing to be theologian, preacher, litterateur, sometimes even
+bishop, or intimate counsellor of princes."[26]
+
+[26] "L'Art et les Moines," _Ann. Archéologiques_, t. vi. p. 121, etc.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+THE RISE OF GOTHIC ILLUMINATION
+
+Germany the chief power in Europe in the twelfth century--Rise of
+Italian influence--The Emmeram MSS.--Coronation of Henry II.--The
+Apocalypse--The "Hortus Deliciarum"--Romanesque--MS. of Henry the
+Lion--The Niedermünster Gospels--Description of the MS.--Rise of
+Gothic--Uncertainty of its origin--The spirit of the age.
+
+
+In the chapter on Othonian art we saw how the ornamentation of books was
+drawn away from the great French centres, and began to take a new
+departure from the various leading cities of Germany, such as Bamberg,
+which the Othos had made their capital. Whilst the decline, which was
+the inevitable consequence of a personal government like that of
+Charlemagne, took place in France, it was but natural that the new
+artistic movement at Bamberg should become the fashion, and Germany
+predominant in art, as she was in politics. In the twelfth century the
+German Empire was the principal power in Europe. France, Italy, England,
+and Spain were all more or less secondary. Italy, however, was already
+on the alert. She was initiating certain movements in social life that
+must soon withdraw the cultivation of all the arts from the control of
+the monasteries. At the same time the love of learning and personal
+accomplishments of the second and third Othos and (St.) Henry II. soon
+prepared the Imperial Court to become as brilliant as classical
+scholarship and artistic skill of the highest class could make it.
+
+The wave of Byzantine influence which had passed over Germany by the
+time of Henry II. had immensely benefited the Germans. We notice it
+especially in the miniatures of the Gospel-books. The technic is much
+more masterly, the painting really methodical in soundly worked
+body-colour with a delicate sense of harmony, and showing no longer that
+coarse handling and slovenliness of execution that marks some of the
+Carolingian miniatures. In the figure a sense of proportion has been
+gained, the tendency, perhaps, being rather to excessive tallness, as
+compared with the thick-set proportions of the Carolingian work. Again,
+expression is improved--the faces are more intellectual--not beautiful
+but strong, and quite superior to the utterly expressionless faces of
+the Carolingian type.
+
+Take, for example, that fine Missal now at Munich (Cimel. 60--Lat.
+4456), in which St. Henry, who is bearded, receives his crown from a
+bearded Christ, his arms being upheld by two bishops, Ulrich of Augsburg
+and Emmeram of Regensburg, the two great saints of Bavaria. We know
+these to be the personages represented, because two inscriptions tell us
+so. To the one supporting the King's right hand: "Huius VODALRICVS cor
+regis signet et actus." To the other: "EMMERANVS ei faveat solamine
+dulci." The Christ is seated on a rainbow within a cusped aureola or
+"amande" of several bands of different colours, on the central one being
+inscribed in a mixture of Greek and Latin characters--one of the new
+fashions brought in by the Greek revival:
+
+    "Clemens XPE tuo longum da vivere XPIC to:
+     Ut tibi devotus non perdat temporis usus."
+
+Some writers have thought this to be a picture of the Emperor's
+apotheosis, and that the crown is that of Life or Immortality; but such
+is certainly not the import of the above verses.
+
+    "O gentle Christ give to thy Christ long to live
+     That devoted to Thee he may not lose the use of time."
+
+Besides, two angels on either side Christ precipitately bestow on the
+Emperor the spear and sword of a temporal sovereignty. Round the Emperor
+are the words: "Ecce coronatur divinitus atque beatur. Rex pius
+Heinricus proavorum stirp(e) polosus," all which can scarcely refer to
+anything but his German Empire.
+
+The expression, "give to thy Christ," is an allusion to the Hebrew usage
+of calling the king the "anointed" or the "Christ."
+
+Besides the interest possessed by this MS. as a monument of the art of
+its own time, it has a special value resting in the fact that its
+illuminations were copied from the famous Emmeram Golden Gospels of
+Charles the Bald, written by Linthard and Berenger, and sent as a
+present to Regensburg. Another illumination in it, representing the
+enthronement of the Emperor, is extremely interesting as showing how the
+later artist renders the work of the earlier one. The general
+composition is precisely the same, the lower figures in the same
+attitudes and bearing the same insignia. But in the details of costume,
+and in the significant position of the Emperor, there are alterations.
+In the miniature of the Emmeram Gospels the two angels above are simply
+winged messengers of the usual biblical type; in the Missal they are
+cloaked and crowned and bear horns in their hands. In the older MS. the
+two crowned figures with horns on either side wear simple mural crowns;
+in the later one they are regal like those of the Emperor. The details
+also of the canopies are different. But the remarkable difference is
+that while Charles the Bald is beardless and bears nothing in his hands,
+merely sitting as if addressing an assembly, Henry II. holds in his
+right hand a sceptre and in his left an orb and cross. Here is a
+distinctly new feature with a meaning. Here are the symbols of authority
+in the Emperor's own hands, and not merely in those of his
+attendants.[27] These two MSS. are worthy of careful study.
+
+[27] See p. 92.
+
+In another Missal in the library at Bamberg is a miniature of the
+Emperor presenting the book to the Virgin. In the great Evangeliary
+presented by the Emperor Henry II. to the Cathedral of Bamberg there is
+a grand picture of the Emperor and his consort the famous saint
+Cunegunda being crowned by Christ, with SS. Peter and Paul standing at
+the sides. Here also, as in the Carolingian MS. already mentioned, are
+the nations bringing tribute, but not in the same order. Here Germany
+stands upright between two figures of Gaul and Rome, while six others
+appear simply as busts (Munich, Cimel. 60. 4456).
+
+The twelfth century was clearly much given to symbolism and allegory, as
+shown in apocalyptic commentaries and similar works. A very remarkable
+"Apocalypse" is that in the library of the Marquis d'Astorga. The latter
+is remarkably rich in pictures, which have been described by M.A.
+Bachelin of Paris. The drawing in these pictures reminds one of the
+bas-reliefs of the campaigns of Hadrian and Trajan and other work of the
+early Roman centuries. One hundred and ten miniatures of uncommon
+interest constitute the illustrations, many of which are perfect
+curiosities of symbolism, depicting not only the four figures of the
+evangelists, but the mysteries of the seals and vials, serpents, beasts,
+etc., on yellow, red, green, blue, and brown backgrounds. The draperies
+in some of the miniatures show Byzantine teaching, but with the
+grandiose style of the early Roman times. The MS. it might be compared
+with of the twelfth century is the "Hortus Deliciarum" of the Abbess
+Herrade. This latter MS., which unfortunately was burnt with many other
+treasures during the siege of Strassburg by the Germans in 1870, was a
+veritable treasury of mediæval customs, furniture, and costumes,
+illustrating a medley of encyclopædic information for the use of the
+nuns and secular students of the Abbey of Hohenburg in Alsace. The good
+abbess called her book a "Garden of Delights."
+
+It is known that it dated from 1159, as that date and also the date of
+1175 occurred in its pages. We do not know whether the authoress was
+also the illuminatrix, but at any rate she directed the illumination.
+Their style is of the same type as that of the Apocalypse just spoken
+of, somewhat monumental as figures of the Liberal Arts, allegorical
+figures of the virtues and vices, and the syrens as symbols of sensual
+temptation. There was a figure of the Church riding upon a beast with
+the four heads of the evangel-symbols--the sun and moon in chariots as
+in the classical mythology, and scenes of warfare, marriage festivities,
+banquets, everything indeed depicting the life of contemporary
+persons.[28] The drawing and treatment generally is of no very skilful
+kind--the colouring bright and in body-colour. Draperies as usual much
+folded and fluttering, and the heads generally of the calm expression of
+the later French school, but the action sometimes very spirited.
+
+[28] For a copious and exhaustive account of the "Hortus," see "Het
+Gildeboek," Utrecht, 1877, v. i. Also Engelhardt, Herrad v. H., etc.,
+8°, with atlas of twelve plates, 1818.
+
+The title began thus: "Incipit hortus deliciarum, in quo collectis
+floribus scripturarum assidue jucundetur turmula adolescentularum." In
+the _Rhytmus_ came the lines:--
+
+             "Salve cohors virginum
+              Hohenburgensium
+              Albens quasi lilium
+              Amans dei filium
+
+              Herrat devotissima
+              Tua fidelissima
+              Mater et ancillula
+              Cantat tibi cantica
+
+              Sic et liber utilis
+              Tibi delectabilis
+              Et non cesses volvere
+              Hanc in tuo pectore."
+
+In the Netherlands, which mostly at this time lay within the boundary of
+Lotharingia or Lorraine, the style of illumination was much the same as
+in other German districts. Gospel-books and Psalters, however, exhibit
+features somewhat akin to English work.
+
+In the eleventh and twelfth centuries the continental methods prevail in
+more solid painting and less penwork.
+
+Of the twelfth-century work of Germany examples are exceedingly
+numerous, stretching over every province from West to East, as
+Westphalia, the Palatinate, Burgundy, Switzerland and Bavaria, extending
+even into Bohemia. An Evangeliary in the University Library at Prag
+agrees altogether with those of Germany.
+
+Towards the middle of the twelfth century, with the accession of the
+House of Hohenstaufen (1138, etc.), arose a new style, since called
+Romanesque, of which many examples are to be found in various libraries.
+It is not very easy to select the most typical examples, but one good
+and typical MS. is found in a Gospel-book at Carlsruhe, which contains
+some capital miniatures of this most thoroughly German style.
+
+Under Frederick Barbarossa, as under the Caroling Emperors and the
+Othos, we may note a wave of new life, especially in Saxony. A contrast
+as regards artistic ability to the "Hortus Deliciarum" is the
+Gospel-book executed for Henry the Lion at the convent of Helmershausen,
+once in the Cathedral Library at Prag, and bought by King George of
+Hanover.[29] In the page of the Eusebian Canons we see features which
+take us across the plains of Lombardy to the doors of S. Michele of
+Pavia, and to the churches of Venice. The columns rest on crouching
+animals. Allegorical figures are introduced striving with each other as
+in the later Gothic illuminations. A half-nude figure of Faith
+vanquishes the champion of Paganism. On the dedication page sits the
+Madonna with SS. John Baptist and Bartholomew, and below them the patron
+saints of Brunswick, Blaize, and Egidius leading forth the Duke and his
+wife, Mathilda. It may indeed be called a splendid book. Among the rest
+of the pictures, some of them within richly decorated borders, occurs
+the usual representation of the Duke and his Duchess receiving crowns.
+The figures are well drawn, even elegant, the draperies good, and the
+colouring skilful.
+
+[29] See F. Culemann in _Neue hannov. Zeitung_, 1861, Nos. 22-4.
+
+One of the many characteristic MSS. of this period to be seen in
+continental libraries is the "Mater Verborum" of the monk Conrad, of
+Scheyern in Bavaria, a noted scribe, illuminator, goldsmith, and
+grammarian. The subject is one that scarcely gives promise of lending
+itself to pictorial illustration, but after the successful attempts of
+Theodulf we may be prepared for anything in the way of diagram and
+symbol. Imagine a dictionary in which not only actual objects are
+pictorially represented, but also abstract terms. Music, philosophy,
+virtues and vices illustrated by historical instances--sacred subjects
+treated in the manner of the glass painters which is so commonly found
+in German and French work of this period.
+
+Of twelfth-century illumination in general it may be said that it shows
+a marked effort towards true artistic design and subtle beauty of linear
+outline. Some of the noblest curve-drawing, with rich and massive
+grouping of foliages, is to be found in the ornamental initials and
+dignified border designs presented on the later examples of the century,
+and it is very interesting to observe the rapid pace at which the climax
+is reached in mere calligraphic ornament after the opening of the Gothic
+period. Initials become smaller but exquisitely drawn, and reasonable
+expression takes the place of the senseless stare or grotesque
+exaggeration of attitude and feature which detract from the artistic
+value of all preceding efforts. To conclude our list of German
+illuminations of purely monastic production, we will bring forward one
+more example of women's work, which whether as regards its curious
+illustrations of symbolism, or its richly foliaged geometrical
+backgrounds and borders, is one of the most interesting MSS. in any
+collection. It is the Evangeliary of the Abbess Uota, or perhaps,
+rather, Tuota of Niedermünster, a lady of the House of the Counts of
+Falckenstein (1177-80); or of Utta, abbess from 1009 to 1012, but more
+probably the former. Another, Tutta, ruled the abbey from 920 to 934,
+and still another 1239-42. This precious MS., which Cahier has very
+fully described as the "Manuscrit du Niedermuenster de Ratisbonne," is
+now in the Royal Library at Munich (Cimel. 35). Some writers, in
+speaking of it, have classed it among the MSS. of the eleventh century,
+but it is too refined and too well done for that period, and, indeed,
+that it belongs to the _latter part_ of the twelfth is almost proved
+from the work itself. Perhaps it was the profusion of inscriptions or
+legends placed all over the miniatures that gave the idea of its
+belonging to the eleventh century. In this respect the MS. certainly
+resembles the Evangeliary of Luxeuil already described. The miniature of
+the Crucifixion is very remarkable. Besides the figure of Christ showing
+a return to the primitive Syriac idea,[30] instead of the figures as
+usual of Mary and John, here are given allegorical figures _of_ Life and
+Death. (Cf. Fest. in exaltatione sce crucis. Ad Laudes, 14th Sept.).
+Perhaps the best commentary on these old figures is the "Biblia
+Pauperum," as it is commonly called, or as it should be called, the
+Bible of the poor preachers. It also has the old allegories and
+inscriptions rendered into later forms.
+
+[30] Cf. the Rabula MS. at Vienna.
+
+As for the texts or inscriptions, they would require a commentary to
+themselves--not to speak of translations and remarks upon the
+calligraphy. One of these remarkable miniatures may be described, as it
+depicts the presentation of the volume to the Madonna. Our Lady in the
+centre of the design is seated on a Byzantine _sedile_ with the infant
+Jesus on her knees. She is crowned, and has the nimbus, and appears as
+if intended to represent the glory of the Church. Her hand is raised as
+in the act of teaching. Christ, also, has the nimbus, but with the cross
+upon it, and raises his hand in the attitude of benediction. In the
+tympanum of the semicircle over the Madonna, written in letters of gold
+on purple, surrounded by the word "Sancta" in ordinary ink, is the
+monogram of Maria, having a small sun and moon above it, and other
+inscriptions, partly Latin, partly Greek. Below the Madonna, on the
+left, stands the abbess, her knees slightly bent, holding up her book,
+and clothed in the costume of her Order, but coloured, no doubt, simply
+for artistic reasons. Thus she wears a blue veil and a claret-coloured
+robe. In the reversed semicircle before her is another monogram, Uota or
+Tuota, a name which perhaps may be translated Uta, Utta, Ida, etc. It
+has been said already who she is likely to have been. It does not
+follow, of course, that she herself wrote or illuminated the book she is
+presenting, but judging from similar instances, as _e.g._ Herrade of
+Landsberg and Hrosvita of Gandersheim, she may have done so.
+
+Still the work looks technically too masterly for anyone not a trained
+artist to have done. In the corners are small quadretti, containing
+busts of the four cardinal virtues:--Prudence, Justice, Temperance, and
+Fortitude; and in circlets in the centre of each border are Faith, Hope,
+and Charity, the latter twice, at top and bottom. A number of
+extraordinary beasts fill up little niches in the design, which may
+possibly be also symbolical, but possibly also nothing but artistic
+fancies. The other miniatures we must pass over. Nevertheless those
+representing the four evangelists are worth examination;[31] the
+ornamentation being especially rich and elaborate. Let us now turn our
+attention to a new element--a new spirit we might term it--which was
+manifesting itself in Italy and France. We cannot too strongly insist
+upon the fact that whatever appears in illumination has appeared first
+in architecture and its auxilliary arts. Now we have to see how this
+fact begins to change almost entirely the character of the ornamentation
+of books. During the latter part of the twelfth century, when precisely
+we cannot say, nor where, a new form of architecture began to show
+itself. This new style, laying aside both the classic cornice and the
+Romanesque arch, makes use of a new vertical principle of construction,
+called in French the _ogive_ or arch, composed of two sections only,
+instead of the whole semicircle. By some fatality, of which no exact
+explanation can be given, English writers have given this new style the
+name of Gothic. Scores of cathedrals throughout Europe are called Gothic
+cathedrals, whereas in all probability, if we exclude Sweden, there is
+only one really Gothic building in the world, that is the Tomb of
+Theodoric at Ravenna, and none of the so-called Gothic cathedrals are in
+the least like it. As to the invention itself, it has been claimed by
+almost every nationality in Europe. There can be no doubt that
+accidentally, or otherwise, the pointed arch had been used often enough
+without any idea of its adoption as a principle of construction even in
+ancient buildings. The famous gate at Mycœne is one instance. This is
+not the place to discuss the question, so we let it pass. We could point
+out long and elaborate arguments intended to prove that it originated in
+England--that it originated in France--in Germany.[32] Possibly they may
+all be right in a sense, for most probably the origin was not in any
+particular locality, but in the religious spirit of the time. It was a
+general revival of the Church itself that was its cause. If any special
+locality has more reason on its side than another, it is probably
+France, but as we say, that is not an essential point. It must suffice
+us here that it arose, and that by the end of the twelfth century it was
+a fact. And the remarkable part about it is that it was by the influence
+of lay artists and especially of the freemasons that it became the
+accepted architecture of Christendom.
+
+[31] For more about them, see Cahier, _Mélanges d'Archéologie, etc._
+
+[32] Not to mention _theories_, which are endless.
+
+
+
+
+                               BOOK II
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+THE GOLDEN AGE OF ILLUMINATION
+
+The Gothic spirit--A "Zeitgeist" not the invention of a single artist
+nor of a single country--The thirteenth century the beginning of the new
+style--Contrast between North and South, between East and West, marked
+in the character of artistic leaf-work--Gradual development of Gothic
+foliage--The bud of the thirteenth century, the leaf of the fourteenth,
+and the flower of the fifteenth--The Freemasons--Illumination
+transferred from the monastery to the lay workshop--The Psalter of St.
+Louis--Characteristics of French Gothic illumination--Rise of the
+miniature as a distinct feature--Guilds--Lay artists.
+
+
+We have now reached the parting of the ways. The study of Nature is fast
+superseding the dogmas of the monastic code, and what some writers have
+characterised as the hieratic is giving way to the naturalistic
+treatment of art. Like the pointed architecture itself, it is an outcome
+of the spirit of the age. Exactly when it begins we cannot say. As in
+the physical sciences, our limits are necessarily somewhat arbitrary to
+suit our convenience in classification. We take the beginning of the
+thirteenth century as a convenient dividing line between old and new. We
+accept it as the boundary between the artistic sway of the East and
+South--and that of the West and North--between the lifeless fetters of
+prescription and the living freedom of invention. The contrast between
+the two is very strongly marked. The soft and curling foliages of the
+sunny South are for a season giving way to the hard and thorny leafage
+of the wintry North. It would seem as if pointed architecture began with
+the hard and frozen winter of its existence, and if it had been the plan
+or design of one individual we might have accepted this peculiarity as
+part of the scheme, and all that followed as a natural consequence and
+development. But it is curious that as a system worked out by many minds
+pointed architecture should thus begin. First come thorns and cusps and
+lanceolate forms without foliage. Then, not perfect leaves, but buds. In
+due time the bud opens, at first into the profile coil, and by-and-by
+into the full-spread leaf. Then comes the flower, and finally the fruit.
+After that, rottenness and decay. It is curious that this should
+actually take place through a course of centuries. That it should be
+reflected in book illumination is simply the usual order of things--the
+fact has been frequently observed, and as it is curious, we call
+attention to it. But, as we have said, the great change itself was
+brought about by the influence of lay artists, and chiefly by the
+freemasons.
+
+Who and what the freemasons were everybody is supposed to know, but on
+inquiry we find very few people indeed know anything definite about
+them. Of course we do not refer to the friendly societies or social
+guilds that now bear the name, but to the mediæval builders. "Everybody
+knows," says Batissier,[33] "that the study of the sciences and of
+literature and the practice of the various branches of art took refuge
+in the monasteries during the irruptions of the barbarians and the
+strife of international war. In those retreats, not only painting,
+sculpture, engraving on metals, and mosaic, but also architecture were
+cultivated. If the question arose about building a church, it was nearly
+always an ecclesiastic who furnished the plan and monks who carried out
+the works under his direction. The brethren in travelling from convent
+to convent naturally exercised a reciprocal influence over each other.
+We conceive, then, that the abbeys of any given Order would put in vogue
+the same style, and that the art would be modified under certain points
+of view, in the same manner in each country."
+
+[33] _Hist. de l' Art Monumental_, p. 466, Paris, 1845, I. 8°.
+
+"It is certain, moreover, that outside the cloisters there were also
+troops of workmen not monastics, who laboured under the direction of the
+latter."
+
+"Masons were associated among them in the same way as other trade
+corporations. It was the same with these corporations in the South as
+with the communes--the _débris_ of the Roman organisation; they took
+refuge in the Church, and had arrived at a condition of public life and
+independence, when order was established between the commune, the
+Seignory, and the Church."
+
+"During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries these corporations were
+organised into recognised fraternities having their own statutes, but
+there is abundant evidence of their having a much earlier existence."
+
+"A great number of masons were trained in Italy, and came from Lombardy,
+which in the tenth century even was an active centre of civilisation.
+Italy had its corporations of masons called _maestri comaccini_,
+enjoying exclusive privileges, who, having passed the different degrees
+of apprenticeship, became 'accepted'[34] masons, and had the right of
+exercising their profession wherever they might be. The sovereigns of
+different countries granted them special privileges, and the popes
+protected them in all Catholic countries where they might travel. Thus
+the lodges grew and prospered. The Greek artists who had fled from
+Constantinople during the various Iconoclast persecutions had got
+themselves enrolled in the ranks of the freemasons, and taught their
+fellow-masons their Byzantine methods."
+
+[34] German "angenommen."
+
+"Speedily these corporations spread through France, England, and
+Germany, where they were employed almost exclusively by the religious
+Orders, in building their churches and conventual buildings."
+
+While, therefore, the general plan and rules of construction were common
+to all members of the fraternity, the details were almost entirely left,
+under regulations, to the individual taste of certain members of each
+band of workmen, who, being all qualified artists, were quite capable of
+putting in execution, and with masterly skill, any such minutiæ of
+ornament as might be left to their discretion.[35] Local illuminators
+would thus speedily get hold of every novelty, and the page of the
+Psalter or Bible would become, as a French writer has explained it, a
+_vitrail sur velin_. If not indeed exclusively following the stained
+glass, they copied the mural decorations, and so we find the backgrounds
+of the miniatures, whether fitted into the initials or placed separately
+in framed mouldings, faithfully reproducing the imbrications,
+_carrelages_, panellings, and diapers of these mural enrichments.
+
+[35] Governor Pownall ("Observations on the Origin and Progress of Gothic
+Architecture, and on the Corporation of Freemasons," _Archæologia_,
+1788, vol. 9, pp. 110-126) was of opinion that "the Collegium or
+Corporation of Freemasons, were the first formers of Gothic architecture
+into a regular and scientific order by applying the models and
+proportions of timber framework to building in stone," and that this
+method "came into use and application about the close of the twelfth or
+commencement of the thirteenth century." See also Gould (R.F.), _History
+of Freemasonry_, vol. i. p. 259, note. "Without going so far as to agree
+with Governor Pownall that the Freemasons invented Gothic, it may be
+reasonably contended that without them it could not have been brought to
+perfection, and without Gothic they would not have stood in the peculiar
+and prominent position that they did, that there was mutual indebtedness,
+and while without Freemasons there would have been no Gothic...without
+Gothic the Freemasons would have formed but a very ordinary community of
+trades unionists."
+
+To select an example of Gothic illumination which shall exemplify the
+earliest features of the pointed style is not an easy matter,
+notwithstanding the number of thirteenth-century MSS. which still exist
+in public collections. In the National Library at Paris are several such
+MSS. One that decidedly marks the change from the German work hitherto
+in vogue is the Psalter of St. Louis (Nat. Lib., Paris., Lat. 10525),
+which contains nearly eighty small, delicately executed miniatures. It
+was completed about 1250. Its noticeable features are a vastly improved
+dexterity in draughtsmanship, which displays a refined certainty of
+touch, enabling the artist to express his intention with unhesitating
+freedom. The drawing thus produced in outline is filled in with flat
+tints of body-colour, without gradation or any attempt at brush-work
+shading. Whatever finishing in this respect might be thought necessary
+was added with the pen. Nothing could show more clearly that it is
+simply and frankly imitative of stained glass. As in the glass the black
+outline is left for definition. No colour is used on hands of faces
+except a slight touch of red on the cheeks and lips. The prevailing
+colours are rich blue and bright scarlet. Perhaps the illuminator would
+have been better advised had he neglected some of the harder features of
+this kind of work. Not considering that the limits of the glass painter
+did not apply to his vellum, he fettered himself unnecessarily, and
+instead of a picture he has only succeeded in producing a surface
+enamel, or a mere reticulation of surface-patterns. This very defect has
+by some writers been held up to admiration as the true perfection of all
+illumination. Its flatness was applauded because it had to be shut up in
+a book, and was therefore the only appropriate way of making a picture
+for such a purpose. But whoever would dream that because a picture,
+painted in due perspective and proper light and shade, was to be shut up
+in a book that the figures represented in relief would actually be
+crushed. Such reasoning is most puerile. The supposed parallel case of a
+carpet or hearth-rug representing groups of flowers--even if the latter
+ever did deceive the domestic cat--does not in the least affect the most
+childish conception of a picture in a book. We see it in a scene in
+light and shade, we enjoy and admire its reliefs, but at the same time
+we know it is a picture, and that it is quite flat. The two tests of
+knowledge never interfere with each other. To suppose they do is to
+suppose a case of imbecility that even a lunatic must laugh to scorn. So
+far, therefore, we think the illuminator mistaken in slavishly copying
+the limitations of the glass-painter. It is no very great knowledge of
+nature that is shown in these drawings. There is a good example of the
+method of study followed by thirteenth-century artists in the
+sketch-book of a French mason named Villars de Honnecourt, still kept in
+the National Library at Paris.[36] In this book the artist has made
+drawings, as he says, from the life--some are views, others drawings of
+objects of art; one represents a lion of the mediæval heraldic type, yet
+the artist assures us it is from the life. But there is no real
+accuracy, everything is done with reference to some canon. It is,
+however, quite free from the Byzantine influence, though by no means
+free from a certain tincture of symbolism. The nude is rarely attempted,
+but when it is it is certainly less ugly than in Carolingian and
+Romanesque. To return to the Psalter--the style of the figures is rather
+graceful, attitudes are gentle and modest, though the inclination of
+head and body are such as to suggest a sort of undulatory movement in
+walking that is scarcely natural. The forms are slender, and the limbs
+occasionally beyond the owner's control--sometimes even deformed. The
+feet are small and weak--now and then over-twisted. The hands more
+delicate than formerly, especially when open. Faces are gently oval and
+sometimes expressive.
+
+[36] It has been published as the Album of V. de H., Paris, 1858.
+
+Sometimes the "histories" are placed in initial letters, the grounds of
+which, when not of burnished gold, consist of imitations of mural
+_carrelages_, chequers, etc., or rich enamelled patterns imitative of
+engraved traceries on metal. In other cases they are placed in
+frame-mouldings, consisting of a bar or beading of gold supporting an
+inner bar of coloured and polished wood or enamel work--the polish being
+represented by a fine line of white along the centre. For illustrations
+of this precious volume the reader may refer to Labarte, _Hist. des Arts
+industriels_, album, pl. 92 (Paris, 1864).
+
+Now that the monasteries had ceased to be the exclusive nurseries of art
+and literature, the masters of the different arts and crafts usually
+belonged to the middle classes of the towns, where at first each art or
+craft had its own fraternity, and as the idea of trade-association crew,
+the crafts most nearly related would form a guild or corporation. All
+who joined these corporations bound themselves to work only as the ruler
+of the guild permitted. Nor were outsiders allowed to compete with them
+in their own branches, so exclusive was the protection of the guild.
+
+Each confraternity had its altar in some particular church, whose patron
+saint became the protector of the guild. And indeed the constitution of
+the guild included even political rights and obligations--military
+service among the rest, like other feudal institutions. Each town had
+its own special corporations, which thus led to the formation of
+separate schools of art; while travelling apprenticeships gave the
+opportunity to all of acquiring knowledge not accessible at home.
+Members were accustomed to travel and to attach themselves to the
+service of various princes, receiving appointments as "varlets" or
+"escripvains" or "enlumineurs," which sometimes obliged them to resign
+their membership. Occasionally they became political agents and even
+ambassadors.
+
+It will be remembered that, some pages back, we noticed the fact that in
+Western illumination generally the design of the page depended upon the
+initial letter, or that at least the initial was the principal object of
+it. In the thirteenth century, although the initial had very much
+diminished in size, the same principle still prevailed. The letter
+itself was formed of some fabulous long-necked and long-tailed animal or
+bird, mostly a dragon as conceived by the mediæval artist. The head
+framed more or less on that of the mastiff or lion, or both; the legs of
+a bird of prey; the body and tail of a serpent; wings of heraldic
+construction to suit the form of the letter. While the body of this
+unspeakable beast formed the body of the letter, the tail was
+indefinitely extended to sweep down the margin of the text and round the
+base of it, so as to form a border, while not unfrequently slender
+branches would spring from it to form coils here and there ending in a
+kind of flower-bud, the extremity of the tail forming a similar coil.
+Very soon, however, the animal form was abandoned, and the letter made
+simply as a decorated initial or capital. If possible, one of its limbs
+was made to sweep up and down the "margin" and along the bottom or top
+as before. Where the interior is not occupied by a "history," we find
+coiled stems ending in profile leaves or buds.
+
+At the same time the text has diminished in size, sometimes down to
+dimensions no greater than those of an ordinary printed book of to-day,
+but often beautiful and regular as the clearest printing. Such a book is
+the Bible written by a certain William of Devon, now in the British
+Museum (Roy. MS. 1 D. 1). A description of this beautiful MS. may be
+seen in _Bibliographica_, vol. i. p. 394, written by Sir E.M. Thompson.
+Here, though the writing is that of an Englishman, the style is
+completely French.
+
+Another MS. deserving of study is a richly illuminated Bible now in the
+Burney Collection of our National Library (No. 3). Another, which, owing
+to its being recommended for study by the late John Ruskin, was once
+known as the Ruskin Book, is Add. MS. 17341, which contains many fine
+initials with border and bracket foliages similar to those of the
+Evangeliary of the Sainte Chapelle, now in the National Library, Paris
+(MS. Lat. 17326). Both the MSS. show the contemporary peculiarity of
+presenting Bible characters, excepting divine personages, apostles, and
+evangelists in ordinary local costume. Paris, of course, is the city
+where most, and perhaps the best, of these MSS. are preserved; but those
+named above, in London, are also among the finest known examples.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+RISE OF NATIONAL STYLES
+
+The fourteenth century the true Golden Age of Gothic
+illumination--France the cradle of other national styles--Netherlandish,
+Italian, German, etc.--Distinction of schools--Difficulty of assigning
+the _provenance_ of MSS.--The reason for it--MS. in Fitzwilliam Museum,
+Cambridge--The Padua Missal--Artists' names--Whence obtained.
+
+
+Through the thirteenth century is the epoch of the Gothic renaissance,
+it is the fourteenth to which really belongs the title of the Golden
+Age. The style of work remains precisely the same, only it grows. It
+changes from the bud to the leaf. It casts off the severity and much of
+the restraint of its earlier character. To the grace of youth it adds
+beauty, the beauty of adolescence. To fourteenth-century illumination we
+can give no higher praise than that it is beautiful. Not, indeed,
+because of its deliberate limitations, but in spite of them. For after
+ages have taught us that if in pure ornament and resplendent decorative
+completeness the pages of the fourteenth century cannot be surpassed, in
+miniature historiation it must take a second place. The skilled
+illuminators of the later schools are the masters of the mere picture.
+For surely no judge of art could possibly assert that the miniatures of
+the Grunani Breviary or of the Brera Graduals as miniatures are inferior
+to those of the Psalter of St. Louis, the Berry Bible, or the
+Prayer-book of Margaret of Bavaria. Yet these are typical MSS. of the
+highest rank. Hence we say that while the illumination of the Golden Age
+of the art was beautiful, it was not absolutely perfect. It is not to be
+taken by modern students as the only possible model or basis simply
+because it was the best of its kind. There is no such despotism in art.
+To those who think it the only possible form of book decoration, let it
+be so by all means, but we may as well hope to clothe our soldiers in
+chain or plate armour, and send the elite of our nobility on another
+crusade to Jerusalem, or satisfy our universities with the _quod libets_
+and _quiddities_ of the _trivium_ and _quadrivium_, as hope to make
+popular to the England of the twentieth century the artistic tastes of
+the fourteenth. We indulge in no such dreams. If we are to have
+illuminated books, our own age must invent them. The illuminators of the
+Bibles, Romances, Mirrors, and Chronicles of the fourteenth century no
+doubt did their best, and we honour and praise them for it. We think
+their work among the loveliest gratifications of the eye that can be
+imagined. But the eye is very catholic--it has immense capacities for
+enjoyment. The window of the soul opens on illimitable prospects, and if
+the soul be satisfied for the time, it is not necessarily repleted for
+ever. Golden ages are cyclical, and it may be that the glory of the
+books of the future shall surpass all the glories of the past.
+
+By 1350 France had absorbed all the antecedent varieties of
+illumination. From France, therefore, spring all the succeeding styles
+now considered national.
+
+And as is most natural, these styles develop by proximity--the nearest
+to French being Netherlandish. The next, as a result of immediate
+intercourse, Italian. Then German, Spanish, and the rest, as intercourse
+gave opportunity. It is not always an easy matter to say offhand whether
+a MS. is French or Flemish. In the earlier days it is not easy to say
+whether it be French or English, or even whether French or Italian. But
+the distinctness comes later on.
+
+In the fifteenth century the Italian, German, French, and English are
+quite distinct varieties. Towards the sixteenth the Netherlandish is
+quite as distinct. But the styles of Spain, Bohemia, Hungary, Poland,
+though possessing features which identify them to an experienced eye,
+are to the ordinary spectator merely sub-varieties of Netherlandish,
+Italian, or German.
+
+With regard to the distinctions of schools or local centres within the
+same country, the evidence of probable origin has to be corroborated by
+historic fact. It is not safe without further proof than that afforded
+by general features to affirm that this or that MS. was executed at
+Paris, Dijon, Amiens, or Limoges in France; or at Ghent, Bruges, or
+elsewhere in Flanders; or whether a MS. be Rhenish or Saxon, Bavarian or
+Westphalian, in Germany; Bolognese, Florentine, Siennese, Milanese, or
+Neapolitan in Italy; or executed at Westminster, St. Albans, Exeter, or
+elsewhere in England. Nevertheless the special characteristics of all
+these schools are quite distinguishable. In the attempt to distinguish
+them, although the diagnosis may be perfectly accurate, the actual facts
+may be otherwise accounted for. Hence the danger to which even the
+experienced connoisseur is liable. For example, certain MSS. are written
+in a fine Bolognese hand, which it is proved were actually executed in
+Flanders; others that one would feel sure were Netherlandish, were
+illuminated in Spain. Some very fine typical Flemish miniatures were
+painted in Italy; certain Florentine miniatures were the work of artists
+residing in Rome. Milanese illumination is quite distinguishable from
+Neapolitan, and Venetian from both, yet the school is not proof of the
+_provenance_.
+
+Illuminators, like other craftsmen, travelled from city to city, and
+princes employed men, who resided in their patrons' palaces, who yet had
+learned their art many leagues away. How often we find the names of
+artists with the words Dallemagna, il Tedesco, le Poitevin, Veronese,
+Franco, Crovata, etc., employed in Italian houses, indicating the place
+of their nativity. So that even when we know every feature of the work
+we have much to learn ere we can say with truth that it was executed in
+such and such a city. We must take into account details which are liable
+to escape the ordinary observer, such as quality of vellum or paper,
+choice of pigments, mode of application, and other particulars quite
+distinct from style of ornament or varieties of form in foliage. In the
+Fitzwilliam Library at Cambridge is an Italian MS., the characteristics
+of whose ornamentation are unequivocally French, but whose mode of
+treatment shows not only that it is Italian but that it is Milanese, but
+whether executed in Milan or not is more than anyone can affirm. In the
+British Museum is a magnificent service-book called the Padua Missal,
+but the probability is that the Paduan artist who painted its splendid
+pages, painted them at Venice. That it was executed for Sta. Justina, at
+Padua, is no proof that the work was done in that city.
+
+In monastic times we have seen why the artist rarely signed his name.
+After the thirteenth century the lay artist had no such scruples, and
+hence we often find particulars of origin and purpose which explain all
+we wish to know. But if the MSS. themselves do not contain the
+particulars, very often the account-books of cathedrals and other
+establishments for which the books were illuminated, give the details of
+price and purpose, and add the names of the artists. The household
+expense books, guild books, municipal records, and the journals of the
+painters themselves are fertile sources of information. And if we seek
+with sufficient diligence these will probably be the means by which it
+may eventually be found.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+FRENCH ILLUMINATION FROM THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY TO THE RENAISSANCE
+
+
+Ivy-leaf and chequered backgrounds--Occasional introduction of plain
+burnished gold--Reign of Charles VI. of France--The Dukes of Orleans,
+Berry, and Burgundy; their prodigality and fine taste for
+MSS.--Christine de Pisan and her works--Description of her "Mutation of
+Fortune" in the Paris Library--The "Roman de la Rose" and "Cité des
+Dames"--Details of the French style of illumination--Burgundian MSS.,
+Harl. 4431--Roy. 15 E. 6--The Talbot Romances--Gradual approach to
+Flemish on the one hand and Italian on the other.
+
+
+In addition to the expanding ivy leaf which forms the chief feature of
+fourteenth-century book-ornament, we find the miniaturist as a further
+improvement adding delicate colour in the faces. Also that instead of
+the invariable lozenging or diapering of the background he occasionally
+makes a background of plain burnished gold. And as if to prove that his
+predecessors were really hampered with the restrictions imposed by their
+imitations of painted glass, he begins to try his best to paint up his
+miniatures into real pictures with high lights on draperies and shading
+upon the folds. A certain amount of flatness, however, still remains,
+but it scarcely seems to have been the intention or aim of the painter.
+There is a similar flatness in the work of all the early schools of
+painting, which had no reference whatever to the destination of the
+picture. See, for instance, the Origny Treasure Book in the Print Room
+at Berlin (MS. 38), and the Life of St. Denis in the National Library at
+Paris (Nos. 2090-2), both MSS. dating somewhere about 1315. The drapery
+shading in the latter MS. is no longer the work of the pen, but
+brush-work in proper colour. The Westreenen Missal in the Museum at the
+Hague, which dates about 1365, though not a French MS., is an example of
+the fact that by the middle of the century the tradition of penwork
+outline and flat-colouring had become pretty nearly obsolete.
+
+The reign of the afflicted Charles VI. of France, disastrous in the
+extreme to the material welfare of his own subjects, full of untold
+misery to the poor, and of oppression to the growing community of
+artisans and traders, was nevertheless, as regards literature and the
+arts, a period of progress and even splendour. The King's incapacity, by
+affording his uncles and brothers opportunities for fingering the
+revenues during the self-appointed and irresponsible regencies, enabled
+them to gratify their magnificent tastes in the purchasing of costly
+furniture and the ordering of splendid books. Louis of Orleans, usually
+credited with the worst of this prodigality, was by no means singular in
+his conduct. His uncle, the Duke of Berry, while daily earning the
+execrations of the tax-payers by his unscrupulous employment of the
+public money, was constantly enriching his library, and both he and his
+brothers and nephews were in the habit of sending priceless volumes,
+illuminated by the best artists, as wedding and birthday gifts, to each
+other, or their wives or acquaintances. We talk, and justly, of the fine
+taste and noble love of literature of Jean de Berry. His contemporaries,
+at least those beneath his own rank, looked upon him as a tyrant and
+plunderer. His disastrous administration of Languedoc was described as
+"one long fête where the excess of expenditure was rivalled only by the
+excess of scandal." If the _marmousets_ could have hanged him they
+would. In default they hanged his treasurer.
+
+All this maladministration was very wrong, but we cannot afford to burn
+the MSS. in consequence, for the Bible, the "Grandes Heures," and other
+books once possessed by the wicked Duke, are among the most precious
+relics of any age. Add to them the beautiful volumes of poetry and
+romance composing the contemporary literature of the fourteenth and
+fifteenth centuries, and we have treasures that we dare not relinquish.
+
+By the beginning of the fifteenth century pure French illumination was
+losing its own characteristics and acquiring others. In the North, in
+Flanders and Brabant, Franche-Comté and the Burgundian Dukedom
+generally, it was becoming that peculiar kind of French which had
+received the name of Burgundian. It can scarcely be said to be Flemish
+enough to rank as Netherlandish, yet neither can it stand side by side
+with "French of Paris."
+
+Let us look at a few examples. There is the Book of Offices in the
+Library of St. Geneviève at Paris (Bibl. Lat. 66), also the St.
+Augustine in the same library. Also a small crowd of volumes in the
+Royal Library at Brussels, another in the National Library at Paris. One
+of the richest examples known is the "Psalter of the Convent of Salem,"
+in the University Library at Heidelberg. Other grand MSS. are the two
+volumes of the "Mutacion de Fortune" of Christine de Pisan and the "Cité
+des Dames" of the same authoress. The volume of her poems, etc., in the
+British Museum, is a marvellously fine work (Harl. 4431). The greater
+part of this volume is in the earlier or "Berry" style, _i.e._ the fine
+pen-sprays of ivy leaf of burnished gold. But the first grand border is
+altogether transitional, consisting of the pen-sprays of golden ivy leaf
+alternating with sprays of natural flowers. This innovation, it has been
+said, was due to the school of van Eyck, but as no proof is forthcoming
+that J. van Eyck ever worked on illuminating we may be content to say
+that it arose about 1413, and that probably it came from Bruges. It is
+the beginning of the Burgundian style. But the ornamental leafage is
+different from ordinary Brugeois, inasmuch as it is "pearled" along the
+central veins, and is not symmetrical. The pearling is perhaps a
+suggestion from glass painting. It was very early adapted in German
+foliage work. On the first fly-leaf are several signatures, including
+the name and device of Louis Gruthuse: "Plus est en vous Gruthuse." The
+miniatures still remain French with mostly panelled backgrounds, some
+with landscape. It is evidently a transitional document.
+
+[Illustration:
+PSALTERM. ET OFFICIA
+14TH CENT.
+_Brit. Mus. Harl. MS. 2897, fol. 184_]
+
+[Illustration:
+HEURES, ETC.
+14TH CENT.
+_Brit. Mus. Harl. MS. 2952, fol. 22_]
+
+The works of Christine de Pisan, the popular--one may fairly say
+fashionable--authoress, were perhaps among the best known and most
+widely read while Caxton was setting up his press at Westminster, as she
+was among the most welcome guests at the Courts of Charles VI. and
+Philip of Burgundy. She was the daughter of a distinguished Venetian
+savant, Thomas de Pisan, who had come at the invitation of Charles le
+Sage to Paris as "Astrologue du Roi." At the age of fifteen Christine,
+who was as beautiful as she was accomplished, became the wife of a
+Picard gentleman named Estienne Castel. Two years afterwards the death
+of the King brought trouble upon her father, and with it sickness and
+despondency. Then followed sorrow upon sorrow. Whilst she was herself
+still burdened with the cares of early motherhood her father died, and
+within nine years from her marriage the sudden death from contagion, of
+her husband, to whom she was most fondly attached, left her a widow with
+two little children dependent upon her, and with only what she herself
+could earn as a means of livelihood. She was not yet twenty-six years
+old. To assuage her misery she betook herself to study and the
+composition of essays and poetry. Her works speedily brought her the
+recognition of distinguished personages; her children were provided for,
+and she herself soon acquired both fortune and reputation. Charles VI.
+allowed her a pension, and she composed for his Queen, Isabella of
+Bavaria, several important treatises. Among her numerous compositions
+were "Les cens Histoires de Troyes" in verse, "Le Chemin de longue
+estude", "La Mutacion de Fortune," and a Life of Charles V., the latter
+composed at the request of Philip the Good of Burgundy. But the work
+which sets off her wit and learning to the best advantage was an
+allegorical essay on Womanhood, which she called "Le Trésor de la Cité
+des Dames." Altogether her works include fifteen books and about sixty
+smaller writings, which she dedicated to the King and Queen of France,
+the Dukes of Burgundy and Orleans, and the princesses and princes of the
+Court.
+
+One beautifully illuminated copy of the Mutation of Fortune in two
+volumes is a curious example of its title, for one volume of it is in
+the National Library at Paris (fonds fr. 603) and the other in the Royal
+Library at Munich. In the former we have her portrait. In a blue gown
+she sits at her writing-desk busy at her work. On her head is the
+muslin-draped and high-peaked "hennin." Beside her a table covered with
+a green cloth and laden with crimson and violet-bound books and an
+inkstand. Her chair has a high back, and the floor is of the usual kind
+seen in illuminations; that is, as if composed of a parquetry of
+coloured woodwork or of tiles of various kinds of marble. On the sill of
+the Gothic-latticed window, through which we catch a glimpse of the blue
+sky, stands a vase of flowers. Not perhaps an ideal lady's boudoir, but
+still an apartment of taste, and an altogether charming little picture.
+In the second miniature of the Munich volume Christine is standing in a
+chamber--in the same costume as above described. The pictures on the
+walls are--a fortress, a watchman, two knights, a prince with crown and
+sceptre, seated on his throne, surrounded by courtiers; a duel; and a
+martyr having his head struck off. Just such mediæval subjects as we may
+expect in a fifteenth-century mansion.
+
+In a copy of the "Cité des Dames" at Munich is another portrait of
+Christine. The book is an Apology for the feminine sex, and it is well
+thought out. It appears that the conversation of the time was not always
+free from rather severe sarcasm concerning the ladies. We learn from Du
+Verdier that the continuator of the Romance of the Rose narrowly escaped
+most condign chastisement from some of the insulted sex at the French
+Court for the base insinuations in his poem against the character of
+women. Christine herself heartily disapproved of the Romance of the
+Rose, and wrote a sharp criticism upon it. Her "Cité des Dames" is an
+elaborate confutation of the opinion that women are naturally more
+immoral and less capable of noble studies or high intellectual
+attainments than men. In her introduction she says: "I reflected why men
+are so unanimous in attributing wickedness to women. I examined my own
+life and those of other women to learn why we should be worse than men,
+since we also were created by God. I was sitting ashamed with bowed head
+and eyes blinded with tears, resting my chin on my hands in my
+elbow-chair, when a dazzling beam of Light flashed before me, which came
+not from the sun, for it was late in the evening. I glanced up and saw
+standing before me three female figures wearing crowns of gold, and with
+radiant countenances. I crossed myself, whereupon one of the three
+addressed me. 'Fear not, dear daughter, for we will counsel and help
+thee. The aphorisms of the Philosophers are not Articles of Faith, but
+simply the mists of error and self-deception.'" The three ladies or
+goddesses are Fame, Prudence, and Justice, and they command Christine
+under the supervision of Reason (or Commonsense) to build a city for the
+noblest and best of her own sex. So the city was begun, and the elect,
+allegorically, let into it. In varied ranks following one another came
+goddesses and saintly women, Christian and heathen women--among them
+walks as leader the Queen of the Amazons. "Queen" Ceres, who taught the
+art and practice of agriculture. Queen Isis, who first led mankind to
+the cultivation of plants. Arachne, who invented the arts of dyeing,
+weaving, flax-growing, and spinning. Damphile, who discovered how to
+breed silkworms. Queen Tomyris, who vanquished Cyrus. The noble
+Sulpicia, who shared her husband's exile, and many others, among whom
+may be seen Dame Sarah, the wife of Abraham, Penelope, Ruth, and the
+Saints Katharine, Margaret, Lucia, and Dorothea. In the first miniature
+on the left sits Christine with a coif upon her head and a great book on
+her lap; on her left hand is the plan of her new city, while opposite
+stand the three ladies already spoken of as her advisers, furnished with
+building tools and giving her their advice. On the right she appears
+again in elegant costume with hewn stones and a trowel assisted by two
+workmen who are busily at work. Before her is an unfinished wall and
+several completed towers. In two other miniatures the gradual progress
+and entire completion of the city are shown, and in the foreground of
+each Christine and her three patronesses as before. Other examples
+deserving of extended notice are the Shrewsbury Romances (Roy. 15 E. 6)
+and Augustine, Cité de Dieu (Roy. 14 D. 1), two great folios, the former
+most interesting for its miniatures--the latter as a fair example of the
+rougher kind of Lille work, bold in design, good drawing. The choice of
+colours includes marone, blue, green, and gold. The ornaments, as usual,
+consist of sprays of ivy leaf and grounds filled in with treillages of
+natural flowers, among which are the daisy, viola tricolor, thistle,
+cornbottle, and wild stock. Fruits and vegetables also, as grapes, field
+peas, and strawberries. The miniatures include a few rather coarse
+grisailles.
+
+A little volume (Harl. 2936) contains exquisitely drawn Brugeois scrolls
+in monochrome on grounds of the same colour or plain gold or black.
+Lastly we may mention "Les Heures de la Dame de Saluces," otherwise
+called the "Yemeniz Hours," in the British Museum (Add. 27967), a large
+octavo, as an example of transitional Burgundian. Here the secondary
+borders have mostly the penwork ivy leaf with Brugeois corners and with
+strawberries, etc., in the midst of the sprays. Among the foliages
+grotesque figures frequently appear. The principal pages, however, are
+more like Harl. 4431, yet without the ivy-leaf tendrils. The miniatures
+are still Gothic, but richer and deeper in colour than ordinary French
+work. It would appear that two different artists were employed--one
+decidedly French, the other Netherlandish, and of a more individual
+character, still with French accessories. Every page has a border of
+some kind. Among the flowers the thistle is peculiar in having a golden
+cup next the down. The work generally resembles, in some parts, 4431
+Harl.; in others, and perhaps more strongly, 15 E. 6. The colours are
+chiefly blue, scarlet, rose-pink, green, and gold.
+
+We have now pretty nearly worked our way into Flemish illumination. The
+after-history of French as developed through the influence of Italy on
+the schools of Paris and Tours must have a chapter to itself.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+ENGLISH ILLUMINATION FROM THE TENTH TO THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY
+
+Organisation of the Monastic _scriptoria_--Professional outsiders: lay
+artists--The whole sometimes the work of the same practitioner--The
+Winchester Abbeys of St. Swithun's and Hyde--Their vicissitudes--St.
+Alban's--Westminster--Royal MS. 2 A. 22--Description of style--The
+Tenison Psalter--Features of this period--The Arundel Psalter--Hunting
+and shooting scenes, and games--Characteristic pictures, grotesques, and
+caricatures--Queen Mary's Psalter--Rapid changes under Richard
+II.--Royal MS. 1 E. 9--Their cause.
+
+
+In a former chapter we left our native schools of illumination at work
+on such MSS. as the Devonshire and Rouen Benedictionals, and with the
+reputation of being the best schools of the kind in Christendom. Mention
+also is made elsewhere in dealing with monastic art of the usages of the
+_scriptoria_. Such usages, of course, could only obtain in houses where
+scribes themselves were to be had. Hence we should discover, were it not
+otherwise known, that writing and illumination, even in the monastic
+age, were not confined absolutely to the cloister.
+
+With respect to the secular scribes, who sometimes worked in the
+monastery, sometimes at their own homes, in those days when the monastic
+orders still did most of the book-production, there were three classes
+of specialists. These were the _Librarii_ or ordinary copyists; the
+_Notarii_ or law-scribes, whose business lay in copying deeds, charters,
+and such-like instruments, and taking notes in the courts; and
+_Paginators_ or _Illuminatores_. It sometimes happened, as we have said,
+that in some monastery or other, no monastic was found qualified to
+undertake any of these duties. It then fell to the prior or abbat to
+seek the assistance of professional outsiders. The paging and
+rubrication, putting in initials in the spaces left by the common
+scribe, and, if needed, the addition of pictures or marginal drawings
+and ornaments, caricatures, heraldic illustrations, etc., were the
+proper work of the illuminator, but it often happened that the same man
+had to do the whole work from the commencement to the finish. The
+Chronicon Trudonense tells us: "Graduale unum propria manu formavit,
+purgavit, pinxit, sulcabit, scripsit, illuminavit, musiceque notavit
+syllabatim." Several of our old English chronicles, of which the MSS.
+exist in the British Museum and elsewhere, seem to be of this
+description.
+
+Reference has been made to the _scriptoria_ at Winchester, _i.e._ at St.
+Swithun's and the New Minster. It is the latter foundation which is
+usually referred to in speaking of Winchester work. The Monastery of the
+Holy Trinity or the New Minster was founded in the first year of his
+reign by King Edward, son of Alfred, no doubt in obedience to his
+father's wish, if not absolutely in the terms of his will. Its first
+charter is dated 900 (for 901) and the second in 903. In the latter
+document the abbey is spoken of as dedicated to the Holy Trinity, the
+Blessed Virgin Mary, and to St. Peter, and is amply endowed under the
+Augustinian Rule. In 965, not without trouble and resistance, it was
+converted into a Benedictine abbey. In 968 Ethelgar, who had been
+trained at Glastonbury and Abingdon, became abbat, and from this time
+the New Minster became famous for both discipline and the production of
+MSS. As we walk along the High Street of Winchester now we find the
+story in moss-grown stones or other memorials how, among other methods,
+William the Norman punished the monks for their English warlike
+proclivities by walling them up nearly close to their church with the
+walls of his royal palace. In the old time, when the two monasteries
+stood side by side--St. Swithun's is close behind the New Minster--"so
+closely packed together," says the old chronicler,[37] "were the two
+communities of St. Swithun and St. Peter that between the foundation of
+their respective buildings there was barely room for a man to pass
+along. The choral service of one monastery conflicted with that of the
+other, so that both were spoiled, and the ringing of their bells
+together produced a horrid discord." The result of this was, first the
+above-mentioned hemming in of the younger establishment and eventually
+its migration to another site in Hyde Meadow. Here while the monastic
+buildings suffered much through fires and other disasters, the Rule
+remained until 1538, when it was surrendered into the King's hands, and
+the abbat, prior, and nineteen monks, the last survivors of this
+once-famous foundation, were pensioned.
+
+[37] Dugdale, _Monasticon_.
+
+The scriptorium at St. Alban's, to which the fame of book production in
+the Middle Ages very largely reverted, was not founded until nearly
+three centuries after the foundation of that abbey. The library began
+with twenty-eight notable volumes, and eight Psalters, a book of
+collects, another of epistles, and _Evangelia legenda per annum_, two
+Gospel-books bound in gold and silver and set with gems, together with
+other necessary volumes for ordinary use. Almost every succeeding abbat
+contributed something to the library shelves. Geoffrey, the sixteenth
+abbat, a Norman who once had a school at Dunstable, and who was both a
+popular and liberal ruler, enriched the library with a Missal bound in
+gold, another incomparably illuminated and beautifully written, and also
+a Psalter richly illuminated, a Benedictional, and others. His
+successor, Ralph Gubiun, also gave a number of MSS. Robert de Gosham,
+the next abbat, gave "very many" books, which he had caused to be
+written and sumptuously bound for the purpose. And Abbat Simon, who
+followed in 1166, created the office of historiographer to the abbey,
+repaired and enlarged the scriptorium, and kept two or three of the
+cleverest writers constantly employed in transcription, and ordained
+that for the future every abbat should maintain at least one suitable
+and capable scribe. Among the many choice MSS. added by Abbat Simon was
+a beautiful copy of the Bible specially written with the greatest care
+and exactness. In addition he presented the library with all his own
+precious collection. Another liberal benefactor was John de Cell, a man
+of vast learning in grammar and poetry, and also a practitioner in
+medicine. Being unfit for household management, he committed the secular
+affairs of the abbey to his prior Reymund, by whose zeal many noble and
+valuable books were transcribed for the library. And so grew in
+magnitude and importance the great collection which supplied Roger of
+Wendover and Matthew Paris with materials for their famous histories.
+St. Alban's, indeed, was at one period perhaps the most noted of all the
+English centres of book production. To dilate on other centres, such as
+Westminster, Exeter, Worcester, Norwich, or York, would lead us too far
+afield for a mere handbook like the present. Enough has been said to
+give a good idea of what our English abbats and priors were in the habit
+of doing for art and letters.
+
+[Illustration:
+PSALTERIUM CUM CANTICIS
+A.D. 1240
+_Brit. Mus. Roy. MS. 2, A. xxii, fol. 14_]
+
+[Illustration:
+EPISTRE AU ROY RICH. 2
+C. 1375
+_Brit. Mus. Roy. MS. 20 B, vi, fol. 1_]
+
+Since 980 a considerable quantity of transcription and illumination must
+have been produced, notwithstanding disquiet, turbulence, and war. At
+Westminster the traditions of illumination seem to have followed the
+methods of the earlier Winchester school. But in the twelfth century
+English work shows, on the whole, a greater likeness to the contemporary
+work of Germany. Of Westminster work an example occurs among the Royal
+MSS. (2 A. 22). The subject is the Psalter, and the text is the handsome
+style of penmanship known as English Gothic of the latter part of the
+twelfth century. It would appear from the frequent occurrence of this
+particular service-book that it held the place of the later Book of
+Hours, and so we may expect a great similarity among different copies,
+both in the selection of the illustrations and their mode of treatment.
+It was usual in all such volumes to prefix to the text a series of
+subjects from the Old and New Testaments and the Lives of the Saints.
+Here we have them from the Life of the Virgin and from the Life of
+David, by no means unworthy samples of the school. One represents the
+Virgin and Child seated on a seat of the Germano-Byzantine type beneath
+an arch and within a square frame-border. The border seems first to have
+been flatly painted in two colours, pale blue and pale red ochre, and on
+this a foliage scroll of recurring forms in a bold dull red outline
+finely relieved with white. This is more or less repeated as the form of
+border to the other illuminations. Outside the whole is a characteristic
+slender frame of bright green in two tints. The arch overhead has two
+bands of vermilion, with white edge-reliefs and a central band of blue,
+again in two tints, with pairs of black cross-bars every half-inch or so
+resting on the capitals of the two pillars which form the sides of the
+scene. These pillars have each a green abacus at the top of each capital
+and scarlet bead below. Each pillar is of dappled red, marble-like
+porphyry, with plinths of scarlet and blue. Tiers of differently
+coloured steps separated by bands of scarlet, green, etc., form the
+seat. The Virgin wears the hood, cape, and robe of the Benedictine nun,
+but coloured grey, chocolate, and blue respectively. An under garment of
+pale amber completes her dress. The infant wears an amber tunic, wrapped
+in a scarlet robe. A very common embroidery of the drapery consists of
+little stars or triads of white studs. This also is a characteristic of
+German and early Netherlandish illumination. There is a rich gold
+brocade border to the blue robe of the Virgin. Both mother and child
+have round nimbuses, the former in plain circular bands of russet and
+orange, the latter consisting of bands of pale blue surmounted by a
+scarlet cross. Two lumps of green glass or metal hang from the arch. The
+background is a plate of gold. The flesh tones are livid, being of a
+pale greenish ochre tint. One other of the illuminations of this
+exceedingly interesting MS. may be mentioned, viz. the David playing his
+harp. He also wears three garments--a tunic of white shaded with pale
+blue, then another of lavender or lilac and having rich brocaded
+borders, and, lastly, a pallium or robe of pale chocolate lined with
+ermine; orange-coloured hose. The throne, like the previous one, is of
+several colours--slate-blue, green, orange, and white, with a buff
+cushion. Here is a back to the throne of a deep blue, with a background,
+as before, of bright flat gold. The white moulding is shaded with pale
+green, with bluish slate corners. The outer border is of the pale red
+ochre or pink, so common in later work in contrast with deep blue. An
+outer frame or edging of green completes the page. The harp is not
+gilded, but of a drab hue, with two quatrefoil studs or orifices in the
+frame, relieved as usual with fine edges of white. Compare this MS. with
+one in the Library at Lambeth.
+
+The English illumination of the thirteenth century is so like that of
+France that it is often difficult to determine its real nationality.
+There is occasionally some feature which we know from other sources to
+be English, or some circumstance in the history of the MS. which fixes
+its origin, as, for example, in the Additional MS. 24686, known as the
+Tenison Psalter. Sir E.M. Thompson also describes this MS. in the
+_Bibliographica_, i. 397. But it was previously described at some length
+by Sir Edward Bond in the Fine Arts _Quarterly Review_. The Psalter,
+which has had a somewhat eventful history, is one of the best examples
+of English thirteenth-century illumination. At least, this may be said
+of the early portion of it, for while it is illuminated throughout, only
+the first gathering is in the earlier manner. The peculiar value to the
+student lies in the fact that although quite in the same style as
+contemporary French work, it is the work of an English illuminator. The
+colouring, however, is not confined, as in somewhat earlier examples, to
+blue and dull pale rose or paled red ochre and gold. It gives us
+scarlet, crimson-lake, green, and brown, besides the blue and pink and
+bright gold which suggests some German influences. The line fillings are
+somewhat peculiar as having silver tracery, on the blue, side by side
+with golden tracery on the crimson. The full ivy leaf appears in the
+long branch work of the borders, and some of the initials still retain
+the bird or dragon forms in their construction. The compound bar-frame,
+gold and traceried colour side by side, is however already taking the
+place of the mere sweeping tail or branch. But perhaps the best
+indication of English design is the presence of a number of grotesque
+animals, with birds and occasional humorous scenes disposed, not in
+framed miniatures, but simply among the stems and coils of the foliage.
+This is a form of illustration much appreciated by English illuminators
+at all times, though it appears also in much continental work. Among
+other English MSS. which display this taste we may point out Arund. 83,
+which among many other treatises and curious compositions, such as the
+"Turris Sapientiæ" and a valuable calendar, in which are notes on the
+Arundels of Wemme, contains a psalter with anthems, etc., and hence is
+known as the Arundel Psalter. Its date is probably between 1330 and
+1380.
+
+The drolleries are very funny, and the other illuminations very
+instructive and curious. Some of them contain really good
+pen-drawing--refined, expressive, and graceful, but above all typical of
+English draughtsmanship. In a little scene of the adoration of the Magi
+(folio 125) the kings are costumed like our Henry III., as we find him
+'n sculpture, wall paintings, etc. Over a very expressive picture of the
+three living and the three dead occur the lines, each over a figure:
+"Ich am afert Lo wet ich se Methinketh hit beth deueles thre. Ich wes
+welfair Such scheltou be For godes loue be wer by me" (folio 128).[38]
+The three living in this illumination are three fashionable ladies--no
+doubt princesses, for they wear crowns. Generally they are men, as at
+Lutterworth in the sculptures over the door, and in the famous fresco of
+Gozzoli at Pisa. The subject occurs sometimes in Books of Hours.
+
+[38] "I am afraid. Lo, what I see Methinketh it be devils three. I was
+well fair. Such shalt thou be. For love of God beware by me."
+
+Many MSS. of this period and later have hunting scenes, shooting
+practice, and games.
+
+In MS. 264, Misc., Bodl. Lib., Oxford, there are such scenes, one being
+a game at "Blind Man's Buff," or as literally here "Hoodman Blind," for
+the latter actually wear a hood drawn down over his head and shoulders,
+and three girls are having a fine game with him. The goldfinch or linnet
+looking on from the border seems to enjoy the fun. Another fine source
+of similar things is the Louterell Psalter in the British Museum. In
+this also are some richly diapered backgrounds and exquisite border
+bands. This MS. dates about 1340. But the gem of English
+fourteenth-century illumination is the Royal MS. (2 C. 7) called Queen
+Mary's Psalter, not as being painted for her, since it had been painted
+nearly two centuries before she ever saw it. But in the year (?) 1553,
+being about to be sent abroad, it was stopped by a customs officer and
+presented to Queen Mary Tudor. It is bound in what appears to be the
+binding put on it by the Queen--_i.e._ crimson velvet embroidered on
+each cover with a large pomegranate, and having gilt corner protections
+and (once upon a time) golden clasps. The clasps are gone, but the
+plates remain riveted on the covers, engraven with the Tudor badges. The
+MS. contains 320 large octavo leaves, the first fifty-six being taken up
+with illuminated illustrations of biblical history from the Creation to
+the death of Solomon. These pictures are arranged in pairs one over the
+other, and to each one is given a description in French, taken sometimes
+from the canonical text, sometimes from an apocryphal one. The drawings
+are really exquisite, they are so fine, so delicately yet so cleverly
+sketched. They are not coloured in full body-colours, but just
+suggestively, the draperies being washed over in thin tints, the folds
+well defined, but lightly shaded. Next after these subjects follows the
+Psalter with miniatures of New Testament scenes and figures of saints
+accompanied with most beautiful initials and ornaments, illuminated by a
+thoroughly practised hand, for the artist of this volume was by no means
+a novice at his work. A good example of it is given in _Bibliographica_,
+pl. 7 [23], which forms the frontispiece to vol. i., and one or two
+outlines in the folio catalogue of the Arundel MSS.
+
+Arund. MS. 84 is also a good example of thirteenth-century illumination
+to a rather unpromising subject, being a Latin translation of Euclid
+from the Arabic by Athelard of Bath. It is illustrated with diagrams.
+
+Speaking of fourteenth-century illumination brings us to notice a very
+striking change which takes place in the reign of Richard II. in the
+character of English illumination. In the British Museum (Roy. 20 B. 6)
+is a MS. entitled an Epistle to Richard II., written, it is said, in
+Paris, in which the illuminations and foliages are purely French, but
+which are the type of all the English work of the same date. Take, for
+example, the MS. already spoken of (Roy. 2 A. 22), produced in the
+scriptorium at Westminster Abbey. Compare with it a Bible written for
+the use of Salisbury, and dated 1254. Then add the Tenison Psalter, the
+Arundel Psalter, illuminated 1310-20. If these MSS. be compared,
+however, with Lansd. 451, or Roy. 1 E. 9, the least accustomed eye must
+notice the entire and almost startling change in the luxuriance and
+character of the flowers and foliages which constitute the initial and
+border decorations. It is not merely a development. There are additional
+features, but that these features are added, as usual, from France, is
+contradicted by reference to Roy. 20 B. 6, mentioned above. The new
+features are not French. The question is, where did they come from?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+THE SOURCES OF ENGLISH FIFTEENTH-CENTURY ILLUMINATION
+
+Attributed to the Netherlands--Not altogether French--The home of Anne
+of Bohemia, Richard II.'s queen--Court of Charles IV. at Prag--Bohemian
+Art--John of Luxembourg, King of Bohemia--The Golden Bull of Charles
+IV.--Marriage of Richard II.--The transformation of English work owing
+to this marriage and the arrival of Bohemian artists in
+England--Influence of Queen Anne on English Art and
+Literature--Depression caused by her death--Examination of Roy. MS. 1 E.
+9, and 2 A. 18--The Grandison Hours--Other MSS.--Introduction of Flemish
+work by Edward IV.
+
+
+It has been suggested by a high authority that the immediate sources of
+the third period of English illumination were Netherlandish, but
+probable as this seems at first sight, there is another explanation
+which seems to the present writer to be a better one. As already pointed
+out, the influence on English work before 1377, notwithstanding
+political conditions, are distinctly French. After this date, though the
+artistic relation with France is not broken off, yet long before 1390 we
+find this new influence which is not French, and for which we have no
+special evidence that it is Netherlandish. If we go, however, a little
+farther afield, we shall find it. In the new work is a softer kind of
+foliage and a greater variety of sweet colour, and both these
+characteristics are found in a school of illumination that was being
+formed under the auspices of the Emperor Charles IV. at Prag in Bohemia.
+The artists in that capital who executed the famous Golden Bull and
+commenced the grand Wenzel Bible were a select band of Frenchmen and
+Italians; the combined result of whose designs and labours was this very
+mixture of Gothic ivy leaf and thorn with the softer Othonian and Roman
+foliages and a new scheme of colour. Charles IV., son of that famous
+John of Luxembourg, the blind king of Bohemia, who perished at Crécy,
+was himself King of Bohemia as well as Emperor, and a man of brilliant
+personal accomplishments and cultivated tastes in literature and art.
+
+Becoming Emperor the very next year after his succession to the throne
+of Bohemia, he fixed his residence at Prag, where he began the building
+of the new city, and founded a university on the model of that of Paris,
+where he had studied, and whence he had married his first wife, Blanche,
+daughter of Charles, Count of Valois. His university soon attracted some
+thousands of students, and with them no small crowd of literary men and
+artists, both from France and Italy. The great fact, however, to
+remember about Charles IV. is the Golden Bull, the masterly scheme by
+which all matters concerning the election to the Empire were in future
+to be settled. All the Constitutions were written in a book called, from
+the _bulla_ or seal of gold which was appended to it, the Golden Bull,
+of which the text was drawn up either at Metz or Nuremberg in 1356, and
+many copies distributed throughout the Empire. It is further affirmed
+that the absolute original is at Frankfort. But the splendid copy made
+by order of the Emperor Wenzel in 1400 is still preserved in the
+Imperial Library at Vienna. And as it is ah example of the style of
+illumination practised in Prag during the reign of Charles IV., we may
+call it Bohemian. It is true that the foliages are a little more
+luxuriant in this Wenzel-book than in the earliest examples of the style
+seen in England, but the twenty years which had elapsed would easily
+account for this difference. As compared, however, with either French or
+Netherlandish, the new English style shows a much greater similarity to
+the work then being done in Lower Bavaria. In these soft curling
+foliages and the fresh carnations of the flesh-tints of the Prag and
+Nuremberg illuminators we may trace the actual source of the remarkable
+transformation seen in English illumination after the marriage of
+Richard II.
+
+Charles IV. was four times married. His successor, Wenzel, whose ghastly
+dissipations can only be regarded as the terrible proofs of insanity,
+was the child of his third wife. His fourth wife, the beautiful daughter
+of the Duke of Pomerania and Stettin, had four children, of whom
+Sigismund, the eldest, afterwards succeeded Wenzel as emperor, and Anne,
+the third, came to England as the wife of Richard II. The magnificence
+of her equipage and the crowd of persons who formed her retinue are
+noticed by contemporary writers, and the effect upon English manners was
+instantaneous. Her beauty, sweetness of manners, and culture rendered
+her at once not merely the idol of her husband, who, says Walsingham,
+"could scarcely bear her to be out of his sight," but universally
+beloved by all the English nation.
+
+To her the first English writer on heraldry, John of Guildford dedicated
+his book, and the artists who came with her from her luxurious home at
+Prag would naturally become the leaders of taste in their adopted
+country. After a while, indeed, the numbers of countrymen of the Queen
+were looked upon as the cause of extortions practised on the English
+people in order to supply the money lavished on these foreigners. More
+than once is this grievance referred to. In an old MS. in the Harley
+Library (2261), containing a fifteenth-century translation of Higden's
+Polychronicon, these foreigners are made responsible for at least one
+fashionable extravagance: "Anne qwene of Ynglonde dyede in this year
+(1393) at Schene the viith day of the monethe of Janius, on the day of
+Pentecoste: the dethe of whom the Kynge sorowede insomoche that he
+causede the maner there to be pullede downe, and wolde not comme in eny
+place by oon yere folowynge where sche hade be, the churche excepte;
+whiche was beryede in the churche of Westmonastery, in the feste of
+seynte Anne nexte folowynge, with grete honoure and solennite. That
+qwene Anne purchased of the pope that the feste of Seynte Anne scholde
+be solenniysed in Ynglonde. The dethe of this qwene Anne induced grete
+hevynesse to noble men and to commune peple also, for sche causede noo
+lytelle profite to the realme. But mony abusions comme from Boemia into
+Englonde with this qwene, and specially schoone with longe pykes,
+insomoche that they cowthe not go untylle that thei were tyede to theire
+legges, usenge that tyme cheynes of silvyr at the pykes of theire
+schoone."
+
+It is a fact that the Bohemian manner of illumination, with its
+three-lobed and vari-coloured foliages, became the fashion in every
+English centre of illumination. In the preceding remarks we have
+endeavoured to account for it. That the same style went from Prag to
+Nuremberg may be only the natural _result_ of its being carried in the
+marriage and retinue of the Princess Margaret, Anne's half-sister, who
+became the wife of the Burggrave John.
+
+Quite a similar MS. to those executed in the reign of Richard II. in
+England and those of Bohemia is the Wilhelm van Oransse of Wolfram v.
+Eschenbach, now in the Imperial Library at Vienna. A similar, but
+inferior, work exists in the Prayer-book written by Josse de Weronar in
+the British Museum (Add. 15690). The English foliages never show quite
+all the varieties of colour seen in the continental examples, but the
+golden diapers and pounced gold patterns are quite as elaborate. See
+this work, however, in Arundel 83. It appears also in the mural
+paintings of the end of the fourteenth and beginning of the fifteenth
+centuries. No doubt the English art of the fourteenth century is of
+French origin--so mainly is that of Bohemia--for Charles IV. was brought
+up at the Court of France. Further than this, we think we are justified
+in tracing the new elements in Bohemian to Italy, and those in English
+to Bohemia. The most striking proof is not only the foliages, but the
+change from the long, colourless faces of French miniatures to the plump
+and ruddy countenances seen, for example, in the Lancastrian MSS. in the
+Record Office and in Harl. 7026[39] of the British Museum. Of course,
+this suggestion of source is not put forward as a dead certainty, but it
+affords this probability that as the style suddenly arose during the
+lifetime of Anne of Bohemia--and she was the acknowledged leader of
+fashion--so her tastes in respect of illuminated books and heraldic
+decoration would become those of her new subjects. Let us examine this
+fifteenth-century English work, and for this purpose let us take the
+great illuminated Bible in the Royal Library, 1 E. 9. It is an enormous
+folio, and rather unwieldly, but a most interesting example of the new
+style. Its initials are large, richly illuminated in gold and attractive
+colours. It has well-executed histories within the initials, and boldly
+designed border frames, elegantly adorned with foliages and conventional
+or idealised flowers. Perhaps the most noticeable feature is the
+beautiful, decorative foliage work in the limbs of the letters--itself a
+South German peculiarity--then the alternation of colours without
+interrupting the design, the profusion of foliage modelling in the
+backgrounds of the letter panels outside the historiations. The next
+thing is the bold use of minium side by side even with pure rose-petal
+colour, pale bright cerulean blue, and bright gold. Lastly, the immense
+variety of leaf-forms, based on the three, five, and seven-lobed
+groupings of the typical form. The coil and spiral are freely used as
+the groundwork, and the colours alternated as the coils or spirals
+change from front to back of the leaf.
+
+[39] The Lovell Psalter.
+
+[Illustration:
+MISSALE (SARUM USE)
+14TH CENT. (LATE)
+_Brit. Mus. Harl. MS. 2785, fol. 194 v._]
+
+[Illustration:
+HORÆ E. MAR. VIESIS.
+15TH CENT. (EARLY)
+_Brit. Mus. Roy. Ms. 2, A. xviii, fol. 55_]
+
+Backgrounds of miniature histories are treated as in the Bohemian
+MSS.--Wilhelm v. Oransse, for example--that is, with fine golden
+tracery-patterns on deep, rich colours. The figure-painting is vastly
+improved--the features now being actually painted and modelled as in
+modern portrait painting, not merely indicated by pen strokes. The
+flesh-tints as previously noticed are bright and ruddy. The principal
+colours used on the foliages are blue, crimson, of various depths, and
+bright vermilion, with occasional admission of bright green and paled
+red ochre. Very similar to 1 E. 9 is Harl. 1892, and among other MSS.
+that may be studied with this one is 2 A. 18--a book of Offices, very
+sweetly illuminated, and full of typical examples of treatment both of
+architectural design and treillages of foliage.
+
+The Gothic pilasters are filled with the same kind of coiling and spiral
+leaves and ribbons that are used in 1 E. 9 and Harl. 1892, the
+backgrounds of the miniatures enriched with fine gold patterns. The
+furniture and costumes indicate the later years of the reign of Richard
+II., being similar to those shown in the miniatures of Harl. 1319, which
+relates the story of Richard's misfortunes. A few miniatures of saints
+accompany the prayers to them. One of the saints is peculiar, being the
+Prior of Bridlington, perhaps the "Robertus scriba" who copied certain
+theological treatises for the library, and who lived in the time of
+Stephen or Henry II.
+
+In the beautiful initial D is the figure of a lady praying, the first
+few words of the prayer being written on a floating ribbon above her
+head. A fine panelling of black and gold forms the background. The
+lady's costume is that of the end of the fourteenth century, her
+head-dress being somewhat lower than that worn in the time of Isabella
+of Bavaria; in other respects she recalls the figure of Christine de
+Pisan in Harl. 4431--one of the fine MSS. of the French school. As the
+psalter or offices was once the property of the Grandison family, as is
+shown by the numerous entries respecting them in the calendar, no doubt
+this lady was the first owner of the MS., and probably the same as shown
+in the beautiful miniature of the Annunciation previously given. Many
+charming initials follow this one, and brightly coloured bracket
+treillages and borders are given in profusion, introducing every variety
+of coloured ideal leaf-form known to the art of the time. It seems
+probable from its style and the costumes that the MS. was executed for
+the Lady Margaret, widow of Thomas, the last Lord Grandison, who died in
+1376, and given to her by Sir John Tuddenham, her second husband. A
+better model for the modern illuminator could not easily be found. Other
+examples may be briefly enumerated, in 2 B. 8, 2 B. 10, 2 B. 1, 2 B. 12
+and 13, 18 A. 12, 18 C. 26, Harl. 1719, 1892, etc. The Psalter 2 B. 8
+has the good fortune to be dated, and its purpose and other particulars
+clearly set forth in a statement at the beginning of the volume. The
+gist of this is that it was composed at the instance of the Lady Joan
+Princess of Wales, mother of Richard II., and that it was executed by
+Brother John Somour (Seymour), a Franciscan, in 1380. Thus the
+illumination of it would probably be done about the time, of the young
+Queen's arrival in England. The Princess Joan died July 8th, 1385. The
+work corresponds with this date. The Grandison Psalter is perhaps
+somewhat later than Roy. 2 B. 1, and the rest are later still.
+
+[Illustration:
+VEGETIUS FOUR BOOKS OF KNIGHTHOOD
+(DE RE MILITARI)
+15TH CENT.
+_Brit. Mus. Roy. MS. 18 A. xii, f. 1_]
+
+[Illustration:
+PSALTERIUM
+C. 1470
+_Brit. Mus. Harl. MS. 1719, fol. 73 v._]
+
+One rather fine example is seen in Arund. MS. 109, a folio called the
+Melreth Missal, because given by William Melreth, Alderman of London, to
+the church of St. Lawrence, Old Jewry. He died in 1446.
+
+For topographical miniature a good example occurs in Roy. 16 F. 2, which
+contains a grand view of London, including the Tower, but this MS. is
+probably not of genuine English production. Nor is Roy. 19 C. 8, though
+a very interesting example as regards costume and local usages. The
+genuine English work of which Arund. 109 is a type has received the name
+of Lancastrian, as falling to the reigns of the three Lancastrian
+kings--Henry IV., V., and VI.
+
+In the reign of Edward IV. we meet with the introduction of Flemish
+illumination, which gradually supersedes the native style, and by the
+time of Henry VII. the latter has almost disappeared. Its final
+extinction, however, was left for the sixteenth century, when either
+Flemish or Italian renaissance work entirely took its place. By the time
+of Queen Elizabeth English illumination was a thing of the past.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+ITALIAN ILLUMINATION
+
+Barbaric character of Italian illumination in the twelfth
+century--Ravenna and Pavia the earliest centres of revival--The
+"Exultet"--La Cava and Monte Cassino--The writers of early Italian MSS.
+not Italians--In the early fourteenth century the art is
+French--Peculiarities of Italian foliages--The Law Books--Poems of
+Convenevole da Prato, the tutor of Petrarch--Celebrated patrons--The
+Laon Boethius--The Decretals, Institutes, etc.--"Decretum Gratiani,"
+other collections and MSS.--Statuts du Saint-Esprit--Method of
+painting--Don Silvestro--The Rationale of Durandus--Nicolas of Bologna,
+etc.--Triumphs of Petrarch--Books at San Marco, Florence--The Brera
+Graduals at Milan--Other Italian collections--Examples of different
+localities in the British Museum--Places where the best work was
+done--Fine Neapolitan MSS. in the British Museum--The white-vine style
+superseded by the classical renaissance.
+
+
+Considering the position occupied by the Roman Empire as the civiliser
+of Europe, it is not a little curious and somewhat surprising to find
+that in the twelfth century, when German and French artists were doing
+such good and even admirable work, that of Italy was almost barbaric. A
+MS. in the Vatican (4922) is shown as a proof of this. It is not an
+obscure sort of book that might have been written by a merely devout but
+untrained monk for his own use, but a work of importance executed for no
+less a personage than the celebrated Countess Matilda. The scribe was
+Donizo, a monk of the Benedictine Abbey of Canossa. It is of the early
+or præ-Carolingian type, rather inclined to Byzantine, but with the big
+hands and aimless expression of all semi-barbaric work. Yet it has a
+certain delicacy and carefulness. In Rome itself during the ninth
+century barbarism was at its very lowest point. Only the sea-port towns
+had any notion of what was being done in other places. Painting was
+practised, it is true, so was mosaic, but the worst of Oriental carpets
+would be a masterpiece of elegance beside anything done in Italy.
+Whatever gleams of artistic intelligence appear, they certainly emanated
+from Ravenna or Pavia. But as there were no wealthy and peaceful courts,
+no indolent, high-bred, luxurious courtiers during that dark and
+troublous period, miniature or illumination had no call for existence.
+In the twelfth century book-illustration consisted simply of
+pen-sketching of the most elementary kind. The Lombards alone produced
+anything like illumination. A sort of roll containing pictures of the
+various scenes of the Old and New Testaments which represented the
+leading doctrines of the Church, and which used to hang over the pulpit
+as the preacher discoursed upon them, is the only representative of the
+time. Such a roll was called an "Exultet" from its first word, which is
+the beginning of the line "Exultet jam Angelica turba cælorum" of the
+hymn for the benediction of the paschal wax tapers on Easter Eve.
+Several of these "Exultets" are still kept in the Cathedral at Pisa, and
+in the Barberini and Minerva Libraries in Rome.[40] Of course the
+pictures are upside down to the reader, so as to be right for the
+congregation.
+
+[40] See one in British Mus., Add. MS. 30337, and description of it in
+_Journ. of the Archæol. Assoc._ vol. 34, p. 321.
+
+Very little progress was made, as we may imagine, until after the great
+revival movement begun by Cimabue, Giotto, and their contemporaries,
+about the middle of the thirteenth century. But before taking up any
+inquiry into Italian work generally we must not omit reference to the
+remarkable MSS. produced at La Cava and Monte Cassino during the
+Franco-Lombard period. Some idea has already been furnished in dealing
+with Celtic MSS. and the foundations begun by Columbanus and his
+scholars. Indeed, the general character of these Lombard MSS. is seen in
+the Franco-Celtic. The distinguishing feature, if there be one, is the
+frequent recurrence among the interlacements of the _white dog_. The La
+Cava Library, which was one of the finest in Italy, has been transferred
+to Naples. Monte Cassino still continues and maintains not only a
+library but a printing press, from which the learned fathers have issued
+at least one great work on the subject of Cassinese palæography. Of all
+the præ-Carolingian hands, Lombardic or Lombardesque was certainly the
+most peculiar, and is perhaps the most difficult to read. One evidence
+of this is the diversity of opinion on the true reading of certain
+proper names in the original MS. containing the oldest text of Tacitus
+which happens to be a Lombard MS. The characters and other examples of
+the eleventh to the thirteenth century that have been published at Monte
+Cassino, however, fully illustrate the peculiarities of the handwriting,
+and give besides several splendid examples of calligraphy.[41]
+
+[41] The La Cava MSS. have been described by P. Gillaume in an essay
+published at Naples, 1877, and those of Monte Cassino by A. Caravita,
+Monte Cassino, 1860-71.
+
+One of the earliest illuminated Italian MS. which bears a date is a
+Volume of Letters of St. Bernard, now in the Library of Laon. It is very
+seldom that the earlier scribes and illuminators who produced Italian
+MSS. or worked in Italy were Italians. They were usually foreigners and
+mostly Frenchmen, and the art was looked upon at the beginning of the
+fourteenth century as a French art. This very decided example of Italian
+work is already different from the French work of the same period. The
+profile foliages have already acquired that peculiar trick of sudden
+change and reversion of curve, showing the other side of a leaf with
+change of colour, which is a marked characteristic of all
+fourteenth-century Italian illumination. For examples of it, the
+Bolognese Law Books, Decretals, and such-like, afford frequent
+illustration. Before leaving this first-quoted MS., we may say that it
+points to France rather than to Germany or Lombardy for its general form
+of design, but the foliages are quite of another kind. Another Laon MS.
+(352) shows the same treatment of foliage, but in effect more like what
+may be considered as the typical Italian style seen in the famous
+Avignon Bible of the anti-pope, Clement VII. (Robert of Geneva), which
+dates between 1378 and 1394.[42]
+
+[42] See Humphreys, _Illum. Books of the Middle Ages_, pl. 16; and
+Silvestre, _Paléographie Universelle_, pl. 117.
+
+A further example still more powerful in expression and skilful in
+manipulation is seen in a copy of the Poems of Convenevole da Prato, in
+the British Museum (Roy. 6 E. 9), executed for King Robert of Naples, a
+patron of Giotto (1276-1337), which, in comparison with the Laon Letters
+of St. Bernard of about the same date, is even still more Italian.
+
+Cardinal Stefaneschi, another of Giotto's patrons, was also a promoter
+of illumination. His Missal, now at Rome in the archives of the Canons
+of St. Peter's, is a fine example of this style. It dates from 1327 to
+1343. The MS. of Boethius at Laon is another. But one of the most
+masterly, whether as to design or manipulation, is a law book in the
+Library at Laon (No. 382). This grand folio contains "Glossa Ioannis
+Andreæ in Clementinas"--"The Gloss or Explanation of Joannes Andreas on
+the Clementines."
+
+By the way, as illuminated law books, civil and canonical, form so large
+a section of Italian MSS., it may be well in this place to warn the
+reader against random explanations sometimes offered in sale catalogues
+concerning these books, their authors and commentators. For instance,
+this commentator Joannes Andreas was not, as we have seen it confidently
+stated (as if it were part of the actual contemporary title of the MS.),
+Bishop of Aleria (Episcopus Aleriersis), but a jurist of Bologna. The
+bishop lived a century or so after the jurist, who had completed his
+long career as professor of law at Bologna extending over forty-five
+years before the bishop was born. His chief works are Commentaries on
+the Clementines (printed in folio at Mayence 1471, and again at Dijon in
+1575), and Commentaries on Five Books of the Decretals (printed in folio
+at Mayence in 1455, and at Venice in 1581). While on this topic of
+Italian law MSS., it may be useful to state clearly what they are. By
+way of contrast to the _Corpus Juris Canonici_, or Body of Canon Law,
+the subject of books dealing with the so-called Decretals, the other
+branch, including the Institutes Digest and Novellæ of Justinian, was
+entitled _Corpus Juris Civilis_.
+
+The Decretals, then, which we so often meet with in public libraries
+under various names, are the canons which mainly constitute the Canon
+Law. Strictly speaking they are the papal epistolary decrees (decreta),
+said to have existed from very early times. In the ninth century a
+collection of them was formed, or manufactured, in the name of the
+celebrated Isidore of Seville. But with the donation of Constantine to
+Pope Sylvester and many others in the later compilation of Gratian,
+these are usually looked upon as spurious and false. The great and
+authorised collection was completed by a simple Benedictine monk of St.
+Felix, in Bologna, a native of Chiusi, the ancient Clusium, in Tuscany,
+a man so learned in the law as to have earned the title of "Magister."
+This is the work often richly illuminated which goes by the name of the
+"Decretum Gratiani."[43] When glancing over the lovely initials and
+beautiful foliages or resplendent ornaments, we are apt to overlook the
+work itself which is truly monumental; being a summary of the papal
+epistolary decrees, the synodal canons of 150 councils, selections from
+various regal codes, extracts from the Fathers, and comments of
+Schoolmen; all methodically arranged and digested so as to facilitate
+its use as a manual for the schools. It is said to have occupied the
+compiler incessantly for twenty-five years. Immediately on its
+completion in 1151 it was at once authorised by the Pope Eugenius III.
+as the only text-book to be used in the public schools, and to govern
+the decrees of the Ecclesiastical Courts. Hence its celebrity. Its
+transcripts are very numerous, and it has been often printed. As to the
+Sext and Clementines they are merely additional commentaries on
+supplementary collections of decrees. Thus a new collection authorised
+by Boniface VIII. is called the _sext_, _i.e._ the sixth book of the
+Decretals. The Clementines were the constitutions of Clement V. Other
+collections such as that of John XXII. are called Extravagantes.
+
+[43] See Add. 15274, British Museum.
+
+The most ancient MSS. of the Decretals bear the title of _Concordantia
+discordantium Canonum_ (a "concordance of discordant decrees");
+afterwards The Book of Decrees; lastly, The Decretals. It was
+considered, however, by some, jurists and others, to be not so much a
+concordance of discordant canons as a subjugation of the ancient canons
+to the decrees of the Papacy, and as already stated, many of its decrees
+were found to be false and fictitious. Nevertheless, it is by no means
+an uncommon volume among the illuminators. Let us now return to the Laon
+example--one of four or five of the species in that collection. The
+scene where the author is presenting his work to the pope--we now know
+them both--is quite a painting. Except for the defect that kneeling
+figures are somewhat mis-shapen or ill-proportioned in the lower limbs,
+the work is quite comparable with contemporary mural painting, both for
+composition and colour. It is almost modern. It is quite realistic. In
+costume, expression, easy and appropriate attitude, it has quite outrun
+French illumination altogether.
+
+Another dated MS. (1332) in the same Library (No. 357), "Rubrics of the
+Decretals," is a most amusing example of the universal taste for irony
+and satire in the initial figures and corner effigies.
+
+A much-lauded MS. among these fourteenth-century examples is one that
+has been carefully and expensively reproduced by the late Cte. Horace de
+Viel-Castel, namely, the "Statuts de l'Ordre du Saint-Esprit au Droit
+Désir ou du Nœud," an order instituted at Naples in 1352 by Louis I.
+d'Anjou (called Louis of Taranto), King of Jerusalem, Naples, and
+Sicily, cousin and husband of Queen Joanna of Naples. The style of the
+illumination is precisely the same as those just mentioned belonging to
+Laon, and as several MSS. in the British Museum. Its stem and foliage
+ornament is very brightly coloured in fine green, scarlet, rose,
+ultramarine, and gold. The miniatures which occasionally contain evident
+attempts at portraiture, are painted in the manner of the school of
+Cimabue and the earlier Italian painters, more particularly that of
+Simone Memmi. It is substantially the Byzantine manner, but improved and
+enlivened by attention to natural attitude and expression. The greenish
+under-painting of the flesh-tints is often noticeable. The decorative
+portions are very skilful and elaborate, as well as extremely neat and
+symmetrical; the gold profuse and brilliant. Indeed, the whole
+production may be studied as a typical example of its time. The text,
+though good, is not so beautiful as the Bolognese hand usually found in
+Italian MSS. of the following century. But perhaps this should add to
+its value as a proof of its being absolutely contemporaneous with the
+foundation of the Order, and therefore of its being the identical MS.
+ordered by the magnificent founder, Louis of Taranto, second husband of
+the too-celebrated Joanna of Naples. Their marriage took place in the
+August of 1346, and on the 27th of May, 1352, being Whitsun Day, they
+were crowned. In memory of this happy event, Joanna founded the Church
+of the Virgin, Louis instituted the Order of the Holy Spirit, or of the
+Knot, the symbols of which appear frequently in the illumination of the
+MS. It was named in honour of the Day of Pentecost--"L'Ordre de la
+Chevalerie du Saint-Esprit." The phrase "au droit désir" had reference
+to the circumstances preceding the marriage. The knot was worn in token
+of the "perfect amity" of the members of the Order.[44]
+
+[44] See reproduction, published at Paris by Englemann and Graf in 1853,
+1. fol.
+
+Other works of the fourteenth century are enthusiastically praised by
+Italian writers, as, _e.g._, those of Don Silvestro, a Camaldolese monk,
+who flourished at the same time as the illuminator of this MS. of Louis
+of Taranto, and who worked on the great choir books of the Monastery
+"degli angeli," in Florence, so loudly commended by Vasari and others
+who had seen them. They have long been broken up and dispersed, and it
+is not improbable that cuttings from them were among those bought by
+Ottley, Rogers, and other amateurs. A fragment of an Antiphonary of
+Nocturnal Services, now in the Laurentian Library at Florence, finished
+in 1370, shows the style of work to be of the kind just described. Other
+great choir books of the earlier period are preserved in the Academy at
+Pisa. But the number of MSS. to which reference might be made is legion.
+Those of this date are chiefly civil law books; next to these come the
+canon law, and divinity. Among the intermediate class are the copies of
+the Rationale of Durandus, one of these being in the British Museum
+(Add. 31032). Now and then a fine Missal, like the "Stefaneschi," or the
+Munich Missal of 1374, which may be referred to as being one of the
+models of the school of Prag. On the whole, perhaps, the law books are
+more numerous than liturgical ones, and are referable generally to
+Bologna or Padua. The name of Nicholaus of Bologna occurs more than once
+in these books. A book of offices of the Virgin, by Nicholaus, is now at
+Kremsmünster, and a New Testament, dated 1328, in the Vatican. Tommaso
+di Modena, another distinguished Italian illuminator, also had much to
+do with altering the style of the artists who worked for Charles IV. at
+Prag. Some of his work, or work presumed to be his, is still to be seen
+in the Bohemian capital. Next to these Bolognese MSS. we may place those
+of Florence--copies of the Divina Commedia and the Triumphs and Sonnets
+of Petrarch, which, with historians and copies or translations of the
+classics, chiefly occupied the illuminators of Florence and Siena, with
+one notable exception. Whoever has visited any of the North Italian
+cities cannot fail to have noticed and admired the magnificent
+choir-books still to be seen in the cathedrals and cathedral libraries.
+At Siena the Piccolomini service-books are truly splendid; those in San
+Marco, the Riccardi, the Laurentian, and other collections in Florence,
+are no less admirable. Verona's best work is chiefly elsewhere, at
+Florence, Siena, etc. At Milan the Brera Graduals--each of them a man's
+load to carry--are simply gorgeous in the lavish richness of their
+letters, miniatures, and decorations. Venice, again, has another grand
+collection of MSS. of the highest class in her Attavantes and Gerard
+Davids; Rome, in a crowd of princely libraries, has multitudes--literally
+multitudes--of exquisitely illuminated volumes. Naples also has some
+noble examples of the great craftsmen. We have not yet mentioned the
+Ambrosian Library in Milan, nor, except the Vatican, a single library by
+name in Rome. The mere names of the Corsini, Sciarra, Barberini
+Libraries are enough to those who have ever explored their contents to
+remind them of work that can nowhere else be seen so perfect, so
+profuse, as in beautiful Italy.
+
+As specimens of local centres the British Museum offers many examples.
+Thus Add. 15813, though ordered for Sta. Justina of Padua, was probably
+illuminated at Venice; 15814 at Bologna; 15260 probably at Ferrara;
+18000 at Venice; most of the fragments in 21412 in Rome; 20927 in Rome;
+21591 at Naples; 28962 at Naples; 21413 at Milan; the majority of the
+Ducali, of which the museum contains a large collection, in Venice. Some
+of the Spanish-looking MSS. executed for Alphonse V. of Aragon were
+actually produced in Naples.
+
+[Illustration:
+MISSALE
+C. 1530
+_Brit. Mus. Ada. MS. 15813, fol. 27_]
+
+[Illustration:
+KATHOLISCHES GEBETHBUCH
+1584
+_Brit. Mus. Add. MS. 17525, fol. 155_]
+
+It is not safe to assert that because a work is ordered for a monastery
+or a prince that the copyists or illuminators always went to the
+monastery or palace to do the work, though frequently they did so. Most
+of the MSS. executed for Matthias Corvinus, King of Hungary, were
+produced in Florence. There was more than one atelier of illuminators in
+Florence. There were others in Bologna, others in Rome, and quite a
+large establishment in Naples. Others resided in Milan, Ferrara, and
+Verona. Those at Ferrara lived chiefly at the Ducal Palace. Those at
+Verona were the guests of the great Ghibelline leader, Can della Scala,
+and his immediate successors. Those at Naples, in the time of Alphonso
+the Magnanimous, and especially of his son, Ferdinand I., were
+maintained solely for the augmentation and embellishment of the Royal
+Library.[45] A list of seventeen copyists, including the famous names of
+Antonio Sinibaldo, Giovanni, Rinaldo, Mennio, and Hippolito Lunensis,
+and of fourteen or fifteen illuminators, all of distinguished ability,
+is given by Signer Riccio from the archives of the city. The splendid
+work they achieved may still occasionally be met with. In the British
+Museum (Add. 21120) there is a beautiful copy of the Ethics of
+Aristotle, with very peculiar initials and ornaments; and in the
+National Library, at Paris, many other very fine examples of Neapolitan
+work. Of the handwriting of Mennius we have a fine example in Add.
+11912, which is a quarto copy of Lucretius, written on 160 leaves of
+vellum. Fol. 1 has a grand border on a gold ground, with a miniature
+containing a handsome initial E suspended over the author's head, who is
+seated at a desk writing. The first three lines of the text are in Roman
+capitals, alternately gold and blue. The illumination is of a
+transitional character, inclining rather towards the candelabra style of
+the Milanese and Neapolitan Renaissance--the Heures d'Aragon, executed
+for Frederick III., show a similar taste for candelabra, etc. On the
+other hand, the initials are of the older white stem type, with coloured
+grounds. The writing is a small and very neat Roman minuscule, and dates
+probably about 1485, or between 1480 and 1490. The penmanship of
+Hippolito Lunensis appears in Ficino's Translation of Plato; also in the
+British Museum, Harl. 3481, and in Add. 15270, 15271.
+
+[45] Riccio, C.W., _Cenno Storico dell Accademia Alfonsina_. Naples,
+1865.
+
+The Heures d'Aragon referred to above are a rich example of the
+Neapolitan Renaissance preserved in the National Library at Paris.
+Writers on Italian miniatures are very numerous, and a good deal of
+interesting information about Italian MSS. may be found in M. Delisle's
+_Cabinet des MSS._, etc.
+
+There is one style of Italian illumination made very popular by the
+illuminators of the works of Petrarch, many of which are found in
+various libraries. That is the one called the vine-stem style. It
+consists of gracefully coiled stems, usually left uncoloured or softly
+tinted with yellow, and bearing here and there peculiar ornamental
+flowerets, while the grounds are picked out with various colours, on
+which are fine white triads of dots or traceries in delicate white or
+golden tendrils. A later variety of this style makes the stems of some
+pale but bright tint, and the grounds of deep colour. The vine-stem
+style seems to have prevailed throughout the whole of Italy just
+previous to the classic revival brought about by the Medici in throwing
+open their museums of sculptures, coins, and other antiquities, and by
+the liberal patronage of the new classic work by Matthias Corvinus, King
+of Hungary, and the Dukes of Urbino. After 1500 the vine-stem style
+seems to have gradually died out, and thenceforward only varieties of
+the revived antique became the fashion.
+
+To the Italian Renaissance we shall revert in a later chapter.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+GERMAN ILLUMINATION FROM THE THIRTEENTH TO THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY
+
+Frederick II., _Stupor Mundi_, and his MS. on hunting--The Sicilian
+school mainly Saracenic, but a mixture of Greek, Arabic, and Latin
+tastes--The Franconian Emperors at Bamberg--Charles of Anjou--The House
+of Luxembourg at Prag--MSS. in the University Library--The Collegium
+Carolinum of the Emperor Charles IV.--MSS. at Vienna--The Wenzel
+Bible--The Weltchronik of Rudolf v. Ems at Stuttgard--Wilhelm v. Oranse
+at Vienna--The Golden Bull--Various schools--Hildesheimer Prayer-book at
+Berlin--The Nuremberg school--The Glockendons--The Brethren of the Pen.
+
+
+In a former chapter we brought up the story of German illumination to
+the time of the Hohenstaufen emperors. We may now make a new start with
+Frederick II., the eccentric, resolute, intractable, accomplished
+_Stupor Mundi_ (1210-50). Not only was he a patron and encouraged art,
+but also an author. The work which he composed is still extant, and is
+preserved in the Vatican Library under the title _De arte venandi cum
+avibus_. Paintings of birds and hunting scenes embellish its pages. The
+art is not specially high class, and though in courtesy it may be called
+German, seeing that he was the German Emperor, and in some respects is
+like the Imperial MSS. of the Saxon period, in point of fact it is
+Italian or Sicilian.[46] This Sicilian school is peculiar, and exhibits
+very slight traits of relationship with the rest of Italy. After the
+Arab conquest of the island in 827, whilst new ideas were imported,
+still the old Greek cities kept their ancient traditions and methods in
+art, especially in those branches we term industrial, and just as both
+Greek and Arabic tongues existed as vernaculars beside the Latin, so the
+arts and industries bore the features of three artistic tastes.
+
+[46] (Bibl. Vatican, Palatina, No. 1071). Notice in Kobell, _Kunstv.
+Miniaturen_, p. 44.
+
+The silk-weaving of the Greek craftsmen was embellished with the designs
+of embroidery from Damascus, and these were mingled with patterns in
+which the foliages of Carolingian and German origin are distinctly
+traceable. Examples of the kind of manufacture here referred to may be
+seen in the robes of the Emperor Henry II., still preserved in the
+Cathedral Treasury at Bamberg. Also the coronation mantle of St. Stephen
+of Hungary, husband of Henry's sister Gisela--originally a closed
+_casula_ covering the body, but now an open cloak richly embroidered
+with figures of prophets, animals, and foliages, and even portraits of
+the King and Queen. It has sometimes been thought, from the inscription
+on its border, that, like the Bayeux tapestries of Queen Matilda, the
+needlework was from the Queen's own hand; but no doubt both these
+attributions are mistaken.[47] Still more Saracenic in taste are the
+mantle and alb now in the Imperial Treasury at Vienna, of the twelfth
+century, and executed at Palermo. Sicilian in some respects is
+intermediate between Italian and German, hence we deem this a proper
+place to speak of it, and rather as a transient phase than a style, for
+it perished with the Hohenstaufen dynasty.
+
+[47] See description in Bock, _Die Kleinodien des heiligen Römisches
+Reichs_, pl. 17.
+
+The cruel tyranny of the cold-blooded despot, remembered, but execrated,
+in Sicily as Charles of Anjou, extinguished the last _scintilla_ of
+native art, and when the Italian revival of the thirteenth century took
+place, it was confined entirely to the North, except when such patrons
+as Robert or Ferdinand or Alfonso encouraged Tuscan artists by inviting
+them to Naples. Palermo was no longer of importance, though a capital,
+and Sicily existed merely as a portion of the kingdom of Naples.
+
+Let us pass, then, to the great German capital. Changes here, too, have
+taken place. It is not Bamberg but Prag, for the Imperial crown has
+passed from the House of Suabia through the Hapsburgs to that of
+Luxembourg, and among its territories is the picturesque old city with
+its historic bridge and gate-towers, a Slavonic not a German city in its
+origin. The ten German circles of Suabia and Franconia, Westphalia,
+Bohemia, and the rest did not as yet exist--they were the later creation
+of Maximilian; the Fatherland consisted of some two or three hundred
+dukedoms, counts, marquisates, and lordships, all absolute
+sovereignties, but all pledged to support the Holy Roman Empire. Very
+thinly, perhaps, but still the Imperial sceptre meant a real supremacy,
+and in the hands of such emperors as Henry of Luxembourg, a supremacy
+maintained with real and becoming dignity.
+
+Prag, as we have said, is in a Slavonic country, and one sometimes
+hostile to the Empire. It was the capital of Bohemia. In 1310 its King
+was John, the restless son of the new Emperor Henry VII. of Luxembourg.
+Hence we find it at the moment we begin the study of its art a nominally
+German city. Shortly before this time were produced several examples of
+German work; as, for instance, the "Minnelieder," with more than a
+hundred miniatures of hunting scenes and similar outdoor amusements,
+which are useful as studies of costume, but otherwise of little
+interest. But it is not until 1312--the new King being then, for the
+sake of acquiring the crown, though only, it is said, thirteen years of
+age, already the husband of the Princess Elizabeth, the late King's
+second daughter, yet neither a favourite with his wife nor with her
+father's people--that the Abbess of St. George's in Prag, the Princess
+Cunigunda, composed a Passionale, richly illustrated with interesting
+miniatures. The saints, histories, and allegories are painted in tender
+water-colours, the architectural details being in Gothic taste. It is
+still preserved in the University Library at Prag, No. xiv., A. 17.[48]
+The Emperor Charles IV., son of the valorous but impracticable John
+(born 1316, died 1378), and who has already been spoken of in connection
+with English illumination, was the founder of the Bohemian school, or,
+rather, of the school of Prag. Owing probably his fine tastes and many
+accomplishments rather to his mother than his father, he devoted himself
+to art and literature, inviting painters and scholars from other
+countries to reside in the Bohemian capital. For the Collegium
+Carolinum, of which he was the founder, he caused many noble volumes to
+be executed, and among the vast treasures and curiosities of his
+celebrated Schloss Karlstein was a fine collection of illuminated MSS.
+In the Museum at Prag and other local libraries are still kept some
+relics of his library. The "Liber Viaticus" of Bishop John of
+Newmarkt--the "Orationale" of Bishop Arnestus (under French
+influence)--the "Pontificale of Bishop Albert von Sternberg" (in the
+library of the Præmonstrant Monastery of Strahow)--the Missal of
+Archbishop Ozko von Wlaschim (library of the Metropolitan Chapter in
+Prag)--the Evangeliary of Canon John von Troppau (Johannes de Oppavia),
+written and illuminated at Brunn, in Moravia, now in the Imperial
+Library at Vienna. All these illuminated MSS. are examples of the great
+variety of styles in which the Bohemian colony produced their work under
+the auspices of their liberal patron, yet not without peculiarities
+which mark the individuality of the artist. Thus while the Orationale of
+Arnestus is almost French, the Passionale of Cunegunda is entirely free
+from French influence. For costumes the Weltchronik of Rudolf von Ems,
+1350-85, and now in the Royal Private Library at Stuttgard, is almost an
+encyclopædia. Similar is the "Legenda Aurea" of 1362 in the Public
+Library at Munich (Cod. Germ. 6). A very interesting MS. with miniatures
+of costumes and curious usages is the "Bellifortis" of Conrad Kyeser
+(Göttingen, Public Library, Philos., No. 63). The Evangeliary of Troppau
+is most beautifully written; its text is a model of elegant and perfect
+penmanship; its ornaments distinctly Bohemian. Three or four Prag MSS.
+executed for Charles's son Wenzel (1378-1409) are, it may be said,
+typical. Of these the grandest, though incomplete, is the illuminated
+Bible, called the Wenzel Bible, executed by order of Martin Rotlöw for
+presentation to the Emperor. The choice of illustrations in this
+singular performance are rather more than on a par with the woodcuts of
+the great English Bible of Cranmer. The "Wilhelm von Oranse" of 1387,
+now in the Ambras Museum at Vienna (No. 7), affords splendid examples of
+the fine embroidered and richly coloured backgrounds we so often see
+towards 1400 in English MSS., and the Golden Bull of Charles IV., also
+in the Imperial Library at Vienna (j. c. 338), has the softly curling
+foliages variously coloured, which form the characteristic difference
+between the French and English illumination of the fifteenth century.
+
+[48] Wocel, _Mittheil. der Central.-Commiss._, v., 1860, p. 75, with
+illustrations.
+
+Another rich example of German as distinct from French or Italian work
+of this period is the grand Salzburg Missal now at Munich (Lat. 15710).
+When we reach the fifteenth century German illumination begins to grow
+gaudy, especially in the revived taste for parti-coloured border-frames,
+in which green and scarlet are often to be seen. The Kuttenberg Gradual
+at Vienna (Imp. Lib., 15501) is of the Bohemian type. Now and then a MS.
+will show the influence of Westphalian treatment of foliage--and, again,
+of the school of Cologne or Nuremberg or Augsburg. These all differ,
+whilst still keeping an unmistakable German character. The Hildesheimer
+Prayer-book at Berlin points to Cologne. The Frankendorfer Evangeliary
+at Nuremberg is characteristic of that city. The Choir-book of St.
+Ulrich and Afra in their abbey at Augsburg is typical of its locality.
+The Missal of Sbinco, Archbishop of Prag, inclines to Nuremberg rather
+than Prag (Imp. Lib., Vienna, No. 1844). It is eighty years earlier than
+the Augsburg and Hildesheim MSS. Passing actively onwards, we find
+illumination still in vogue in the sixteenth century, notwithstanding
+that Germany was the cradle of the printing press.
+
+In fact, it seems to wax more and more sumptuous--the books more
+profusely ornamented than ever. The Missal and Prayer-book of Albert of
+Brandenburg, Archbishop of Mainz, once at Aschaffenburg, executed about
+1524 are among the finest productions of the illuminator's art. While
+perhaps we may complain that design has given way to profusion and the
+border flowers and insects--a contemporary characteristic of
+Netherlandish art also--are neither more nor less than portraiture
+applied to flowers, fruits, and the insect world. The larger miniatures
+are modern paintings, including portraits, differing in nothing but
+dimensions from the works of the greatest masters of the schools of
+painting. In ignorance of the strict rules of the gilds, some writers
+have gone so far as to say that miniatures also such as these were the
+work of the Van Eycks, the Memlings, and the Lucas van Leydens of our
+public galleries. This particular MS. was the work of a famous Nuremberg
+miniaturist, one of a distinguished family of artists--Nicolas
+Glockendon.
+
+A very similar, but perhaps still richer, MS., is the Prayer-book of
+William of Bavaria, still kept in the Imperial Library at Vienna (No.
+1880), painted by Albert Glockendon. It is one of the most exquisite
+volumes possibly to be met with. A Prayer-book in the British Museum
+(Add. 17525), though far inferior, may give some idea of the sumptuous
+character of the Glockendon work.
+
+The first Archbishop of Prag, Arnestus or Ernest von Pardubitz, was an
+industrious collector of MSS. and employed many scribes. Another of the
+famous patrons in Prag was Gerhard Groot, who employed one of the best
+penmen to copy St. John Chrysostom's _Commentary on St. Matthew_. In
+1383 he founded at Deventer the famous House of the Brothers of the
+Common Life, who made a business of transcribing books; and, indeed, so
+profitably, that, for instance, Ian van Enkhuisen of Zwolle received
+five hundred golden gulden for a Bible. On account of the goose-quill
+which the brothers wore in their hats, they were familiarly known as the
+Brethren of the Pen.[49]
+
+[49] Wattenbach, _Schriftwesen im Mittelalter_, p. 264.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+NETHERLANDISH ILLUMINATION
+
+What is meant by the Netherlands--Early realism and study of
+nature--Combination of symbolism with imitation--Anachronism in
+design--The value of the pictorial methods of the old illuminators--The
+oldest Netherlandish MS.--Harlinda and Renilda--The nunnery at
+Maas-Eyck--Description of the MS.--Thomas à Kempis--The school of
+Zwolle--Character of the work--The use of green landscape
+backgrounds--The Dukes of Burgundy--Netherlandish artists--No miniatures
+of the Van Eycks or Memling known to exist--Schools of Bruges, Ghent,
+Liége, etc.--Brussels Library--Splendid Netherlandish MSS. at
+Vienna--Gerard David and the Grimani Breviary--British Museum--"Romance
+of the Rose"--"Isabella" Breviary--Grisailles.
+
+
+In speaking of the Netherlands we have to bear in mind that some
+portions of what are now called the Netherlands were once parts of
+Germany, while others were parts of France. In the thirteenth century
+Netherlandish art was simply a variety either of Northern German or
+Northern French. The earlier schools of Flanders and Hainaut, and
+perhaps of Brabant, belong rather to France, while Holland, Limburg,
+Luxembourg, and the Rhine districts were more inclined towards Germany.
+But as soon as the schools of Ghent and Bruges and other Burgundian
+centres began to assert their claims, it was speedily apparent that they
+had an individuality of their own. In no country had the study of nature
+a more direct influence on the character of illumination. The
+allegorical method which so long had characterised both French and
+German art was promptly abandoned, and direct realism both in figure and
+landscape became the prevailing characteristic. Symbolism, it is true,
+remained in the representation of cities and other generalities of
+pictorial composition, but the details were in all cases direct
+imitations of contemporary facts. Half a dozen soldiers or houses might
+indicate an army or a city, and even some particular army or city named
+in the text, but the individual soldiers, though representing the army
+of Alexander or Roland, would wear the equipment or armour of the
+artist's military acquaintances, or his overlord's own company. The
+city, whether Ghent or Bagdad, would consist of the same sort of houses
+peaked and parapeted, the same towers and pinnacles that the illuminator
+saw before him in his daily walks. His conception of a scene from
+Scripture history would probably be framed more or less upon the
+traditions of the schools transmitted from the Sphigmenou Manual or the
+master's portfolio of "schemes," but while a prophet, an angel, or a
+divinity would wear ideal raiment, Abraham and Pharaoh would be arrayed
+in the costume of a contemporary burgomaster, and an almost contemporary
+French king. In one memorable instance, we are told, so realistic was
+the scene that Isaac was about to be despatched with a horse-pistol; and
+in another, representing the birth of Cain, Adam was bringing to the
+French tester bedside a supply of hot water from the kitchen boiler in a
+copper saucepan. This kind of anachronism, it is true, is to some degree
+chargeable on all early work; we see it among the early Italian painters
+no less frequently perhaps, but mostly accompanied with so much of
+allegory or imagination that we scarcely notice it, or if we do, we wink
+at it as part of the times of ignorance. It is really a mark of
+over-haste to be truthful, or at least to be understood, and at the
+worst it is no more than the natural rebound from the evil constraint of
+the old Byzantine tyranny over scheme and costume and invention. It is
+often truly diverting in its very _insouciance_. But its priceless value
+to us--and here the same remark applies to all styles of pictorial art
+before the fifteenth century--is the ocular record of dress,
+architecture, implements of peace and war, incidents of daily life,
+etc., for which no _Encyclopædia Britannica_ of verbal explanation could
+ever be more than the poorest makeshift. As we say, this same happy
+anachronism is common to other schools of illumination, and we cannot
+fail to notice it from Byzantium to Britain, but it is the intense
+realism of the Netherlands that forces it upon us so strongly that we
+are bound to speak of it.
+
+The oldest notice of illuminated work in the Netherlands is in a
+Benedictine chronicle of the ninth century, where mention is made of two
+ladies, daughters of the Lord of Denain, named Harlinda and Renilda,[50]
+who were educated in the convent of Valenciennes. "In 714 they left
+their native province to found a monastery on the banks of the
+Maas--among the meadows of Alden and Maas-Eyck. They there consecrated
+their lives to the praise of God and the transcription of books,
+adorning them with precious pictures."[51] About the year 1730 an
+Evangeliary of great age was discovered in the sacristy of the church by
+the Benedictine antiquary, Edmond Martène, which on good ground has been
+attributed to the two sisters. The MS. is still in existence, and was
+exhibited in Brussels in 1880. It is a small folio, and contains a great
+number of miniatures in the Carolingian or, perhaps more strictly,
+Franco-Saxon manner. On the first leaf is a Romanesque colonnade of
+arches surmounted by a larger one. Under the smaller arches are the
+figures of saints, demons, and monsters, and in the tympanum scrolls of
+foliage and birds. Between the columns are the reference numbers to the
+chapters.
+
+[50] Or Relinda.
+
+[51] Bradley, _Dict. of Miniaturists_, ii. 87.
+
+The evangelist portraits are dignified and saintly, recalling the
+earliest work of the Byzantine school and that of the catacombs.
+Draperies and other details are heavy, dull, and ill drawn. In short,
+the work is of the same class as the early Carolingian. The blue, red,
+green, and gold of the borders, etc., have all kept their brilliancy.[52]
+It is somewhat curious that the Van Eycks, the founders of Flemish
+painting, were natives of this little town--then, doubtless, pretty and
+rural, now a busy place of breweries, oil-factories, tanneries, and
+other fragrant nuisances. Some miles further northward lie Deventer and
+Zwolle and Kempen, the land of the Brothers of the Pen, and of the
+immortal Thomas à Kempis. There is a style of calligraphic ornament
+deriving its origin from these Northern Hollandish foundations such as
+Zwolle, which is confined almost entirely to the painting of the initial
+letters and the decorating of the borders with flourished scrolls of
+penwork very neatly drawn and terminating in equally neat but extremely
+fanciful flowers finely painted. It seems to have been brought at some
+time from the neighbourhood of Milan, where a similar kind of initial
+and exceedingly neat penmanship also is found in the choir books. Many
+South German choir books are similarly ornamented, so that it is not
+easy to say at once where the work was done. The Dutch illuminators,
+however, may usually be recognised by the Netherlandish character of the
+miniatures combined with neat and sometimes rigidly careful penmanship
+in the scrolls and tendrils and a hardness in the outline of the
+flowers. Sometimes the large initials are entirely produced by the pen,
+the labyrinthine patterns in blue or vermilion being filled in with
+circlets, loops, and other designs with infinite patience and excellent
+effect. Some of the border scrolls are exceedingly pretty, and the
+borders differ from Flemish in mixing natural flowers painted in thin
+water-colours with the more conventional flowers painted with a
+different medium, not in the later Flemish manner where the flowers are
+frankly direct imitations of nature, and painted in the same medium as
+the rest of the illumination.
+
+[52] See _Messager des Sciences_, etc., 110, 1858, and Deshaines, _L'Art
+Chrétien en Flandre_, 34 (Douai, 1860, 8°).
+
+After the Maas-Eyck Evangeliary the work of these northern foundations
+may well reckon either with the French or German schools until the
+fifteenth century. Where otherwise they are not distinguishable, the
+Netherlandish miniatures are usually such as prefer plain burnished gold
+backgrounds to diapered ones, or have a plain deep blue paled towards
+the horizon, and lastly replace the background by a natural, or what was
+intended to be a natural, landscape. As a test between French or German
+influence generally, the use of green shows the latter, that of blue the
+former. Not that this was any æsthetic point of difference in taste, but
+somehow the Germans had the green paint when the French had not, and so
+they used it. It is an open question whether Flanders or Italy first
+introduced the landscape background, but Flemish artists were so
+numerous, so ubiquitous, that we can hardly say where they were not at
+work--in France, Italy, or Spain. Plenty of so-called Spanish
+illumination is really the work of Flemish craftsmen. This was largely
+owing to the political conditions of the times. The Dukes of Burgundy
+and the Austrian Archdukes both ruled over Flemish municipalities, and
+employed the gildmen as their household "enlumineurs." And, of course,
+the success of the Van Eycks, Rogier van der Weide (de la Pasture),
+Derrick Bonts, and Hans Memling, stirred up the spirit of rivalry among
+the illuminators. They all worked in the same minutely, careful manner,
+and one could almost take a corporal oath on the identity of
+illuminations and panels which are really the work of different artists.
+Even yet the illuminations of the Grimani Breviary are attributed in
+part to Hans Memling--and no wonder! Only the best qualified judges can
+distinguish them. It is known that Gerard David of Oudewater, in
+Holland, a master painter, belonged also to the gild of miniaturists.
+But no miniatures are known to be from the hands of either Ian, or
+Hubert, or Marguerite van Eyck, or Hans Memling. The supposed
+identifications are merely guesses. But while this is so there is still
+no lack of illuminators, not to mention the illustrious few who were
+employed by the brothers of Charles V., King of France; and when we come
+to the days of his grandson, Philip of Burgundy (1419-67), we might name
+quite a crowd of distinguished illuminators. From 1422 to 1425 Ian van
+Eyck was "varlet de chamber" to Duke John of Bavaria, first bishop of
+Liége, and Regent of Luxembourg, Holland, and Brabant. In 1425 he passed
+into the service of Philip. He died in 1440. In court service there were
+besides, Jean de Bruges, David Aubert, Jean Mielot, Jean Wanguelin,
+Loyset Lyeder, and others connected more or less closely with the Maas
+valley and the province of Limburg. This valley seems to have been the
+cradle of Netherlandish miniature art. It is from this neighbourhood
+that Paris was supplied with craftsmen in the days of the brilliant if
+reckless administration of the uncles of Philip the Good. There were
+schools of illuminating artists in Maestricht and Liége, and within a
+very brief period the style of the Netherlander surpassed that of all
+competitors for facility, clearness, and realism. A marked feature in
+this mastery is the free use of architectural and sculptural design. All
+Gothic draperies are in some degree sculpturesque, and in miniatures we
+find sculpture to be the ruling principle. Perhaps it was the practice
+of uniting the crafts of painter and "imagier" in one person that
+fostered this peculiarity. But certain it is that Netherlandish
+illumination, in its border foliages, after the taste for the larger
+vine and acanthus leaf had superseded the ivy, the drawing is studiously
+sculpturesque. Many of the Gantois borders are like undercut wood
+carvings. Even as to colour we find either the gilded wood brown or the
+stone grey, quite as frequently as gayer colours, and much more so than
+any natural green. The after-fashion for grisailles or _camaieu gris_
+has reference probably rather to stained glass than to carving. Before
+the fifteenth century we do not often meet with individual illuminators
+by name, but in the Limburg Chronicle under 1380 is this entry: "There
+was at this time in Cologne a celebrated painter (he was probably a
+native of Herle in Limburg), the like of whom was not in the whole of
+Christendom," and more to his praise. His name was Wilhelm. In the
+municipal expense book, under 1370-90, page 12, is written, "To Master
+Wilhelm for painting the Oath Book, 9 marks." The Oath Book still
+exists, but unfortunately the miniature has been cut out.[53]
+
+[53] Woltmann, _Hist. of Painting_, Eng. transl., i. p. 412.
+
+Of course, it may be expected that some of the best examples of
+Netherlandish illumination are to be found in the Royal Library at
+Brussels. The _Bibliothéque de Bourgogne_, as it is called, contains,
+indeed, a great number of them. Some, of course, may be classed as
+Burgundian. There are, for instance, the grand "Chroniques de Hainaut"
+in three immense folio volumes, written from 1446 to 1449 (Nos. 9242-4).
+Also Jean Mansel's "Fleur des Histoires" in three grand folios (Nos.
+9231-3), written about 1475. The frontispiece to the "Chroniques" shows
+the Duke Philip with his son the Count of Charolais receiving the work
+from the author, perhaps the best illumination in all three volumes.
+
+Another (9245), the Book of the Seven Sages of Rome, is an example of
+the last quarter of the fourteenth century. Still another (9246), the
+History of St. Graal, or of the Round Table, is dated 1480. A Missal and
+Pontifical (9216, 9217) shows miniatures dating about 1475.
+
+But other public libraries also possess admirable examples. The Imperial
+Library at Vienna possesses a most masterly production in the fragments
+of a folio Chronicle of Jerusalem (No. 2533), in which both figures and
+architectural details are most delicately and minutely finished, so that
+the miniatures form a most valuable treasury of costumes, armour, and
+architecture, correctly drawn and exquisitely painted. The figure of
+Baldwin, King of Jerusalem, shows the pointed toes which Anne of Bohemia
+is said to have introduced into England. At Vienna, also, is the richly
+illuminated History of Gérard de Roussillon in French (No. 2549). At
+Paris we find the "Champion des Dames" (No. 12476). Round the first
+miniature in this MS. are splendidly emblazoned the armorials of the
+various countries and cities of his dominions--Burgundy, Brabant,
+Flanders, Franche-Comté, Holland, Namur, Lower Lorraine, Luxembourg,
+Artois, Hainaut, Zealand, Friesland, Malines, and Salins. On either side
+are scenes from the story, and beneath a symbolical crown is the motto
+of Philip's grandfather, Philip le Hardi, _aultre n'aray_. The same
+motto appears in the Chronicle of Jerusalem at Vienna, and on the velvet
+of the daïs of Isabella of Portugal, Philip's third consort.
+
+It may be interesting to note, as a means of distinguishing these
+Burgundian princes or their MSS., that the arms of Philip II. the Good
+differ from those of his father, during the latter's lifetime, by having
+in chief a label of three points, and from those of his grandfather,
+Philip the Bold, by having an inescutcheon of pretence on the centre of
+the arms of Margaret de Maele, first assumed by his father, John the
+Fearless, that is, "or, a lion rpt. sa; for Flanders." As we have just
+said, many of the MSS. claimed as Netherlandish may be classed as
+Burgundian. The difference lies mainly in the miniatures. Where the
+latter are manifestly French with the mixed Brugeois borders, they may
+pass as Burgundian; but with similar borders yet distinguishably
+Netherlandish, that is, broad-nosed, square-jawed, and excited faces as
+compared with the finer features and placid expression of the French
+artists, the work may still be Burgundian, but it will be also
+Netherlandish. The individuality of Netherlandish illumination above
+every other quality establishes its identity. Look at the expression of
+the onlookers in a Crucifixion, or a Christ before Pilate, or a Stoning
+of St. Stephen--the diabolical ferocity, the fiendish earnestness, the
+downright intentional ugliness put on some of the characters are in
+direct contrast to the sweet indifference, the calm complaisance, and
+blank unconcern of a crowd as shown in similar scenes by French
+illuminators.
+
+[Illustration:
+HORÆ
+15TH CENT. (LATE)
+_Brit. Mus. Add. MS. 17280. fol. 21_]
+
+[Illustration:
+VALERE MAXIME, TRAD. PAR SIMON DE HESDIN
+15TH CENT. (LATE)
+_Brit. Mus. Harl. MS. 4375, fol. 68_]
+
+We have seen something of the earlier kind of Netherlandish MSS. in
+those already referred to. It now remains to take a rapid glance at a
+few of the later ones, and here the difficulty is that of selection.
+
+In 1484 Gerard David appears on the list of illuminators of Bruges,[54]
+and it appears that he, and not Hans Memling, was the painter of those
+marvellous miniatures in the Grimani Breviary at Venice usually
+attributed to the latter, and therefore may be considered as one of the
+founders of the school of Bruges, or at least of the later style that
+may be referred to the Grimani Breviary as its most perfect example.
+Executed in much the same manner is a Book of Offices in the British
+Museum, containing portraits of Philip the Fair and his wife, the
+unhappy Juana _la Loca_, son and daughter-in-law of the Emperor
+Maximilian. Similar, again, are the "Offices of the Elector, Albert of
+Brandenburg," possibly the work of the same artists who produced the
+Grimani Breviary. There are also some fragments in a guard-book in the
+British Museum (Add. 24098), which may compare with any of the preceding
+examples. But perhaps to many book-lovers no better specimen of the
+highest class of Netherlandish art could be more welcome or more
+interesting than the celebrated copy of the "Roman de la Rose," also in
+our great national collection (Harl. 4425). This justly famous MS. is a
+real masterpiece in every department, whether we consider the expression
+in its miniatures or the consummate technical skill displayed in the
+drawing and colour of the borders. These secondary embellishments
+consist of fruit, flowers, birds, beetles, and butterflies. But, of
+course, the great interest of this book lies in its miniatures, scenes
+from the poet's allegory, and in the little statuesque figures of the
+various characters in the poem.
+
+[54] Cf. his "Judgement of Cambyses" in the museum at Bruges.
+
+Two marvellous little volumes there are in the National Museum at Munich
+(861-2) which are surely unapproachable. One of the borders in 861
+consists of the eyes of peacock feathers so absolutely perfect that we
+can only wonder at its rainbow hues and pearly sheen of colour.
+Something similar to it exists in a fragment (No. 4461) in the Victoria
+and Albert Museum at South Kensington. The "Isabella Breviary" of the
+British Museum (Add. 18851) ought not to pass unmentioned, but space
+forbids us to add more on this inexhaustible topic. There is, however,
+the class of work alluded to early in the chapter, and in that on French
+work, which must be at least mentioned. We refer to what the Italians
+call _chiaroscuro_ and the French _grisaille_; _i.e._ painting executed
+in tones of grey, in which the lights are given in white or gold and the
+backgrounds in rich blue. Occasionally the draperies and ornaments also
+are touched with gold, and the flesh tints as in life. Grisaille is not
+limited to Netherlandish illuminations. We find it both in French and
+Italian, but perhaps it is among the Netherlandish books we meet with it
+most frequently. Several examples are to be seen in the Royal Library at
+Brussels, and there is at least one in the British Museum (Add. 24189).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+THE FRENCH RENAISSANCE
+
+Communication with Italy--Renaissance not sudden--Origin of the schools
+of France and Burgundy--Touraine and its art--Fouquet--Brentano
+MSS.--"Versailles" Livy--Munich "Boccaccio," etc.--Perréal and
+Bourdichon--"Hours of Anne of Brittany"--Poyet--The school of
+Fontainebleau--Stained glass--Jean Cousin--Gouffier "Heures"--British
+Museum Offices of Francis I.--Dinteville Offices--Paris "Heures de
+Montmorency", "Heures de Dinteville," etc.
+
+
+When the new ideas derived from the Italian revival first reached
+France, it would be difficult to say. There must have been communication
+with Italy going on the whole time that Cimabue and Giotto, Memmi and
+the rest were astonishing their fellow-citizens with their divine
+performances. The roads from Lyons, Poictiers, Dijon, and Paris were
+well known, and frequently trodden by both artists and merchants as well
+as by soldiers. The Renaissance, therefore, was no sudden convulsion.
+Perhaps a very careful examination of some of our Burgundian MSS. might
+reveal the presence of notions derived from Italian travel, for it is in
+the details of ornament that we find the traces of a new movement, and
+when the great change of style is clearly noticeable it is when the
+habits of society themselves have been remodelled, and when the once
+strange and foreign element has become a familiar guest.
+
+In the fixing of schools and centres much is owing, of course, to the
+residential choice of princes, on whose patronage depends the very
+existence of art. This explains the schools of Bruges and Dijon, of
+Paris and Tours, for while the earlier dukes of Burgundy and the earlier
+kings of France had lived at Bruges and Paris, the later dukes had
+preferred Dijon, and Louis XI., Charles VIII., and Louis XII. lived
+mostly at Tours. So that while Dijon became the new centre of Burgundian
+illumination, Tours became to the new movement from Italy what Paris had
+been at the commencement of the Gothic period. Tours, in fact, became
+the centre of the Renaissance. The influence of Dijon was on the wane,
+Burgundy itself was going down. Michel Coulombe, the great Breton
+sculptor, who had been trained at Dijon, left it for Tours, and probably
+illuminators and other artists followed his example. As we know from
+examples, the Burgundian art of Dijon had the Flemish stamp strongly
+marked--the Flemish artists had a way of making strong impressions.
+
+Tours, on the other hand, had had an entirely different training. The
+artists of Touraine had no shadow of Flemish influence in their
+practice. Their sculptures, enamels, colour-scheme were of another bias.
+Their stamp came from Italy, and if not so deep as that of Flanders or
+Dijon, it was equally inevitable and more permanent.
+
+The first name that we meet with among the illuminators of Touraine who
+are expressly connected with the Renaissance is that of Jean Fouquet. Of
+his origin or training nothing seems to be known, but he was born
+probably about 1415. He must have acquired distinction even as a youth,
+for some twenty-five years afterwards (1440-3) he was invited to Rome to
+paint the portrait of Pope Eugenius IV., and he stayed in Italy until
+1447. On his return to France he was made _valet de chambre_ and painter
+to Charles VII. at Tours, and continued in the same office under Louis
+XI. It was part of the business of the _paintre du roy_ to design and
+provide decorations and costumes, banners and devices for all state
+ceremonies, and this became Fouquet's duty at the funeral of Charles
+VII., and when Louis instituted the Order of St. Michel in 1470, and the
+last trace of him as an artist occurs about 1477. His sons, Louis and
+Francis, were both painters, and, like himself, worked much at the
+illumination of books. It is curious that this great master--one of the
+greatest miniaturists of any school, and one of the founders of the
+French school of painting--became entirely forgotten until the discovery
+of some fragments of a Book of Hours painted for Estienne Chevalier, the
+King's treasurer.
+
+Forty miniatures of the most masterly description came into the hands of
+M. Louis Brentano-Laroche, of Frankfort-on-the-Maine. Their uncommon
+excellence led to a most diligent search for information respecting the
+artist, which resulted in the unearthing of many other examples of his
+unequalled pencil. We now know of a dozen most precious examples.
+Besides the Brentano miniatures, two other fragments of the same Book of
+Hours have been found, and several large and important MSS. Among these
+we may name the "Antiquities of the Jews," by Josephus, in the National
+Library at Paris (MSS. Des. 6891), and a Book of Hours, executed for
+Marie de Clève, widow of Charles Duke of Orleans, in 1472. Attributed to
+him are the "Versailles" Livy (Nat. Lib., Paris, 6907); the "Sorbonne"
+Livy (fds. de Sorb. 297). A Livy in the public library at Tours also
+passes under his name, and the famous "Boccaccio" of Estienne Chevalier
+at Munich, containing ninety miniatures, is also confidently assigned to
+him. Other MSS. that are imputed to him are probably the work of his
+sons or scholars.
+
+The Paris Josephus is generally considered his masterpiece. The volume
+(which contains only the first fourteen books) is in folio, written most
+beautifully in two columns, and is adorned with miniatures, vignettes,
+and initials, but much of its interest lies in the note at the end,
+placed there by Robortet, secretary to the Due de Bourbon: "En ce livre
+a douze ystoires les troys premieres de l'enlumineur du duc Jehan de
+Berry, et les neuf de la main du bon paintre et enlumineur du roy Loys
+XIe Jehan Foucquet, natif de Tours." And we gather from another note
+that the book had been entrusted to Fouquet for completion by Jacques
+d'Armagnac duc de Nemours. A further note informs us that the book
+belonged to the Duc de Bourbon. It seems to have been one of the rich
+presents made by the Due de Berry to Jacques de Nemours. The first three
+miniatures are by the illuminator of the Duc de Berry, and this artist
+was probably Andrieu Beauneveu, though other illuminators did work for
+him, as Jacques de Hesdin and Pol de Limbourg. The fourth miniature is
+by Fouquet, and represents a battle; the rest to the seventh are either
+not his best work or else the work of his pupils, but the seventh on
+folio 135 gives us a good idea of Fouquet at his best. It represents
+David receiving with his crown the news of the death of Saul. The
+eighth, ninth, and tenth are very fine, but the eleventh M. Paulin Paris
+(MSS. du Roy) thinks the most beautiful of all. Its subject is the
+clemency of Cyrus towards the captive Jews in Babylon.[55] Of the other
+MSS. space forbids us reluctantly to forego description.
+
+[55] See Mrs. Mark Pattison's (Lady Dilke) _The Renaissance in France_,
+i. 273, etc.; Bradley, _Dict. of Miniaturists_ art. "Fouquet," i. 346.
+
+The characteristics of the school of Tours as seen in the work of the
+greatest of its expositors is (1) The clearly marked influence of Italy
+and the antique. (2) A masterly understanding of French landscape (see
+fine instances of this understanding also in "Trésor des Histoires," now
+in the British Museum, Cott., Aug. 5). (3) A complete freedom from
+Gothic influence and from the domination of the school of Bruges. The
+colours for which Fouquet seems to have a preference are, first, a clear
+orange-vermilion, supported by golden brown and gold, clear blue and
+green, lemon-yellow; and then, as a contrast, grey of various tones in
+walls and buildings, soft landscape greens, and aërial tints of distance
+and sky. Perhaps the technical skill of Fouquet has never been
+surpassed. It is so perfect that some have tried to explain it by
+supposing that he was trained in a Flemish studio. His sons and pupils
+continued his methods, and thus while Paris remains under the influence
+of Flemish masters, Tours was carrying forward a quite different type of
+traditions.
+
+The Valerius Maximus (Harl. 4374) of the British Museum will give an
+idea of the later Paris school. Its date is about the end of the
+fifteenth century.
+
+We ought not in this place to forget the influence brought into French
+art through the marriage of the murdered Duke of Orleans with Valentina
+of Milan, not only directly through books and artists, but by the
+hereditary transmission of that love of art and beautiful things for
+which Valentina and her family were well known. It was in art, letters,
+and books that the widowed princess sought such consolation as was
+possible.[56] In her best days she had united in herself a seductive
+grace of carriage, beauty of person, and dignity of rank, which made her
+the ornament of the French Court. She was almost the only one about the
+unfortunate Charles VI. who could influence him in his moments of mental
+aberration. Coming from the luxury of the most splendid court in Italy,
+she brought into France the most refined taste in matters connected with
+the arts. The inventory of her jewels at the time of her marriage
+includes three Books of Hours, three German MSS., and a volume called
+_Mandavilla_. Like her husband she was an employer both of copyists and
+illuminators, and before her death had collected at her Castle of Blois
+a very fine collection of beautiful books.
+
+[56] She assumed as her impresa the _chantepleure_, with the sorrowful
+motto: "Plus ne m'est rien: rien ne m'est plus."
+
+Her son Charles, the poet, inherited her tastes, and added to her
+collections. We are not surprised, therefore, to find her grandson
+Louis, afterwards Louis XII., supporting the great artistic movement
+which he and his Queen Anne of Brittany helped so effectually to
+identify with the Court of France.
+
+About the time that we hear the last of Fouquet we have the earliest
+notices of another illuminator who plays an important part in the
+illuminations executed for Anne of Brittany, the noble and gifted Queen
+of France, and wife, first of Charles VIII. and then of his successor,
+Louis XII.
+
+In 1472 Jean Perréal is entrusted with the glass paintings of the
+Carmelite church at Tours. Lemaire, in his _Légende des Vénitiens_,
+calls him a second Zeuxis or Apelles. During the reigns of Charles VIII.
+and Louis XII. he is the chief artist of the time: In 1491, and perhaps
+earlier, he is engaged in the usual duties of a _valet de chambre_,
+_i.e._ designing and preparing the requisite devises, arms, and banners
+for public functions. In 1502 he went to Italy. In 1509 his name occurs
+in connection with that of Jean Bourdichon, of whom we shall hear more
+when we come to the work done for the Queen. In 1523 in the household of
+Francis I. he is still _valet de chambre_. Twenty-four years previously
+it was as _valet de chambre_ that he prepared the decorations for Louis
+XII.'s entry into Lyons. On the death of Anne of Brittany also he
+performed similar duties, and again on that of Louis XII. He even came
+to England in 1514, sent by Louis XII., to superintend the trousseau of
+Mary Tudor, "pour aider à dresser le dict appareil à la mode de France,"
+previous to her wedding journey to Paris.[57] Four months afterwards he
+was summoned to direct the funeral obsequies of Louis himself. No
+illuminated work can be really identified as the work of Perréal, but
+Mrs. Patteson (Lady Dilke) strongly urges the probability that he
+painted the _Bible Historiée_ of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge,
+bequeathed by General Oglethorpe.[58] She considers it quite the sort of
+work that would grow out of that of Fouquet, and dwells upon the fact of
+his official duties as _valet de chambre_ giving him just that minute
+facility in the decoration of armour and furniture in the miniatures
+which the MS. displays. Whether this be so or not, it is certain that
+the _Bible Historiée_ is a fine example of the school of Tours.
+
+[57] See Vespas, b. 2 (Brit. Mus.).
+
+[58] See her _Renaissance of Art in France_, i. 303.
+
+Another court painter and _valet de chambre_ to Louis XI. and his
+successors was Jean Bourdichon, an artist born at Tours in 1457, and
+therefore as a youth probably one of the scholars in the atelier of Jean
+Fouquet. He is first noticed in the accounts in or about 1478: "A Jehan
+Bourdichon, paintre, la somme de vingt livres dix sept solz ung denier
+tournois pour avoir paint le tabernacle fait pour la chapelle du Plessis
+du Pare, de fin or et d'azur."[59] Later on, after naming the painting of
+a statute of St. Martin, for which he received twenty golden crowns, is
+a note of his painting a MS., which we translate: "To the said
+Bourdichon for having had written a book in parchment named the
+Papalist--the same illuminated in gold and azure and made in the same 19
+rich histories (miniatures) and for getting it bound and covered, thirty
+crowns of gold. For this by virtue of the said order of the King and by
+quittance of the abovenamed written the 5th April One thousand four
+hundred and eighty (milcccciiiixx) after Easter, here rendered the sum
+of £19 1. 8."
+
+[59] Comptes de l'Hôtel de Louis XI., 1478-81.
+
+Another quittance shows him to have been employed on the decorations of
+the château of Plessis les Tours. We may easily see how it is that these
+artists, when they came to illuminate the books entrusted to them, had
+such special knowledge of embroideries and decoration of armour when we
+read in the accounts how they were constantly employed in designing
+dresses for weddings, tournaments, and funeral obsequies, and making
+"patterns for the dress and equipment of war."
+
+A notice in 1508 tells us that Anne of Brittany made an order of payment
+to Bourdichon of 1,050 _livres tournois_ for having "richly and
+sumptuously historiated and illuminated a great Book of Hours for our
+use and service to which he has given and employed much time, and also
+on behalf of other services which he has rendered hitherto." This refers
+to the celebrated "Hours of Anne of Brittany," now in the National
+Library at Paris.
+
+This volume, peerless of its kind, has been reproduced in colour
+lithography by Curmer of Paris--the result, however, is disappointing
+from the flat and faded look of the prints as compared with the
+brilliancy of the original pages. The MS. is an invaluable monument of
+French Renaissance illumination. It is French of Touraine rather than of
+Paris, yet bearing traces in its flowers and fruit borders of Flemish
+modes of ornament. It has also reminiscences of Italian painting. But
+the French neatness and restraint from over-decoration have kept it in a
+manner unique. It has not quite the softness of Italian, and is far from
+the intensity of Flemish. Indeed, its fault, if it be faulty, is in its
+want of force. With the exception of Anne's own portrait given with her
+patrons, St. Anne, St. Helena, and St. Ursula. The Queen's gown is of
+brown gold brocade trimmed with dark brown fur. Her hair is brown, like
+the fur. She wears a necklace of gems set in gold. On her head is a
+black hood edged with gold and jewels, beneath which and next her face
+is a border of crimped white muslin, She has brown eyes and finely
+pencilled eyebrows. As to nose and mouth, she and the two younger saints
+are pretty much alike. With the allowance of blue for black, St. Anne
+wears the dress of a Benedictine abbess. A dark crimson cloth covers a
+table before which the Queen is kneeling, and on which lies open a
+finely illuminated Service-book. The Calendar which follows this
+portrait is for each month enclosed in a margin of ornament. To the
+outer margin of every other page of the book is placed a broad tablet or
+pilaster containing flowers, fruits, insects, etc., from five to six
+inches high, each having the Latin name of the plant, etc., at top in
+red, and the French one in red or blue at the bottom. These names may
+have been put in later. It must be admitted that the fruits, flowers,
+and insects are painted with the greatest care and neatness, though
+sometimes a little assisted by the imagination of the painter. The text
+and initials are rather heavy and commonplace. Now and then a border
+surrounds the text completely, where flowers or fruits are
+scattered--somewhat recklessly at times, but usually with good
+design--over a ground of plain gold, on which the branches, etc., cast
+heavy shadows. This part of the design is certainly Flemish. Where
+"histories" occur the border is a plain brown gilt frame within a black
+border. Undoubtedly the "Hours of Anne of Brittany" is a very precious
+volume. The figure subjects are of various degrees of excellence. The
+four evangelists are vivid, and recall the portraits of Ghirlandaio, and
+it is to Italy also that the illuminator is indebted for his
+architectural and sculptural details. Yet Bourdichon is inferior to
+Fouquet in colouring, as the latter is to the Italians in design and
+composition. Perhaps he is most successful in his flowers and insects.
+"Nothing," said Muntz, "is less like the elegant foliages of Ghirlandaio
+and Attavante, and nothing is more worthy of being put in comparison
+with them."[60]
+
+[60] _La Renaissance en Italie, etc_., 547-8.
+
+An illuminator of the name of Jehan Poyet is said to have assisted in
+the "Hours," thus while Bourdichon painted the miniatures, Poyet put in
+the flowers and fruit, etc.; but this share of work is by some believed
+to belong to a smaller Book of Hours executed for the Queen. Flowers and
+fruit are said to have been Poyet's speciality, and it is quite possible
+that he may have had the painting of the borders of the "Grandes
+Heures," while Bourdichon did the rest. The writer of the MS. was
+another native of Tours, named Jehan Riveron. During the reign of
+Francis I. the school of Tours was removed to Paris because the Court
+had settled there. Louis XII. had died in the Hôtel des Tournelles, and
+Francis, though full of plans for _plaisances_ elsewhere, lived mostly
+in Paris. Fontainebleau is the dream of the near future. Il Rosso, the
+Italian architect, painter, poet, and musician, was busy there amid a
+crowd of other artists from Florence and Rome--the refuse of a once
+brilliant sodality. It was the frivolous, pretty, graceful side of
+Italian art that came northward in that great migration--the graver and
+more dignified elements were left behind. To see what Italian art became
+in France, we have only to enter the Grand Gallery at Fontainebleau, and
+we see it at its best in architecture, sculpture, and painting. And we
+cannot help admiring it, for it is amazingly beautiful. Yet it is not
+Italian--the Italian of the Medici and Farnese palaces. Il Rosso was
+neither a Michelangelo nor a Carracci; but he set a fashion. He changed
+the face of art for France. Nor was it in painting and sculpture only.
+The Italian passion for devises, anagrams, emblems, and mottoes became
+the rage in Paris. It first came in with the return of Charles VIII.
+from his Neapolitan campaign. Louis XII. adopted the hedgehog or
+porcupine, with the motto "Cominus et eminus." His Queen Claude's motto
+was "Candida candidis." The Princess Marguerite's emblem was a marigold
+or heliotrope; others assigned her the daisy. Her motto: "Non inferiora
+secutus." The well-known emblem of Francis was a salamander--why, is a
+mystery--with the motto, "Nutrisco et extinguo." All this entered into
+the taste of the illuminator, and elegant cartouche frames--probably of
+Dutch origin, as we see in the old map-books of Ortelius Cluverius and
+Bleau, imported by Ortelius and his friends into Italy, and made use of
+by Clovis, and thence transferred to France--were made into
+border-frames for miniatures, varied with altar-forms, doorways, and
+other fanciful frameworks from the new architecture decorated with
+flowers, ribbons, panels, mottoes. Another new thing, too, no doubt
+afforded plenty of suggestion to the illuminator. This was stained
+glass. Jean Cousin was in his glory in glass-painting; Robert Pinagrier
+also. But it was Cousin who adopted the new Italian ideas, and whose
+works were models for the illuminator. In the backgrounds and details of
+his glass-paintings at Sens, Fleurigny, Paris, and elsewhere, we may
+trace his progress; and an excellent model, too, was Jean Cousin. He has
+other claims to remembrance in sculpture, engraving, authorship, but it
+is as the glass-painter that his influence is seen in illumination.
+Indeed, Mr. A.F. Didot strongly urged the probability that Cousin was
+himself the illuminator of the splendid Breviary or Hours of Claude
+Gouffier.[61] The drawing is in his best manner, the frame-border of
+_caryatides_ in camaieu is of a richness of ornamentation in keeping
+with the rest of the volume. The arms and motto of Gouffier are painted
+in it. It is objected that Cousin's name does not appear in the Gouffier
+account-books, while those of other artists are given. But only a
+portion of the accounts is extant. Cousin may, perhaps, only have
+designed the book, and the other miniaturists carried out his designs.
+At any rate, the accounts give us the names of three miniaturists which
+we may here record--Jean Lemaire, of Paris (1555), Charles Jourdain, and
+Geoffroy Ballin (1359). These "enlumineurs" are stated to have decorated
+two Books of Hours for Gouffier's wedding. As a good example of the
+style employed in the decoration of title-pages, we may quote the
+chimney-piece of the Château d'Anet, executed for Diane de Poitiers,
+where a sculptured marble frame surrounds a painted landscape. Many of
+the books of the time of Francis I. and Henry II. are ornamented in this
+style.
+
+[61] Now belonging to M. le Vicomte de Tanzé.
+
+In the British Museum are several fine MSS. illustrative of this period
+of French illumination, viz. Add. 18853, 18854, and 18855. These three
+MSS. formed part of the purchase which included the Bedford Offices.
+18853 is a Book of Offices executed apparently for Francis I. In some of
+the borders is a large F with the _Cordelière_ of the third Order of St.
+Francis and a rayed crown, and on folio 97 v. a large monogram
+consisting of the letter F, with two crossed sceptres and palm branches,
+surmounted by the crown-royal of France.
+
+Nothing is known of the history of the MS. from 1547 to 1723, when it
+was in possession of the Regent Philippe d'Orléans. Possibly it had
+remained as an heirloom in the family. Philippe gave it to his natural
+son the Abbé Rothelin, a great lover of rare books and a noted
+collector, at whose death it was bought by Gaignat, another collector,
+who sold it to the Duc de la Vallière, and so, step by step, it came at
+length to Sir John Tobin, of Liverpool, and thence to the British
+Museum.
+
+The partly sculpturesque character of the border-frames are of the kind
+just referred to, with festoons and garlands of flowers, and drapery,
+monograms, and emblems in full rich colours; the architecture and other
+ornaments sometimes finished with pencillings of gold. The miniatures
+are of excellent design and colour, finely modelled, and quite in the
+manner of the paintings of Fontainebleau. The text is a combination of
+Jarry-like Roman with italic. It may be compared with 18854, similar in
+some respects, but the smaller miniatures and the frames look more like
+the older school of Tours. This MS. is also a Book of Offices, and was
+written for François de Dinteville, Bishop of Auxerre, in 1525, as
+appears from an inscription in gold letters on fol. 26 v.
+
+[Illustration:
+OFFICM. B. MARIÆ VIRGINES
+C. 1530
+_Brit. Mus. Add. MS. 18853, fol. 52_]
+
+[Illustration:
+OFFICM. MORTUORUM.
+16TH CENT. (EARLY)
+_Brit. Mus. Egert. MS. 2125, fol. 183_]
+
+Some of the border-frames are drawn in sepia, others in red-brown or
+burnt siena, and highly finished with gold. The writing is a small Roman
+hand. On the whole it is richer in illustration than 18853, but not so
+perfect in drawing, yet it is a very fine MS. Sometimes it has a border
+like those in the "Hours of Anne of Brittany." On fol. 26 v. is a
+curious border of twisted ribbons covered with mottoes, such as
+"Virtutis fortuna comes", "Ingrates servire nephas," etc.
+
+Some of the tiny miniatures of the saints in the _Memoriæ_ are very
+charmingly painted: St. Mary Magdalene, for instance, on fol. 147 v. The
+pillar architecture of some of the borders, with pendant festoons of
+flowers, is also very handsome.
+
+18855, folio, is a Book of Offices written in a Gothic text. The
+miniatures are large full-page paintings within architectural frames or
+porches, with coloured pillars or pilasters with panels of rich blue,
+covered with golden traceries, bronze gold pendants at side,--occasional
+borders as in the "Hours of Anne of Brittany." The work is of the older
+school of Tours, but loaded with ornamental details from North Italian
+pilaster-work. Among the best miniatures are the Nativity (34 v.), the
+Adoration of the Magi (42 v.), and the Bathsheba. The last perhaps a
+little too open a scene for a lady's bathroom, but placed within a most
+gorgeous architectural window or doorway (fol. 62 v). Compare also Harl.
+5925, No. 574, for a title-page of French Renaissance style from a
+printed book, which suggests Venice as the source of the style of 18853.
+
+
+In the National Library at Paris are, of course, a number of this class
+of MSS., such as the Offices (MS. Lat. 10563), "Officium Beatæ Mariæ
+Virginis ad usum Romanor" (1531), or the exquisitely painted "Heures de
+Henry 2d" (fds. Lat. 1429), or the magnificent "Epistres d'Ovide" of
+Louisa of Savoy (fds. fr. 875), and others.
+
+By no means of less importance we may cite the beautiful volume
+belonging to the late Comte d'Haussonville, now in the Musée Condé at
+Chantilly, called the "Heures du Connétable Anne de Montmorency," and
+the "Heures de Dinteville" (MS. Lat. 10558), the decoration of which is
+quite on a par with the "Heures de Montmorency," or those of Henry II.,
+also the Psalter of Claude Gouffier (Arsenal Lib., 5095), containing the
+Psalms of Marot.
+
+It is scarcely worth while to carry the subject further. What is done
+later than Francis II. does not grow finer or better: it only becomes
+more overloaded with ornament, too much gold, too much richness. Even
+foliages are often variegated like pearls, or change gradually from
+colour to colour on the same sweep of acanthus as in a MS. in the
+British Museum attributed to Pierre Mignard ("Sol Gallicus," Add.
+23745). Compare also the "Heures de Louis XIV." Now and then an
+exceptional work, like that of D'Eaubonne at Rouen, belongs to no
+particular school.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE ILLUMINATION
+
+Late period of Spanish illumination--Isidore of Seville--Archives at
+Madrid--Barcelona--Toledo--Madrid--Choir-books of the Escorial--Philip
+II.--Illuminators of the choir-books--The size and beauty of the
+volumes--Fray Andrés de Leon and other artists--Italian
+influence--Giovanni Battista Scorza of Genoa--Antonio de Holanda,
+well-known Portuguese miniaturist in sixteenth century--His son
+Francesco--The choir-books at Belem--French invasion--Missal of
+Gonçalvez--Sandoval Genealogies--Portuguese Genealogies in British
+Museum--The Stowe Missal of John III.
+
+
+Since all the best and best-known work of Spanish or Portuguese
+illuminators was executed in the sixteenth century, and is manifestly a
+reflection with peculiar mannerisms of either Flemish or Italian
+illumination of the same period, it may seem almost superfluous to
+devote a separate chapter to the subject. Yet there is a goodly list of
+both Spanish and Portuguese artists who practised the art of
+illumination.
+
+So early as the time of Isidore of Seville we find notices of libraries,
+copyists, and the like (see book iv. of his Encyclopædia), and an able
+writer of the last century, Don José Maria de Eguren, published a work
+on the MS. rarities of Spain.[62] The most important of the miniatures in
+the famous Codex Vigilano are also reproduced in "El Museo Español de
+antiguedades," most interesting respecting the calligraphy and miniature
+art of the eleventh century.
+
+[62] _Memoria de los Codices notables conservados en los archivos
+ecleseasticos de Espana_. Madrid, 1859, L. 8°.
+
+One of the earliest instances of royal patronage bestowed on painting in
+Spain is a document in the Royal Library at Madrid, containing the
+expenses of King Sanchez IV. in 1291-2. Thus "to Rodrigo Esteban,
+painter of the king for many paintings done by the king's orders in the
+bishop's palace 100 golden maravedis." Again, in the archives at
+Barcelona we find that Juan Cesilles, painter of history, was engaged
+16th March, 1382, to paint the "History of the twelve apostles for the
+grand altar of the Church at Reps for 330 florins." In 1339 one Gonzalez
+Ferran had some reputation both as a wood engraver and a painter. He was
+probably a miniaturist. In 1340-81, Garcia Martinez, a Spanish
+illuminator, worked at Avignon. A copy of the Decretals, dated 1381, in
+the Cathedral Library of Seville is by his hand.
+
+In the fifteenth century we have many notices of painters, especially in
+Toledo, whither the taste was in all likelihood brought from Naples
+after the conquest of that kingdom by Alphonso V. of Aragon in 1441.
+
+It has been observed by those familiar with native Spanish art that its
+chief characteristic is that it is gloomy. This may be so, but it is not
+fairly chargeable to the artists but to the tyranny of the Spanish
+Inquisidor, who laid the embargo on the illuminator that he should not
+follow the wicked gaiety of the Italians, nor the sometimes too
+realistic veracity of the Flemings. This accounts usually for
+backgrounds of black where the Fleming would have had rich colour or
+gold for the prevalence of black in the draperies and for the sombre
+tone in general of Spanish painting. It is not always in evidence, as
+may be seen in many of the miniatures of the famous choir-books in the
+Escorial. The sombre period began under Ferdinand the Catholic, and it
+has left its mark on the schools of the fifteenth century. The sixteenth
+began a new era, and under Philip II. several, both Netherlandish and
+Italian, miniaturists were invited to assist in the production of the
+enormous choir-books ordered by the King for San Lorenzo of the
+Escorial, between 1572 and 1589. The volumes are bound in wooden boards
+covered with leather, stamped and bossed with ornaments of gilded
+bronze. It is said that 5,500 lbs. of bronze and 40 lbs. of pure gold
+were used in the bindings. The actual dimensions of the volumes are 115
+by 84 centimetres. Every volume has at least seventy folios, and every
+folio is splendidly illuminated, thus affording more than 30,000 pages
+covered with richly ornamented initials, miniatures, and borders. The
+illuminators and copyists of these choir-books were Cristobal Ramirez,
+who planned the work, fixed the size and other details of the volumes
+and the character of the handwriting, Fray Andrés de Leon, Fray Julian
+de Fuente del Saz, Ambrosio Salazar, Fray Martin de Palencia, Francisco
+Hernandez, Pedro Salavarte, and Pedro Gomez. Ramirez was engaged at the
+Escorial from 1566 to 1572. In the latter year he presented a Breviary
+with musical notation to the King, and was then engaged for the great
+undertaking mentioned above.
+
+Andrés Cristobal was also an illuminator of note at Seville, where he
+worked from 1555 to 1559. Andrés de Leon worked at the Escorial from
+1568, and is especially mentioned by Los Santos in his well-known
+description of the monastery of San Lorenzo: "Son de gran numero y
+excelencia las iluminaciones que tienen de mano nuestro Fray Andrés de
+Leon, que fue otro Don Julio en el Arte."[63] The allusion is to the
+celebrated Don Giulio Clovio, then in the height of his fame in Italy.
+Fray Julian received similar praise for a _capitolario_ for the
+principal festivals of the year, especially for the grand dimensions of
+the miniatures, the like of which the writer says had never been seen
+before, either in Spain or Italy. Andrés de Leon died at the Escorial in
+1580. Salazar continued working on them till they were completed, and in
+1590 went to Toledo, where he finished two Missals for the Cathedral,
+which had been begun by the famous Juan Martinez de los Corrales. He was
+still engaged on similar work until his death in 1604. Two other
+illuminators, Esteban and Julian de Salazar, were working at the
+Escorial in 1585. Bermudez[64] mentions Fray Martin de Palencia as having
+executed a volume in a fine handwriting and with beautiful miniatures
+for the monastery of Saso. Thus we see there were numerous miniaturists
+in Spain in the latest years of the existence of the art that had been
+imported chiefly from Italy.
+
+[63] Fr. Francisco de los Santos, _Description breve del Monasterio de S.
+Lorenzo el Real del Escorial_, 24.
+
+[64] Diccionario, iv. 24.
+
+After most of these great choir-books had been finished there were still
+others in progress. In 1583 Giovanni Battista Scorza of Genoa, who is
+celebrated in the "Galleria" of the Cavaliero Marini, was invited by the
+King to take part in his great choir-book scheme. Scorza was then
+thirty-six years of age, and in the height of his reputation as a
+painter of small animals and insects. After a little time he returned to
+Genoa, where he lived to be ninety years old. He had a brother,
+Sinibaldo, who was equally skilful in miniature, and especially in
+scenes from history. The Scorzas were pupils of Luca Cambiaso. It may be
+noticed that all this work in miniature, although so late in its own
+history, is accomplished before the greatest names in Spanish painting
+are known. Josefo Ribera was born in 1588; Zurbaran in 1598; Velasquez
+in 1599; Alonzo Cano in 1601; Murillo in 1617. This, in a sense, is the
+natural course of things, as, generally, illumination has preceded the
+other kinds of painting.
+
+With regard to Portugal, very little is recorded that does not in some
+way connect itself with Spain. So we find that Antonio and Francesco de
+Holanda, seemingly of Netherlandish origin, are mentioned in relation to
+the books illuminated for the Royal Monastery of Thomar; Francesco also
+worked for the monastery of Belem. Francesco de Holanda was a great
+admirer and imitator of Clovio, but he always insisted that his father
+Antonio was the inventor of the method of "stippling," as the finishing
+with minute points of colour is technically called, which was brought to
+such perfection by Clovio and his scholars and imitators.
+
+Taken altogether, the work of the Spanish illuminators at the Escorial
+and those of Toledo and Seville is really the same, with just the
+variations we might expect from pupils and imitators, as that of their
+masters in Genoa, Rome, Venice, or Bruges. Examples of it may be seen
+occasionally in diplomas, such as are found in the British Museum and
+other public libraries, as, _e.g._ Claud. B. x. Lansd. 189, Add. 12214,
+18191, 27231, etc.
+
+In 1572, the same year in which Luiz de Camoens published his Lusiades,
+an accomplished calligrapher, Miguel Barata, published an elaborate
+treatise on his own art, then in high repute.
+
+In the fourteenth century the Cancioniero of Don Pedro Affonso Ct. de
+Barcellos affords an example of the calligraphy (for which Spain and
+Portugal have always been famous) and illumination which is precious for
+the student. It is still in existence in the Palace of Ajuda. Its date
+is 1320-40. And there are MSS. in the Torre do Tombo of Lisbon that are
+richly illuminated. Again, in Seville there is the "Juego de las
+Tablas," executed under Alphonso the Wise in 1283, with its Gothic
+arcades and ornaments. M. Joaquin de Vasconcellas has made a study of
+this MS. The miniatures of the Torre do Tombo of the thirteenth and
+fourteenth centuries are mostly of the French school.
+
+About 1428 33 was executed a splendid MS. entitled "Leal Conselheiro,"
+which is attributed to a famous miniaturist in his time named Vasco. It
+is, however, simply a monument of penmanship, as it contains no
+miniatures. The MS. has been edited by L'Abbé Roquete in 1842. The
+Portuguese MSS. of the fifteenth century betray a decided Flemish
+influence, as well they may, for probably the producers of them were
+Flemings. Constant intercourse with the Court of Burgundy had something
+to do with this.
+
+The "Chronica do descobrimento e conquista de Guiné," now at Torre do
+Tombo, is clearly a Flemish work. It was begun about 1440, and finished
+in 1453. The portrait of the Enfante Don Henrique, called the Navigator,
+is set in a border evidently by a pupil or imitator of J. Van Eyck. The
+calligraphy of the MS. is most beautiful. This influence of the
+Netherlands on Portuguese art is, indeed, confirmed by the political
+diplomatic relations of the fifteenth century, and is of some importance
+in the history of art. We shall refer again to this matter when dealing
+with another MS.
+
+Among all the calligraphic monuments of Portugal it is claimed that the
+most splendid is the "Bible of the Hieronymites." (See _Revista
+universal Lisbonense_, 1848, pp. 24-8.) This work, it is said, was a
+present from the Court of Rome to Emanuel, successor of John II., in
+remembrance of the homage made to the Holy See, of the first gold
+brought from the Indies, but the story is very doubtful. The King, in
+bequeathing the seven volumes to the convent of Belem, says nothing
+about such an origin. They are manifestly in great part the work of
+foreign artists. One well-known miniaturist, Antonio de Holanda, the
+father of the better-known Francesco, took part in the work, and having
+a good conceit of his own abilities (we shall probably hear of him
+again), reserved an entire volume to himself in order to give proof of
+them. The seven volumes which then were covered with crimson velvet and
+silver bosses and enamels, are now simply bound in red morocco. In the
+middle of each cover are the arms of Emanuel King of Portugal. Vols. v.
+and vii. have those of Dona Isabel, his Spanish wife.
+
+The initials and ornaments show that the art of Italy is freely mixed
+with that of Portugal. Indeed, from the signatures in the volumes it is
+seen that the work of the penman was Italian; vol. i. being written at
+Ferrara by Sigismundo de Sigismundis, the well-known Italian
+calligrapher, in 1495. The second volume, also finished in 1495, bears
+the name of Alessandro Verazzano, another famous copyist, who wrote
+several of the volumes illuminated by Attavante. Vol. iii. is dated
+1496, and is unsigned. The next three volumes are also without
+signature. Vol. vii. is the work of Antonio de Holanda, who from his
+name appears to have been of Dutch descent. His work is certainly
+excellent, and renders this volume a very precious monument of the art
+of Portugal. He was the official herald of the King, and he and his son
+Francesco gave their whole time to the practice of illumination. His
+son's Memoirs give a most interesting account of his travels and
+intercourse with Giulio Clovio and the other Italian artists whom he met
+with in Rome.[65] For some years the Hieronymite Bible was in Paris,
+having been brought thither by Marshal Junot, where it remained
+unnoticed for several years. Being called for by the Portuguese
+Government, Louis XVIII. paid 50,000 francs to the family of Junot, and
+restored it to the monastery of Belem. A splendidly illuminated atlas by
+an illuminator and cartographer named Fernando Vas Dourado was published
+in the year of his death, 1571.
+
+[65] See my Life of Clovio.
+
+As an important example of what we may fairly call native art, we will
+now briefly refer to the celebrated Missal of Estevam Gonçalvez Neto,
+one of the productions of the busy second half of the sixteenth century.
+The clever amateur who achieved this beautiful series of paintings, for
+paintings they are, in addition to the writing and other ornamentation
+of the MS., was descended from a noble family of Sêrem, in the parish of
+Macinhata, forty-three leagues from Lisbon. He became Canon of Viseu,
+and during his leisure, after this appointment, executed the Pontifical
+Missal which bears his name. It is dedicated to Don Josè Manuel, of the
+House of Tancos, Bishop of Viseu, afterwards of Coimbra, and lastly
+Archbishop of Lisbon. This prelate gave the book to the Church of Viseu.
+The original MS. was afterwards in the library of the Convent of Jesus,
+and is now in the Academy of Sciences at Lisbon. Stephen Gonsalvez died
+July 29th, 1627. The Missal is signed: "Steph. Glz. Abbas Sereicencis
+fac. 1610." It has been very well reproduced in colours by Macia, of
+Paris.
+
+The "Genealogies of the House of Sandoval," written and painted in
+Lisbon in 1612, is now in Paris. It is called "Genealogia universal de
+la Nobilissima casa de Sandoval Ramo del Generoso tronco de los
+soberanos Reyes de Castilla y Leon. Por Don Melchior de Teves del
+Conseio Real de Castilla del Rey D? Philippe III."
+
+At the foot of the page is written "Eduardus Caldiera Vlisspone
+scripsit, Anno Dni MDCXII." This magnificent MS., which measures
+forty-six by thirty centimetres, is numbered in the Catalogue of the
+National Library as 10015. A grand frontispiece, formed of two columns
+of the Composite Order, occupies the first page, representing a king in
+royal robes and crown arresting the wheel of Fortune. Two lions
+accompany the scene, and the motto of the picture is "Virtute duce non
+comite Fortuna." Page 2 contains the various escutcheons of the family
+of the Count of Lerma, for whom the book was written. It contains a
+great number of portraits. A final instance of the influence, or rather
+the inroad, of Flemish art in Portugal in the fifteenth century may be
+shown in the MS. called the Portuguese Genealogies in the British
+Museum.
+
+The work consists of eleven large folio sheets separately mounted and
+measuring eighteen by ten inches. It commences with a prologue, with the
+arms of Portugal supported by two savages, having clubs and shields.
+Outside the inner frame are three scenes: (1) wild animals in combat;
+(2) a sea-nymph being rescued; (3) a fight among sylvan savages. Next
+comes a series of portraits painted in the most finished and life-like
+style, beginning with Dom Garcia F° del rey Abarca and Dona Constancia
+on a fruitful tree with foliage, fruits, and birds, a cat, and other
+things. The tree is an oak, beside it are apple and cherry trees. On the
+oak are green acorns. The birds are very beautiful, the cat simply
+perfect. These details recall the highly finished and lovely work of
+Georg Hoefnagel on the great Missal at Vienna. Gothic brown-gold
+architecture and three battle scenes complete the page.
+
+Then follow the genealogical tables, and more portraits, the whole
+showing the most patient and careful work. Letters on the borders of the
+robes recall the same kind of ornament in the Grimani Breviary at
+Venice. No one has been able to explain these curious inscriptions. In
+the Grimani Breviary they were thought to be either Croatian or merely
+ornament. Here they cannot well mean anything but decoration. The
+portraits are fanciful but interesting mementoes of the period, and
+include several personages noted in history.
+
+The last MS. to be mentioned in this hasty sketch is one in the British
+Museum (Stowe 597). It is a "Missale Romanum," and is said to have been
+illuminated for John III. in 1557. It was once the property of the Abbé
+Gamier, chaplain for near thirty years, of the French factory at Lisbon.
+The binding is red morocco, and once had silver clasps.
+
+It commences with a large mirror-like oval tablet, containing the title,
+set between two pillars of pink-veined marble with bronze-gold capitals
+and bases. The tablet is crimson with a violet-slate frame moulding of
+egg and dart pattern. At foot are two Roman legionaries, one seated as
+supporting the tablet, on each side. On folio 3 is the index in a
+rose-wood panel and pale green frame. The peculiar forms of the frames
+and the scroll-work on them are of the fantastic kind, differing from
+Italian, which is characteristic both of Spanish and Portuguese
+ornament. The chief colours are a bright emerald green and blue, with
+ochre, gold, and crimson. The initials are still more fantastic--partly
+human, partly plant or fish-form, sometimes sculptured ornament and
+plant-forms combined--but all so sweetly painted and so delicately
+finished as to be most attractive. The text is a fine and elegant Roman
+minuscule interspersed with italic.
+
+Here and there are exquisite little drawings of ecclesiastical utensils,
+etc., but the everlasting variety among the quaint and fanciful initials
+provides an unwearying fund of interest. Tiny birds of the loveliest
+plumage sit among and beneath the limbs of the letters, or elegant
+scrolls of pencilled gold cover the little coloured panels on which the
+plain gold Roman initials are placed. Some of the larger initials are
+very finely executed and contain full-length figures of saints, bishops,
+or queens. One lovely initial B has a graceful girl simply clad in blue
+tunic and pale yellow skirt with a silken coil of pale rose forming the
+upper loop of the letter, the lower being formed of the curved body of a
+green dragon. Her left hand lifts the silk-work, her right, hanging by
+her side, holds a little golden pitcher. The whole is painted on a panel
+of bright gold. Another (L) shows a peasant rushing laughingly, with a
+hare slung over his shoulder, past the figure of a guardian terminus of
+bronze. But the Missal should be seen to be properly understood, for
+though in a general way it has a look of Italian influence, its
+originality is beyond question.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+ILLUMINATION SINCE THE INVENTION OF PRINTING
+
+The invention of printing--Its very slight effect on
+illuminating--Preference by rich patrons for written books--Work
+produced in various cities in the sixteenth century--Examples in German,
+Italian, and other cities, and in various public libraries up to the
+present time.
+
+
+The art of printing, as the reading world has been frequently informed,
+was invented in the fifteenth century, and undoubtedly had, to a
+considerable extent, a destructive effect upon the craft of professional
+copyists. But in the fifteenth century the art of the writer and that of
+the illuminator had long been separate professions. There was no
+particular reason, therefore, why the invention of printing should
+interfere with the illuminator. As a matter of fact, it made little
+difference. Nor, indeed, did printing entirely put a stop to the
+professional career of the scribe. It was prophesied, before practical
+experience of facts proved the contrary, that the invention of the
+railway engine would abolish the horse. The printing-press did not
+abolish the penman, but it certainly spoiled his trade. We have seen in
+the course of the preceding chapters that it did not spoil the trade of
+the illuminator. Nor was it quite owing to the fact that many printed
+books were so adorned as to appear like illuminated MSS. More than one
+wealthy patron absolutely declined to have anything to do with printed
+books. The matter was too vulgar and too cheap. The last Duke of Urbino
+was a prince of this lofty way of thinking, and scarcely a court in
+Europe but continued to have MSS. produced as if no such thing as the
+printing-press were known. How they were multiplied in Spain and France
+we have seen in detail. We will now proceed to take a farewell look at
+the German and Italian libraries, in order to see how the illustrious
+presses of Mainz, Strassburg, Augsburg, Köln, Munich, Vienna, Venice,
+Milan, Florence, and Rome affected the ateliers of the great schools of
+illumination established in most of these cities. What do we find? In
+point of fact, some of the richest, most magnificent books ever produced
+by the illuminator, not only whilst the press was still a novelty, but
+long after it had become perfectly familiar to everybody. For several of
+the cities aforesaid we have the means of proof: thus for Mainz, at the
+end of the superb copy of the Mazarine Bible, now at Paris, is the
+following inscription: "Iste liber illuminatus, legatus and completus
+est henricum Cremer vicari? ecclesie collegiate Sancti Stephani
+Moguntini sub anno dni Melesimo quatring entesimo quinquagesimo Sexto,
+festo assumptiois gloriose Virginis Marie. Deo gratias alleluya." This
+was in 1456, the year before the first press was set up. In 1524 we have
+two most splendidly illuminated MSS.--a Missal and a Prayer-book--executed by order of Albert of Brandenburg, Archbishop of
+Mainz. Two richer examples of the German Renaissance cannot easily be
+imagined. We cannot dilate upon them. We may, however, truly say that
+together with very many other examples of illuminated work, both in
+manuscripts and printed books, they show the art of the illuminator to be
+no less splendid or elaborate after the invention of printing than it
+was before.
+
+On the last page of the Missal is written: "Ich Niklas Glockendon zu
+Nurenberg hab dieses Bhuch illuminiert ond vollent im jar 1524."
+
+The Prayer-book is similarly adorned with miniatures and brightly
+coloured borders. On the cover is a copy of the Archbishop's portrait,
+painted by Dürer, and on folio 1 is written by the Archbishop himself:
+"Anno domini MDXXXI completum est presens opus, Sabbato post
+'Invocavit.' Albertus Cardinalis moguntinus manu propria scripsit."
+
+Other Glockendon books exist in other libraries. Then there is the Beham
+Prayer-book at Aschaffenburg and a Bible in the library at Wolfenbüttel
+in two thick 4° volumes--a work well worth examination. At Nuremberg is
+the Service-book executed by Conrad Frankendorfer, of Nuremberg, in
+1498.
+
+In the British Museum is the fine German MS.--the Splendor Sous, a
+sixteenth century MS. (Harl. 3469).
+
+In the National Library at Paris is the Prayer-book of William of Baden
+(10567-8) executed at Strassburg by Frederic Brentel in 1647.
+
+Augsburg was producing illuminated Service-books ten years after Günther
+Zainer had set up the press in that city.
+
+Munich, also, with the Penitential Psalms, etc., by Hans Mielich.
+Vienna, too, can show a magnificent Missal by Georg Hoefnagel, bearing
+the dates 1582 to 1590. Venice is represented in the work of Benedetto
+Bordone and the Ducali. Florence in the splendid Missals, etc., of
+Attavante and his contemporaries.
+
+Milan shows the gorgeous Graduals of the Brera belonging to the
+sixteenth century and the Sforziadas of London and Paris. So we might
+pass from city to city almost all over Western Europe. The great Spanish
+choir-books were almost all produced under Philip II. Several Papal
+Service-books are represented in the fifteenth-and sixteenth-century
+examples of the scrap-book 21412 of the British Museum; and the works of
+Clovio, the most noted of Italian illuminators, all belong to the
+sixteenth century.
+
+These instances are amply sufficient to prove that in every city in
+Europe where printing was in full practice the art of the illuminator
+continued to flourish until the progress of modern inventions and
+various processes, added to the general cheapening of books, led to its
+disuse. Its present application seems to be almost solely to diplomas
+and testimonials, and in point of quality, usually as poor and
+spiritless as the incapacity of most of its professors can make it.
+
+There seems, however, no reason why the artistic skill and elaborate
+methods of reproduction of the present day should not produce
+magnificent books--indeed the "Imitation" of Thomas à Kempis, and other
+continental examples prove that this is amply possible.
+
+The next few years will probably show that readers are still desirous of
+possessing beautiful books, and that artists are still found capable of
+producing them.
+
+
+
+
+MANUSCRIPTS THAT MAY BE CONSULTED AS EXAMPLES
+
+(Partly taken by permission from the Victoria and Albert Museum
+Handbook)
+
+CLASSICAL AND EARLY CHRISTIAN
+
+--+------------- +-------------------------+---------+---------------------
+No|    Name.    |   Where    | Where Kept. |  Date.  |      Remarks.
+  |             |  Produced. |             |         |
+--+-------------+------------+-------------+---------+---------------------
+ 1|Vergil       |......      |Vatican Lib.,|3rd or   |Doubtful which is the
+  |(fragment)   |            |Rome, Cod.   |4th cent.|older
+  |             |            |Vat. 3225    |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 2|Vergil       |......      |Vat. Lib.    |4th cent.|"
+  |             |            |3867         |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 3|Rom.         |......      |Imp. Lib.,   |"        |
+  |Calend.(f.)  |            |Vienna       |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 4|Genesis (f.) |......      |"            |5th cent.|Gold and silver text
+  |             |            |             |         |on purple vellum; 88
+  |             |            |             |         |miniatures.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 5|Genesis (f.) |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |"        |Much burnt in 1731.
+  |             |            |Cott. Oth. B.|         |
+  |             |            |6            |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 6|Iliad (f.)   |......      |Ambros. Lib.,|"        |Fine handwriting and
+  |             |            |Milan        |         |clever pictures.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 7|Joshua (f. of|......      |Vat. Lib.,   |......   |15 leaves, 32 ft.
+  |Roll)        |            |Rome         |         |long, 11 in. wide.
+  |             |            |             |         |Contains from ch.
+  |             |            |             |         |222 to 1018, brush
+  |             |            |             |         |outlines to
+  |             |            |             |         |miniatures. Rivers,
+  |             |            |             |         |etc., personified in
+  |             |            |             |         |Byzantine manner.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 8|Dioscorides, |......      |Imp. Lib.,   |_c._     |Personifications of
+  |etc.         |            |Vienna       |500-5    |abstract qualities.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 9|Bible of     |......      |Laurent.     |_c._ 540 |Valuable as a
+  |Montamiata   |            |Lib.,        |         |theological document,
+  |             |            |Florence     |         |but poor work, and in
+  |             |            |             |         |bad condition.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+10|Syriac       |Monastery of|"            |_c._ 586 |Brought to Florence
+  |Gospels      |Zagba, in   |             |         |in 1497. Remarkable
+  |             |Mesopotamia |             |         |Crucifixion, see
+  |             |            |             |         |_Byzantine_, 1.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+11|Terence      |......      |Nat. Lib.,   |9th cent.|Copy of a 5th-cent.
+  |             |            |Paris        |         |MS. pen-drawings.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+12|Pentateuch   |Tours       |Nat. Lib.,   |7th cent.|Called the Ashburnham
+  |             |            |Paris, Nouv. |         |Pentateuch; 19 large
+  |             |            |acq. 2334    |         |miniatures.
+
+
+BYZANTINE
+
+--+-------------+------------+-------------+---------+---------------------
+No|    Name.    |   Where    | Where Kept. |  Date.  |      Remarks.
+  |             |  Produced. |             |         |
+--+-------------+------------+-------------+---------+---------------------
+ 1|Syriac       |Zagba, in   |Laur. Lib.,  |_c._ 586 |Shows Byzantine
+  |Gospels      |Mesopotamia |Florence     |         |influence.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 2|Gospel-book  |Byzantium   |Brit. Mus.,  |6th cent.|Lettering, etc., on
+  |(f.)         |            |Add. 5111    |         |gold ground.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 3|Menologium   |"           |Vat. Lib.,   |9th cent.|A typical Byzantine
+  |             |            |Gr. 1613     |         |MS.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 4|Gregory of   |Byzantium   |Nat. Lib.,   |9th cent.|Fine antique design
+  |Nazianzum    |            |Paris, Gr.   |         |and composition.
+  |             |            |510          |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 5|"            |"           |Nat. Lib.,   |"        |Good small figures.
+  |             |            |Paris, Gr.   |         |
+  |             |            |543          |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 6|"            |"           |Nat. Lib.,   |"        |Good small figures
+  |             |            |Paris, Gr.   |         |and headings.
+  |             |            |550          |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 7|Evangeliary  |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |"        |
+  |             |            |Arund. 547   |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 8|"            |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |"        |
+  |             |            |Burney 19,   |         |
+  |             |            |20.          |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 9|Lectionary   |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |10th     |Fine initials.
+  |             |            |Harl. 5598   |cent.,   |
+  |             |            |             |end      |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+10|Chrysostom   |......      |Nat. Lib.,   |10th     |Remarkable initials.
+  |             |            |Paris, Gr.   |cent.    |
+  |             |            |654          |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+11|Simeon       |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |11th     |Fine ornaments.
+  |Metaphrastes |            |Add. 11870   |cent.    |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+12|Evangeliary  |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |"        |Beautiful headings.
+  |             |            |Add. 11838   |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+13|Psalter      |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |12th     |Executed for
+  |             |            |Add. Egert.  |cent.    |Melisenda, daughter
+  |             |            |1139         |         |of King of Jerusalem.
+
+
+IRISH OR CELTIC
+
+--+-------------+--------------------------+---------+---------------------
+No|    Name.    |   Where    | Where Kept. |  Date.  |      Remarks.
+  |             |  Produced. |             |         |
+--+-------------+------------+-------------+---------+---------------------
+ 1|Gospels of   |......      |Trin. Coll., |7th cent.|
+  |St. Columba  |            |Dublin       |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 2|Gospels of   |St. Arnoul's|Nuremberg    |"        |
+  |St. Arnoul,  |Abbey, Metz |Museum       |         |
+  |of Metz      |            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 3|Book of St.  |......      |Roy. Lib.,   |"        |
+  |Columbanus   |            |Naples       |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 4|Bible of St. |......      |Cath. Lib.,  |8th cent.|Curious Crucifixion.
+  |Kilian       |            |Wurzburg     |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 5|Gospels of   |Monastery of|Pub. Lib.,   |"        |Signed "Thomas
+  |"Thomas"     |Hanow       |Trèves       |         |scribsit."
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 6|Psalter      |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |"        |Anglo-Irish, with
+  |             |            |Cott. Vesp.  |         |arched frame-border.
+  |             |            |a. 1         |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 7|Gospels of   |......      |Bodl. Lib.,  |9th cent.|_See_ Westwood,
+  |MacRegol     |            |Oxford       |         |_Palæographia Sacra
+  |             |            |             |         |Pict._, pl. 16.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 8|Book of      |......      |Roy. Irish   |"        |P. 103. Remarkable.
+  |Armagh       |            |Acad., Dublin|         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 9|St. Chad's   |......      |Lichfield    |"        |Fine Anglo-Irish.
+  |Gospels      |            |Cath. Lib.   |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+10|Lindisfarne  |Lindisfarne |Brit. Mus.,  |7th cent.|Anglo-Celtic--a very
+  |Gospels      |Monastery   |Cott, Nero D.|         |fine example.
+  |             |            |4            |         |
+
+
+CAROLINGIAN
+
+--+-------------+--------------------------+---------+---------------------
+No|    Name.    |   Where    | Where Kept. |  Date.  |      Remarks.
+  |             |  Produced. |             |         |
+--+-------------+------------+-------------+---------+---------------------
+ 1|Sacramentary |Abbey of    |Nat. Lib.,   |_c._ 750 |Symbolism. Given by
+  |             |Gellone     |Paris, MS.   |         |Ct. William of
+  |             |            |Lat. 12048   |         |Toulouse.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 2|Ada-Codex    |Abbey of St.|Municip.     |_c._ 775 |Written for Ada,
+  |             |Mesmin, of  |Lib., Trèves |         |sister of
+  |             |Trèves      |             |         |Charlemagne, Abbess
+  |             |            |             |         |of St. Mesmin.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 3|Psalter of   |.....       |Imp. Lib.,   |_c._ 780 |Written for Queen
+  |Dagolfus     |            |Vienna Theol.|         |Hildegardis, wife of
+  |             |            |Lat. 1861    |         |Charlemagne.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 4|Evangeliarium|Abbey of St.|Nat. Lib.,   |"        |Written for
+  |of Godescale |Sernin, of  |Paris, nouv. |         |Charlemagne and
+  |             |Toulouse    |acq. 1203    |         |Hildegardis. Has gold
+  |             |            |             |         |and silver letters on
+  |             |            |             |         |purple vellum.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 5|Sacramentary |Abbey of St.|Abb. St.     |"        |Franco-Saxon.
+  |of Gelasius  |Gall        |Gall, No. 348|         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 6|Evangeliarium|Abbey of St.|Town Lib.,   |_c._ 793 |On purple vellum.
+  |of St.       |Riquier     |Abbeville    |         |
+  |Angilbert    |            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 7|Alcuin Bible |Abbey of    |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 800 |Coronation gift to
+  |             |Tours       |Add. 10546   |         |Charlemagne. Very
+  |             |            |             |         |fine example.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 8|Bible        |Tours       |Cantonal     |"        |Like 7.
+  |             |            |Lib., Zurich |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 9|"            |"           |Bamberg Roy. |"        |Said to be an exact
+  |             |            |Lib          |         |copy of 7.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+10|Gospels of   |"           |Imp. Lib.,   |"        |Found by Emperor Otho
+  |Charles the  |            |Vienna       |         |III. in tomb of
+  |Great        |            |             |         |Charlemagne.
+  |(Charlemagne)|            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+11|Sacramentary |Abbey of    |Nat. Lib.    |_c._ 814 |The gift of
+  |of Drogo,    |Metz, or    |Paris, Theol.|         |Charlemagne to his
+  |Abp. of Metz |Tours       |Lat. 9428    |         |natural son Drogo.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+12|Golden       |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 835 |A splendid example.
+  |Gospels of   |            |Harl. 2788   |         |
+  |Athelstan    |            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+13|Golden       |......      |Roy. Lib.,   |_c._ 850 |Ditto, written in
+  |Gospels of   |            |Munich       |         |gold letters.
+  |Charles the  |            |             |         |
+  |Bald         |            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+14|Evangeliary  |Abbey of St.|Nat. Lib.,   |"        |Remarkably beautiful.
+  |of Lothaire  |Martin's,   |Paris, Theol.|         |
+  |             |Tours       |Lat. 266     |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+15|Golden       |Abbey of St.|Nat. Lib.,   |"        |One of most beautiful
+  |Gospels      |Médard, of  |Paris, Theol.|         |Carol. MSS. known.
+  |             |Soissons    |Lat 8850     |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+16|Bible of     |Abbey of St.|Nat. Lib.,   |"        |Presented to Charles
+  |Count Vivien |Martin, of  |Paris, Theol.|         |the Bald in 850.
+  |             |Tours       |Lat 1        |         |Miniature of
+  |             |            |             |         |presentation.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+17|Bible of St. |......      |Monastery of |_c._ 860 |Written for Charles
+  |Paul's       |            |St. Calixtus,|         |the Bald by Ingobert.
+  |             |            |Rome         |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+18|Prayer-book  |......      |Nat Lib.,    |_c._ 866 |Written by Ingobert
+  |(or Hours) of|            |Paris        |         |and presented to
+  |Charles the  |            |             |         |Charles the Bald in
+  |Bald         |            |             |         |866.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+19|Golden       |Abbey of St.|Lib. at St.  |_c._ 870 |Written for Abbot
+  |Gospels of   |Gall        |Gall, No. 22 |         |Grimwold, or Hartmut.
+  |St. Gall     |            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+20|Psalter of   |"           |Lib. at St.  |"        |Written for Abbot
+  |Folchard     |            |Gall, No. 23 |         |Hartmut. Gold and
+  |             |            |             |         |silver initials.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+21|Evangeliarium|St. Gall    |Lib., St.    |_c._ 920 |Written by Sintramn
+  |Longum       |            |Gall         |         |of the "Wondrous
+  |             |            |             |         |Hand." Profile
+22|Evangeliary  |......      |Roy. Lib.,   |_c._ 925 |foliages in gold and
+  |             |            |Brussels, No.|         |silver.
+  |             |            |16383        |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+23|"            |......      |Nat. Lib.,   |_c._ 940 |Large 4°, written
+  |             |            |Paris        |         |entirely in gold
+  |             |            |             |         |letters; 5 miniatures
+  |             |            |             |         |and 12 porticoes.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+24|Psalter      |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 995 |Transition to the
+  |             |            |Harl. 2904   |         |style of the
+  |             |            |             |         |Benedictionals.
+
+
+WINCHESTER WORK AND SIMILAR
+
+--+-------------+--------------------------+---------+---------------------
+No|    Name.    |   Where    | Where Kept. |  Date.  |      Remarks.
+  |             |  Produced. |             |         |
+--+-------------+------------+-------------+---------+---------------------
+ 1|King Edgar's |Hyde Abbey, |Brit. Mus.,  |966      |Style of the
+  |Charter      |Winchester  |Cott. Vesp.  |         |Benedictionals of
+  |             |            |A. 8         |         |Æthelwold and Robert.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 2|Breviarium   |Monte       |Mazarine     |......   |Tendency to same
+  |Cassinense   |Cassino?    |Lib., Paris, |         |style colouring as in
+  |             |            |759          |         |school of Metz.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 3|Æthelwold's  |Hyde Abbey, |Lib. of Duke |_c._ 970 |Best example known.
+  |Benedictional|Winchester  |of Devonshire|         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 4|Benedictional|"           |Pub. Lib.,   |_c._ 980 |Drawing bold, but
+  |of Abp.      |            |Rouen        |         |colouring unequal to
+  |Robert       |            |             |         |3.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 5|Gospels      |......      |Trin. Coll., |_c._ 900 |Borders like
+  |             |            |Camb         |         |Winchester work.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 6|Psalter      |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |......   |Fol. frames similar.
+  |             |            |Harl. 2904   |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 7|"            |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1000|Init. D on f. 115.
+  |             |            |Tib. C. 7    |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 8|"            |Winchester  |Brit. Mus.,  |"        |
+  |             |            |Arund. 60    |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 9|"            |"           |Brit. Mus.,  |"        |
+  |             |            |Arund. 155   |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+10|Cnut's       |"           |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1017|Fine example.
+  |Gospels      |            |Roy. 1 D. 9  |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+11|Leofric      |......      |Bodl. Lib.,  |10th     |Byzantine influence.
+  |Missal       |            |Oxford No.   |cent.    |
+  |             |            |579          |         |
+
+
+MONASTIC STYLES
+
+--+-------------+--------------------------+---------+---------------------
+No|    Name.    |   Where    | Where Kept. |  Date.  |      Remarks.
+  |             |  Produced. |             |         |
+--+-------------+------------+-------------+---------+---------------------
+ 1|Weissobrun   |Weissobrun  |Roy. Lib.,   |_c._ 814 |Netherlandish.
+  |Prayer-book  |            |Munich       |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 2|Gospels      |......      |Nat. Lib.,   |_c._ 975 |Medallions of
+  |             |            |Paris, 8851  |         |Emperors Henry I. and
+  |             |            |             |         |Otho I and II.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 3|Egbert Codex |Reichenau   |Pub. Lib.    |977-93   |Beautiful initials.
+  |             |            |Trèves, No.  |         |
+  |             |            |24           |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 4|Gospels      |Echternach  |Gotha Museum |_c._ 990 |Portrait of Otho III.
+  |             |            |             |         |and Theophanu.
+  |             |            |             |         |Jewelled covers.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 5|Otho Codex   |......      |Roy. Lib.,   |_c._ 998 |See p. 91.
+  |             |            |Munich Cimel.|         |
+  |             |            |58           |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 6|Gospels      |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |10th     |Branch-work initials.
+  |             |            |Egert. 608   |cent.    |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 7|Bernward's   |Hildesheim  |Cath. Lib.,  |993-1022 |
+  |Gospels      |            |Hildesheim   |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 8|Ellinger's   |Tegernsee   |Roy. Lib.,   |_c._ 1056|
+  |Gospels      |            |Munich No. 31|         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 9|Hortus       |Landsberg   |Formerly at  |_c._     |Burnt in 1670.
+  |Deliciarum   |            |Strassburg   |1175-80  |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+10|Life of      |Tegernsee   |Roy. Lib.,   |1173-1200|Written, etc., for
+  |Virgin       |            |Berlin       |         |the Emperor Frederick
+  |             |            |             |         |I. by Werinher.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+11|Plenarium    |Quedlinburg |Town Lib.,   |1184-1203|Written for Abbess
+  |             |            |Quedlinburg  |         |Agnes.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+12|Passionale   |Arnstein,   |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1194|
+  |             |near Trèves |Harl. 2800-2 |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+13|Bible        |"           |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1190|
+  |             |            |Harl. 2803   |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+14|"            |Floreffe    |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1253|Chronological tables
+  |             |            |Add. 17737-8 |         |in coloured inks.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+15|Missal       |St. Bavon of|Brit. Mus.,  |1150-1175|
+  |             |Ghent       |Add. 16949   |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+16|Chronicle of |......      |Roy. Lib.,   |......   |Fine miniatures--
+  |Jerusalem    |            |Brussels, No.|         |costumes.
+  |             |            |11142        |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+17|Psalter      |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |12th     |Transition from
+  |             |            |Arund. 157   |cent.    |Winchester to
+  |             |            |             |         |Othonian.
+18|"            |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |"        |
+  |             |            |Lansd. 420   |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+19|"            |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |"        |
+  |             |            |Lansd. 431   |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+20|"            |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |"        |
+  |             |            |Roy. I D.X.  |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+21|Bible        |St.         |Brit. Mus.,  |"        |Typical 12th cent.
+  |             |Nicholas, of|Harl. 2798   |         |MS.
+  |             |Arnstein    |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+22|Vauclere     |......      |Pub. Lib.,   |......   |A perfect type of
+  |Psalter      |            |Laon, No. 29 |         |12th cent.
+  |             |            |             |         |illumination.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+23|Mater        |Scheyern    |Roy. Lib.,   |......   |By Conrad of
+  |Verborum     |            |Munich       |         |Scheyern, with all
+  |             |            |             |         |manner of diagrams,
+  |             |            |             |         |etc.
+
+
+FRENCH AND ANGLO-FRENCH GOTHIC
+
+--+-------------+--------------------------+---------+---------------------
+No|    Name.    |   Where    | Where Kept. |  Date.  |      Remarks.
+  |             |  Produced. |             |         |
+--+-------------+------------+-------------+---------+---------------------
+ 1|Psalter of   |.....       |Musée Condé, |1193-1236|27 large miniatures
+  |Queen        |            |Ghantilly    |         |Transitional to
+  |Ingeburga    |            |             |         |Gothic
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 2|Psalter of   |.....       |Arsenal Lib.,|_c._ 1220|Hieratic, and
+  |Queen        |            |Paris, Theol.|         |transitional to
+  |Blanche,     |            |Lat. 165 B.  |         |Gothic.
+  |mother of    |            |             |         |
+  |Louis IX.    |            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 3|Psalter of   |.....       |Nat. Lib.,   |_c._ 1250|Transitional to
+  |St. Louis    |            |Paris, No.   |         |Gothic. 78 delicate
+  |(IX.)        |            |10525        |         |miniatures.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 4|Joinville's  |.....       |Nat. Lib.,   |1287     |Gothic portrait of
+  |Credo        |            |Paris        |         |St. Louis.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 5|Alfonso      |Blackfriar's|Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1284|See article in _Fine
+  |Psalter      |London      |Add. 24686   |         |Arts Qu. Rev._, i.
+  |(Tenison)    |            |             |         |77, and
+  |             |            |             |         |_Bibliographica_, pt.
+  |             |            |             |         |4.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 6|Bible        |.....       |Brit. Mus.,  |1225-52  |Richly illuminated.
+  |             |            |Burney 3     |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 7|Somme le Roy |.....       |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1300|9 large
+  |             |            |Add. 28162   |         |illuminations.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 8|Life of St.  |.....       |Nat. Lib.,   |1316-22  |Contains view of
+  |Denis        |            |Paris, fds.  |         |Paris, and portrait
+  |             |            |fr. 2090-2   |         |of Philip V.
+  |             |            |             |         |Drolleries, coloured
+  |             |            |             |         |shading of draperies.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 9|Bible        |.....       |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._     |Typical work,
+  |             |            |Roy. 1 D. 1  |1310-15  |English.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+10|Ormsby       |Norwich     |Bodl. Lib.,  |_c._ 1295|English work.
+  |Psalter      |            |Oxford, Douce|         |
+  |             |            |366          |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+11|Bible        |.....       |Brit. Mus,   |Late 13th|A typical MS.
+  |             |            |Add. 17341   |cent.    |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+12|Psalter      |.....       |Brit. Mus.,  |Early    |Drolleries and
+  |             |            |Roy. 2 B. 7  |14th     |interesting scenes.
+  |             |            |             |cent.    |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+13|Miroir       |.....       |Arsen. Lib., |_c._ 1356|Large folio richly
+  |Historiale   |            |Paris        |         |illuminated.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+14|Louterell    |.....       |Lulworth     |_c._ 1340|Fine diapered
+  |Psalter      |            |Castle       |         |backgrounds.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+15|Missal       |.....       |Westreenen   |1366     |"Gouache" painting in
+  |             |            |Mus., The    |         |miniatures.
+  |             |            |Hague        |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+16|Chronicle of |.....       |Nat. Lib.,   |1375-80  |Miniature in gold and
+  |St. Denis    |            |Paris, 8395  |         |grey.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+17|Hours of     |.....       |Roy. Lib.,   |Finished |Illuminated by André
+  |John, Duke of|            |Brussels,    |1380     |Beauneveu and
+  |Berry        |            |11060        |         |Jacquemart de Hesdin.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+18|Epistle to   |Paris       |Brit. Mus.,  |1370-80  |Fine ivy-branch
+  |Richard II.  |            |Roy. 20 B. 6 |         |style.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+19|Offices      |.....       |Brit. Mus.,  |.....    |Prayer-book of
+  |B.M.V.       |            |Harl. 2897   |         |Margaret of Bavaria.
+  |             |            |             |         |A typical MS.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+20|Little Hours |.....       |Nat. Lib.,   |_c._ 1400|113 beautiful
+  |of Berry     |            |Paris, 18014 |         |miniatures.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+21|Psalter of   |Paris       |Nat. Lib.,   |1401     |Contains 24 fine
+  |the Duke of  |            |Paris, No.   |         |miniatures by André
+  |Berry        |            |13091        |         |Beauneveu.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+22|Grandes      |"           |Nat. Lib.,   |1409     |By Jacquemart de
+  |Heures de    |            |Paris, fds.  |         |Hesdin, André
+  |Berry        |            |Lat. 919     |         |Beauneveu, and Pol de
+  |             |            |             |         |Limbourg.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+23|Heures de    |"           |Musée Dondé, |1410     |Considered the finest
+  |Berry        |            |Chantilly    |         |example known.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+24|Poems of     |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |1400-6   |Fine miniatures--
+  |Christine de |            |Harl. 4431   |         |costumes and
+  |Pisan        |            |             |         |portraits.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+25|Talbot       |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |1400     |Curious miniatures,
+  |Romances     |            |Roy. 15 E. 6 |         |portraits of Henry
+  |             |            |             |         |VI., etc.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+26|Bedford      |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1435|Richly illuminated.
+  |Offices      |            |Add. 18850   |         |Contains French,
+  |             |            |             |         |English, and
+  |             |            |             |         |Netherlandish work.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+27|Bedford      |......      |Nat. Lib.,   |_c._ 1430|Contains English and
+  |Breviary     |            |Paris, fds.  |         |French work.
+  |             |            |Lat. 17294   |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+28|Pontifical   |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1450|Fine borders.
+  |             |            |Add. 16610   |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+29|Valerius     |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |"        |Northern French and
+  |Maximus      |            |Harl. 4375   |         |Netherlandish.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+30|Girart de    |......      |Nat. Lib.,   |_c._ 1470|Netherlandish--
+  |Nevers       |            |Paris, fds.  |         |costumes, etc.
+  |             |            |fr. 4092     |         |
+
+
+GERMAN AND BOHEMIAN
+
+--+-------------+--------------------------+---------+---------------------
+No|    Name.    |   Where    | Where Kept. |  Date.  |      Remarks.
+  |             |  Produced. |             |         |
+--+-------------+------------+-------------+---------+---------------------
+ 1|Minnelieder  |......      |Nat. Lib.,   |_c._ 1300|Hunting scenes,
+  |             |            |Paris, fds.  |         |costumes.
+  |             |            |fr. 7266     |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 2|Wilhelm von  |......      |Pub. Lib.,   |1334     |Written for Henry
+  |Oranse       |            |Cassel       |         |Landgrave of Hesse.
+  |             |            |             |         |French influence.
+ 3|Picture Bible|......      |Lib. of      |_c._ 1300|
+  |             |            |Prince       |         |
+  |             |            |Lobkowitz,   |         |
+  |             |            |Prag         |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 4|Passionale of|Prag        |Univ. Lib.,  |1312     |Transparent
+  |Abbess       |            |Prag, xiv. A.|         |water-colour. No
+  |Cunigunda    |            |17           |         |French influence.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 5|Weltchronik  |......      |Roy. Lib.,   |_c._ 1350|Old Cologne school.
+  |of Rudolf v. |            |Stuttgart    |         |
+  |Hohen-Ems    |            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 6|Liber        |Prag        |Bohem. Mus., |_c._ 1360|Written for John v.
+  |Viaticus     |            |Prag         |         |Neumarkt, Bishop of
+  |             |            |             |         |Leitomischl.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 7|Mariale      |"           |Bohem. Mus., |_c._ 1345|Written for Arnestus
+  |             |            |Prag         |         |v. Pardubitz,
+  |             |            |             |         |Archbishop of Prag
+  |             |            |             |         |(1344-64). Bohemian
+  |             |            |             |         |school.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 8|Orationale   |"           |Bohem. Mus., |_c._ 1345|Written for same
+  |             |            |Prag         |         |prelate, in French
+  |             |            |             |         |Gothic style.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 9|Bible of     |"           |Imp. Lib.,   |......   |Executed by order of
+  |Emperor      |            |Vienna, No.  |         |Martin Rotlöw for
+  |Wenzel       |            |2759         |         |presentation to the
+  |             |            |             |         |Emperor.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+10|Gospels of   |"           |Imp. Lib.,   |1368     |Beautiful penmanship
+  |John of      |            |Vienna       |         |and ornaments.
+  |Oppavia      |            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+11|Wilhelm von  |"           |Ambras       |1387     |Fine diapered
+  |Oranse       |            |Museum,      |         |backgrounds,
+  |             |            |Vienna, No. 7|         |costumes, and armour.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+12|Salzburg     |......      |Roy. Lib.,   |_c._ 1350|In 5 fol. vols.
+  |Missal       |            |Munich, Lat. |         |Splendid colouring.
+  |             |            |15710        |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+13|Weltchronik  |......      |15710 Pub.   |_c._ 1383|Large folio.
+  |of Rudolf v. |            |Lib.,        |         |Westphalian school.
+  |Hohen-Ems    |            |Stuttgart    |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+14|Durandus     |......      |Imp. Lib.,   |1384     |Written for Albert
+  |             |            |Vienna, No.  |         |III., Duke of
+  |             |            |2765         |         |Austria. Illuminated
+  |             |            |             |         |in later Bohemian.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+15|Golden Bull  |Prag        |Imp. Lib.,   |_c._ 1399|Rich soft-leaved
+  |of Charles   |            |Vienna, jus. |         |foliages. Ornament
+  |IV.          |            |c. 338       |         |superior to
+  |             |            |             |         |miniatures.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+16|Wurzburg     |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |After    |Large foliages, fine
+  |Bible        |            |Arund. 106   |1400     |initials, bright
+  |             |            |             |         |colours.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+17|Missal of    |......      |Imp. Lib.,   |1448     |German work.
+  |Emperor      |            |Vienna       |         |
+  |Frederick    |            |             |         |
+  |III.         |            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+18|Gospels      |......      |Pub. Lib.,   |1498     |43 miniatures and
+  |             |            |Nuremberg    |         |splendid borders,
+  |             |            |             |         |etc., by Conrad
+  |             |            |             |         |Frankendorfer.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+19|Choir-book of|Abbey of St.|Lib.,        |1489     |Written by L. Wagner,
+  |SS. Ulrich   |Ulrich,     |Augsburg     |         |and illuminated by G.
+  |and Afra,    |Augsburg    |             |         |Beck.
+  |Augsburg     |            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+20|Miniature of |Augsburg    |Vict. and    |_c._ 1489|Taken from 19.
+  |presentation |            |Alb. Mus.,   |         |
+  |of 19        |            |South        |         |
+  |             |            |Kensington   |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+21|Offices      |Upper       |Brit. Mus.,  |1513     |
+  |B.M.V.       |Carinthia   |Add. 15711   |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+22|Prayer-book  |Nuremberg   |Aschaffenburg|1524     |Illuminated by A.
+  |of Albert of |            |Castle       |         |Glockendon.
+  |Brandenburg  |            |Library      |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+23|Prayer-book  |"           |Imp. Lib.,   |1535     |Illuminated by Albert
+  |of William   |            |Vienna, No.  |         |Glockendon.
+  |IV. of       |            |1880         |         |
+  |Bavaria      |            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+24|Prayer-book  |"           |Brit. Mus.,  |1584     |School of Glockendon.
+  |             |            |Add. 17525   |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+25|Splendor     |......      |Harl. 3469   |Late 16th|Astrological
+  |Solis        |            |             |cent.    |diagrams, etc.,
+  |             |            |             |         |scenes.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+26|Penitential  |Munich      |Roy. Lib.,   |1570     |Painted by Hans
+  |Psalms       |            |Munich,      |         |Mielich.
+  |             |            |Cimel. Saal  |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+27|Horæ         |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |Late 16th|Fine foliages and
+  |             |            |Egert. 1146  |cent.    |initials.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+28|Prayer-book  |Strassburg  |Nat. Lib.,   |1647     |2 vols., 8°.
+  |of William of|            |Paris, Nos.  |         |Renaissance by
+  |Baden        |            |10567-8      |         |Frederic Brentel.
+
+
+SICILIAN AND ITALIAN
+
+--+-------------+--------------------------+---------+---------------------
+No|    Name.    |   Where    | Where Kept. |  Date.  |      Remarks.
+  |             |  Produced. |             |         |
+--+-------------+------------+-------------+---------+---------------------
+ 1|De arte      |Palermo     |Vat. Lib.,   |_c._ 1225|Composed by Emperor
+  |venandi cum  |            |Rome, palat. |         |Frederick II.
+  |avibus       |            |1071         |         |(1212-50). Paintings
+  |             |            |             |         |of birds and hunting
+  |             |            |             |         |scenes.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 2|Offices,     |Gubbio      |Acad. Lib.,  |......   |Attributed to
+  |"ordo offic. |            |Siena        |         |Oderigi.
+  |Senensis"    |            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 3|Legends      |Florence?   |Canon. Lib., |_c._     |Attributed to Giotto.
+  |             |            |             |1327-43  |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 4|Vergil       |Florence?   |Rome Ambros. |_c._ 1310|Attributed to Simone
+  |             |            |Lib., Milan  |         |Martini.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 5|Durandus     |Siena?      |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1330|Fine work.
+  |             |            |Add. 31032   |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 6|Aristotle    |Bologna?    |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1335|Like the "Avignon"
+  |             |            |Harl. 6331   |         |Decretals.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 7|Stefaneschi  |Rome?       |Canon. Lib., |1327-43  |In same vol. with 3,
+  |Missal       |            |Rome         |         |and attributed to
+  |             |            |             |         |Giotto.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 8|Poems of     |Naples?     |Brit. Mus.,  |1309-43  |Bold "gouache"
+  |Convenevole  |            |Roy. 6 E. 9  |         |painting. Executed
+  |da Prato[66] |            |             |         |for King Robert of
+  |             |            |             |         |Naples.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 9|Breviarium   |Florence?   |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1400|Fine initials.
+  |Romanum      |            |Harl. 2903   |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+10|Concordantiæ |Bologna?    |Nat. Mus.,   |_c._ 1350|Allegorical figures
+  |Canonicæ     |            |Naples       |         |and "gouache"
+  |             |            |             |         |painting.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+11|Statuts de   |Naples      |Nat. Lib.,   |_c._ 1354|Executed for Louis
+  |l'Ordre do   |            |Paris, fds.  |         |I., of House of
+  |St. Esprit   |            |fr. 4274     |         |Anjou, King of Sicily
+  |             |            |             |         |and Jerusalem.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+12|Romance of   |Avignon?    |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1355|Executed for Louis
+  |Meliadus     |            |Add. 12228   |         |II. of Naples.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+13|Triumphs of  |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1370|Small miniatures and
+  |Fr. Petrarch |            |Harl. 3109   |         |initials in older
+  |             |            |             |         |style.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+14|"            |......      |Nat. Lib.,   |......   |Miniatures of
+  |             |            |Paris        |         |triumphs.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+15|Joannes      |......      |Abp. of St.  |_c._ 1370|Fine Bolognese
+  |Andreae, Lib.|            |Florian      |         |miniatures.
+  |VI.          |            |             |         |
+  |Decretalium  |            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+16|Glossa       |Bologna?    |Laon, No. 382|_c._     |Very finely
+  |Joannis      |            |             |1330-43  |illuminated.
+  |Andreae in   |            |             |         |
+  |Clementinas  |            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+17|Rubrics on   |"           |Laon, No. 357|1332     |Many grotesque
+  |the Decretals|            |             |         |figures.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+18|Decretum     |"           |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1375|Exquisitely
+  |Gratiani     |            |Add. 15274,  |         |illuminated.
+  |             |            |15275        |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+19|Missale      |"           |Roy. Lib.,   |_c._ 1374|By Nicolaus de
+  |Romanum      |            |Munich, Lat. |         |Bononia.
+  |             |            |10072        |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+20|"            |"           |St. Mark's,  |_c._ 1370|"
+  |             |            |Venice, cl.  |         |
+  |             |            |iii. xcvii.  |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+21|"            |Florence?   |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._     |Fine pen work diapers
+  |             |            |Add. 21973   |1380-1400|and initials.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+22|Latin Bible  |Bologna?    |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._     |Sweet colouring and
+  |             |            |Add. 18720   |1375-1400|fine foliages.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+23|Hymnarium    |Sienese?    |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1400|Fine initials.
+  |Heremitarum  |            |Add. 30014   |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+24|Questions on |Naples      |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._     |Written by Hippolytus
+  |4 Books of   |            |Add. 15270-3 |1458-94  |Lunensis for
+  |Sentences by |            |             |         |Ferdinand I., King of
+  |Job. Scot,   |            |             |         |Naples, and finely
+  |Franciscan   |            |             |         |illuminated.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+25|Platonis     |"           |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1470|Written for Ferdinand
+  |Opera        |            |Harl. 3481   |         |I., King of Naples.
+  |             |            |             |         |Finely illuminated.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+26|Cæsar        |            |Brit. Mus.,  |1462     |White stem-work.
+  |             |            |Add. 16982   |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+27|"            |Rome?       |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1460|Executed for Pius II.
+  |             |            |Harl. 2683   |         |Roman Renaissance
+  |             |            |             |         |(1458-64).
+  |             |            |             |         |
+28|Petrarch     |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1465|White stem-work.
+  |Sonnets, etc.|            |Harl. 3411   |         |Written by J. And.
+  |             |            |             |         |Mussolini.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+29|Offices      |Milan?      |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1475|A pretty little
+  |             |            |Add. 19417   |         |volume of Milanese
+  |             |            |             |         |work.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+30|Missale      |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |"        |Like MSS. executed
+  |Romanum      |            |Add. 15260   |         |for the Dukes of
+  |             |            |             |         |Ferrara. Very fine.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+31|"            |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1480|Of Florentine type.
+  |             |            |Harl. 2875   |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+32|Officium     |Florence    |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1475|A small volume, but
+  |B.M.V.       |            |Add. 15528   |         |rich initials.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+33|Missale      |Bologna     |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1495|Like 32, but finer.
+  |Romanum      |            |Add. 15814   |         |Written by Jo. de
+  |             |            |             |         |Lyvonia for one of
+  |             |            |             |         |the Visconti.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+34|Josephus     |Rome        |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1490|Roman Renaissance.
+  |             |            |Harl. 3699   |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+35|Herodean     |Florence    |Brit. Mus.,  |1487     |Written by Alexander
+  |             |            |Add. 23773   |         |Verazzanus.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+36|Scrapbook of |Rome and    |Brit. Mus.,  |1480-1500|A very interesting
+  |cutting's    |Florence    |Add. 21412   |         |collection. Roman and
+  |             |            |             |         |Florentine.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+37|Grant of     |Milan       |Brit. Mus.,  |1494     |Illuminated by
+  |Ludovico     |            |Add. 21413   |         |Antonio da Monza.
+  |Sforza (il   |            |             |         |
+  |Moro)        |            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+38|Offices      |Naples      |Brit. Mus.,  |1500     |Written and
+  |             |            |Add. 21591   |         |illuminated for
+  |             |            |             |         |Frederick of Aragon,
+  |             |            |             |         |King of Naples.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+39|Prayer-book  |"           |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1455|Finest Neapolitan
+  |of Alfonso I.|            |Add. 28962   |         |work. Portraits
+  |             |            |             |         |(1416-58).
+  |             |            |             |         |
+40|Orations of  |"           |Imp. Lib.,   |_c._ 1490|Executed for
+  |Cicero       |            |Vienna       |         |Ferdinand I., King of
+  |             |            |             |         |Naples (1458-94).
+  |             |            |             |         |Very fine.
+
+[66] Petrarch's tutor.
+
+
+RENAISSANCE ILLUMINATION
+
+ITALIAN
+
+--+-------------+--------------------------+---------+---------------------
+No|    Name.    |   Where    | Where Kept. |  Date.  |      Remarks.
+  |             |  Produced. |             |         |
+--+-------------+------------+-------------+---------+---------------------
+ 1|Life of      |Florence    |Brit. Mus.,  |1506     |Neat in execution.
+  |Manetti      |            |Add. 9770    |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 2|Life of St.  |"           |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1505|Very fine
+  |Francis      |            |Harl. 3229   |         |illumination.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 3|Eusebius     |"           |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1515|
+  |             |            |Harl. 3308   |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 4|Life of      |"           |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1525|
+  |Manetti      |            |Lansd. 842   |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 5|Eusebius     |Milan       |Brit. Mus.,  |"        |
+  |             |            |Roy          |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 6|Missale      |Venice      |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1530|Attributed to
+  |             |            |Add. 15813   |         |Benedetto Bordone.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 7|Ethics of    |Naples or   |Imp. Lib.,   |_c._     |Fine Renaissance
+  |Aristotle    |Calabria    |Vienna       |1490-1510|work. Elaborately
+  |             |            |             |         |designed frames, and
+  |             |            |             |         |fine miniatures
+  |             |            |             |         |painted in a strong
+  |             |            |             |         |"gouache," by Rinaldo
+  |             |            |             |         |Piramo, for And.
+  |             |            |             |         |Matt. Acquavira, 8th
+  |             |            |             |         |Duke of Atri.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 8|St. Jerome on|Florence    |Imp. Lib.,   |_c._     |Illuminated by
+  |Ezechiel     |            |Vienna, No.  |1490-1520|Attavante for Matt.
+  |             |            |654          |         |Corvinus, King of
+  |             |            |             |         |Hungary (1443-90).
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 9|Philostratus |"           |Imp. Lib.,   |"        |Illuminated probably
+  |(Latin)      |            |Vienna, No.  |         |by Attavante for
+  |             |            |25           |         |Matt. Corvinus.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+10|Missale      |"           |Roy. Lib.,   |"        |Illuminated by
+  |Romanum of   |            |Brussels     |         |Attavante for
+  |Corvinus     |            |             |         |Corvinus. Used for
+  |             |            |             |         |admission oaths of
+  |             |            |             |         |Governors of
+  |             |            |             |         |Netherlands.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+11|Augustine:   |"           |Imp. Lib.,   |_c._ 1495|Illuminated by
+  |Epistles     |            |Vienna       |         |Attavante for Matt.
+  |             |            |             |         |Corvinus. Signed
+  |             |            |             |         |"Attavantes pinsit."
+  |             |            |             |         |
+12|Martianus    |"           |Lib. St.     |_c._ 1500|Illuminated by
+  |Capella      |            |Mark's,      |         |Attavante for Matt.
+  |             |            |Venice       |         |Corvinus. Signed.
+  |             |            |             |         |Written by Al,
+  |             |            |             |         |Verazzanus
+  |             |            |             |         |
+13|Psalter      |"           |Ducal Lib.,  |"        |Illuminated by
+  |             |            |Wolfenbüttel |         |Attavante.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+14|Diurnale     |"           |Laurent.     |"        |Illuminated by
+  |             |            |Lib.,        |         |Attavante or
+  |             |            |Florence     |         |Gherardo.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+15|Missal of Bp.|"           |Pub. Lib.,   |"        |Illuminated by
+  |of Dôle      |            |Lyons        |         |Attavante.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+16|St. Gregory  |"           |Estense Lib.,|"        |Illuminated by
+  |on Ezechiel  |            |Modena       |         |Attavante. Signed.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+17|Dionysii Opp.|"           |Pub. Lib.,   |"        |"
+  |             |            |Besançon     |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+18|"Gran"       |"           |Nat. Lib.,   |"        |Probably illuminated
+  |Breviary     |            |Paris, MS.   |         |by Boccardino il
+  |             |            |Lat. 8879    |         |Vecchio, though
+  |             |            |             |         |attributed to
+  |             |            |             |         |Attavante.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+19|Hieronymi    |"           |Nat. Lib.,   |1488-1500|Written for Matt.
+  |Breviar. in  |            |Paris, MS.   |         |Corvinus by Anton
+  |psalmos      |            |Lat. 16839   |         |Sinibaldi, and
+  |             |            |             |         |illuminated by
+  |             |            |             |         |Attavante.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+20|Poems of     |Rome        |Imp. Lib.,   |_c._ 1536|Illuminated by Giulio
+  |Eurialo      |            |Vienna       |         |Clovio (1498-1578).
+  |d'Ascoli     |            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+21|"Rothesay"   |"           |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1546|Illuminated by
+  |Offices      |            |Add. 20927   |         |Clovio.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+22|Commentary on|"           |Soane Mus.,  |_c._ 1536|Executed for Cardinal
+  |St. Paul's   |            |London       |         |Grimani by Clovio.
+  |Epistles     |            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+23|Psalter of   |"           |Nat. Lib.,   |_c._ 1542|Illuminated by
+  |Paul III.    |            |Paris, MS.   |         |Vincenzio Raimondi.
+  |             |            |Lat. 702.    |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+24|Papal        |"           |Lenox Lib.,  |_c._ 1546|By Clovio and his
+  |Lectionary   |            |New York     |         |assistants.
+  |(Towneley    |            |             |         |
+  |Clovio)      |            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+25|Dante        |"           |Vat. Lib.,   |_c._ 1555|Illuminated in part
+  |             |            |No. 365      |         |by Clovio.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+26|Investiture  |"           |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1560|Very fine ornament.
+  |from Duke of |            |Add. 22660   |         |
+  |Urbino       |            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+27|Triumphs of  |"           |Lib. of Capt.|_c._ 1550|Fine miniatures.
+  |Petrarch     |            |Holford,     |         |
+  |             |            |London       |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+28|Missal of    |"           |Rylands Lib.,|_c._ 1520|Fine miniatures.
+  |Card. Colonna|            |Manchester   |         |Attributed, but
+  |             |            |             |         |without authority, to
+  |             |            |             |         |Raffaelle.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+29|Prayer-book  |Rome, or    |Barberini    |_c._ 1500|Many fine miniatures.
+  |             |Florence    |Lib., Rome,  |         |
+  |             |            |No. 324      |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+30|Missal of    |Rome        |Chigi Lib.,  |_c._     |Executed for Pius II.
+  |Pius II.     |            |Rome         |1460-70  |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+31|Missal of    |"           |Corsini Lib.,|_c._ 1530|Fine framed
+  |Card. Corsini|            |Rome, No.    |         |miniatures.
+  |             |            |1015         |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+32|Missal of    |"           |Minerva Lib.,|_c._ 1520|Fine miniatures.
+  |Card. Cornaro|            |Rome         |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+33|"Pavia"      |Milan       |Brera Lib.,  |1530-80  |By several artists,
+  |Graduals     |            |Milan        |         |especially G.
+  |             |            |             |         |Berretta. Enormous
+  |             |            |             |         |folios.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+34|Prayer-book  |......      |Roy. Lib.,   |_c._ 1574|Finest Roman
+  |of Albert IV.|            |Munich, Cim. |         |Renaissance, but
+  |of Bavaria   |            |Saal. 42     |         |written by Hans
+  |             |            |             |         |Lenker, of Munich
+  |             |            |             |         |(not a Clovio).
+  |             |            |             |         |
+35|Apologia di  |Rome        |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1510|Executed for Henry
+  |Colenuccio   |            |Roy. 12, c.  |         |VIII. of England.
+  |             |            |viii.        |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+36|Prayer-book  |Milan       |Roy. Lib.,   |_c._ 1450|Illuminated by
+  |Bianca Maria |            |Munich, No.  |         |Giovanni da Como.
+  |of Milan     |            |99A          |         |Contains Visconti and
+  |             |            |             |         |Sforza arms.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+37|Hours of Bona|"           |Brit Mus.,   |_c._ 1490|Finest Milanese
+  |Sforza of    |            |Add. 34294   |         |Renaissance, with
+  |Milan        |            |             |         |some Flemish
+  |             |            |             |         |additions.
+
+
+FRENCH
+
+--+-------------+--------------------------+---------+---------------------
+No|    Name.    |   Where    | Where Kept. |  Date.  |      Remarks.
+  |             |  Produced. |             |         |
+--+-------------+------------+-------------+---------+---------------------
+ 1|The          |Tours       |Nat. Lib.,   |......   |Attributed to Jehan
+  |"Versailles" |            |Paris, 6907  |         |Fouquet of Tours.
+  |Livy         |            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 2|The          |"           |Nat. Lib.,   |......   |Attributed to Jehan
+  |"Sorbonne"   |            |Paris, fds.  |         |Fouquet of Tours.
+  |Livy         |            |Sorb. 297    |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 3|Antiquities  |"           |Nat. Lib.,   |......   |Fouquet's
+  |of the Jews  |            |Paris, Resew.|         |masterpiece.
+  |             |            |6891         |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 4|Boccacio     |"           |Roy. Lib.,   |......   |Executed for Etienne
+  |             |            |Munich       |         |Chevalier.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 5|Trésor des   |"           |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1490|Fine aërial
+  |Histoires    |            |Cott. Aug. v.|         |perspective and
+  |             |            |             |         |landscape.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 6|Valerius     |Paris       |Brit. Mus.,  |"        |A very fine MS.
+  |Maximus      |            |Harl. 4374-5 |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 7|Hours of Anne|"           |Nat. Lib.,   |_c._ 1508|A magnificent
+  |of Brittany  |            |Paris        |         |example, eclectic in
+  |             |            |             |         |style, with natural
+  |             |            |             |         |flowers and insects
+  |             |            |             |         |in borders, and fine
+  |             |            |             |         |figure-painting.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 8|Hours of     |"           |Vicomte de   |_c._ 1550|Attributed to Jean
+  |Claude       |            |Janzé        |         |Cousin. Influence of
+  |Gouffier     |            |             |         |glass-painting.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 9|Offices      |"           |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1530|Probably executed for
+  |             |            |Add. 18853   |         |Francis I. of France.
+  |             |            |             |         |Excellent work,
+  |             |            |             |         |eclectic in style.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+9a|Hours of     |"           |Libr. of     |1549     |Same style as 8 and
+  |Montmorency  |            |Count of     |         |9, and probably by J.
+  |             |            |Haussonville |         |Cousin,
+  |             |            |             |         |
+10|Offices      |Tours?      |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1525|Architectural details
+  |             |            |Add. 18854   |         |of School of Tours.
+  |             |            |             |         |Written for Fr. de
+  |             |            |             |         |Dinteville, Bp. of
+  |             |            |             |         |Auxerre.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+11|"            |"           |Brit. Mus.,  |"        |Architectural frames
+  |             |            |Add. 18855   |         |to miniatures as in
+  |             |            |             |         |
+12|"            |Paris       |Nat. Lib.,   |1531     |10, but larger and
+  |             |            |Paris, Lat.  |         |more fanciful
+  |             |            |10563        |         |details, somewhat
+  |             |            |             |         |like 7 in portions.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+13|Epistres     |......      |Nat. Lib.,   |_c._ 1500|Executed for Louise
+  |d'Ovide      |            |Paris, fds.  |         |de Savoie, mother of
+  |             |            |fr. 875      |         |Francis I.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+14|Boece        |Paris       |Nat. Lib.,   |"        |Fine miniatures with
+  |             |            |Paris, u.    |         |Renaissance
+  |             |            |fds. Lat.    |         |architectural
+  |             |            |6643         |         |details.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+15|Epistres     |"           |Nat. Lib.,   |"        |Translated by
+  |             |            |Paris, 6877  |         |Octavien de d'Ovide
+  |             |            |             |         |St. Gelay. Beautiful
+  |             |            |             |         |miniatures.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+16|Petrarch's   |......      |Nat. Lib.,   |_c._ 1520|Very fine miniatures
+  |Triumphs     |            |Paris, f. fr.|         |of triumphs. Italian
+  |             |            |7079         |         |influence.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+17|Chants royaux|......      |Nat. Lib.,   |"        |Fine miniatures.
+  |             |            |Paris, 6987  |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+18|Chants Royaux|Paris       |Nat. Lib.,   |"        |Magnificent
+  |             |            |Paris, f. fr.|         |miniatures under
+  |             |            |379          |         |Italian influence of
+  |             |            |             |         |Andrea del Sarto.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+19|Petrarch     |"           |Nat. Lib.,   |_c._ 1503|Miniature of
+  |             |            |Paris, f. fr.|         |presentation to Louis
+  |             |            |225          |         |XII. Many full-page
+  |             |            |             |         |miniatures.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+20|Fleur des    |"           |Nat. Lib.,   |_c._ 1505|Executed for Cardinal
+  |Histoires    |            |Paris, f. fr.|         |d'Amboise.
+  |             |            |54           |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+21|Chron. de    |"           |Nat. Lib.,   |"        |Three large folio
+  |Monstrelet   |            |Paris,       |         |vols. Vol. i.
+  |             |            |20360-2      |         |contains five
+  |             |            |             |         |equestrian portraits
+  |             |            |             |         |of Louis XII.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+22|Les Echecs   |"           |Nat. Lib.,   |_c._ 1500|Executed for use of
+  |amoreux      |            |Paris, f. fr.|         |Francis, d. of
+  |             |            |143          |         |Angoulème, and his
+  |             |            |             |         |sister Marguerite.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+23|Boccace de   |"           |Nat. Lib.,   |"        |By same illuminator
+  |claris et    |            |Paris, f. fr.|         |as 22. Executed for
+  |nobilibus    |            |599          |         |Louise de Savoie.
+  |mulieribus   |            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+24|Reception de |"           |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1514|"Avec belles
+  |Marie        |            |Vesp. B. 2   |         |peintures."
+  |d'Angleterre |            |             |         |
+  |à Paris      |            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+25|Chants Royaux|"           |Nat. Lib.,   |1515     |Presented in 1515 to
+  |             |            |Paris, f. fr.|         |Louise de Savoie by
+  |             |            |145          |         |the City of Amiens.
+  |             |            |             |         |The miniatures
+  |             |            |             |         |painted in grisaille
+  |             |            |             |         |by J. Plastel, and
+  |             |            |             |         |coloured by J.
+  |             |            |             |         |Pinchon. Contains
+  |             |            |             |         |portrait of Louise.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+26|Commentaires |"           |Brit. Mus.   |_c._ 1519|Attributed to
+  |de César,    |            |             |         |Geoffroy Tory. Part
+  |Vol. i.      |            |             |         |grisaille. Written in
+  |             |            |             |         |Roman text. See
+  |             |            |             |         |_Dict. Miniat._ iii.
+  |             |            |             |         |312.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+  |Commentaires |"           |Nat. Lib.,   |"        |"
+  |de César,    |            |Paris, 13429 |         |
+  |Vol. ii.     |            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+  |Commentaires |"           |Lib. of Duc  |"        |"
+  |de César,    |            |d'Aumale     |         |
+  |Vol. iii.    |            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+27|Dutillet,    |......      |Nat. Lib.,   |......   |Presented to Charles
+  |French Kings,|            |Paris, 2848  |         |IX.
+  |etc.         |            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+28|Hours of     |......      |Nat. Lib.,   |_c._ 1595|Peculiar style and
+  |Henry IV.    |            |Paris, Lat.  |         |colouring.
+  |             |            |1171         |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+29|Gospel of St.|Boisleduc   |Brit. Mus.,  |......   |Finely written, but
+  |John         |            |Roy., E. 5   |         |not illuminated by
+  |             |            |             |         |Pet. Meghen.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+30|"Sol         |"           |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1682|Painted by Pierre
+  |Gallicus"    |            |Add. 23745   |         |Mignard.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+31|Psalter      |London      |Brit. Mus.,  |1565     |Written by Petrucco
+  |             |            |Roy. 2 B. 9  |         |Ubaldini, a
+  |             |            |             |         |Florentine.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+32|Book of      |English?    |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1600|Very elegant borders.
+  |Sentences for|London?     |Roy. 17 A. 23|         |
+  |Lady Sumley  |            |             |         |
+
+
+ENGLISH ILLUMINATION
+
+FROM THE THIRTEENTH TO THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY
+
+--+-------------+--------------------------+---------+---------------------
+No|    Name.    |   Where    | Where Kept. |  Date.  |      Remarks.
+  |             |  Produced. |             |         |
+--+-------------+------------+-------------+---------+---------------------
+ 1|Offices and  |Westminster |Brit. Mus.,  |1240     |Imitation of stained
+  |Prayers      |            |Roy. 2 A. 22 |         |glass. Typical MS.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 2|Bible in     |Canterbury  |Brit. Mus.,  |1245     |
+  |Latin        |            |Burney 3     |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 3|"            |Salisbury   |Brit. Mus.,  |1254     |Written by Will de
+  |             |            |Roy. 1 B. 12 |         |Hales.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 4|Tenison      |London      |Brit. Mus.,  |1294     |Written and
+  |Psalter      |            |Add. 24686   |         |illuminated by order
+  |             |            |             |         |of Edward I.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 5|Bible in     |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |13th     |Written by Will of
+  |Latin        |            |Roy. 1 D 1   |cent.    |Devon.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 6|Apocalypse in|......      |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1330|See _Bibliographica_,
+  |French       |            |Roy. 19 B. 15|         |pt. v. pl. 1.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 7|Arundel      |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |"        |See _Bibliographica_,
+  |Psalter      |            |Arund. 83    |         |pt. v. pl. 2
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 8|Psalter of   |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |1380     |Transition from
+  |Joan of Kent |            |Roy. 2 B. 8  |         |French Gothic to
+  |             |            |             |         |Lancastrian.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 9|Pontifical   |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1400|Early Lancastrian.
+  |             |            |Lansd. 451   |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+10|Bible in     |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |"        |Large folio. See
+  |Latin        |            |Roy. 1 E. ix.|         |_Bibliographica_, pt.
+  |             |            |             |         |v. pl. 4.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+11|Breviary     |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |"        |Something like 7.
+  |             |            |Harl. 2975   |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+12|Offices      |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._     |
+  |             |            |Add. 16968   |1390-1400|
+  |             |            |             |         |
+13|"            |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1410|Executed for Anne
+  |             |            |Add. 16998   |         |Mauleverer.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+14|Liber Albus  |London      |Guildhall    |"        |Bracket borders.
+  |             |            |Lib., London |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+15|Liber de Hyda|Winchester  |Shirburn     |"        |Richly illuminated
+  |             |            |Castle Lib.  |         |borders, some
+  |             |            |             |         |unfinished. See Rolls
+  |             |            |             |         |Series. 1866.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+16|Offices      |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._     |Early Lancastrian.
+  |             |            |Roy. 2 B. 1  |1400-1410|
+  |             |            |             |         |
+17|Grandison    |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1410|Fine initials with
+  |Offices      |            |Roy. 2 A. 18 |         |Lancastrian brackets.
+  |             |            |             |         |See _Bibliographica_,
+  |             |            |             |         |v. pl. 5.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+18|Occleve de   |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1415|Traceried backgrounds
+  |Regim.       |            |Ar. 38       |         |in Bohemian manner.
+  |Principum    |            |             |         |Cf. Will. v. Orange
+  |             |            |             |         |MS.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+19|Ormonde      |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1420|Similar to 17. Called
+  |Offices      |            |Roy. 2 B. 15 |         |by Humphreys (_Books
+  |             |            |             |         |of Middle Ages_)
+  |             |            |             |         |_Queen Mary's
+  |             |            |             |         |Breviary_.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+20|Gower's      |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |"        |Lancastrian style.
+  |Confessio    |            |Harl. 3490   |         |
+  |Amantis      |            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+21|Psalter of   |St. Alban's |Brit. Mus.,  |1460     |Fine English work.
+  |Queen Mary   |            |Roy. 2 B. 7  |         |Presented in 1553 to
+  |             |            |             |         |Queen Mary
+  |             |            |             |         |
+22|Horæ         |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1460|Many mediocre
+  |             |            |Harl. 2884   |         |illuminations.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+23|Gospels and  |London      |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1508|Given by Stephen and
+  |Epistles,    |            |Roy. 2 B. 12,|         |Margaret Jenyns to
+  |etc.         |            |13           |         |the church at
+  |             |            |             |         |Aldermanbury, London.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+24|Bourchier    |"           |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1458|Contains Bourchier
+  |Psalter      |            |Roy. 2 B. 14 |         |obituaries.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+25|Psalter and  |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1470|Good text and many
+  |Canticles,   |            |Harl. 1719   |         |illuminated letters
+  |etc.         |            |             |         |and borders.
+
+
+SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE
+
+--+-------------+--------------------------+---------+---------------------
+No|    Name.    |   Where    | Where Kept. |  Date.  |      Remarks.
+  |             |  Produced. |             |         |
+--+-------------+------------+-------------+---------+---------------------
+ 1|Hours, etc., |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |......   |Netherlandish
+  |Lat. and     |            |Add. 18193   |         |influence.
+  |Catalan.     |            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 2|Offices      |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |......   |Italian influence.
+  |B.M.V.       |            |Add. 28271   |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 3|Hidalguia    |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |1604     |In Genoese manner.
+  |             |            |Add. 12214   |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 4|Diploma of   |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |17th     |"
+  |Philip III.  |            |Roy. Claud.  |cent.    |
+  |             |            |B. x.        |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 5|Patent to    |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |1797     |Allegorical designs.
+  |Princ. de la |            |Add. 1706    |         |
+  |Paz          |            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 6|Ordo Miss.   |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |17th     |Roman text, good
+  |Pontificales |            |Add. 30857   |cent.    |initials.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 7|Portuguese   |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |......   |Written for John
+  |Missal       |            |Stowe 597    |         |III., King of
+  |             |            |             |         |Portugal.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 8|Hidalguia de |Spain       |Brit. Mus.,  |1578     |Granted by Philip
+  |Gonsalo de   |            |Add. 22143   |         |II., with his
+  |Castro Cepeda|            |             |         |portrait.
+
+
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+Abrahams, N.C.L. _Description des MSS. françaises du Moyen Age de la
+Bibliothèque Royale de Copenhague._ 4to. Copenhagen. 1844.
+
+Alt, H. _Die Heiligenbilder oder die bildende Kunst u. die Theologie._
+8vo. Berlin, 1845.
+
+Astle, Thomas. _The Origin and Progress of Writing._ 4to. London, 1784,
+1803.
+
+
+Barrois, J. _Bibliothèque Protypographique ou librairies du roi Jean._
+4to, Paris, 1830. 6 plates.
+
+Bastard, Aug. _Librairie de Jean de France duc de Berry...illustrée des
+plus belles miniatures de ses MSS., etc._ Folio. Paris, 1834. 32 plates.
+
+Beissel, Stephan. _Des heiligen Bernward Evangelienbuch im Dome zu
+Hildesheim. Mit Hdschr. des 10. und 11. Jahrh., etc._ Third edition. 26
+photo-lithographs (12 x 9). Hildesheim, 1894.
+
+Beissel, Stephan. _Vaticanische Miniaturen._ Folio. Freiburg im
+Breisgau, 1893. Many lithographed plates.
+
+Birch, W. de G. History, _Art, and Palæography of the MS. commonly
+styled the Utrecht Psalter._ 8vo. 3 facsimile plates in autotype. B,
+Quaritch, London, 1876.
+
+Birch, W. de G., and Jenner, H. _Early Drawings and Illuminations_ (in
+MSS., chiefly in the British Museum). 12mo. London, 1879.
+
+Biscionii, A.M. _Catal. bibl. Medico-Laurentiana._ Folio. Florentine,
+1752-7. (Valuable plates of facsimiles, etc.)
+
+Bradley, J.W. _Life and Works of G.G. Clovio, Miniaturist, etc._ 8vo.
+London, 1891. 18 plates.
+
+Bradley, J.W. _Dictionary of Miniaturists, Calligraphers, etc._ 8vo. 3
+vols. Quaritch, London, 1887-90.
+
+Bradley, J.W. _Venetian Ducali, in Bibliographica_, II. 257. 4
+phototypes.
+
+Bucher, B. _Geschichte des Technischen Künste, etc.,_ vol. i. Miniatur,
+etc. 8vo. Stuttgart, 1875.
+
+
+Cahier and Martin. _Nouveaux Mélanges d'Archéologie, etc._ Large 4to.
+Paris, 1874-77, etc. Many fine plates of miniatures, etc., mostly
+without colour.
+
+Campori, G. _Gli artisti Italiani, etc., nelle Stati Estensi._ 8vo.
+Modena, 1855.
+
+Campori, G. _Racconti artistici italiani._ 8vo. Firenze, 1858.
+
+Caravita, A. _I codici e le Arti a Monte Cassino._ 8vo. Montec.,
+1869-71.
+
+Carta, F. _Codici, corali e libri a stampa miniati della Biblioteca
+nazionale di Milano._ Folio. Roma, 1895. With 25 phototype facsimiles.
+
+Chassant, Alph. _Paléographie des chartes et des MSS. du 11e au 17e
+Siècle._ 8vo. Paris, 1867, and companion vols.
+
+Curmer, L. _Les Evangiles des Dimanches et Fêtes._ Large 8vo. Paris,
+1864. Many facsimiles in gold and colours from illuminated MSS.
+
+
+Delisle, L. _Mém. sur l'École calligraphique de Tours au IXe Siècle._
+Paris, 1885. 5 heliograv.
+
+Delisle, L. _L'Évangéliaire d'Arras et la Calligraphie Franco-Saxonne du
+neuvième Siècle._ 4to. Paris, 1888. Large heliogravure facsimiles.
+
+Delaunay (l'Abbé H.). _Le livre d'Heures de la reine Anne de Bretagne._
+With facsimile of the whole MS. Large 8vo. Paris, 1861.
+
+Delia Valle, G. _Lettere Senese, Sopra le Belle Arti._ 3 vols. 8vo.
+Venezia, 1782-86. (Relating to Sienese miniaturists.)
+
+Delisle, L. _Le cabinet des manuscrits de la bibliothèque impériale (in
+Hist. gén. de Paris)._ 4to. Paris, 1868.
+
+Denis, Ferd. _Histoire de l'ornementation des manuscrits._ 8vo. Paris,
+1858. (143 pp., with illustrations.)
+
+Deshaines, C. _Histoire de l'Art dans la Flandre, d'Artois, et le
+Hainaut._ 8vo. Lille, 1886.
+
+Dibdin, T.F. _The Bibliographical Decameron._ 3 vols. 8vo. London, 1817.
+
+Didron (edit.). _Annales Archéologiques._ Periodical 4to. 1844, etc.
+(P.P. 1931, d. a. Brit. Mus.)
+
+Derange, A. _Cat. descr. et raisonné des manuscr. de la bibl. de Tours._
+4to. Tours, 1875.
+
+Durieux, A. _Les Artistes Cambrésiens du IXe a XIXe Siècle, etc._ 8vo.
+Cambray, 1874. (With plates in folio.)
+
+Durieux, A. _Miniatures des manuscr. de la bibl. de Cambrai._ 8vo.
+Cambrai, 1861. 18 plates.
+
+Du Sommerard, Andr. _Les Arts du Moyen-âge._ 6 vols. Folio. Paris,
+1838-46.
+
+
+Fleury, E. _Les MSS. à miniatures de la bibliothèque de Soissons._ 4to.
+Paris, 1865. Lithograph facsimiles.
+
+Fleury, E. _Les manuscrits à miniatures de la bibl. de Laon._ 4to. Laon,
+1863. 50 plates (good).
+
+
+Gabelentz, H. von der. _Zur Geschichte der oberdeutschen Miniaturmalerei
+im 16ten Jahrhundert._ Large 8vo. Strassburg, 1899. 12 phototypes.
+
+Gamier, J. _Catalogue descriptif et raisonné des MSS. de la bibl. de la
+ville d'Amiens._ 8vo. Amiens, 1843.
+
+Girardot, B. de. _Cat. des manuscrits de la bibl. de Bourges._ Folio.
+Paris, 1859.
+
+Gualandi, M.A. _Memorie originate Italiane risguardante le Belle Arti._
+8vo. Bologna, 1840-45.
+
+
+Hardy, Sir Thomas D. _The Athanasian Creed in Connection with the
+Utrecht Psalter: being a Report, etc._ With autotype facsimiles. Folio.
+Spottiswoode and Co., 1872.
+
+Hendrie, R. _Encyclopædia of the Arts of the Middle Ages by the monk
+Theophilus._ Translated, with notes. 8vo. London, 1847. One of the best
+collections of mediæval methods and recipes relating to illumination.
+
+Humphreys, H. Noel. _The Illuminated Books of the Middle Ages._ Folio.
+London, 1849. 39 plates.
+
+Husenbeth, F.C. _Emblems of Saints by which they are Distinguished in
+Works of Art._ 8vo. London, 1850. Second edition, 1860. Third edition,
+1882.
+
+
+Jäck, J.J. _Viele Alphabete und ganze Schriftmuster vom 8, bis zum 16,
+Jahrh. aus den Handschr. der öffentl. Bibl. zu Bamberg._ Folio. Bamberg,
+1833-35.
+
+James, M.R. _Descriptive Catalogue of the Illuminated MSS. in the
+Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge._ (Fine phototype facsimiles, and an
+excellent text.) Large 8vo. Cambridge University Press, 1895.
+
+Jorand, J.B.J. _Grammatographie du neuvième siècle._ 4to. Paris, 1837.
+65 plates, folio.
+
+
+Kirchoff, Albr. _Handschriftenhändler des Mittelalters._ Second edition.
+8vo. Leipzig, 1853.
+
+Kondakov. _Hist. de l'Art Byzantin consideréré...dans les miniatures._
+2 vols. Small folio. Paris, 1891. Plates and woodcuts.
+
+Kugler. _Kleine Schriften._ 3 vols. 8vo. Stuttgart. 1853-54. (German
+illumination.)
+
+
+Labarte, Jules. _Historie des Arts industriels au Moyen-âge._ (Vol.
+iii.) 8vo. Paris, 1865.
+
+Laborde, L. _La renaissance des arts à la cour de France._ 2 vols. 8vo.
+Paris, 1855-56.
+
+Lacroix, P. _Military and Religious Life in the Middle Ages._ 8vo.
+London, 1874.
+
+Lacroix, P. _The Arts of the Middle Ages._ 4to. London, 1870.
+
+Lacroix, P. Manners, _Customs, and Dress during the Middle Ages._ 4to.
+London, 1874.
+
+Lacroix, Paul, and Séré Ferd. _Le Moyen-âge et la Renaissance._ 5 vols.
+4to. Paris, 1848-52, 1874.
+
+Lacroix, P., Fournier, Ed., and Séré, F. _Livre d'or des métiers._ 8vo.
+Paris, 1852.
+
+Lambecius, P. _Commentar. de Bibliotheca Cæsarea Vindobonensi._ Folio.
+Vindobona (Vienna). 1670. Plates.
+
+Langlois, E.H. _Mémoire sur la calligraphic les MSS. du Moyen-âge._ 8vo.
+Paris, 1841. 17 plates.
+
+Le Arti. _Various Articles on Illuminated MSS., by Frizzoni, Venturi,
+etc._ (Italian Periodical. Roma, v. 7. From 1898.)
+
+Lecoy de la Marche, A. _Les MSS. et la Miniature._ 12mo. Paris, 1884.
+Woodcuts.
+
+Leitschuh, F.F. _Geschichte der Karolingischen Malerei, etc._ Berlin,
+1894. Many prototype facsimiles.
+
+Libri, Gul. _Monumens inédits._ Folio. London, 1864. 65 plates.
+
+
+Madden, Sir Fred. _Universal Palæography._ 2 vols. 8vo. London, 1850.
+
+Marchal, J. _Cat. des MSS. de la bibl. royale des dues de Bourgogne._ 3
+vols. 4to. Brussels, 1842.
+
+Middleton, J.H. _Illuminated MSS. in Classical and Mediæval Times: their
+Art and their Technique._ Large 8vo. Cambridge University Press, 1892.
+
+Milanesi, G. _Documenti per la Storia dell' arte Senese,_ etc. 8vo.
+Siena, 1854-56.
+
+Molinier, A. _Les MSS. et les Miniatures._ 12mo. Paris, 1892. Woodcuts.
+
+Monte Cassino. _Paleografia artistica._ Monte Cassino, 1877. Folio.
+Facsimiles in gold and colours, etc., from Gothic and Lombardic MSS.
+
+Montfaucon. _Palæographia Græca._ Small folio. Parisiis, 1708.
+
+Mugnier, Fr. _Les MSS. à miniatures de la Maison de Savoie, etc._ 8vo.
+Moutiers-Tarantaise, 1894. 17 phototypes.
+
+
+Ottley, W.Y. _History of Engraving._ 4to. London, 1816.
+
+
+Peignot, Gabr. _Essai sur l'histoire du parchemin et du vélin._ 8vo.
+Paris, 1812.
+
+Pinchart, A. _Miniaturistes, Enlumineurs, et Calligraphes Employés par
+Philippe le Bon, etc._ 8vo. Bruxelles, 1865.
+
+_Publications of the Palæographical Society of London._ Folio. Vol.
+vii., etc. Very useful.
+
+
+Quaritch, B. _Examples of the Art of Book-illumination during the Middle
+Ages._ 4to. London, 1899. Fine facsimiles in gold and colours.
+
+
+Raczynski, A. (Cte.). _Les arts en Portugal._ 8vo. Paris, 1846.
+
+Rahn, J.R. _Das Psalterium Aureum v. Sanct Gallen._ Folio. St. Gallen,
+1878. u chromolithogr. in colours and gold. 7 lithogr. and many
+woodcuts. (A capital account of Carolingian and Irish MSS.)
+
+
+Sacken, Ed. Frh. von. _Die Ambraser Sammlung._ 8vo. Wien, 1855.
+
+Sakcinski, J.K. _Leben des Giulio Clovio._ 8vo. Agram, 1852.
+
+Sakcinski, J.K. _Slovnik umjetnah Jugoslavenskih. (Biographical Dict. of
+South Slavonic Artists.)_ 8vo. Uzagreba, 1858.
+
+Sanftl, K. _Dissertatio in aureum ac pervetustum SS. Evangelior. Codicem
+MS. Monast. S. Emmerani._ 410. Ratisbonæ, 1786. Gives a large folding
+plate of the Gospel-book cover, and facsimiles of illumination and
+writing.
+
+Schönemann. _100 Merkwürdigkeiten des Herzoglichen Biblioth. zu
+Wolfenbüttel._ 8vo. Hannover, 1849.
+
+Schultz, A. _Deutsches Leben in 14ten und 15ten Jahrh._ 2 vols. Large
+8vo. Wien, 1892. (Contains many facsimiles in gold and colours, from
+German and Bohemian MSS.)
+
+Serapeum, _Zeitschrift für Bibliothekens Wissenschaft._ 8vo. Leipzig.
+Vol. vii.
+
+Seroux D'Agincourt, J. _Historie de l'Art par les Monuments._ Folio. 3
+vols. Paris, 1823. London, 1847. Engravings.
+
+Shaw, H. _The Art of Illuminating as Practised in the Middle Ages._
+Second edition. 4to. London, 1845. Plates.
+
+Shaw, H. _Alphabets, Numerals, and Devices of the Middle Ages._ Folio.
+London, W. Pickering, 1845. Many plates, some in gold and colours.
+
+Silvestre, J.B. _Paléographie universelle._ 4 vols. Folio. Paris, 1841.
+600 plates. (Plates very good.)
+
+Smet, J.J. de. _Quelques recherches sur nos anciens enlumineurs, etc._
+In _Bulletin de l'Académie de Belgique,_ t. xiv., pt. 2, p. 78, and
+_Bullet. du Bibliophile Belge_, t. iii., p. 376, t. iv., p. 176.
+
+Stokes, M. _Early Christian Art in Ireland._ 12mo. London, 1887.
+Woodcuts. (Victoria and Albert M. Handbook.)
+
+Swarzenski, G. _Die Regensburger Buchmalerei des X. und XI.
+Jahrhunderts._ Large 8vo. Leipzig, 1901. 35 phototypes.
+
+
+Tambroni, G. _Cennino Cennini: Trattato della Pittura._ 8vo. Roma, 1821.
+Later edition (Milanesi), Firenze, 1859. (Contains many practical
+directions and recipes.)
+
+Thompson, Sir Edward M. _English Illuminated MSS._ In _Bibliographica_,
+vol. i. pp. 129, 385, etc. Large 8vo. London, 1895.
+
+
+Venturi, Ad. _La miniatura ferrarese nel secolo XV., etc._ Folio. Roma,
+1899. 4 chromolithographs and 7 phototypes. In _Le Gallerie Nazionale
+Italiane._ Vol. iv., 187.
+
+Viel-Castel, Cte. _Horace de. Statuts de l'Ordre du Saint-Esprit, etc.
+MS. du 14e Siècle avec une notice sur la peinture des MSS._ Large
+folio. Paris, 1853. 17 very fine facsimiles in gold and colours.
+
+Vogelsang, W. _Holländische Miniaturen des späteren Mittelalters._ Large
+8vo. Strassburg, 1899. Many phototype facsimiles.
+
+
+Wailly, J.N. de. _Élémens de Paléographie._ 2 thick vols. 4to. Paris,
+1838. Many plates of writing, seals, etc.
+
+Wallther, J.L. _Lexicon diplomaticum._ Folio. 1751. Many examples of
+writings.
+
+Waagen, G.F. _On the Importance of MSS. with Miniatures in the History
+of Art._ 8vo. Philobiblon Society. Vol. i. London, 1854.
+
+Waagen, G.F. _Die Vornehmsten Künstler in Wien._ 8vo. Wien, 1866. (MSS.
+in Imperial Library, etc., in Vienna.)
+
+Warner, G.F. _Miniatures and Borders from the Hours of Bona Sforza,
+Duchess of Milan._ Small 4to. London, 1894. 65 sepia facsimiles.
+
+Warner, G.F. _Illuminated MSS. in the British Museum._ 4to. London,
+1899, etc. Many coloured facsimiles.
+
+Wattenbach, W. _Das Schriftwesen im Mittelalter._ 8vo. Leipzig, 1871.
+
+Westwood, J.O. _Palæographia Sacra Pictoria._ 4to. London, 1845. 50
+facsimile plates, mostly in colours and gold.
+
+Westwood, J.O. _Miniatures and Ornaments of Anglo-Saxon and Irish MSS._
+Folio. Oxford, 1868. Many fine facsimiles in colours.
+
+Wyatt, M.D., and Tymms. _The Art of Illuminating._ Large 8vo. London,
+1860. Many facsimiles in gold and colours.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Illuminated Manuscripts, by John W. Bradley
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPTS ***
+
+***** This file should be named 19870-0.txt or 19870-0.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/1/9/8/7/19870/
+
+Produced by Project Rastko, Zoran Stefanovic, H.J. Bent
+and the Online Distributed Proofreaders Europe at
+http://dp.rastko.net.
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+http://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+http://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at http://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit http://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
+To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     http://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
diff --git a/19870-0.zip b/19870-0.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7199012
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19870-0.zip
diff --git a/19870-8.txt b/19870-8.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ff415b3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19870-8.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,8347 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Illuminated Manuscripts, by John W. Bradley
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Illuminated Manuscripts
+
+Author: John W. Bradley
+
+Release Date: November 19, 2006 [EBook #19870]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPTS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Project Rastko, Zoran Stefanovic, H.J. Bent
+and the Online Distributed Proofreaders Europe at
+http://dp.rastko.net.
+
+
+
+
+
+                             Illuminated
+                             Manuscripts
+
+                            John Bradley
+
+
+                            BRACKEN BOOKS
+                               LONDON
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+BOOK I
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+INTRODUCTORY
+
+What is meant by art?--The art faculty--How artists may be compared--The
+aim of illumination--Distinction between illumination and
+miniature--Definition of illumination--The first miniature
+painter--Origin of the term "miniature"--Ovid's allusion to his little
+book.
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+VELLUM AND OTHER MATERIALS
+
+Difference between vellum and parchment--Names of different
+preparations--The kinds of vellum most prized for illuminated books--The
+"parcheminerie" of the Abbey of Cluny--Origin of the term
+"parchment"--Papyrus.
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+WRITING
+
+Its different styles--Origin of Western alphabets--Various forms of
+letters--Capitals, uncials, etc.--Texts used in Western Europe--Forms of
+ancient writings--The roll, or volume--The codex--Tablets--Diptychs,
+etc.--The square book--How different sizes of books were produced.
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+GREEK AND ROMAN ILLUMINATION
+
+The first miniature painter--The Vatican Vergils--Methods of
+painting--Origin of Christian art--The Vienna Genesis--The
+Dioscorides--The Byzantine Revival.
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+BYZANTINE ILLUMINATION
+
+The rebuilding of the city of Byzantium the beginning of Byzantine
+art--Justinian's fondness for building and splendour--Description of
+Paul the Silentiary--Sumptuous garments--The Gospel-book of
+Hormisdas--Characteristics of Byzantine work--Comparative scarcity of
+examples--Rigidity of Byzantine rules of art--Periods of Byzantine
+art--Examples--Monotony and lifelessness of the style.
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+CELTIC ILLUMINATION
+
+Early liturgical books reflect the ecclesiastical art of their
+time--This feature a continuous characteristic of illumination down to
+the latest times--Elements of Celtic ornament--Gospels of St.
+Chad--Durham Gospels--Contrast of Celtic and Byzantine--St.
+Columba--Book of Kells--Details of its decoration.
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+CELTIC ILLUMINATION--_continued_
+
+The Iona Gospels--Contrast with Roman and Byzantine--Details--Treatment
+of animal forms--Colour schemes--The Gospel-book of St. Columbanus--That
+of Mael Brith Mac Durnan--The Lindisfarne Gospels--Cumdachs--Other
+book-shrines.
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+SEMI-BARBARIC ILLUMINATION
+
+Visigothic--Merovingian--Lombardic--Extinction of classic art--Splendid
+reign of Dagobert--St. Eloy of Noyon--The Library of Laon--Natural
+History of Isidore of Seville--Elements of contemporary art--Details of
+ornament--Symbolism--Luxeuil and Monte Cassino--Sacramentary of
+Gellone--"Prudentius"--"Orosius"--Value of the Sacramentary of Gellone.
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+DEVELOPMENT OF THE INITIAL
+
+The initial and initial paragraph the main object of decoration in
+Celtic illumination--Study of the letter L as an example--The I of "In
+principio" and the B of "Beatus Vir".
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+FIRST ENGLISH STYLES
+
+Transition from Iona to Lindisfarne--Influence of Frankish art--The
+"Opus Anglicum"--The Winchester school and its characteristics--Whence
+obtained--Method of painting--Examples--Where found and described.
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+CAROLINGIAN ILLUMINATION
+
+Why so-called--Works to be consulted--The Library of St. Gall--Rise and
+progress of Carolingian art--Account of various MSS.--Feature of the
+style--Gospels of St. Sernin--The Ada-Codex--Centres of
+production--Other splendid examples--The Alcuin Bible--The Gospel of St.
+M�dard of Soissons.
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+MONASTIC ILLUMINATION
+
+Introductory--Monasteries and their work from the sixth to the ninth
+century--The claustral schools--Alcuin--Warnefrid and Theodulf--Clerics
+and monastics--The Golden Age of monasticism--The Order of St.
+Benedict--Cistercian houses--Other Orders--Progress of writing in
+Carolingian times--Division of labour.
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+MONASTIC ILLUMINATION--_continued_
+
+The copyist--Gratuitous labour--Last words of copyists--Disputes between
+Cluny and Citeaux--The Abbey of Cluny: its grandeur and influences--Use
+of gold and purple vellum--The more influential abbeys and their work in
+France, Germany, and the Netherlands.
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+OTHONIAN ILLUMINATION
+
+Departure from Carolingian--Bird and serpent--Common use of dracontine
+forms in letter-ornament--Influence of metal-work on the forms of
+scroll-ornament--The vine-stem and its developments--Introduction of
+Greek taste and fashion into Germany--Cistercian illumination--The
+Othonian period--Influence of women as patronesses and
+practitioners--German princesses--The Empress Adelheid of Burgundy--The
+Empress Theophano--Henry II. and the Empress
+Cunegunda--Bamberg--Examples of Othonian art.
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+FRANCONIAN ILLUMINATION
+
+The later Saxon schools--Bernward of Hildesheim--Tuotilo and Hartmut of
+St. Gallen--Portrait of Henry II. in MS. 40 at Munich--Netherlandish and
+other work compared--Alleged deterioration of work under the Franconian
+Emperors not true--Bad character of the eleventh century as to
+art--Example to the contrary.
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+ARTISTIC EDUCATION IN THE CLOISTER
+
+The "Manual"--Its discovery--Its origin and contents--Didron's
+translation--The "Compendium" of Theophilus--Its contents--English
+version by Hendrie--Benedictine and Cistercian illumination--How they
+differ--Character of monastic architects and artists.
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+THE RISE OF GOTHIC ILLUMINATION
+
+Germany the chief power in Europe in the twelfth century--Rise of
+Italian influence--The Emmeram MSS.--Coronation of Henry II.--The
+Apocalypse--The "Hortus Deliciarum"--Romanesque--MS. of Henry the
+Lion--The Niederm�nster Gospels--Description of the MS.--Rise of
+Gothic--Uncertainty of its origin--The spirit of the age.
+
+
+BOOK II
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+THE GOLDEN AGE OF ILLUMINATION
+
+The Gothic spirit--A "zeitgeist" not the invention of a single artist
+nor of a single country--The thirteenth century the beginning of the new
+style--Contrast between North and South, between East and West, marked
+in the character of artistic leaf-work--Gradual development of Gothic
+foliage--The bud of the thirteenth century, the leaf of the fourteenth,
+and the flower of the fifteenth--The Freemasons--Illumination
+transferred from the monastery to the lay workshop--The Psalter of St.
+Louis--Characteristics of French Gothic illumination--Rise of the
+miniature as a distinct feature--Guilds--Lay artists.
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+RISE OF NATIONAL STYLES
+
+The fourteenth century the true Golden Age of Gothic
+illumination--France the cradle of other national styles--Netherlandish,
+Italian, German, etc.--Distinction of schools--Difficulty of assigning
+the _provenance_ of MSS.--The reason for it--MS. in Fitzwilliam Museum,
+Cambridge--The Padua Missal--Artists' names--Whence obtained.
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+FRENCH ILLUMINATION FROM THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY TO THE RENAISSANCE
+
+Ivy-leaf and chequered backgrounds--Occasional introduction of plain
+burnished gold--Reign of Charles VI. of France--The Dukes of Orleans,
+Berry, and Burgundy; their prodigality and fine taste for
+MSS.--Christine de Pisan and her works--Description of her "Mutation of
+Fortune" in the Paris Library--The "Roman de la Rose" and "Cit� des
+Dames"--Details of the French style of illumination--Burgundian MSS.,
+Harl. 4431--Roy. 15 E. 6--The Talbot Romances--Gradual approach to
+Flemish on the one hand and Italian on the other.
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+ENGLISH ILLUMINATION FROM THE TENTH TO THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY
+
+Organisation of the monastic _scriptoria_--Professional outsiders: lay
+artists--The whole sometimes the work of the same practitioner--The
+Winchester Abbeys of St. Swithun's and Hyde--Their vicissitudes--St.
+Alban's--Westminster--Royal MS. 2 A 22--Description of style--The
+Tenison Psalter--Features of this period--The Arundel Psalter--Hunting
+and shooting scenes, and games--Characteristic pictures, grotesques, and
+caricatures--Queen Mary's Psalter--Rapid changes under Richard
+II.--Royal MS. 2 E. 9--Their cause.
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+THE SOURCES OF ENGLISH FIFTEENTH-CENTURY ILLUMINATION
+
+Attributed to the Netherlands--Not altogether French--The home of Anne
+of Bohemia, Richard II.'s Queen--Court of Charles IV. at Prag--Bohemian
+Art--John of Luxembourg, King of Bohemia--The Golden Bull of Charles
+IV.--Marriage of Richard II.--The transformation of English work owing
+to this marriage and the arrival of Bohemian artists in
+England--Influence of Queen Anne on English Art and
+Literature--Depression caused by her death--Examination of Roy. MS. 1 E.
+9 and 2 A. 18--The Grandison Hours--Other MSS.--Introduction of Flemish
+work by Edward IV.
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+ITALIAN ILLUMINATION
+
+Barbaric character of Italian illumination in the twelfth
+century--Ravenna and Pavia the earliest centres of revival--The
+"Exultet"--La Cava and Monte Cassino--The writers of early Italian MSS.
+not Italians--In the early fourteenth century the art is
+French--Peculiarities of Italian foliages--The Law Books--Poems of
+Convenevole da Prato, the tutor of Petrarch--Celebrated patrons--The
+Laon Boethius--The Decretals, Institutes, etc.--"Decretum Gratiani,"
+other collections and MSS.--Statuts du Saint Esprit--Method of
+painting--Don Silvestro--The Rationale of Durandus--Nicolas of Bologna,
+etc.--Triumphs of Petrarch--Books at San Marco, Florence--The Brera
+Graduals at Milan--Other Italian collections--Examples of different
+localities in the British Museum--Places where the best work was
+done--Fine Neapolitan MS. in the British Museum--The white-vine style
+superseded by the classical renaissance.
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+GERMAN ILLUMINATION FROM THE THIRTEENTH TO THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY
+
+Frederick II., _Stupor Mundi_, and his MS. on hunting--The Sicilian
+school mainly Saracenic, but a mixture of Greek, Arabic, and Latin
+tastes--The Franconian Emperors at Bamberg--Charles of Anjou--The House
+of Luxembourg at Prag--MSS. in the University Library--The Collegium
+Carolinum of the Emperor Charles IV.--MSS. at Vienna--The Wenzel
+Bible--The Weltchronik of Rudolf v. Ems at Stuttgard--Wilhelm v. Oranse
+at Vienna--The Golden Bull--Various schools--Hildesheimer Prayer-book at
+Berlin--The Nuremberg school--The Glockendons--The Brethren of the Pen.
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+NETHERLANDISH ILLUMINATION
+
+What is meant by the Netherlands--Early realism and study of
+nature--Combination of symbolism with imitation--Anachronism in
+design--The value of the pictorial methods of the old illuminators--The
+oldest Netherlandish MS.--Harlinda and Renilda--The nunnery at
+Maas-Eyck--Description of the MS.--Thomas � Kempis--The school of
+Zwolle--Character of the work--The use of green landscape
+backgrounds--The Dukes of Burgundy--Netherlandish artists--No miniatures
+of the Van Eycks or Memling known to exist--Schools of Bruges, Ghent,
+Li�ge, etc.--Brussels Library--Splendid Netherlandish MSS. at
+Vienna--Gerard David and the Grimani Breviary--British Museum--"Romance
+of the Rose"--"Isabella" Breviary--Grisailles.
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+THE FRENCH RENAISSANCE
+
+Communication with Italy--Renaissance not sudden--Origin of the schools
+of France and Burgundy--Touraine and its art--Fouquet--Brentano
+MSS.--"Versailles Livy"--Munich "Boccaccio," etc.--Perr�al and
+Bourdichon--"Hours of Anne of Brittany"--Poyet--The school of
+Fontainebleau--Stained glass--Jean Cousin--Gouffier "Heures"--British
+Museum Offices of Francis I.--Dinteville Offices--Paris "Heures de
+Montmorency", "Heures de Dinteville," etc.
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE ILLUMINATION
+
+Late period of Spanish illumination--Isidore of Seville--Archives at
+Madrid--Barcelona--Toledo--Madrid--Choir-books of the Escorial--Philip
+II.--Illuminators of the choir-books--The size and beauty of the
+volumes--Fray Andr�s de Leon and other artists--Italian
+influence--Giovanni Battista Scorza of Genoa--Antonio de Holanda,
+well-known Portuguese miniaturist in sixteenth century--His son
+Francesco--The choir-books at Belem--French invasion--Missal of
+Gon�alvez--Sandoval Genealogies--Portuguese Genealogies in British
+Museum--The Stowe Missal of John III.
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+ILLUMINATION SINCE THE INVENTION OF PRINTING
+
+The invention of printing--Its very slight affect on
+illuminating--Preference by rich patrons for written books--Work
+produced in various cities in the sixteenth century--Examples in German,
+Italian, and other cities, and in various public libraries up to the
+present time.
+
+MANUSCRIPTS THAT MAY BE CONSULTED
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+
+
+
+                     ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPTS
+
+                             BOOK I
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+INTRODUCTORY
+
+What is meant by art?--The art faculty--How artists may be compared--The
+aim of illumination--Distinction between illumination and
+miniature--Definition of illumination--The first miniature
+painter--Origin of the term "miniature"--Ovid's allusion to his little
+book.
+
+
+The desire for decoration is probably as old as the human race. Nature,
+of course, is the source of beauty, and this natural beauty affects
+something within us which has or is the faculty of reproducing the cause
+of its emotion in a material form. Whether the reproduction be such as
+to appeal to the eye or the ear depends on the cast of the faculty. In a
+mild or elementary form, probably both casts of faculty exist in every
+animated creature, and especially in the human being.
+
+Art being the intelligent representation of that quality of beauty which
+appeals to any particular observer, whoever exercises the faculty of
+such representation is an artist.
+
+Greatness or otherwise is simply the measure of the faculty, for in
+Nature herself there is no restriction. There is always enough of beauty
+in Nature to fill the mightiest capacity of human genius. Artists,
+therefore, are measured by comparison with each other in reference to
+the fraction of art which they attempt to reproduce.
+
+The art of illumination does not aim at more than the gratification of
+those who take pleasure in books. Its highest ambition is to make books
+beautiful.
+
+To some persons, perhaps, all ordinary books are ugly and distasteful.
+Probably they are so to the average schoolboy. Hence the laudable
+endeavour among publishers of school-books to make them attractive. The
+desire that books should be made attractive is of great antiquity. How
+far back in the world's history we should have to go to get in front of
+it we cannot venture to reckon. The methods of making books attractive
+are numerous and varied. That to which we shall confine our attention is
+a rather special one. Both its processes and its results are peculiar.
+Mere pictures or pretty ornamental letters in sweet colours and elegant
+drawing do not constitute illumination, though they do form essential
+contributions towards it; and, indeed, in the sixteenth century the
+clever practitioners who wished, in bright colours, to awaken up the old
+woodcuts used to call themselves illuminists, and the old German books
+which taught how the work should be done were called _Illuminir b�cher_.
+Illuminists were not illuminators.
+
+In the twelfth century when, as far as we know, the word illuminator was
+first applied to one who practised the art of book decoration, it meant
+one who "lighted up" the page of the book with bright colours and
+burnished gold.
+
+These processes suggest the definition of the art. _Perfect illumination
+must contain both colours and metals_. To this extent it is in perfect
+unison with the other medi�val art of heraldry; it might almost be
+called a twin-sister.
+
+As an art it is much older than its name. We find something very like it
+even among the ancient Egyptians, for in the Louvre at Paris is a
+papyrus containing paintings of funeral ceremonies, executed in bright
+colours and touched in its high lights with pencilled gold. But after
+this for many centuries there remains no record of the existence of any
+such art until just before the Christian era. Then, indeed, we have
+mention of a lady artist who painted a number of miniature portraits for
+the great biographical work of the learned Varro. We must carefully
+observe, however, that there is a distinction between illumination and
+mere miniature painting. Sometimes it is true that miniatures--as _e.g._
+those of the early Byzantine artists, and afterwards those of Western
+Europe--were finished with touches of gold to represent the lights. This
+brought them into the category of illuminations, for while miniatures
+may be executed without the use of gold or silver, illuminations may
+not. There are thousands of miniatures that are not illuminations.
+
+At the period when illuminating was at its best the miniature, in its
+modern sense of a little picture, was only just beginning to appear as a
+noticeable feature, and the gold was as freely applied to it as to the
+penmanship or the ornament. But such is not the case with miniature
+painting generally.
+
+Lala of Cyzicus, the lady artist just referred to, lived in the time of
+Augustus C�sar. She has the honour of being the first miniaturist on
+record, and is said to have produced excellent portraits "in little,"
+especially those of ladies, on both vellum and ivory. Her own portrait,
+representing her engaged in painting a statuette, is still to be seen
+among the precious frescoes preserved in the museum at Naples.
+
+The term "miniature," now applied to this class of work, has been
+frequently explained. It is derived from the Latin word _minium_, or red
+paint, two pigments being anciently known by this name--one the sulphide
+of mercury, now known also as "vermilion," the other a lead oxide, now
+called "red lead." It is the latter which is generally understood as the
+_minium_ of the illuminators, though both were used in manuscript work.
+The red paint was employed to mark the initial letters or sections of
+the MS. Its connection with portraiture and other pictorial subjects on
+a small scale is entirely owing to its accidental confusion by French
+writers with their own word _mignon_, and so with the Latin _minus_. In
+classical times, among the Romans, the "miniator" was simply a person
+who applied the _minium_, and had nothing to do with pictures or
+portraits at all, but with the writing. That the rubrication of titles,
+however, was somewhat of a luxury may be gathered from the complaint of
+Ovid when issuing the humble edition of his verses from his lonely exile
+of Tomi:--
+
+         "Parve (nec invideo) sine me liber ibis in urbem:
+          Hei mihi quo domino non licet ire tuo.
+          ...........................
+          Nec te purpureo velent vaccinia succo
+          Non est conveniens luctibus ille color.
+          _Nec titulus minio_, nec cedro carta notetur
+          Candida nec nigra cornua fronte geras."[1]
+
+                                   _Tristia_, Cl. 1, Eleg. 1.
+
+[1] "Go, little book, nor do I forbid,--go without me into that city
+where, alas! I may enter never more.... Nor shall whortleberries adorn
+thee with their crimson juice; that colour is not suitable for
+lamentations. Nor shall thy title be marked with minium, nor thy leaf
+scented with cedar-oil. Nor shalt thou bear horns of ivory or ebony upon
+thy front."
+
+There are many allusions in these pathetic lines which would bear
+annotation, but space forbids. The one point is the use of minium.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+VELLUM AND OTHER MATERIALS
+
+Difference between vellum and parchment--Names of different
+preparations--The kinds of vellum most prized for illuminated books--The
+"parcheminerie" of the Abbey of Cluny--Origin of the term
+"parchment"--Papyrus.
+
+
+As vellum is constantly spoken of in connection with illumination and
+illuminated books, it becomes necessary to explain what it is, and why
+it was used instead of paper.
+
+We often find writers, when referring to ancient documents, making use
+of the words parchment and vellum as if the terms were synonymous; but
+this is not strictly correct. It is true that both are prepared from
+skins, but the skins are different. They are similar, but not the same,
+nor, indeed, are they interchangeable. In point of fact, the skins of
+almost all the well-known domestic animals, and even of fishes, have
+been used for the purpose of making a material for writing upon.
+Specifically among the skins so prepared were the following: the
+ordinary lambskin, called "aignellinus"[2]; that prepared from stillborn
+lambs, called "virgin parchment."
+
+[2] Strictly _agnellinus_.
+
+From sheepskins was produced ordinary "parchment," and also a sort of
+leather called "basane" or "cordovan." Vellum was produced from
+calfskin; that of the stillborn calf being called "uterine vellum," and
+considered the finest and thinnest. It is often spoken of in connection
+with the exquisitely written Bibles of the thirteenth and fourteenth
+centuries as of the highest value.
+
+Besides these were the prepared skins of oxen, pigs, and asses; but
+these were chiefly used for bindings, though occasionally for leaves of
+account and other books liable to rough usage.
+
+Before the tenth century the vellum used for MSS. is highly polished,
+and very white and fine. Afterwards it becomes thick and rough,
+especially on the hair side. In the examination of certain MSS. the
+distinction of hair side and smooth side is of importance in counting
+the gatherings so as to determine the completeness, or otherwise, of a
+given volume. Towards the period of the Renaissance, however, the vellum
+gradually regains its better qualities.
+
+Thus it may be seen that the difference between vellum and parchment is
+not a mere difference of thickness; for while, in general, vellum is
+stouter than parchment, there is some vellum which is thinner than some
+parchment. Not only are they made from different kinds of skin, but the
+vellum used for illuminated books was, and still is, prepared with
+greater care than the parchment used for ordinary school or college
+treatises, or legal documents.
+
+The fabrication of both parchment and vellum in the Middle Ages was
+quite as important a matter as that of paper at the present time, and
+certain monastic establishments had a special reputation for the
+excellence of their manufacture. Thus the "parcheminerie," as it was
+called, of the Abbey of Cluny, in France, was quite celebrated in the
+twelfth century. One reason probably for this celebrity was the fact
+that Cluny had more than three hundred churches, colleges, and
+monasteries amongst its dependencies, and therefore had ample
+opportunities for obtaining the best materials and learning the best
+methods in use throughout literary Christendom. As to the name "vellum,"
+it is directly referable to the familiar Latin term for the hide or pelt
+of the sheep or other animal, but specially applied, as we have said, to
+that of the calf, the writing material thus prepared being termed
+_charta vitulina_--in French _v�lin_, and in monastic Latin and English
+_vellum_.
+
+The name "parchment" had quite a different kind of origin. It is an old
+story, found in Pliny's _Natural History_ (bk. xiii. ch. 70), that the
+ancient use or revival of the use of parchment was due to the
+determination of King Eumenes II. of Mysia or Pergamos to form a library
+which should rival those of Alexandria, but that when he applied to
+Egypt for papyrus, the writing materials then in use, Ptolemy Epiphanes
+jealously refused to permit its exportation. In this difficulty Eumenes,
+we are told, had recourse to the preparation of sheepskins, and that
+from the place of its invention it was called _charta pergamena_.
+
+Pliny and his authority, however, were both wrong in point of history.
+Eumenes, who reigned from about 197 to 158 B.C., was not the inventor,
+but the restorer of its use (see Herodotus, v. 58). It was called in
+Greek {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK
+SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER
+RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER
+NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} (2 Tim. iv. 13).
+
+We may mention, by the way, that neither vellum nor parchment are by any
+means the oldest materials known. Far older, and more generally used in
+Italy, Greece, and Egypt, was the material which has given us the name
+of our commonest writing material of to-day, viz. paper. The name of
+this older material was _papyrus_ (Gr. {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK
+SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL
+LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER
+OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} and {~GREEK SMALL LETTER
+CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER
+RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL
+LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}). As a writing material it was known in Egypt from
+remote antiquity. It was plentiful in Rome in the time of the C�sars,
+and it continued, both in Grecian and Roman Egypt, to be the ordinary
+material employed down to the middle of the tenth century of our era. In
+Europe, too, it continued in common use long after vellum had been
+adopted for books, though more especially for letters and accounts. St.
+Jerome mentions vellum as an alternative material in case papyrus should
+fail (Ep. vii.), and St. Augustine (Ep. xv.) apologises for using vellum
+instead of papyrus.[3] Papyrus was also used in the early Middle Ages.
+Examples, _made up into book-form_--_i.e._ in leaves, with sometimes a
+few vellum leaves among them for stability--are still extant. Among such
+are some seven or eight books in various European libraries, the best
+known being the Homilies of St. Avitus at Paris, the Antiquities of
+Josephus at Milan, and the Isidore at St. Gall.
+
+[3] Thompson, _Greek and Latin Pal�ography_, p. 33.
+
+And in the Papal Chancery papyrus appears to have been used down to a
+late date in preference to vellum.[4]
+
+[4] Thompson, _op. cit._, p. 34; Aug. Molinier, _Les Manuscrits_,
+Pr�lim.; Lecoy de la Marche, _Les MSS. et la Miniature_, p. 24.
+
+In France papyrus was in common use in the sixth and seventh centuries.
+Merovingian documents dating from 625 to 692 are still preserved in
+Paris.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+WRITING
+
+Its different styles--Origin of Western alphabets--Various forms of
+letters--Capitals, uncials, etc.--Texts used in Western Europe--Forms of
+ancient writings--The roll, or volume--The codex--Tablets--Diptychs,
+etc.--The square book--How different sizes of books were produced.
+
+
+Seeing that illumination grew originally out of the decoration of the
+initial letters, our next point to notice is the penmanship. The
+alphabet which we now use is that formerly used by the Romans, who
+borrowed it from the Greeks, who in turn obtained it (or their
+modification of it) from the Phoenicians, who, lastly it is said,
+constructed it from that of the Egyptians. Of course, in these repeated
+transfers the letters themselves, as well as the order of them,
+underwent considerable alterations. With these we have here no concern.
+Our alphabet, _i.e._ the Roman and its variations, is quite sufficient
+for our story. In order to show as clearly as may be the varieties of
+lettering and the progress of penmanship from classical times to the
+revival of the old Roman, letters in the fifteenth century, we offer the
+following synopsis, which classifies and indicates the development of
+the different hands used by writers and illuminators of MSS. It is
+constructed on the information given in Wailly's large work on
+Pal�ography, and in Dr. de Grey Birch's book on the Utrecht Psalter. The
+former work affords excellent facsimiles, which, together with those
+given in the plates published by the Pal�ographical Society, will give
+the student the clearest possible ideas respecting these ancient
+handwritings.
+
+Omitting the cursive or correspondence hand, the letters used by the
+Romans were of four kinds--capitals (usually made angular to be cut in
+stone), rustic, uncials, and minuscules.
+
+The rounded capitals were intended to be used in penwork. Uncials differ
+from capitals only in the letters A, D, E, G, M, Q, T, V, for the sake
+of ease in writing. It is said that this class of letters was first
+called uncials from being made an inch (_uncia_) high, but this is mere
+tradition; the word is first used on Jerome's preface to the Book of
+Job. No uncials have ever been found measuring more than five-eighths of
+an inch in height.
+
+For the assistance of such students as may wish for examples we must
+refer to certain MSS. and reproductions in which the foregoing hands are
+exemplified.
+
+_CIRCA_ FOURTH CENTURY.
+
+_Capitals_, yet not pure.
+  The Vatican Vergil, No. 3225, throughout (Birch, p. 14; Silvestre's
+    _Pal�ographie universelle_, pl. 74).
+
+With regard to the relative antiquity of capitals and uncials, M. de
+Wailly observes: "The titles in pure uncials, but less than the text
+itself, give an excellent index to the highest antiquity. This is
+verified in MSS. 152, 2630, 107 of the Bibl. du Roi, etc. MSS. of the
+seventh or eighth century, whether on uncial or demi-uncial, or any
+other letter, are never constant in noting the title at the top of the
+page, or the kind of writing will vary, or if uncials be constantly
+used, the titles will not be smaller than the text. These variations
+become still greater in the following centuries. The ornaments which
+relieve the titles of each page commence about the eighth century" (i.
+p. 49 C).
+
+_Capitals_ and _Uncials_.
+  The Homilies of St. Augustine (Silvestre, pl. 74).
+  Augustine Opera, Paris Lib., 11641 (Pal�ograph. Soc., pl. 42, 43).
+
+_Rustic_.
+  The Second Vatican Vergil, No. 3867 (Wailly, pl. 2), called the
+    "Codex Romanus."
+
+SIXTH CENTURY.
+
+_Rustic_ and _Uncial_.
+  The Montamiata Bible (Birch, 35; Wailly, pl. 2, 4).
+
+_Rustic_ and _Minuscule_.
+  The Cambridge Gospels (Westwood, _Pal�ograph. Sacra Pictoria_, pl. 45).
+
+_Uncials_.
+  Gospels in Brit. Mus. Add. MS. 5463.
+  Paris Lib., Gregory of Tours (Silvestre, pl. 86).
+  Vienna Imp. Lib., Livy (Silvestre, pl. 75).
+  Brit. Mus., Harl. 1775 (Pal�ograph. Soc., pl. 16).
+
+SEVENTH CENTURY.
+
+_Uncials_ and _Minuscule_.
+  The St. Chad's Gospels in library of Lichfield Cathedral (Pal�ograph.
+    Soc., pl. 20, 21, 35).
+
+NINTH CENTURY.
+
+_Capitals_ and _Minuscules_.
+  Paris Lib., Bible of Charles the Bald.
+
+There is scarcely anything more difficult to judge than the true age of
+square capital MSS. or of pure uncials. Even the rustic capitals, like
+the first Vatican Vergil, No. 3225, are extremely rare. The letters in
+this MS. are about three-sixteenths of an inch high.
+
+
+TEXTS IN USE IN WESTERN EUROPE BEFORE THE AGE OF CHARLEMAGNE.
+
+_Lombardic._ The national hand of Italy. Founded on the old Roman
+cursive, it does not attain to any great beauty until the tenth or
+eleventh century. Examples may be seen in Pal�ographical Society, pl.
+95, and in the excellent lithographs published by the monks of Monte
+Cassino (_Paleografia artistica di Monte Cassino_, Longobardo-Cassinese,
+tav. xxxiv., etc.). A very fine example occurs in pl. xv., dated
+1087-88. Its characteristic letters are _a_, _e_, _g_, _t_.
+
+_Visigothic._ The national hand of Spain. Also founded on the old Roman
+cursive. It becomes an established hand in the eighth century, and lasts
+until the twelfth. Examples occur in Ewald and Loewe, _Exempla Scriptur�
+Visigotic�_, Heidelberg, 1883. It was at first very rude and illegible,
+but afterwards became even handsome. A fine example exists in the
+British Museum (Pal�ograph. Soc., pl. 48). Its characteristic letters
+are _g_, _s_, _t_.
+
+_Merovingian._ The national hand of France. A hand made up chiefly of
+loops and angles in a cramped, irregular way. Its derivation the same as
+the preceding. In the seventh century it is all but illegible. In the
+eighth it is much better, and almost easy to read.
+
+_Celtic_. The national hand of Ireland. It is founded on the demi-uncial
+Roman, borrowed as to type from MSS. taken to Ireland by missionaries.
+It is bold, clear, and often beautiful, lending itself to some of the
+most astonishing feats of penmanship ever produced.
+
+Such are the chief varieties of writing found in the MSS. produced
+before the great revival of the arts and learning which took place
+during the reign of Charles the Great (Karl der Grosse), known
+familiarly as Charlemagne.
+
+Wattenbach (_Schriftwesen_, _etc._) says that uncials date from the
+second century A.D. From examples still extant of the fifth and
+following centuries, it seems that while the Roman capitals were not
+uncommon, in Celtic MSS. the form generally adopted was the uncial. It
+was the form also usually chosen for ornamentation or imitation in those
+Visigothic, Merovingian, or Lombardic MSS., which made such remarkable
+use of fishes, birds, beasts, and plants for the construction of initial
+letters and principal words, of which we see so many examples in the
+elaborately illustrated Catalogue of the library at Laon by Ed. Fleury,
+and in that of Cambray, by M. Durieux. Most of these pre-Carolingian
+designs are barbarous in the extreme, dreadfully clumsy in execution,
+but they evince considerable ingenuity and a strong predilection for
+symbolism.
+
+Before concluding this chapter perhaps something should be said
+concerning the shape of books, though this is a matter somewhat outside
+the scope of our proper subject. Yet, as the brief digression will
+afford an opportunity for the explanation of certain terms used in MSS.,
+we will avail ourselves of it.
+
+The ancient form of writing upon skins and papyrus was that of the roll.
+The Hebrew, Arabic, or Greek terms for this do not concern us, but its
+Latin name was _volumen_, "something rolled," and from this we obtain
+our word volume. Such words as "explicit liber primus" etc., which we
+often find in early MSS., refer to this roll-form; _explicare_ in Latin
+meaning to unroll; hence, apropos of a chapter or book, to finish. When
+transferred to the square form, or codex, it simply means, "here ends
+book first," etc.
+
+The modern book shape first came into use with the beginning of the
+Christian era under the name of codex. Here it will be necessary to
+explain that _caudex_, _codex_, in Latin, meant a block of wood, and had
+its humorous by-senses among the Roman dramatists, as the word block has
+among ourselves, such as blockhead.[5] So _caudicalis provincia_ was a
+jocular expression for the occupation of wood-splitting.
+
+[5] Terence, _Heautont._, 5. 1, 4.
+
+Whether the word had originally any connection with _cauda_, "a tail,"
+is not here worth considering, as if so, it had long lost the
+connection; and when used to mean a book, had only the sense of a board,
+or a number of boards from two upwards, fastened together by means of
+rings passed through holes made in their edges.
+
+Probably the first use was as plain smooth boards only; examples of such
+are still in existence. Then of boards thinly covered with, usually,
+black wax. A pair of such tablets, wax-covered, was a common form of a
+Roman pocket-or memorandum-book. It was also used as a means of
+conveying messages, the reply being returned on the same tablets. The
+method was to write on the wax with a fine-pointed instrument called a
+style, the reverse end of which was flattened. When the person to whom
+the message was sent had read it, he (or she) simply flattened out the
+writing, smoothed it level, and then wrote the reply on the same wax.
+School-children did their exercises on these tablets, housewives and
+stewards kept their accounts on them, and on them literary people jotted
+down their ideas as they do now in their pocket-books. Extant examples
+of these early books, or tablets, are fairly numerous, and may be seen
+in most public museums. A codex of two leaves was called a diptych; of
+three, a triptych, etc. The codex form was used for legal documents,
+wills, conveyances, and general correspondence. Hence the Roman postman
+was called a _tabellarius_, the tablets containing correspondence being
+tied with a thread or ribbon and sealed. This custom of sending letters
+on tablets survived for some centuries after Augustan times. Wattenbach
+gives several interesting instances of their medi�val use.[6]
+
+[6] _Schriftwesen_, 48.
+
+Of course when the tablet gave place to the codex of skin or paper, the
+papyrus was too brittle and fragile for practical utility, and examples,
+as we have seen, were very rare; but vellum soon became popular. We may
+mention, in passing, that the papyrus roll gave us a word still in use
+in diplomatics, the word _protocol_. The first sheet of a papyrus roll
+was called the {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER
+RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL
+LETTER OMICRON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL
+LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER
+LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. It
+usually contained the name of place and date of manufacture of the
+papyrus, and was stamped or marked with the name of the government
+officer who had charge of the department.
+
+In the vellum codex, though each leaf might have only one fold, and thus
+technically be considered as a folio, the actual shape of it was nearly
+square, hence its name of _codex quadratus_. When other forms of books,
+such as octavo, duo-decimo, etc., came into use, it was in consequence
+of the increased number of foldings. The gatherings, originally
+quaternions or quires, became different, and those who undertake to
+examine MSS. with respect to their completeness have to be familiar with
+the various methods.[7] This kind of knowledge, however, though useful,
+is by no means essential to the story of illumination.
+
+[7] Wattenbach, _Schriftwesen_; Madan, _Books in Manuscript_, _etc_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+GREEK AND ROMAN ILLUMINATION
+
+The first miniature painter--The Vatican Vergils--Methods of
+painting--Origin of Christian art--The Vienna Genesis--The
+Dioscorides--The Byzantine Revival.
+
+
+It has been already stated that the earliest recorded miniature painter
+was a lady named Lala of Cyzicus in the days of Augustus C�sar, days
+when Cyzicus was to Rome what Brussels is to Paris, or Brighton to
+London. All her work, as far as we know, has perished. It was
+portraiture on ivory, probably much the same as we see in the miniature
+portraiture of the present day.
+
+But this was not illumination. The kind of painting employed in the two
+Vatican Vergils was, however, something approaching it. These two
+precious volumes contain relics of Pagan art, but it is the very art
+which was the basis and prototype of so-called Christian art of those
+earliest examples found in the catacombs and in the first liturgical
+books of Christian times.
+
+The more ancient of the two Vergils referred to, No. 3225, which Labarte
+(2nd ed., ii. 158) thinks to be a century older than the other, Sir M.D.
+Wyatt considered as containing "some of the best and most interesting
+specimens of ancient painting which have come down to us. The design is
+free and the colours applied with good effect, the whole presenting
+classical art in the period of decline, but before its final
+debasement." Whereas in the second MS., No. 3867, the style, though
+still classical, is greatly debased, and probably, in addition to this,
+by no means among the best work of its time. It is described as rough,
+inaccurate, and harsh. The method is of the kind called _gouache_,
+_i.e._ the colours are applied thickly in successive couches or layers,
+probably by means of white of egg diluted with fig-tree sap, and
+finished in the high lights with touches of gold (Pal�ograph. Soc., pl.
+114, 117). This finishing with touches of gold brings the work within
+the range of illumination. There is, indeed, wanting the additional
+ornamentation of the initial letter which would bring it fully into the
+class of medi�val work; but, such as it is, it may fairly claim to be
+suggestive of the future art. Indeed, certain points in the MS.
+3225--viz. that Zeus is always red and Venus fair, that certain costumes
+and colours of drapery are specially appropriated--would lead to the
+supposition that even then there existed a code of rules like those of
+the Byzantine Guide, and that therefore the art owed its origin to the
+Greeks.
+
+Between this MS. and the first known Christian book work there may have
+been many that have now perished, and which, had they remained, would
+have marked the transition more gradually. But even as they stand there
+is no appreciable difference between the earliest monuments of Christian
+art and those of the period which preceded them. Nor shall we find any
+break, any distinct start on new principles. It is one continuous series
+of processes--the gradual change of methods growing out of experience
+alone--not owing to any change of religion or the adoption of a new set
+of theological opinions. Of course we shall find that for a very long
+time the preponderance of illuminated MSS. will be towards liturgical
+works; and we shall also find that where the contents of the MS. are the
+same the subjects taken for illustration are also selected according to
+some fixed and well-known set of rules. We shall see the explanation of
+this by-and-by.
+
+The first example of a Christian illuminated MS. is one containing
+portions of the Book of Genesis in Greek preserved in the Imperial
+Library at Vienna. It is a mere fragment, only twenty-six leaves of
+purple vellum--that is, bearing the imperial stain--yet it contains
+eighty-eight pictures. We call them miniatures, but we must remember
+that by "miniator" a Roman bookseller would not understand what we call
+a miniaturist; and, as we have said, the word "illuminator" was not then
+known.
+
+This Vienna Genesis is not introduced among illuminated books,
+therefore, because of its miniatures--pictures we prefer to call
+them--but because the text is nearly all written in _gold_ and _silver_
+letters. The pictures, according to the Greek manner, are placed in
+little square frames. They were executed, no doubt, by a professional
+painter, not without technical skill and not hampered by monastic
+restrictions. The symbolism which underlies all early art is here shown
+in the allegorical figures (such as we shall meet with again in later
+Byzantine work), which are introduced to interpret the scene. We see the
+same thing in the catacombs. Being a relic of great importance, this
+Genesis codex has been often described and examples given of its
+pictures. Of course, in a little manual like the present we cannot
+pretend to exhibit the literature of our subject. We can scarcely do
+more than refer the reader to a single source. In this case perhaps we
+cannot do better than send the inquirer to the Victoria and Albert
+Museum at South Kensington.
+
+If we select another MS. of this early period it is the one which may be
+said to be the oldest existing MS. in which the ornamentation is worthy
+of as much notice as the pictures. We refer to the Collection of
+Treatises by Greek physicians on plants, fishing, the chase, and kindred
+matters in the same library as the Genesis fragment. It goes under the
+name of "Dioscorides," who was one of the authors, and dates from the
+beginning of the sixth century. The Genesis is a century older.
+Engravings from the Dioscorides are given in Labarte's _Arts
+industriels, etc._, pl. 78, and in Louandre's _Arts somptuaires, etc._,
+i., pl. 2, 3.
+
+Enough has been said on these earlier centuries to show quite clearly
+the character of the art known as Early Christian. It is simply a
+continuation of such art as had existed from classical times, and had,
+in fact, passed from the Greeks, who were artists, to the Romans, who
+were rarely better than imitators. It is carried on to the period when
+it again is nourished by Greek ideas in the Later Empire, and once more
+attains distinction in the splendid revival of art under the Emperor
+Justinian.
+
+NOTE.--Julius Capitolinus, in his Life of the exquisite Emperor Maximin,
+junior, mentions that the emperor's mother[8] made him a present of a
+copy of the poems of Homer, written in golden letters on purple[9]
+vellum. This is the earliest recorded instance of such a book in
+Christian times. Its date would be about 235 A.D.
+
+[8] Qu�dam parens sua.
+
+[9] Purpureos libros.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+BYZANTINE ILLUMINATION
+
+The rebuilding of the city of Byzantium the beginning of Byzantine
+art--Justinian's fondness for building and splendour--Description of
+Paul the Silentiary--Sumptuous garments--The Gospel-book of
+Hormisdas--Characteristics of Byzantine work--Comparative scarcity of
+examples--Rigidity of Byzantine rules of art--Periods of Byzantine
+art--Examples--Monotony and lifelessness of the style.
+
+
+The signal event which gave birth to medi�val illumination, or rather to
+the ideas which were thereby concentrated upon the production of
+magnificent books, was the rebuilding of the Imperial Palace and the
+Basilica of Constantine, henceforward to be known as the Church of
+Sancta Sophia, or the Divine Wisdom, at Byzantium. The Emperor Justinian
+had been reigning six years when a terrific fire, caused by the
+conflicts between the various seditions, called Circus factions, of the
+time, almost entirely destroyed not only his own palace and the great
+Christian church adjoining it, but the city of Constantinople itself. So
+important a scheme of reconstruction had probably never been forced upon
+a government since the great fire in Rome under Nero. Justinian, whose
+early training had been of the most economical kind, and whose
+disposition seemed to be rather inclined to parsimony than extravagance,
+now came out in his true character. For various reasons he had hitherto
+studiously concealed his master-passion; but this catastrophe of the
+fire, which seemed at first so disastrous, was really a stroke of
+fortune. It afforded the hitherto frugal sovereign the chance he had
+long waited for of spending without stint the hoarded savings of his two
+miserly predecessors, and gratifying his own tastes for magnificent
+architecture and splendour of apparel.
+
+Not only Asia, with its wealth of gold and gems, but all the known world
+capable of supplying material for the reconstructions, were called upon,
+and ivory, marbles, mosaics, lamps, censers, candelabra, chalices,
+ciboria, crosses, furniture, fittings, pictures--in short, everything
+that his own taste and the experience of four or five of the ablest
+architects of the time could suggest--administered to the gorgeous, the
+unspeakable splendour of the new edifices and their furniture.
+
+Paul the Silentiary, an eye-witness of the whole proceeding, has left a
+description in verse, and the accurate Du Fresne in prose, which enable
+us easily to trace how the Roman city of Constantine became transformed
+into the semi-oriental Byzantium of Justinian. During the two centuries
+which had elapsed since the days of the first Christian emperor many
+foreign luxuries had found their way into the Eastern capital. Byzantine
+jewellery and Byzantine silks were already famous. The patterns on the
+latter were not merely floral or geometrical, but four-footed animals,
+birds, and scenes from outdoor sports formed part of the embellishment,
+which, therefore, must have taken the place occupied in later times by
+the tapestries of Arras and Fontainebleau.
+
+Hitherto the Byzantines had imported their silks from Persia. After the
+rebuilding of the Basilica, Justinian introduced silk-culture into
+Greece. The garments ridiculed by Asterius, Bishop of Amasia, in the
+fourth century, were repeated in the sixth century. "When men," says he,
+"appear in the streets thus dressed, the passers-by look at them as at
+painted walls. Their clothes are pictures which little children point
+out to one another. The saintlier sort wear likenesses of Christ, the
+Marriage of Galilee...and Lazarus raised from the dead."
+
+On the robe of the Empress Theodora--the wife of Justinian, who is shown
+in one of the mosaics of St. Vitale at Ravenna as presenting rich gifts
+to that church--there is embroidered work along the border, showing the
+Adoration of the Magi. _Theodora pia_ was one among the many r�les
+played by that all-accomplished actress; but this seems to have been
+after her death. Like Lucrezia Borgia, perhaps, she was better than her
+reputation. With such surroundings liturgical books could not have
+existed without sharing in the universal luxury of enrichment. And, in
+point of fact, we still have records of such books. While Justinian
+reigned in Byzantium it happened that Hormisdas, a native of Frosinone,
+was Pope of Rome. He was a zealous eradicator of heresy (especially of
+the Eutychian and Manich�an), and in recognition of his services in this
+direction the Greek Emperor, with his thanks, sent him a great
+Gospel-book richly decorated, no doubt, with those splendid Eusebian
+canons and portraits of the Evangelists, the like of which we see in the
+Byzantine examples still preserved at Paris, in London, and elsewhere.
+Plates of beaten gold, studded with gems, formed the covers of the
+Gospel-book of Hormisdas.
+
+Nor was this sumptuous volume the only, or even a rare, example of its
+kind. We read that the art of book decoration had become a fashionable
+craze. No expense was spared in the search for costly materials. Colours
+were imported from India, Persia, and Spain, including vermilion and
+ultramarine, while the renowned Byzantine gold ink was manufactured from
+imported Indian gold. Persian calligraphers had taught its use afresh to
+the Byzantine scribes.
+
+If, as we may believe, the first object of the Roman miniatores was
+distinctness combined with beauty, we may now believe that the object of
+the Byzantine scribes was splendour. The progress had been from mere
+"cheirography" to calligraphy; now it was from calligraphy to
+chrysography and arguriography.
+
+This employment of gold and silver inks may be looked upon as the first
+step in the art of illumination as practised in the Middle Ages. And the
+preliminary to the use of metallic inks was attention to the tint of the
+vellum. The pioneers in this career of luxury no doubt had observed that
+very white vellum fatigued the eye. Hence, at first, they tinted or
+stained it with saffron, on one side at least, sometimes on both. Once
+begun, the tinting of the vellum extended to other colours. For works of
+the highest rank the favourite was a fine purple, the imperial colour of
+the Roman and Greek emperors. For chrysography, or gold-writing, the
+tint was nearly what we call crimson. For arguriography, or
+silver-writing, it became the bluish hue we call grape-purple. On the
+cooled purples vermilion ink was used instead of, or together with, the
+gold or silver. As the usage began with the Greeks, we may be sure that
+it came originally from Asia.
+
+The Emperor Nero, once having heard that an Olympic Ode of Pindar in
+letters of gold was laid up in one of the temples at Athens, desired
+that certain verses of his own should be similarly written and dedicated
+on the Altar of Jupiter Capitolinus at Rome. This was an imperial luxury
+several times repeated by other princes.
+
+After the official establishment of Christianity it became a common
+practice to have the greater liturgical books executed in the same
+costly fashion. And between the time of Constantine and that of Basil
+the Macedonian many a burning homily was directed against the custom,
+denounced as a sinful extravagance, which no doubt it was, but in vain
+until the fashion had worn itself out.
+
+It might fairly be expected, this being the case, that many examples of
+this kind of codex would still be in existence. But owing to war, fire,
+robbery, and other misfortunes but very few remain. One of the oldest
+and finest is the so-called _Codex Argenteus_, or Silver-book, now kept
+at Upsala, in Sweden, containing portions of the Gospels of the
+M�sogothic Bishop Ulfilas. Originally the effect of the stamped or
+burnished silver on the rich purple of the vellum must have been very
+splendid, but now the action of the air has blackened it, as it has done
+in many other instances where silver was used in illumination. Even gold
+will gather tarnish, and in several such MSS. has turned of a rusty red.
+Gold ink was not invariably confined to tinted vellum; it was often used
+on the plain ground. The copy of the Old Testament in Greek, presented
+by the high priest Eleazar to King Ptolemy Philadelphus, was a roll of
+fine white vellum, upon which the text was written in letters of gold.
+
+To enter upon the antiquities of Greek pal�ography would lead us too far
+from our track in view of the brevity of our present survey. We
+therefore with some reluctance turn from this interesting topic to our
+more immediate subject. We may remark, however, that the great majority
+of Greek MSS. are written on vellum. In the eleventh century are found
+instances of what is called _charta bombycina_, or cotton-paper,
+appearing more plentifully in the twelfth century, but on the whole
+vellum is the chief material of Byzantine illuminated books. Much has
+been said about the want of life and total lack of variety of treatment
+in this school of art. To a very great extent the charge is just, yet it
+could scarcely be otherwise. The one circumstance which compelled
+Byzantine work to remain so long as if cast in one unalterable mould,
+and thus to differ so strangely from that of Western artists, was due to
+the fact that in very early Christian times the scribes and illuminators
+were enrolled into a minutely organised corporation originating
+primarily in monasticism, but by no means confined to the monastic
+Orders. Lay guilds existed, the regulations and methods of which were
+rigid beyond modern belief. So that, as a class, Byzantine art has
+acquired the reputation of a soulless adherence to mechanical rules and
+precedents, depriving it of originality and even of individuality, and
+therefore excluding the remotest scintilla of artistic genius. Of the
+great crowd of examples of ordinary work this may be true, but it
+certainly is not true of the best, by which it has the right to be
+judged, as we shall see from the examples referred to by-and-by.
+Certainly there is one invaluable particular in which Greek MSS. are
+superior to those of the West, Latin or otherwise. That is, they are
+much more frequently signed with the names, localities, and dates of the
+copyists and illuminators.
+
+It will be some help towards our knowledge of this school if we divide
+its existence into chronological sections or periods.
+
+1. From pr�-Christianity to the Age of Justinian, _i.e._ down to the
+year 535. (Justinian reigned from 526 to 564.)
+
+This period marks the decadence of ancient art, but carries with it the
+characteristics and methods of the ancient Greek painters.
+
+2. From the Age of Justinian to the Iconoclastic paralysis of art under
+Leo III. the Isaurian, _i.e._ 564 to 726. (Leo reigned from 717 to 741.)
+
+During this period vast numbers of illuminated liturgical books were
+destroyed for religious or fanatical reasons, just as in our own
+Cromwellian times numbers of _Hor�_, Missals, etc., were destroyed as
+papistical and superstitious.
+
+This Edict of 726 did not absolutely put an end to all art in MSS. It
+only had the effect of excluding images of God, Christ, and the saints,
+as in Arabian and Persian MSS., leaving the artist the free use of
+flowers, plants, and line ornament, after the manner of the Mohammedan
+arabesques.
+
+3. From Leo III. to the Empress Irene, who restored the worship of
+images in part, _i.e._ from 741 to 785. (Irene ruled from 780 to 801.)
+
+This was a period of stagnation, though by no means of extinction of
+art.
+
+4. From Irene to Basil I. the Macedonian, _i.e._ from 801 to 867.
+
+A half-century and more of rapid renaissance to the most brilliant epoch
+of Byzantine art since the time of Justinian, if not the zenith of the
+school.
+
+Basil I. was a great builder--building, in fact, was his ruling
+passion--so that it may be said that he took Justinian for his model
+both as a ruler and as a patron of the arts. (He reigned from 867 to
+886.)
+
+5. From Basil the Macedonian to the Fall of Constantinople, _i.e._ from
+886 to 1453.
+
+Allowing for a few flashes of expiring skill in various reigns, this may
+be considered as a period of gradual but certain decline to a state
+worse than death, for though the monks of Greek and Russian convents
+still kept up the execution of MSS., it was only with the driest and
+most lifeless adhesion to the Manual. This so-called art still exists,
+but more like a magnetised corpse than a living thing.
+
+Examples of the first period are seldom met with. We have one signal
+specimen in the British Museum Add. MS. 5111, being two leaves only of a
+Gospel-book, and containing part of the Eusebian canons, or
+contents-tables of the Four Gospels, etc. The work is attributed to the
+time of Justinian himself. It is of the kind already referred to as
+probably affording the model of work to the early illuminators of France
+and Ireland, and as being like the Gospel-book of Hormisdas and those
+brought to England by Augustine in 596. Another example of the same
+Eusebian canons is found in Roy. MS. 1 E. vi.
+
+Of the fourth period--_i.e._ the ninth century--perhaps the most typical
+example is the Menologium (a sort of compound of a calendar and lives of
+the saints), now in the Vatican Library (MS. Gr. 1613). This MS. shows
+that the revival under Basil the Macedonian was a return not to Roman,
+but to ancient Greek art, the facial types being of the purest classical
+character.
+
+[Illustration:
+EVANG. GR�CA
+6TH CENT.
+_Brit. Mus. Add. MS. 5111, fol. 13_]
+
+[Illustration:
+EVANG. GR�CA
+9TH CENT.
+_Brit. Mus. Burney MS. 19 fol. 1 v._]
+
+In some of them we see the horizontal frown of the Homeric heroes
+({~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH
+TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK
+SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER
+UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER
+OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER
+UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK
+SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER
+FINAL SIGMA~}), and of the Georgian and Armenian races shown in the
+features of the Emperor Johannes Ducas. We have, too, the large Hera-
+like eye with its mystic gaze, which, in later Byzantine work, becomes
+first a gaze of lofty indifference, as in the portraits of the emperors
+and empresses, and lastly a stony and expressionless stare; still, if
+possible, more stony and glaring when transferred to Celtic and
+Carolingian Gospel-books. (See chapter on Carolingian Illumination.)
+
+Of this fourth period we might indeed point to many examples. One must
+suffice. It is the beautiful Greek Psalter, now at Paris (MS., p. 139),
+containing lovely examples of antique design, including remarkable
+personifications or allegorical figures. In this MS. is one of the most
+graceful personifications ever painted, that of _Night_, with her veil
+of gauze studded with stars floating overhead. The seven pictures from
+the Life of David are among the best ever put into a MS. But
+personification is carried to an extreme. Thus the Red Sea, the Jordan,
+Rivers, Mountains, Night, Dawn, etc., are all represented as persons.
+The drawings are really beautiful and the illuminated initials and
+general ornament in good taste.
+
+For other examples the reader may consult the British Museum Cat. of
+Addit. MSS., 1841-5, p. 87; also Du Sommerard, _Les Arts au Moyen-�ge_,
+tom. v., 1846, pp. 107, 162-8, and album, 2e s�r. pl. xxix., 8e s�r.
+pl. xii.-xvi.
+
+It is noticeable in these Byzantine pictures that while the
+figure-painting is often really excellent, the design skilful, and the
+pose natural, the landscape, trees, etc., are quite symbolic and
+fanciful. The painters seem to have been utterly ignorant of
+perspective. Buildings, too, without any regard to relative proportion,
+are coloured merely as parts of a colour scheme. They are pink, pale
+green, yellow, violet, blue, just to please the eye. That the painter
+had a system of colour-harmony is plain, but he paid no regard to the
+facts of city life, unless, indeed, it was the practice of the medi�val
+Byzantines to paint the outside of their houses in this truly brilliant
+style. Possibly they did so; we have similar things in Italy even
+nowadays.
+
+No doubt the French illuminators of the thirteenth and fourteenth
+centuries drew from these sources both their perspective and their
+architectural colouring. As for ornamental illumination, the principal
+method of decoration was a square heading,[10] perhaps including a
+semicircular arch sweeping over several arcades, the corners and
+wall-space being occupied either with arabesque patterns, showing them
+to be after the time of Leo III., or with scrolls of line-ornament
+enriched with acanthus foliages. Under this the scribe has placed his
+title.
+
+[10] It has been thought to represent the Greek {~GREEK SMALL LETTER
+PI~}, and to mean {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON
+WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}, a
+gate or door.
+
+[Illustration:
+CARVED IVORY COVER
+LATIN PSALTER OF MELLISENDA
+12TH CENT.
+_Brit. Mus. Egert. MS. 1139_]
+
+[Illustration:
+CODEX AURENS
+(GOLDEN GOSPELS OF ATHELSTAN)
+C. 835
+_Brit. Mus. Harl. MS. 2788, fol. 176_]
+
+Other examples have a square frame filled with the latter kind of
+scrolls and foliages, leaving a sort of open panel in the centre, in
+which is placed a small scene of sacred history or perhaps of country
+life. Sometimes the title, in golden letters, is surrounded with
+medallions containing heads of Christ and the Virgin, apostles, and
+saints. The peculiar interlacing bands of violet, yellow, rose, blue,
+etc., which are still often seen in Russian ornament, are also features
+of these Byzantine MSS.; but most of all is the lavish use of gold.
+Perhaps the fact most to be remembered about these MSS. is that the
+painters of them worked in a manner that was absolutely fixed and rigid,
+the rules of which are laid down in a manual called the _Guide to
+Painting_, a work which has been translated by M. Didron.
+
+So fixed and unalterable, indeed, is the manner that there is absolutely
+no difference to indicate relative antiquity between a MS. of the
+eleventh century and one of the sixteenth or even later, we might almost
+say, of the present day. In the matter of saint-images this is strictly
+true.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+CELTIC ILLUMINATION
+
+Early liturgical books reflect the ecclesiastical art of their
+time--This feature a continuous characteristic of illumination down to
+the latest times--Elements of Celtic ornament--Gospels of St.
+Chad--Durham Gospels--Contrast of Celtic and Byzantine--St.
+Columba--Book of Kells--Details of its decoration.
+
+
+In the earlier centuries of Christianity, when liturgical books were the
+chief occupation of the illuminator, it will need little pointing out to
+demonstrate that the page of the illuminated manuscript, where it
+contained more than the mere ornamental initial, was simply a mirror of
+the architectural decoration of the church in which it was intended to
+be used. Where the church enrichments consist, as on the Byzantine
+basilicas, of panellings, arcades, and tympana of gilded sculpture in
+wood or stone, with figures of saints, the pages of the Gospel-book bear
+similar designs. Where, as in the Romanesque, they are rich in mosaics,
+and fretted arcades interlacing each other, so are the illuminated Lives
+of the Saints, the Menologia, Psalters, and Gospel-books. Where, as in
+the Gothic cathedrals of the West--of France, Germany, or Italy--the
+stained glass is the striking feature of the interior, so it is with the
+illumination; it is a "vitrail"--a glass-painting on vellum. On this
+latter point we shall have more to say when we reach the period of
+Gothic illumination.
+
+Incidentally, also, the book reflects the minor arts in vogue at the
+period of its execution. Often in the illumination we may detect these
+popular local industries. We see mosaic enamelling, wood-and
+stone-carving, and lacquer-work, and as we approach the Renaissance,
+even gem-cutting and the delicate craft of the medallist. In Venice and
+the Netherlands we have the local taste for flower-culture; in Germany
+we find sculpture in wood and stone; in France the productions of the
+enameller and the goldsmith; until at length, in the full blaze of the
+Renaissance itself, we have in almost every land the same varieties of
+enrichment practised according to its own special style of work.
+
+It has been said that the oldest Celtic illuminated MSS. show no signs
+of classic, or even Byzantine, influence, yet the plan or framework of
+the designs makes use both of the cross and the arch, as used in the
+earliest Byzantine examples. The details, indeed, are quite different,
+and manifestly derived from indigenous sources. It may be, therefore,
+that the framework is merely a geometrical coincidence which could not
+well be avoided. The fact that the basis of pure Irish ornament _is_
+geometrical, and developed out of the prehistoric and barbarous art of
+the savages who preceded the Celts in Ireland; such art as is used on
+the carved shafts of spears, and oars, and staves of honour, and
+afterwards on stone crosses and metal-work, may account for the
+similarity of ideas in ornament developed by old Roman decorators in
+their mosaic pavements, and may reconcile, in some measure, the varied
+opinions of different writers who have approached the subject from
+different points of view. Westwood adhered to the theory of its being
+purely indigenous. Fleury, on the other hand, in his Catalogue of the
+MSS. in the Library at Laon, asserts that we owe the knots and
+interlacements to the influence of the painters, sculptors, and
+mosaicists of Rome. "These interlacings, cables, etc., there is no
+Gallo-Roman monument which does not exhibit them, and, only to cite
+local instances, the cord of four or five strands is seen in the
+beautiful mosaics discovered in profusion within the last five years
+(1857-62) at Blanzy, at Bazoches, at Vailly, and at Reims. It was from
+them that the Franks borrowed their knots and twists and ribbons for
+their belts and buckles, their rings and bracelets" (pt. i., p. 8).
+
+The elements, therefore, of book ornament, as used by the Celtic penmen,
+are such as were employed by the prehistoric and sporadic nations in the
+textile art in plaiting and handweaving, and afterwards transferred to
+that of metal-work. Terminals of animal, bird, or serpent form
+afterwards combine with the linear designs. The dog and dragon are
+common, as may be seen in the archaic vases produced by the Greeks
+before they came under the influence of ideas from Western Asia.
+
+Among Celtic artists, as among those of later times, the practice of
+working in various materials was common to the same individual, and
+Dag�us (d. 586) may compare with Dunstan, Eloy, Tuotilo, and others.
+
+To apply these observations to the style of illumination which now comes
+under our notice it may be said that if we allow the cross and arch to
+be copied from the Byzantine MSS. introduced from abroad, the details
+are undoubtedly supplied by the wickerwork and textile netting familiar
+to the everyday life of the artist. Assisted by the fertile imagination
+of bardic lore in snakes, dragons, and other mythic monsters of heroic
+verse, the illuminator produces a pencilled tapestry of textile fabric
+or flexile metal-work as marvellous as it is unique. No amount of
+description can give a true idea of what Celtic work is like; it must be
+seen to be comprehended. One glance at a facsimile of such a MS. as the
+Book of Kells or the Lindisfarne Gospels, or those of St. Chad at
+Lichfield, or wherever, as at St. Gall, such work is to be met with,
+will supersede the most laboured attempt at description. We must
+therefore at once refer the reader to the facsimile. When that has been
+inspected, we may proceed. In the first place it may be noted that with
+these Occidental MSS. begins the importance and development of the
+initial, which, indeed, as regards the illumination of Western Europe,
+is the very root of the matter. It is the development of the initial
+letter first into the bracket, then into the border, which forms the
+great distinction of the "Art of Paris," as Dante calls it, from that of
+Byzantium. The latter is almost always of a squared or tabular design,
+traced and painted on a ground of burnished gold. The former exhausts
+itself first in fantastic lacertine forms, twisted into the shapes of
+the commencing letters or words of the writing, to which the suggestion
+of some Byzantine MS, perhaps occasionally adds a frame. Next come
+birds, dogs, dragons, vine-stems, and spirals embedded in couches of
+colour; but, whatever its character, always it is the letter that
+governs and originates the ornament. Only at the very end of its life,
+when the border has completely eclipsed the initial, is the idea of
+origin forgotten. Then, indeed, we find the border treillages of
+flower-stem or leaf-work starting from meaningless points of the design,
+or scattered shapelessly at random.
+
+When we meet with work of this sort, we need no further proof that the
+real art is dead. We have before us in such a performance--a trade
+production--a mere object of commerce, valuable so far as it is the
+result of labour, but not as a work of art.
+
+According to the Abb� Geoghegan,[11] Christianity was known to the people
+of Ireland in the fourth century. The Greek Menology asserts that it was
+carried thither by Simon Zelotes, but this is contradicted by the Roman
+Breviary and the Martyrologists. Simeon Metaphrastes attributes it to
+St. Peter, Vincent of Beauvais to St. James. Unreliable as these
+traditions may be taken singly, they nevertheless agree in placing the
+conversion of Ireland at a very early date, probably, as Geoghegan says,
+in the fourth century. It is certain that about the middle of the sixth
+century an Irish prince of distinguished ancestry, and himself a saint,
+led a band of missionaries from Donegal to Iona. It is curious to
+observe that the event is almost contemporary with the renovations of
+Justinian at Byzantium, and only a short time before the founding of the
+famous Abbey of Monte Cassino by St. Benedict. Before the existence of
+the Benedictine Order there was a monastery at Durrow, in Ireland, and
+in this monastery the aforesaid prince was educated. His name was
+Columba. At least, so he is called, but whether it be merely in allusion
+to his mission--"the Dove"--or really a patronymic, it is hard to say.
+He was the messenger of peace to the natives of Iona, and even the name
+of the island seems to suggest an allusion to the Old Testament
+missionary to the Ninevites, Jonah. The Irish missionaries called the
+spot to which they went _I. columcille_, "the cell of the Dove's isle,"
+or Columba's cell. It is usually spoken of as the Monastery of Iona.
+Columba went on many other missions, but ultimately returned to his
+beloved Iona, where he died in 597, the year after the arrival of
+Augustine at Canterbury.
+
+[11] _Hist. de l'Irlande._
+
+His companions busied themselves with the transcription of the Gospels
+for the use of new converts, after the model of those they had seen and
+used at Durrow. It is even traditionally asserted that Columba himself
+took part in the work, and transcribed both a Psalter and a Gospel-book,
+moreover, that one of the Iona Gospel-books written by him is still in
+existence. This MS., whether the work of St. Columba or not, and
+probably it is not, is the earliest known monument of Irish calligraphic
+art. It is known as the Book of Kells, and there is no doubt that it is
+the most amazing specimen of penmanship ever seen. It is at once the
+most ancient, the most perfect, and the most precious example of Celtic
+art in existence. It exhibits the striking peculiarities and features of
+the style--the band work knots and interlacings, such as may be seen on
+the stone crosses which mark the burial-places of British and Irish
+chieftains. Witness, for instance, the Carew, or the Nevern Cross,
+described in the _Journal of the Archoelogical Institute_, iii. 71, which
+might be taken to represent an initial "I" wrought in stone. There is no
+foliage, no plant form at all. It is not, therefore, derivable from
+Romanesque, Byzantine, or Oriental ornament. It is indigenous, if not to
+Ireland, at least to those prehistoric Aryan tribes of which the Irish
+were a branch. Its basis is the art of weaving, and in some respects
+resembles the matting of Polynesia much more closely that the vine-stems
+of Sicily or the arabesques of Byzantium. Spirals occur that bewilder
+the eye, yet are so faultlessly perfect that only the magnifying-glass
+brings out the incredible accuracy of the drawing. Among them are
+mythological and allegorical beasts, snakes, and lizards--thought to
+represent demons, like the gargoyles of Gothic architecture--in every
+conceivable attitude of contortion and agony. There are also doves and
+fishes, but the latter, being sacred emblems together with the lamb, are
+seldom made grotesque. It was a monkish legend that the devil could take
+the shape of any bird or beast, except those of the dove and the lamb.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+CELTIC ILLUMINATION--_continued_
+
+The Iona Gospels--Contrast with Roman and Byzantine--Details--Treatment
+of animal forms--Colour schemes--The Gospel-book of St. Columbanus--That
+of Mael Brith Mac Durnan--The Lindisfarne Gospels--_Cumdachs_--Other
+book-shrines.
+
+
+We have seen that in both Roman and Byzantine MSS. the titles and
+beginnings of books were merely distinguished by a lettering in red or
+gold, rather smaller, in fact, than the ordinary text, but rendered
+distinct by the means referred to. The handwriting, too, is clear and
+legible, whether capital, uncial, or minuscule.
+
+In absolute contrast to all this the Iona Gospels have the first page
+completely covered with ornament. On the next the letters are of an
+enormous size, followed by a few words, not merely in _uncials_, but in
+characters varying from half an inch to two inches in height. The page
+opposite to each Gospel is similarly filled with decoration, separated
+into four compartments by an ornamented Greek cross. This may, of
+course, be simply a geometrical device in no way connected with Greece,
+but, taken in connection with other features, we see in it an indication
+of contact with Byzantine work and the side of illumination which deals
+rather with the tabular enrichment of the page than the development of
+the initial. Further, the writing, though large, is not easily legible,
+for it is involved, enclaved, and conjointed in a manner sufficiently
+puzzling to those who see it for the first time.
+
+The plaiting and inlaying are certainly borrowed from local usages, and
+the survival of the same kind of interlaced plaiting in the Scottish
+tartans is some evidence of the long familiarity of the Celtic race with
+the art of weaving. When we remember that some of the early illuminators
+were also workers in metals, we can understand that penmen like Dag�us,
+Dunstan, and Eloy had designs at their command producible by either
+method. So we see, both in the MS. and in the brooch and buckle, the
+same kind of design. Among the earliest animals brought into this Celtic
+work we find the dog and the dragon; the latter both wingless and
+winged, according to convenience or requirement. The dog is so common in
+some of the Celto-Lombardic MS., of which examples still exist at Monte
+Cassino, as almost to create a style; while the dragon survives to the
+latest period of Gothic art.
+
+Whatever is introduced into a Celtic illumination is at once treated as
+a matter of ornament. When the human figure appears it is remorselessly
+subjected to the same rules as the rest of the work; the hair and beard
+are spiral coils, the eyes, nostrils, and limbs are symmetrical
+flourishes. Colour is quite regardless of natural possibility. The hair
+and draperies are simply patterned as compartments of green or blue, or
+red or black, as may be required for the _tout ensemble_; the face
+remains white. Lightened tints are preferred to full colours, as pale
+yellow, pink, lavender, and light green. A very ludicrous device is made
+use of to denote the folds of the drapery; they are not darkened, there
+is no light and shade in Celtic work, but are simply lines of a strongly
+contrasting colour. The blue and red appear to be opaque, and therefore
+mineral colours; the rest are thin and transparent. Nothing can be more
+wayward than the colouring of the symbolic beasts of the Gospels. In the
+Evangeliary of St. Columbanus (not Columba, but the founder of Luxeuil
+and Bobbio, who died in 614) the Lion of St. Mark is an admirable beast
+in a suit of green-and-red chain armour in the form of mascles or
+lozenges. (See the illustration in Westwood's _Pal�ographia Sacra
+Pictoria_ of a figure page from the Gospels of Mael Brith Mac Durnan for
+a typical example.)[12]
+
+[12] See also an article by Westwood in _Journal Arch�ol. Inst._, vii.
+17, on "Irish Miniatures."
+
+The only point that might argue the freedom in Celtic work from
+Byzantine influence is the absence of gold, but perhaps this was only
+because the earlier Irish illuminators could not obtain it; we find it
+later on. In the Book of Kells and the Lambeth Gospels there is no gold.
+The former dates somewhere in the seventh century, not the sixth, as
+sometimes stated; the latter, shortly before 927. In the Lindisfarne
+Gospels (698-721) gold is used. In the Psalter of Ricemarchus, now in
+Trinity College, Dublin, are traces of silver. It is in connection with
+these Irish MSS. that decorated and jewelled cases, called _cumdachs_,
+make their appearance, such as the one attached to the Gospels of St.
+Moling in the Library of Trinity College, Dublin. These book-shrines are
+almost exclusively an Irish production. In other countries the idea was
+to adorn the volume itself with a splendid and costly binding, perhaps
+including gold, silver, and gems. In Ireland the idea of sacredness was
+carried out in another way. Instead of decorating the covers of the book
+itself, it was held, as in such a MS., for instance, as the Book of
+Durrow, to be too venerable a relic to be meddled with, and a box or
+case was made for it, on which they spent all their artistic skill.
+Generally the case is known as a _cumdach_; but one kind, called the
+_cathach_, was so closed that the book was completely concealed, and it
+was superstitiously believed that if it were opened some terrible
+calamity would overtake its possessors. Such was the _cathach_ of
+Tyrconnell. We must remember, however, that in this instance the keepers
+were not men of book-learning, but hardy warriors who carried the
+_cathach_ into battle as a charm and an incitement to victory.
+
+Of similar shrines, which were made for precious books by both the
+Greeks and Lombards, the oldest and most famous is that made for
+Theudelinde, wife of Agilulf, King of the Lombards, and given by her, in
+616, together with the famous iron crown and other relics, to the
+Cathedral of Monza, where they are still to be seen.
+
+The enrichment of the covers of books themselves, as distinct from the
+use of cases or shrines, has been usual in almost all ages and styles of
+decoration. When we come to speak of Carolingian MSS. we shall find
+several remarkable instances.
+
+We must now pass on from this curiously attractive theme of Celtic
+calligraphy to its contemporary styles of France, Germany, Spain, and
+Italy, only remarking by the way that no other style of its time had so
+marked an influence on the local _scriptoria_ into which it was
+introduced as this same Celtic of Ireland. It is not only traceable, but
+easily recognised all along the Rhine, in Burgundy, the Swiss Cantons,
+and Lombardy, until at length overwhelmed by the general introduction of
+Romanesque or Byzantine, which was restored and filtered through the
+Exarchate and the Lombard schools during the early days of the new
+Carolingian Empire.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+SEMI-BARBARIC ILLUMINATION
+
+Visigothic--Merovingian--Lombardic--Extinction of classic art--Splendid
+reign of Dagobert--St. Eloy of Noyon--The Library of Laon--Natural
+History of Isidore of Seville--Elements of contemporary art--Details of
+ornament--Symbolism--Luxeuil and Monte Cassino--Sacramentary of
+Gellone--"Prudentius"--"Orosius"--Value of the Sacramentary of Gellone.
+
+
+To reach the beginning's of these various degenerate and illiterate
+attempts at book-work we have only to watch the last expiring gleams of
+classic art beneath the ruthless footsteps of the barbarian invaders of
+the old Roman Empire.
+
+In the sixth century the light of the old civilisation was fast fading
+away. Perhaps we may look upon the so-called splendour of the reign of
+Dagobert in France as the spasmodic scintillations of its latest moments
+of existence. The kingdom of Dagobert, after 631, was almost an empire.
+For the seven years preceding his death, in 638, he ruled from the Elbe
+and the Saxon frontier to that of Spain, and from the Atlantic Ocean to
+the confines of Hungary. It was during his reign that we read of the
+skill in metal-work of the celebrated St. Eloy of Noyon, the rival of
+our own St. Dunstan.
+
+St. Eloy or Eligius (588-659) began his artistic career as the pupil of
+Abbo, the goldsmith and mint-master to Chlothaire II., and rose from the
+rank of a goldsmith to that of Bishop of Noyon. Among his handiwork were
+crowns, chalices, and crosiers, and he is reputed to have made the chair
+of bronze-gilt now in the National Library at Paris, called the
+_fauteuil_ of Dagobert, and many other works, which disappeared either
+during the wars of Louis XV. or those of the Revolution of 1789. He
+founded the Abbey of Solignac, near Limoges, and it is not improbable
+that the reputation of this city for metal-work and enamelling may be
+dated from his foundation. With such works as those of Eloy before them,
+it is difficult to believe that the wretched and puerile attempts at
+ornamental penmanship and illumination which are shown at Laon and other
+places as the work of this period can possibly represent the highest
+efforts of the calligrapher. But we must remember that St. Eloy was an
+extraordinary genius in his art, and that the bulk of the clergy, not to
+mention ordinary workmen, were very ignorant and ill-taught. Very few,
+indeed, were men who could be considered cultured. Gregory of Tours, the
+historian, and Venantius Fortunatus, the hymn-writer, are among the few.
+
+In the Library at Laon, M. Fleury describes a MS. of the Natural History
+of Isidore of Seville, which is looked upon as a work of reference both
+as regards art and learning. It was at one time a very popular book,
+being a Latin cyclop�dia, dealing with the sciences and general
+knowledge of the time; yet the example referred to by M. Fleury shows us
+only a crowd of initials learnedly styled by the Benedictine authors and
+others "ichthio-morphiques" and "ornithoeides," _i.e._ made up of fishes
+and birds, and about equal in quality and finish to the efforts of a
+very ordinary schoolboy.
+
+These initials betray an utter decadence from the beautiful uncials of
+the fifth and sixth centuries, seen in the St. Germain's Psalter, for
+example, now in the National Library at Paris. The colours are coarse
+and badly applied, and even where brightest are utterly unrefined and
+without taste.
+
+Notwithstanding, however, the apparently total eclipse or extinction of
+Roman art in Gaul, or, as it must henceforth be called, France, it is
+claimed by M. Fleury[13] that the interlacements which constitute the
+principal feature of these earlier Merovingian MSS. are derived from the
+remains of Roman mosaics found profusely at Blanzy, Bazoches, and Reims.
+This may be so, but those mosaics would not account for the same
+features in the Irish work, for the Romans never reached Ireland as
+occupants or colonists.
+
+[13] See later.
+
+Take another example from the Laon collection, the History of Orosius.
+The first page is a type of the species to which it belongs, and,
+moreover, a good sample of the earliest efforts of all pictorial art. An
+ordinary rectangular cross occupies the centre of the page. The centre
+shows us the Lamb of the Apocalypse and St. John. On the arms are the
+beasts which typify the Evangelists--their emblems, as they are
+sometimes called. We notice that they are all symbolic, and not intended
+to be natural imitations of reality. The various animals scattered about
+the page are all symbolic--all have a mystical interpretation and
+_raison d'�tre_. A border-frame, passing behind each extremity of the
+cross, contains a number of dog-like animals, some plain, others
+spotted, while the body of the cross itself is occupied with attempts at
+foliage ornaments. In the left upper corner are the letters "X P I," in
+the right "I H V," thick foliage springing from the "I" and "V" and
+falling back over the monogram. In the lower corners are two fishes and
+two doves, each pair hanging to a penwork chain.
+
+The emblem of John, on the upper extremity of the cross, is an
+eagle-headed and winged man holding a book; its opposite one of Lucas at
+foot is a singularly conceived anthropoid and winged ox, also with a
+book. On the left Marcus, whose head is indescribable; and on the right
+Matthew, with human head, the rest of the figures being as before. The
+eye in all the figures is a most remarkable feature. Both in the
+pictures and the initials of this MS. the outline has been drawn in
+black ink, and the colours yellow, red, brown, and green applied
+afterwards.
+
+As the new masters of the West were not so much interested in the
+artistic remains of the mangled civilisation they were endeavouring to
+destroy as in mastery and military success, it was left for the
+monasteries and the church to see to the welfare of books and monuments.
+
+In the seventh century it was the monasteries that saved almost all we
+know of the preceding centuries. During the turmoil of the period from
+the fifth to the eighth century we find certain quiet corners where
+learning and the arts still breathed, grew, and dwelt in security.
+L�rins, founded by St. Honoratus of Aries; Luxeuil by Columbanus, Bobbio
+his last retreat; and, above all, Monte Cassino, the great pattern of
+monasticism, the Rule of whose founder was destined to become the basis
+of all later Orders, were each of them steadily labouring to rescue the
+civilisation daily threatened by the ravage of war, and to preserve it
+for the benefit of the ignorant hordes who, because of their ignorance,
+now only aimed at its entire destruction. We have seen how these monks
+and clerics, with more goodwill than ability, did their best to adorn
+the books which came into their hands. It is a poor show, but there is
+no better. It is absolutely our only record of how civilisation managed
+to struggle through the storm.
+
+Let us, then, be thankful even for the Laon "Orosius," for the
+Sacramentary of Gellone, and the Mozarabic Liturgies of Puy. They are
+among the links between ancient and medi�val art.
+
+As already stated, the handwriting of Merovingian MSS. is mainly an
+adaptation of the Roman uncial, as it is in Irish and Lombardic, or, we
+might say, everywhere else. Abbreviations we still uncommon. Where
+minuscules are used, the writing is not quite so legible as in the
+larger hands, but we are not met by the singular difficulties of some of
+the Lombardic texts.
+
+A few solitary texts of the earliest time are in capitals, such as the
+really handsome "Prudentius" of the Paris National Library, where the
+entire text of the great Christian poet is boldly inscribed in the
+centre of a large white page of vellum, like a series of separate
+inscriptions. The first few words are "rubrished" in the antique manner.
+The MS. is supposed to date previous to the year 527. A little later
+than this St. Columbanus founded the monastery of Luxeuil, and later
+still, viz. in 616, that of Bobbio.
+
+If we turn to the Visigothic area, including the South of France and the
+entire peninsula of Spain, our first and typical example is the
+celebrated Sacramentary of Gellone. This MS. dates, it is said, from the
+eighth century. It is written throughout in Visigothic uncials, though
+executed in the South of France. Its ornamentation is frankly barbaric.
+The colours used are yellow, red, and green. The great initials are
+double lined, and the interlinear space filled in with a flat tint of
+colour and lines of red dots, as in the Book of Kells occasionally
+follow the contours. Here, also, are the fish or bird-form letters as in
+the Laon "Orosius." Now and then occurs a tiny scene--perhaps a fight
+between two grotesque brutes, neither fish, nor fowl, nor beast known to
+the naturalist, but a horrible compound of the worst qualities of each.
+The human figure, when it occurs, is childishly shapeless. But the
+design and treatment, nevertheless, bear witness to a lively imagination
+and considerable knowledge of Christian symbolism. It is these mental
+qualities which, in spite of the manifest absence of manual skill,
+render the Gellone Evangeliary one of the most precious monuments of its
+time. Of the rest of the MSS. of this wretched period we will say
+nothing.
+
+          "Non ragioniam di lor', ma guard' e passa."
+
+We are glad to hurry on for another century or so, remembering that the
+leading idea now is the development of the initial letter.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+DEVELOPMENT OF THE INITIAL
+
+The initial and initial paragraph the main object of decoration in
+Celtic illumination--Study of the letter L as an example--The I of "In
+principio" and the B of "Beatus Vir."
+
+
+From the moment when the initial was placed beneath the miniature the
+object of the whole design was not to give prominence to the initial but
+to the picture. Until then, that is, whilst the initial remains above or
+beside or outside the picture, it is the initial we must watch for style
+and development. And therefore we seize on one letter among those of the
+latter part of the eighth century, because of the frequency of its
+occurrence in the Gospel-book or Evangeliary, one of the commonest books
+of the time. This the letter L of "Liber Generationis," etc., the
+commencing words of St. Matthew. This passage is always made of
+importance, and on the initial and arrangement of the words the artist
+expends his best efforts.
+
+Properly I should here display pictorially the series of which I speak.
+It would certainly be the quickest way of explaining the matter. But as
+this is out of the question for many reasons, and as the present little
+guide aims rather at showing the way than marching through it, the
+reader must be content to take its advice about where to look for
+examples which it cannot reproduce.
+
+Regarding the letter L as an index of time and style, first we may take
+the Irish L of the Book of Kells on p. 17, pt. 1, of Miss Stokes' _Early
+Christian Art in Ireland_. Note first the form of the letter, then the
+way it is filled up with ornament. Compare this, which dates from the
+seventh century, with a similar L in the Ada-Codex in the Town Library
+at Tr�ves, No. 22. A black and white copy of this is given in taf. 6 of
+Lamprecht Initial Ornamentik. This carries up the work to the second
+half of the eighth century. Next, say the L in the Town Archives at
+Cologne, No. 147. This belongs to the second half of the ninth century.
+The chief departure here is towards the knotted band work which figures
+so largely afterwards both in German and Italian book ornament, the form
+is still unchanged. But with the tenth century comes change of form as
+well as of mode of filling, as for example taf. 19 of Lamprecht, in
+which there is a complete alteration of treatment. The student may take
+for similar comparison also the I of "In principio" of St. John's
+Gospel, and the B of the first psalm in the Psalter, and carry the
+comparison on to the end of the fourteenth century, by referring to the
+MSS. in the British Museum and other public libraries, or in the
+numerous illustrated works to be found in those collections.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+FIRST ENGLISH STYLES
+
+Transition from Iona to Lindisfarne--Influence of Frankish art--The
+"Opus Anglicum"--The Winchester school and its characteristics--Whence
+obtained--Method of painting--Examples--Where found and described.
+
+
+The succession of the school of Iona shows us in the first examples of
+English illumination the type exemplified in the Book of Kells,
+modified, but not very much, by its transference to Lindisfarne.
+
+Whatever doubt may be felt as to the influence of Byzantine or
+Romanesque models on pure Irish work, such as the Book of Kells, there
+can be none as regards the Lindisfarne Gospels. In the first place we
+have gold both in the lettering and ornament. This MS., known also as
+the Durham Book (Brit. Mus., Nero D. iv.), was the work of Abbat
+Eadfrith, of Lindisfarne. It has been often described, as it is really a
+most precious example of eighth-century art in this country. No other
+MS. of its time is to be found in any continental scriptorium to be
+compared with it. It is not a collection of clumsy inartistic attempts
+at ornamental writing, but high-class, effective work, which should be
+seen and studied by every student of illumination.
+
+From its style of execution, its details of portraiture, and other
+features, it may be looked on as one of the earliest links between the
+two extremes of Oriental and Occidental Art.
+
+Another MS. in the British Museum (Vesp. A. 1), which combines the Roman
+method of painting as in the Vergils with the penwork of these
+Anglo-Celtic Gospel-books, may also repay careful examination.
+
+It is very possible that the celebrated _scriptoria_ of York and Jarrow
+may have been furnished with both MSS. and copyists from Rome, yet there
+can be little doubt that the intercourse with Durham would be quite as
+active. Nor is it less probable that similar intercourse would keep them
+_en rapport_ with Oxford, St. Alban's, Westminster, Glastonbury, and
+other _scriptoria_, so that in the eighth century England stood with
+respect to art second to no other country in the Christian world.
+
+During the ninth century active intercourse with the Frankish Empire
+enriched English churches and religious houses, especially Winchester,
+with examples of Byzantine and Roman models, which Charlemagne had
+introduced into his own palatine schools. From such secondary models as
+the Sacramentaries and Evangeliaries executed at Tours, Soissons, Metz,
+and other busy centres of production, English illuminators succeeded in
+forming a distinctive style of their own. In the French or, rather,
+Frankish MSS., while the richness of the gold and the beauty and
+delicacy of the colouring are in themselves most charming, and while
+certain features may in general be recognised as no doubt suggestive
+there is nothing which quite predicts the remarkable treatment which
+characterises the English work. "Opus Anglicum" was its distinctive
+title. The term, indeed, was applied to all English artistic productions
+more or less--embroidery among the rest. The women of England, says
+William of Poitiers, were famous for their needlework, the men excelled
+in metal-work and jewellery. But it was the illuminated Service Books
+that have perpetuated the term.
+
+From the Lindisfarne Gospels to the Winchester Benedictionals is a far
+cry--but Art is long and time is fleeting, hence many pages of
+intervening description must be omitted. We may, however, refer the
+reader to Westwood's _Pal�ographia Sacra Pictoria_, the Pal�ographical
+Society's publications, and other works, for enlightenment on this
+period. On the Rouen and Devonshire Benedictionals much interesting
+information may be found in vol. 24 of the _Arch�ologia_ and in the
+recent volume of the Bradshaw Society concerning them.
+
+The work is peculiar; and if we consider the treatment of foliage apart
+from the colour, we cannot but notice its similarity to the ivory
+carving observable in the consular diptychs. Ivory carving was then a
+popular artistic occupation. The foliage is graceful, the composition
+well-balanced, and the colour mostly bright body colour applied in the
+Greek manner. The fault of the heads is that they are too small for the
+figure, and of the draperies that the folds are overdone too much
+fluttering detail. The gilding differs from the Byzantine in not being
+laid on the vellum in the form of burnished leaf, but painted on like
+the colours, not only in the figures but in the framework and ornaments.
+
+The British Museum contains several characteristic examples, but, as has
+been said, the very finest are those at Rouen and in the library of the
+Duke of Devonshire.
+
+Perhaps no genuine example exists earlier than the Golden Charter of
+King Edgar of true Winchester illumination, executed forty years after
+the accession of Athelstan, whose Coronation Book (Brit. Mus., Tib. A.
+2) is most probably not English at all, but Carolingian of the finest
+type. Many other _scriptoria_ in England in the tenth century were
+equally busy with Winchester, but none could vie with the royal city in
+the production of illuminated books.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+CAROLINGIAN ILLUMINATION
+
+Why so-called--Works to be consulted--The Library of St. Gall--Rise and
+progress of Carolingian art--Account of various MSS.--Features of the
+style--Gospels of St. Sernin--The Ada-Codex--Centres of
+production--Other splendid examples--The Alcuin Bible--The Gospel of St.
+M�dard of Soissons.
+
+
+Once more crossing the Channel let us now inquire what has been doing
+among the Franks since the Gellone Sacramentary, especially in the
+schools instituted by the Emperor Charles the Great. Materials for this
+inquiry are most abundant. One of the more important works on the
+subject is the lucid monograph of Dr. Rahn, of Zurich, on the Golden
+Psalter of Folchard at St. Gall, which deals more or less with the whole
+question of Carolingian art, while M. L�op. Delisle's brochure on the
+Evangeliary of St. Vaast of Arras gives us a copious account of the
+Franco-Saxon branch of it. Apart, however, from these sources of
+information, we have not a few original MSS. still extant, which, of
+course, more vividly speak for themselves, and only require pointing out
+to the student.
+
+The clearest method of study being to take things in the order of their
+creation, so in order to understand the "character of savage grandeur
+and na�ve originality" which has been attributed to this style, it will
+be best to take up these MSS. chronologically. At the same time, if
+anyone merely wishes to know what the style is like at its best, Dr.
+Rahn must be his guide, as the Golden Psalter which he has selected for
+study is as splendid an example as perhaps may be found in the whole
+career of the art. We have noticed how the Irish missionary-artists
+carried their work to their continental settlements, how they planted
+their schools in Burgundy, Switzerland, and Lombardy. Of all their
+depositories, however, numerous as they are elsewhere, none is richer in
+the relics of their work than the celebrated abbey which takes its name
+of St. Gall from that disciple of St. Columbanus, who in 614 founded his
+little cell beside the Steinach, about nine miles south of the Lake of
+Constance. Under Charles Martel the cell had become a monastery, which
+he endowed as a Benedictine abbey. In 830 was founded its magnificent
+library of MSS. The library still exists, and at the present moment
+gives shelf-room to 1,800 MSS. and more than 41,700 printed books.
+Besides this, another, called the Town Library, founded in the sixteenth
+century, and containing 500 MSS. and 60,400 printed books, gives this
+upland, busy, modern manufacturing Swiss town no mean importance as a
+centre of literary culture. Physically it is probably the highest town
+in Europe, its street-level being very nearly 2,200 feet above that of
+the sea. Its libraries and museums are rich storehouses of medi�val
+treasures. The architect raves over its monastic buildings; the scholar
+and pal�ographer gloat over its books and MSS. In the libraries of St.
+Gall are some of the masterpieces of Irish Saxon, and Carolingian art,
+and its great Benedictine abbey under Grimald from 841, _i.e._ during
+the later Carolingian period, possessed one of the most active
+_scriptoria_ in Europe. To begin with the beginning, however, we must
+leave St. Gall, and, passing by some less important MSS., go back to the
+year 781 and the city of Toulouse. In that year, and in the Abbey of St.
+Sernin (Saturninus) in that city, was finished a wonderful and truly
+splendid manuscript of the Gospels as a present to the Emperor and his
+wife Hildegardis. This is our first example. It now is to be seen in the
+National Library, Paris (Nouv. acqu. Lat. 1203).
+
+Next comes the Evangeliary of Abbat Angilbert of Centula (now St.
+Riquier), near Abbeville, Charlemagne's son-in-law. This MS., executed
+about the year 793, is still preserved in the Town Library of Abbeville.
+In the same rank, but somewhat finer in execution, comes a third
+Evangeliary, that of St. M�dard of Soissons, now in the National
+Library, Paris (No. 8850, Lat.).
+
+In these three MSS., reproductions from which are to be found in various
+modern works on art, the writing and ornamentation are the parts into
+which the artist puts his best work, not the figure drawing. Although in
+the St. Sernin MS. there is, in the Christ-figure, a distinct attempt at
+portraiture quite different from the coils and pen-flourishes which make
+up the Gospel-figures in the Irish and Merovingian MSS. Here the
+inspiration is clearly Greek, not Irish. The figure is draped in green
+and violet--seated on an embroidered cushion before a low castellated
+wall. The hair is light, and the chin beardless. The design shows a
+decided likeness to the consular ivory diptychs, and the painting
+follows the Eastern methods. In the details of ornament only are Irish
+features. Thus we trace in this MS. the sources of Carolingian art. The
+MS. being dated, is important as affording a means of comparison with
+other undated work. It was presented to St. Sernin on the occasion of
+the visit of the Emperor and Empress with their son, the amiable Louis
+"le Debonaire,"[14] just after the latter had been made King of
+Aquitaine. Godeschalk, the writer of it, on the last two leaves tells us
+that it took him seven years to accomplish. It is written throughout in
+gold and silver letters on purple vellum, and is, moreover, ornamented
+with borders, pictures, portraits, and panellings. At first it was kept
+in a _cumdach_ of silver, set with precious stones, but that has
+disappeared.
+
+[14] Mod. Fr. "Debonnaire."
+
+The Golden Gospels of St. M�dard, like the Centula MS., are similar, but
+betoken an advance in both taste and execution. The figures are still
+rude and deformed, but the artist shows a laudable desire, an ambition,
+in fact, to imitate the work of better artists than himself.
+Nevertheless, the calligraphy and borderwork are the best parts of his
+performance. In this MS. the use of silver betrays a tendency to
+prodigality. In design, the influence of the artists who built the new
+church of San Vitale at Ravenna, a church which became the model for the
+Abbey of St. M�dard itself, is quite manifest, yet perhaps need not be
+traced further than Soissons or Pavia. In certain of the illustrations,
+as, for instance, the "Fountain of Life," there is at once a likeness
+and a variation as compared with the same symbol in the Evangeliary of
+St. Sernin. They are both too intricate to describe, but of both it may
+be said that they show an intimate acquaintance with early Christian
+symbolism. The ivory carving and architecture of Ravenna have evidently
+been known to the director of these frames and backgrounds. In the year
+which saw the completion of Godeschalk's Gospels, Alcuin was at Parma,
+but when the St. M�dard's Gospels were written he was Abbot of St.
+Martin's at Tours. It was the presence of Alcuin at the Court of
+Charlemagne that accounts for the prevalence of the Saxon character in
+the new and beautiful handwriting we now call Carolingian. It was the
+presence of Paul Warnefrid that accounts for much of the classic and
+most of the Lombardic features, both of the writing and the
+illumination. Many other scholars assisted these two in the various
+centres in which Alcuin established branches of the palatine schools.
+The intercourse with Italy and England was constant, and led to the
+frequent interchange of books, and community of methods and models.
+Another fine MS. of the same period (c. 780) is the Golden Ada-Codex of
+St. Mesmin or Maximin, of Tr�ves. In 1794 this MS. was taken from Tr�ves
+to Mainz; in 1815 it was transferred to Aix-la-Chapelle, and is now back
+again at Tr�ves. The externals of the Ada-Codex are very costly, its
+binding being a late Gothic pendant to the cover of the Echternach
+Evangeliary at Gotha. In the centre of the fore-cover there is a
+magnificent topaz,[15] with several imperial figures. Inside, the work is
+a handsome example of the early Carolingian.[16] It contains the four
+Gospels written by order of the "Mother and Lady Ada," sister of Charles
+the Great, Abbess of St. Mesmin. Next we have in the British Museum
+another grand example of the style as modified by English or Saxon
+influence. Also the Zurich Bible, of the same date, executed at
+Tours--and the Bamberg Bible, said to be a copy of the Alcuin Bible of
+the same school. Then follow the Drogo Sacramentary, presented by the
+Emperor to his natural son Drogo, Archbishop of Metz (826-855), perhaps
+illuminated at Metz, but of the same school as those above mentioned.
+
+[15] Or sardonyx (Lamprecht says topaz.)
+
+[16] A photograph of the cover is sold by F. Linz of Tr�ves.
+
+In our own National Library, again, we have the Athelstan Gospels (Harl.
+2788), also in all probability executed at Metz. At Paris (Nat. Lib.,
+Theol. Lat. 266) is the Evangeliary of Lothaire--a most beautiful
+example of gold-writing and ornament. So we might enumerate a score of
+splendid MSS., and classify them into their various minor schools. But
+such is not our object. All we want here is a general but clear idea of
+the style as a whole.
+
+To characterise it broadly by the names of its most important elements
+we should call it a Lombard-Saxon style--the interlacing bands and knots
+and other minor features and the main character of the writing being of
+Saxon origin, the classical foliages and manner of painting the figures
+and certain ideas of design Lombardic, strengthened by direct contact
+with the sources of the latter style. Whatever variations there may be,
+they can generally be accounted for according to locality and centre of
+production. We have instanced a few examples of the earlier time as
+showing the principal features of the style. Under the Emperor Charles
+the Great's grandson, Charles the Bald, Carolingian illumination reached
+its highest point of excellence, and the MSS. executed for him or his
+contemporaries accordingly give a correct idea of what Carolingian
+illuminators considered as good work. The chief centres were still Tours
+and Metz--the latter a branch of the former, but gradually developing
+distinct features of its own; and among the productions of these schools
+there still remain precious--we might say priceless--examples, such as
+the Vivien Bible of the Paris Library, so-called because presented by
+Count Vivien, Abbat of St. Martin's of Tours, to Charles the Bald in
+850.[17] It contains a fine picture of the presentation with _beardless_
+figures. It has also a number of exceedingly splendid initials showing
+strong Byzantine influence--capitals of columns of classic origin and
+traces of Merovingian in letter forms and ornamental details. It is like
+the Evangeliary of Lothaire, already mentioned, a most sumptuous example
+rich in silver and gold--the latter having a grand portrait of Lothaire
+seated on his throne. Both MSS. are in the National Library at Paris,
+the Vivien, No. 1 (Theol. Lat.), the Lothaire, No. 266. But the one
+example to which we would call the reader's attention, though among the
+earlier productions of the period, as not only most readily accessible,
+but most precious to the English student, is the celebrated Alcuin Bible
+in the British Museum (Add. MS. 10546). This venerable MS. is a copy of
+the Vulgate revised by Alcuin himself, and said to be exactly similar to
+the one at Bamberg. Biblical revision was perhaps the most important of
+his many literary occupations, and this volume is reasonably believed to
+be the actual copy prepared for presentation to Charlemagne under the
+reviser's own superintendence, possibly, in part at least, the work of
+his own hand. It is a large folio, finely written in a neat minuscule,
+mainly Saxon hand, with uncial initials in two columns. The miniatures,
+including their architectural details, are in the Roman manner, the
+ornaments partly Byzantine, partly Celtic. The great similarity of
+design between different manuscripts is strikingly exemplified by a
+comparison of three borders from (_a_) the Evangeliary of St. Vaast of
+Arras, fol. 28 _v._ (see Delisle); (_b_) the Evangel. in National
+Library, Paris, anc. fds. Lat. 257 (see Louandre), and Evangeliary No.
+309 Bibl. de Cambrai (see Durieux).
+
+[17] Plate in t. 1 of Louandre.
+
+Indeed, comparisons of this kind are very instructive frequently as
+suggestive of _provenance_, as each working centre would have its own
+set of models and designs. Of course, comparison of the MSS. themselves
+is out of the question, but the comparisons can often be effected by the
+student's having Louandre, Durieux, Fleury, Labarte, etc., by his side
+during the examination of any given period. The limits of our little
+book forbid our speaking of other examples of this splendid style, but
+we cannot conclude without noticing that in the opinion of M. Ferdinand
+Denis, the Golden Gospels of St. M�dard of Soissons is the most
+beautiful Carolingian MSS. extant.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+MONASTIC ILLUMINATION
+
+Introductory--Monasteries and their work from the sixth to the ninth
+century--The claustral schools--Alcuin--Warnefrid and Theodulf--Clerics
+and monastics--The Golden Age of monasticism--The Order of St.
+Benedict--Cistercian houses--Other Orders--Progress of writing in
+Carolingian times--Division of labour.
+
+
+In the sixth century the monasteries, such as they were, necessarily
+kept themselves very quiet and unobtrusive. They were situated usually
+in out-of-the-way corners, solitudes apart from civilisation, or, at
+least, apart from the busy haunts of men. In the eighth century there is
+a marked difference. The Capitular of Aix-la-Chapelle, of 789, required
+that minor schools should be attached _to all monasteries and cathedral
+churches_ without exception, and that children of all ranks, _both noble
+and servile_, should be received into them. Also that the larger
+monasteries should open major schools in which the seven sciences of
+mathematics, astronomy, arithmetic, music, rhetoric, dialectics, and
+geography, were to be taught--and this in two ways. There were to be two
+sorts of schools--interior or _claustral_, intended for monastics only,
+and exterior or _canonical_, intended for secular students. These
+schools were under separate scholastics or masters, and lay students
+were received in the exterior schools as freely and fully as in the
+public schools of the present time. Mabillon[18] gives a list of some
+twenty-seven monastic and cathedral schools, by no means confined to
+great or wealthy cities, but well distributed throughout the Empire.
+
+[18] Pr�fat. in iv. S�cul. 184.
+
+In the time of Charlemagne those most in repute were Tours, St. Gall,
+Fulda, Reims, and Hirsfeld.
+
+We have given the names of Alcuin and Paul Warnefrid as the chief
+promoters of the Carolingian Revival, but we should not omit that of
+Theodulf, of Orleans, the indefatigable school inspector of the time. He
+it was who assisted the artistic side of the movement by his ingenious
+contrivances as a writer and illustrator of school books. Undoubtedly it
+was from his suggestions that we so often find in medi�val scientific
+treatises of the driest kind those graphic and wonderful tabulations and
+edifices, labelled and turreted, which make Aristotle, Priscian, and
+Marcianus Capella, not only comprehensible, but attractive. Theodulf
+composed in simple and easy Latin verse--somewhat after the style of the
+_Propria qu� maribus_ our own childhood--the description of a supposed
+tree of science, which he had drawn and painted, on the trunk and
+branches of which were the figures and names of the seven liberal arts.
+At the foot sat Grammar--the basis of all learning--holding on her hand
+a lengthy rod (ominous for the tender student). On the right Rhetoric
+stretched forth her hand. On the left was Dialectic. Philosophy sat on
+the summit; the rest being disposed according to their relative
+importance. The whole was explained in the _Carmina de septem artibus_,
+in which the bishop, who was one of the famous poets of the age, strove
+in flowery language to render these dry-as-dust studies acceptable to
+the youthful understanding. Theodulf was a great scholar, and assisted
+Alcuin in the revision of the Bible, one copy of which he himself had
+written whilst still Abbat of Fleury, about 790. At the beginning of
+this Bible is a poem in golden letters on purple, and a preface in
+prose, also in golden letters, giving a synopsis of the several books.
+The text differs somewhat from the Alcuin Bible, as it is that of Jerome
+before Alcuin's revision. This MS. is now at Paris. Another Bible
+executed to the order of Theodulf is now in the Town Library at Puy.
+
+It seems incredible, after the efforts made by Charlemagne and his
+ministers for the maintenance of learning and the arts, that there
+should ever be any risk of a return to barbarism, but it is a fact that
+the dissolution of the Empire proved in certain localities the
+suspension of prosperity. Fortunately the monastics--especially the
+Benedictines--and the canons of the cathedrals still kept up the
+practice of copying books; but almost all the South of France,
+Languedoc, and Provence, always conservative, remained more or less
+illiterate. They produced poets and jongleurs, but seldom artists or
+scholars. And even in the North, where the capitular schools were most
+flourishing--as Paris, Reims, and Chartres--the general tendency was
+towards relapse. In High Germany it was even worse. In spite of all
+efforts of the clergy by the extension of secular schools, the laity
+preferred the excitement of chase and camp to the quiet humdrum of the
+schoolroom. Religion seemed to be regarded rather as a profession than a
+principle, quite right in its place, _i.e._ the Church and the
+monastery, but unsuited for active life. The wealthy land-owners,
+therefore, did not cease to endow religious houses or to build churches,
+but they left book-learning to the clerics. Accordingly the clerics and
+the monastics flourished exceedingly.
+
+From the beginning of the tenth century to the beginning of the
+thirteenth was the Golden Age of monasticism. The Order of St. Benedict
+scattered its foundations thickly over France and Western Germany, while
+its reformed colonies of Cluny, Citeaux, Clairvaux, and the Chartreuse
+again spread their settlements in all directions. Thus we find Cluny
+established in 910, Grammont in 1076, the Chartreuse in 1080, Citeaux in
+1098, Savigny in 1105, Tiron in 1109, Austin Canons in 1038,
+Premonstrants in 1120, Crutched Friars in 1169. In England, from 1100,
+scarcely a year passed by without the establishment of some fresh
+foundation. During the thirty-five years of the reign of Henry I. more
+than 150 religious houses were founded. And even during the disastrous
+reign of Stephen, in less than twenty years, no fewer than 100 houses of
+various Orders were established. The twelfth century in England was
+especially the age of monasteries.
+
+It is true that not very much in the way of original literature, except
+theological treatises, can be assigned to the three centuries referred
+to, but the unwearied labours of the copyist and illuminator did much to
+preserve the works which previous centuries had created. Of course, in
+so long a period changes were many and great. So great, indeed, that
+between a MS. of 850 and another of 1200 scarcely is there a common
+feature.
+
+From 850 to 1000 in France the Carolingian minuscule, from the first so
+clear and beautiful, remained with scarce a stroke of alteration. But
+immediately after the opening of the eleventh century a series of rapid
+changes set in, and by the beginning of the twelfth a new hand,
+perfectly clear and regular, but quite different from the Carolingian,
+had been formed, which lasted until it was superseded by the Gothic,
+while a system of contractions adopted because of the scarcity of
+parchment creates a fresh need for study apart from the peculiarities of
+personal habits. Side by side, too, with this there grows up a
+non-professional hand--the so-called cursive or running hand of the
+ordinary writer--in many cases, especially in deeds and other brief
+compositions, all but utterly illegible, except to the professional
+pal�ographer. Occasionally these autographs are of the highest
+importance and intensely interesting, as, for instance, when in an
+English MS. we come Across a note in the handwriting of Ordericus
+(Vitalis) or Matthew Paris.
+
+From 900 to 1200 the vast majority of MSS., illuminated and otherwise,
+were the work of monastics. Every house of any note had its room set
+apart for writing. The larger monasteries sometimes utilised the
+cloisters of the churches themselves, in recesses of which they had
+desks or tables placed for the copyist. Usually, however, they had a
+large common room called the scriptorium, where either the copyist and
+illuminator worked separately and each on his own account, or where a
+number of copyists awaited with pen and parchment the dictation by one
+of the fraternity of some work of which a number of copies had to be
+made. "No admittance except on business" was the rule of this chamber.
+There, under the direction of the _armarius_, the expert writers did
+their work.
+
+Sometimes a single monk executed the book from first to last by himself.
+He prepared the vellum, ruled it with the fine metal point, copied the
+text, painted the illuminations, put on the gilding, and even added the
+binding. Generally, however, the labour was divided--one monk scraped
+and polished the parchment; another ruled it; another wrote the text,
+leaving spaces for initials and miniatures; another put in the initials
+and did the gilding and flourishing with borders, etc.; and another
+painted the miniatures. This in the monasteries was done in the case of
+large and important MSS., and afterwards, when illuminating became a
+lay-craft, subdivision of labour was the common practice. Binding was
+done in a special apartment, and by one specially skilled therein.
+
+The _scriptorium_ was looked upon as a sort of sacred place, and the
+work of copying often considered as a labour of piety and love--entered
+upon with devout prayer, and solemnly blessed by the superior,
+especially in cases where the books to be written were Bibles, or
+connected with the services of the house, the Lives of the Saints, or
+Treatises on Theology.
+
+Very frivolous or absurd indeed are sometimes the inducements to
+copyists to do gratuitous work of this kind, such as that every letter
+transcribed paid for one sin of the copyist, and it is said that a
+certain monk--a heavy sinner--only owed his salvation to the fact that
+the number of letters in a Bible which he copied exceeded by a single
+unit the sum total of his sins.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+MONASTIC ILLUMINATION--_continued_
+
+The copyists--Gratuitous labour--Last words of copyists--Disputes
+between Cluny and Citeaux--The Abbey of Cluny: its grandeur and
+influences--Use of gold and purple vellum--The more influential abbeys
+and their work in France, Germany, and the Netherlands.
+
+
+Of course, only really expert calligraphers were employed on great and
+important works. In the monastery all such labour was gratuitous, that
+is, the copyist received no pecuniary remuneration, only his food and
+lodging. Yet even this had to be provided for. Hence the frequent
+requests for donations from the laity.
+
+To give a volume to a monastery did not always mean actually to present
+the book, but to stand the expense of its production in the monastery
+itself. In the case of specially distinguished penmen, their
+entertainment in a monastery was sometimes an expensive business. It was
+only in later times, however, when lay-artists were invited to reside in
+the monastery to do their work that money was paid for their services.
+Very often we find notices at the end of volumes that "So-and-so" had
+ordered the book to be written and illuminated at his expense, and an
+invocation for the gratitude of the reader and remembrance in his
+prayers is added, sometimes with the date to the very hour when the book
+was finished.
+
+The copyist's last words after his task was completed are often very
+full of weariness--sometimes pious, sometimes hankering after fleshly
+lusts, occasionally quite too dreadful to repeat. "May Christ recompense
+for ever him who caused this book to be written." At the end of a Life
+of St. Sebastian: "Illustrious martyr, remember the monk Gondacus who in
+this slender volume has included the story of thy glorious miracles. May
+thy merits assist me to penetrate the heavenly kingdom; and may thy holy
+prayers aid me as they have aided so many others who have owed to them
+the ineffable enjoyments both of body and soul." Wailly quotes the
+following: "Dextram scriptoris benedicat mater honoris" ("May the mother
+of honour bless the writer's right hand"). A very common ending is "Qui
+scripsit scribat semper cum Domino vivat" ("He who wrote, let him write;
+may he ever live with the Lord"). Another: "Explicit expliceat. Bibere
+scriptor eat" ("It is finished. Let it be finished, and let the writer
+go out for a drink"). Another ending is "Vinum scriptori reddatur de
+meliori" ("Let wine of the best be given to the writer"). And again:
+"Vinum reddatur scriptori, non teneatur" ("Let wine be given to the
+writer; let it not be withheld"). Here is the recompense wished for by a
+French monk: "Detur pro pen� scriptori pulcra puella" ("Let a pretty
+girl be given to the writer for his pains," or "as a penance") The monks
+enjoyed puns, as "bibere," a common pun on "vivere." One writer groans
+thus: "Scribere qui nescit, nullum putat esse laborem" ("Whoso knows not
+how to write, thinks it is no trouble").
+
+As time goes on, after the tenth century, it is noticeable that the more
+beautiful a manuscript becomes in its writing the less accurate becomes
+its Latinity. And so the monks who once were noted for learning,
+gradually lose their grip on Latin. The manuscripts executed in
+Benedictine abbeys became inaccurate--almost illiterate. Faults of
+ignorance of words; misrendering of proper names; blundering in the
+inept introduction of marginal notes and confounding such notes with the
+text, showing that the heart of the copyist was not in his work nor his
+head capable of performing it. His hand is simply a machine, which when
+it goes wrong does so without remorse and without shame. So in the
+greater houses, men were appointed whose sole business was to supervise
+the copyists--in fact, to supply the brains, while the scribe furnished
+the manipulation of the pen. Even they, however, did not always succeed
+to perfection, as very few of them were too well furnished with
+scholarship. There were not many Alcuins or Theodulfs in the twelfth
+century. What they did usually keep free from serious error were the
+books used in their own services. It was the aim, particularly among the
+Cistercian houses, to have their liturgical texts absolutely without
+fault. In respect of illumination, there was a great quarrel between the
+Abbey of Citeaux and that of Cluny. The great Abbey of Clugny (or Cluny)
+in ancient Burgundy was founded in 910, and in the course of a century
+or obtained a degree of splendour, influence, and prosperity unrivalled
+by any other medi�val foundation. It possessed enormous wealth and
+covered Western Europe with its affiliated settlements. Under Peter the
+Venerable, when the controversy began, it was the chief monastic centre
+of the Christian world. The words of Pope Urban II., when addressing the
+community, were: "Ye are the light of the world."
+
+The grand Basilica at Cluny was completed in 1131, and, until the
+erection of St. Peter's at Rome, was the largest church in Christendom,
+and even then was only ten feet shorter than the Roman edifice. The
+building is a masterpiece of architectural beauty and massiveness, being
+with its narthex added by Abbat Roland de Hainaut, no less in length
+than 555 feet. The splendour of the church, its gorgeous tombs and
+mausoleums, its huge coronals for lights of brass, silver, and gold--the
+grand candelabrum before the altar, with its settings of crystal and
+beryl--the mural painting of the cupola, and the general luxury and
+magnificence of the whole constituted an unpardonable sin in the eyes of
+the stern and self-denying Cistercians. Hence arose long disputes
+between the abbats of the two houses about tithes and other matters.
+Among the other matters were included questions of candlesticks and
+bindings and gildings of books. The two houses were long at variance on
+the right definition of luxury in living, and this variance may to this
+day be observed in their separate and distinct styles, both of
+architecture and the ornamentation of books. The use of gold was still
+continued in the older Benedictine abbeys, but was long forbidden in the
+Cistercian, almost all the ornament of the latter being confined to
+pen-drawing and the use of coloured inks. The employment of gold for the
+text of manuscripts so common in the ninth century became rare in the
+eleventh. Only here and there do we hear of such volumes. Where the gold
+lettering still lingers, it is confined to the first page or two, and
+the same may be said of the purple vellum. A certain monk, Ad�mar, who
+died at Jerusalem in 1034, wrote a Life of St. Martial of Limoges
+entirely in letters of gold; but it was quite an exceptional volume.
+Another example occurs in an Evangeliary, which was probably a copy of a
+ninth-century model, as at first glance it might be assigned to that
+age, but on closer examination it is found that in one of the borders is
+a medallion bearing the name of the Emperor Otho, showing that it cannot
+be later than the latter part of the tenth century. It is now in the
+National Library at Paris.
+
+Before speaking of Othonian illumination it may be well to refer to that
+of the Netherlands in these earlier centuries.
+
+The most ancient writings known in this district were charters and other
+documents, and the pious effusion of the occupants of the monasteries,
+such as St. Amand, Lobbes, Stavelot, etc.
+
+It was the revival of art and literature under Charlemagne that was the
+beginning of artistic calligraphy, then followed the production of books
+outside the monasteries, classical authors, chronicles, and mirrors of
+various sciences. In the eleventh century we find monastic books and
+others of which the ornamentation is sometimes even splendid, such as
+Psalters, Evangeliaries, Bibles, and Missals, glowing with gold and
+colours. Already the Abbeys of Stavelot and Li�ge were high-class
+centres of production. St. Martin's of Tournay had a famous scriptorium
+also, noted for the beauty of its writing and its grand initial letters.
+Immediately following St. Martin's, the Abbeys of Gembloux, St. Bavon at
+Ghent, and others, produced or acquired MSS. of the most sumptuous kind,
+and before the thirteenth century the Netherlands had established quite
+a distinguished reputation.
+
+In a later chapter we shall deal with the development of its remarkable
+schools, whose work eventually took rank, not only among the most
+artistic, but the most prolific in Europe.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+OTHONIAN ILLUMINATION
+
+Departure from Carolingian--Bird and serpent--Common use of dracontine
+forms in letter-ornament--Influence of metal-work on the forms of
+scroll-ornament--The vine-stem and its developments--Introduction of
+Greek taste and fashion into Germany--Cistercian illumination--The
+Othonian period--Influence of women as patronesses and
+practitioners--German princesses--The Empress Adelheid of Burgundy--The
+Empress Theophano--Henry II. and the Empress
+Cunegunda--Bamberg--Examples of Othonian art.
+
+
+Perhaps the first departure towards a new style arising out of the
+elements of Carolingian illumination is in the combination of the bird
+and serpent used for letter forms and continued into coils of vine-stem
+and foliage in combination with golden panelled frames or pilasters. The
+monsters thus produced seem to be a revival of the dracontine forms of
+the semi-barbarous Celtic and early Frankish arts. But the difference in
+elegance and refinement of drawing and beauty of colouring is very great
+indeed. Other animal forms are also made use of, nor is the human figure
+altogether absent. Sometimes entire letters are made up of the latter in
+various attitudes. Little scenes illustrative of the subject which the
+initial commences are often placed within it, as, for instance, in the B
+of the first psalm.[19]
+
+[19] A characteristic Othonian Evangeliary of the eleventh century,
+executed at the Abbey of Stavelot, may be seen in the Royal Library at
+Brussels.
+
+[Illustration:
+BIBLIA SACRA
+12TH CENT. (LATE)
+_Brit. Mus. Harl. MS. 2799, fol. 185 v._]
+
+[Illustration:
+EVANGELIA (PARIS USE)
+C. 1275
+_Brit. Mus. Add. MS. 17341, fol. 120 v._]
+
+Many twelfth-century initials look like designs in metal-work placed on
+the panelled grounds of coloured enamels. But the rapid development of
+the vine-stem coils out of the stemless foliages of the Carolingian and
+Winchester styles is one of the wonders of the early German revival
+after the accession of the Emperor Otho I. A still greater improvement
+takes place after the marriage of his son Otho II. to the Princess
+Theophano, daughter of Romanus II., attributable, no doubt, to a fresh
+accession of artistic enthusiasm from the home of the new Empress. In
+point of elegance of design, beauty of curve, adaptation of every part
+to its share in the composition, nothing could be finer than the initial
+letters of the Othonian period of illumination. The year 963 introduced
+Greek fashions and Greek artists into Germany, the results of which are
+at once traceable in the increased splendour of monastic illumination in
+that country. The details of Greek ornament become the fillings of the
+frames and panels of the large initials.
+
+The Cistercian illuminators, or rather calligraphers, while they
+constantly repudiate the golden splendour and monstrous follies of their
+rivals, absolutely excel in this same ornamental draughtsmanship. What,
+for example, could be finer than the pen-drawing of the great Arnstein
+Bible in the British Museum (Harl. 2800)? The ornament is mostly in a
+red ink, with flat-coloured blue, green, or yellow backgrounds, but it
+is not to be surpassed. No, the interlacements and coils, foliages and
+panels of the twelfth century are absolutely among the finest examples
+of ornamental lettering ever conceived. Illuminating seemed at this
+epoch to be more and more closely following the details of contemporary
+architecture, and so paving the way to the next great variety of the
+art, which is looked upon by some writers as the real beginning of
+medi�val illumination.
+
+It must be admitted, however, that the excellence limits itself to the
+ornament. The human figure is wretchedly incorrect--even barbarous. It
+may be asked why is this? How is it that while the decorative portion of
+an illuminated book is beautiful in the highest degree, both in line and
+colour, and yet occasionally the artist seems not to have the remotest
+idea of the true shape of hands and feet or any part of the human body?
+Of course the usual explanation offered is that monastic education did
+not permit the study of the nude, and hence the monkish ignorance of
+figure drawing. But that is scarcely an excuse for the monstrous hands
+and feet and exaggerated facial expression of the miniatures. The
+Italian monk Angelico, in spite of his monastic limitations, succeeded
+in a most graceful rendering of the figure, and a charming delicacy in
+the forms of the hands. As in some instances the artist does reach a
+fair standard, it must be admitted that where he does not is owing to
+actual inability in himself and not in his system. The three emperors
+who give the name of Othonian to the period immediately succeeding the
+Carolingian ruled Germany, and had much to do with the ruling of Italy,
+from 936, when Otho I., called the Great, succeeded Henry the Fowler
+about five years before the death of Athelstan, whose sister Eadgyth[20]
+was Otho's first wife. His mother Mathilda was the patroness of the
+cloister-schools for women, working in them personally. She herself
+taught her servants and maids the art of reading. Her daughter Mathilda,
+the famous Abbess of Quedlinburg, in 969 persuaded the Abbat Wittikind
+of Corvey to write the History of the Saxon Kings, Henry her father, and
+Otho her brother (now in the Royal Library at Dresden). Hazecha, the
+Treasury-mistress of Quedlinburg, also employed the monks of Corvey,
+with whose beautiful initial drawing she was greatly pleased, to
+illuminate her own Life of St. Christopher. The beautiful but imperious
+Princess Hedwig, another of Otho's sisters, read Virgil with Ekkehard of
+St. Gall, and taught the child Burchard Greek, while Otho's niece
+Gerberga, Abbess of Gandersheim, was the instructress of the celebrated
+Hrosvita, "the oldest German poetess." And this reminds us that at this
+time the women-cloisters of Germany and the Netherlands were among the
+most active centres of learning and book-production. The great monument
+of feminine erudition and artistic skill, called the "Hortus
+Deliciarum," was of a somewhat later time, but other examples still
+exist, among them the beautiful Niederm�nster Gospels of the Abbess
+Uota, now at Munich. A wood-cut by Albert D�rer prefixed to the first
+edition of Hrosvita's works (N�rnberg, 1501) represents the nun Hrosvita
+kneeling before the Emperor and beside the Archbishop Wilhelm of Mainz
+presenting her book.[21] As to the literary labours of Hrosvita, this is
+not the place to discuss them. She is simply an incidental figure in our
+view of the brilliant Court of the Othos. A MS. of her works 500 years
+after her death was found among the dust of the cloister-library at St.
+Emmeram of Regensburg by Conrad Celtis, and, as we have seen, printed
+for the first time in 1501. Thus she stands out as an illustration of
+the fact often alluded to, of the importance of feminine foundations in
+the monastic scheme.
+
+[20] The chroniclers are rather confused as to the name of this Princess.
+
+[21] It is thought, however, by some that the figure behind is that of
+the Abbess--not the Archbishop. See D�rer Soc. Portfolio for 1900.
+
+Her picturesque story of the romantic adventures of Adelheid of
+Burgundy, her marriage in 947 to King Lothaire of Italy, her widowhood
+and perils, her misfortunes and eventual marriage to the Emperor Otho,
+reads more like a chapter from the _Morte d'Arthur_ or the _Arabian
+Nights_ than a veracious history of real people. The Empress Adelheid
+was, indeed, a remarkable woman, and the nun of Gandersheim is full of
+her praises. In her younger days she had been a zealous patron and
+protectress of the Abbey of Cluny, which stood on her native land of
+Burgundy, and her sympathies remained always with the religious houses.
+In this respect, indeed, she was a worthy successor of the pious
+Mathilda and her daughters. She died in her seventy-first year in her
+Abbey of Selz in Elsass, leaving a memory rich in benefits to the
+monastics, especially those of Cluny, and venerated as the patroness of
+many an illuminated volume of poems or theology, not to mention the
+liturgical books executed at her expense for use in her various
+foundations. The tenth century seems to have been an age of illustrious
+women. No sooner do we leave the story of Adelheid than we enter upon
+that of the young wife of Otho II., the Empress Theophano, daughter of
+the Greek Emperor, Romanus II. When little more than a child she was
+married to the son of Adelheid, he himself being in his twentieth year
+in the year 972, and in the city of Rome. The young Greek Princess who
+had been reared amid the luxury and splendour of the Eastern capital at
+once became the fashion--the manners of her Byzantine household became
+those of her Roman court, and were transplanted to her German home at
+Bamberg. Artists, limners, copyists, musicians, scholars, formed part of
+her retinue, and at once the German Court became the rival of those of
+England, Byzantium, Cordova, and Rome.
+
+It was, indeed, a Renaissance, an awakening in literature, art, and
+social life. Nor did its glory fade until eclipsed by the succeeding
+rivalries of France and Italy. Theophano survived her husband, who died
+in 983, and proved herself a capable Regent during the infancy of her
+son Otho III. She, however, did not live to see his early death, nor
+indeed to see that of the aged Adelheid, who survived her eight years,
+and died in the same year (999) as Otho's aunt, Matilda, Abbess of
+Quedlinburg.
+
+The death of Otho III. in 1002 did not affect materially the steady
+advance of monastic art. Bamberg, St. Gall, Corvey, Luxeuil, Bobbio,
+Monte Cassino continued their accustomed labours. Under the Capetian
+Kings the French foundations maintained the reputations they had won
+during the Carolingian times, while others were added from time to time
+throughout the Rhineland, Limousin, and the South of France, where the
+Romanesque or Byzantine tastes had not yet penetrated, and whose work
+therefore remained distinct from that of Italy and the German Empire.
+
+Henry II. and the Empress Cunigunda made Bamberg the great centre of
+German art, and it is to Bamberg, St. Gall, Luxeuil, Monte Cassino, and
+Magdeburg that we have to look for the finest productions of the
+eleventh century. Among the earlier works of the Othonian period we may
+mention the famous Gospel-book executed for the minister of Otho II.,
+Egbert, Archbishop of Tr�ves, and known as the Codex Egberti. It was
+written in 980 at Reichenau on the Lake of Constance (or Bodensee, as it
+is locally known) by two monks, Kerald and Heribert, whose dwarfish
+figures appear beneath that of the archbishop on the frontispiece. It
+contains fifty-seven illuminations and several folios of violet
+parchment with golden ornaments and lettering. But its pictures are
+rather remarkable, mostly the figures are too short and the limbs and
+extremities badly drawn, but in some of the statelier personages the
+error is reversed and they are too tall--this seems to be owing to Greek
+influence, while the Byzantine taste shows itself in the treatment of
+the border-foliages. Beasts are unnatural--demons and swine are alike,
+both in form and colour (Pub. Lib., Tr�ves).
+
+An Evangeliary, formerly in the Cathedral Treasury at Bamberg, but now
+in the Royal Library at Munich (Cimel. 58), is a good example of the
+kind of work that at first glance appears to be actually Carolingian
+both in the figures, attitudes, and treatment of drapery, but which on
+closer examination proves to be really due to the reign of Otho II. In
+this MS. the beginning of St. Matthew contains four medallions--two of
+Henry I. (the Fowler), one of Otho I., his son, and another of his
+grandson, Otho II. (Nat. Lib., Paris, Lat. 8851).
+
+A still more notable MS. is kept in the Munich Library (Cimel. 58),
+containing a two-paged picture of tributary cities bringing gifts to the
+Emperor Otho III. In the painting in this MS., notwithstanding the
+exaggerated solemnity of expression, the faces are well drawn and the
+features carefully modelled. The painting is in the Greek manner, as is
+also the general character of the draperies. The small, ill-drawn feet
+are by no means comparable with the heads.
+
+The Imperial crown is square, like those of the Magi in the Bremen MS.
+now in the Library of Brussels, or like that of Baldwin as Emperor of
+Constantinople. In the several enthronements which occur among the
+Imperial miniatures at Munich there are important and significant
+differences which might not be noticed unless pointed out.
+
+The changes in the shape and treatment of the orb, for instance, mean
+more than a mere advance in enrichment, or an improvement in artistic
+skill. The difference indicates a change in political usage. In the
+miniature of Charles it does not occur at all; in that of Otho III. it
+is a mere symbol; in that of Henry II. it is the actual emblem of
+sovereignty presented by the Pope to the Emperor, to be held by the
+latter in token of his investiture.
+
+It was Selden's opinion that the orb, surmounted by the cross, never
+appears in western art until the time of Henry II. Thus it is here one
+of the many seemingly insignificant details which, in the miniature art
+of the Middle Ages, contribute to the elucidation of History.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+FRANCONIAN ILLUMINATION
+
+The later Saxon schools--Bernward of Hildesheim--Tuotilo and Hartmut of
+St. Gallen--Portrait of Henry II. in MS. 40 at Munich--Netherlandish and
+other work compared--Alleged deterioration of work under the Franconian
+Emperors not true--Bad character of the eleventh century as to
+art--Example to the contrary.
+
+
+The MS. just referred to (Munich, Cimel. 58) brings us most probably to
+the time of the third. Otho, but it is really with his father's marriage
+to the Princess Theophano that the great revival in the arts began, and
+the names of St. Bruno of Cologne and Augsburg, Gerbert, Bernward of
+Hildesheim, Tuotilo, Salomon, Hartmut, Folchard, and Sintramn of St.
+Gallen, are, as it were, points of light and centres of expanding
+circles of artistic skill. Bruno and Gerbert are too well known to need
+any further remark. Bernward of Hildesheim, made bishop there in 992 by
+Theophano, and tutor to her son Otho III., "excelled no less in the
+mechanical than in the liberal arts. He was an excellent penman, a good
+painter, and as a household manager was unequalled." Such is Tangmar's
+tribute to his pupil's character. He was, indeed, an enthusiast in
+painting, mosaic, and metal-work, and used to collect all the objects of
+art he could lay hands on, to form a museum or studio for the
+instruction of a class of art students and workmen. The collection was
+formed mainly out of the numerous presents brought to the young Emperor
+from foreign, and especially Greek and Oriental, princes, and contained
+many examples of beautiful metal-work and Greek illumination. His own
+Cathedral of Hildesheim was supplied with jewelled service-books, in
+part at least the work of his own hand. The chalices and incense-burners
+and the massive golden corona or candelabrum of the cathedral were also
+the productions of his own workshops. The mural paintings, too, were
+executed by himself. His handiwork, so lovingly described by his old
+schoolmaster Tangmar, may still be seen in Hildesheim, where visitors to
+that quaint old Saxon city are told that the bronze gates of the
+cathedral and the jewelled crucifix were placed there by the venerable
+bishop himself in 1015, while in the cathedral-close rises a column
+adorned with bronze reliefs from the Life of Christ, authoritatively
+declared to be the work of his own hands--let us say they came out of
+his own workshops, in the year 1022, nearly a thousand years ago. St.
+Bernward was canonised by Celestine III. in 1194. His sarcophagus is in
+the crypt of the Basilica of St. Michael at Hildesheim. Of Tuotilo, the
+pupil of Moengall (or Marcellus), it is said that he was physically
+almost a giant; just the man, says his biographer, that you would choose
+for a wrestler. He was a good speaker, had a fine musical voice, was a
+capital carver in wood, and an accomplished illuminator. Like most of
+the earlier monks of St. Gallen, he was a clever musician, equally
+skilful with the trumpet and the harp. And the charm about it all was
+that he was always cheerful and in excellent spirits, and in consequence
+a general favourite. Nor is this all. Besides being teacher of music in
+the upper school to the sons of the nobility, he was classical tutor,
+and could preach both in Latin and Greek. His chief accomplishments,
+however, were music and painting, and on these his reputation mainly
+rests. He composed songs, which, like an Irish bard, he sang to the
+harp--the popular instrument of this Irish foundation. Being thus
+multifariously accomplished (he was, by the way, an excellent boxer), he
+was much in request, and by the permission of his abbot travelled to
+distant places. One of his celebrated sculptures was the image of the
+Blessed Virgin for the cathedral at Metz, said to be quite a
+masterpiece. Nay, he was even a mathematician and astronomer, and
+constructed an astrolabe or orrery, which showed the courses of the
+planets.
+
+This allusion to the astrolabe reminds us that it was Abbat Hartmut of
+St. Gallen, who was also an accomplished illuminator, who constructed a
+large map of the world--one of the extremely few that until that time
+the world had ever seen.
+
+St. Gallen and its artists, however, must not be permitted to monopolise
+our attention too long. The reader must for the rest refer to Dr. Rahn
+and the writers whom he quotes. Sometimes it is said that the
+illuminations of the eleventh century are proofs of the rapid decline of
+art, and to demonstrate the fact that they are frankly hideous, some
+writers bring forward instances such as the miniatures of a Missal,
+especially a Crucifixion, said to be at Paris,[22] and a MS. at Berlin
+said to have been executed in the earlier days of the Franconian dynasty
+(1034-1125) containing another Crucifixion, which, though not quite so
+horrible as the one just referred to, is sufficiently bad. These
+miniatures are irredeemably barbaric and not in any sense typical of the
+age. Such examples, in fact, can be found in any age and in any country.
+Were they really representative of the best art of the time, there might
+be an excuse for their reproduction, but they are not, and therefore no
+reliance can be placed on their evidence.
+
+[22] _Le Livre, etc._, par M.P. Louisy, Paris, 1886, 8�, p. 79.
+
+In the miniatures of MSS. executed for the Othos and Henrys of the early
+Saxon dynasty the worst they can be charged with, as compared with the
+periods before and after them, is slavish imitation. The portrait of
+Henry II. (Saint Henry, husband of Cunegunda) in MS. 40 at Munich is by
+no means barbaric--it is more Greek than anything else--but it is down
+to the smallest element of composition a direct imitation of the similar
+portrait of Charles the Bald in the Emmeram Gospels. It is not a copy,
+for there is a significant difference in the attitudes of the emperors.
+Henry holds a sceptre in his right hand and an orb in his left, like
+Otho III. in the miniature already described, whereas Charles is empty
+handed. Then both on the Emperor's head and on the smaller figures the
+crowns are different--the panelling of the Imperial canopy is different,
+and, of course, there is a different inscription. Lastly, it may be said
+that some of the differences are improvements. Another change is
+characteristic--Charles was beardless, Henry has a pointed beard.
+
+It is true this is an example belonging to the very brightest years of
+the Othonian revival. But to pass over other Saxon MSS., there are
+extant examples from Evroul (when Roger de Warenne, son of the great
+Earl of Surrey, practised as a scribe and illuminator on his retirement
+to that monastery), St. Martin's of Tournay, St. Amand, Benedictbeuern,
+Lobbes, and Weissobrunn could all boast accomplished calligraphers. The
+last establishment produced the celebrated Diemudis, who, though a
+woman, was distinguished by a most extraordinary activity and skill.
+
+Nor are these all that could be named, for by no means least among them
+we may quote Monte Cassino, many of whose elegant productions have been
+published by the present occupants of the monastery. Then the Greek
+miniaturists of the eleventh century are once more to the front. The
+famous Slav Evangeliary of Ostromir (1056-67) shows us a MS. probably
+executed for a governor of Novgorod, which contains by no means
+despicable work, whether in the figures of the evangelists or the
+ornamental borders. Of course, in Greek MSS. we know pretty well what to
+expect; fairly good ornament, rich details of embroidery, etc.,
+wilfulness of colour in architecture, mannerism in the attitudes and
+faces, but good, clever technic and bright gold.
+
+Lastly, there is the celebrated Evangeliary given to San Benedetto of
+Mantua by the Countess Matilda now in the Vatican, enriched with little
+miniatures from the Life of the Virgin, which Lanzi declares surpass
+everything else he ever saw of the same period.
+
+The Poitevin MS. at Poitiers, a biographical compilation of saints in
+honour of St. Radegonde, though nothing wonderful, is worth recording as
+a transitional example just before the close of the century. As an
+example of the latter part of a continual deterioration, it should be
+worse than anything preceding. Yet it is not so. It is certainly heavy
+and rather dull, and the drawing far from excellent, but it is also, on
+the other hand, far from "frankly horrible." In introducing examples of
+other schools into this chapter the writer's object has solely been to
+vindicate the illuminators of the eleventh century from the sweeping
+charge sometimes made against them of absolute deterioration. Of the
+school directly under our notice, the charge is certainly not true, and
+the wretched stuff cited in support of it can only be looked upon as
+accidental salvages of no artistic value whatever.
+
+In proof that the book-work of the eleventh century was not all
+worthless, we may refer to just one example. It is a MS. consisting of
+but a few fragments executed at Luxeuil under Abbat Gerard II. The
+remains are such as to cause regret for the loss of the rest. On one
+page Christ is shown seated on a rich _sella_ covered with an
+embroidered cushion in the manner of the consular diptychs. He is
+clothed in a pale yellow tunic, over which is worn a purple pallium with
+a white border. He is beardless, and his brown hair is kept close to the
+head and neck, and falls over the shoulders. The feet are nude and by no
+means ill-drawn. Surrounding the head is a cruciform nimbus enclosed in
+a circle--both cross and circle being pale green, the latter outlined
+with red. The chief fault of the head is the excessive length of the
+nose and the wide stare of the eyes. The right arm is raised somewhat as
+in the St. Sernin Evangeliary, but with the palm outwards, and much
+superior in drawing.
+
+The whole figure is painted on, or at least surrounded by, a golden
+background--so far indicating the Byzantine origin of the design. It is
+enclosed in a cusped aureola formed of several coloured bands of green,
+violet, and rose. This shows German taste. Eight circlets or medallions
+surround this figure of Christ, four of which contain the symbols of the
+evangelists; the other four--Isaiah, Daniel, Ezechiel, and Jeremiah. All
+hold portions of the band which connects them, and on which appears a
+series of inscriptions in Latin. These consist of passages from the
+Vulgate.
+
+The whole picture is placed in a square frame consisting of bands of
+various colours and gold outlined in red. The inner ground is chiefly
+blue, and the names of the prophets and evangelists are painted on it in
+white Roman capitals. Taken altogether it is a very splendid page, but
+even this is surpassed in gorgeous richness of ornament by the miniature
+of St. Mark. And the borders of other pages in this Luxeuil fragment are
+full of ornament, giving the impression that the work was imitated from
+that of the goldsmith and enameller. The figures and symbols of the
+evangelists in these early Gospel texts are fully explained after St.
+Jerome by Alcuin, whose revision of the Vulgate forms the text of the
+Durham Book already referred to.
+
+The "Manual" shortly to be mentioned differs somewhat in its explanation
+of these symbols. The curious combination called the "Tetra morph" is a
+compound of the four attributes or symbols into a single figure, to
+signify that the four evangelists give only one gospel, and ought not to
+be separated. It occurs frequently in Greek, but only seldom in Latin or
+Western iconography.[23]
+
+[23] On this figure see _Annales Arch�ologiques_, tom. 8, p. 206, etc.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+ARTISTIC EDUCATION IN THE CLOISTER
+
+The "Manual"--Its discovery--Its origin and contents--Didron's
+translation--The "Compendium" of Theophilus--Its contents--English
+version by Hendrie--Benedictine and Cistercian illumination--How they
+differ--Character of monastic architects and artists.
+
+
+About the twelfth century comes forward the mention of a certain manual
+minutely detailing every process of painting, and laying down rules for
+the due composition and arrangement of every subject to be represented
+in the sacred history and other books connected with divine service. How
+long such a manual had been in use is unknown, but it is thought that
+something of the kind must have existed from the time, at least, of
+Justinian, perhaps earlier. The manual here referred to was found by M.
+Didron at Sphigmenou, on Mt. Athos. This little monastery is said to
+have been founded by the Empress Pulcheria, sister of the Emperor
+Theodosius the Younger. She died in the year 453. Theodosius, it may be
+remembered, was himself an admirable penman and illuminator, so much so
+as to have acquired the cognomen of Kalligr�phos.
+
+The monastery is built in a narrow valley by the seaside, between three
+little hills, and as it were "squeezed" in, and hence its name (in Greek
+{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL
+LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER
+MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH TONOS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER
+NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}),
+which describes its situation exactly. It is occupied by about thirty
+unusually neat and orderly monks, who are justly proud of the few relics
+and curiosities which they exhibit to visitors. It was at Sphigmenou
+that Curzon saw the piece of _ancient_ jewellery set with diamonds and a
+Russian or Bulgarian MS. of the Gospels.
+
+The book which M. Didron found there is the copy of an older MS. which,
+it is said, was copied by Dionysius, one of the monks, from the works of
+the once celebrated master, Manuel Panselines of Thessalonica, who was
+the Giotto of the Byzantine school and flourished in the twelfth
+century. If by works the monk meant literary, it is most likely that it
+was the transcript of a still older document. If by works Dionysius
+meant paintings, it is a manual of his practice. One of his pupils, in
+order to propagate the art of painting which he had learnt at
+Thessalonica, writes down the series of subjects to be taken from the
+Bible, so as to epitomise the divine scheme of salvation, and describes
+the manner in which the events of the Old Testament, and the miracles
+and parables of the New, ought to be represented. He mentions the
+scrolls and inscriptions (such as we noticed in the Gospels of Luxeuil)
+belonging to each of the prophets and evangelists, with the names and
+characteristics of the principal saints in the order of the menologium
+or martyrology, and then goes on to direct how the subjects should be
+arranged on the walls and cupolas of the churches.
+
+The Manual of Dionysius is an abstract of this wide scheme, but is still
+very comprehensive. The copy of it seen by Didron was one belonging to a
+monk of Sphigmenou named Joasaph, who was himself a painter. It was
+"loaded with notes added by himself and his master, which in course of
+time would be incorporated, according to immemorial custom, in the
+text." In this way, indeed, the Manual has grown to what it is at
+present. A transcript of it may probably be found in every monastery
+belonging to the Greek Church. Another monk named Macarios, also a
+painter, had a fine copy of it laid open in his atelier, and his pupils
+read from it in turn, whilst the rest painted according to its
+directions. For the scheme itself we must refer the reader to the second
+volume of Didron's _Christian Iconography_, p. 193. Unfortunately the
+transcriber did not think it of sufficient importance or relevancy to
+copy the first part, as being purely technical and dealing merely with
+the art of painting. The scheme, therefore, only contains the part
+relating expressly to iconography. It is to be regretted, too, that this
+part also has been in some places considerably abridged, as dealing with
+Greek art and martyrology more copiously than, it was thought by the
+translator, would be interesting to English readers. There are numerous
+good and reliable introductory works dealing with early Christian art,
+besides the greater treatises to which the student who wants to pursue
+this line of research shall be directed later on. But there is another
+of these original manuals to which we must call attention, as especially
+dealing with the practice of monastic artists in the twelfth and
+following centuries.
+
+The one to which we now refer is quite distinct from the Greek Manual
+which we just mentioned, and by way of contrast may be called the Latin
+Manual as being originally composed in that language. Moreover, as the
+Greek Manual formed the guide and _vade mecum_ of all the painters of
+the Greek Church, so this Latin one became the indispensable monitor in
+all Latin foundations. Its origin was German, and said to be the
+compilation of a Benedictine monk who is variously spoken of as
+Rutgerius, Rugerius, Rotkerius, etc., and assigned by different editors
+and critics to either the eleventh, twelfth, or thirteenth centuries.
+Probably we shall not be far wrong in placing him about the middle of
+the twelfth. The treatise is known as _Diversarum Artium Schedula_, and
+the compiler of it calls himself simply _Theophilus presbiter humilis_,
+which, of course, records nothing but his personal modesty.
+
+It was at first attributed to Tuotilo of St. Gallen. This opinion was
+put forward by Lessing, but it had no foundation whatever beyond the
+fact of Tuotilo's well-known versatility.[24] Besides, Tuotilo lived in
+the ninth century. But really the question of attributions does not
+concern us here. It matters little who he was outside the Treatise, and
+certainly we shall not discuss the question further. It is with the
+Treatise that we are concerned. We shall simply call the author
+Theophilus, and his work the Compendium. Let us turn to it at once.
+
+[24] Tuotilo was renowned throughout all Germany as painter, architect,
+preacher, professor, musician, calligrapher, Latinist, Hellenist,
+sculptor, and astronomer.
+
+The Compendium, which is thus known to contain the working methods of
+all the monastic illuminators, mosaicists, glass painters, enamellers,
+and so forth, throughout Germany, Lombardy, and France, consists of
+three books, containing altogether one hundred and ninety-five chapters
+of definite and special instructions in artistic matters. Book I.,
+comprising forty chapters, treats of the preparation, mixture, and use
+of colours for wall-painting, panel, and parchment, _i.e._ for the
+decoration of churches, furniture, and books. It contains some most
+curious and valuable instructions for the employment of gold, silver,
+and other metals in the decoration of MSS.; how it should be applied;
+whether in leaf or as an ink; how raised and burnished, down to the
+minutest details of practice; how colours are to be tempered (_i.e._
+mixed); what _media_ or temperings are best for each colour, according
+to the surface to which it is to be applied. Such is the Compendium. We
+need not, therefore, wonder at its popularity and the estimation in
+which it was held.
+
+Thirty-one chapters on glass, glass painting, enamelling, etc., form a
+second book, and the third and last book contains some hundred and
+twenty-four chapters on gold and silver work--the art of the
+goldsmith--in cups, chalices, vases, candelabra, shrines, and so on. It
+is the first book that is of most interest to us, and had we space we
+would have liked to quote from its pages. But as it is we can only refer
+the reader to the work itself. It is to be met with in various forms and
+editions. First, we recommend the English translation by Robert Hendrie.
+The oldest MS. of the work is one of the twelfth century in the Library
+at Wolfenb�ttel. The next is in the Imperial Library at Vienna.
+Fragments of other copies exist in several other public libraries, but
+the completest copy known is that in the Harl.[25] Collection of the
+British Museum used by Hendrie as the basis of his translation (8�,
+1847).
+
+[25] 1 Harl. MS. 3915.
+
+It was, as we have said, in the eleventh and twelfth centuries
+especially that the great abbeys were founded. And it cannot be too
+clearly stated that the principal abbatial churches--those most splendid
+monuments of architecture whose structure and dimensions are still the
+admiration of the most cultured critics, and in which all the rules of
+art were so marvellously applied--were the work of simple monks. The
+great Church of St. Benignus at Dijon (so often spoken of by writers on
+Burgundian art) was built in 1001, under Abbat William, assisted by a
+young monk named Hunaldus. The period between 1031 and 1060 saw the
+creation of the grand abbatial Church of St. Remi at Reims. In the words
+of the Comte de Montalembert: "From the very beginning of the Monastic
+Orders St. Benedict had provided in his Rule that there should be
+artists in the monasteries. He had imposed on the exercise of their art
+only one condition--humility." Hence it is that all we know of the
+author of the Compendium from himself is "humilis presbiter Theophilus."
+For the same reason Tuotilo and Folchard and Sintramn and the rest are
+never anxious to put their names upon their work. For the same reason
+the occurrence of an artist's name in a monastic MS. is quite
+exceptional and unexpected. The foresight of St. Benedict "was
+accomplished and his law faithfully fulfilled." The Benedictine
+monasteries soon possessed not only libraries but ateliers, where
+architecture, painting, mosaic, sculpture, metal-chasing, calligraphy,
+ivory carving, gem-setting, book-binding, and all the branches of
+ornamentation were studied and practised with equal care and success,
+without interfering in the least with the exact and austere discipline
+of the foundation. The teaching of these various arts formed an
+essential part of monastic education. "The greatest and most saintly
+abbeys were precisely those most renowned for their zeal in the culture
+of Art. St. Gallen in Germany, Monte Cassino in Italy, Cluny in France,
+were for centuries the mother-cities of Christian Art." And after the
+establishment of the reformed colony at Citeaux, the Cistercian Order
+became the one above all others which has left the most perfect
+edifices, and if the Cistercian illumination may not claim the splendour
+of some contemporary examples, it often excels them in soundness of
+design and severe correctness of execution.
+
+In saying that all this kind of work was executed by monks, we are
+speaking literally. The monks were not only the architects, but also the
+masons, and even the hodmen of their edifices. Nor were the superiors in
+this respect different from their humble followers. Whilst ordinary
+monks were often the architects-in-chief of the constructions, the
+abbats voluntarily accepted the r�le of labourers. During the building
+of the Abbey of Bee, in 1033, the founder and first abbat,
+grand-seigneur though he was, worked as a common mason's labourer,
+carrying on his back the lime, sand, and stones necessary for the
+builder. This was Herluin. Another Norman noble, Hugh, Abbat of Selby in
+Yorkshire, when, in 1096, he rebuilt in stone the whole of that
+important monastery, putting on the labourer's blouse, mixed with the
+other masons and shared their labours. Monks, illustrious by birth,
+distinguished themselves by sharing the most menial occupations. It is
+related of Roger de Warenne that when he retired to Evroul, he took up
+quite a serious r�le of this kind in cleaning the shoes of the brethren,
+and performing other offices which a mere cottager would have probably
+considered degrading.
+
+Occasionally in our school histories we come across the mention of a man
+like Dunstan, of whom it is related as a wonderful thing that he was at
+the same time a metal worker, architect, and calligrapher; but monastic
+biographies abound in such instances. We have already quoted several.
+"The same man was frequently," says Montalembert, "architect, goldsmith,
+bell-founder, miniaturist, musician, calligrapher, organ builder,
+without ceasing to be theologian, preacher, litterateur, sometimes even
+bishop, or intimate counsellor of princes."[26]
+
+[26] "L'Art et les Moines," _Ann. Arch�ologiques_, t. vi. p. 121, etc.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+THE RISE OF GOTHIC ILLUMINATION
+
+Germany the chief power in Europe in the twelfth century--Rise of
+Italian influence--The Emmeram MSS.--Coronation of Henry II.--The
+Apocalypse--The "Hortus Deliciarum"--Romanesque--MS. of Henry the
+Lion--The Niederm�nster Gospels--Description of the MS.--Rise of
+Gothic--Uncertainty of its origin--The spirit of the age.
+
+
+In the chapter on Othonian art we saw how the ornamentation of books was
+drawn away from the great French centres, and began to take a new
+departure from the various leading cities of Germany, such as Bamberg,
+which the Othos had made their capital. Whilst the decline, which was
+the inevitable consequence of a personal government like that of
+Charlemagne, took place in France, it was but natural that the new
+artistic movement at Bamberg should become the fashion, and Germany
+predominant in art, as she was in politics. In the twelfth century the
+German Empire was the principal power in Europe. France, Italy, England,
+and Spain were all more or less secondary. Italy, however, was already
+on the alert. She was initiating certain movements in social life that
+must soon withdraw the cultivation of all the arts from the control of
+the monasteries. At the same time the love of learning and personal
+accomplishments of the second and third Othos and (St.) Henry II. soon
+prepared the Imperial Court to become as brilliant as classical
+scholarship and artistic skill of the highest class could make it.
+
+The wave of Byzantine influence which had passed over Germany by the
+time of Henry II. had immensely benefited the Germans. We notice it
+especially in the miniatures of the Gospel-books. The technic is much
+more masterly, the painting really methodical in soundly worked
+body-colour with a delicate sense of harmony, and showing no longer that
+coarse handling and slovenliness of execution that marks some of the
+Carolingian miniatures. In the figure a sense of proportion has been
+gained, the tendency, perhaps, being rather to excessive tallness, as
+compared with the thick-set proportions of the Carolingian work. Again,
+expression is improved--the faces are more intellectual--not beautiful
+but strong, and quite superior to the utterly expressionless faces of
+the Carolingian type.
+
+Take, for example, that fine Missal now at Munich (Cimel. 60--Lat.
+4456), in which St. Henry, who is bearded, receives his crown from a
+bearded Christ, his arms being upheld by two bishops, Ulrich of Augsburg
+and Emmeram of Regensburg, the two great saints of Bavaria. We know
+these to be the personages represented, because two inscriptions tell us
+so. To the one supporting the King's right hand: "Huius VODALRICVS cor
+regis signet et actus." To the other: "EMMERANVS ei faveat solamine
+dulci." The Christ is seated on a rainbow within a cusped aureola or
+"amande" of several bands of different colours, on the central one being
+inscribed in a mixture of Greek and Latin characters--one of the new
+fashions brought in by the Greek revival:
+
+    "Clemens XPE tuo longum da vivere XPIC to:
+     Ut tibi devotus non perdat temporis usus."
+
+Some writers have thought this to be a picture of the Emperor's
+apotheosis, and that the crown is that of Life or Immortality; but such
+is certainly not the import of the above verses.
+
+    "O gentle Christ give to thy Christ long to live
+     That devoted to Thee he may not lose the use of time."
+
+Besides, two angels on either side Christ precipitately bestow on the
+Emperor the spear and sword of a temporal sovereignty. Round the Emperor
+are the words: "Ecce coronatur divinitus atque beatur. Rex pius
+Heinricus proavorum stirp(e) polosus," all which can scarcely refer to
+anything but his German Empire.
+
+The expression, "give to thy Christ," is an allusion to the Hebrew usage
+of calling the king the "anointed" or the "Christ."
+
+Besides the interest possessed by this MS. as a monument of the art of
+its own time, it has a special value resting in the fact that its
+illuminations were copied from the famous Emmeram Golden Gospels of
+Charles the Bald, written by Linthard and Berenger, and sent as a
+present to Regensburg. Another illumination in it, representing the
+enthronement of the Emperor, is extremely interesting as showing how the
+later artist renders the work of the earlier one. The general
+composition is precisely the same, the lower figures in the same
+attitudes and bearing the same insignia. But in the details of costume,
+and in the significant position of the Emperor, there are alterations.
+In the miniature of the Emmeram Gospels the two angels above are simply
+winged messengers of the usual biblical type; in the Missal they are
+cloaked and crowned and bear horns in their hands. In the older MS. the
+two crowned figures with horns on either side wear simple mural crowns;
+in the later one they are regal like those of the Emperor. The details
+also of the canopies are different. But the remarkable difference is
+that while Charles the Bald is beardless and bears nothing in his hands,
+merely sitting as if addressing an assembly, Henry II. holds in his
+right hand a sceptre and in his left an orb and cross. Here is a
+distinctly new feature with a meaning. Here are the symbols of authority
+in the Emperor's own hands, and not merely in those of his
+attendants.[27] These two MSS. are worthy of careful study.
+
+[27] See p. 92.
+
+In another Missal in the library at Bamberg is a miniature of the
+Emperor presenting the book to the Virgin. In the great Evangeliary
+presented by the Emperor Henry II. to the Cathedral of Bamberg there is
+a grand picture of the Emperor and his consort the famous saint
+Cunegunda being crowned by Christ, with SS. Peter and Paul standing at
+the sides. Here also, as in the Carolingian MS. already mentioned, are
+the nations bringing tribute, but not in the same order. Here Germany
+stands upright between two figures of Gaul and Rome, while six others
+appear simply as busts (Munich, Cimel. 60. 4456).
+
+The twelfth century was clearly much given to symbolism and allegory, as
+shown in apocalyptic commentaries and similar works. A very remarkable
+"Apocalypse" is that in the library of the Marquis d'Astorga. The latter
+is remarkably rich in pictures, which have been described by M.A.
+Bachelin of Paris. The drawing in these pictures reminds one of the
+bas-reliefs of the campaigns of Hadrian and Trajan and other work of the
+early Roman centuries. One hundred and ten miniatures of uncommon
+interest constitute the illustrations, many of which are perfect
+curiosities of symbolism, depicting not only the four figures of the
+evangelists, but the mysteries of the seals and vials, serpents, beasts,
+etc., on yellow, red, green, blue, and brown backgrounds. The draperies
+in some of the miniatures show Byzantine teaching, but with the
+grandiose style of the early Roman times. The MS. it might be compared
+with of the twelfth century is the "Hortus Deliciarum" of the Abbess
+Herrade. This latter MS., which unfortunately was burnt with many other
+treasures during the siege of Strassburg by the Germans in 1870, was a
+veritable treasury of medi�val customs, furniture, and costumes,
+illustrating a medley of encyclop�dic information for the use of the
+nuns and secular students of the Abbey of Hohenburg in Alsace. The good
+abbess called her book a "Garden of Delights."
+
+It is known that it dated from 1159, as that date and also the date of
+1175 occurred in its pages. We do not know whether the authoress was
+also the illuminatrix, but at any rate she directed the illumination.
+Their style is of the same type as that of the Apocalypse just spoken
+of, somewhat monumental as figures of the Liberal Arts, allegorical
+figures of the virtues and vices, and the syrens as symbols of sensual
+temptation. There was a figure of the Church riding upon a beast with
+the four heads of the evangel-symbols--the sun and moon in chariots as
+in the classical mythology, and scenes of warfare, marriage festivities,
+banquets, everything indeed depicting the life of contemporary
+persons.[28] The drawing and treatment generally is of no very skilful
+kind--the colouring bright and in body-colour. Draperies as usual much
+folded and fluttering, and the heads generally of the calm expression of
+the later French school, but the action sometimes very spirited.
+
+[28] For a copious and exhaustive account of the "Hortus," see "Het
+Gildeboek," Utrecht, 1877, v. i. Also Engelhardt, Herrad v. H., etc.,
+8�, with atlas of twelve plates, 1818.
+
+The title began thus: "Incipit hortus deliciarum, in quo collectis
+floribus scripturarum assidue jucundetur turmula adolescentularum." In
+the _Rhytmus_ came the lines:--
+
+             "Salve cohors virginum
+              Hohenburgensium
+              Albens quasi lilium
+              Amans dei filium
+
+              Herrat devotissima
+              Tua fidelissima
+              Mater et ancillula
+              Cantat tibi cantica
+
+              Sic et liber utilis
+              Tibi delectabilis
+              Et non cesses volvere
+              Hanc in tuo pectore."
+
+In the Netherlands, which mostly at this time lay within the boundary of
+Lotharingia or Lorraine, the style of illumination was much the same as
+in other German districts. Gospel-books and Psalters, however, exhibit
+features somewhat akin to English work.
+
+In the eleventh and twelfth centuries the continental methods prevail in
+more solid painting and less penwork.
+
+Of the twelfth-century work of Germany examples are exceedingly
+numerous, stretching over every province from West to East, as
+Westphalia, the Palatinate, Burgundy, Switzerland and Bavaria, extending
+even into Bohemia. An Evangeliary in the University Library at Prag
+agrees altogether with those of Germany.
+
+Towards the middle of the twelfth century, with the accession of the
+House of Hohenstaufen (1138, etc.), arose a new style, since called
+Romanesque, of which many examples are to be found in various libraries.
+It is not very easy to select the most typical examples, but one good
+and typical MS. is found in a Gospel-book at Carlsruhe, which contains
+some capital miniatures of this most thoroughly German style.
+
+Under Frederick Barbarossa, as under the Caroling Emperors and the
+Othos, we may note a wave of new life, especially in Saxony. A contrast
+as regards artistic ability to the "Hortus Deliciarum" is the
+Gospel-book executed for Henry the Lion at the convent of Helmershausen,
+once in the Cathedral Library at Prag, and bought by King George of
+Hanover.[29] In the page of the Eusebian Canons we see features which
+take us across the plains of Lombardy to the doors of S. Michele of
+Pavia, and to the churches of Venice. The columns rest on crouching
+animals. Allegorical figures are introduced striving with each other as
+in the later Gothic illuminations. A half-nude figure of Faith
+vanquishes the champion of Paganism. On the dedication page sits the
+Madonna with SS. John Baptist and Bartholomew, and below them the patron
+saints of Brunswick, Blaize, and Egidius leading forth the Duke and his
+wife, Mathilda. It may indeed be called a splendid book. Among the rest
+of the pictures, some of them within richly decorated borders, occurs
+the usual representation of the Duke and his Duchess receiving crowns.
+The figures are well drawn, even elegant, the draperies good, and the
+colouring skilful.
+
+[29] See F. Culemann in _Neue hannov. Zeitung_, 1861, Nos. 22-4.
+
+One of the many characteristic MSS. of this period to be seen in
+continental libraries is the "Mater Verborum" of the monk Conrad, of
+Scheyern in Bavaria, a noted scribe, illuminator, goldsmith, and
+grammarian. The subject is one that scarcely gives promise of lending
+itself to pictorial illustration, but after the successful attempts of
+Theodulf we may be prepared for anything in the way of diagram and
+symbol. Imagine a dictionary in which not only actual objects are
+pictorially represented, but also abstract terms. Music, philosophy,
+virtues and vices illustrated by historical instances--sacred subjects
+treated in the manner of the glass painters which is so commonly found
+in German and French work of this period.
+
+Of twelfth-century illumination in general it may be said that it shows
+a marked effort towards true artistic design and subtle beauty of linear
+outline. Some of the noblest curve-drawing, with rich and massive
+grouping of foliages, is to be found in the ornamental initials and
+dignified border designs presented on the later examples of the century,
+and it is very interesting to observe the rapid pace at which the climax
+is reached in mere calligraphic ornament after the opening of the Gothic
+period. Initials become smaller but exquisitely drawn, and reasonable
+expression takes the place of the senseless stare or grotesque
+exaggeration of attitude and feature which detract from the artistic
+value of all preceding efforts. To conclude our list of German
+illuminations of purely monastic production, we will bring forward one
+more example of women's work, which whether as regards its curious
+illustrations of symbolism, or its richly foliaged geometrical
+backgrounds and borders, is one of the most interesting MSS. in any
+collection. It is the Evangeliary of the Abbess Uota, or perhaps,
+rather, Tuota of Niederm�nster, a lady of the House of the Counts of
+Falckenstein (1177-80); or of Utta, abbess from 1009 to 1012, but more
+probably the former. Another, Tutta, ruled the abbey from 920 to 934,
+and still another 1239-42. This precious MS., which Cahier has very
+fully described as the "Manuscrit du Niedermuenster de Ratisbonne," is
+now in the Royal Library at Munich (Cimel. 35). Some writers, in
+speaking of it, have classed it among the MSS. of the eleventh century,
+but it is too refined and too well done for that period, and, indeed,
+that it belongs to the _latter part_ of the twelfth is almost proved
+from the work itself. Perhaps it was the profusion of inscriptions or
+legends placed all over the miniatures that gave the idea of its
+belonging to the eleventh century. In this respect the MS. certainly
+resembles the Evangeliary of Luxeuil already described. The miniature of
+the Crucifixion is very remarkable. Besides the figure of Christ showing
+a return to the primitive Syriac idea,[30] instead of the figures as
+usual of Mary and John, here are given allegorical figures _of_ Life and
+Death. (Cf. Fest. in exaltatione sce crucis. Ad Laudes, 14th Sept.).
+Perhaps the best commentary on these old figures is the "Biblia
+Pauperum," as it is commonly called, or as it should be called, the
+Bible of the poor preachers. It also has the old allegories and
+inscriptions rendered into later forms.
+
+[30] Cf. the Rabula MS. at Vienna.
+
+As for the texts or inscriptions, they would require a commentary to
+themselves--not to speak of translations and remarks upon the
+calligraphy. One of these remarkable miniatures may be described, as it
+depicts the presentation of the volume to the Madonna. Our Lady in the
+centre of the design is seated on a Byzantine _sedile_ with the infant
+Jesus on her knees. She is crowned, and has the nimbus, and appears as
+if intended to represent the glory of the Church. Her hand is raised as
+in the act of teaching. Christ, also, has the nimbus, but with the cross
+upon it, and raises his hand in the attitude of benediction. In the
+tympanum of the semicircle over the Madonna, written in letters of gold
+on purple, surrounded by the word "Sancta" in ordinary ink, is the
+monogram of Maria, having a small sun and moon above it, and other
+inscriptions, partly Latin, partly Greek. Below the Madonna, on the
+left, stands the abbess, her knees slightly bent, holding up her book,
+and clothed in the costume of her Order, but coloured, no doubt, simply
+for artistic reasons. Thus she wears a blue veil and a claret-coloured
+robe. In the reversed semicircle before her is another monogram, Uota or
+Tuota, a name which perhaps may be translated Uta, Utta, Ida, etc. It
+has been said already who she is likely to have been. It does not
+follow, of course, that she herself wrote or illuminated the book she is
+presenting, but judging from similar instances, as _e.g._ Herrade of
+Landsberg and Hrosvita of Gandersheim, she may have done so.
+
+Still the work looks technically too masterly for anyone not a trained
+artist to have done. In the corners are small quadretti, containing
+busts of the four cardinal virtues:--Prudence, Justice, Temperance, and
+Fortitude; and in circlets in the centre of each border are Faith, Hope,
+and Charity, the latter twice, at top and bottom. A number of
+extraordinary beasts fill up little niches in the design, which may
+possibly be also symbolical, but possibly also nothing but artistic
+fancies. The other miniatures we must pass over. Nevertheless those
+representing the four evangelists are worth examination;[31] the
+ornamentation being especially rich and elaborate. Let us now turn our
+attention to a new element--a new spirit we might term it--which was
+manifesting itself in Italy and France. We cannot too strongly insist
+upon the fact that whatever appears in illumination has appeared first
+in architecture and its auxilliary arts. Now we have to see how this
+fact begins to change almost entirely the character of the ornamentation
+of books. During the latter part of the twelfth century, when precisely
+we cannot say, nor where, a new form of architecture began to show
+itself. This new style, laying aside both the classic cornice and the
+Romanesque arch, makes use of a new vertical principle of construction,
+called in French the _ogive_ or arch, composed of two sections only,
+instead of the whole semicircle. By some fatality, of which no exact
+explanation can be given, English writers have given this new style the
+name of Gothic. Scores of cathedrals throughout Europe are called Gothic
+cathedrals, whereas in all probability, if we exclude Sweden, there is
+only one really Gothic building in the world, that is the Tomb of
+Theodoric at Ravenna, and none of the so-called Gothic cathedrals are in
+the least like it. As to the invention itself, it has been claimed by
+almost every nationality in Europe. There can be no doubt that
+accidentally, or otherwise, the pointed arch had been used often enough
+without any idea of its adoption as a principle of construction even in
+ancient buildings. The famous gate at Mycoene is one instance. This is
+not the place to discuss the question, so we let it pass. We could point
+out long and elaborate arguments intended to prove that it originated in
+England--that it originated in France--in Germany.[32] Possibly they may
+all be right in a sense, for most probably the origin was not in any
+particular locality, but in the religious spirit of the time. It was a
+general revival of the Church itself that was its cause. If any special
+locality has more reason on its side than another, it is probably
+France, but as we say, that is not an essential point. It must suffice
+us here that it arose, and that by the end of the twelfth century it was
+a fact. And the remarkable part about it is that it was by the influence
+of lay artists and especially of the freemasons that it became the
+accepted architecture of Christendom.
+
+[31] For more about them, see Cahier, _M�langes d'Arch�ologie, etc._
+
+[32] Not to mention _theories_, which are endless.
+
+
+
+
+                               BOOK II
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+THE GOLDEN AGE OF ILLUMINATION
+
+The Gothic spirit--A "Zeitgeist" not the invention of a single artist
+nor of a single country--The thirteenth century the beginning of the new
+style--Contrast between North and South, between East and West, marked
+in the character of artistic leaf-work--Gradual development of Gothic
+foliage--The bud of the thirteenth century, the leaf of the fourteenth,
+and the flower of the fifteenth--The Freemasons--Illumination
+transferred from the monastery to the lay workshop--The Psalter of St.
+Louis--Characteristics of French Gothic illumination--Rise of the
+miniature as a distinct feature--Guilds--Lay artists.
+
+
+We have now reached the parting of the ways. The study of Nature is fast
+superseding the dogmas of the monastic code, and what some writers have
+characterised as the hieratic is giving way to the naturalistic
+treatment of art. Like the pointed architecture itself, it is an outcome
+of the spirit of the age. Exactly when it begins we cannot say. As in
+the physical sciences, our limits are necessarily somewhat arbitrary to
+suit our convenience in classification. We take the beginning of the
+thirteenth century as a convenient dividing line between old and new. We
+accept it as the boundary between the artistic sway of the East and
+South--and that of the West and North--between the lifeless fetters of
+prescription and the living freedom of invention. The contrast between
+the two is very strongly marked. The soft and curling foliages of the
+sunny South are for a season giving way to the hard and thorny leafage
+of the wintry North. It would seem as if pointed architecture began with
+the hard and frozen winter of its existence, and if it had been the plan
+or design of one individual we might have accepted this peculiarity as
+part of the scheme, and all that followed as a natural consequence and
+development. But it is curious that as a system worked out by many minds
+pointed architecture should thus begin. First come thorns and cusps and
+lanceolate forms without foliage. Then, not perfect leaves, but buds. In
+due time the bud opens, at first into the profile coil, and by-and-by
+into the full-spread leaf. Then comes the flower, and finally the fruit.
+After that, rottenness and decay. It is curious that this should
+actually take place through a course of centuries. That it should be
+reflected in book illumination is simply the usual order of things--the
+fact has been frequently observed, and as it is curious, we call
+attention to it. But, as we have said, the great change itself was
+brought about by the influence of lay artists, and chiefly by the
+freemasons.
+
+Who and what the freemasons were everybody is supposed to know, but on
+inquiry we find very few people indeed know anything definite about
+them. Of course we do not refer to the friendly societies or social
+guilds that now bear the name, but to the medi�val builders. "Everybody
+knows," says Batissier,[33] "that the study of the sciences and of
+literature and the practice of the various branches of art took refuge
+in the monasteries during the irruptions of the barbarians and the
+strife of international war. In those retreats, not only painting,
+sculpture, engraving on metals, and mosaic, but also architecture were
+cultivated. If the question arose about building a church, it was nearly
+always an ecclesiastic who furnished the plan and monks who carried out
+the works under his direction. The brethren in travelling from convent
+to convent naturally exercised a reciprocal influence over each other.
+We conceive, then, that the abbeys of any given Order would put in vogue
+the same style, and that the art would be modified under certain points
+of view, in the same manner in each country."
+
+[33] _Hist. de l' Art Monumental_, p. 466, Paris, 1845, I. 8�.
+
+"It is certain, moreover, that outside the cloisters there were also
+troops of workmen not monastics, who laboured under the direction of the
+latter."
+
+"Masons were associated among them in the same way as other trade
+corporations. It was the same with these corporations in the South as
+with the communes--the _d�bris_ of the Roman organisation; they took
+refuge in the Church, and had arrived at a condition of public life and
+independence, when order was established between the commune, the
+Seignory, and the Church."
+
+"During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries these corporations were
+organised into recognised fraternities having their own statutes, but
+there is abundant evidence of their having a much earlier existence."
+
+"A great number of masons were trained in Italy, and came from Lombardy,
+which in the tenth century even was an active centre of civilisation.
+Italy had its corporations of masons called _maestri comaccini_,
+enjoying exclusive privileges, who, having passed the different degrees
+of apprenticeship, became 'accepted'[34] masons, and had the right of
+exercising their profession wherever they might be. The sovereigns of
+different countries granted them special privileges, and the popes
+protected them in all Catholic countries where they might travel. Thus
+the lodges grew and prospered. The Greek artists who had fled from
+Constantinople during the various Iconoclast persecutions had got
+themselves enrolled in the ranks of the freemasons, and taught their
+fellow-masons their Byzantine methods."
+
+[34] German "angenommen."
+
+"Speedily these corporations spread through France, England, and
+Germany, where they were employed almost exclusively by the religious
+Orders, in building their churches and conventual buildings."
+
+While, therefore, the general plan and rules of construction were common
+to all members of the fraternity, the details were almost entirely left,
+under regulations, to the individual taste of certain members of each
+band of workmen, who, being all qualified artists, were quite capable of
+putting in execution, and with masterly skill, any such minuti� of
+ornament as might be left to their discretion.[35] Local illuminators
+would thus speedily get hold of every novelty, and the page of the
+Psalter or Bible would become, as a French writer has explained it, a
+_vitrail sur velin_. If not indeed exclusively following the stained
+glass, they copied the mural decorations, and so we find the backgrounds
+of the miniatures, whether fitted into the initials or placed separately
+in framed mouldings, faithfully reproducing the imbrications,
+_carrelages_, panellings, and diapers of these mural enrichments.
+
+[35] Governor Pownall ("Observations on the Origin and Progress of Gothic
+Architecture, and on the Corporation of Freemasons," _Arch�ologia_,
+1788, vol. 9, pp. 110-126) was of opinion that "the Collegium or
+Corporation of Freemasons, were the first formers of Gothic architecture
+into a regular and scientific order by applying the models and
+proportions of timber framework to building in stone," and that this
+method "came into use and application about the close of the twelfth or
+commencement of the thirteenth century." See also Gould (R.F.), _History
+of Freemasonry_, vol. i. p. 259, note. "Without going so far as to agree
+with Governor Pownall that the Freemasons invented Gothic, it may be
+reasonably contended that without them it could not have been brought to
+perfection, and without Gothic they would not have stood in the peculiar
+and prominent position that they did, that there was mutual indebtedness,
+and while without Freemasons there would have been no Gothic...without
+Gothic the Freemasons would have formed but a very ordinary community of
+trades unionists."
+
+To select an example of Gothic illumination which shall exemplify the
+earliest features of the pointed style is not an easy matter,
+notwithstanding the number of thirteenth-century MSS. which still exist
+in public collections. In the National Library at Paris are several such
+MSS. One that decidedly marks the change from the German work hitherto
+in vogue is the Psalter of St. Louis (Nat. Lib., Paris., Lat. 10525),
+which contains nearly eighty small, delicately executed miniatures. It
+was completed about 1250. Its noticeable features are a vastly improved
+dexterity in draughtsmanship, which displays a refined certainty of
+touch, enabling the artist to express his intention with unhesitating
+freedom. The drawing thus produced in outline is filled in with flat
+tints of body-colour, without gradation or any attempt at brush-work
+shading. Whatever finishing in this respect might be thought necessary
+was added with the pen. Nothing could show more clearly that it is
+simply and frankly imitative of stained glass. As in the glass the black
+outline is left for definition. No colour is used on hands of faces
+except a slight touch of red on the cheeks and lips. The prevailing
+colours are rich blue and bright scarlet. Perhaps the illuminator would
+have been better advised had he neglected some of the harder features of
+this kind of work. Not considering that the limits of the glass painter
+did not apply to his vellum, he fettered himself unnecessarily, and
+instead of a picture he has only succeeded in producing a surface
+enamel, or a mere reticulation of surface-patterns. This very defect has
+by some writers been held up to admiration as the true perfection of all
+illumination. Its flatness was applauded because it had to be shut up in
+a book, and was therefore the only appropriate way of making a picture
+for such a purpose. But whoever would dream that because a picture,
+painted in due perspective and proper light and shade, was to be shut up
+in a book that the figures represented in relief would actually be
+crushed. Such reasoning is most puerile. The supposed parallel case of a
+carpet or hearth-rug representing groups of flowers--even if the latter
+ever did deceive the domestic cat--does not in the least affect the most
+childish conception of a picture in a book. We see it in a scene in
+light and shade, we enjoy and admire its reliefs, but at the same time
+we know it is a picture, and that it is quite flat. The two tests of
+knowledge never interfere with each other. To suppose they do is to
+suppose a case of imbecility that even a lunatic must laugh to scorn. So
+far, therefore, we think the illuminator mistaken in slavishly copying
+the limitations of the glass-painter. It is no very great knowledge of
+nature that is shown in these drawings. There is a good example of the
+method of study followed by thirteenth-century artists in the
+sketch-book of a French mason named Villars de Honnecourt, still kept in
+the National Library at Paris.[36] In this book the artist has made
+drawings, as he says, from the life--some are views, others drawings of
+objects of art; one represents a lion of the medi�val heraldic type, yet
+the artist assures us it is from the life. But there is no real
+accuracy, everything is done with reference to some canon. It is,
+however, quite free from the Byzantine influence, though by no means
+free from a certain tincture of symbolism. The nude is rarely attempted,
+but when it is it is certainly less ugly than in Carolingian and
+Romanesque. To return to the Psalter--the style of the figures is rather
+graceful, attitudes are gentle and modest, though the inclination of
+head and body are such as to suggest a sort of undulatory movement in
+walking that is scarcely natural. The forms are slender, and the limbs
+occasionally beyond the owner's control--sometimes even deformed. The
+feet are small and weak--now and then over-twisted. The hands more
+delicate than formerly, especially when open. Faces are gently oval and
+sometimes expressive.
+
+[36] It has been published as the Album of V. de H., Paris, 1858.
+
+Sometimes the "histories" are placed in initial letters, the grounds of
+which, when not of burnished gold, consist of imitations of mural
+_carrelages_, chequers, etc., or rich enamelled patterns imitative of
+engraved traceries on metal. In other cases they are placed in
+frame-mouldings, consisting of a bar or beading of gold supporting an
+inner bar of coloured and polished wood or enamel work--the polish being
+represented by a fine line of white along the centre. For illustrations
+of this precious volume the reader may refer to Labarte, _Hist. des Arts
+industriels_, album, pl. 92 (Paris, 1864).
+
+Now that the monasteries had ceased to be the exclusive nurseries of art
+and literature, the masters of the different arts and crafts usually
+belonged to the middle classes of the towns, where at first each art or
+craft had its own fraternity, and as the idea of trade-association crew,
+the crafts most nearly related would form a guild or corporation. All
+who joined these corporations bound themselves to work only as the ruler
+of the guild permitted. Nor were outsiders allowed to compete with them
+in their own branches, so exclusive was the protection of the guild.
+
+Each confraternity had its altar in some particular church, whose patron
+saint became the protector of the guild. And indeed the constitution of
+the guild included even political rights and obligations--military
+service among the rest, like other feudal institutions. Each town had
+its own special corporations, which thus led to the formation of
+separate schools of art; while travelling apprenticeships gave the
+opportunity to all of acquiring knowledge not accessible at home.
+Members were accustomed to travel and to attach themselves to the
+service of various princes, receiving appointments as "varlets" or
+"escripvains" or "enlumineurs," which sometimes obliged them to resign
+their membership. Occasionally they became political agents and even
+ambassadors.
+
+It will be remembered that, some pages back, we noticed the fact that in
+Western illumination generally the design of the page depended upon the
+initial letter, or that at least the initial was the principal object of
+it. In the thirteenth century, although the initial had very much
+diminished in size, the same principle still prevailed. The letter
+itself was formed of some fabulous long-necked and long-tailed animal or
+bird, mostly a dragon as conceived by the medi�val artist. The head
+framed more or less on that of the mastiff or lion, or both; the legs of
+a bird of prey; the body and tail of a serpent; wings of heraldic
+construction to suit the form of the letter. While the body of this
+unspeakable beast formed the body of the letter, the tail was
+indefinitely extended to sweep down the margin of the text and round the
+base of it, so as to form a border, while not unfrequently slender
+branches would spring from it to form coils here and there ending in a
+kind of flower-bud, the extremity of the tail forming a similar coil.
+Very soon, however, the animal form was abandoned, and the letter made
+simply as a decorated initial or capital. If possible, one of its limbs
+was made to sweep up and down the "margin" and along the bottom or top
+as before. Where the interior is not occupied by a "history," we find
+coiled stems ending in profile leaves or buds.
+
+At the same time the text has diminished in size, sometimes down to
+dimensions no greater than those of an ordinary printed book of to-day,
+but often beautiful and regular as the clearest printing. Such a book is
+the Bible written by a certain William of Devon, now in the British
+Museum (Roy. MS. 1 D. 1). A description of this beautiful MS. may be
+seen in _Bibliographica_, vol. i. p. 394, written by Sir E.M. Thompson.
+Here, though the writing is that of an Englishman, the style is
+completely French.
+
+Another MS. deserving of study is a richly illuminated Bible now in the
+Burney Collection of our National Library (No. 3). Another, which, owing
+to its being recommended for study by the late John Ruskin, was once
+known as the Ruskin Book, is Add. MS. 17341, which contains many fine
+initials with border and bracket foliages similar to those of the
+Evangeliary of the Sainte Chapelle, now in the National Library, Paris
+(MS. Lat. 17326). Both the MSS. show the contemporary peculiarity of
+presenting Bible characters, excepting divine personages, apostles, and
+evangelists in ordinary local costume. Paris, of course, is the city
+where most, and perhaps the best, of these MSS. are preserved; but those
+named above, in London, are also among the finest known examples.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+RISE OF NATIONAL STYLES
+
+The fourteenth century the true Golden Age of Gothic
+illumination--France the cradle of other national styles--Netherlandish,
+Italian, German, etc.--Distinction of schools--Difficulty of assigning
+the _provenance_ of MSS.--The reason for it--MS. in Fitzwilliam Museum,
+Cambridge--The Padua Missal--Artists' names--Whence obtained.
+
+
+Through the thirteenth century is the epoch of the Gothic renaissance,
+it is the fourteenth to which really belongs the title of the Golden
+Age. The style of work remains precisely the same, only it grows. It
+changes from the bud to the leaf. It casts off the severity and much of
+the restraint of its earlier character. To the grace of youth it adds
+beauty, the beauty of adolescence. To fourteenth-century illumination we
+can give no higher praise than that it is beautiful. Not, indeed,
+because of its deliberate limitations, but in spite of them. For after
+ages have taught us that if in pure ornament and resplendent decorative
+completeness the pages of the fourteenth century cannot be surpassed, in
+miniature historiation it must take a second place. The skilled
+illuminators of the later schools are the masters of the mere picture.
+For surely no judge of art could possibly assert that the miniatures of
+the Grunani Breviary or of the Brera Graduals as miniatures are inferior
+to those of the Psalter of St. Louis, the Berry Bible, or the
+Prayer-book of Margaret of Bavaria. Yet these are typical MSS. of the
+highest rank. Hence we say that while the illumination of the Golden Age
+of the art was beautiful, it was not absolutely perfect. It is not to be
+taken by modern students as the only possible model or basis simply
+because it was the best of its kind. There is no such despotism in art.
+To those who think it the only possible form of book decoration, let it
+be so by all means, but we may as well hope to clothe our soldiers in
+chain or plate armour, and send the elite of our nobility on another
+crusade to Jerusalem, or satisfy our universities with the _quod libets_
+and _quiddities_ of the _trivium_ and _quadrivium_, as hope to make
+popular to the England of the twentieth century the artistic tastes of
+the fourteenth. We indulge in no such dreams. If we are to have
+illuminated books, our own age must invent them. The illuminators of the
+Bibles, Romances, Mirrors, and Chronicles of the fourteenth century no
+doubt did their best, and we honour and praise them for it. We think
+their work among the loveliest gratifications of the eye that can be
+imagined. But the eye is very catholic--it has immense capacities for
+enjoyment. The window of the soul opens on illimitable prospects, and if
+the soul be satisfied for the time, it is not necessarily repleted for
+ever. Golden ages are cyclical, and it may be that the glory of the
+books of the future shall surpass all the glories of the past.
+
+By 1350 France had absorbed all the antecedent varieties of
+illumination. From France, therefore, spring all the succeeding styles
+now considered national.
+
+And as is most natural, these styles develop by proximity--the nearest
+to French being Netherlandish. The next, as a result of immediate
+intercourse, Italian. Then German, Spanish, and the rest, as intercourse
+gave opportunity. It is not always an easy matter to say offhand whether
+a MS. is French or Flemish. In the earlier days it is not easy to say
+whether it be French or English, or even whether French or Italian. But
+the distinctness comes later on.
+
+In the fifteenth century the Italian, German, French, and English are
+quite distinct varieties. Towards the sixteenth the Netherlandish is
+quite as distinct. But the styles of Spain, Bohemia, Hungary, Poland,
+though possessing features which identify them to an experienced eye,
+are to the ordinary spectator merely sub-varieties of Netherlandish,
+Italian, or German.
+
+With regard to the distinctions of schools or local centres within the
+same country, the evidence of probable origin has to be corroborated by
+historic fact. It is not safe without further proof than that afforded
+by general features to affirm that this or that MS. was executed at
+Paris, Dijon, Amiens, or Limoges in France; or at Ghent, Bruges, or
+elsewhere in Flanders; or whether a MS. be Rhenish or Saxon, Bavarian or
+Westphalian, in Germany; Bolognese, Florentine, Siennese, Milanese, or
+Neapolitan in Italy; or executed at Westminster, St. Albans, Exeter, or
+elsewhere in England. Nevertheless the special characteristics of all
+these schools are quite distinguishable. In the attempt to distinguish
+them, although the diagnosis may be perfectly accurate, the actual facts
+may be otherwise accounted for. Hence the danger to which even the
+experienced connoisseur is liable. For example, certain MSS. are written
+in a fine Bolognese hand, which it is proved were actually executed in
+Flanders; others that one would feel sure were Netherlandish, were
+illuminated in Spain. Some very fine typical Flemish miniatures were
+painted in Italy; certain Florentine miniatures were the work of artists
+residing in Rome. Milanese illumination is quite distinguishable from
+Neapolitan, and Venetian from both, yet the school is not proof of the
+_provenance_.
+
+Illuminators, like other craftsmen, travelled from city to city, and
+princes employed men, who resided in their patrons' palaces, who yet had
+learned their art many leagues away. How often we find the names of
+artists with the words Dallemagna, il Tedesco, le Poitevin, Veronese,
+Franco, Crovata, etc., employed in Italian houses, indicating the place
+of their nativity. So that even when we know every feature of the work
+we have much to learn ere we can say with truth that it was executed in
+such and such a city. We must take into account details which are liable
+to escape the ordinary observer, such as quality of vellum or paper,
+choice of pigments, mode of application, and other particulars quite
+distinct from style of ornament or varieties of form in foliage. In the
+Fitzwilliam Library at Cambridge is an Italian MS., the characteristics
+of whose ornamentation are unequivocally French, but whose mode of
+treatment shows not only that it is Italian but that it is Milanese, but
+whether executed in Milan or not is more than anyone can affirm. In the
+British Museum is a magnificent service-book called the Padua Missal,
+but the probability is that the Paduan artist who painted its splendid
+pages, painted them at Venice. That it was executed for Sta. Justina, at
+Padua, is no proof that the work was done in that city.
+
+In monastic times we have seen why the artist rarely signed his name.
+After the thirteenth century the lay artist had no such scruples, and
+hence we often find particulars of origin and purpose which explain all
+we wish to know. But if the MSS. themselves do not contain the
+particulars, very often the account-books of cathedrals and other
+establishments for which the books were illuminated, give the details of
+price and purpose, and add the names of the artists. The household
+expense books, guild books, municipal records, and the journals of the
+painters themselves are fertile sources of information. And if we seek
+with sufficient diligence these will probably be the means by which it
+may eventually be found.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+FRENCH ILLUMINATION FROM THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY TO THE RENAISSANCE
+
+
+Ivy-leaf and chequered backgrounds--Occasional introduction of plain
+burnished gold--Reign of Charles VI. of France--The Dukes of Orleans,
+Berry, and Burgundy; their prodigality and fine taste for
+MSS.--Christine de Pisan and her works--Description of her "Mutation of
+Fortune" in the Paris Library--The "Roman de la Rose" and "Cit� des
+Dames"--Details of the French style of illumination--Burgundian MSS.,
+Harl. 4431--Roy. 15 E. 6--The Talbot Romances--Gradual approach to
+Flemish on the one hand and Italian on the other.
+
+
+In addition to the expanding ivy leaf which forms the chief feature of
+fourteenth-century book-ornament, we find the miniaturist as a further
+improvement adding delicate colour in the faces. Also that instead of
+the invariable lozenging or diapering of the background he occasionally
+makes a background of plain burnished gold. And as if to prove that his
+predecessors were really hampered with the restrictions imposed by their
+imitations of painted glass, he begins to try his best to paint up his
+miniatures into real pictures with high lights on draperies and shading
+upon the folds. A certain amount of flatness, however, still remains,
+but it scarcely seems to have been the intention or aim of the painter.
+There is a similar flatness in the work of all the early schools of
+painting, which had no reference whatever to the destination of the
+picture. See, for instance, the Origny Treasure Book in the Print Room
+at Berlin (MS. 38), and the Life of St. Denis in the National Library at
+Paris (Nos. 2090-2), both MSS. dating somewhere about 1315. The drapery
+shading in the latter MS. is no longer the work of the pen, but
+brush-work in proper colour. The Westreenen Missal in the Museum at the
+Hague, which dates about 1365, though not a French MS., is an example of
+the fact that by the middle of the century the tradition of penwork
+outline and flat-colouring had become pretty nearly obsolete.
+
+The reign of the afflicted Charles VI. of France, disastrous in the
+extreme to the material welfare of his own subjects, full of untold
+misery to the poor, and of oppression to the growing community of
+artisans and traders, was nevertheless, as regards literature and the
+arts, a period of progress and even splendour. The King's incapacity, by
+affording his uncles and brothers opportunities for fingering the
+revenues during the self-appointed and irresponsible regencies, enabled
+them to gratify their magnificent tastes in the purchasing of costly
+furniture and the ordering of splendid books. Louis of Orleans, usually
+credited with the worst of this prodigality, was by no means singular in
+his conduct. His uncle, the Duke of Berry, while daily earning the
+execrations of the tax-payers by his unscrupulous employment of the
+public money, was constantly enriching his library, and both he and his
+brothers and nephews were in the habit of sending priceless volumes,
+illuminated by the best artists, as wedding and birthday gifts, to each
+other, or their wives or acquaintances. We talk, and justly, of the fine
+taste and noble love of literature of Jean de Berry. His contemporaries,
+at least those beneath his own rank, looked upon him as a tyrant and
+plunderer. His disastrous administration of Languedoc was described as
+"one long f�te where the excess of expenditure was rivalled only by the
+excess of scandal." If the _marmousets_ could have hanged him they
+would. In default they hanged his treasurer.
+
+All this maladministration was very wrong, but we cannot afford to burn
+the MSS. in consequence, for the Bible, the "Grandes Heures," and other
+books once possessed by the wicked Duke, are among the most precious
+relics of any age. Add to them the beautiful volumes of poetry and
+romance composing the contemporary literature of the fourteenth and
+fifteenth centuries, and we have treasures that we dare not relinquish.
+
+By the beginning of the fifteenth century pure French illumination was
+losing its own characteristics and acquiring others. In the North, in
+Flanders and Brabant, Franche-Comt� and the Burgundian Dukedom
+generally, it was becoming that peculiar kind of French which had
+received the name of Burgundian. It can scarcely be said to be Flemish
+enough to rank as Netherlandish, yet neither can it stand side by side
+with "French of Paris."
+
+Let us look at a few examples. There is the Book of Offices in the
+Library of St. Genevi�ve at Paris (Bibl. Lat. 66), also the St.
+Augustine in the same library. Also a small crowd of volumes in the
+Royal Library at Brussels, another in the National Library at Paris. One
+of the richest examples known is the "Psalter of the Convent of Salem,"
+in the University Library at Heidelberg. Other grand MSS. are the two
+volumes of the "Mutacion de Fortune" of Christine de Pisan and the "Cit�
+des Dames" of the same authoress. The volume of her poems, etc., in the
+British Museum, is a marvellously fine work (Harl. 4431). The greater
+part of this volume is in the earlier or "Berry" style, _i.e._ the fine
+pen-sprays of ivy leaf of burnished gold. But the first grand border is
+altogether transitional, consisting of the pen-sprays of golden ivy leaf
+alternating with sprays of natural flowers. This innovation, it has been
+said, was due to the school of van Eyck, but as no proof is forthcoming
+that J. van Eyck ever worked on illuminating we may be content to say
+that it arose about 1413, and that probably it came from Bruges. It is
+the beginning of the Burgundian style. But the ornamental leafage is
+different from ordinary Brugeois, inasmuch as it is "pearled" along the
+central veins, and is not symmetrical. The pearling is perhaps a
+suggestion from glass painting. It was very early adapted in German
+foliage work. On the first fly-leaf are several signatures, including
+the name and device of Louis Gruthuse: "Plus est en vous Gruthuse." The
+miniatures still remain French with mostly panelled backgrounds, some
+with landscape. It is evidently a transitional document.
+
+[Illustration:
+PSALTERM. ET OFFICIA
+14TH CENT.
+_Brit. Mus. Harl. MS. 2897, fol. 184_]
+
+[Illustration:
+HEURES, ETC.
+14TH CENT.
+_Brit. Mus. Harl. MS. 2952, fol. 22_]
+
+The works of Christine de Pisan, the popular--one may fairly say
+fashionable--authoress, were perhaps among the best known and most
+widely read while Caxton was setting up his press at Westminster, as she
+was among the most welcome guests at the Courts of Charles VI. and
+Philip of Burgundy. She was the daughter of a distinguished Venetian
+savant, Thomas de Pisan, who had come at the invitation of Charles le
+Sage to Paris as "Astrologue du Roi." At the age of fifteen Christine,
+who was as beautiful as she was accomplished, became the wife of a
+Picard gentleman named Estienne Castel. Two years afterwards the death
+of the King brought trouble upon her father, and with it sickness and
+despondency. Then followed sorrow upon sorrow. Whilst she was herself
+still burdened with the cares of early motherhood her father died, and
+within nine years from her marriage the sudden death from contagion, of
+her husband, to whom she was most fondly attached, left her a widow with
+two little children dependent upon her, and with only what she herself
+could earn as a means of livelihood. She was not yet twenty-six years
+old. To assuage her misery she betook herself to study and the
+composition of essays and poetry. Her works speedily brought her the
+recognition of distinguished personages; her children were provided for,
+and she herself soon acquired both fortune and reputation. Charles VI.
+allowed her a pension, and she composed for his Queen, Isabella of
+Bavaria, several important treatises. Among her numerous compositions
+were "Les cens Histoires de Troyes" in verse, "Le Chemin de longue
+estude", "La Mutacion de Fortune," and a Life of Charles V., the latter
+composed at the request of Philip the Good of Burgundy. But the work
+which sets off her wit and learning to the best advantage was an
+allegorical essay on Womanhood, which she called "Le Tr�sor de la Cit�
+des Dames." Altogether her works include fifteen books and about sixty
+smaller writings, which she dedicated to the King and Queen of France,
+the Dukes of Burgundy and Orleans, and the princesses and princes of the
+Court.
+
+One beautifully illuminated copy of the Mutation of Fortune in two
+volumes is a curious example of its title, for one volume of it is in
+the National Library at Paris (fonds fr. 603) and the other in the Royal
+Library at Munich. In the former we have her portrait. In a blue gown
+she sits at her writing-desk busy at her work. On her head is the
+muslin-draped and high-peaked "hennin." Beside her a table covered with
+a green cloth and laden with crimson and violet-bound books and an
+inkstand. Her chair has a high back, and the floor is of the usual kind
+seen in illuminations; that is, as if composed of a parquetry of
+coloured woodwork or of tiles of various kinds of marble. On the sill of
+the Gothic-latticed window, through which we catch a glimpse of the blue
+sky, stands a vase of flowers. Not perhaps an ideal lady's boudoir, but
+still an apartment of taste, and an altogether charming little picture.
+In the second miniature of the Munich volume Christine is standing in a
+chamber--in the same costume as above described. The pictures on the
+walls are--a fortress, a watchman, two knights, a prince with crown and
+sceptre, seated on his throne, surrounded by courtiers; a duel; and a
+martyr having his head struck off. Just such medi�val subjects as we may
+expect in a fifteenth-century mansion.
+
+In a copy of the "Cit� des Dames" at Munich is another portrait of
+Christine. The book is an Apology for the feminine sex, and it is well
+thought out. It appears that the conversation of the time was not always
+free from rather severe sarcasm concerning the ladies. We learn from Du
+Verdier that the continuator of the Romance of the Rose narrowly escaped
+most condign chastisement from some of the insulted sex at the French
+Court for the base insinuations in his poem against the character of
+women. Christine herself heartily disapproved of the Romance of the
+Rose, and wrote a sharp criticism upon it. Her "Cit� des Dames" is an
+elaborate confutation of the opinion that women are naturally more
+immoral and less capable of noble studies or high intellectual
+attainments than men. In her introduction she says: "I reflected why men
+are so unanimous in attributing wickedness to women. I examined my own
+life and those of other women to learn why we should be worse than men,
+since we also were created by God. I was sitting ashamed with bowed head
+and eyes blinded with tears, resting my chin on my hands in my
+elbow-chair, when a dazzling beam of Light flashed before me, which came
+not from the sun, for it was late in the evening. I glanced up and saw
+standing before me three female figures wearing crowns of gold, and with
+radiant countenances. I crossed myself, whereupon one of the three
+addressed me. 'Fear not, dear daughter, for we will counsel and help
+thee. The aphorisms of the Philosophers are not Articles of Faith, but
+simply the mists of error and self-deception.'" The three ladies or
+goddesses are Fame, Prudence, and Justice, and they command Christine
+under the supervision of Reason (or Commonsense) to build a city for the
+noblest and best of her own sex. So the city was begun, and the elect,
+allegorically, let into it. In varied ranks following one another came
+goddesses and saintly women, Christian and heathen women--among them
+walks as leader the Queen of the Amazons. "Queen" Ceres, who taught the
+art and practice of agriculture. Queen Isis, who first led mankind to
+the cultivation of plants. Arachne, who invented the arts of dyeing,
+weaving, flax-growing, and spinning. Damphile, who discovered how to
+breed silkworms. Queen Tomyris, who vanquished Cyrus. The noble
+Sulpicia, who shared her husband's exile, and many others, among whom
+may be seen Dame Sarah, the wife of Abraham, Penelope, Ruth, and the
+Saints Katharine, Margaret, Lucia, and Dorothea. In the first miniature
+on the left sits Christine with a coif upon her head and a great book on
+her lap; on her left hand is the plan of her new city, while opposite
+stand the three ladies already spoken of as her advisers, furnished with
+building tools and giving her their advice. On the right she appears
+again in elegant costume with hewn stones and a trowel assisted by two
+workmen who are busily at work. Before her is an unfinished wall and
+several completed towers. In two other miniatures the gradual progress
+and entire completion of the city are shown, and in the foreground of
+each Christine and her three patronesses as before. Other examples
+deserving of extended notice are the Shrewsbury Romances (Roy. 15 E. 6)
+and Augustine, Cit� de Dieu (Roy. 14 D. 1), two great folios, the former
+most interesting for its miniatures--the latter as a fair example of the
+rougher kind of Lille work, bold in design, good drawing. The choice of
+colours includes marone, blue, green, and gold. The ornaments, as usual,
+consist of sprays of ivy leaf and grounds filled in with treillages of
+natural flowers, among which are the daisy, viola tricolor, thistle,
+cornbottle, and wild stock. Fruits and vegetables also, as grapes, field
+peas, and strawberries. The miniatures include a few rather coarse
+grisailles.
+
+A little volume (Harl. 2936) contains exquisitely drawn Brugeois scrolls
+in monochrome on grounds of the same colour or plain gold or black.
+Lastly we may mention "Les Heures de la Dame de Saluces," otherwise
+called the "Yemeniz Hours," in the British Museum (Add. 27967), a large
+octavo, as an example of transitional Burgundian. Here the secondary
+borders have mostly the penwork ivy leaf with Brugeois corners and with
+strawberries, etc., in the midst of the sprays. Among the foliages
+grotesque figures frequently appear. The principal pages, however, are
+more like Harl. 4431, yet without the ivy-leaf tendrils. The miniatures
+are still Gothic, but richer and deeper in colour than ordinary French
+work. It would appear that two different artists were employed--one
+decidedly French, the other Netherlandish, and of a more individual
+character, still with French accessories. Every page has a border of
+some kind. Among the flowers the thistle is peculiar in having a golden
+cup next the down. The work generally resembles, in some parts, 4431
+Harl.; in others, and perhaps more strongly, 15 E. 6. The colours are
+chiefly blue, scarlet, rose-pink, green, and gold.
+
+We have now pretty nearly worked our way into Flemish illumination. The
+after-history of French as developed through the influence of Italy on
+the schools of Paris and Tours must have a chapter to itself.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+ENGLISH ILLUMINATION FROM THE TENTH TO THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY
+
+Organisation of the Monastic _scriptoria_--Professional outsiders: lay
+artists--The whole sometimes the work of the same practitioner--The
+Winchester Abbeys of St. Swithun's and Hyde--Their vicissitudes--St.
+Alban's--Westminster--Royal MS. 2 A. 22--Description of style--The
+Tenison Psalter--Features of this period--The Arundel Psalter--Hunting
+and shooting scenes, and games--Characteristic pictures, grotesques, and
+caricatures--Queen Mary's Psalter--Rapid changes under Richard
+II.--Royal MS. 1 E. 9--Their cause.
+
+
+In a former chapter we left our native schools of illumination at work
+on such MSS. as the Devonshire and Rouen Benedictionals, and with the
+reputation of being the best schools of the kind in Christendom. Mention
+also is made elsewhere in dealing with monastic art of the usages of the
+_scriptoria_. Such usages, of course, could only obtain in houses where
+scribes themselves were to be had. Hence we should discover, were it not
+otherwise known, that writing and illumination, even in the monastic
+age, were not confined absolutely to the cloister.
+
+With respect to the secular scribes, who sometimes worked in the
+monastery, sometimes at their own homes, in those days when the monastic
+orders still did most of the book-production, there were three classes
+of specialists. These were the _Librarii_ or ordinary copyists; the
+_Notarii_ or law-scribes, whose business lay in copying deeds, charters,
+and such-like instruments, and taking notes in the courts; and
+_Paginators_ or _Illuminatores_. It sometimes happened, as we have said,
+that in some monastery or other, no monastic was found qualified to
+undertake any of these duties. It then fell to the prior or abbat to
+seek the assistance of professional outsiders. The paging and
+rubrication, putting in initials in the spaces left by the common
+scribe, and, if needed, the addition of pictures or marginal drawings
+and ornaments, caricatures, heraldic illustrations, etc., were the
+proper work of the illuminator, but it often happened that the same man
+had to do the whole work from the commencement to the finish. The
+Chronicon Trudonense tells us: "Graduale unum propria manu formavit,
+purgavit, pinxit, sulcabit, scripsit, illuminavit, musiceque notavit
+syllabatim." Several of our old English chronicles, of which the MSS.
+exist in the British Museum and elsewhere, seem to be of this
+description.
+
+Reference has been made to the _scriptoria_ at Winchester, _i.e._ at St.
+Swithun's and the New Minster. It is the latter foundation which is
+usually referred to in speaking of Winchester work. The Monastery of the
+Holy Trinity or the New Minster was founded in the first year of his
+reign by King Edward, son of Alfred, no doubt in obedience to his
+father's wish, if not absolutely in the terms of his will. Its first
+charter is dated 900 (for 901) and the second in 903. In the latter
+document the abbey is spoken of as dedicated to the Holy Trinity, the
+Blessed Virgin Mary, and to St. Peter, and is amply endowed under the
+Augustinian Rule. In 965, not without trouble and resistance, it was
+converted into a Benedictine abbey. In 968 Ethelgar, who had been
+trained at Glastonbury and Abingdon, became abbat, and from this time
+the New Minster became famous for both discipline and the production of
+MSS. As we walk along the High Street of Winchester now we find the
+story in moss-grown stones or other memorials how, among other methods,
+William the Norman punished the monks for their English warlike
+proclivities by walling them up nearly close to their church with the
+walls of his royal palace. In the old time, when the two monasteries
+stood side by side--St. Swithun's is close behind the New Minster--"so
+closely packed together," says the old chronicler,[37] "were the two
+communities of St. Swithun and St. Peter that between the foundation of
+their respective buildings there was barely room for a man to pass
+along. The choral service of one monastery conflicted with that of the
+other, so that both were spoiled, and the ringing of their bells
+together produced a horrid discord." The result of this was, first the
+above-mentioned hemming in of the younger establishment and eventually
+its migration to another site in Hyde Meadow. Here while the monastic
+buildings suffered much through fires and other disasters, the Rule
+remained until 1538, when it was surrendered into the King's hands, and
+the abbat, prior, and nineteen monks, the last survivors of this
+once-famous foundation, were pensioned.
+
+[37] Dugdale, _Monasticon_.
+
+The scriptorium at St. Alban's, to which the fame of book production in
+the Middle Ages very largely reverted, was not founded until nearly
+three centuries after the foundation of that abbey. The library began
+with twenty-eight notable volumes, and eight Psalters, a book of
+collects, another of epistles, and _Evangelia legenda per annum_, two
+Gospel-books bound in gold and silver and set with gems, together with
+other necessary volumes for ordinary use. Almost every succeeding abbat
+contributed something to the library shelves. Geoffrey, the sixteenth
+abbat, a Norman who once had a school at Dunstable, and who was both a
+popular and liberal ruler, enriched the library with a Missal bound in
+gold, another incomparably illuminated and beautifully written, and also
+a Psalter richly illuminated, a Benedictional, and others. His
+successor, Ralph Gubiun, also gave a number of MSS. Robert de Gosham,
+the next abbat, gave "very many" books, which he had caused to be
+written and sumptuously bound for the purpose. And Abbat Simon, who
+followed in 1166, created the office of historiographer to the abbey,
+repaired and enlarged the scriptorium, and kept two or three of the
+cleverest writers constantly employed in transcription, and ordained
+that for the future every abbat should maintain at least one suitable
+and capable scribe. Among the many choice MSS. added by Abbat Simon was
+a beautiful copy of the Bible specially written with the greatest care
+and exactness. In addition he presented the library with all his own
+precious collection. Another liberal benefactor was John de Cell, a man
+of vast learning in grammar and poetry, and also a practitioner in
+medicine. Being unfit for household management, he committed the secular
+affairs of the abbey to his prior Reymund, by whose zeal many noble and
+valuable books were transcribed for the library. And so grew in
+magnitude and importance the great collection which supplied Roger of
+Wendover and Matthew Paris with materials for their famous histories.
+St. Alban's, indeed, was at one period perhaps the most noted of all the
+English centres of book production. To dilate on other centres, such as
+Westminster, Exeter, Worcester, Norwich, or York, would lead us too far
+afield for a mere handbook like the present. Enough has been said to
+give a good idea of what our English abbats and priors were in the habit
+of doing for art and letters.
+
+[Illustration:
+PSALTERIUM CUM CANTICIS
+A.D. 1240
+_Brit. Mus. Roy. MS. 2, A. xxii, fol. 14_]
+
+[Illustration:
+EPISTRE AU ROY RICH. 2
+C. 1375
+_Brit. Mus. Roy. MS. 20 B, vi, fol. 1_]
+
+Since 980 a considerable quantity of transcription and illumination must
+have been produced, notwithstanding disquiet, turbulence, and war. At
+Westminster the traditions of illumination seem to have followed the
+methods of the earlier Winchester school. But in the twelfth century
+English work shows, on the whole, a greater likeness to the contemporary
+work of Germany. Of Westminster work an example occurs among the Royal
+MSS. (2 A. 22). The subject is the Psalter, and the text is the handsome
+style of penmanship known as English Gothic of the latter part of the
+twelfth century. It would appear from the frequent occurrence of this
+particular service-book that it held the place of the later Book of
+Hours, and so we may expect a great similarity among different copies,
+both in the selection of the illustrations and their mode of treatment.
+It was usual in all such volumes to prefix to the text a series of
+subjects from the Old and New Testaments and the Lives of the Saints.
+Here we have them from the Life of the Virgin and from the Life of
+David, by no means unworthy samples of the school. One represents the
+Virgin and Child seated on a seat of the Germano-Byzantine type beneath
+an arch and within a square frame-border. The border seems first to have
+been flatly painted in two colours, pale blue and pale red ochre, and on
+this a foliage scroll of recurring forms in a bold dull red outline
+finely relieved with white. This is more or less repeated as the form of
+border to the other illuminations. Outside the whole is a characteristic
+slender frame of bright green in two tints. The arch overhead has two
+bands of vermilion, with white edge-reliefs and a central band of blue,
+again in two tints, with pairs of black cross-bars every half-inch or so
+resting on the capitals of the two pillars which form the sides of the
+scene. These pillars have each a green abacus at the top of each capital
+and scarlet bead below. Each pillar is of dappled red, marble-like
+porphyry, with plinths of scarlet and blue. Tiers of differently
+coloured steps separated by bands of scarlet, green, etc., form the
+seat. The Virgin wears the hood, cape, and robe of the Benedictine nun,
+but coloured grey, chocolate, and blue respectively. An under garment of
+pale amber completes her dress. The infant wears an amber tunic, wrapped
+in a scarlet robe. A very common embroidery of the drapery consists of
+little stars or triads of white studs. This also is a characteristic of
+German and early Netherlandish illumination. There is a rich gold
+brocade border to the blue robe of the Virgin. Both mother and child
+have round nimbuses, the former in plain circular bands of russet and
+orange, the latter consisting of bands of pale blue surmounted by a
+scarlet cross. Two lumps of green glass or metal hang from the arch. The
+background is a plate of gold. The flesh tones are livid, being of a
+pale greenish ochre tint. One other of the illuminations of this
+exceedingly interesting MS. may be mentioned, viz. the David playing his
+harp. He also wears three garments--a tunic of white shaded with pale
+blue, then another of lavender or lilac and having rich brocaded
+borders, and, lastly, a pallium or robe of pale chocolate lined with
+ermine; orange-coloured hose. The throne, like the previous one, is of
+several colours--slate-blue, green, orange, and white, with a buff
+cushion. Here is a back to the throne of a deep blue, with a background,
+as before, of bright flat gold. The white moulding is shaded with pale
+green, with bluish slate corners. The outer border is of the pale red
+ochre or pink, so common in later work in contrast with deep blue. An
+outer frame or edging of green completes the page. The harp is not
+gilded, but of a drab hue, with two quatrefoil studs or orifices in the
+frame, relieved as usual with fine edges of white. Compare this MS. with
+one in the Library at Lambeth.
+
+The English illumination of the thirteenth century is so like that of
+France that it is often difficult to determine its real nationality.
+There is occasionally some feature which we know from other sources to
+be English, or some circumstance in the history of the MS. which fixes
+its origin, as, for example, in the Additional MS. 24686, known as the
+Tenison Psalter. Sir E.M. Thompson also describes this MS. in the
+_Bibliographica_, i. 397. But it was previously described at some length
+by Sir Edward Bond in the Fine Arts _Quarterly Review_. The Psalter,
+which has had a somewhat eventful history, is one of the best examples
+of English thirteenth-century illumination. At least, this may be said
+of the early portion of it, for while it is illuminated throughout, only
+the first gathering is in the earlier manner. The peculiar value to the
+student lies in the fact that although quite in the same style as
+contemporary French work, it is the work of an English illuminator. The
+colouring, however, is not confined, as in somewhat earlier examples, to
+blue and dull pale rose or paled red ochre and gold. It gives us
+scarlet, crimson-lake, green, and brown, besides the blue and pink and
+bright gold which suggests some German influences. The line fillings are
+somewhat peculiar as having silver tracery, on the blue, side by side
+with golden tracery on the crimson. The full ivy leaf appears in the
+long branch work of the borders, and some of the initials still retain
+the bird or dragon forms in their construction. The compound bar-frame,
+gold and traceried colour side by side, is however already taking the
+place of the mere sweeping tail or branch. But perhaps the best
+indication of English design is the presence of a number of grotesque
+animals, with birds and occasional humorous scenes disposed, not in
+framed miniatures, but simply among the stems and coils of the foliage.
+This is a form of illustration much appreciated by English illuminators
+at all times, though it appears also in much continental work. Among
+other English MSS. which display this taste we may point out Arund. 83,
+which among many other treatises and curious compositions, such as the
+"Turris Sapienti�" and a valuable calendar, in which are notes on the
+Arundels of Wemme, contains a psalter with anthems, etc., and hence is
+known as the Arundel Psalter. Its date is probably between 1330 and
+1380.
+
+The drolleries are very funny, and the other illuminations very
+instructive and curious. Some of them contain really good
+pen-drawing--refined, expressive, and graceful, but above all typical of
+English draughtsmanship. In a little scene of the adoration of the Magi
+(folio 125) the kings are costumed like our Henry III., as we find him
+'n sculpture, wall paintings, etc. Over a very expressive picture of the
+three living and the three dead occur the lines, each over a figure:
+"Ich am afert Lo wet ich se Methinketh hit beth deueles thre. Ich wes
+welfair Such scheltou be For godes loue be wer by me" (folio 128).[38]
+The three living in this illumination are three fashionable ladies--no
+doubt princesses, for they wear crowns. Generally they are men, as at
+Lutterworth in the sculptures over the door, and in the famous fresco of
+Gozzoli at Pisa. The subject occurs sometimes in Books of Hours.
+
+[38] "I am afraid. Lo, what I see Methinketh it be devils three. I was
+well fair. Such shalt thou be. For love of God beware by me."
+
+Many MSS. of this period and later have hunting scenes, shooting
+practice, and games.
+
+In MS. 264, Misc., Bodl. Lib., Oxford, there are such scenes, one being
+a game at "Blind Man's Buff," or as literally here "Hoodman Blind," for
+the latter actually wear a hood drawn down over his head and shoulders,
+and three girls are having a fine game with him. The goldfinch or linnet
+looking on from the border seems to enjoy the fun. Another fine source
+of similar things is the Louterell Psalter in the British Museum. In
+this also are some richly diapered backgrounds and exquisite border
+bands. This MS. dates about 1340. But the gem of English
+fourteenth-century illumination is the Royal MS. (2 C. 7) called Queen
+Mary's Psalter, not as being painted for her, since it had been painted
+nearly two centuries before she ever saw it. But in the year (?) 1553,
+being about to be sent abroad, it was stopped by a customs officer and
+presented to Queen Mary Tudor. It is bound in what appears to be the
+binding put on it by the Queen--_i.e._ crimson velvet embroidered on
+each cover with a large pomegranate, and having gilt corner protections
+and (once upon a time) golden clasps. The clasps are gone, but the
+plates remain riveted on the covers, engraven with the Tudor badges. The
+MS. contains 320 large octavo leaves, the first fifty-six being taken up
+with illuminated illustrations of biblical history from the Creation to
+the death of Solomon. These pictures are arranged in pairs one over the
+other, and to each one is given a description in French, taken sometimes
+from the canonical text, sometimes from an apocryphal one. The drawings
+are really exquisite, they are so fine, so delicately yet so cleverly
+sketched. They are not coloured in full body-colours, but just
+suggestively, the draperies being washed over in thin tints, the folds
+well defined, but lightly shaded. Next after these subjects follows the
+Psalter with miniatures of New Testament scenes and figures of saints
+accompanied with most beautiful initials and ornaments, illuminated by a
+thoroughly practised hand, for the artist of this volume was by no means
+a novice at his work. A good example of it is given in _Bibliographica_,
+pl. 7 [23], which forms the frontispiece to vol. i., and one or two
+outlines in the folio catalogue of the Arundel MSS.
+
+Arund. MS. 84 is also a good example of thirteenth-century illumination
+to a rather unpromising subject, being a Latin translation of Euclid
+from the Arabic by Athelard of Bath. It is illustrated with diagrams.
+
+Speaking of fourteenth-century illumination brings us to notice a very
+striking change which takes place in the reign of Richard II. in the
+character of English illumination. In the British Museum (Roy. 20 B. 6)
+is a MS. entitled an Epistle to Richard II., written, it is said, in
+Paris, in which the illuminations and foliages are purely French, but
+which are the type of all the English work of the same date. Take, for
+example, the MS. already spoken of (Roy. 2 A. 22), produced in the
+scriptorium at Westminster Abbey. Compare with it a Bible written for
+the use of Salisbury, and dated 1254. Then add the Tenison Psalter, the
+Arundel Psalter, illuminated 1310-20. If these MSS. be compared,
+however, with Lansd. 451, or Roy. 1 E. 9, the least accustomed eye must
+notice the entire and almost startling change in the luxuriance and
+character of the flowers and foliages which constitute the initial and
+border decorations. It is not merely a development. There are additional
+features, but that these features are added, as usual, from France, is
+contradicted by reference to Roy. 20 B. 6, mentioned above. The new
+features are not French. The question is, where did they come from?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+THE SOURCES OF ENGLISH FIFTEENTH-CENTURY ILLUMINATION
+
+Attributed to the Netherlands--Not altogether French--The home of Anne
+of Bohemia, Richard II.'s queen--Court of Charles IV. at Prag--Bohemian
+Art--John of Luxembourg, King of Bohemia--The Golden Bull of Charles
+IV.--Marriage of Richard II.--The transformation of English work owing
+to this marriage and the arrival of Bohemian artists in
+England--Influence of Queen Anne on English Art and
+Literature--Depression caused by her death--Examination of Roy. MS. 1 E.
+9, and 2 A. 18--The Grandison Hours--Other MSS.--Introduction of Flemish
+work by Edward IV.
+
+
+It has been suggested by a high authority that the immediate sources of
+the third period of English illumination were Netherlandish, but
+probable as this seems at first sight, there is another explanation
+which seems to the present writer to be a better one. As already pointed
+out, the influence on English work before 1377, notwithstanding
+political conditions, are distinctly French. After this date, though the
+artistic relation with France is not broken off, yet long before 1390 we
+find this new influence which is not French, and for which we have no
+special evidence that it is Netherlandish. If we go, however, a little
+farther afield, we shall find it. In the new work is a softer kind of
+foliage and a greater variety of sweet colour, and both these
+characteristics are found in a school of illumination that was being
+formed under the auspices of the Emperor Charles IV. at Prag in Bohemia.
+The artists in that capital who executed the famous Golden Bull and
+commenced the grand Wenzel Bible were a select band of Frenchmen and
+Italians; the combined result of whose designs and labours was this very
+mixture of Gothic ivy leaf and thorn with the softer Othonian and Roman
+foliages and a new scheme of colour. Charles IV., son of that famous
+John of Luxembourg, the blind king of Bohemia, who perished at Cr�cy,
+was himself King of Bohemia as well as Emperor, and a man of brilliant
+personal accomplishments and cultivated tastes in literature and art.
+
+Becoming Emperor the very next year after his succession to the throne
+of Bohemia, he fixed his residence at Prag, where he began the building
+of the new city, and founded a university on the model of that of Paris,
+where he had studied, and whence he had married his first wife, Blanche,
+daughter of Charles, Count of Valois. His university soon attracted some
+thousands of students, and with them no small crowd of literary men and
+artists, both from France and Italy. The great fact, however, to
+remember about Charles IV. is the Golden Bull, the masterly scheme by
+which all matters concerning the election to the Empire were in future
+to be settled. All the Constitutions were written in a book called, from
+the _bulla_ or seal of gold which was appended to it, the Golden Bull,
+of which the text was drawn up either at Metz or Nuremberg in 1356, and
+many copies distributed throughout the Empire. It is further affirmed
+that the absolute original is at Frankfort. But the splendid copy made
+by order of the Emperor Wenzel in 1400 is still preserved in the
+Imperial Library at Vienna. And as it is ah example of the style of
+illumination practised in Prag during the reign of Charles IV., we may
+call it Bohemian. It is true that the foliages are a little more
+luxuriant in this Wenzel-book than in the earliest examples of the style
+seen in England, but the twenty years which had elapsed would easily
+account for this difference. As compared, however, with either French or
+Netherlandish, the new English style shows a much greater similarity to
+the work then being done in Lower Bavaria. In these soft curling
+foliages and the fresh carnations of the flesh-tints of the Prag and
+Nuremberg illuminators we may trace the actual source of the remarkable
+transformation seen in English illumination after the marriage of
+Richard II.
+
+Charles IV. was four times married. His successor, Wenzel, whose ghastly
+dissipations can only be regarded as the terrible proofs of insanity,
+was the child of his third wife. His fourth wife, the beautiful daughter
+of the Duke of Pomerania and Stettin, had four children, of whom
+Sigismund, the eldest, afterwards succeeded Wenzel as emperor, and Anne,
+the third, came to England as the wife of Richard II. The magnificence
+of her equipage and the crowd of persons who formed her retinue are
+noticed by contemporary writers, and the effect upon English manners was
+instantaneous. Her beauty, sweetness of manners, and culture rendered
+her at once not merely the idol of her husband, who, says Walsingham,
+"could scarcely bear her to be out of his sight," but universally
+beloved by all the English nation.
+
+To her the first English writer on heraldry, John of Guildford dedicated
+his book, and the artists who came with her from her luxurious home at
+Prag would naturally become the leaders of taste in their adopted
+country. After a while, indeed, the numbers of countrymen of the Queen
+were looked upon as the cause of extortions practised on the English
+people in order to supply the money lavished on these foreigners. More
+than once is this grievance referred to. In an old MS. in the Harley
+Library (2261), containing a fifteenth-century translation of Higden's
+Polychronicon, these foreigners are made responsible for at least one
+fashionable extravagance: "Anne qwene of Ynglonde dyede in this year
+(1393) at Schene the viith day of the monethe of Janius, on the day of
+Pentecoste: the dethe of whom the Kynge sorowede insomoche that he
+causede the maner there to be pullede downe, and wolde not comme in eny
+place by oon yere folowynge where sche hade be, the churche excepte;
+whiche was beryede in the churche of Westmonastery, in the feste of
+seynte Anne nexte folowynge, with grete honoure and solennite. That
+qwene Anne purchased of the pope that the feste of Seynte Anne scholde
+be solenniysed in Ynglonde. The dethe of this qwene Anne induced grete
+hevynesse to noble men and to commune peple also, for sche causede noo
+lytelle profite to the realme. But mony abusions comme from Boemia into
+Englonde with this qwene, and specially schoone with longe pykes,
+insomoche that they cowthe not go untylle that thei were tyede to theire
+legges, usenge that tyme cheynes of silvyr at the pykes of theire
+schoone."
+
+It is a fact that the Bohemian manner of illumination, with its
+three-lobed and vari-coloured foliages, became the fashion in every
+English centre of illumination. In the preceding remarks we have
+endeavoured to account for it. That the same style went from Prag to
+Nuremberg may be only the natural _result_ of its being carried in the
+marriage and retinue of the Princess Margaret, Anne's half-sister, who
+became the wife of the Burggrave John.
+
+Quite a similar MS. to those executed in the reign of Richard II. in
+England and those of Bohemia is the Wilhelm van Oransse of Wolfram v.
+Eschenbach, now in the Imperial Library at Vienna. A similar, but
+inferior, work exists in the Prayer-book written by Josse de Weronar in
+the British Museum (Add. 15690). The English foliages never show quite
+all the varieties of colour seen in the continental examples, but the
+golden diapers and pounced gold patterns are quite as elaborate. See
+this work, however, in Arundel 83. It appears also in the mural
+paintings of the end of the fourteenth and beginning of the fifteenth
+centuries. No doubt the English art of the fourteenth century is of
+French origin--so mainly is that of Bohemia--for Charles IV. was brought
+up at the Court of France. Further than this, we think we are justified
+in tracing the new elements in Bohemian to Italy, and those in English
+to Bohemia. The most striking proof is not only the foliages, but the
+change from the long, colourless faces of French miniatures to the plump
+and ruddy countenances seen, for example, in the Lancastrian MSS. in the
+Record Office and in Harl. 7026[39] of the British Museum. Of course,
+this suggestion of source is not put forward as a dead certainty, but it
+affords this probability that as the style suddenly arose during the
+lifetime of Anne of Bohemia--and she was the acknowledged leader of
+fashion--so her tastes in respect of illuminated books and heraldic
+decoration would become those of her new subjects. Let us examine this
+fifteenth-century English work, and for this purpose let us take the
+great illuminated Bible in the Royal Library, 1 E. 9. It is an enormous
+folio, and rather unwieldly, but a most interesting example of the new
+style. Its initials are large, richly illuminated in gold and attractive
+colours. It has well-executed histories within the initials, and boldly
+designed border frames, elegantly adorned with foliages and conventional
+or idealised flowers. Perhaps the most noticeable feature is the
+beautiful, decorative foliage work in the limbs of the letters--itself a
+South German peculiarity--then the alternation of colours without
+interrupting the design, the profusion of foliage modelling in the
+backgrounds of the letter panels outside the historiations. The next
+thing is the bold use of minium side by side even with pure rose-petal
+colour, pale bright cerulean blue, and bright gold. Lastly, the immense
+variety of leaf-forms, based on the three, five, and seven-lobed
+groupings of the typical form. The coil and spiral are freely used as
+the groundwork, and the colours alternated as the coils or spirals
+change from front to back of the leaf.
+
+[39] The Lovell Psalter.
+
+[Illustration:
+MISSALE (SARUM USE)
+14TH CENT. (LATE)
+_Brit. Mus. Harl. MS. 2785, fol. 194 v._]
+
+[Illustration:
+HOR� E. MAR. VIESIS.
+15TH CENT. (EARLY)
+_Brit. Mus. Roy. Ms. 2, A. xviii, fol. 55_]
+
+Backgrounds of miniature histories are treated as in the Bohemian
+MSS.--Wilhelm v. Oransse, for example--that is, with fine golden
+tracery-patterns on deep, rich colours. The figure-painting is vastly
+improved--the features now being actually painted and modelled as in
+modern portrait painting, not merely indicated by pen strokes. The
+flesh-tints as previously noticed are bright and ruddy. The principal
+colours used on the foliages are blue, crimson, of various depths, and
+bright vermilion, with occasional admission of bright green and paled
+red ochre. Very similar to 1 E. 9 is Harl. 1892, and among other MSS.
+that may be studied with this one is 2 A. 18--a book of Offices, very
+sweetly illuminated, and full of typical examples of treatment both of
+architectural design and treillages of foliage.
+
+The Gothic pilasters are filled with the same kind of coiling and spiral
+leaves and ribbons that are used in 1 E. 9 and Harl. 1892, the
+backgrounds of the miniatures enriched with fine gold patterns. The
+furniture and costumes indicate the later years of the reign of Richard
+II., being similar to those shown in the miniatures of Harl. 1319, which
+relates the story of Richard's misfortunes. A few miniatures of saints
+accompany the prayers to them. One of the saints is peculiar, being the
+Prior of Bridlington, perhaps the "Robertus scriba" who copied certain
+theological treatises for the library, and who lived in the time of
+Stephen or Henry II.
+
+In the beautiful initial D is the figure of a lady praying, the first
+few words of the prayer being written on a floating ribbon above her
+head. A fine panelling of black and gold forms the background. The
+lady's costume is that of the end of the fourteenth century, her
+head-dress being somewhat lower than that worn in the time of Isabella
+of Bavaria; in other respects she recalls the figure of Christine de
+Pisan in Harl. 4431--one of the fine MSS. of the French school. As the
+psalter or offices was once the property of the Grandison family, as is
+shown by the numerous entries respecting them in the calendar, no doubt
+this lady was the first owner of the MS., and probably the same as shown
+in the beautiful miniature of the Annunciation previously given. Many
+charming initials follow this one, and brightly coloured bracket
+treillages and borders are given in profusion, introducing every variety
+of coloured ideal leaf-form known to the art of the time. It seems
+probable from its style and the costumes that the MS. was executed for
+the Lady Margaret, widow of Thomas, the last Lord Grandison, who died in
+1376, and given to her by Sir John Tuddenham, her second husband. A
+better model for the modern illuminator could not easily be found. Other
+examples may be briefly enumerated, in 2 B. 8, 2 B. 10, 2 B. 1, 2 B. 12
+and 13, 18 A. 12, 18 C. 26, Harl. 1719, 1892, etc. The Psalter 2 B. 8
+has the good fortune to be dated, and its purpose and other particulars
+clearly set forth in a statement at the beginning of the volume. The
+gist of this is that it was composed at the instance of the Lady Joan
+Princess of Wales, mother of Richard II., and that it was executed by
+Brother John Somour (Seymour), a Franciscan, in 1380. Thus the
+illumination of it would probably be done about the time, of the young
+Queen's arrival in England. The Princess Joan died July 8th, 1385. The
+work corresponds with this date. The Grandison Psalter is perhaps
+somewhat later than Roy. 2 B. 1, and the rest are later still.
+
+[Illustration:
+VEGETIUS FOUR BOOKS OF KNIGHTHOOD
+(DE RE MILITARI)
+15TH CENT.
+_Brit. Mus. Roy. MS. 18 A. xii, f. 1_]
+
+[Illustration:
+PSALTERIUM
+C. 1470
+_Brit. Mus. Harl. MS. 1719, fol. 73 v._]
+
+One rather fine example is seen in Arund. MS. 109, a folio called the
+Melreth Missal, because given by William Melreth, Alderman of London, to
+the church of St. Lawrence, Old Jewry. He died in 1446.
+
+For topographical miniature a good example occurs in Roy. 16 F. 2, which
+contains a grand view of London, including the Tower, but this MS. is
+probably not of genuine English production. Nor is Roy. 19 C. 8, though
+a very interesting example as regards costume and local usages. The
+genuine English work of which Arund. 109 is a type has received the name
+of Lancastrian, as falling to the reigns of the three Lancastrian
+kings--Henry IV., V., and VI.
+
+In the reign of Edward IV. we meet with the introduction of Flemish
+illumination, which gradually supersedes the native style, and by the
+time of Henry VII. the latter has almost disappeared. Its final
+extinction, however, was left for the sixteenth century, when either
+Flemish or Italian renaissance work entirely took its place. By the time
+of Queen Elizabeth English illumination was a thing of the past.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+ITALIAN ILLUMINATION
+
+Barbaric character of Italian illumination in the twelfth
+century--Ravenna and Pavia the earliest centres of revival--The
+"Exultet"--La Cava and Monte Cassino--The writers of early Italian MSS.
+not Italians--In the early fourteenth century the art is
+French--Peculiarities of Italian foliages--The Law Books--Poems of
+Convenevole da Prato, the tutor of Petrarch--Celebrated patrons--The
+Laon Boethius--The Decretals, Institutes, etc.--"Decretum Gratiani,"
+other collections and MSS.--Statuts du Saint-Esprit--Method of
+painting--Don Silvestro--The Rationale of Durandus--Nicolas of Bologna,
+etc.--Triumphs of Petrarch--Books at San Marco, Florence--The Brera
+Graduals at Milan--Other Italian collections--Examples of different
+localities in the British Museum--Places where the best work was
+done--Fine Neapolitan MSS. in the British Museum--The white-vine style
+superseded by the classical renaissance.
+
+
+Considering the position occupied by the Roman Empire as the civiliser
+of Europe, it is not a little curious and somewhat surprising to find
+that in the twelfth century, when German and French artists were doing
+such good and even admirable work, that of Italy was almost barbaric. A
+MS. in the Vatican (4922) is shown as a proof of this. It is not an
+obscure sort of book that might have been written by a merely devout but
+untrained monk for his own use, but a work of importance executed for no
+less a personage than the celebrated Countess Matilda. The scribe was
+Donizo, a monk of the Benedictine Abbey of Canossa. It is of the early
+or pr�-Carolingian type, rather inclined to Byzantine, but with the big
+hands and aimless expression of all semi-barbaric work. Yet it has a
+certain delicacy and carefulness. In Rome itself during the ninth
+century barbarism was at its very lowest point. Only the sea-port towns
+had any notion of what was being done in other places. Painting was
+practised, it is true, so was mosaic, but the worst of Oriental carpets
+would be a masterpiece of elegance beside anything done in Italy.
+Whatever gleams of artistic intelligence appear, they certainly emanated
+from Ravenna or Pavia. But as there were no wealthy and peaceful courts,
+no indolent, high-bred, luxurious courtiers during that dark and
+troublous period, miniature or illumination had no call for existence.
+In the twelfth century book-illustration consisted simply of
+pen-sketching of the most elementary kind. The Lombards alone produced
+anything like illumination. A sort of roll containing pictures of the
+various scenes of the Old and New Testaments which represented the
+leading doctrines of the Church, and which used to hang over the pulpit
+as the preacher discoursed upon them, is the only representative of the
+time. Such a roll was called an "Exultet" from its first word, which is
+the beginning of the line "Exultet jam Angelica turba c�lorum" of the
+hymn for the benediction of the paschal wax tapers on Easter Eve.
+Several of these "Exultets" are still kept in the Cathedral at Pisa, and
+in the Barberini and Minerva Libraries in Rome.[40] Of course the
+pictures are upside down to the reader, so as to be right for the
+congregation.
+
+[40] See one in British Mus., Add. MS. 30337, and description of it in
+_Journ. of the Arch�ol. Assoc._ vol. 34, p. 321.
+
+Very little progress was made, as we may imagine, until after the great
+revival movement begun by Cimabue, Giotto, and their contemporaries,
+about the middle of the thirteenth century. But before taking up any
+inquiry into Italian work generally we must not omit reference to the
+remarkable MSS. produced at La Cava and Monte Cassino during the
+Franco-Lombard period. Some idea has already been furnished in dealing
+with Celtic MSS. and the foundations begun by Columbanus and his
+scholars. Indeed, the general character of these Lombard MSS. is seen in
+the Franco-Celtic. The distinguishing feature, if there be one, is the
+frequent recurrence among the interlacements of the _white dog_. The La
+Cava Library, which was one of the finest in Italy, has been transferred
+to Naples. Monte Cassino still continues and maintains not only a
+library but a printing press, from which the learned fathers have issued
+at least one great work on the subject of Cassinese pal�ography. Of all
+the pr�-Carolingian hands, Lombardic or Lombardesque was certainly the
+most peculiar, and is perhaps the most difficult to read. One evidence
+of this is the diversity of opinion on the true reading of certain
+proper names in the original MS. containing the oldest text of Tacitus
+which happens to be a Lombard MS. The characters and other examples of
+the eleventh to the thirteenth century that have been published at Monte
+Cassino, however, fully illustrate the peculiarities of the handwriting,
+and give besides several splendid examples of calligraphy.[41]
+
+[41] The La Cava MSS. have been described by P. Gillaume in an essay
+published at Naples, 1877, and those of Monte Cassino by A. Caravita,
+Monte Cassino, 1860-71.
+
+One of the earliest illuminated Italian MS. which bears a date is a
+Volume of Letters of St. Bernard, now in the Library of Laon. It is very
+seldom that the earlier scribes and illuminators who produced Italian
+MSS. or worked in Italy were Italians. They were usually foreigners and
+mostly Frenchmen, and the art was looked upon at the beginning of the
+fourteenth century as a French art. This very decided example of Italian
+work is already different from the French work of the same period. The
+profile foliages have already acquired that peculiar trick of sudden
+change and reversion of curve, showing the other side of a leaf with
+change of colour, which is a marked characteristic of all
+fourteenth-century Italian illumination. For examples of it, the
+Bolognese Law Books, Decretals, and such-like, afford frequent
+illustration. Before leaving this first-quoted MS., we may say that it
+points to France rather than to Germany or Lombardy for its general form
+of design, but the foliages are quite of another kind. Another Laon MS.
+(352) shows the same treatment of foliage, but in effect more like what
+may be considered as the typical Italian style seen in the famous
+Avignon Bible of the anti-pope, Clement VII. (Robert of Geneva), which
+dates between 1378 and 1394.[42]
+
+[42] See Humphreys, _Illum. Books of the Middle Ages_, pl. 16; and
+Silvestre, _Pal�ographie Universelle_, pl. 117.
+
+A further example still more powerful in expression and skilful in
+manipulation is seen in a copy of the Poems of Convenevole da Prato, in
+the British Museum (Roy. 6 E. 9), executed for King Robert of Naples, a
+patron of Giotto (1276-1337), which, in comparison with the Laon Letters
+of St. Bernard of about the same date, is even still more Italian.
+
+Cardinal Stefaneschi, another of Giotto's patrons, was also a promoter
+of illumination. His Missal, now at Rome in the archives of the Canons
+of St. Peter's, is a fine example of this style. It dates from 1327 to
+1343. The MS. of Boethius at Laon is another. But one of the most
+masterly, whether as to design or manipulation, is a law book in the
+Library at Laon (No. 382). This grand folio contains "Glossa Ioannis
+Andre� in Clementinas"--"The Gloss or Explanation of Joannes Andreas on
+the Clementines."
+
+By the way, as illuminated law books, civil and canonical, form so large
+a section of Italian MSS., it may be well in this place to warn the
+reader against random explanations sometimes offered in sale catalogues
+concerning these books, their authors and commentators. For instance,
+this commentator Joannes Andreas was not, as we have seen it confidently
+stated (as if it were part of the actual contemporary title of the MS.),
+Bishop of Aleria (Episcopus Aleriersis), but a jurist of Bologna. The
+bishop lived a century or so after the jurist, who had completed his
+long career as professor of law at Bologna extending over forty-five
+years before the bishop was born. His chief works are Commentaries on
+the Clementines (printed in folio at Mayence 1471, and again at Dijon in
+1575), and Commentaries on Five Books of the Decretals (printed in folio
+at Mayence in 1455, and at Venice in 1581). While on this topic of
+Italian law MSS., it may be useful to state clearly what they are. By
+way of contrast to the _Corpus Juris Canonici_, or Body of Canon Law,
+the subject of books dealing with the so-called Decretals, the other
+branch, including the Institutes Digest and Novell� of Justinian, was
+entitled _Corpus Juris Civilis_.
+
+The Decretals, then, which we so often meet with in public libraries
+under various names, are the canons which mainly constitute the Canon
+Law. Strictly speaking they are the papal epistolary decrees (decreta),
+said to have existed from very early times. In the ninth century a
+collection of them was formed, or manufactured, in the name of the
+celebrated Isidore of Seville. But with the donation of Constantine to
+Pope Sylvester and many others in the later compilation of Gratian,
+these are usually looked upon as spurious and false. The great and
+authorised collection was completed by a simple Benedictine monk of St.
+Felix, in Bologna, a native of Chiusi, the ancient Clusium, in Tuscany,
+a man so learned in the law as to have earned the title of "Magister."
+This is the work often richly illuminated which goes by the name of the
+"Decretum Gratiani."[43] When glancing over the lovely initials and
+beautiful foliages or resplendent ornaments, we are apt to overlook the
+work itself which is truly monumental; being a summary of the papal
+epistolary decrees, the synodal canons of 150 councils, selections from
+various regal codes, extracts from the Fathers, and comments of
+Schoolmen; all methodically arranged and digested so as to facilitate
+its use as a manual for the schools. It is said to have occupied the
+compiler incessantly for twenty-five years. Immediately on its
+completion in 1151 it was at once authorised by the Pope Eugenius III.
+as the only text-book to be used in the public schools, and to govern
+the decrees of the Ecclesiastical Courts. Hence its celebrity. Its
+transcripts are very numerous, and it has been often printed. As to the
+Sext and Clementines they are merely additional commentaries on
+supplementary collections of decrees. Thus a new collection authorised
+by Boniface VIII. is called the _sext_, _i.e._ the sixth book of the
+Decretals. The Clementines were the constitutions of Clement V. Other
+collections such as that of John XXII. are called Extravagantes.
+
+[43] See Add. 15274, British Museum.
+
+The most ancient MSS. of the Decretals bear the title of _Concordantia
+discordantium Canonum_ (a "concordance of discordant decrees");
+afterwards The Book of Decrees; lastly, The Decretals. It was
+considered, however, by some, jurists and others, to be not so much a
+concordance of discordant canons as a subjugation of the ancient canons
+to the decrees of the Papacy, and as already stated, many of its decrees
+were found to be false and fictitious. Nevertheless, it is by no means
+an uncommon volume among the illuminators. Let us now return to the Laon
+example--one of four or five of the species in that collection. The
+scene where the author is presenting his work to the pope--we now know
+them both--is quite a painting. Except for the defect that kneeling
+figures are somewhat mis-shapen or ill-proportioned in the lower limbs,
+the work is quite comparable with contemporary mural painting, both for
+composition and colour. It is almost modern. It is quite realistic. In
+costume, expression, easy and appropriate attitude, it has quite outrun
+French illumination altogether.
+
+Another dated MS. (1332) in the same Library (No. 357), "Rubrics of the
+Decretals," is a most amusing example of the universal taste for irony
+and satire in the initial figures and corner effigies.
+
+A much-lauded MS. among these fourteenth-century examples is one that
+has been carefully and expensively reproduced by the late Cte. Horace de
+Viel-Castel, namely, the "Statuts de l'Ordre du Saint-Esprit au Droit
+D�sir ou du Noeud," an order instituted at Naples in 1352 by Louis I.
+d'Anjou (called Louis of Taranto), King of Jerusalem, Naples, and
+Sicily, cousin and husband of Queen Joanna of Naples. The style of the
+illumination is precisely the same as those just mentioned belonging to
+Laon, and as several MSS. in the British Museum. Its stem and foliage
+ornament is very brightly coloured in fine green, scarlet, rose,
+ultramarine, and gold. The miniatures which occasionally contain evident
+attempts at portraiture, are painted in the manner of the school of
+Cimabue and the earlier Italian painters, more particularly that of
+Simone Memmi. It is substantially the Byzantine manner, but improved and
+enlivened by attention to natural attitude and expression. The greenish
+under-painting of the flesh-tints is often noticeable. The decorative
+portions are very skilful and elaborate, as well as extremely neat and
+symmetrical; the gold profuse and brilliant. Indeed, the whole
+production may be studied as a typical example of its time. The text,
+though good, is not so beautiful as the Bolognese hand usually found in
+Italian MSS. of the following century. But perhaps this should add to
+its value as a proof of its being absolutely contemporaneous with the
+foundation of the Order, and therefore of its being the identical MS.
+ordered by the magnificent founder, Louis of Taranto, second husband of
+the too-celebrated Joanna of Naples. Their marriage took place in the
+August of 1346, and on the 27th of May, 1352, being Whitsun Day, they
+were crowned. In memory of this happy event, Joanna founded the Church
+of the Virgin, Louis instituted the Order of the Holy Spirit, or of the
+Knot, the symbols of which appear frequently in the illumination of the
+MS. It was named in honour of the Day of Pentecost--"L'Ordre de la
+Chevalerie du Saint-Esprit." The phrase "au droit d�sir" had reference
+to the circumstances preceding the marriage. The knot was worn in token
+of the "perfect amity" of the members of the Order.[44]
+
+[44] See reproduction, published at Paris by Englemann and Graf in 1853,
+1. fol.
+
+Other works of the fourteenth century are enthusiastically praised by
+Italian writers, as, _e.g._, those of Don Silvestro, a Camaldolese monk,
+who flourished at the same time as the illuminator of this MS. of Louis
+of Taranto, and who worked on the great choir books of the Monastery
+"degli angeli," in Florence, so loudly commended by Vasari and others
+who had seen them. They have long been broken up and dispersed, and it
+is not improbable that cuttings from them were among those bought by
+Ottley, Rogers, and other amateurs. A fragment of an Antiphonary of
+Nocturnal Services, now in the Laurentian Library at Florence, finished
+in 1370, shows the style of work to be of the kind just described. Other
+great choir books of the earlier period are preserved in the Academy at
+Pisa. But the number of MSS. to which reference might be made is legion.
+Those of this date are chiefly civil law books; next to these come the
+canon law, and divinity. Among the intermediate class are the copies of
+the Rationale of Durandus, one of these being in the British Museum
+(Add. 31032). Now and then a fine Missal, like the "Stefaneschi," or the
+Munich Missal of 1374, which may be referred to as being one of the
+models of the school of Prag. On the whole, perhaps, the law books are
+more numerous than liturgical ones, and are referable generally to
+Bologna or Padua. The name of Nicholaus of Bologna occurs more than once
+in these books. A book of offices of the Virgin, by Nicholaus, is now at
+Kremsm�nster, and a New Testament, dated 1328, in the Vatican. Tommaso
+di Modena, another distinguished Italian illuminator, also had much to
+do with altering the style of the artists who worked for Charles IV. at
+Prag. Some of his work, or work presumed to be his, is still to be seen
+in the Bohemian capital. Next to these Bolognese MSS. we may place those
+of Florence--copies of the Divina Commedia and the Triumphs and Sonnets
+of Petrarch, which, with historians and copies or translations of the
+classics, chiefly occupied the illuminators of Florence and Siena, with
+one notable exception. Whoever has visited any of the North Italian
+cities cannot fail to have noticed and admired the magnificent
+choir-books still to be seen in the cathedrals and cathedral libraries.
+At Siena the Piccolomini service-books are truly splendid; those in San
+Marco, the Riccardi, the Laurentian, and other collections in Florence,
+are no less admirable. Verona's best work is chiefly elsewhere, at
+Florence, Siena, etc. At Milan the Brera Graduals--each of them a man's
+load to carry--are simply gorgeous in the lavish richness of their
+letters, miniatures, and decorations. Venice, again, has another grand
+collection of MSS. of the highest class in her Attavantes and Gerard
+Davids; Rome, in a crowd of princely libraries, has multitudes--literally
+multitudes--of exquisitely illuminated volumes. Naples also has some
+noble examples of the great craftsmen. We have not yet mentioned the
+Ambrosian Library in Milan, nor, except the Vatican, a single library by
+name in Rome. The mere names of the Corsini, Sciarra, Barberini
+Libraries are enough to those who have ever explored their contents to
+remind them of work that can nowhere else be seen so perfect, so
+profuse, as in beautiful Italy.
+
+As specimens of local centres the British Museum offers many examples.
+Thus Add. 15813, though ordered for Sta. Justina of Padua, was probably
+illuminated at Venice; 15814 at Bologna; 15260 probably at Ferrara;
+18000 at Venice; most of the fragments in 21412 in Rome; 20927 in Rome;
+21591 at Naples; 28962 at Naples; 21413 at Milan; the majority of the
+Ducali, of which the museum contains a large collection, in Venice. Some
+of the Spanish-looking MSS. executed for Alphonse V. of Aragon were
+actually produced in Naples.
+
+[Illustration:
+MISSALE
+C. 1530
+_Brit. Mus. Ada. MS. 15813, fol. 27_]
+
+[Illustration:
+KATHOLISCHES GEBETHBUCH
+1584
+_Brit. Mus. Add. MS. 17525, fol. 155_]
+
+It is not safe to assert that because a work is ordered for a monastery
+or a prince that the copyists or illuminators always went to the
+monastery or palace to do the work, though frequently they did so. Most
+of the MSS. executed for Matthias Corvinus, King of Hungary, were
+produced in Florence. There was more than one atelier of illuminators in
+Florence. There were others in Bologna, others in Rome, and quite a
+large establishment in Naples. Others resided in Milan, Ferrara, and
+Verona. Those at Ferrara lived chiefly at the Ducal Palace. Those at
+Verona were the guests of the great Ghibelline leader, Can della Scala,
+and his immediate successors. Those at Naples, in the time of Alphonso
+the Magnanimous, and especially of his son, Ferdinand I., were
+maintained solely for the augmentation and embellishment of the Royal
+Library.[45] A list of seventeen copyists, including the famous names of
+Antonio Sinibaldo, Giovanni, Rinaldo, Mennio, and Hippolito Lunensis,
+and of fourteen or fifteen illuminators, all of distinguished ability,
+is given by Signer Riccio from the archives of the city. The splendid
+work they achieved may still occasionally be met with. In the British
+Museum (Add. 21120) there is a beautiful copy of the Ethics of
+Aristotle, with very peculiar initials and ornaments; and in the
+National Library, at Paris, many other very fine examples of Neapolitan
+work. Of the handwriting of Mennius we have a fine example in Add.
+11912, which is a quarto copy of Lucretius, written on 160 leaves of
+vellum. Fol. 1 has a grand border on a gold ground, with a miniature
+containing a handsome initial E suspended over the author's head, who is
+seated at a desk writing. The first three lines of the text are in Roman
+capitals, alternately gold and blue. The illumination is of a
+transitional character, inclining rather towards the candelabra style of
+the Milanese and Neapolitan Renaissance--the Heures d'Aragon, executed
+for Frederick III., show a similar taste for candelabra, etc. On the
+other hand, the initials are of the older white stem type, with coloured
+grounds. The writing is a small and very neat Roman minuscule, and dates
+probably about 1485, or between 1480 and 1490. The penmanship of
+Hippolito Lunensis appears in Ficino's Translation of Plato; also in the
+British Museum, Harl. 3481, and in Add. 15270, 15271.
+
+[45] Riccio, C.W., _Cenno Storico dell Accademia Alfonsina_. Naples,
+1865.
+
+The Heures d'Aragon referred to above are a rich example of the
+Neapolitan Renaissance preserved in the National Library at Paris.
+Writers on Italian miniatures are very numerous, and a good deal of
+interesting information about Italian MSS. may be found in M. Delisle's
+_Cabinet des MSS._, etc.
+
+There is one style of Italian illumination made very popular by the
+illuminators of the works of Petrarch, many of which are found in
+various libraries. That is the one called the vine-stem style. It
+consists of gracefully coiled stems, usually left uncoloured or softly
+tinted with yellow, and bearing here and there peculiar ornamental
+flowerets, while the grounds are picked out with various colours, on
+which are fine white triads of dots or traceries in delicate white or
+golden tendrils. A later variety of this style makes the stems of some
+pale but bright tint, and the grounds of deep colour. The vine-stem
+style seems to have prevailed throughout the whole of Italy just
+previous to the classic revival brought about by the Medici in throwing
+open their museums of sculptures, coins, and other antiquities, and by
+the liberal patronage of the new classic work by Matthias Corvinus, King
+of Hungary, and the Dukes of Urbino. After 1500 the vine-stem style
+seems to have gradually died out, and thenceforward only varieties of
+the revived antique became the fashion.
+
+To the Italian Renaissance we shall revert in a later chapter.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+GERMAN ILLUMINATION FROM THE THIRTEENTH TO THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY
+
+Frederick II., _Stupor Mundi_, and his MS. on hunting--The Sicilian
+school mainly Saracenic, but a mixture of Greek, Arabic, and Latin
+tastes--The Franconian Emperors at Bamberg--Charles of Anjou--The House
+of Luxembourg at Prag--MSS. in the University Library--The Collegium
+Carolinum of the Emperor Charles IV.--MSS. at Vienna--The Wenzel
+Bible--The Weltchronik of Rudolf v. Ems at Stuttgard--Wilhelm v. Oranse
+at Vienna--The Golden Bull--Various schools--Hildesheimer Prayer-book at
+Berlin--The Nuremberg school--The Glockendons--The Brethren of the Pen.
+
+
+In a former chapter we brought up the story of German illumination to
+the time of the Hohenstaufen emperors. We may now make a new start with
+Frederick II., the eccentric, resolute, intractable, accomplished
+_Stupor Mundi_ (1210-50). Not only was he a patron and encouraged art,
+but also an author. The work which he composed is still extant, and is
+preserved in the Vatican Library under the title _De arte venandi cum
+avibus_. Paintings of birds and hunting scenes embellish its pages. The
+art is not specially high class, and though in courtesy it may be called
+German, seeing that he was the German Emperor, and in some respects is
+like the Imperial MSS. of the Saxon period, in point of fact it is
+Italian or Sicilian.[46] This Sicilian school is peculiar, and exhibits
+very slight traits of relationship with the rest of Italy. After the
+Arab conquest of the island in 827, whilst new ideas were imported,
+still the old Greek cities kept their ancient traditions and methods in
+art, especially in those branches we term industrial, and just as both
+Greek and Arabic tongues existed as vernaculars beside the Latin, so the
+arts and industries bore the features of three artistic tastes.
+
+[46] (Bibl. Vatican, Palatina, No. 1071). Notice in Kobell, _Kunstv.
+Miniaturen_, p. 44.
+
+The silk-weaving of the Greek craftsmen was embellished with the designs
+of embroidery from Damascus, and these were mingled with patterns in
+which the foliages of Carolingian and German origin are distinctly
+traceable. Examples of the kind of manufacture here referred to may be
+seen in the robes of the Emperor Henry II., still preserved in the
+Cathedral Treasury at Bamberg. Also the coronation mantle of St. Stephen
+of Hungary, husband of Henry's sister Gisela--originally a closed
+_casula_ covering the body, but now an open cloak richly embroidered
+with figures of prophets, animals, and foliages, and even portraits of
+the King and Queen. It has sometimes been thought, from the inscription
+on its border, that, like the Bayeux tapestries of Queen Matilda, the
+needlework was from the Queen's own hand; but no doubt both these
+attributions are mistaken.[47] Still more Saracenic in taste are the
+mantle and alb now in the Imperial Treasury at Vienna, of the twelfth
+century, and executed at Palermo. Sicilian in some respects is
+intermediate between Italian and German, hence we deem this a proper
+place to speak of it, and rather as a transient phase than a style, for
+it perished with the Hohenstaufen dynasty.
+
+[47] See description in Bock, _Die Kleinodien des heiligen R�misches
+Reichs_, pl. 17.
+
+The cruel tyranny of the cold-blooded despot, remembered, but execrated,
+in Sicily as Charles of Anjou, extinguished the last _scintilla_ of
+native art, and when the Italian revival of the thirteenth century took
+place, it was confined entirely to the North, except when such patrons
+as Robert or Ferdinand or Alfonso encouraged Tuscan artists by inviting
+them to Naples. Palermo was no longer of importance, though a capital,
+and Sicily existed merely as a portion of the kingdom of Naples.
+
+Let us pass, then, to the great German capital. Changes here, too, have
+taken place. It is not Bamberg but Prag, for the Imperial crown has
+passed from the House of Suabia through the Hapsburgs to that of
+Luxembourg, and among its territories is the picturesque old city with
+its historic bridge and gate-towers, a Slavonic not a German city in its
+origin. The ten German circles of Suabia and Franconia, Westphalia,
+Bohemia, and the rest did not as yet exist--they were the later creation
+of Maximilian; the Fatherland consisted of some two or three hundred
+dukedoms, counts, marquisates, and lordships, all absolute
+sovereignties, but all pledged to support the Holy Roman Empire. Very
+thinly, perhaps, but still the Imperial sceptre meant a real supremacy,
+and in the hands of such emperors as Henry of Luxembourg, a supremacy
+maintained with real and becoming dignity.
+
+Prag, as we have said, is in a Slavonic country, and one sometimes
+hostile to the Empire. It was the capital of Bohemia. In 1310 its King
+was John, the restless son of the new Emperor Henry VII. of Luxembourg.
+Hence we find it at the moment we begin the study of its art a nominally
+German city. Shortly before this time were produced several examples of
+German work; as, for instance, the "Minnelieder," with more than a
+hundred miniatures of hunting scenes and similar outdoor amusements,
+which are useful as studies of costume, but otherwise of little
+interest. But it is not until 1312--the new King being then, for the
+sake of acquiring the crown, though only, it is said, thirteen years of
+age, already the husband of the Princess Elizabeth, the late King's
+second daughter, yet neither a favourite with his wife nor with her
+father's people--that the Abbess of St. George's in Prag, the Princess
+Cunigunda, composed a Passionale, richly illustrated with interesting
+miniatures. The saints, histories, and allegories are painted in tender
+water-colours, the architectural details being in Gothic taste. It is
+still preserved in the University Library at Prag, No. xiv., A. 17.[48]
+The Emperor Charles IV., son of the valorous but impracticable John
+(born 1316, died 1378), and who has already been spoken of in connection
+with English illumination, was the founder of the Bohemian school, or,
+rather, of the school of Prag. Owing probably his fine tastes and many
+accomplishments rather to his mother than his father, he devoted himself
+to art and literature, inviting painters and scholars from other
+countries to reside in the Bohemian capital. For the Collegium
+Carolinum, of which he was the founder, he caused many noble volumes to
+be executed, and among the vast treasures and curiosities of his
+celebrated Schloss Karlstein was a fine collection of illuminated MSS.
+In the Museum at Prag and other local libraries are still kept some
+relics of his library. The "Liber Viaticus" of Bishop John of
+Newmarkt--the "Orationale" of Bishop Arnestus (under French
+influence)--the "Pontificale of Bishop Albert von Sternberg" (in the
+library of the Pr�monstrant Monastery of Strahow)--the Missal of
+Archbishop Ozko von Wlaschim (library of the Metropolitan Chapter in
+Prag)--the Evangeliary of Canon John von Troppau (Johannes de Oppavia),
+written and illuminated at Brunn, in Moravia, now in the Imperial
+Library at Vienna. All these illuminated MSS. are examples of the great
+variety of styles in which the Bohemian colony produced their work under
+the auspices of their liberal patron, yet not without peculiarities
+which mark the individuality of the artist. Thus while the Orationale of
+Arnestus is almost French, the Passionale of Cunegunda is entirely free
+from French influence. For costumes the Weltchronik of Rudolf von Ems,
+1350-85, and now in the Royal Private Library at Stuttgard, is almost an
+encyclop�dia. Similar is the "Legenda Aurea" of 1362 in the Public
+Library at Munich (Cod. Germ. 6). A very interesting MS. with miniatures
+of costumes and curious usages is the "Bellifortis" of Conrad Kyeser
+(G�ttingen, Public Library, Philos., No. 63). The Evangeliary of Troppau
+is most beautifully written; its text is a model of elegant and perfect
+penmanship; its ornaments distinctly Bohemian. Three or four Prag MSS.
+executed for Charles's son Wenzel (1378-1409) are, it may be said,
+typical. Of these the grandest, though incomplete, is the illuminated
+Bible, called the Wenzel Bible, executed by order of Martin Rotl�w for
+presentation to the Emperor. The choice of illustrations in this
+singular performance are rather more than on a par with the woodcuts of
+the great English Bible of Cranmer. The "Wilhelm von Oranse" of 1387,
+now in the Ambras Museum at Vienna (No. 7), affords splendid examples of
+the fine embroidered and richly coloured backgrounds we so often see
+towards 1400 in English MSS., and the Golden Bull of Charles IV., also
+in the Imperial Library at Vienna (j. c. 338), has the softly curling
+foliages variously coloured, which form the characteristic difference
+between the French and English illumination of the fifteenth century.
+
+[48] Wocel, _Mittheil. der Central.-Commiss._, v., 1860, p. 75, with
+illustrations.
+
+Another rich example of German as distinct from French or Italian work
+of this period is the grand Salzburg Missal now at Munich (Lat. 15710).
+When we reach the fifteenth century German illumination begins to grow
+gaudy, especially in the revived taste for parti-coloured border-frames,
+in which green and scarlet are often to be seen. The Kuttenberg Gradual
+at Vienna (Imp. Lib., 15501) is of the Bohemian type. Now and then a MS.
+will show the influence of Westphalian treatment of foliage--and, again,
+of the school of Cologne or Nuremberg or Augsburg. These all differ,
+whilst still keeping an unmistakable German character. The Hildesheimer
+Prayer-book at Berlin points to Cologne. The Frankendorfer Evangeliary
+at Nuremberg is characteristic of that city. The Choir-book of St.
+Ulrich and Afra in their abbey at Augsburg is typical of its locality.
+The Missal of Sbinco, Archbishop of Prag, inclines to Nuremberg rather
+than Prag (Imp. Lib., Vienna, No. 1844). It is eighty years earlier than
+the Augsburg and Hildesheim MSS. Passing actively onwards, we find
+illumination still in vogue in the sixteenth century, notwithstanding
+that Germany was the cradle of the printing press.
+
+In fact, it seems to wax more and more sumptuous--the books more
+profusely ornamented than ever. The Missal and Prayer-book of Albert of
+Brandenburg, Archbishop of Mainz, once at Aschaffenburg, executed about
+1524 are among the finest productions of the illuminator's art. While
+perhaps we may complain that design has given way to profusion and the
+border flowers and insects--a contemporary characteristic of
+Netherlandish art also--are neither more nor less than portraiture
+applied to flowers, fruits, and the insect world. The larger miniatures
+are modern paintings, including portraits, differing in nothing but
+dimensions from the works of the greatest masters of the schools of
+painting. In ignorance of the strict rules of the gilds, some writers
+have gone so far as to say that miniatures also such as these were the
+work of the Van Eycks, the Memlings, and the Lucas van Leydens of our
+public galleries. This particular MS. was the work of a famous Nuremberg
+miniaturist, one of a distinguished family of artists--Nicolas
+Glockendon.
+
+A very similar, but perhaps still richer, MS., is the Prayer-book of
+William of Bavaria, still kept in the Imperial Library at Vienna (No.
+1880), painted by Albert Glockendon. It is one of the most exquisite
+volumes possibly to be met with. A Prayer-book in the British Museum
+(Add. 17525), though far inferior, may give some idea of the sumptuous
+character of the Glockendon work.
+
+The first Archbishop of Prag, Arnestus or Ernest von Pardubitz, was an
+industrious collector of MSS. and employed many scribes. Another of the
+famous patrons in Prag was Gerhard Groot, who employed one of the best
+penmen to copy St. John Chrysostom's _Commentary on St. Matthew_. In
+1383 he founded at Deventer the famous House of the Brothers of the
+Common Life, who made a business of transcribing books; and, indeed, so
+profitably, that, for instance, Ian van Enkhuisen of Zwolle received
+five hundred golden gulden for a Bible. On account of the goose-quill
+which the brothers wore in their hats, they were familiarly known as the
+Brethren of the Pen.[49]
+
+[49] Wattenbach, _Schriftwesen im Mittelalter_, p. 264.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+NETHERLANDISH ILLUMINATION
+
+What is meant by the Netherlands--Early realism and study of
+nature--Combination of symbolism with imitation--Anachronism in
+design--The value of the pictorial methods of the old illuminators--The
+oldest Netherlandish MS.--Harlinda and Renilda--The nunnery at
+Maas-Eyck--Description of the MS.--Thomas � Kempis--The school of
+Zwolle--Character of the work--The use of green landscape
+backgrounds--The Dukes of Burgundy--Netherlandish artists--No miniatures
+of the Van Eycks or Memling known to exist--Schools of Bruges, Ghent,
+Li�ge, etc.--Brussels Library--Splendid Netherlandish MSS. at
+Vienna--Gerard David and the Grimani Breviary--British Museum--"Romance
+of the Rose"--"Isabella" Breviary--Grisailles.
+
+
+In speaking of the Netherlands we have to bear in mind that some
+portions of what are now called the Netherlands were once parts of
+Germany, while others were parts of France. In the thirteenth century
+Netherlandish art was simply a variety either of Northern German or
+Northern French. The earlier schools of Flanders and Hainaut, and
+perhaps of Brabant, belong rather to France, while Holland, Limburg,
+Luxembourg, and the Rhine districts were more inclined towards Germany.
+But as soon as the schools of Ghent and Bruges and other Burgundian
+centres began to assert their claims, it was speedily apparent that they
+had an individuality of their own. In no country had the study of nature
+a more direct influence on the character of illumination. The
+allegorical method which so long had characterised both French and
+German art was promptly abandoned, and direct realism both in figure and
+landscape became the prevailing characteristic. Symbolism, it is true,
+remained in the representation of cities and other generalities of
+pictorial composition, but the details were in all cases direct
+imitations of contemporary facts. Half a dozen soldiers or houses might
+indicate an army or a city, and even some particular army or city named
+in the text, but the individual soldiers, though representing the army
+of Alexander or Roland, would wear the equipment or armour of the
+artist's military acquaintances, or his overlord's own company. The
+city, whether Ghent or Bagdad, would consist of the same sort of houses
+peaked and parapeted, the same towers and pinnacles that the illuminator
+saw before him in his daily walks. His conception of a scene from
+Scripture history would probably be framed more or less upon the
+traditions of the schools transmitted from the Sphigmenou Manual or the
+master's portfolio of "schemes," but while a prophet, an angel, or a
+divinity would wear ideal raiment, Abraham and Pharaoh would be arrayed
+in the costume of a contemporary burgomaster, and an almost contemporary
+French king. In one memorable instance, we are told, so realistic was
+the scene that Isaac was about to be despatched with a horse-pistol; and
+in another, representing the birth of Cain, Adam was bringing to the
+French tester bedside a supply of hot water from the kitchen boiler in a
+copper saucepan. This kind of anachronism, it is true, is to some degree
+chargeable on all early work; we see it among the early Italian painters
+no less frequently perhaps, but mostly accompanied with so much of
+allegory or imagination that we scarcely notice it, or if we do, we wink
+at it as part of the times of ignorance. It is really a mark of
+over-haste to be truthful, or at least to be understood, and at the
+worst it is no more than the natural rebound from the evil constraint of
+the old Byzantine tyranny over scheme and costume and invention. It is
+often truly diverting in its very _insouciance_. But its priceless value
+to us--and here the same remark applies to all styles of pictorial art
+before the fifteenth century--is the ocular record of dress,
+architecture, implements of peace and war, incidents of daily life,
+etc., for which no _Encyclop�dia Britannica_ of verbal explanation could
+ever be more than the poorest makeshift. As we say, this same happy
+anachronism is common to other schools of illumination, and we cannot
+fail to notice it from Byzantium to Britain, but it is the intense
+realism of the Netherlands that forces it upon us so strongly that we
+are bound to speak of it.
+
+The oldest notice of illuminated work in the Netherlands is in a
+Benedictine chronicle of the ninth century, where mention is made of two
+ladies, daughters of the Lord of Denain, named Harlinda and Renilda,[50]
+who were educated in the convent of Valenciennes. "In 714 they left
+their native province to found a monastery on the banks of the
+Maas--among the meadows of Alden and Maas-Eyck. They there consecrated
+their lives to the praise of God and the transcription of books,
+adorning them with precious pictures."[51] About the year 1730 an
+Evangeliary of great age was discovered in the sacristy of the church by
+the Benedictine antiquary, Edmond Mart�ne, which on good ground has been
+attributed to the two sisters. The MS. is still in existence, and was
+exhibited in Brussels in 1880. It is a small folio, and contains a great
+number of miniatures in the Carolingian or, perhaps more strictly,
+Franco-Saxon manner. On the first leaf is a Romanesque colonnade of
+arches surmounted by a larger one. Under the smaller arches are the
+figures of saints, demons, and monsters, and in the tympanum scrolls of
+foliage and birds. Between the columns are the reference numbers to the
+chapters.
+
+[50] Or Relinda.
+
+[51] Bradley, _Dict. of Miniaturists_, ii. 87.
+
+The evangelist portraits are dignified and saintly, recalling the
+earliest work of the Byzantine school and that of the catacombs.
+Draperies and other details are heavy, dull, and ill drawn. In short,
+the work is of the same class as the early Carolingian. The blue, red,
+green, and gold of the borders, etc., have all kept their brilliancy.[52]
+It is somewhat curious that the Van Eycks, the founders of Flemish
+painting, were natives of this little town--then, doubtless, pretty and
+rural, now a busy place of breweries, oil-factories, tanneries, and
+other fragrant nuisances. Some miles further northward lie Deventer and
+Zwolle and Kempen, the land of the Brothers of the Pen, and of the
+immortal Thomas � Kempis. There is a style of calligraphic ornament
+deriving its origin from these Northern Hollandish foundations such as
+Zwolle, which is confined almost entirely to the painting of the initial
+letters and the decorating of the borders with flourished scrolls of
+penwork very neatly drawn and terminating in equally neat but extremely
+fanciful flowers finely painted. It seems to have been brought at some
+time from the neighbourhood of Milan, where a similar kind of initial
+and exceedingly neat penmanship also is found in the choir books. Many
+South German choir books are similarly ornamented, so that it is not
+easy to say at once where the work was done. The Dutch illuminators,
+however, may usually be recognised by the Netherlandish character of the
+miniatures combined with neat and sometimes rigidly careful penmanship
+in the scrolls and tendrils and a hardness in the outline of the
+flowers. Sometimes the large initials are entirely produced by the pen,
+the labyrinthine patterns in blue or vermilion being filled in with
+circlets, loops, and other designs with infinite patience and excellent
+effect. Some of the border scrolls are exceedingly pretty, and the
+borders differ from Flemish in mixing natural flowers painted in thin
+water-colours with the more conventional flowers painted with a
+different medium, not in the later Flemish manner where the flowers are
+frankly direct imitations of nature, and painted in the same medium as
+the rest of the illumination.
+
+[52] See _Messager des Sciences_, etc., 110, 1858, and Deshaines, _L'Art
+Chr�tien en Flandre_, 34 (Douai, 1860, 8�).
+
+After the Maas-Eyck Evangeliary the work of these northern foundations
+may well reckon either with the French or German schools until the
+fifteenth century. Where otherwise they are not distinguishable, the
+Netherlandish miniatures are usually such as prefer plain burnished gold
+backgrounds to diapered ones, or have a plain deep blue paled towards
+the horizon, and lastly replace the background by a natural, or what was
+intended to be a natural, landscape. As a test between French or German
+influence generally, the use of green shows the latter, that of blue the
+former. Not that this was any �sthetic point of difference in taste, but
+somehow the Germans had the green paint when the French had not, and so
+they used it. It is an open question whether Flanders or Italy first
+introduced the landscape background, but Flemish artists were so
+numerous, so ubiquitous, that we can hardly say where they were not at
+work--in France, Italy, or Spain. Plenty of so-called Spanish
+illumination is really the work of Flemish craftsmen. This was largely
+owing to the political conditions of the times. The Dukes of Burgundy
+and the Austrian Archdukes both ruled over Flemish municipalities, and
+employed the gildmen as their household "enlumineurs." And, of course,
+the success of the Van Eycks, Rogier van der Weide (de la Pasture),
+Derrick Bonts, and Hans Memling, stirred up the spirit of rivalry among
+the illuminators. They all worked in the same minutely, careful manner,
+and one could almost take a corporal oath on the identity of
+illuminations and panels which are really the work of different artists.
+Even yet the illuminations of the Grimani Breviary are attributed in
+part to Hans Memling--and no wonder! Only the best qualified judges can
+distinguish them. It is known that Gerard David of Oudewater, in
+Holland, a master painter, belonged also to the gild of miniaturists.
+But no miniatures are known to be from the hands of either Ian, or
+Hubert, or Marguerite van Eyck, or Hans Memling. The supposed
+identifications are merely guesses. But while this is so there is still
+no lack of illuminators, not to mention the illustrious few who were
+employed by the brothers of Charles V., King of France; and when we come
+to the days of his grandson, Philip of Burgundy (1419-67), we might name
+quite a crowd of distinguished illuminators. From 1422 to 1425 Ian van
+Eyck was "varlet de chamber" to Duke John of Bavaria, first bishop of
+Li�ge, and Regent of Luxembourg, Holland, and Brabant. In 1425 he passed
+into the service of Philip. He died in 1440. In court service there were
+besides, Jean de Bruges, David Aubert, Jean Mielot, Jean Wanguelin,
+Loyset Lyeder, and others connected more or less closely with the Maas
+valley and the province of Limburg. This valley seems to have been the
+cradle of Netherlandish miniature art. It is from this neighbourhood
+that Paris was supplied with craftsmen in the days of the brilliant if
+reckless administration of the uncles of Philip the Good. There were
+schools of illuminating artists in Maestricht and Li�ge, and within a
+very brief period the style of the Netherlander surpassed that of all
+competitors for facility, clearness, and realism. A marked feature in
+this mastery is the free use of architectural and sculptural design. All
+Gothic draperies are in some degree sculpturesque, and in miniatures we
+find sculpture to be the ruling principle. Perhaps it was the practice
+of uniting the crafts of painter and "imagier" in one person that
+fostered this peculiarity. But certain it is that Netherlandish
+illumination, in its border foliages, after the taste for the larger
+vine and acanthus leaf had superseded the ivy, the drawing is studiously
+sculpturesque. Many of the Gantois borders are like undercut wood
+carvings. Even as to colour we find either the gilded wood brown or the
+stone grey, quite as frequently as gayer colours, and much more so than
+any natural green. The after-fashion for grisailles or _camaieu gris_
+has reference probably rather to stained glass than to carving. Before
+the fifteenth century we do not often meet with individual illuminators
+by name, but in the Limburg Chronicle under 1380 is this entry: "There
+was at this time in Cologne a celebrated painter (he was probably a
+native of Herle in Limburg), the like of whom was not in the whole of
+Christendom," and more to his praise. His name was Wilhelm. In the
+municipal expense book, under 1370-90, page 12, is written, "To Master
+Wilhelm for painting the Oath Book, 9 marks." The Oath Book still
+exists, but unfortunately the miniature has been cut out.[53]
+
+[53] Woltmann, _Hist. of Painting_, Eng. transl., i. p. 412.
+
+Of course, it may be expected that some of the best examples of
+Netherlandish illumination are to be found in the Royal Library at
+Brussels. The _Biblioth�que de Bourgogne_, as it is called, contains,
+indeed, a great number of them. Some, of course, may be classed as
+Burgundian. There are, for instance, the grand "Chroniques de Hainaut"
+in three immense folio volumes, written from 1446 to 1449 (Nos. 9242-4).
+Also Jean Mansel's "Fleur des Histoires" in three grand folios (Nos.
+9231-3), written about 1475. The frontispiece to the "Chroniques" shows
+the Duke Philip with his son the Count of Charolais receiving the work
+from the author, perhaps the best illumination in all three volumes.
+
+Another (9245), the Book of the Seven Sages of Rome, is an example of
+the last quarter of the fourteenth century. Still another (9246), the
+History of St. Graal, or of the Round Table, is dated 1480. A Missal and
+Pontifical (9216, 9217) shows miniatures dating about 1475.
+
+But other public libraries also possess admirable examples. The Imperial
+Library at Vienna possesses a most masterly production in the fragments
+of a folio Chronicle of Jerusalem (No. 2533), in which both figures and
+architectural details are most delicately and minutely finished, so that
+the miniatures form a most valuable treasury of costumes, armour, and
+architecture, correctly drawn and exquisitely painted. The figure of
+Baldwin, King of Jerusalem, shows the pointed toes which Anne of Bohemia
+is said to have introduced into England. At Vienna, also, is the richly
+illuminated History of G�rard de Roussillon in French (No. 2549). At
+Paris we find the "Champion des Dames" (No. 12476). Round the first
+miniature in this MS. are splendidly emblazoned the armorials of the
+various countries and cities of his dominions--Burgundy, Brabant,
+Flanders, Franche-Comt�, Holland, Namur, Lower Lorraine, Luxembourg,
+Artois, Hainaut, Zealand, Friesland, Malines, and Salins. On either side
+are scenes from the story, and beneath a symbolical crown is the motto
+of Philip's grandfather, Philip le Hardi, _aultre n'aray_. The same
+motto appears in the Chronicle of Jerusalem at Vienna, and on the velvet
+of the da�s of Isabella of Portugal, Philip's third consort.
+
+It may be interesting to note, as a means of distinguishing these
+Burgundian princes or their MSS., that the arms of Philip II. the Good
+differ from those of his father, during the latter's lifetime, by having
+in chief a label of three points, and from those of his grandfather,
+Philip the Bold, by having an inescutcheon of pretence on the centre of
+the arms of Margaret de Maele, first assumed by his father, John the
+Fearless, that is, "or, a lion rpt. sa; for Flanders." As we have just
+said, many of the MSS. claimed as Netherlandish may be classed as
+Burgundian. The difference lies mainly in the miniatures. Where the
+latter are manifestly French with the mixed Brugeois borders, they may
+pass as Burgundian; but with similar borders yet distinguishably
+Netherlandish, that is, broad-nosed, square-jawed, and excited faces as
+compared with the finer features and placid expression of the French
+artists, the work may still be Burgundian, but it will be also
+Netherlandish. The individuality of Netherlandish illumination above
+every other quality establishes its identity. Look at the expression of
+the onlookers in a Crucifixion, or a Christ before Pilate, or a Stoning
+of St. Stephen--the diabolical ferocity, the fiendish earnestness, the
+downright intentional ugliness put on some of the characters are in
+direct contrast to the sweet indifference, the calm complaisance, and
+blank unconcern of a crowd as shown in similar scenes by French
+illuminators.
+
+[Illustration:
+HOR�
+15TH CENT. (LATE)
+_Brit. Mus. Add. MS. 17280. fol. 21_]
+
+[Illustration:
+VALERE MAXIME, TRAD. PAR SIMON DE HESDIN
+15TH CENT. (LATE)
+_Brit. Mus. Harl. MS. 4375, fol. 68_]
+
+We have seen something of the earlier kind of Netherlandish MSS. in
+those already referred to. It now remains to take a rapid glance at a
+few of the later ones, and here the difficulty is that of selection.
+
+In 1484 Gerard David appears on the list of illuminators of Bruges,[54]
+and it appears that he, and not Hans Memling, was the painter of those
+marvellous miniatures in the Grimani Breviary at Venice usually
+attributed to the latter, and therefore may be considered as one of the
+founders of the school of Bruges, or at least of the later style that
+may be referred to the Grimani Breviary as its most perfect example.
+Executed in much the same manner is a Book of Offices in the British
+Museum, containing portraits of Philip the Fair and his wife, the
+unhappy Juana _la Loca_, son and daughter-in-law of the Emperor
+Maximilian. Similar, again, are the "Offices of the Elector, Albert of
+Brandenburg," possibly the work of the same artists who produced the
+Grimani Breviary. There are also some fragments in a guard-book in the
+British Museum (Add. 24098), which may compare with any of the preceding
+examples. But perhaps to many book-lovers no better specimen of the
+highest class of Netherlandish art could be more welcome or more
+interesting than the celebrated copy of the "Roman de la Rose," also in
+our great national collection (Harl. 4425). This justly famous MS. is a
+real masterpiece in every department, whether we consider the expression
+in its miniatures or the consummate technical skill displayed in the
+drawing and colour of the borders. These secondary embellishments
+consist of fruit, flowers, birds, beetles, and butterflies. But, of
+course, the great interest of this book lies in its miniatures, scenes
+from the poet's allegory, and in the little statuesque figures of the
+various characters in the poem.
+
+[54] Cf. his "Judgement of Cambyses" in the museum at Bruges.
+
+Two marvellous little volumes there are in the National Museum at Munich
+(861-2) which are surely unapproachable. One of the borders in 861
+consists of the eyes of peacock feathers so absolutely perfect that we
+can only wonder at its rainbow hues and pearly sheen of colour.
+Something similar to it exists in a fragment (No. 4461) in the Victoria
+and Albert Museum at South Kensington. The "Isabella Breviary" of the
+British Museum (Add. 18851) ought not to pass unmentioned, but space
+forbids us to add more on this inexhaustible topic. There is, however,
+the class of work alluded to early in the chapter, and in that on French
+work, which must be at least mentioned. We refer to what the Italians
+call _chiaroscuro_ and the French _grisaille_; _i.e._ painting executed
+in tones of grey, in which the lights are given in white or gold and the
+backgrounds in rich blue. Occasionally the draperies and ornaments also
+are touched with gold, and the flesh tints as in life. Grisaille is not
+limited to Netherlandish illuminations. We find it both in French and
+Italian, but perhaps it is among the Netherlandish books we meet with it
+most frequently. Several examples are to be seen in the Royal Library at
+Brussels, and there is at least one in the British Museum (Add. 24189).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+THE FRENCH RENAISSANCE
+
+Communication with Italy--Renaissance not sudden--Origin of the schools
+of France and Burgundy--Touraine and its art--Fouquet--Brentano
+MSS.--"Versailles" Livy--Munich "Boccaccio," etc.--Perr�al and
+Bourdichon--"Hours of Anne of Brittany"--Poyet--The school of
+Fontainebleau--Stained glass--Jean Cousin--Gouffier "Heures"--British
+Museum Offices of Francis I.--Dinteville Offices--Paris "Heures de
+Montmorency", "Heures de Dinteville," etc.
+
+
+When the new ideas derived from the Italian revival first reached
+France, it would be difficult to say. There must have been communication
+with Italy going on the whole time that Cimabue and Giotto, Memmi and
+the rest were astonishing their fellow-citizens with their divine
+performances. The roads from Lyons, Poictiers, Dijon, and Paris were
+well known, and frequently trodden by both artists and merchants as well
+as by soldiers. The Renaissance, therefore, was no sudden convulsion.
+Perhaps a very careful examination of some of our Burgundian MSS. might
+reveal the presence of notions derived from Italian travel, for it is in
+the details of ornament that we find the traces of a new movement, and
+when the great change of style is clearly noticeable it is when the
+habits of society themselves have been remodelled, and when the once
+strange and foreign element has become a familiar guest.
+
+In the fixing of schools and centres much is owing, of course, to the
+residential choice of princes, on whose patronage depends the very
+existence of art. This explains the schools of Bruges and Dijon, of
+Paris and Tours, for while the earlier dukes of Burgundy and the earlier
+kings of France had lived at Bruges and Paris, the later dukes had
+preferred Dijon, and Louis XI., Charles VIII., and Louis XII. lived
+mostly at Tours. So that while Dijon became the new centre of Burgundian
+illumination, Tours became to the new movement from Italy what Paris had
+been at the commencement of the Gothic period. Tours, in fact, became
+the centre of the Renaissance. The influence of Dijon was on the wane,
+Burgundy itself was going down. Michel Coulombe, the great Breton
+sculptor, who had been trained at Dijon, left it for Tours, and probably
+illuminators and other artists followed his example. As we know from
+examples, the Burgundian art of Dijon had the Flemish stamp strongly
+marked--the Flemish artists had a way of making strong impressions.
+
+Tours, on the other hand, had had an entirely different training. The
+artists of Touraine had no shadow of Flemish influence in their
+practice. Their sculptures, enamels, colour-scheme were of another bias.
+Their stamp came from Italy, and if not so deep as that of Flanders or
+Dijon, it was equally inevitable and more permanent.
+
+The first name that we meet with among the illuminators of Touraine who
+are expressly connected with the Renaissance is that of Jean Fouquet. Of
+his origin or training nothing seems to be known, but he was born
+probably about 1415. He must have acquired distinction even as a youth,
+for some twenty-five years afterwards (1440-3) he was invited to Rome to
+paint the portrait of Pope Eugenius IV., and he stayed in Italy until
+1447. On his return to France he was made _valet de chambre_ and painter
+to Charles VII. at Tours, and continued in the same office under Louis
+XI. It was part of the business of the _paintre du roy_ to design and
+provide decorations and costumes, banners and devices for all state
+ceremonies, and this became Fouquet's duty at the funeral of Charles
+VII., and when Louis instituted the Order of St. Michel in 1470, and the
+last trace of him as an artist occurs about 1477. His sons, Louis and
+Francis, were both painters, and, like himself, worked much at the
+illumination of books. It is curious that this great master--one of the
+greatest miniaturists of any school, and one of the founders of the
+French school of painting--became entirely forgotten until the discovery
+of some fragments of a Book of Hours painted for Estienne Chevalier, the
+King's treasurer.
+
+Forty miniatures of the most masterly description came into the hands of
+M. Louis Brentano-Laroche, of Frankfort-on-the-Maine. Their uncommon
+excellence led to a most diligent search for information respecting the
+artist, which resulted in the unearthing of many other examples of his
+unequalled pencil. We now know of a dozen most precious examples.
+Besides the Brentano miniatures, two other fragments of the same Book of
+Hours have been found, and several large and important MSS. Among these
+we may name the "Antiquities of the Jews," by Josephus, in the National
+Library at Paris (MSS. Des. 6891), and a Book of Hours, executed for
+Marie de Cl�ve, widow of Charles Duke of Orleans, in 1472. Attributed to
+him are the "Versailles" Livy (Nat. Lib., Paris, 6907); the "Sorbonne"
+Livy (fds. de Sorb. 297). A Livy in the public library at Tours also
+passes under his name, and the famous "Boccaccio" of Estienne Chevalier
+at Munich, containing ninety miniatures, is also confidently assigned to
+him. Other MSS. that are imputed to him are probably the work of his
+sons or scholars.
+
+The Paris Josephus is generally considered his masterpiece. The volume
+(which contains only the first fourteen books) is in folio, written most
+beautifully in two columns, and is adorned with miniatures, vignettes,
+and initials, but much of its interest lies in the note at the end,
+placed there by Robortet, secretary to the Due de Bourbon: "En ce livre
+a douze ystoires les troys premieres de l'enlumineur du duc Jehan de
+Berry, et les neuf de la main du bon paintre et enlumineur du roy Loys
+XIe Jehan Foucquet, natif de Tours." And we gather from another note
+that the book had been entrusted to Fouquet for completion by Jacques
+d'Armagnac duc de Nemours. A further note informs us that the book
+belonged to the Duc de Bourbon. It seems to have been one of the rich
+presents made by the Due de Berry to Jacques de Nemours. The first three
+miniatures are by the illuminator of the Duc de Berry, and this artist
+was probably Andrieu Beauneveu, though other illuminators did work for
+him, as Jacques de Hesdin and Pol de Limbourg. The fourth miniature is
+by Fouquet, and represents a battle; the rest to the seventh are either
+not his best work or else the work of his pupils, but the seventh on
+folio 135 gives us a good idea of Fouquet at his best. It represents
+David receiving with his crown the news of the death of Saul. The
+eighth, ninth, and tenth are very fine, but the eleventh M. Paulin Paris
+(MSS. du Roy) thinks the most beautiful of all. Its subject is the
+clemency of Cyrus towards the captive Jews in Babylon.[55] Of the other
+MSS. space forbids us reluctantly to forego description.
+
+[55] See Mrs. Mark Pattison's (Lady Dilke) _The Renaissance in France_,
+i. 273, etc.; Bradley, _Dict. of Miniaturists_ art. "Fouquet," i. 346.
+
+The characteristics of the school of Tours as seen in the work of the
+greatest of its expositors is (1) The clearly marked influence of Italy
+and the antique. (2) A masterly understanding of French landscape (see
+fine instances of this understanding also in "Tr�sor des Histoires," now
+in the British Museum, Cott., Aug. 5). (3) A complete freedom from
+Gothic influence and from the domination of the school of Bruges. The
+colours for which Fouquet seems to have a preference are, first, a clear
+orange-vermilion, supported by golden brown and gold, clear blue and
+green, lemon-yellow; and then, as a contrast, grey of various tones in
+walls and buildings, soft landscape greens, and a�rial tints of distance
+and sky. Perhaps the technical skill of Fouquet has never been
+surpassed. It is so perfect that some have tried to explain it by
+supposing that he was trained in a Flemish studio. His sons and pupils
+continued his methods, and thus while Paris remains under the influence
+of Flemish masters, Tours was carrying forward a quite different type of
+traditions.
+
+The Valerius Maximus (Harl. 4374) of the British Museum will give an
+idea of the later Paris school. Its date is about the end of the
+fifteenth century.
+
+We ought not in this place to forget the influence brought into French
+art through the marriage of the murdered Duke of Orleans with Valentina
+of Milan, not only directly through books and artists, but by the
+hereditary transmission of that love of art and beautiful things for
+which Valentina and her family were well known. It was in art, letters,
+and books that the widowed princess sought such consolation as was
+possible.[56] In her best days she had united in herself a seductive
+grace of carriage, beauty of person, and dignity of rank, which made her
+the ornament of the French Court. She was almost the only one about the
+unfortunate Charles VI. who could influence him in his moments of mental
+aberration. Coming from the luxury of the most splendid court in Italy,
+she brought into France the most refined taste in matters connected with
+the arts. The inventory of her jewels at the time of her marriage
+includes three Books of Hours, three German MSS., and a volume called
+_Mandavilla_. Like her husband she was an employer both of copyists and
+illuminators, and before her death had collected at her Castle of Blois
+a very fine collection of beautiful books.
+
+[56] She assumed as her impresa the _chantepleure_, with the sorrowful
+motto: "Plus ne m'est rien: rien ne m'est plus."
+
+Her son Charles, the poet, inherited her tastes, and added to her
+collections. We are not surprised, therefore, to find her grandson
+Louis, afterwards Louis XII., supporting the great artistic movement
+which he and his Queen Anne of Brittany helped so effectually to
+identify with the Court of France.
+
+About the time that we hear the last of Fouquet we have the earliest
+notices of another illuminator who plays an important part in the
+illuminations executed for Anne of Brittany, the noble and gifted Queen
+of France, and wife, first of Charles VIII. and then of his successor,
+Louis XII.
+
+In 1472 Jean Perr�al is entrusted with the glass paintings of the
+Carmelite church at Tours. Lemaire, in his _L�gende des V�nitiens_,
+calls him a second Zeuxis or Apelles. During the reigns of Charles VIII.
+and Louis XII. he is the chief artist of the time: In 1491, and perhaps
+earlier, he is engaged in the usual duties of a _valet de chambre_,
+_i.e._ designing and preparing the requisite devises, arms, and banners
+for public functions. In 1502 he went to Italy. In 1509 his name occurs
+in connection with that of Jean Bourdichon, of whom we shall hear more
+when we come to the work done for the Queen. In 1523 in the household of
+Francis I. he is still _valet de chambre_. Twenty-four years previously
+it was as _valet de chambre_ that he prepared the decorations for Louis
+XII.'s entry into Lyons. On the death of Anne of Brittany also he
+performed similar duties, and again on that of Louis XII. He even came
+to England in 1514, sent by Louis XII., to superintend the trousseau of
+Mary Tudor, "pour aider � dresser le dict appareil � la mode de France,"
+previous to her wedding journey to Paris.[57] Four months afterwards he
+was summoned to direct the funeral obsequies of Louis himself. No
+illuminated work can be really identified as the work of Perr�al, but
+Mrs. Patteson (Lady Dilke) strongly urges the probability that he
+painted the _Bible Histori�e_ of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge,
+bequeathed by General Oglethorpe.[58] She considers it quite the sort of
+work that would grow out of that of Fouquet, and dwells upon the fact of
+his official duties as _valet de chambre_ giving him just that minute
+facility in the decoration of armour and furniture in the miniatures
+which the MS. displays. Whether this be so or not, it is certain that
+the _Bible Histori�e_ is a fine example of the school of Tours.
+
+[57] See Vespas, b. 2 (Brit. Mus.).
+
+[58] See her _Renaissance of Art in France_, i. 303.
+
+Another court painter and _valet de chambre_ to Louis XI. and his
+successors was Jean Bourdichon, an artist born at Tours in 1457, and
+therefore as a youth probably one of the scholars in the atelier of Jean
+Fouquet. He is first noticed in the accounts in or about 1478: "A Jehan
+Bourdichon, paintre, la somme de vingt livres dix sept solz ung denier
+tournois pour avoir paint le tabernacle fait pour la chapelle du Plessis
+du Pare, de fin or et d'azur."[59] Later on, after naming the painting of
+a statute of St. Martin, for which he received twenty golden crowns, is
+a note of his painting a MS., which we translate: "To the said
+Bourdichon for having had written a book in parchment named the
+Papalist--the same illuminated in gold and azure and made in the same 19
+rich histories (miniatures) and for getting it bound and covered, thirty
+crowns of gold. For this by virtue of the said order of the King and by
+quittance of the abovenamed written the 5th April One thousand four
+hundred and eighty (milcccciiiixx) after Easter, here rendered the sum
+of �19 1. 8."
+
+[59] Comptes de l'H�tel de Louis XI., 1478-81.
+
+Another quittance shows him to have been employed on the decorations of
+the ch�teau of Plessis les Tours. We may easily see how it is that these
+artists, when they came to illuminate the books entrusted to them, had
+such special knowledge of embroideries and decoration of armour when we
+read in the accounts how they were constantly employed in designing
+dresses for weddings, tournaments, and funeral obsequies, and making
+"patterns for the dress and equipment of war."
+
+A notice in 1508 tells us that Anne of Brittany made an order of payment
+to Bourdichon of 1,050 _livres tournois_ for having "richly and
+sumptuously historiated and illuminated a great Book of Hours for our
+use and service to which he has given and employed much time, and also
+on behalf of other services which he has rendered hitherto." This refers
+to the celebrated "Hours of Anne of Brittany," now in the National
+Library at Paris.
+
+This volume, peerless of its kind, has been reproduced in colour
+lithography by Curmer of Paris--the result, however, is disappointing
+from the flat and faded look of the prints as compared with the
+brilliancy of the original pages. The MS. is an invaluable monument of
+French Renaissance illumination. It is French of Touraine rather than of
+Paris, yet bearing traces in its flowers and fruit borders of Flemish
+modes of ornament. It has also reminiscences of Italian painting. But
+the French neatness and restraint from over-decoration have kept it in a
+manner unique. It has not quite the softness of Italian, and is far from
+the intensity of Flemish. Indeed, its fault, if it be faulty, is in its
+want of force. With the exception of Anne's own portrait given with her
+patrons, St. Anne, St. Helena, and St. Ursula. The Queen's gown is of
+brown gold brocade trimmed with dark brown fur. Her hair is brown, like
+the fur. She wears a necklace of gems set in gold. On her head is a
+black hood edged with gold and jewels, beneath which and next her face
+is a border of crimped white muslin, She has brown eyes and finely
+pencilled eyebrows. As to nose and mouth, she and the two younger saints
+are pretty much alike. With the allowance of blue for black, St. Anne
+wears the dress of a Benedictine abbess. A dark crimson cloth covers a
+table before which the Queen is kneeling, and on which lies open a
+finely illuminated Service-book. The Calendar which follows this
+portrait is for each month enclosed in a margin of ornament. To the
+outer margin of every other page of the book is placed a broad tablet or
+pilaster containing flowers, fruits, insects, etc., from five to six
+inches high, each having the Latin name of the plant, etc., at top in
+red, and the French one in red or blue at the bottom. These names may
+have been put in later. It must be admitted that the fruits, flowers,
+and insects are painted with the greatest care and neatness, though
+sometimes a little assisted by the imagination of the painter. The text
+and initials are rather heavy and commonplace. Now and then a border
+surrounds the text completely, where flowers or fruits are
+scattered--somewhat recklessly at times, but usually with good
+design--over a ground of plain gold, on which the branches, etc., cast
+heavy shadows. This part of the design is certainly Flemish. Where
+"histories" occur the border is a plain brown gilt frame within a black
+border. Undoubtedly the "Hours of Anne of Brittany" is a very precious
+volume. The figure subjects are of various degrees of excellence. The
+four evangelists are vivid, and recall the portraits of Ghirlandaio, and
+it is to Italy also that the illuminator is indebted for his
+architectural and sculptural details. Yet Bourdichon is inferior to
+Fouquet in colouring, as the latter is to the Italians in design and
+composition. Perhaps he is most successful in his flowers and insects.
+"Nothing," said Muntz, "is less like the elegant foliages of Ghirlandaio
+and Attavante, and nothing is more worthy of being put in comparison
+with them."[60]
+
+[60] _La Renaissance en Italie, etc_., 547-8.
+
+An illuminator of the name of Jehan Poyet is said to have assisted in
+the "Hours," thus while Bourdichon painted the miniatures, Poyet put in
+the flowers and fruit, etc.; but this share of work is by some believed
+to belong to a smaller Book of Hours executed for the Queen. Flowers and
+fruit are said to have been Poyet's speciality, and it is quite possible
+that he may have had the painting of the borders of the "Grandes
+Heures," while Bourdichon did the rest. The writer of the MS. was
+another native of Tours, named Jehan Riveron. During the reign of
+Francis I. the school of Tours was removed to Paris because the Court
+had settled there. Louis XII. had died in the H�tel des Tournelles, and
+Francis, though full of plans for _plaisances_ elsewhere, lived mostly
+in Paris. Fontainebleau is the dream of the near future. Il Rosso, the
+Italian architect, painter, poet, and musician, was busy there amid a
+crowd of other artists from Florence and Rome--the refuse of a once
+brilliant sodality. It was the frivolous, pretty, graceful side of
+Italian art that came northward in that great migration--the graver and
+more dignified elements were left behind. To see what Italian art became
+in France, we have only to enter the Grand Gallery at Fontainebleau, and
+we see it at its best in architecture, sculpture, and painting. And we
+cannot help admiring it, for it is amazingly beautiful. Yet it is not
+Italian--the Italian of the Medici and Farnese palaces. Il Rosso was
+neither a Michelangelo nor a Carracci; but he set a fashion. He changed
+the face of art for France. Nor was it in painting and sculpture only.
+The Italian passion for devises, anagrams, emblems, and mottoes became
+the rage in Paris. It first came in with the return of Charles VIII.
+from his Neapolitan campaign. Louis XII. adopted the hedgehog or
+porcupine, with the motto "Cominus et eminus." His Queen Claude's motto
+was "Candida candidis." The Princess Marguerite's emblem was a marigold
+or heliotrope; others assigned her the daisy. Her motto: "Non inferiora
+secutus." The well-known emblem of Francis was a salamander--why, is a
+mystery--with the motto, "Nutrisco et extinguo." All this entered into
+the taste of the illuminator, and elegant cartouche frames--probably of
+Dutch origin, as we see in the old map-books of Ortelius Cluverius and
+Bleau, imported by Ortelius and his friends into Italy, and made use of
+by Clovis, and thence transferred to France--were made into
+border-frames for miniatures, varied with altar-forms, doorways, and
+other fanciful frameworks from the new architecture decorated with
+flowers, ribbons, panels, mottoes. Another new thing, too, no doubt
+afforded plenty of suggestion to the illuminator. This was stained
+glass. Jean Cousin was in his glory in glass-painting; Robert Pinagrier
+also. But it was Cousin who adopted the new Italian ideas, and whose
+works were models for the illuminator. In the backgrounds and details of
+his glass-paintings at Sens, Fleurigny, Paris, and elsewhere, we may
+trace his progress; and an excellent model, too, was Jean Cousin. He has
+other claims to remembrance in sculpture, engraving, authorship, but it
+is as the glass-painter that his influence is seen in illumination.
+Indeed, Mr. A.F. Didot strongly urged the probability that Cousin was
+himself the illuminator of the splendid Breviary or Hours of Claude
+Gouffier.[61] The drawing is in his best manner, the frame-border of
+_caryatides_ in camaieu is of a richness of ornamentation in keeping
+with the rest of the volume. The arms and motto of Gouffier are painted
+in it. It is objected that Cousin's name does not appear in the Gouffier
+account-books, while those of other artists are given. But only a
+portion of the accounts is extant. Cousin may, perhaps, only have
+designed the book, and the other miniaturists carried out his designs.
+At any rate, the accounts give us the names of three miniaturists which
+we may here record--Jean Lemaire, of Paris (1555), Charles Jourdain, and
+Geoffroy Ballin (1359). These "enlumineurs" are stated to have decorated
+two Books of Hours for Gouffier's wedding. As a good example of the
+style employed in the decoration of title-pages, we may quote the
+chimney-piece of the Ch�teau d'Anet, executed for Diane de Poitiers,
+where a sculptured marble frame surrounds a painted landscape. Many of
+the books of the time of Francis I. and Henry II. are ornamented in this
+style.
+
+[61] Now belonging to M. le Vicomte de Tanz�.
+
+In the British Museum are several fine MSS. illustrative of this period
+of French illumination, viz. Add. 18853, 18854, and 18855. These three
+MSS. formed part of the purchase which included the Bedford Offices.
+18853 is a Book of Offices executed apparently for Francis I. In some of
+the borders is a large F with the _Cordeli�re_ of the third Order of St.
+Francis and a rayed crown, and on folio 97 v. a large monogram
+consisting of the letter F, with two crossed sceptres and palm branches,
+surmounted by the crown-royal of France.
+
+Nothing is known of the history of the MS. from 1547 to 1723, when it
+was in possession of the Regent Philippe d'Orl�ans. Possibly it had
+remained as an heirloom in the family. Philippe gave it to his natural
+son the Abb� Rothelin, a great lover of rare books and a noted
+collector, at whose death it was bought by Gaignat, another collector,
+who sold it to the Duc de la Valli�re, and so, step by step, it came at
+length to Sir John Tobin, of Liverpool, and thence to the British
+Museum.
+
+The partly sculpturesque character of the border-frames are of the kind
+just referred to, with festoons and garlands of flowers, and drapery,
+monograms, and emblems in full rich colours; the architecture and other
+ornaments sometimes finished with pencillings of gold. The miniatures
+are of excellent design and colour, finely modelled, and quite in the
+manner of the paintings of Fontainebleau. The text is a combination of
+Jarry-like Roman with italic. It may be compared with 18854, similar in
+some respects, but the smaller miniatures and the frames look more like
+the older school of Tours. This MS. is also a Book of Offices, and was
+written for Fran�ois de Dinteville, Bishop of Auxerre, in 1525, as
+appears from an inscription in gold letters on fol. 26 v.
+
+[Illustration:
+OFFICM. B. MARI� VIRGINES
+C. 1530
+_Brit. Mus. Add. MS. 18853, fol. 52_]
+
+[Illustration:
+OFFICM. MORTUORUM.
+16TH CENT. (EARLY)
+_Brit. Mus. Egert. MS. 2125, fol. 183_]
+
+Some of the border-frames are drawn in sepia, others in red-brown or
+burnt siena, and highly finished with gold. The writing is a small Roman
+hand. On the whole it is richer in illustration than 18853, but not so
+perfect in drawing, yet it is a very fine MS. Sometimes it has a border
+like those in the "Hours of Anne of Brittany." On fol. 26 v. is a
+curious border of twisted ribbons covered with mottoes, such as
+"Virtutis fortuna comes", "Ingrates servire nephas," etc.
+
+Some of the tiny miniatures of the saints in the _Memori�_ are very
+charmingly painted: St. Mary Magdalene, for instance, on fol. 147 v. The
+pillar architecture of some of the borders, with pendant festoons of
+flowers, is also very handsome.
+
+18855, folio, is a Book of Offices written in a Gothic text. The
+miniatures are large full-page paintings within architectural frames or
+porches, with coloured pillars or pilasters with panels of rich blue,
+covered with golden traceries, bronze gold pendants at side,--occasional
+borders as in the "Hours of Anne of Brittany." The work is of the older
+school of Tours, but loaded with ornamental details from North Italian
+pilaster-work. Among the best miniatures are the Nativity (34 v.), the
+Adoration of the Magi (42 v.), and the Bathsheba. The last perhaps a
+little too open a scene for a lady's bathroom, but placed within a most
+gorgeous architectural window or doorway (fol. 62 v). Compare also Harl.
+5925, No. 574, for a title-page of French Renaissance style from a
+printed book, which suggests Venice as the source of the style of 18853.
+
+
+In the National Library at Paris are, of course, a number of this class
+of MSS., such as the Offices (MS. Lat. 10563), "Officium Beat� Mari�
+Virginis ad usum Romanor" (1531), or the exquisitely painted "Heures de
+Henry 2d" (fds. Lat. 1429), or the magnificent "Epistres d'Ovide" of
+Louisa of Savoy (fds. fr. 875), and others.
+
+By no means of less importance we may cite the beautiful volume
+belonging to the late Comte d'Haussonville, now in the Mus�e Cond� at
+Chantilly, called the "Heures du Conn�table Anne de Montmorency," and
+the "Heures de Dinteville" (MS. Lat. 10558), the decoration of which is
+quite on a par with the "Heures de Montmorency," or those of Henry II.,
+also the Psalter of Claude Gouffier (Arsenal Lib., 5095), containing the
+Psalms of Marot.
+
+It is scarcely worth while to carry the subject further. What is done
+later than Francis II. does not grow finer or better: it only becomes
+more overloaded with ornament, too much gold, too much richness. Even
+foliages are often variegated like pearls, or change gradually from
+colour to colour on the same sweep of acanthus as in a MS. in the
+British Museum attributed to Pierre Mignard ("Sol Gallicus," Add.
+23745). Compare also the "Heures de Louis XIV." Now and then an
+exceptional work, like that of D'Eaubonne at Rouen, belongs to no
+particular school.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE ILLUMINATION
+
+Late period of Spanish illumination--Isidore of Seville--Archives at
+Madrid--Barcelona--Toledo--Madrid--Choir-books of the Escorial--Philip
+II.--Illuminators of the choir-books--The size and beauty of the
+volumes--Fray Andr�s de Leon and other artists--Italian
+influence--Giovanni Battista Scorza of Genoa--Antonio de Holanda,
+well-known Portuguese miniaturist in sixteenth century--His son
+Francesco--The choir-books at Belem--French invasion--Missal of
+Gon�alvez--Sandoval Genealogies--Portuguese Genealogies in British
+Museum--The Stowe Missal of John III.
+
+
+Since all the best and best-known work of Spanish or Portuguese
+illuminators was executed in the sixteenth century, and is manifestly a
+reflection with peculiar mannerisms of either Flemish or Italian
+illumination of the same period, it may seem almost superfluous to
+devote a separate chapter to the subject. Yet there is a goodly list of
+both Spanish and Portuguese artists who practised the art of
+illumination.
+
+So early as the time of Isidore of Seville we find notices of libraries,
+copyists, and the like (see book iv. of his Encyclop�dia), and an able
+writer of the last century, Don Jos� Maria de Eguren, published a work
+on the MS. rarities of Spain.[62] The most important of the miniatures in
+the famous Codex Vigilano are also reproduced in "El Museo Espa�ol de
+antiguedades," most interesting respecting the calligraphy and miniature
+art of the eleventh century.
+
+[62] _Memoria de los Codices notables conservados en los archivos
+ecleseasticos de Espana_. Madrid, 1859, L. 8�.
+
+One of the earliest instances of royal patronage bestowed on painting in
+Spain is a document in the Royal Library at Madrid, containing the
+expenses of King Sanchez IV. in 1291-2. Thus "to Rodrigo Esteban,
+painter of the king for many paintings done by the king's orders in the
+bishop's palace 100 golden maravedis." Again, in the archives at
+Barcelona we find that Juan Cesilles, painter of history, was engaged
+16th March, 1382, to paint the "History of the twelve apostles for the
+grand altar of the Church at Reps for 330 florins." In 1339 one Gonzalez
+Ferran had some reputation both as a wood engraver and a painter. He was
+probably a miniaturist. In 1340-81, Garcia Martinez, a Spanish
+illuminator, worked at Avignon. A copy of the Decretals, dated 1381, in
+the Cathedral Library of Seville is by his hand.
+
+In the fifteenth century we have many notices of painters, especially in
+Toledo, whither the taste was in all likelihood brought from Naples
+after the conquest of that kingdom by Alphonso V. of Aragon in 1441.
+
+It has been observed by those familiar with native Spanish art that its
+chief characteristic is that it is gloomy. This may be so, but it is not
+fairly chargeable to the artists but to the tyranny of the Spanish
+Inquisidor, who laid the embargo on the illuminator that he should not
+follow the wicked gaiety of the Italians, nor the sometimes too
+realistic veracity of the Flemings. This accounts usually for
+backgrounds of black where the Fleming would have had rich colour or
+gold for the prevalence of black in the draperies and for the sombre
+tone in general of Spanish painting. It is not always in evidence, as
+may be seen in many of the miniatures of the famous choir-books in the
+Escorial. The sombre period began under Ferdinand the Catholic, and it
+has left its mark on the schools of the fifteenth century. The sixteenth
+began a new era, and under Philip II. several, both Netherlandish and
+Italian, miniaturists were invited to assist in the production of the
+enormous choir-books ordered by the King for San Lorenzo of the
+Escorial, between 1572 and 1589. The volumes are bound in wooden boards
+covered with leather, stamped and bossed with ornaments of gilded
+bronze. It is said that 5,500 lbs. of bronze and 40 lbs. of pure gold
+were used in the bindings. The actual dimensions of the volumes are 115
+by 84 centimetres. Every volume has at least seventy folios, and every
+folio is splendidly illuminated, thus affording more than 30,000 pages
+covered with richly ornamented initials, miniatures, and borders. The
+illuminators and copyists of these choir-books were Cristobal Ramirez,
+who planned the work, fixed the size and other details of the volumes
+and the character of the handwriting, Fray Andr�s de Leon, Fray Julian
+de Fuente del Saz, Ambrosio Salazar, Fray Martin de Palencia, Francisco
+Hernandez, Pedro Salavarte, and Pedro Gomez. Ramirez was engaged at the
+Escorial from 1566 to 1572. In the latter year he presented a Breviary
+with musical notation to the King, and was then engaged for the great
+undertaking mentioned above.
+
+Andr�s Cristobal was also an illuminator of note at Seville, where he
+worked from 1555 to 1559. Andr�s de Leon worked at the Escorial from
+1568, and is especially mentioned by Los Santos in his well-known
+description of the monastery of San Lorenzo: "Son de gran numero y
+excelencia las iluminaciones que tienen de mano nuestro Fray Andr�s de
+Leon, que fue otro Don Julio en el Arte."[63] The allusion is to the
+celebrated Don Giulio Clovio, then in the height of his fame in Italy.
+Fray Julian received similar praise for a _capitolario_ for the
+principal festivals of the year, especially for the grand dimensions of
+the miniatures, the like of which the writer says had never been seen
+before, either in Spain or Italy. Andr�s de Leon died at the Escorial in
+1580. Salazar continued working on them till they were completed, and in
+1590 went to Toledo, where he finished two Missals for the Cathedral,
+which had been begun by the famous Juan Martinez de los Corrales. He was
+still engaged on similar work until his death in 1604. Two other
+illuminators, Esteban and Julian de Salazar, were working at the
+Escorial in 1585. Bermudez[64] mentions Fray Martin de Palencia as having
+executed a volume in a fine handwriting and with beautiful miniatures
+for the monastery of Saso. Thus we see there were numerous miniaturists
+in Spain in the latest years of the existence of the art that had been
+imported chiefly from Italy.
+
+[63] Fr. Francisco de los Santos, _Description breve del Monasterio de S.
+Lorenzo el Real del Escorial_, 24.
+
+[64] Diccionario, iv. 24.
+
+After most of these great choir-books had been finished there were still
+others in progress. In 1583 Giovanni Battista Scorza of Genoa, who is
+celebrated in the "Galleria" of the Cavaliero Marini, was invited by the
+King to take part in his great choir-book scheme. Scorza was then
+thirty-six years of age, and in the height of his reputation as a
+painter of small animals and insects. After a little time he returned to
+Genoa, where he lived to be ninety years old. He had a brother,
+Sinibaldo, who was equally skilful in miniature, and especially in
+scenes from history. The Scorzas were pupils of Luca Cambiaso. It may be
+noticed that all this work in miniature, although so late in its own
+history, is accomplished before the greatest names in Spanish painting
+are known. Josefo Ribera was born in 1588; Zurbaran in 1598; Velasquez
+in 1599; Alonzo Cano in 1601; Murillo in 1617. This, in a sense, is the
+natural course of things, as, generally, illumination has preceded the
+other kinds of painting.
+
+With regard to Portugal, very little is recorded that does not in some
+way connect itself with Spain. So we find that Antonio and Francesco de
+Holanda, seemingly of Netherlandish origin, are mentioned in relation to
+the books illuminated for the Royal Monastery of Thomar; Francesco also
+worked for the monastery of Belem. Francesco de Holanda was a great
+admirer and imitator of Clovio, but he always insisted that his father
+Antonio was the inventor of the method of "stippling," as the finishing
+with minute points of colour is technically called, which was brought to
+such perfection by Clovio and his scholars and imitators.
+
+Taken altogether, the work of the Spanish illuminators at the Escorial
+and those of Toledo and Seville is really the same, with just the
+variations we might expect from pupils and imitators, as that of their
+masters in Genoa, Rome, Venice, or Bruges. Examples of it may be seen
+occasionally in diplomas, such as are found in the British Museum and
+other public libraries, as, _e.g._ Claud. B. x. Lansd. 189, Add. 12214,
+18191, 27231, etc.
+
+In 1572, the same year in which Luiz de Camoens published his Lusiades,
+an accomplished calligrapher, Miguel Barata, published an elaborate
+treatise on his own art, then in high repute.
+
+In the fourteenth century the Cancioniero of Don Pedro Affonso Ct. de
+Barcellos affords an example of the calligraphy (for which Spain and
+Portugal have always been famous) and illumination which is precious for
+the student. It is still in existence in the Palace of Ajuda. Its date
+is 1320-40. And there are MSS. in the Torre do Tombo of Lisbon that are
+richly illuminated. Again, in Seville there is the "Juego de las
+Tablas," executed under Alphonso the Wise in 1283, with its Gothic
+arcades and ornaments. M. Joaquin de Vasconcellas has made a study of
+this MS. The miniatures of the Torre do Tombo of the thirteenth and
+fourteenth centuries are mostly of the French school.
+
+About 1428 33 was executed a splendid MS. entitled "Leal Conselheiro,"
+which is attributed to a famous miniaturist in his time named Vasco. It
+is, however, simply a monument of penmanship, as it contains no
+miniatures. The MS. has been edited by L'Abb� Roquete in 1842. The
+Portuguese MSS. of the fifteenth century betray a decided Flemish
+influence, as well they may, for probably the producers of them were
+Flemings. Constant intercourse with the Court of Burgundy had something
+to do with this.
+
+The "Chronica do descobrimento e conquista de Guin�," now at Torre do
+Tombo, is clearly a Flemish work. It was begun about 1440, and finished
+in 1453. The portrait of the Enfante Don Henrique, called the Navigator,
+is set in a border evidently by a pupil or imitator of J. Van Eyck. The
+calligraphy of the MS. is most beautiful. This influence of the
+Netherlands on Portuguese art is, indeed, confirmed by the political
+diplomatic relations of the fifteenth century, and is of some importance
+in the history of art. We shall refer again to this matter when dealing
+with another MS.
+
+Among all the calligraphic monuments of Portugal it is claimed that the
+most splendid is the "Bible of the Hieronymites." (See _Revista
+universal Lisbonense_, 1848, pp. 24-8.) This work, it is said, was a
+present from the Court of Rome to Emanuel, successor of John II., in
+remembrance of the homage made to the Holy See, of the first gold
+brought from the Indies, but the story is very doubtful. The King, in
+bequeathing the seven volumes to the convent of Belem, says nothing
+about such an origin. They are manifestly in great part the work of
+foreign artists. One well-known miniaturist, Antonio de Holanda, the
+father of the better-known Francesco, took part in the work, and having
+a good conceit of his own abilities (we shall probably hear of him
+again), reserved an entire volume to himself in order to give proof of
+them. The seven volumes which then were covered with crimson velvet and
+silver bosses and enamels, are now simply bound in red morocco. In the
+middle of each cover are the arms of Emanuel King of Portugal. Vols. v.
+and vii. have those of Dona Isabel, his Spanish wife.
+
+The initials and ornaments show that the art of Italy is freely mixed
+with that of Portugal. Indeed, from the signatures in the volumes it is
+seen that the work of the penman was Italian; vol. i. being written at
+Ferrara by Sigismundo de Sigismundis, the well-known Italian
+calligrapher, in 1495. The second volume, also finished in 1495, bears
+the name of Alessandro Verazzano, another famous copyist, who wrote
+several of the volumes illuminated by Attavante. Vol. iii. is dated
+1496, and is unsigned. The next three volumes are also without
+signature. Vol. vii. is the work of Antonio de Holanda, who from his
+name appears to have been of Dutch descent. His work is certainly
+excellent, and renders this volume a very precious monument of the art
+of Portugal. He was the official herald of the King, and he and his son
+Francesco gave their whole time to the practice of illumination. His
+son's Memoirs give a most interesting account of his travels and
+intercourse with Giulio Clovio and the other Italian artists whom he met
+with in Rome.[65] For some years the Hieronymite Bible was in Paris,
+having been brought thither by Marshal Junot, where it remained
+unnoticed for several years. Being called for by the Portuguese
+Government, Louis XVIII. paid 50,000 francs to the family of Junot, and
+restored it to the monastery of Belem. A splendidly illuminated atlas by
+an illuminator and cartographer named Fernando Vas Dourado was published
+in the year of his death, 1571.
+
+[65] See my Life of Clovio.
+
+As an important example of what we may fairly call native art, we will
+now briefly refer to the celebrated Missal of Estevam Gon�alvez Neto,
+one of the productions of the busy second half of the sixteenth century.
+The clever amateur who achieved this beautiful series of paintings, for
+paintings they are, in addition to the writing and other ornamentation
+of the MS., was descended from a noble family of S�rem, in the parish of
+Macinhata, forty-three leagues from Lisbon. He became Canon of Viseu,
+and during his leisure, after this appointment, executed the Pontifical
+Missal which bears his name. It is dedicated to Don Jos� Manuel, of the
+House of Tancos, Bishop of Viseu, afterwards of Coimbra, and lastly
+Archbishop of Lisbon. This prelate gave the book to the Church of Viseu.
+The original MS. was afterwards in the library of the Convent of Jesus,
+and is now in the Academy of Sciences at Lisbon. Stephen Gonsalvez died
+July 29th, 1627. The Missal is signed: "Steph. Glz. Abbas Sereicencis
+fac. 1610." It has been very well reproduced in colours by Macia, of
+Paris.
+
+The "Genealogies of the House of Sandoval," written and painted in
+Lisbon in 1612, is now in Paris. It is called "Genealogia universal de
+la Nobilissima casa de Sandoval Ramo del Generoso tronco de los
+soberanos Reyes de Castilla y Leon. Por Don Melchior de Teves del
+Conseio Real de Castilla del Rey D? Philippe III."
+
+At the foot of the page is written "Eduardus Caldiera Vlisspone
+scripsit, Anno Dni MDCXII." This magnificent MS., which measures
+forty-six by thirty centimetres, is numbered in the Catalogue of the
+National Library as 10015. A grand frontispiece, formed of two columns
+of the Composite Order, occupies the first page, representing a king in
+royal robes and crown arresting the wheel of Fortune. Two lions
+accompany the scene, and the motto of the picture is "Virtute duce non
+comite Fortuna." Page 2 contains the various escutcheons of the family
+of the Count of Lerma, for whom the book was written. It contains a
+great number of portraits. A final instance of the influence, or rather
+the inroad, of Flemish art in Portugal in the fifteenth century may be
+shown in the MS. called the Portuguese Genealogies in the British
+Museum.
+
+The work consists of eleven large folio sheets separately mounted and
+measuring eighteen by ten inches. It commences with a prologue, with the
+arms of Portugal supported by two savages, having clubs and shields.
+Outside the inner frame are three scenes: (1) wild animals in combat;
+(2) a sea-nymph being rescued; (3) a fight among sylvan savages. Next
+comes a series of portraits painted in the most finished and life-like
+style, beginning with Dom Garcia F� del rey Abarca and Dona Constancia
+on a fruitful tree with foliage, fruits, and birds, a cat, and other
+things. The tree is an oak, beside it are apple and cherry trees. On the
+oak are green acorns. The birds are very beautiful, the cat simply
+perfect. These details recall the highly finished and lovely work of
+Georg Hoefnagel on the great Missal at Vienna. Gothic brown-gold
+architecture and three battle scenes complete the page.
+
+Then follow the genealogical tables, and more portraits, the whole
+showing the most patient and careful work. Letters on the borders of the
+robes recall the same kind of ornament in the Grimani Breviary at
+Venice. No one has been able to explain these curious inscriptions. In
+the Grimani Breviary they were thought to be either Croatian or merely
+ornament. Here they cannot well mean anything but decoration. The
+portraits are fanciful but interesting mementoes of the period, and
+include several personages noted in history.
+
+The last MS. to be mentioned in this hasty sketch is one in the British
+Museum (Stowe 597). It is a "Missale Romanum," and is said to have been
+illuminated for John III. in 1557. It was once the property of the Abb�
+Gamier, chaplain for near thirty years, of the French factory at Lisbon.
+The binding is red morocco, and once had silver clasps.
+
+It commences with a large mirror-like oval tablet, containing the title,
+set between two pillars of pink-veined marble with bronze-gold capitals
+and bases. The tablet is crimson with a violet-slate frame moulding of
+egg and dart pattern. At foot are two Roman legionaries, one seated as
+supporting the tablet, on each side. On folio 3 is the index in a
+rose-wood panel and pale green frame. The peculiar forms of the frames
+and the scroll-work on them are of the fantastic kind, differing from
+Italian, which is characteristic both of Spanish and Portuguese
+ornament. The chief colours are a bright emerald green and blue, with
+ochre, gold, and crimson. The initials are still more fantastic--partly
+human, partly plant or fish-form, sometimes sculptured ornament and
+plant-forms combined--but all so sweetly painted and so delicately
+finished as to be most attractive. The text is a fine and elegant Roman
+minuscule interspersed with italic.
+
+Here and there are exquisite little drawings of ecclesiastical utensils,
+etc., but the everlasting variety among the quaint and fanciful initials
+provides an unwearying fund of interest. Tiny birds of the loveliest
+plumage sit among and beneath the limbs of the letters, or elegant
+scrolls of pencilled gold cover the little coloured panels on which the
+plain gold Roman initials are placed. Some of the larger initials are
+very finely executed and contain full-length figures of saints, bishops,
+or queens. One lovely initial B has a graceful girl simply clad in blue
+tunic and pale yellow skirt with a silken coil of pale rose forming the
+upper loop of the letter, the lower being formed of the curved body of a
+green dragon. Her left hand lifts the silk-work, her right, hanging by
+her side, holds a little golden pitcher. The whole is painted on a panel
+of bright gold. Another (L) shows a peasant rushing laughingly, with a
+hare slung over his shoulder, past the figure of a guardian terminus of
+bronze. But the Missal should be seen to be properly understood, for
+though in a general way it has a look of Italian influence, its
+originality is beyond question.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+ILLUMINATION SINCE THE INVENTION OF PRINTING
+
+The invention of printing--Its very slight effect on
+illuminating--Preference by rich patrons for written books--Work
+produced in various cities in the sixteenth century--Examples in German,
+Italian, and other cities, and in various public libraries up to the
+present time.
+
+
+The art of printing, as the reading world has been frequently informed,
+was invented in the fifteenth century, and undoubtedly had, to a
+considerable extent, a destructive effect upon the craft of professional
+copyists. But in the fifteenth century the art of the writer and that of
+the illuminator had long been separate professions. There was no
+particular reason, therefore, why the invention of printing should
+interfere with the illuminator. As a matter of fact, it made little
+difference. Nor, indeed, did printing entirely put a stop to the
+professional career of the scribe. It was prophesied, before practical
+experience of facts proved the contrary, that the invention of the
+railway engine would abolish the horse. The printing-press did not
+abolish the penman, but it certainly spoiled his trade. We have seen in
+the course of the preceding chapters that it did not spoil the trade of
+the illuminator. Nor was it quite owing to the fact that many printed
+books were so adorned as to appear like illuminated MSS. More than one
+wealthy patron absolutely declined to have anything to do with printed
+books. The matter was too vulgar and too cheap. The last Duke of Urbino
+was a prince of this lofty way of thinking, and scarcely a court in
+Europe but continued to have MSS. produced as if no such thing as the
+printing-press were known. How they were multiplied in Spain and France
+we have seen in detail. We will now proceed to take a farewell look at
+the German and Italian libraries, in order to see how the illustrious
+presses of Mainz, Strassburg, Augsburg, K�ln, Munich, Vienna, Venice,
+Milan, Florence, and Rome affected the ateliers of the great schools of
+illumination established in most of these cities. What do we find? In
+point of fact, some of the richest, most magnificent books ever produced
+by the illuminator, not only whilst the press was still a novelty, but
+long after it had become perfectly familiar to everybody. For several of
+the cities aforesaid we have the means of proof: thus for Mainz, at the
+end of the superb copy of the Mazarine Bible, now at Paris, is the
+following inscription: "Iste liber illuminatus, legatus and completus
+est henricum Cremer vicari? ecclesie collegiate Sancti Stephani
+Moguntini sub anno dni Melesimo quatring entesimo quinquagesimo Sexto,
+festo assumptiois gloriose Virginis Marie. Deo gratias alleluya." This
+was in 1456, the year before the first press was set up. In 1524 we have
+two most splendidly illuminated MSS.--a Missal and a Prayer-book--executed by order of Albert of Brandenburg, Archbishop of
+Mainz. Two richer examples of the German Renaissance cannot easily be
+imagined. We cannot dilate upon them. We may, however, truly say that
+together with very many other examples of illuminated work, both in
+manuscripts and printed books, they show the art of the illuminator to be
+no less splendid or elaborate after the invention of printing than it
+was before.
+
+On the last page of the Missal is written: "Ich Niklas Glockendon zu
+Nurenberg hab dieses Bhuch illuminiert ond vollent im jar 1524."
+
+The Prayer-book is similarly adorned with miniatures and brightly
+coloured borders. On the cover is a copy of the Archbishop's portrait,
+painted by D�rer, and on folio 1 is written by the Archbishop himself:
+"Anno domini MDXXXI completum est presens opus, Sabbato post
+'Invocavit.' Albertus Cardinalis moguntinus manu propria scripsit."
+
+Other Glockendon books exist in other libraries. Then there is the Beham
+Prayer-book at Aschaffenburg and a Bible in the library at Wolfenb�ttel
+in two thick 4� volumes--a work well worth examination. At Nuremberg is
+the Service-book executed by Conrad Frankendorfer, of Nuremberg, in
+1498.
+
+In the British Museum is the fine German MS.--the Splendor Sous, a
+sixteenth century MS. (Harl. 3469).
+
+In the National Library at Paris is the Prayer-book of William of Baden
+(10567-8) executed at Strassburg by Frederic Brentel in 1647.
+
+Augsburg was producing illuminated Service-books ten years after G�nther
+Zainer had set up the press in that city.
+
+Munich, also, with the Penitential Psalms, etc., by Hans Mielich.
+Vienna, too, can show a magnificent Missal by Georg Hoefnagel, bearing
+the dates 1582 to 1590. Venice is represented in the work of Benedetto
+Bordone and the Ducali. Florence in the splendid Missals, etc., of
+Attavante and his contemporaries.
+
+Milan shows the gorgeous Graduals of the Brera belonging to the
+sixteenth century and the Sforziadas of London and Paris. So we might
+pass from city to city almost all over Western Europe. The great Spanish
+choir-books were almost all produced under Philip II. Several Papal
+Service-books are represented in the fifteenth-and sixteenth-century
+examples of the scrap-book 21412 of the British Museum; and the works of
+Clovio, the most noted of Italian illuminators, all belong to the
+sixteenth century.
+
+These instances are amply sufficient to prove that in every city in
+Europe where printing was in full practice the art of the illuminator
+continued to flourish until the progress of modern inventions and
+various processes, added to the general cheapening of books, led to its
+disuse. Its present application seems to be almost solely to diplomas
+and testimonials, and in point of quality, usually as poor and
+spiritless as the incapacity of most of its professors can make it.
+
+There seems, however, no reason why the artistic skill and elaborate
+methods of reproduction of the present day should not produce
+magnificent books--indeed the "Imitation" of Thomas � Kempis, and other
+continental examples prove that this is amply possible.
+
+The next few years will probably show that readers are still desirous of
+possessing beautiful books, and that artists are still found capable of
+producing them.
+
+
+
+
+MANUSCRIPTS THAT MAY BE CONSULTED AS EXAMPLES
+
+(Partly taken by permission from the Victoria and Albert Museum
+Handbook)
+
+CLASSICAL AND EARLY CHRISTIAN
+
+--+------------- +-------------------------+---------+---------------------
+No|    Name.    |   Where    | Where Kept. |  Date.  |      Remarks.
+  |             |  Produced. |             |         |
+--+-------------+------------+-------------+---------+---------------------
+ 1|Vergil       |......      |Vatican Lib.,|3rd or   |Doubtful which is the
+  |(fragment)   |            |Rome, Cod.   |4th cent.|older
+  |             |            |Vat. 3225    |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 2|Vergil       |......      |Vat. Lib.    |4th cent.|"
+  |             |            |3867         |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 3|Rom.         |......      |Imp. Lib.,   |"        |
+  |Calend.(f.)  |            |Vienna       |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 4|Genesis (f.) |......      |"            |5th cent.|Gold and silver text
+  |             |            |             |         |on purple vellum; 88
+  |             |            |             |         |miniatures.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 5|Genesis (f.) |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |"        |Much burnt in 1731.
+  |             |            |Cott. Oth. B.|         |
+  |             |            |6            |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 6|Iliad (f.)   |......      |Ambros. Lib.,|"        |Fine handwriting and
+  |             |            |Milan        |         |clever pictures.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 7|Joshua (f. of|......      |Vat. Lib.,   |......   |15 leaves, 32 ft.
+  |Roll)        |            |Rome         |         |long, 11 in. wide.
+  |             |            |             |         |Contains from ch.
+  |             |            |             |         |222 to 1018, brush
+  |             |            |             |         |outlines to
+  |             |            |             |         |miniatures. Rivers,
+  |             |            |             |         |etc., personified in
+  |             |            |             |         |Byzantine manner.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 8|Dioscorides, |......      |Imp. Lib.,   |_c._     |Personifications of
+  |etc.         |            |Vienna       |500-5    |abstract qualities.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 9|Bible of     |......      |Laurent.     |_c._ 540 |Valuable as a
+  |Montamiata   |            |Lib.,        |         |theological document,
+  |             |            |Florence     |         |but poor work, and in
+  |             |            |             |         |bad condition.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+10|Syriac       |Monastery of|"            |_c._ 586 |Brought to Florence
+  |Gospels      |Zagba, in   |             |         |in 1497. Remarkable
+  |             |Mesopotamia |             |         |Crucifixion, see
+  |             |            |             |         |_Byzantine_, 1.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+11|Terence      |......      |Nat. Lib.,   |9th cent.|Copy of a 5th-cent.
+  |             |            |Paris        |         |MS. pen-drawings.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+12|Pentateuch   |Tours       |Nat. Lib.,   |7th cent.|Called the Ashburnham
+  |             |            |Paris, Nouv. |         |Pentateuch; 19 large
+  |             |            |acq. 2334    |         |miniatures.
+
+
+BYZANTINE
+
+--+-------------+------------+-------------+---------+---------------------
+No|    Name.    |   Where    | Where Kept. |  Date.  |      Remarks.
+  |             |  Produced. |             |         |
+--+-------------+------------+-------------+---------+---------------------
+ 1|Syriac       |Zagba, in   |Laur. Lib.,  |_c._ 586 |Shows Byzantine
+  |Gospels      |Mesopotamia |Florence     |         |influence.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 2|Gospel-book  |Byzantium   |Brit. Mus.,  |6th cent.|Lettering, etc., on
+  |(f.)         |            |Add. 5111    |         |gold ground.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 3|Menologium   |"           |Vat. Lib.,   |9th cent.|A typical Byzantine
+  |             |            |Gr. 1613     |         |MS.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 4|Gregory of   |Byzantium   |Nat. Lib.,   |9th cent.|Fine antique design
+  |Nazianzum    |            |Paris, Gr.   |         |and composition.
+  |             |            |510          |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 5|"            |"           |Nat. Lib.,   |"        |Good small figures.
+  |             |            |Paris, Gr.   |         |
+  |             |            |543          |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 6|"            |"           |Nat. Lib.,   |"        |Good small figures
+  |             |            |Paris, Gr.   |         |and headings.
+  |             |            |550          |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 7|Evangeliary  |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |"        |
+  |             |            |Arund. 547   |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 8|"            |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |"        |
+  |             |            |Burney 19,   |         |
+  |             |            |20.          |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 9|Lectionary   |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |10th     |Fine initials.
+  |             |            |Harl. 5598   |cent.,   |
+  |             |            |             |end      |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+10|Chrysostom   |......      |Nat. Lib.,   |10th     |Remarkable initials.
+  |             |            |Paris, Gr.   |cent.    |
+  |             |            |654          |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+11|Simeon       |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |11th     |Fine ornaments.
+  |Metaphrastes |            |Add. 11870   |cent.    |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+12|Evangeliary  |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |"        |Beautiful headings.
+  |             |            |Add. 11838   |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+13|Psalter      |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |12th     |Executed for
+  |             |            |Add. Egert.  |cent.    |Melisenda, daughter
+  |             |            |1139         |         |of King of Jerusalem.
+
+
+IRISH OR CELTIC
+
+--+-------------+--------------------------+---------+---------------------
+No|    Name.    |   Where    | Where Kept. |  Date.  |      Remarks.
+  |             |  Produced. |             |         |
+--+-------------+------------+-------------+---------+---------------------
+ 1|Gospels of   |......      |Trin. Coll., |7th cent.|
+  |St. Columba  |            |Dublin       |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 2|Gospels of   |St. Arnoul's|Nuremberg    |"        |
+  |St. Arnoul,  |Abbey, Metz |Museum       |         |
+  |of Metz      |            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 3|Book of St.  |......      |Roy. Lib.,   |"        |
+  |Columbanus   |            |Naples       |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 4|Bible of St. |......      |Cath. Lib.,  |8th cent.|Curious Crucifixion.
+  |Kilian       |            |Wurzburg     |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 5|Gospels of   |Monastery of|Pub. Lib.,   |"        |Signed "Thomas
+  |"Thomas"     |Hanow       |Tr�ves       |         |scribsit."
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 6|Psalter      |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |"        |Anglo-Irish, with
+  |             |            |Cott. Vesp.  |         |arched frame-border.
+  |             |            |a. 1         |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 7|Gospels of   |......      |Bodl. Lib.,  |9th cent.|_See_ Westwood,
+  |MacRegol     |            |Oxford       |         |_Pal�ographia Sacra
+  |             |            |             |         |Pict._, pl. 16.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 8|Book of      |......      |Roy. Irish   |"        |P. 103. Remarkable.
+  |Armagh       |            |Acad., Dublin|         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 9|St. Chad's   |......      |Lichfield    |"        |Fine Anglo-Irish.
+  |Gospels      |            |Cath. Lib.   |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+10|Lindisfarne  |Lindisfarne |Brit. Mus.,  |7th cent.|Anglo-Celtic--a very
+  |Gospels      |Monastery   |Cott, Nero D.|         |fine example.
+  |             |            |4            |         |
+
+
+CAROLINGIAN
+
+--+-------------+--------------------------+---------+---------------------
+No|    Name.    |   Where    | Where Kept. |  Date.  |      Remarks.
+  |             |  Produced. |             |         |
+--+-------------+------------+-------------+---------+---------------------
+ 1|Sacramentary |Abbey of    |Nat. Lib.,   |_c._ 750 |Symbolism. Given by
+  |             |Gellone     |Paris, MS.   |         |Ct. William of
+  |             |            |Lat. 12048   |         |Toulouse.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 2|Ada-Codex    |Abbey of St.|Municip.     |_c._ 775 |Written for Ada,
+  |             |Mesmin, of  |Lib., Tr�ves |         |sister of
+  |             |Tr�ves      |             |         |Charlemagne, Abbess
+  |             |            |             |         |of St. Mesmin.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 3|Psalter of   |.....       |Imp. Lib.,   |_c._ 780 |Written for Queen
+  |Dagolfus     |            |Vienna Theol.|         |Hildegardis, wife of
+  |             |            |Lat. 1861    |         |Charlemagne.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 4|Evangeliarium|Abbey of St.|Nat. Lib.,   |"        |Written for
+  |of Godescale |Sernin, of  |Paris, nouv. |         |Charlemagne and
+  |             |Toulouse    |acq. 1203    |         |Hildegardis. Has gold
+  |             |            |             |         |and silver letters on
+  |             |            |             |         |purple vellum.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 5|Sacramentary |Abbey of St.|Abb. St.     |"        |Franco-Saxon.
+  |of Gelasius  |Gall        |Gall, No. 348|         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 6|Evangeliarium|Abbey of St.|Town Lib.,   |_c._ 793 |On purple vellum.
+  |of St.       |Riquier     |Abbeville    |         |
+  |Angilbert    |            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 7|Alcuin Bible |Abbey of    |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 800 |Coronation gift to
+  |             |Tours       |Add. 10546   |         |Charlemagne. Very
+  |             |            |             |         |fine example.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 8|Bible        |Tours       |Cantonal     |"        |Like 7.
+  |             |            |Lib., Zurich |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 9|"            |"           |Bamberg Roy. |"        |Said to be an exact
+  |             |            |Lib          |         |copy of 7.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+10|Gospels of   |"           |Imp. Lib.,   |"        |Found by Emperor Otho
+  |Charles the  |            |Vienna       |         |III. in tomb of
+  |Great        |            |             |         |Charlemagne.
+  |(Charlemagne)|            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+11|Sacramentary |Abbey of    |Nat. Lib.    |_c._ 814 |The gift of
+  |of Drogo,    |Metz, or    |Paris, Theol.|         |Charlemagne to his
+  |Abp. of Metz |Tours       |Lat. 9428    |         |natural son Drogo.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+12|Golden       |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 835 |A splendid example.
+  |Gospels of   |            |Harl. 2788   |         |
+  |Athelstan    |            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+13|Golden       |......      |Roy. Lib.,   |_c._ 850 |Ditto, written in
+  |Gospels of   |            |Munich       |         |gold letters.
+  |Charles the  |            |             |         |
+  |Bald         |            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+14|Evangeliary  |Abbey of St.|Nat. Lib.,   |"        |Remarkably beautiful.
+  |of Lothaire  |Martin's,   |Paris, Theol.|         |
+  |             |Tours       |Lat. 266     |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+15|Golden       |Abbey of St.|Nat. Lib.,   |"        |One of most beautiful
+  |Gospels      |M�dard, of  |Paris, Theol.|         |Carol. MSS. known.
+  |             |Soissons    |Lat 8850     |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+16|Bible of     |Abbey of St.|Nat. Lib.,   |"        |Presented to Charles
+  |Count Vivien |Martin, of  |Paris, Theol.|         |the Bald in 850.
+  |             |Tours       |Lat 1        |         |Miniature of
+  |             |            |             |         |presentation.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+17|Bible of St. |......      |Monastery of |_c._ 860 |Written for Charles
+  |Paul's       |            |St. Calixtus,|         |the Bald by Ingobert.
+  |             |            |Rome         |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+18|Prayer-book  |......      |Nat Lib.,    |_c._ 866 |Written by Ingobert
+  |(or Hours) of|            |Paris        |         |and presented to
+  |Charles the  |            |             |         |Charles the Bald in
+  |Bald         |            |             |         |866.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+19|Golden       |Abbey of St.|Lib. at St.  |_c._ 870 |Written for Abbot
+  |Gospels of   |Gall        |Gall, No. 22 |         |Grimwold, or Hartmut.
+  |St. Gall     |            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+20|Psalter of   |"           |Lib. at St.  |"        |Written for Abbot
+  |Folchard     |            |Gall, No. 23 |         |Hartmut. Gold and
+  |             |            |             |         |silver initials.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+21|Evangeliarium|St. Gall    |Lib., St.    |_c._ 920 |Written by Sintramn
+  |Longum       |            |Gall         |         |of the "Wondrous
+  |             |            |             |         |Hand." Profile
+22|Evangeliary  |......      |Roy. Lib.,   |_c._ 925 |foliages in gold and
+  |             |            |Brussels, No.|         |silver.
+  |             |            |16383        |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+23|"            |......      |Nat. Lib.,   |_c._ 940 |Large 4�, written
+  |             |            |Paris        |         |entirely in gold
+  |             |            |             |         |letters; 5 miniatures
+  |             |            |             |         |and 12 porticoes.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+24|Psalter      |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 995 |Transition to the
+  |             |            |Harl. 2904   |         |style of the
+  |             |            |             |         |Benedictionals.
+
+
+WINCHESTER WORK AND SIMILAR
+
+--+-------------+--------------------------+---------+---------------------
+No|    Name.    |   Where    | Where Kept. |  Date.  |      Remarks.
+  |             |  Produced. |             |         |
+--+-------------+------------+-------------+---------+---------------------
+ 1|King Edgar's |Hyde Abbey, |Brit. Mus.,  |966      |Style of the
+  |Charter      |Winchester  |Cott. Vesp.  |         |Benedictionals of
+  |             |            |A. 8         |         |�thelwold and Robert.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 2|Breviarium   |Monte       |Mazarine     |......   |Tendency to same
+  |Cassinense   |Cassino?    |Lib., Paris, |         |style colouring as in
+  |             |            |759          |         |school of Metz.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 3|�thelwold's  |Hyde Abbey, |Lib. of Duke |_c._ 970 |Best example known.
+  |Benedictional|Winchester  |of Devonshire|         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 4|Benedictional|"           |Pub. Lib.,   |_c._ 980 |Drawing bold, but
+  |of Abp.      |            |Rouen        |         |colouring unequal to
+  |Robert       |            |             |         |3.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 5|Gospels      |......      |Trin. Coll., |_c._ 900 |Borders like
+  |             |            |Camb         |         |Winchester work.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 6|Psalter      |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |......   |Fol. frames similar.
+  |             |            |Harl. 2904   |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 7|"            |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1000|Init. D on f. 115.
+  |             |            |Tib. C. 7    |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 8|"            |Winchester  |Brit. Mus.,  |"        |
+  |             |            |Arund. 60    |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 9|"            |"           |Brit. Mus.,  |"        |
+  |             |            |Arund. 155   |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+10|Cnut's       |"           |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1017|Fine example.
+  |Gospels      |            |Roy. 1 D. 9  |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+11|Leofric      |......      |Bodl. Lib.,  |10th     |Byzantine influence.
+  |Missal       |            |Oxford No.   |cent.    |
+  |             |            |579          |         |
+
+
+MONASTIC STYLES
+
+--+-------------+--------------------------+---------+---------------------
+No|    Name.    |   Where    | Where Kept. |  Date.  |      Remarks.
+  |             |  Produced. |             |         |
+--+-------------+------------+-------------+---------+---------------------
+ 1|Weissobrun   |Weissobrun  |Roy. Lib.,   |_c._ 814 |Netherlandish.
+  |Prayer-book  |            |Munich       |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 2|Gospels      |......      |Nat. Lib.,   |_c._ 975 |Medallions of
+  |             |            |Paris, 8851  |         |Emperors Henry I. and
+  |             |            |             |         |Otho I and II.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 3|Egbert Codex |Reichenau   |Pub. Lib.    |977-93   |Beautiful initials.
+  |             |            |Tr�ves, No.  |         |
+  |             |            |24           |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 4|Gospels      |Echternach  |Gotha Museum |_c._ 990 |Portrait of Otho III.
+  |             |            |             |         |and Theophanu.
+  |             |            |             |         |Jewelled covers.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 5|Otho Codex   |......      |Roy. Lib.,   |_c._ 998 |See p. 91.
+  |             |            |Munich Cimel.|         |
+  |             |            |58           |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 6|Gospels      |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |10th     |Branch-work initials.
+  |             |            |Egert. 608   |cent.    |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 7|Bernward's   |Hildesheim  |Cath. Lib.,  |993-1022 |
+  |Gospels      |            |Hildesheim   |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 8|Ellinger's   |Tegernsee   |Roy. Lib.,   |_c._ 1056|
+  |Gospels      |            |Munich No. 31|         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 9|Hortus       |Landsberg   |Formerly at  |_c._     |Burnt in 1670.
+  |Deliciarum   |            |Strassburg   |1175-80  |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+10|Life of      |Tegernsee   |Roy. Lib.,   |1173-1200|Written, etc., for
+  |Virgin       |            |Berlin       |         |the Emperor Frederick
+  |             |            |             |         |I. by Werinher.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+11|Plenarium    |Quedlinburg |Town Lib.,   |1184-1203|Written for Abbess
+  |             |            |Quedlinburg  |         |Agnes.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+12|Passionale   |Arnstein,   |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1194|
+  |             |near Tr�ves |Harl. 2800-2 |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+13|Bible        |"           |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1190|
+  |             |            |Harl. 2803   |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+14|"            |Floreffe    |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1253|Chronological tables
+  |             |            |Add. 17737-8 |         |in coloured inks.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+15|Missal       |St. Bavon of|Brit. Mus.,  |1150-1175|
+  |             |Ghent       |Add. 16949   |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+16|Chronicle of |......      |Roy. Lib.,   |......   |Fine miniatures--
+  |Jerusalem    |            |Brussels, No.|         |costumes.
+  |             |            |11142        |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+17|Psalter      |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |12th     |Transition from
+  |             |            |Arund. 157   |cent.    |Winchester to
+  |             |            |             |         |Othonian.
+18|"            |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |"        |
+  |             |            |Lansd. 420   |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+19|"            |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |"        |
+  |             |            |Lansd. 431   |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+20|"            |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |"        |
+  |             |            |Roy. I D.X.  |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+21|Bible        |St.         |Brit. Mus.,  |"        |Typical 12th cent.
+  |             |Nicholas, of|Harl. 2798   |         |MS.
+  |             |Arnstein    |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+22|Vauclere     |......      |Pub. Lib.,   |......   |A perfect type of
+  |Psalter      |            |Laon, No. 29 |         |12th cent.
+  |             |            |             |         |illumination.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+23|Mater        |Scheyern    |Roy. Lib.,   |......   |By Conrad of
+  |Verborum     |            |Munich       |         |Scheyern, with all
+  |             |            |             |         |manner of diagrams,
+  |             |            |             |         |etc.
+
+
+FRENCH AND ANGLO-FRENCH GOTHIC
+
+--+-------------+--------------------------+---------+---------------------
+No|    Name.    |   Where    | Where Kept. |  Date.  |      Remarks.
+  |             |  Produced. |             |         |
+--+-------------+------------+-------------+---------+---------------------
+ 1|Psalter of   |.....       |Mus�e Cond�, |1193-1236|27 large miniatures
+  |Queen        |            |Ghantilly    |         |Transitional to
+  |Ingeburga    |            |             |         |Gothic
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 2|Psalter of   |.....       |Arsenal Lib.,|_c._ 1220|Hieratic, and
+  |Queen        |            |Paris, Theol.|         |transitional to
+  |Blanche,     |            |Lat. 165 B.  |         |Gothic.
+  |mother of    |            |             |         |
+  |Louis IX.    |            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 3|Psalter of   |.....       |Nat. Lib.,   |_c._ 1250|Transitional to
+  |St. Louis    |            |Paris, No.   |         |Gothic. 78 delicate
+  |(IX.)        |            |10525        |         |miniatures.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 4|Joinville's  |.....       |Nat. Lib.,   |1287     |Gothic portrait of
+  |Credo        |            |Paris        |         |St. Louis.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 5|Alfonso      |Blackfriar's|Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1284|See article in _Fine
+  |Psalter      |London      |Add. 24686   |         |Arts Qu. Rev._, i.
+  |(Tenison)    |            |             |         |77, and
+  |             |            |             |         |_Bibliographica_, pt.
+  |             |            |             |         |4.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 6|Bible        |.....       |Brit. Mus.,  |1225-52  |Richly illuminated.
+  |             |            |Burney 3     |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 7|Somme le Roy |.....       |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1300|9 large
+  |             |            |Add. 28162   |         |illuminations.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 8|Life of St.  |.....       |Nat. Lib.,   |1316-22  |Contains view of
+  |Denis        |            |Paris, fds.  |         |Paris, and portrait
+  |             |            |fr. 2090-2   |         |of Philip V.
+  |             |            |             |         |Drolleries, coloured
+  |             |            |             |         |shading of draperies.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 9|Bible        |.....       |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._     |Typical work,
+  |             |            |Roy. 1 D. 1  |1310-15  |English.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+10|Ormsby       |Norwich     |Bodl. Lib.,  |_c._ 1295|English work.
+  |Psalter      |            |Oxford, Douce|         |
+  |             |            |366          |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+11|Bible        |.....       |Brit. Mus,   |Late 13th|A typical MS.
+  |             |            |Add. 17341   |cent.    |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+12|Psalter      |.....       |Brit. Mus.,  |Early    |Drolleries and
+  |             |            |Roy. 2 B. 7  |14th     |interesting scenes.
+  |             |            |             |cent.    |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+13|Miroir       |.....       |Arsen. Lib., |_c._ 1356|Large folio richly
+  |Historiale   |            |Paris        |         |illuminated.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+14|Louterell    |.....       |Lulworth     |_c._ 1340|Fine diapered
+  |Psalter      |            |Castle       |         |backgrounds.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+15|Missal       |.....       |Westreenen   |1366     |"Gouache" painting in
+  |             |            |Mus., The    |         |miniatures.
+  |             |            |Hague        |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+16|Chronicle of |.....       |Nat. Lib.,   |1375-80  |Miniature in gold and
+  |St. Denis    |            |Paris, 8395  |         |grey.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+17|Hours of     |.....       |Roy. Lib.,   |Finished |Illuminated by Andr�
+  |John, Duke of|            |Brussels,    |1380     |Beauneveu and
+  |Berry        |            |11060        |         |Jacquemart de Hesdin.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+18|Epistle to   |Paris       |Brit. Mus.,  |1370-80  |Fine ivy-branch
+  |Richard II.  |            |Roy. 20 B. 6 |         |style.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+19|Offices      |.....       |Brit. Mus.,  |.....    |Prayer-book of
+  |B.M.V.       |            |Harl. 2897   |         |Margaret of Bavaria.
+  |             |            |             |         |A typical MS.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+20|Little Hours |.....       |Nat. Lib.,   |_c._ 1400|113 beautiful
+  |of Berry     |            |Paris, 18014 |         |miniatures.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+21|Psalter of   |Paris       |Nat. Lib.,   |1401     |Contains 24 fine
+  |the Duke of  |            |Paris, No.   |         |miniatures by Andr�
+  |Berry        |            |13091        |         |Beauneveu.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+22|Grandes      |"           |Nat. Lib.,   |1409     |By Jacquemart de
+  |Heures de    |            |Paris, fds.  |         |Hesdin, Andr�
+  |Berry        |            |Lat. 919     |         |Beauneveu, and Pol de
+  |             |            |             |         |Limbourg.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+23|Heures de    |"           |Mus�e Dond�, |1410     |Considered the finest
+  |Berry        |            |Chantilly    |         |example known.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+24|Poems of     |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |1400-6   |Fine miniatures--
+  |Christine de |            |Harl. 4431   |         |costumes and
+  |Pisan        |            |             |         |portraits.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+25|Talbot       |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |1400     |Curious miniatures,
+  |Romances     |            |Roy. 15 E. 6 |         |portraits of Henry
+  |             |            |             |         |VI., etc.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+26|Bedford      |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1435|Richly illuminated.
+  |Offices      |            |Add. 18850   |         |Contains French,
+  |             |            |             |         |English, and
+  |             |            |             |         |Netherlandish work.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+27|Bedford      |......      |Nat. Lib.,   |_c._ 1430|Contains English and
+  |Breviary     |            |Paris, fds.  |         |French work.
+  |             |            |Lat. 17294   |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+28|Pontifical   |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1450|Fine borders.
+  |             |            |Add. 16610   |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+29|Valerius     |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |"        |Northern French and
+  |Maximus      |            |Harl. 4375   |         |Netherlandish.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+30|Girart de    |......      |Nat. Lib.,   |_c._ 1470|Netherlandish--
+  |Nevers       |            |Paris, fds.  |         |costumes, etc.
+  |             |            |fr. 4092     |         |
+
+
+GERMAN AND BOHEMIAN
+
+--+-------------+--------------------------+---------+---------------------
+No|    Name.    |   Where    | Where Kept. |  Date.  |      Remarks.
+  |             |  Produced. |             |         |
+--+-------------+------------+-------------+---------+---------------------
+ 1|Minnelieder  |......      |Nat. Lib.,   |_c._ 1300|Hunting scenes,
+  |             |            |Paris, fds.  |         |costumes.
+  |             |            |fr. 7266     |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 2|Wilhelm von  |......      |Pub. Lib.,   |1334     |Written for Henry
+  |Oranse       |            |Cassel       |         |Landgrave of Hesse.
+  |             |            |             |         |French influence.
+ 3|Picture Bible|......      |Lib. of      |_c._ 1300|
+  |             |            |Prince       |         |
+  |             |            |Lobkowitz,   |         |
+  |             |            |Prag         |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 4|Passionale of|Prag        |Univ. Lib.,  |1312     |Transparent
+  |Abbess       |            |Prag, xiv. A.|         |water-colour. No
+  |Cunigunda    |            |17           |         |French influence.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 5|Weltchronik  |......      |Roy. Lib.,   |_c._ 1350|Old Cologne school.
+  |of Rudolf v. |            |Stuttgart    |         |
+  |Hohen-Ems    |            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 6|Liber        |Prag        |Bohem. Mus., |_c._ 1360|Written for John v.
+  |Viaticus     |            |Prag         |         |Neumarkt, Bishop of
+  |             |            |             |         |Leitomischl.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 7|Mariale      |"           |Bohem. Mus., |_c._ 1345|Written for Arnestus
+  |             |            |Prag         |         |v. Pardubitz,
+  |             |            |             |         |Archbishop of Prag
+  |             |            |             |         |(1344-64). Bohemian
+  |             |            |             |         |school.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 8|Orationale   |"           |Bohem. Mus., |_c._ 1345|Written for same
+  |             |            |Prag         |         |prelate, in French
+  |             |            |             |         |Gothic style.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 9|Bible of     |"           |Imp. Lib.,   |......   |Executed by order of
+  |Emperor      |            |Vienna, No.  |         |Martin Rotl�w for
+  |Wenzel       |            |2759         |         |presentation to the
+  |             |            |             |         |Emperor.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+10|Gospels of   |"           |Imp. Lib.,   |1368     |Beautiful penmanship
+  |John of      |            |Vienna       |         |and ornaments.
+  |Oppavia      |            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+11|Wilhelm von  |"           |Ambras       |1387     |Fine diapered
+  |Oranse       |            |Museum,      |         |backgrounds,
+  |             |            |Vienna, No. 7|         |costumes, and armour.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+12|Salzburg     |......      |Roy. Lib.,   |_c._ 1350|In 5 fol. vols.
+  |Missal       |            |Munich, Lat. |         |Splendid colouring.
+  |             |            |15710        |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+13|Weltchronik  |......      |15710 Pub.   |_c._ 1383|Large folio.
+  |of Rudolf v. |            |Lib.,        |         |Westphalian school.
+  |Hohen-Ems    |            |Stuttgart    |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+14|Durandus     |......      |Imp. Lib.,   |1384     |Written for Albert
+  |             |            |Vienna, No.  |         |III., Duke of
+  |             |            |2765         |         |Austria. Illuminated
+  |             |            |             |         |in later Bohemian.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+15|Golden Bull  |Prag        |Imp. Lib.,   |_c._ 1399|Rich soft-leaved
+  |of Charles   |            |Vienna, jus. |         |foliages. Ornament
+  |IV.          |            |c. 338       |         |superior to
+  |             |            |             |         |miniatures.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+16|Wurzburg     |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |After    |Large foliages, fine
+  |Bible        |            |Arund. 106   |1400     |initials, bright
+  |             |            |             |         |colours.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+17|Missal of    |......      |Imp. Lib.,   |1448     |German work.
+  |Emperor      |            |Vienna       |         |
+  |Frederick    |            |             |         |
+  |III.         |            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+18|Gospels      |......      |Pub. Lib.,   |1498     |43 miniatures and
+  |             |            |Nuremberg    |         |splendid borders,
+  |             |            |             |         |etc., by Conrad
+  |             |            |             |         |Frankendorfer.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+19|Choir-book of|Abbey of St.|Lib.,        |1489     |Written by L. Wagner,
+  |SS. Ulrich   |Ulrich,     |Augsburg     |         |and illuminated by G.
+  |and Afra,    |Augsburg    |             |         |Beck.
+  |Augsburg     |            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+20|Miniature of |Augsburg    |Vict. and    |_c._ 1489|Taken from 19.
+  |presentation |            |Alb. Mus.,   |         |
+  |of 19        |            |South        |         |
+  |             |            |Kensington   |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+21|Offices      |Upper       |Brit. Mus.,  |1513     |
+  |B.M.V.       |Carinthia   |Add. 15711   |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+22|Prayer-book  |Nuremberg   |Aschaffenburg|1524     |Illuminated by A.
+  |of Albert of |            |Castle       |         |Glockendon.
+  |Brandenburg  |            |Library      |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+23|Prayer-book  |"           |Imp. Lib.,   |1535     |Illuminated by Albert
+  |of William   |            |Vienna, No.  |         |Glockendon.
+  |IV. of       |            |1880         |         |
+  |Bavaria      |            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+24|Prayer-book  |"           |Brit. Mus.,  |1584     |School of Glockendon.
+  |             |            |Add. 17525   |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+25|Splendor     |......      |Harl. 3469   |Late 16th|Astrological
+  |Solis        |            |             |cent.    |diagrams, etc.,
+  |             |            |             |         |scenes.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+26|Penitential  |Munich      |Roy. Lib.,   |1570     |Painted by Hans
+  |Psalms       |            |Munich,      |         |Mielich.
+  |             |            |Cimel. Saal  |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+27|Hor�         |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |Late 16th|Fine foliages and
+  |             |            |Egert. 1146  |cent.    |initials.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+28|Prayer-book  |Strassburg  |Nat. Lib.,   |1647     |2 vols., 8�.
+  |of William of|            |Paris, Nos.  |         |Renaissance by
+  |Baden        |            |10567-8      |         |Frederic Brentel.
+
+
+SICILIAN AND ITALIAN
+
+--+-------------+--------------------------+---------+---------------------
+No|    Name.    |   Where    | Where Kept. |  Date.  |      Remarks.
+  |             |  Produced. |             |         |
+--+-------------+------------+-------------+---------+---------------------
+ 1|De arte      |Palermo     |Vat. Lib.,   |_c._ 1225|Composed by Emperor
+  |venandi cum  |            |Rome, palat. |         |Frederick II.
+  |avibus       |            |1071         |         |(1212-50). Paintings
+  |             |            |             |         |of birds and hunting
+  |             |            |             |         |scenes.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 2|Offices,     |Gubbio      |Acad. Lib.,  |......   |Attributed to
+  |"ordo offic. |            |Siena        |         |Oderigi.
+  |Senensis"    |            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 3|Legends      |Florence?   |Canon. Lib., |_c._     |Attributed to Giotto.
+  |             |            |             |1327-43  |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 4|Vergil       |Florence?   |Rome Ambros. |_c._ 1310|Attributed to Simone
+  |             |            |Lib., Milan  |         |Martini.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 5|Durandus     |Siena?      |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1330|Fine work.
+  |             |            |Add. 31032   |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 6|Aristotle    |Bologna?    |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1335|Like the "Avignon"
+  |             |            |Harl. 6331   |         |Decretals.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 7|Stefaneschi  |Rome?       |Canon. Lib., |1327-43  |In same vol. with 3,
+  |Missal       |            |Rome         |         |and attributed to
+  |             |            |             |         |Giotto.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 8|Poems of     |Naples?     |Brit. Mus.,  |1309-43  |Bold "gouache"
+  |Convenevole  |            |Roy. 6 E. 9  |         |painting. Executed
+  |da Prato[66] |            |             |         |for King Robert of
+  |             |            |             |         |Naples.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 9|Breviarium   |Florence?   |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1400|Fine initials.
+  |Romanum      |            |Harl. 2903   |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+10|Concordanti� |Bologna?    |Nat. Mus.,   |_c._ 1350|Allegorical figures
+  |Canonic�     |            |Naples       |         |and "gouache"
+  |             |            |             |         |painting.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+11|Statuts de   |Naples      |Nat. Lib.,   |_c._ 1354|Executed for Louis
+  |l'Ordre do   |            |Paris, fds.  |         |I., of House of
+  |St. Esprit   |            |fr. 4274     |         |Anjou, King of Sicily
+  |             |            |             |         |and Jerusalem.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+12|Romance of   |Avignon?    |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1355|Executed for Louis
+  |Meliadus     |            |Add. 12228   |         |II. of Naples.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+13|Triumphs of  |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1370|Small miniatures and
+  |Fr. Petrarch |            |Harl. 3109   |         |initials in older
+  |             |            |             |         |style.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+14|"            |......      |Nat. Lib.,   |......   |Miniatures of
+  |             |            |Paris        |         |triumphs.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+15|Joannes      |......      |Abp. of St.  |_c._ 1370|Fine Bolognese
+  |Andreae, Lib.|            |Florian      |         |miniatures.
+  |VI.          |            |             |         |
+  |Decretalium  |            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+16|Glossa       |Bologna?    |Laon, No. 382|_c._     |Very finely
+  |Joannis      |            |             |1330-43  |illuminated.
+  |Andreae in   |            |             |         |
+  |Clementinas  |            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+17|Rubrics on   |"           |Laon, No. 357|1332     |Many grotesque
+  |the Decretals|            |             |         |figures.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+18|Decretum     |"           |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1375|Exquisitely
+  |Gratiani     |            |Add. 15274,  |         |illuminated.
+  |             |            |15275        |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+19|Missale      |"           |Roy. Lib.,   |_c._ 1374|By Nicolaus de
+  |Romanum      |            |Munich, Lat. |         |Bononia.
+  |             |            |10072        |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+20|"            |"           |St. Mark's,  |_c._ 1370|"
+  |             |            |Venice, cl.  |         |
+  |             |            |iii. xcvii.  |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+21|"            |Florence?   |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._     |Fine pen work diapers
+  |             |            |Add. 21973   |1380-1400|and initials.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+22|Latin Bible  |Bologna?    |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._     |Sweet colouring and
+  |             |            |Add. 18720   |1375-1400|fine foliages.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+23|Hymnarium    |Sienese?    |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1400|Fine initials.
+  |Heremitarum  |            |Add. 30014   |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+24|Questions on |Naples      |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._     |Written by Hippolytus
+  |4 Books of   |            |Add. 15270-3 |1458-94  |Lunensis for
+  |Sentences by |            |             |         |Ferdinand I., King of
+  |Job. Scot,   |            |             |         |Naples, and finely
+  |Franciscan   |            |             |         |illuminated.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+25|Platonis     |"           |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1470|Written for Ferdinand
+  |Opera        |            |Harl. 3481   |         |I., King of Naples.
+  |             |            |             |         |Finely illuminated.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+26|C�sar        |            |Brit. Mus.,  |1462     |White stem-work.
+  |             |            |Add. 16982   |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+27|"            |Rome?       |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1460|Executed for Pius II.
+  |             |            |Harl. 2683   |         |Roman Renaissance
+  |             |            |             |         |(1458-64).
+  |             |            |             |         |
+28|Petrarch     |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1465|White stem-work.
+  |Sonnets, etc.|            |Harl. 3411   |         |Written by J. And.
+  |             |            |             |         |Mussolini.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+29|Offices      |Milan?      |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1475|A pretty little
+  |             |            |Add. 19417   |         |volume of Milanese
+  |             |            |             |         |work.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+30|Missale      |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |"        |Like MSS. executed
+  |Romanum      |            |Add. 15260   |         |for the Dukes of
+  |             |            |             |         |Ferrara. Very fine.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+31|"            |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1480|Of Florentine type.
+  |             |            |Harl. 2875   |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+32|Officium     |Florence    |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1475|A small volume, but
+  |B.M.V.       |            |Add. 15528   |         |rich initials.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+33|Missale      |Bologna     |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1495|Like 32, but finer.
+  |Romanum      |            |Add. 15814   |         |Written by Jo. de
+  |             |            |             |         |Lyvonia for one of
+  |             |            |             |         |the Visconti.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+34|Josephus     |Rome        |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1490|Roman Renaissance.
+  |             |            |Harl. 3699   |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+35|Herodean     |Florence    |Brit. Mus.,  |1487     |Written by Alexander
+  |             |            |Add. 23773   |         |Verazzanus.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+36|Scrapbook of |Rome and    |Brit. Mus.,  |1480-1500|A very interesting
+  |cutting's    |Florence    |Add. 21412   |         |collection. Roman and
+  |             |            |             |         |Florentine.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+37|Grant of     |Milan       |Brit. Mus.,  |1494     |Illuminated by
+  |Ludovico     |            |Add. 21413   |         |Antonio da Monza.
+  |Sforza (il   |            |             |         |
+  |Moro)        |            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+38|Offices      |Naples      |Brit. Mus.,  |1500     |Written and
+  |             |            |Add. 21591   |         |illuminated for
+  |             |            |             |         |Frederick of Aragon,
+  |             |            |             |         |King of Naples.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+39|Prayer-book  |"           |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1455|Finest Neapolitan
+  |of Alfonso I.|            |Add. 28962   |         |work. Portraits
+  |             |            |             |         |(1416-58).
+  |             |            |             |         |
+40|Orations of  |"           |Imp. Lib.,   |_c._ 1490|Executed for
+  |Cicero       |            |Vienna       |         |Ferdinand I., King of
+  |             |            |             |         |Naples (1458-94).
+  |             |            |             |         |Very fine.
+
+[66] Petrarch's tutor.
+
+
+RENAISSANCE ILLUMINATION
+
+ITALIAN
+
+--+-------------+--------------------------+---------+---------------------
+No|    Name.    |   Where    | Where Kept. |  Date.  |      Remarks.
+  |             |  Produced. |             |         |
+--+-------------+------------+-------------+---------+---------------------
+ 1|Life of      |Florence    |Brit. Mus.,  |1506     |Neat in execution.
+  |Manetti      |            |Add. 9770    |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 2|Life of St.  |"           |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1505|Very fine
+  |Francis      |            |Harl. 3229   |         |illumination.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 3|Eusebius     |"           |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1515|
+  |             |            |Harl. 3308   |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 4|Life of      |"           |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1525|
+  |Manetti      |            |Lansd. 842   |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 5|Eusebius     |Milan       |Brit. Mus.,  |"        |
+  |             |            |Roy          |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 6|Missale      |Venice      |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1530|Attributed to
+  |             |            |Add. 15813   |         |Benedetto Bordone.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 7|Ethics of    |Naples or   |Imp. Lib.,   |_c._     |Fine Renaissance
+  |Aristotle    |Calabria    |Vienna       |1490-1510|work. Elaborately
+  |             |            |             |         |designed frames, and
+  |             |            |             |         |fine miniatures
+  |             |            |             |         |painted in a strong
+  |             |            |             |         |"gouache," by Rinaldo
+  |             |            |             |         |Piramo, for And.
+  |             |            |             |         |Matt. Acquavira, 8th
+  |             |            |             |         |Duke of Atri.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 8|St. Jerome on|Florence    |Imp. Lib.,   |_c._     |Illuminated by
+  |Ezechiel     |            |Vienna, No.  |1490-1520|Attavante for Matt.
+  |             |            |654          |         |Corvinus, King of
+  |             |            |             |         |Hungary (1443-90).
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 9|Philostratus |"           |Imp. Lib.,   |"        |Illuminated probably
+  |(Latin)      |            |Vienna, No.  |         |by Attavante for
+  |             |            |25           |         |Matt. Corvinus.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+10|Missale      |"           |Roy. Lib.,   |"        |Illuminated by
+  |Romanum of   |            |Brussels     |         |Attavante for
+  |Corvinus     |            |             |         |Corvinus. Used for
+  |             |            |             |         |admission oaths of
+  |             |            |             |         |Governors of
+  |             |            |             |         |Netherlands.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+11|Augustine:   |"           |Imp. Lib.,   |_c._ 1495|Illuminated by
+  |Epistles     |            |Vienna       |         |Attavante for Matt.
+  |             |            |             |         |Corvinus. Signed
+  |             |            |             |         |"Attavantes pinsit."
+  |             |            |             |         |
+12|Martianus    |"           |Lib. St.     |_c._ 1500|Illuminated by
+  |Capella      |            |Mark's,      |         |Attavante for Matt.
+  |             |            |Venice       |         |Corvinus. Signed.
+  |             |            |             |         |Written by Al,
+  |             |            |             |         |Verazzanus
+  |             |            |             |         |
+13|Psalter      |"           |Ducal Lib.,  |"        |Illuminated by
+  |             |            |Wolfenb�ttel |         |Attavante.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+14|Diurnale     |"           |Laurent.     |"        |Illuminated by
+  |             |            |Lib.,        |         |Attavante or
+  |             |            |Florence     |         |Gherardo.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+15|Missal of Bp.|"           |Pub. Lib.,   |"        |Illuminated by
+  |of D�le      |            |Lyons        |         |Attavante.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+16|St. Gregory  |"           |Estense Lib.,|"        |Illuminated by
+  |on Ezechiel  |            |Modena       |         |Attavante. Signed.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+17|Dionysii Opp.|"           |Pub. Lib.,   |"        |"
+  |             |            |Besan�on     |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+18|"Gran"       |"           |Nat. Lib.,   |"        |Probably illuminated
+  |Breviary     |            |Paris, MS.   |         |by Boccardino il
+  |             |            |Lat. 8879    |         |Vecchio, though
+  |             |            |             |         |attributed to
+  |             |            |             |         |Attavante.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+19|Hieronymi    |"           |Nat. Lib.,   |1488-1500|Written for Matt.
+  |Breviar. in  |            |Paris, MS.   |         |Corvinus by Anton
+  |psalmos      |            |Lat. 16839   |         |Sinibaldi, and
+  |             |            |             |         |illuminated by
+  |             |            |             |         |Attavante.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+20|Poems of     |Rome        |Imp. Lib.,   |_c._ 1536|Illuminated by Giulio
+  |Eurialo      |            |Vienna       |         |Clovio (1498-1578).
+  |d'Ascoli     |            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+21|"Rothesay"   |"           |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1546|Illuminated by
+  |Offices      |            |Add. 20927   |         |Clovio.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+22|Commentary on|"           |Soane Mus.,  |_c._ 1536|Executed for Cardinal
+  |St. Paul's   |            |London       |         |Grimani by Clovio.
+  |Epistles     |            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+23|Psalter of   |"           |Nat. Lib.,   |_c._ 1542|Illuminated by
+  |Paul III.    |            |Paris, MS.   |         |Vincenzio Raimondi.
+  |             |            |Lat. 702.    |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+24|Papal        |"           |Lenox Lib.,  |_c._ 1546|By Clovio and his
+  |Lectionary   |            |New York     |         |assistants.
+  |(Towneley    |            |             |         |
+  |Clovio)      |            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+25|Dante        |"           |Vat. Lib.,   |_c._ 1555|Illuminated in part
+  |             |            |No. 365      |         |by Clovio.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+26|Investiture  |"           |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1560|Very fine ornament.
+  |from Duke of |            |Add. 22660   |         |
+  |Urbino       |            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+27|Triumphs of  |"           |Lib. of Capt.|_c._ 1550|Fine miniatures.
+  |Petrarch     |            |Holford,     |         |
+  |             |            |London       |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+28|Missal of    |"           |Rylands Lib.,|_c._ 1520|Fine miniatures.
+  |Card. Colonna|            |Manchester   |         |Attributed, but
+  |             |            |             |         |without authority, to
+  |             |            |             |         |Raffaelle.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+29|Prayer-book  |Rome, or    |Barberini    |_c._ 1500|Many fine miniatures.
+  |             |Florence    |Lib., Rome,  |         |
+  |             |            |No. 324      |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+30|Missal of    |Rome        |Chigi Lib.,  |_c._     |Executed for Pius II.
+  |Pius II.     |            |Rome         |1460-70  |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+31|Missal of    |"           |Corsini Lib.,|_c._ 1530|Fine framed
+  |Card. Corsini|            |Rome, No.    |         |miniatures.
+  |             |            |1015         |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+32|Missal of    |"           |Minerva Lib.,|_c._ 1520|Fine miniatures.
+  |Card. Cornaro|            |Rome         |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+33|"Pavia"      |Milan       |Brera Lib.,  |1530-80  |By several artists,
+  |Graduals     |            |Milan        |         |especially G.
+  |             |            |             |         |Berretta. Enormous
+  |             |            |             |         |folios.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+34|Prayer-book  |......      |Roy. Lib.,   |_c._ 1574|Finest Roman
+  |of Albert IV.|            |Munich, Cim. |         |Renaissance, but
+  |of Bavaria   |            |Saal. 42     |         |written by Hans
+  |             |            |             |         |Lenker, of Munich
+  |             |            |             |         |(not a Clovio).
+  |             |            |             |         |
+35|Apologia di  |Rome        |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1510|Executed for Henry
+  |Colenuccio   |            |Roy. 12, c.  |         |VIII. of England.
+  |             |            |viii.        |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+36|Prayer-book  |Milan       |Roy. Lib.,   |_c._ 1450|Illuminated by
+  |Bianca Maria |            |Munich, No.  |         |Giovanni da Como.
+  |of Milan     |            |99A          |         |Contains Visconti and
+  |             |            |             |         |Sforza arms.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+37|Hours of Bona|"           |Brit Mus.,   |_c._ 1490|Finest Milanese
+  |Sforza of    |            |Add. 34294   |         |Renaissance, with
+  |Milan        |            |             |         |some Flemish
+  |             |            |             |         |additions.
+
+
+FRENCH
+
+--+-------------+--------------------------+---------+---------------------
+No|    Name.    |   Where    | Where Kept. |  Date.  |      Remarks.
+  |             |  Produced. |             |         |
+--+-------------+------------+-------------+---------+---------------------
+ 1|The          |Tours       |Nat. Lib.,   |......   |Attributed to Jehan
+  |"Versailles" |            |Paris, 6907  |         |Fouquet of Tours.
+  |Livy         |            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 2|The          |"           |Nat. Lib.,   |......   |Attributed to Jehan
+  |"Sorbonne"   |            |Paris, fds.  |         |Fouquet of Tours.
+  |Livy         |            |Sorb. 297    |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 3|Antiquities  |"           |Nat. Lib.,   |......   |Fouquet's
+  |of the Jews  |            |Paris, Resew.|         |masterpiece.
+  |             |            |6891         |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 4|Boccacio     |"           |Roy. Lib.,   |......   |Executed for Etienne
+  |             |            |Munich       |         |Chevalier.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 5|Tr�sor des   |"           |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1490|Fine a�rial
+  |Histoires    |            |Cott. Aug. v.|         |perspective and
+  |             |            |             |         |landscape.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 6|Valerius     |Paris       |Brit. Mus.,  |"        |A very fine MS.
+  |Maximus      |            |Harl. 4374-5 |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 7|Hours of Anne|"           |Nat. Lib.,   |_c._ 1508|A magnificent
+  |of Brittany  |            |Paris        |         |example, eclectic in
+  |             |            |             |         |style, with natural
+  |             |            |             |         |flowers and insects
+  |             |            |             |         |in borders, and fine
+  |             |            |             |         |figure-painting.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 8|Hours of     |"           |Vicomte de   |_c._ 1550|Attributed to Jean
+  |Claude       |            |Janz�        |         |Cousin. Influence of
+  |Gouffier     |            |             |         |glass-painting.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 9|Offices      |"           |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1530|Probably executed for
+  |             |            |Add. 18853   |         |Francis I. of France.
+  |             |            |             |         |Excellent work,
+  |             |            |             |         |eclectic in style.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+9a|Hours of     |"           |Libr. of     |1549     |Same style as 8 and
+  |Montmorency  |            |Count of     |         |9, and probably by J.
+  |             |            |Haussonville |         |Cousin,
+  |             |            |             |         |
+10|Offices      |Tours?      |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1525|Architectural details
+  |             |            |Add. 18854   |         |of School of Tours.
+  |             |            |             |         |Written for Fr. de
+  |             |            |             |         |Dinteville, Bp. of
+  |             |            |             |         |Auxerre.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+11|"            |"           |Brit. Mus.,  |"        |Architectural frames
+  |             |            |Add. 18855   |         |to miniatures as in
+  |             |            |             |         |
+12|"            |Paris       |Nat. Lib.,   |1531     |10, but larger and
+  |             |            |Paris, Lat.  |         |more fanciful
+  |             |            |10563        |         |details, somewhat
+  |             |            |             |         |like 7 in portions.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+13|Epistres     |......      |Nat. Lib.,   |_c._ 1500|Executed for Louise
+  |d'Ovide      |            |Paris, fds.  |         |de Savoie, mother of
+  |             |            |fr. 875      |         |Francis I.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+14|Boece        |Paris       |Nat. Lib.,   |"        |Fine miniatures with
+  |             |            |Paris, u.    |         |Renaissance
+  |             |            |fds. Lat.    |         |architectural
+  |             |            |6643         |         |details.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+15|Epistres     |"           |Nat. Lib.,   |"        |Translated by
+  |             |            |Paris, 6877  |         |Octavien de d'Ovide
+  |             |            |             |         |St. Gelay. Beautiful
+  |             |            |             |         |miniatures.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+16|Petrarch's   |......      |Nat. Lib.,   |_c._ 1520|Very fine miniatures
+  |Triumphs     |            |Paris, f. fr.|         |of triumphs. Italian
+  |             |            |7079         |         |influence.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+17|Chants royaux|......      |Nat. Lib.,   |"        |Fine miniatures.
+  |             |            |Paris, 6987  |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+18|Chants Royaux|Paris       |Nat. Lib.,   |"        |Magnificent
+  |             |            |Paris, f. fr.|         |miniatures under
+  |             |            |379          |         |Italian influence of
+  |             |            |             |         |Andrea del Sarto.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+19|Petrarch     |"           |Nat. Lib.,   |_c._ 1503|Miniature of
+  |             |            |Paris, f. fr.|         |presentation to Louis
+  |             |            |225          |         |XII. Many full-page
+  |             |            |             |         |miniatures.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+20|Fleur des    |"           |Nat. Lib.,   |_c._ 1505|Executed for Cardinal
+  |Histoires    |            |Paris, f. fr.|         |d'Amboise.
+  |             |            |54           |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+21|Chron. de    |"           |Nat. Lib.,   |"        |Three large folio
+  |Monstrelet   |            |Paris,       |         |vols. Vol. i.
+  |             |            |20360-2      |         |contains five
+  |             |            |             |         |equestrian portraits
+  |             |            |             |         |of Louis XII.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+22|Les Echecs   |"           |Nat. Lib.,   |_c._ 1500|Executed for use of
+  |amoreux      |            |Paris, f. fr.|         |Francis, d. of
+  |             |            |143          |         |Angoul�me, and his
+  |             |            |             |         |sister Marguerite.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+23|Boccace de   |"           |Nat. Lib.,   |"        |By same illuminator
+  |claris et    |            |Paris, f. fr.|         |as 22. Executed for
+  |nobilibus    |            |599          |         |Louise de Savoie.
+  |mulieribus   |            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+24|Reception de |"           |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1514|"Avec belles
+  |Marie        |            |Vesp. B. 2   |         |peintures."
+  |d'Angleterre |            |             |         |
+  |� Paris      |            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+25|Chants Royaux|"           |Nat. Lib.,   |1515     |Presented in 1515 to
+  |             |            |Paris, f. fr.|         |Louise de Savoie by
+  |             |            |145          |         |the City of Amiens.
+  |             |            |             |         |The miniatures
+  |             |            |             |         |painted in grisaille
+  |             |            |             |         |by J. Plastel, and
+  |             |            |             |         |coloured by J.
+  |             |            |             |         |Pinchon. Contains
+  |             |            |             |         |portrait of Louise.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+26|Commentaires |"           |Brit. Mus.   |_c._ 1519|Attributed to
+  |de C�sar,    |            |             |         |Geoffroy Tory. Part
+  |Vol. i.      |            |             |         |grisaille. Written in
+  |             |            |             |         |Roman text. See
+  |             |            |             |         |_Dict. Miniat._ iii.
+  |             |            |             |         |312.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+  |Commentaires |"           |Nat. Lib.,   |"        |"
+  |de C�sar,    |            |Paris, 13429 |         |
+  |Vol. ii.     |            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+  |Commentaires |"           |Lib. of Duc  |"        |"
+  |de C�sar,    |            |d'Aumale     |         |
+  |Vol. iii.    |            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+27|Dutillet,    |......      |Nat. Lib.,   |......   |Presented to Charles
+  |French Kings,|            |Paris, 2848  |         |IX.
+  |etc.         |            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+28|Hours of     |......      |Nat. Lib.,   |_c._ 1595|Peculiar style and
+  |Henry IV.    |            |Paris, Lat.  |         |colouring.
+  |             |            |1171         |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+29|Gospel of St.|Boisleduc   |Brit. Mus.,  |......   |Finely written, but
+  |John         |            |Roy., E. 5   |         |not illuminated by
+  |             |            |             |         |Pet. Meghen.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+30|"Sol         |"           |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1682|Painted by Pierre
+  |Gallicus"    |            |Add. 23745   |         |Mignard.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+31|Psalter      |London      |Brit. Mus.,  |1565     |Written by Petrucco
+  |             |            |Roy. 2 B. 9  |         |Ubaldini, a
+  |             |            |             |         |Florentine.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+32|Book of      |English?    |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1600|Very elegant borders.
+  |Sentences for|London?     |Roy. 17 A. 23|         |
+  |Lady Sumley  |            |             |         |
+
+
+ENGLISH ILLUMINATION
+
+FROM THE THIRTEENTH TO THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY
+
+--+-------------+--------------------------+---------+---------------------
+No|    Name.    |   Where    | Where Kept. |  Date.  |      Remarks.
+  |             |  Produced. |             |         |
+--+-------------+------------+-------------+---------+---------------------
+ 1|Offices and  |Westminster |Brit. Mus.,  |1240     |Imitation of stained
+  |Prayers      |            |Roy. 2 A. 22 |         |glass. Typical MS.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 2|Bible in     |Canterbury  |Brit. Mus.,  |1245     |
+  |Latin        |            |Burney 3     |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 3|"            |Salisbury   |Brit. Mus.,  |1254     |Written by Will de
+  |             |            |Roy. 1 B. 12 |         |Hales.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 4|Tenison      |London      |Brit. Mus.,  |1294     |Written and
+  |Psalter      |            |Add. 24686   |         |illuminated by order
+  |             |            |             |         |of Edward I.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 5|Bible in     |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |13th     |Written by Will of
+  |Latin        |            |Roy. 1 D 1   |cent.    |Devon.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 6|Apocalypse in|......      |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1330|See _Bibliographica_,
+  |French       |            |Roy. 19 B. 15|         |pt. v. pl. 1.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 7|Arundel      |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |"        |See _Bibliographica_,
+  |Psalter      |            |Arund. 83    |         |pt. v. pl. 2
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 8|Psalter of   |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |1380     |Transition from
+  |Joan of Kent |            |Roy. 2 B. 8  |         |French Gothic to
+  |             |            |             |         |Lancastrian.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 9|Pontifical   |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1400|Early Lancastrian.
+  |             |            |Lansd. 451   |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+10|Bible in     |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |"        |Large folio. See
+  |Latin        |            |Roy. 1 E. ix.|         |_Bibliographica_, pt.
+  |             |            |             |         |v. pl. 4.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+11|Breviary     |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |"        |Something like 7.
+  |             |            |Harl. 2975   |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+12|Offices      |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._     |
+  |             |            |Add. 16968   |1390-1400|
+  |             |            |             |         |
+13|"            |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1410|Executed for Anne
+  |             |            |Add. 16998   |         |Mauleverer.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+14|Liber Albus  |London      |Guildhall    |"        |Bracket borders.
+  |             |            |Lib., London |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+15|Liber de Hyda|Winchester  |Shirburn     |"        |Richly illuminated
+  |             |            |Castle Lib.  |         |borders, some
+  |             |            |             |         |unfinished. See Rolls
+  |             |            |             |         |Series. 1866.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+16|Offices      |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._     |Early Lancastrian.
+  |             |            |Roy. 2 B. 1  |1400-1410|
+  |             |            |             |         |
+17|Grandison    |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1410|Fine initials with
+  |Offices      |            |Roy. 2 A. 18 |         |Lancastrian brackets.
+  |             |            |             |         |See _Bibliographica_,
+  |             |            |             |         |v. pl. 5.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+18|Occleve de   |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1415|Traceried backgrounds
+  |Regim.       |            |Ar. 38       |         |in Bohemian manner.
+  |Principum    |            |             |         |Cf. Will. v. Orange
+  |             |            |             |         |MS.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+19|Ormonde      |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1420|Similar to 17. Called
+  |Offices      |            |Roy. 2 B. 15 |         |by Humphreys (_Books
+  |             |            |             |         |of Middle Ages_)
+  |             |            |             |         |_Queen Mary's
+  |             |            |             |         |Breviary_.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+20|Gower's      |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |"        |Lancastrian style.
+  |Confessio    |            |Harl. 3490   |         |
+  |Amantis      |            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+21|Psalter of   |St. Alban's |Brit. Mus.,  |1460     |Fine English work.
+  |Queen Mary   |            |Roy. 2 B. 7  |         |Presented in 1553 to
+  |             |            |             |         |Queen Mary
+  |             |            |             |         |
+22|Hor�         |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1460|Many mediocre
+  |             |            |Harl. 2884   |         |illuminations.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+23|Gospels and  |London      |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1508|Given by Stephen and
+  |Epistles,    |            |Roy. 2 B. 12,|         |Margaret Jenyns to
+  |etc.         |            |13           |         |the church at
+  |             |            |             |         |Aldermanbury, London.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+24|Bourchier    |"           |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1458|Contains Bourchier
+  |Psalter      |            |Roy. 2 B. 14 |         |obituaries.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+25|Psalter and  |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |_c._ 1470|Good text and many
+  |Canticles,   |            |Harl. 1719   |         |illuminated letters
+  |etc.         |            |             |         |and borders.
+
+
+SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE
+
+--+-------------+--------------------------+---------+---------------------
+No|    Name.    |   Where    | Where Kept. |  Date.  |      Remarks.
+  |             |  Produced. |             |         |
+--+-------------+------------+-------------+---------+---------------------
+ 1|Hours, etc., |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |......   |Netherlandish
+  |Lat. and     |            |Add. 18193   |         |influence.
+  |Catalan.     |            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 2|Offices      |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |......   |Italian influence.
+  |B.M.V.       |            |Add. 28271   |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 3|Hidalguia    |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |1604     |In Genoese manner.
+  |             |            |Add. 12214   |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 4|Diploma of   |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |17th     |"
+  |Philip III.  |            |Roy. Claud.  |cent.    |
+  |             |            |B. x.        |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 5|Patent to    |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |1797     |Allegorical designs.
+  |Princ. de la |            |Add. 1706    |         |
+  |Paz          |            |             |         |
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 6|Ordo Miss.   |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |17th     |Roman text, good
+  |Pontificales |            |Add. 30857   |cent.    |initials.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 7|Portuguese   |......      |Brit. Mus.,  |......   |Written for John
+  |Missal       |            |Stowe 597    |         |III., King of
+  |             |            |             |         |Portugal.
+  |             |            |             |         |
+ 8|Hidalguia de |Spain       |Brit. Mus.,  |1578     |Granted by Philip
+  |Gonsalo de   |            |Add. 22143   |         |II., with his
+  |Castro Cepeda|            |             |         |portrait.
+
+
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+Abrahams, N.C.L. _Description des MSS. fran�aises du Moyen Age de la
+Biblioth�que Royale de Copenhague._ 4to. Copenhagen. 1844.
+
+Alt, H. _Die Heiligenbilder oder die bildende Kunst u. die Theologie._
+8vo. Berlin, 1845.
+
+Astle, Thomas. _The Origin and Progress of Writing._ 4to. London, 1784,
+1803.
+
+
+Barrois, J. _Biblioth�que Protypographique ou librairies du roi Jean._
+4to, Paris, 1830. 6 plates.
+
+Bastard, Aug. _Librairie de Jean de France duc de Berry...illustr�e des
+plus belles miniatures de ses MSS., etc._ Folio. Paris, 1834. 32 plates.
+
+Beissel, Stephan. _Des heiligen Bernward Evangelienbuch im Dome zu
+Hildesheim. Mit Hdschr. des 10. und 11. Jahrh., etc._ Third edition. 26
+photo-lithographs (12 x 9). Hildesheim, 1894.
+
+Beissel, Stephan. _Vaticanische Miniaturen._ Folio. Freiburg im
+Breisgau, 1893. Many lithographed plates.
+
+Birch, W. de G. History, _Art, and Pal�ography of the MS. commonly
+styled the Utrecht Psalter._ 8vo. 3 facsimile plates in autotype. B,
+Quaritch, London, 1876.
+
+Birch, W. de G., and Jenner, H. _Early Drawings and Illuminations_ (in
+MSS., chiefly in the British Museum). 12mo. London, 1879.
+
+Biscionii, A.M. _Catal. bibl. Medico-Laurentiana._ Folio. Florentine,
+1752-7. (Valuable plates of facsimiles, etc.)
+
+Bradley, J.W. _Life and Works of G.G. Clovio, Miniaturist, etc._ 8vo.
+London, 1891. 18 plates.
+
+Bradley, J.W. _Dictionary of Miniaturists, Calligraphers, etc._ 8vo. 3
+vols. Quaritch, London, 1887-90.
+
+Bradley, J.W. _Venetian Ducali, in Bibliographica_, II. 257. 4
+phototypes.
+
+Bucher, B. _Geschichte des Technischen K�nste, etc.,_ vol. i. Miniatur,
+etc. 8vo. Stuttgart, 1875.
+
+
+Cahier and Martin. _Nouveaux M�langes d'Arch�ologie, etc._ Large 4to.
+Paris, 1874-77, etc. Many fine plates of miniatures, etc., mostly
+without colour.
+
+Campori, G. _Gli artisti Italiani, etc., nelle Stati Estensi._ 8vo.
+Modena, 1855.
+
+Campori, G. _Racconti artistici italiani._ 8vo. Firenze, 1858.
+
+Caravita, A. _I codici e le Arti a Monte Cassino._ 8vo. Montec.,
+1869-71.
+
+Carta, F. _Codici, corali e libri a stampa miniati della Biblioteca
+nazionale di Milano._ Folio. Roma, 1895. With 25 phototype facsimiles.
+
+Chassant, Alph. _Pal�ographie des chartes et des MSS. du 11e au 17e
+Si�cle._ 8vo. Paris, 1867, and companion vols.
+
+Curmer, L. _Les Evangiles des Dimanches et F�tes._ Large 8vo. Paris,
+1864. Many facsimiles in gold and colours from illuminated MSS.
+
+
+Delisle, L. _M�m. sur l'�cole calligraphique de Tours au IXe Si�cle._
+Paris, 1885. 5 heliograv.
+
+Delisle, L. _L'�vang�liaire d'Arras et la Calligraphie Franco-Saxonne du
+neuvi�me Si�cle._ 4to. Paris, 1888. Large heliogravure facsimiles.
+
+Delaunay (l'Abb� H.). _Le livre d'Heures de la reine Anne de Bretagne._
+With facsimile of the whole MS. Large 8vo. Paris, 1861.
+
+Delia Valle, G. _Lettere Senese, Sopra le Belle Arti._ 3 vols. 8vo.
+Venezia, 1782-86. (Relating to Sienese miniaturists.)
+
+Delisle, L. _Le cabinet des manuscrits de la biblioth�que imp�riale (in
+Hist. g�n. de Paris)._ 4to. Paris, 1868.
+
+Denis, Ferd. _Histoire de l'ornementation des manuscrits._ 8vo. Paris,
+1858. (143 pp., with illustrations.)
+
+Deshaines, C. _Histoire de l'Art dans la Flandre, d'Artois, et le
+Hainaut._ 8vo. Lille, 1886.
+
+Dibdin, T.F. _The Bibliographical Decameron._ 3 vols. 8vo. London, 1817.
+
+Didron (edit.). _Annales Arch�ologiques._ Periodical 4to. 1844, etc.
+(P.P. 1931, d. a. Brit. Mus.)
+
+Derange, A. _Cat. descr. et raisonn� des manuscr. de la bibl. de Tours._
+4to. Tours, 1875.
+
+Durieux, A. _Les Artistes Cambr�siens du IXe a XIXe Si�cle, etc._ 8vo.
+Cambray, 1874. (With plates in folio.)
+
+Durieux, A. _Miniatures des manuscr. de la bibl. de Cambrai._ 8vo.
+Cambrai, 1861. 18 plates.
+
+Du Sommerard, Andr. _Les Arts du Moyen-�ge._ 6 vols. Folio. Paris,
+1838-46.
+
+
+Fleury, E. _Les MSS. � miniatures de la biblioth�que de Soissons._ 4to.
+Paris, 1865. Lithograph facsimiles.
+
+Fleury, E. _Les manuscrits � miniatures de la bibl. de Laon._ 4to. Laon,
+1863. 50 plates (good).
+
+
+Gabelentz, H. von der. _Zur Geschichte der oberdeutschen Miniaturmalerei
+im 16ten Jahrhundert._ Large 8vo. Strassburg, 1899. 12 phototypes.
+
+Gamier, J. _Catalogue descriptif et raisonn� des MSS. de la bibl. de la
+ville d'Amiens._ 8vo. Amiens, 1843.
+
+Girardot, B. de. _Cat. des manuscrits de la bibl. de Bourges._ Folio.
+Paris, 1859.
+
+Gualandi, M.A. _Memorie originate Italiane risguardante le Belle Arti._
+8vo. Bologna, 1840-45.
+
+
+Hardy, Sir Thomas D. _The Athanasian Creed in Connection with the
+Utrecht Psalter: being a Report, etc._ With autotype facsimiles. Folio.
+Spottiswoode and Co., 1872.
+
+Hendrie, R. _Encyclop�dia of the Arts of the Middle Ages by the monk
+Theophilus._ Translated, with notes. 8vo. London, 1847. One of the best
+collections of medi�val methods and recipes relating to illumination.
+
+Humphreys, H. Noel. _The Illuminated Books of the Middle Ages._ Folio.
+London, 1849. 39 plates.
+
+Husenbeth, F.C. _Emblems of Saints by which they are Distinguished in
+Works of Art._ 8vo. London, 1850. Second edition, 1860. Third edition,
+1882.
+
+
+J�ck, J.J. _Viele Alphabete und ganze Schriftmuster vom 8, bis zum 16,
+Jahrh. aus den Handschr. der �ffentl. Bibl. zu Bamberg._ Folio. Bamberg,
+1833-35.
+
+James, M.R. _Descriptive Catalogue of the Illuminated MSS. in the
+Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge._ (Fine phototype facsimiles, and an
+excellent text.) Large 8vo. Cambridge University Press, 1895.
+
+Jorand, J.B.J. _Grammatographie du neuvi�me si�cle._ 4to. Paris, 1837.
+65 plates, folio.
+
+
+Kirchoff, Albr. _Handschriftenh�ndler des Mittelalters._ Second edition.
+8vo. Leipzig, 1853.
+
+Kondakov. _Hist. de l'Art Byzantin consider�r�...dans les miniatures._
+2 vols. Small folio. Paris, 1891. Plates and woodcuts.
+
+Kugler. _Kleine Schriften._ 3 vols. 8vo. Stuttgart. 1853-54. (German
+illumination.)
+
+
+Labarte, Jules. _Historie des Arts industriels au Moyen-�ge._ (Vol.
+iii.) 8vo. Paris, 1865.
+
+Laborde, L. _La renaissance des arts � la cour de France._ 2 vols. 8vo.
+Paris, 1855-56.
+
+Lacroix, P. _Military and Religious Life in the Middle Ages._ 8vo.
+London, 1874.
+
+Lacroix, P. _The Arts of the Middle Ages._ 4to. London, 1870.
+
+Lacroix, P. Manners, _Customs, and Dress during the Middle Ages._ 4to.
+London, 1874.
+
+Lacroix, Paul, and S�r� Ferd. _Le Moyen-�ge et la Renaissance._ 5 vols.
+4to. Paris, 1848-52, 1874.
+
+Lacroix, P., Fournier, Ed., and S�r�, F. _Livre d'or des m�tiers._ 8vo.
+Paris, 1852.
+
+Lambecius, P. _Commentar. de Bibliotheca C�sarea Vindobonensi._ Folio.
+Vindobona (Vienna). 1670. Plates.
+
+Langlois, E.H. _M�moire sur la calligraphic les MSS. du Moyen-�ge._ 8vo.
+Paris, 1841. 17 plates.
+
+Le Arti. _Various Articles on Illuminated MSS., by Frizzoni, Venturi,
+etc._ (Italian Periodical. Roma, v. 7. From 1898.)
+
+Lecoy de la Marche, A. _Les MSS. et la Miniature._ 12mo. Paris, 1884.
+Woodcuts.
+
+Leitschuh, F.F. _Geschichte der Karolingischen Malerei, etc._ Berlin,
+1894. Many prototype facsimiles.
+
+Libri, Gul. _Monumens in�dits._ Folio. London, 1864. 65 plates.
+
+
+Madden, Sir Fred. _Universal Pal�ography._ 2 vols. 8vo. London, 1850.
+
+Marchal, J. _Cat. des MSS. de la bibl. royale des dues de Bourgogne._ 3
+vols. 4to. Brussels, 1842.
+
+Middleton, J.H. _Illuminated MSS. in Classical and Medi�val Times: their
+Art and their Technique._ Large 8vo. Cambridge University Press, 1892.
+
+Milanesi, G. _Documenti per la Storia dell' arte Senese,_ etc. 8vo.
+Siena, 1854-56.
+
+Molinier, A. _Les MSS. et les Miniatures._ 12mo. Paris, 1892. Woodcuts.
+
+Monte Cassino. _Paleografia artistica._ Monte Cassino, 1877. Folio.
+Facsimiles in gold and colours, etc., from Gothic and Lombardic MSS.
+
+Montfaucon. _Pal�ographia Gr�ca._ Small folio. Parisiis, 1708.
+
+Mugnier, Fr. _Les MSS. � miniatures de la Maison de Savoie, etc._ 8vo.
+Moutiers-Tarantaise, 1894. 17 phototypes.
+
+
+Ottley, W.Y. _History of Engraving._ 4to. London, 1816.
+
+
+Peignot, Gabr. _Essai sur l'histoire du parchemin et du v�lin._ 8vo.
+Paris, 1812.
+
+Pinchart, A. _Miniaturistes, Enlumineurs, et Calligraphes Employ�s par
+Philippe le Bon, etc._ 8vo. Bruxelles, 1865.
+
+_Publications of the Pal�ographical Society of London._ Folio. Vol.
+vii., etc. Very useful.
+
+
+Quaritch, B. _Examples of the Art of Book-illumination during the Middle
+Ages._ 4to. London, 1899. Fine facsimiles in gold and colours.
+
+
+Raczynski, A. (Cte.). _Les arts en Portugal._ 8vo. Paris, 1846.
+
+Rahn, J.R. _Das Psalterium Aureum v. Sanct Gallen._ Folio. St. Gallen,
+1878. u chromolithogr. in colours and gold. 7 lithogr. and many
+woodcuts. (A capital account of Carolingian and Irish MSS.)
+
+
+Sacken, Ed. Frh. von. _Die Ambraser Sammlung._ 8vo. Wien, 1855.
+
+Sakcinski, J.K. _Leben des Giulio Clovio._ 8vo. Agram, 1852.
+
+Sakcinski, J.K. _Slovnik umjetnah Jugoslavenskih. (Biographical Dict. of
+South Slavonic Artists.)_ 8vo. Uzagreba, 1858.
+
+Sanftl, K. _Dissertatio in aureum ac pervetustum SS. Evangelior. Codicem
+MS. Monast. S. Emmerani._ 410. Ratisbon�, 1786. Gives a large folding
+plate of the Gospel-book cover, and facsimiles of illumination and
+writing.
+
+Sch�nemann. _100 Merkw�rdigkeiten des Herzoglichen Biblioth. zu
+Wolfenb�ttel._ 8vo. Hannover, 1849.
+
+Schultz, A. _Deutsches Leben in 14ten und 15ten Jahrh._ 2 vols. Large
+8vo. Wien, 1892. (Contains many facsimiles in gold and colours, from
+German and Bohemian MSS.)
+
+Serapeum, _Zeitschrift f�r Bibliothekens Wissenschaft._ 8vo. Leipzig.
+Vol. vii.
+
+Seroux D'Agincourt, J. _Historie de l'Art par les Monuments._ Folio. 3
+vols. Paris, 1823. London, 1847. Engravings.
+
+Shaw, H. _The Art of Illuminating as Practised in the Middle Ages._
+Second edition. 4to. London, 1845. Plates.
+
+Shaw, H. _Alphabets, Numerals, and Devices of the Middle Ages._ Folio.
+London, W. Pickering, 1845. Many plates, some in gold and colours.
+
+Silvestre, J.B. _Pal�ographie universelle._ 4 vols. Folio. Paris, 1841.
+600 plates. (Plates very good.)
+
+Smet, J.J. de. _Quelques recherches sur nos anciens enlumineurs, etc._
+In _Bulletin de l'Acad�mie de Belgique,_ t. xiv., pt. 2, p. 78, and
+_Bullet. du Bibliophile Belge_, t. iii., p. 376, t. iv., p. 176.
+
+Stokes, M. _Early Christian Art in Ireland._ 12mo. London, 1887.
+Woodcuts. (Victoria and Albert M. Handbook.)
+
+Swarzenski, G. _Die Regensburger Buchmalerei des X. und XI.
+Jahrhunderts._ Large 8vo. Leipzig, 1901. 35 phototypes.
+
+
+Tambroni, G. _Cennino Cennini: Trattato della Pittura._ 8vo. Roma, 1821.
+Later edition (Milanesi), Firenze, 1859. (Contains many practical
+directions and recipes.)
+
+Thompson, Sir Edward M. _English Illuminated MSS._ In _Bibliographica_,
+vol. i. pp. 129, 385, etc. Large 8vo. London, 1895.
+
+
+Venturi, Ad. _La miniatura ferrarese nel secolo XV., etc._ Folio. Roma,
+1899. 4 chromolithographs and 7 phototypes. In _Le Gallerie Nazionale
+Italiane._ Vol. iv., 187.
+
+Viel-Castel, Cte. _Horace de. Statuts de l'Ordre du Saint-Esprit, etc.
+MS. du 14e Si�cle avec une notice sur la peinture des MSS._ Large
+folio. Paris, 1853. 17 very fine facsimiles in gold and colours.
+
+Vogelsang, W. _Holl�ndische Miniaturen des sp�teren Mittelalters._ Large
+8vo. Strassburg, 1899. Many phototype facsimiles.
+
+
+Wailly, J.N. de. _�l�mens de Pal�ographie._ 2 thick vols. 4to. Paris,
+1838. Many plates of writing, seals, etc.
+
+Wallther, J.L. _Lexicon diplomaticum._ Folio. 1751. Many examples of
+writings.
+
+Waagen, G.F. _On the Importance of MSS. with Miniatures in the History
+of Art._ 8vo. Philobiblon Society. Vol. i. London, 1854.
+
+Waagen, G.F. _Die Vornehmsten K�nstler in Wien._ 8vo. Wien, 1866. (MSS.
+in Imperial Library, etc., in Vienna.)
+
+Warner, G.F. _Miniatures and Borders from the Hours of Bona Sforza,
+Duchess of Milan._ Small 4to. London, 1894. 65 sepia facsimiles.
+
+Warner, G.F. _Illuminated MSS. in the British Museum._ 4to. London,
+1899, etc. Many coloured facsimiles.
+
+Wattenbach, W. _Das Schriftwesen im Mittelalter._ 8vo. Leipzig, 1871.
+
+Westwood, J.O. _Pal�ographia Sacra Pictoria._ 4to. London, 1845. 50
+facsimile plates, mostly in colours and gold.
+
+Westwood, J.O. _Miniatures and Ornaments of Anglo-Saxon and Irish MSS._
+Folio. Oxford, 1868. Many fine facsimiles in colours.
+
+Wyatt, M.D., and Tymms. _The Art of Illuminating._ Large 8vo. London,
+1860. Many facsimiles in gold and colours.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Illuminated Manuscripts, by John W. Bradley
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPTS ***
+
+***** This file should be named 19870-8.txt or 19870-8.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/1/9/8/7/19870/
+
+Produced by Project Rastko, Zoran Stefanovic, H.J. Bent
+and the Online Distributed Proofreaders Europe at
+http://dp.rastko.net.
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+http://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+http://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at http://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit http://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
+To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     http://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
diff --git a/19870-8.zip b/19870-8.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..31cc98f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19870-8.zip
diff --git a/19870-h.zip b/19870-h.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7ed2737
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19870-h.zip
diff --git a/19870-h/19870-h.htm b/19870-h/19870-h.htm
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5e86647
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19870-h/19870-h.htm
@@ -0,0 +1,10094 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN"
+    "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd">
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" />
+    <title>
+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of Illuminated Manuscripts, by John Bradley.
+    </title>
+    <style type="text/css">
+/*<![CDATA[  XML blockout */
+<!--
+    p {  margin-top: .75em;
+         text-align: justify;
+         margin-bottom: .75em;
+         }
+    p.left {
+         text-align: left;
+         }
+    .indent {
+         margin-left: 2%;
+         margin-top: 0em;
+         text-align: justify;
+         margin-bottom: 0.3em;
+    }
+    h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 {
+         text-align: center; /* all headings centered */
+         clear: both;
+         }
+    hr { width: 33%;
+	 margin-top: 2em;
+	 margin-bottom: 2em;
+         margin-left: auto;
+         margin-right: auto;
+         clear: both;
+       }
+
+    table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;}
+
+    body{margin-left: 10%;
+         margin-right: 10%;
+        }
+
+    .linenum  {position: absolute; top: auto; left: 4%;} /* poetry number */
+    .blockquot{margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 10%;}
+    .pagenum  {position: absolute; left: 92%; font-size: smaller; text-align: right;} /* page numbers */
+
+
+    .bb       {border-bottom: solid 2px;}
+    .bl       {border-left: solid 2px;}
+    .bt       {border-top: solid 2px;}
+    .br       {border-right: solid 2px;}
+    .bbox     {border: solid 2px;}
+
+    .center   {text-align: center;}
+    .smcap    {font-variant: small-caps;}
+    .u        {text-decoration: underline;}
+
+    .caption  {font-weight: bold;}
+
+    .figcenter   {margin: auto; text-align: center;}
+
+    .figleft     {float: left; clear: left; margin-left: 0; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top:
+                 1em; margin-right: 1em; padding: 0; text-align: center;}
+
+    .figright    {float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em;
+                 margin-top: 1em; margin-right: 0; padding: 0; text-align: center;}
+
+    .footnotes        {border: dashed 1px;}
+    .footnote         {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;}
+    .footnote .label  {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;}
+    .fnanchor         {vertical-align: super; font-size: .8em; text-decoration: none;}
+
+    .poem             {margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; text-align: left;}
+    .poem br          {display: none;}
+    .poem .stanza     {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;}
+    .poem span        {display: block; margin: 0; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;}
+    .poem span.i2     {display: block; margin-left: 2em;}
+    .poem span.i4     {display: block; margin-left: 4em;}
+    // -->
+    /* XML end  ]]>*/
+    </style>
+  </head>
+<body>
+
+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Illuminated Manuscripts, by John W. Bradley
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Illuminated Manuscripts
+
+Author: John W. Bradley
+
+Release Date: November 19, 2006 [EBook #19870]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPTS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Project Rastko, Zoran Stefanovic, H.J. Bent
+and the Online Distributed Proofreaders Europe at
+http://dp.rastko.net.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+<h1 style="font-size: 4em;"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Illuminated</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: -0.4em;">Manuscripts</span><br />
+&nbsp;</h1>
+
+<h3>John Bradley<br />
+&nbsp;</h3>
+
+<h4 class="smcap">Bracken Books<br />
+London</h4>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+
+<h2><span class="smcap">Book I</span></h2>
+
+<h2><a href="#Page_1">CHAPTER I</a></h2>
+
+<h3>INTRODUCTORY</h3>
+
+<p>What is meant by art?&mdash;The art faculty&mdash;How artists may be compared&mdash;The
+aim of illumination&mdash;Distinction between illumination
+and miniature&mdash;Definition of illumination&mdash;The first miniature
+painter&mdash;Origin of the term &ldquo;miniature&rdquo;&mdash;Ovid's allusion to his
+little book</p>
+
+<h2><a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II</a></h2>
+
+<h3>VELLUM AND OTHER MATERIALS</h3>
+
+<p>Difference between vellum and parchment&mdash;Names of different preparations&mdash;The
+kinds of vellum most prized for illuminated books&mdash;The
+&ldquo;parcheminerie&rdquo; of the Abbey of Cluny&mdash;Origin of the
+term &ldquo;parchment&rdquo;&mdash;Papyrus</p>
+
+<h2><a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III</a></h2>
+
+<h3>WRITING</h3>
+
+<p>Its different styles&mdash;Origin of Western alphabets&mdash;Various forms of
+letters&mdash;Capitals, uncials, etc.&mdash;Texts used in Western Europe&mdash;Forms
+of ancient writings&mdash;The roll, or volume&mdash;The codex&mdash;Tablets&mdash;Diptychs,
+etc.&mdash;The square book&mdash;How different sizes of
+books were produced</p>
+
+<h2><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV</a></h2>
+
+<h3>GREEK AND ROMAN ILLUMINATION</h3>
+
+<p>The first miniature painter&mdash;The Vatican Vergils&mdash;Methods of painting&mdash;Origin
+of Christian art&mdash;The Vienna Genesis&mdash;The Dioscorides&mdash;The
+Byzantine Revival</p>
+
+<h2><a href="#CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V</a></h2>
+
+<h3>BYZANTINE ILLUMINATION</h3>
+
+<p>The rebuilding of the city of Byzantium the beginning of Byzantine
+art&mdash;Justinian's fondness for building and splendour&mdash;Description
+of Paul the Silentiary&mdash;Sumptuous garments&mdash;The Gospel-book of
+Hormisdas&mdash;Characteristics of Byzantine work&mdash;Comparative scarcity
+of examples&mdash;Rigidity of Byzantine rules of art&mdash;Periods of
+Byzantine art&mdash;Examples&mdash;Monotony and lifelessness of the style</p>
+
+<h2><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI</a></h2>
+
+<h3>CELTIC ILLUMINATION</h3>
+
+<p>Early liturgical books reflect the ecclesiastical art of their time&mdash;This
+feature a continuous characteristic of illumination down to the
+latest times&mdash;Elements of Celtic ornament&mdash;Gospels of St. Chad&mdash;Durham
+Gospels&mdash;Contrast of Celtic and Byzantine&mdash;St. Columba&mdash;Book
+of Kells&mdash;Details of its decoration</p>
+
+<h2><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII</a></h2>
+
+<h3>CELTIC ILLUMINATION&mdash;<i>continued</i></h3>
+
+<p>The Iona Gospels&mdash;Contrast with Roman and Byzantine&mdash;Details&mdash;Treatment
+of animal forms&mdash;Colour schemes&mdash;The Gospel-book of
+St. Columbanus&mdash;That of Mael Brith Mac Durnan&mdash;The Lindisfarne Gospels&mdash;Cumdachs&mdash;Other
+book-shrines</p>
+
+<h2><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII</a></h2>
+
+<h3>SEMI-BARBARIC ILLUMINATION</h3>
+
+<p>Visigothic&mdash;Merovingian&mdash;Lombardic&mdash;Extinction of classic art&mdash;Splendid
+reign of Dagobert&mdash;St. Eloy of Noyon&mdash;The Library of Laon&mdash;Natural
+History of Isidore of Seville&mdash;Elements of contemporary
+art&mdash;Details of ornament&mdash;Symbolism&mdash;Luxeuil and Monte Cassino&mdash;Sacramentary
+of Gellone&mdash;&ldquo;Prudentius&rdquo;&mdash;&ldquo;Orosius&rdquo;&mdash;Value of
+the Sacramentary of Gellone</p>
+
+<h2><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX</a></h2>
+
+<h3>DEVELOPMENT OF THE INITIAL</h3>
+
+<p>The initial and initial paragraph the main object of decoration in Celtic
+illumination&mdash;Study of the letter L as an example&mdash;The I of &ldquo;In
+principio&rdquo; and the B of &ldquo;Beatus Vir&rdquo;</p>
+
+<h2><a href="#CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X</a></h2>
+
+<h3>FIRST ENGLISH STYLES</h3>
+
+<p>Transition from Iona to Lindisfarne&mdash;Influence of Frankish art&mdash;The
+&ldquo;Opus Anglicum&rdquo;&mdash;The Winchester school and its characteristics&mdash;Whence
+obtained&mdash;Method of painting&mdash;Examples&mdash;Where found
+and described</p>
+
+<h2><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI</a></h2>
+
+<h3>CAROLINGIAN ILLUMINATION</h3>
+
+<p>Why so-called&mdash;Works to be consulted&mdash;The Library of St. Gall&mdash;Rise
+and progress of Carolingian art&mdash;Account of various MSS.&mdash;Feature
+of the style&mdash;Gospels of St. Sernin&mdash;The Ada-Codex&mdash;Centres of
+production&mdash;Other splendid examples&mdash;The Alcuin Bible&mdash;The Gospel
+of St. M&eacute;dard of Soissons</p>
+
+<h2><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII</a></h2>
+
+<h3>MONASTIC ILLUMINATION</h3>
+
+<p>Introductory&mdash;Monasteries and their work from the sixth to the ninth
+century&mdash;The claustral schools&mdash;Alcuin&mdash;Warnefrid and Theodulf&mdash;Clerics
+and monastics&mdash;The Golden Age of monasticism&mdash;The
+Order of St. Benedict&mdash;Cistercian houses&mdash;Other Orders&mdash;Progress
+of writing in Carolingian times&mdash;Division of labour</p>
+
+<h2><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII</a></h2>
+
+<h3>MONASTIC ILLUMINATION&mdash;<i>continued</i></h3>
+
+<p>The copyist&mdash;Gratuitous labour&mdash;Last words of copyists&mdash;Disputes
+between Cluny and Citeaux&mdash;The Abbey of Cluny: its grandeur
+and influences&mdash;Use of gold and purple vellum&mdash;The more influential
+abbeys and their work in France, Germany, and the Netherlands</p>
+
+
+<h2><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV</a></h2>
+
+<h3>OTHONIAN ILLUMINATION</h3>
+
+<p>Departure from Carolingian&mdash;Bird and serpent&mdash;Common use of dracontine
+forms in letter-ornament&mdash;Influence of metal-work on the
+forms of scroll-ornament&mdash;The vine-stem and its developments&mdash;Introduction
+of Greek taste and fashion into Germany&mdash;Cistercian
+illumination&mdash;The Othonian period&mdash;Influence of women as patronesses
+and practitioners&mdash;German princesses&mdash;The Empress Adelheid
+of Burgundy&mdash;The Empress Theophano&mdash;Henry&nbsp;II. and the Empress
+Cunegunda&mdash;Bamberg&mdash;Examples of Othonian art</p>
+
+<h2><a href="#CHAPTER_XV">CHAPTER XV</a></h2>
+
+<h3>FRANCONIAN ILLUMINATION</h3>
+
+<p>The later Saxon schools&mdash;Bernward of Hildesheim&mdash;Tuotilo and
+Hartmut of St. Gallen&mdash;Portrait of Henry&nbsp;II. in MS. 40 at Munich&mdash;Netherlandish
+and other work compared&mdash;Alleged deterioration
+of work under the Franconian Emperors not true&mdash;Bad character
+of the eleventh century as to art&mdash;Example to the contrary</p>
+
+<h2><a href="#CHAPTER_XVI">CHAPTER XVI</a></h2>
+
+<h3>ARTISTIC EDUCATION IN THE CLOISTER</h3>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;Manual&rdquo;&mdash;Its discovery&mdash;Its origin and contents&mdash;Didron's
+translation&mdash;The &ldquo;Compendium&rdquo; of Theophilus&mdash;Its contents&mdash;English
+version by Hendrie&mdash;Benedictine and Cistercian illumination&mdash;How
+they differ&mdash;Character of monastic architects and
+artists</p>
+
+<h2><a href="#CHAPTER_XVII">CHAPTER XVII</a></h2>
+
+<h3>THE RISE OF GOTHIC ILLUMINATION</h3>
+
+<p>Germany the chief power in Europe in the twelfth century&mdash;Rise of
+Italian influence&mdash;The Emmeram MSS.&mdash;Coronation of Henry&nbsp;II.&mdash;The
+Apocalypse&mdash;The &ldquo;Hortus Deliciarum&rdquo;&mdash;Romanesque&mdash;MS.
+of Henry the Lion&mdash;The Niederm&uuml;nster Gospels&mdash;Description
+of the MS.&mdash;Rise of Gothic&mdash;Uncertainty of its origin&mdash;The
+spirit of the age</p>
+
+
+<h2><span class="smcap">Book II</span></h2>
+
+<h2><a href="#BOOK_II">CHAPTER I</a></h2>
+
+<h3>THE GOLDEN AGE OF ILLUMINATION</h3>
+
+<p>The Gothic spirit&mdash;A &ldquo;zeitgeist&rdquo; not the invention of a single artist
+nor of a single country&mdash;The thirteenth century the beginning of
+the new style&mdash;Contrast between North and South, between East
+and West, marked in the character of artistic leaf-work&mdash;Gradual
+development of Gothic foliage&mdash;The bud of the thirteenth century,
+the leaf of the fourteenth, and the flower of the fifteenth&mdash;The
+Freemasons&mdash;Illumination transferred from the monastery to the
+lay workshop&mdash;The Psalter of St. Louis&mdash;Characteristics of French
+Gothic illumination&mdash;Rise of the miniature as a distinct feature&mdash;Guilds&mdash;Lay
+artists</p>
+
+<h2><a href="#II_CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II</a></h2>
+
+<h3>RISE OF NATIONAL STYLES</h3>
+
+<p>The fourteenth century the true Golden Age of Gothic illumination&mdash;France
+the cradle of other national styles&mdash;Netherlandish, Italian,
+German, etc.&mdash;Distinction of schools&mdash;Difficulty of assigning the
+<i>provenance</i> of MSS.&mdash;The reason for it&mdash;MS. in Fitzwilliam
+Museum, Cambridge&mdash;The Padua Missal&mdash;Artists' names&mdash;Whence
+obtained</p>
+
+<h2><a href="#II_CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III</a></h2>
+
+<h3>FRENCH ILLUMINATION FROM THE THIRTEENTH
+CENTURY TO THE RENAISSANCE</h3>
+
+<p>Ivy-leaf and chequered backgrounds&mdash;Occasional introduction of
+plain burnished gold&mdash;Reign of Charles&nbsp;VI. of France&mdash;The Dukes
+of Orleans, Berry, and Burgundy; their prodigality and fine
+taste for MSS.&mdash;Christine de Pisan and her works&mdash;Description of
+her &ldquo;Mutation of Fortune&rdquo; in the Paris Library&mdash;The &ldquo;Roman
+de la Rose&rdquo; and &ldquo;Cit&eacute; des Dames&rdquo;&mdash;Details of the French style
+of illumination&mdash;Burgundian MSS., Harl. 4431&mdash;Roy. 15 E. 6&mdash;The
+Talbot Romances&mdash;Gradual approach to Flemish on the one
+hand and Italian on the other</p>
+
+<h2><a href="#II_CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV</a></h2>
+
+<h3>ENGLISH ILLUMINATION FROM THE TENTH TO THE
+FIFTEENTH CENTURY</h3>
+
+<p>Organisation of the monastic <i>scriptoria</i>&mdash;Professional outsiders: lay
+artists&mdash;The whole sometimes the work of the same practitioner&mdash;The
+Winchester Abbeys of St. Swithun's and Hyde&mdash;Their vicissitudes&mdash;St.
+Alban's&mdash;Westminster&mdash;Royal MS. 2 A 22&mdash;Description
+of style&mdash;The Tenison Psalter&mdash;Features of this period&mdash;The
+Arundel Psalter&mdash;Hunting and shooting scenes, and games&mdash;Characteristic
+pictures, grotesques, and caricatures&mdash;Queen Mary's
+Psalter&mdash;Rapid changes under Richard&nbsp;II.&mdash;Royal MS. 2 E. 9&mdash;Their
+cause</p>
+
+<h2><a href="#II_CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V</a></h2>
+
+<h3>THE SOURCES OF ENGLISH FIFTEENTH-CENTURY
+ILLUMINATION</h3>
+
+<p>Attributed to the Netherlands&mdash;Not altogether French&mdash;The home of
+Anne of Bohemia, Richard&nbsp;II.'s Queen&mdash;Court of Charles&nbsp;IV. at
+Prag&mdash;Bohemian Art&mdash;John of Luxembourg, King of Bohemia&mdash;The
+Golden Bull of Charles&nbsp;IV.&mdash;Marriage of Richard&nbsp;II.&mdash;The
+transformation of English work owing to this marriage and the
+arrival of Bohemian artists in England&mdash;Influence of Queen Anne
+on English Art and Literature&mdash;Depression caused by her death&mdash;Examination
+of Roy. MS. 1 E. 9 and 2 A. 18&mdash;The Grandison
+Hours&mdash;Other MSS.&mdash;Introduction of Flemish work by
+Edward&nbsp;IV.</p>
+
+<h2><a href="#II_CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI</a></h2>
+
+<h3>ITALIAN ILLUMINATION</h3>
+
+<p>Barbaric character of Italian illumination in the twelfth century&mdash;Ravenna
+and Pavia the earliest centres of revival&mdash;The &ldquo;Exultet&rdquo;&mdash;La
+Cava and Monte Cassino&mdash;The writers of early Italian MSS.
+not Italians&mdash;In the early fourteenth century the art is French&mdash;Peculiarities
+of Italian foliages&mdash;The Law Books&mdash;Poems of Convenevole
+da Prato, the tutor of Petrarch&mdash;Celebrated patrons&mdash;The
+Laon Boethius&mdash;The Decretals, Institutes, etc.&mdash;&ldquo;Decretum
+Gratiani,&rdquo; other collections and MSS.&mdash;Statuts du Saint Esprit&mdash;Method
+of painting&mdash;Don Silvestro&mdash;The Rationale of Durandus&mdash;Nicolas
+of Bologna, etc.&mdash;Triumphs of Petrarch&mdash;Books at San
+Marco, Florence&mdash;The Brera Graduals at Milan&mdash;Other Italian
+collections&mdash;Examples of different localities in the British Museum&mdash;Places
+where the best work was done&mdash;Fine Neapolitan MS. in
+the British Museum&mdash;The white-vine style superseded by the
+classical renaissance</p>
+
+<h2><a href="#II_CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII</a></h2>
+
+<h3>GERMAN ILLUMINATION FROM THE THIRTEENTH
+TO THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY</h3>
+
+<p>Frederick&nbsp;II., <i>Stupor Mundi</i>, and his MS. on hunting&mdash;The Sicilian
+school mainly Saracenic, but a mixture of Greek, Arabic, and
+Latin tastes&mdash;The Franconian Emperors at Bamberg&mdash;Charles of
+Anjou&mdash;The House of Luxembourg at Prag&mdash;MSS. in the University
+Library&mdash;The Collegium Carolinum of the Emperor Charles&nbsp;IV.&mdash;MSS.
+at Vienna&mdash;The Wenzel Bible&mdash;The Weltchronik of
+Rudolf v. Ems at Stuttgard&mdash;Wilhelm v. Oranse at Vienna&mdash;The
+Golden Bull&mdash;Various schools&mdash;Hildesheimer Prayer-book at Berlin&mdash;The
+Nuremberg school&mdash;The Glockendons&mdash;The Brethren of
+the Pen</p>
+
+<h2><a href="#II_CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII</a></h2>
+
+<h3>NETHERLANDISH ILLUMINATION</h3>
+
+<p>What is meant by the Netherlands&mdash;Early realism and study of nature&mdash;Combination
+of symbolism with imitation&mdash;Anachronism in design&mdash;The
+value of the pictorial methods of the old illuminators&mdash;The
+oldest Netherlandish MS.&mdash;Harlinda and Renilda&mdash;The nunnery
+at Maas-Eyck&mdash;Description of the MS.&mdash;Thomas &agrave; Kempis&mdash;The
+school of Zwolle&mdash;Character of the work&mdash;The use of green landscape
+backgrounds&mdash;The Dukes of Burgundy&mdash;Netherlandish artists&mdash;No
+miniatures of the Van Eycks or Memling known to exist&mdash;Schools
+of Bruges, Ghent, Li&eacute;ge, etc.&mdash;Brussels Library&mdash;Splendid
+Netherlandish MSS. at Vienna&mdash;Gerard David and the Grimani
+Breviary&mdash;British Museum&mdash;&ldquo;Romance of the Rose&rdquo;&mdash;&ldquo;Isabella&rdquo;
+Breviary&mdash;Grisailles</p>
+
+<h2><a href="#II_CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX</a></h2>
+
+<h3>THE FRENCH RENAISSANCE</h3>
+
+<p>Communication with Italy&mdash;Renaissance not sudden&mdash;Origin of the
+schools of France and Burgundy&mdash;Touraine and its art&mdash;Fouquet&mdash;Brentano
+MSS.&mdash;&ldquo;Versailles Livy&rdquo;&mdash;Munich &ldquo;Boccaccio,&rdquo; etc.&mdash;Perr&eacute;al
+and Bourdichon&mdash;&ldquo;Hours of Anne of Brittany&rdquo;&mdash;Poyet&mdash;The
+school of Fontainebleau&mdash;Stained glass&mdash;Jean Cousin&mdash;Gouffier
+&ldquo;Heures&rdquo;&mdash;British Museum Offices of Francis&nbsp;I.&mdash;Dinteville
+Offices&mdash;Paris &ldquo;Heures de Montmorency,&rdquo; &ldquo;Heures de Dinteville,&rdquo;
+etc.</p>
+
+<h2><a href="#II_CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X</a></h2>
+
+<h3>SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE ILLUMINATION</h3>
+
+<p>Late period of Spanish illumination&mdash;Isidore of Seville&mdash;Archives at
+Madrid&mdash;Barcelona&mdash;Toledo&mdash;Madrid&mdash;Choir-books of the Escorial&mdash;Philip&nbsp;II.&mdash;Illuminators
+of the choir-books&mdash;The size and beauty
+of the volumes&mdash;Fray Andr&eacute;s de Leon and other artists&mdash;Italian
+influence&mdash;Giovanni Battista Scorza of Genoa&mdash;Antonio de Holanda,
+well-known Portuguese miniaturist in sixteenth century&mdash;His son
+Francesco&mdash;The choir-books at Belem&mdash;French invasion&mdash;Missal
+of Gon&ccedil;alvez&mdash;Sandoval Genealogies&mdash;Portuguese Genealogies in
+British Museum&mdash;The Stowe Missal of John&nbsp;III.</p>
+
+<h2><a href="#II_CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI</a></h2>
+
+<h3>ILLUMINATION SINCE THE INVENTION OF PRINTING</h3>
+
+<p>The invention of printing&mdash;Its very slight affect on illuminating&mdash;Preference
+by rich patrons for written books&mdash;Work produced in
+various cities in the sixteenth century&mdash;Examples in German,
+Italian, and other cities, and in various public libraries up to the
+present time</p>
+
+<h2><a href="#MANUSCRIPTS_THAT_MAY_BE_CONSULTED_AS_EXAMPLES">MANUSCRIPTS THAT MAY BE CONSULTED</a></h2>
+<h2><a href="#BIBLIOGRAPHY">BIBLIOGRAPHY</a></h2>
+<h2><a href="#INDEX">INDEX</a></h2>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h1><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1"></a><a name="ILLUMINATED_MANUSCRIPTS" id="ILLUMINATED_MANUSCRIPTS"></a>ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPTS</h1>
+
+<h2><span class="smcap">Book I</span></h2>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER I</h2>
+
+<h3>INTRODUCTORY</h3>
+
+<p>What is meant by art?&mdash;The art faculty&mdash;How artists may be
+compared&mdash;The aim of illumination&mdash;Distinction between
+illumination and miniature&mdash;Definition of illumination&mdash;The
+first miniature painter&mdash;Origin of the term &ldquo;miniature&rdquo;&mdash;Ovid's
+allusion to his little book.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> desire for decoration is probably as old
+as the human race. Nature, of course, is
+the source of beauty, and this natural beauty
+affects something within us which has or is the
+faculty of reproducing the cause of its emotion
+in a material form. Whether the reproduction
+be such as to appeal to the eye or the ear depends
+on the cast of the faculty. In a mild or elementary
+form, probably both casts of faculty exist
+in every animated creature, and especially in the
+human being.</p>
+
+<p>Art being the intelligent representation of that
+quality of beauty which appeals to any particular
+observer, whoever exercises the faculty of such
+representation is an artist.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2"></a>Greatness or otherwise is simply the measure
+of the faculty, for in Nature herself there is no
+restriction. There is always enough of beauty in
+Nature to fill the mightiest capacity of human
+genius. Artists, therefore, are measured by comparison
+with each other in reference to the fraction
+of art which they attempt to reproduce.</p>
+
+<p>The art of illumination does not aim at more
+than the gratification of those who take pleasure
+in books. Its highest ambition is to make books
+beautiful.</p>
+
+<p>To some persons, perhaps, all ordinary books
+are ugly and distasteful. Probably they are so
+to the average schoolboy. Hence the laudable
+endeavour among publishers of school-books to
+make them attractive. The desire that books
+should be made attractive is of great antiquity.
+How far back in the world's history we should
+have to go to get in front of it we cannot venture
+to reckon. The methods of making books attractive
+are numerous and varied. That to which
+we shall confine our attention is a rather special
+one. Both its processes and its results are peculiar.
+Mere pictures or pretty ornamental letters
+in sweet colours and elegant drawing do not
+constitute illumination, though they do form
+essential contributions towards it; and, indeed,
+in the sixteenth century the clever practitioners
+who wished, in bright colours, to awaken up the
+old woodcuts used to call themselves illuminists,
+and the old German books which taught how the
+work should be done were called <i>Illuminir b&uuml;cher</i>.
+Illuminists were not illuminators.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3"></a>In the twelfth century when, as far as we know,
+the word illuminator was first applied to one who
+practised the art of book decoration, it meant one
+who &ldquo;lighted up&rdquo; the page of the book with
+bright colours and burnished gold.</p>
+
+<p>These processes suggest the definition of the
+art. <i>Perfect illumination must contain both
+colours and metals</i>. To this extent it is in
+perfect unison with the other medi&aelig;val art of
+heraldry; it might almost be called a twin-sister.</p>
+
+<p>As an art it is much older than its name. We
+find something very like it even among the ancient
+Egyptians, for in the Louvre at Paris is a papyrus
+containing paintings of funeral ceremonies, executed
+in bright colours and touched in its high
+lights with pencilled gold. But after this for
+many centuries there remains no record of the
+existence of any such art until just before the
+Christian era. Then, indeed, we have mention
+of a lady artist who painted a number of miniature
+portraits for the great biographical work of the
+learned Varro. We must carefully observe,
+however, that there is a distinction between
+illumination and mere miniature painting. Sometimes
+it is true that miniatures&mdash;as <i>e.g.</i> those of
+the early Byzantine artists, and afterwards those
+of Western Europe&mdash;were finished with touches of
+gold to represent the lights. This brought them
+into the category of illuminations, for while miniatures
+may be executed without the use of gold or
+silver, illuminations may not. There are thousands
+of miniatures that are not illuminations.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4"></a>At the period when illuminating was at its best
+the miniature, in its modern sense of a little
+picture, was only just beginning to appear as a
+noticeable feature, and the gold was as freely
+applied to it as to the penmanship or the ornament.
+But such is not the case with miniature
+painting generally.</p>
+
+<p>Lala of Cyzicus, the lady artist just referred to,
+lived in the time of Augustus C&aelig;sar. She has
+the honour of being the first miniaturist on record,
+and is said to have produced excellent portraits
+&ldquo;in little,&rdquo; especially those of ladies, on both
+vellum and ivory. Her own portrait, representing
+her engaged in painting a statuette, is still to
+be seen among the precious frescoes preserved in
+the museum at Naples.</p>
+
+<p>The term &ldquo;miniature,&rdquo; now applied to this class
+of work, has been frequently explained. It is
+derived from the Latin word <i>minium</i>, or red
+paint, two pigments being anciently known by
+this name&mdash;one the sulphide of mercury, now
+known also as &ldquo;vermilion,&rdquo; the other a lead oxide,
+now called &ldquo;red lead.&rdquo; It is the latter which is
+generally understood as the <i>minium</i> of the illuminators,
+though both were used in manuscript
+work. The red paint was employed to mark the
+initial letters or sections of the MS. Its connection
+with portraiture and other pictorial subjects
+on a small scale is entirely owing to its accidental
+confusion by French writers with their
+own word <i>mignon</i>, and so with the Latin <i>minus</i>.
+In classical times, among the Romans, the
+&ldquo;miniator&rdquo; was simply a person who applied
+<a name="Page_5" id="Page_5"></a>the <i>minium</i>, and had nothing to do with pictures
+or portraits at all, but with the writing. That
+the rubrication of titles, however, was somewhat
+of a luxury may be gathered from the complaint
+of Ovid when issuing the humble edition of his
+verses from his lonely exile of Tomi:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center">&ldquo;Parve (nec invideo) sine me liber ibis in urbem:<br />
+<span style="margin-left: -3em;">Hei mihi quo domino non licet ire tuo.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: -3em;">.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  .&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  .&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  .&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  .</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: -3em;">Nec te purpureo velent vaccinia succo</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: -3em;">Non est conveniens luctibus ille color.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: -1.1em;"><i>Nec titulus minio</i>, nec cedro carta notetur</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: -1.3em;">Candida nec nigra cornua fronte geras.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 15em;"><i>Tristia</i>, Cl. 1, Eleg. 1.</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> &ldquo;Go, little book, nor do I forbid,&mdash;go without me into
+that city where, alas! I may enter never more.... Nor
+shall whortleberries adorn thee with their crimson juice;
+that colour is not suitable for lamentations. Nor shall thy
+title be marked with minium, nor thy leaf scented with
+cedar-oil. Nor shalt thou bear horns of ivory or ebony
+upon thy front.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<p>There are many allusions in these pathetic lines
+which would bear annotation, but space forbids.
+The one point is the use of minium.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6"></a><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II</h2>
+
+<h3>VELLUM AND OTHER MATERIALS</h3>
+
+<p>Difference between vellum and parchment&mdash;Names of different
+preparations&mdash;The kinds of vellum most prized for illuminated
+books&mdash;The &ldquo;parcheminerie&rdquo; of the Abbey of Cluny&mdash;Origin
+of the term &ldquo;parchment&rdquo;&mdash;Papyrus.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">As</span> vellum is constantly spoken of in connection
+with illumination and illuminated books, it
+becomes necessary to explain what it is, and why
+it was used instead of paper.</p>
+
+<p>We often find writers, when referring to ancient
+documents, making use of the words parchment
+and vellum as if the terms were synonymous;
+but this is not strictly correct. It is true that
+both are prepared from skins, but the skins are
+different. They are similar, but not the same,
+nor, indeed, are they interchangeable. In point
+of fact, the skins of almost all the well-known
+domestic animals, and even of fishes, have been
+used for the purpose of making a material for
+writing upon. Specifically among the skins so
+prepared were the following: the ordinary lambskin,
+called &ldquo;aignellinus&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_1_2" id="FNanchor_1_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a>; that prepared from
+stillborn lambs, called &ldquo;virgin parchment.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_2" id="Footnote_1_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Strictly <i>agnellinus</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p>From sheepskins was produced ordinary
+&ldquo;parchment,&rdquo; and also a sort of leather called
+<a name="Page_7" id="Page_7"></a>&ldquo;basane&rdquo; or &ldquo;cordovan.&rdquo; Vellum was produced
+from calfskin; that of the stillborn calf being
+called &ldquo;uterine vellum,&rdquo; and considered the finest
+and thinnest. It is often spoken of in connection
+with the exquisitely written Bibles of the thirteenth
+and fourteenth centuries as of the highest value.</p>
+
+<p>Besides these were the prepared skins of oxen,
+pigs, and asses; but these were chiefly used for
+bindings, though occasionally for leaves of account
+and other books liable to rough usage.</p>
+
+<p>Before the tenth century the vellum used for
+MSS. is highly polished, and very white and fine.
+Afterwards it becomes thick and rough, especially
+on the hair side. In the examination of certain
+MSS. the distinction of hair side and smooth side
+is of importance in counting the gatherings so as
+to determine the completeness, or otherwise, of a
+given volume. Towards the period of the Renaissance,
+however, the vellum gradually regains
+its better qualities.</p>
+
+<p>Thus it may be seen that the difference between
+vellum and parchment is not a mere difference of
+thickness; for while, in general, vellum is stouter
+than parchment, there is some vellum which is
+thinner than some parchment. Not only are
+they made from different kinds of skin, but the
+vellum used for illuminated books was, and still
+is, prepared with greater care than the parchment
+used for ordinary school or college treatises, or
+legal documents.</p>
+
+<p>The fabrication of both parchment and vellum
+in the Middle Ages was quite as important a
+matter as that of paper at the present time, and
+<a name="Page_8" id="Page_8"></a>certain monastic establishments had a special
+reputation for the excellence of their manufacture.
+Thus the &ldquo;parcheminerie,&rdquo; as it was called, of the
+Abbey of Cluny, in France, was quite celebrated
+in the twelfth century. One reason probably
+for this celebrity was the fact that Cluny had
+more than three hundred churches, colleges, and
+monasteries amongst its dependencies, and therefore
+had ample opportunities for obtaining the best
+materials and learning the best methods in use
+throughout literary Christendom. As to the name
+&ldquo;vellum,&rdquo; it is directly referable to the familiar
+Latin term for the hide or pelt of the sheep or
+other animal, but specially applied, as we have
+said, to that of the calf, the writing material thus
+prepared being termed <i>charta vitulina</i>&mdash;in French
+<i>v&eacute;lin</i>, and in monastic Latin and English <i>vellum</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The name &ldquo;parchment&rdquo; had quite a different
+kind of origin. It is an old story, found in Pliny's
+<i>Natural History</i> (bk. xiii. ch. 70), that the ancient
+use or revival of the use of parchment was due to
+the determination of King Eumenes&nbsp;II. of Mysia
+or Pergamos to form a library which should rival
+those of Alexandria, but that when he applied to
+Egypt for papyrus, the writing materials then in
+use, Ptolemy Epiphanes jealously refused to permit
+its exportation. In this difficulty Eumenes, we
+are told, had recourse to the preparation of sheepskins,
+and that from the place of its invention it
+was called <i>charta pergamena</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Pliny and his authority, however, were both
+wrong in point of history. Eumenes, who
+reigned from about 197 to 158 B.C., was not the
+<a name="Page_9" id="Page_9"></a>inventor, but the restorer of its use (see Herodotus,
+v. 58). It was called in Greek &#956;&#949;&#956;&#946;&#961;&#940;&#957;&#945;
+(2 Tim. iv. 13).</p>
+
+<p>We may mention, by the way, that neither
+vellum nor parchment are by any means the oldest
+materials known. Far older, and more generally
+used in Italy, Greece, and Egypt, was the
+material which has given us the name of our
+commonest writing material of to-day, viz. paper.
+The name of this older material was <i>papyrus</i> (Gr.
+&#960;&#940;&#960;&#965;&#961;&#959;&#962; and &#967;&#940;&#961;&#964;&#951;&#962;). As a writing material it was
+known in Egypt from remote antiquity. It was
+plentiful in Rome in the time of the C&aelig;sars, and
+it continued, both in Grecian and Roman Egypt,
+to be the ordinary material employed down to
+the middle of the tenth century of our era. In
+Europe, too, it continued in common use long
+after vellum had been adopted for books, though
+more especially for letters and accounts. St.
+Jerome mentions vellum as an alternative material
+in case papyrus should fail (Ep. vii.), and St.
+Augustine (Ep. xv.) apologises for using vellum
+instead of papyrus.<a name="FNanchor_1_3" id="FNanchor_1_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> Papyrus was also used in
+the early Middle Ages. Examples, <i>made up into
+book-form</i>&mdash;<i>i.e.</i> in leaves, with sometimes a few
+vellum leaves among them for stability&mdash;are still
+extant. Among such are some seven or eight
+books in various European libraries, the best
+known being the Homilies of St. Avitus at Paris,
+the Antiquities of Josephus at Milan, and the
+Isidore at St. Gall.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_3" id="Footnote_1_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Thompson, <i>Greek and Latin Pal&aelig;ography</i>, p. 33.</p></div>
+
+<p>And in the Papal Chancery papyrus appears to
+<a name="Page_10" id="Page_10"></a>have been used down to a late date in preference
+to vellum.<a name="FNanchor_1_4" id="FNanchor_1_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_4" id="Footnote_1_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Thompson, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 34; Aug. Molinier, <i>Les Manuscrits</i>,
+Pr&eacute;lim.; Lecoy de la Marche, <i>Les MSS. et la
+Miniature</i>, p. 24.</p></div>
+
+<p>In France papyrus was in common use in the
+sixth and seventh centuries. Merovingian documents
+dating from 625 to 692 are still preserved
+in Paris.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11"></a><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III</h2>
+
+
+<h3>WRITING</h3>
+
+<p>Its different styles&mdash;Origin of Western alphabets&mdash;Various forms
+of letters&mdash;Capitals, uncials, etc.&mdash;Texts used in Western
+Europe&mdash;Forms of ancient writings&mdash;The roll, or volume&mdash;The
+codex&mdash;Tablets&mdash;Diptychs, etc.&mdash;The square book&mdash;How
+different sizes of books were produced.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Seeing</span> that illumination grew originally out
+of the decoration of the initial letters, our
+next point to notice is the penmanship. The
+alphabet which we now use is that formerly used
+by the Romans, who borrowed it from the Greeks,
+who in turn obtained it (or their modification of
+it) from the Ph&#339;nicians, who, lastly it is said,
+constructed it from that of the Egyptians. Of
+course, in these repeated transfers the letters
+themselves, as well as the order of them, underwent
+considerable alterations. With these we
+have here no concern. Our alphabet, <i>i.e.</i> the
+Roman and its variations, is quite sufficient for
+our story. In order to show as clearly as may
+be the varieties of lettering and the progress of
+penmanship from classical times to the revival of
+the old Roman, letters in the fifteenth century,
+we offer the following synopsis, which classifies
+and indicates the development of the different
+hands used by writers and illuminators of MSS.
+<a name="Page_12" id="Page_12"></a>It is constructed on the information given in
+Wailly's large work on Pal&aelig;ography, and in
+Dr. de Grey Birch's book on the Utrecht Psalter.
+The former work affords excellent facsimiles,
+which, together with those given in the plates
+published by the Pal&aelig;ographical Society, will
+give the student the clearest possible ideas respecting
+these ancient handwritings.</p>
+
+<p>Omitting the cursive or correspondence hand,
+the letters used by the Romans were of four
+kinds&mdash;capitals (usually made angular to be cut
+in stone), rustic, uncials, and minuscules.</p>
+
+<p>The rounded capitals were intended to be used
+in penwork. Uncials differ from capitals only in
+the letters A, D, E, G, M, Q, T, V, for the sake
+of ease in writing. It is said that this class of
+letters was first called uncials from being made
+an inch (<i>uncia</i>) high, but this is mere tradition;
+the word is first used on Jerome's preface to the
+Book of Job. No uncials have ever been found
+measuring more than five-eighths of an inch in
+height.</p>
+
+<p>For the assistance of such students as may
+wish for examples we must refer to certain MSS.
+and reproductions in which the foregoing hands
+are exemplified.</p>
+
+<h4><i>CIRCA</i> FOURTH CENTURY.</h4>
+
+<p><i>Capitals</i>, yet not pure.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">The Vatican Vergil, No. 3225, throughout (Birch, p. 14;
+Silvestre's <i>Pal&eacute;ographie universelle</i>, pl. 74).</p>
+
+<p class="indent">With regard to the relative antiquity of capitals and
+uncials, M. de Wailly observes: &ldquo;The titles in pure
+<a name="Page_13" id="Page_13"></a>uncials, but less than the text itself, give an excellent
+index to the highest antiquity. This is verified in MSS.
+152, 2630, 107 of the Bibl. du Roi, etc. MSS. of the
+seventh or eighth century, whether on uncial or demi-uncial,
+or any other letter, are never constant in noting
+the title at the top of the page, or the kind of writing
+will vary, or if uncials be constantly used, the titles will
+not be smaller than the text. These variations become
+still greater in the following centuries. The ornaments
+which relieve the titles of each page commence about
+the eighth century&rdquo; (i. p. 49 C).</p>
+
+<p><i>Capitals</i> and <i>Uncials</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">The Homilies of St. Augustine (Silvestre, pl. 74).</p>
+<p class="indent">Augustine Opera, Paris Lib., 11641 (Pal&aelig;ograph. Soc.,
+pl. 42, 43).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rustic</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">The Second Vatican Vergil, No. 3867 (Wailly, pl. 2),
+called the &ldquo;Codex Romanus.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<h4>SIXTH CENTURY.</h4>
+
+<p><i>Rustic</i> and <i>Uncial</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">The Montamiata Bible (Birch, 35; Wailly, pl. 2, 4).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rustic</i> and <i>Minuscule</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">The Cambridge Gospels (Westwood, <i>Pal&aelig;ograph. Sacra</i>
+<i>Pictoria</i>, pl. 45).</p>
+
+<p><i>Uncials</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">Gospels in Brit. Mus. Add. MS. 5463.</p>
+<p class="indent">Paris Lib., Gregory of Tours (Silvestre, pl. 86).</p>
+<p class="indent">Vienna Imp. Lib., Livy (Silvestre, pl. 75).</p>
+<p class="indent">Brit. Mus., Harl. 1775 (Pal&aelig;ograph. Soc., pl. 16).</p>
+
+<h4>SEVENTH CENTURY.</h4>
+
+<p><i>Uncials</i> and <i>Minuscule</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">The St. Chad's Gospels in library of Lichfield Cathedral
+(Pal&aelig;ograph. Soc., pl. 20, 21, 35).</p>
+
+<h4><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14"></a>NINTH CENTURY.</h4>
+
+<p><i>Capitals</i> and <i>Minuscules</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">Paris Lib., Bible of Charles the Bald.</p>
+
+<p>There is scarcely anything more difficult to
+judge than the true age of square capital MSS.
+or of pure uncials. Even the rustic capitals, like
+the first Vatican Vergil, No. 3225, are extremely
+rare. The letters in this MS. are about three-sixteenths
+of an inch high.</p>
+
+
+<h4>TEXTS IN USE IN WESTERN EUROPE BEFORE
+THE AGE OF CHARLEMAGNE.</h4>
+
+<p><i>Lombardic.</i> The national hand of Italy.
+Founded on the old Roman cursive, it does not
+attain to any great beauty until the tenth or
+eleventh century. Examples may be seen in
+Pal&aelig;ographical Society, pl. 95, and in the excellent
+lithographs published by the monks of Monte
+Cassino (<i>Paleografia artistica di Monte Cassino</i>,
+Longobardo-Cassinese, tav. xxxiv., etc.). A very
+fine example occurs in pl. xv., dated 1087-88. Its
+characteristic letters are <i>a</i>, <i>e</i>, <i>g</i>, <i>t</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Visigothic.</i> The national hand of Spain. Also
+founded on the old Roman cursive. It becomes
+an established hand in the eighth century, and
+lasts until the twelfth. Examples occur in Ewald
+and L&#339;we, <i>Exempla Scriptur&aelig; Visigotic&aelig;</i>, Heidelberg,
+1883. It was at first very rude and illegible,
+but afterwards became even handsome. A fine
+example exists in the British Museum (Pal&aelig;o<a name="Page_15" id="Page_15"></a>graph.
+Soc., pl. 48). Its characteristic letters are
+<i>g</i>, <i>s</i>, <i>t</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Merovingian.</i> The national hand of France.
+A hand made up chiefly of loops and angles in a
+cramped, irregular way. Its derivation the same
+as the preceding. In the seventh century it is all
+but illegible. In the eighth it is much better,
+and almost easy to read.</p>
+
+<p><i>Celtic</i>. The national hand of Ireland. It is
+founded on the demi-uncial Roman, borrowed as
+to type from MSS. taken to Ireland by missionaries.
+It is bold, clear, and often beautiful, lending
+itself to some of the most astonishing feats
+of penmanship ever produced.</p>
+
+<p>Such are the chief varieties of writing found in
+the MSS. produced before the great revival of the
+arts and learning which took place during the
+reign of Charles the Great (Karl der Grosse),
+known familiarly as Charlemagne.</p>
+
+<p>Wattenbach (<i>Schriftwesen</i>, <i>etc.</i>) says that uncials
+date from the second century A.D. From
+examples still extant of the fifth and following
+centuries, it seems that while the Roman capitals
+were not uncommon, in Celtic MSS. the form
+generally adopted was the uncial. It was the
+form also usually chosen for ornamentation or
+imitation in those Visigothic, Merovingian, or
+Lombardic MSS., which made such remarkable
+use of fishes, birds, beasts, and plants for the
+construction of initial letters and principal words,
+of which we see so many examples in the elaborately
+illustrated Catalogue of the library at Laon
+<a name="Page_16" id="Page_16"></a>by Ed. Fleury, and in that of Cambray, by
+M. Durieux. Most of these pre-Carolingian
+designs are barbarous in the extreme, dreadfully
+clumsy in execution, but they evince considerable
+ingenuity and a strong predilection for symbolism.</p>
+
+<p>Before concluding this chapter perhaps something
+should be said concerning the shape of
+books, though this is a matter somewhat outside
+the scope of our proper subject. Yet, as the brief
+digression will afford an opportunity for the
+explanation of certain terms used in MSS., we
+will avail ourselves of it.</p>
+
+<p>The ancient form of writing upon skins and
+papyrus was that of the roll. The Hebrew,
+Arabic, or Greek terms for this do not concern us,
+but its Latin name was <i>volumen</i>, &ldquo;something
+rolled,&rdquo; and from this we obtain our word volume.
+Such words as &ldquo;explicit liber primus&rdquo; etc., which
+we often find in early MSS., refer to this roll-form;
+<i>explicare</i> in Latin meaning to unroll;
+hence, apropos of a chapter or book, to finish.
+When transferred to the square form, or codex,
+it simply means, &ldquo;here ends book first,&rdquo; etc.</p>
+
+<p>The modern book shape first came into use
+with the beginning of the Christian era under the
+name of codex. Here it will be necessary to
+explain that <i>caudex</i>, <i>codex</i>, in Latin, meant a
+block of wood, and had its humorous by-senses
+among the Roman dramatists, as the word block
+has among ourselves, such as blockhead.<a name="FNanchor_1_5" id="FNanchor_1_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> So
+<i>caudicalis provincia</i> was a jocular expression for
+the occupation of wood-splitting.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_5" id="Footnote_1_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Terence, <i>Heautont.</i>, 5. 1, 4.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17"></a>Whether the word had originally any connection
+with <i>cauda</i>, &ldquo;a tail,&rdquo; is not here worth considering,
+as if so, it had long lost the connection; and
+when used to mean a book, had only the sense of
+a board, or a number of boards from two upwards,
+fastened together by means of rings passed
+through holes made in their edges.</p>
+
+<p>Probably the first use was as plain smooth
+boards only; examples of such are still in existence.
+Then of boards thinly covered with, usually,
+black wax. A pair of such tablets, wax-covered,
+was a common form of a Roman pocket- or
+memorandum-book. It was also used as a means
+of conveying messages, the reply being returned
+on the same tablets. The method was to write
+on the wax with a fine-pointed instrument called
+a style, the reverse end of which was flattened.
+When the person to whom the message was sent
+had read it, he (or she) simply flattened out the
+writing, smoothed it level, and then wrote the
+reply on the same wax. School-children did
+their exercises on these tablets, housewives and
+stewards kept their accounts on them, and on
+them literary people jotted down their ideas as
+they do now in their pocket-books. Extant
+examples of these early books, or tablets, are
+fairly numerous, and may be seen in most public
+museums. A codex of two leaves was called a
+diptych; of three, a triptych, etc. The codex
+form was used for legal documents, wills, conveyances,
+and general correspondence. Hence
+the Roman postman was called a <i>tabellarius</i>, the
+tablets containing correspondence being tied with
+<a name="Page_18" id="Page_18"></a>a thread or ribbon and sealed. This custom of
+sending letters on tablets survived for some
+centuries after Augustan times. Wattenbach
+gives several interesting instances of their medi&aelig;val
+use.<a name="FNanchor_1_6" id="FNanchor_1_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_6" id="Footnote_1_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> <i>Schriftwesen</i>, 48.</p></div>
+
+<p>Of course when the tablet gave place to the
+codex of skin or paper, the papyrus was too brittle
+and fragile for practical utility, and examples, as
+we have seen, were very rare; but vellum soon
+became popular. We may mention, in passing,
+that the papyrus roll gave us a word still in use
+in diplomatics, the word <i>protocol</i>. The first sheet
+of a papyrus roll was called the &#960;&#961;&#969;&#964;&#972;&#954;&#959;&#955;&#955;&#959;&#957;. It
+usually contained the name of place and date of
+manufacture of the papyrus, and was stamped or
+marked with the name of the government officer
+who had charge of the department.</p>
+
+<p>In the vellum codex, though each leaf might
+have only one fold, and thus technically be considered
+as a folio, the actual shape of it was
+nearly square, hence its name of <i>codex quadratus</i>.
+When other forms of books, such as octavo, duo-decimo,
+etc., came into use, it was in consequence
+of the increased number of foldings. The gatherings,
+originally quaternions or quires, became
+different, and those who undertake to examine
+MSS. with respect to their completeness have to
+be familiar with the various methods.<a name="FNanchor_1_7" id="FNanchor_1_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> This kind
+of knowledge, however, though useful, is by no
+means essential to the story of illumination.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_7" id="Footnote_1_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Wattenbach, <i>Schriftwesen</i>; Madan, <i>Books in Manuscript</i>,
+<i>etc</i>.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19"></a><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</h2>
+
+<h3>GREEK AND ROMAN ILLUMINATION</h3>
+
+
+<p>The first miniature painter&mdash;The Vatican Vergils&mdash;Methods of
+painting&mdash;Origin of Christian art&mdash;The Vienna Genesis&mdash;The
+Dioscorides&mdash;The Byzantine Revival.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">It</span> has been already stated that the earliest recorded
+miniature painter was a lady named
+Lala of Cyzicus in the days of Augustus C&aelig;sar,
+days when Cyzicus was to Rome what Brussels is
+to Paris, or Brighton to London. All her work,
+as far as we know, has perished. It was portraiture
+on ivory, probably much the same as we
+see in the miniature portraiture of the present day.</p>
+
+<p>But this was not illumination. The kind of
+painting employed in the two Vatican Vergils
+was, however, something approaching it. These
+two precious volumes contain relics of Pagan art,
+but it is the very art which was the basis and
+prototype of so-called Christian art of those
+earliest examples found in the catacombs and in
+the first liturgical books of Christian times.</p>
+
+<p>The more ancient of the two Vergils referred
+to, No. 3225, which Labarte (2nd ed., ii. 158)
+thinks to be a century older than the other,
+Sir M.D. Wyatt considered as containing &ldquo;some
+of the best and most interesting specimens of
+<a name="Page_20" id="Page_20"></a>ancient painting which have come down to us.
+The design is free and the colours applied with
+good effect, the whole presenting classical art in
+the period of decline, but before its final debasement.&rdquo;
+Whereas in the second MS., No. 3867,
+the style, though still classical, is greatly debased,
+and probably, in addition to this, by no means
+among the best work of its time. It is described
+as rough, inaccurate, and harsh. The method is
+of the kind called <i>gouache</i>, <i>i.e.</i> the colours are
+applied thickly in successive couches or layers,
+probably by means of white of egg diluted with
+fig-tree sap, and finished in the high lights with
+touches of gold (Pal&aelig;ograph. Soc., pl. 114, 117).
+This finishing with touches of gold brings the
+work within the range of illumination. There is,
+indeed, wanting the additional ornamentation of
+the initial letter which would bring it fully into
+the class of medi&aelig;val work; but, such as it is, it
+may fairly claim to be suggestive of the future
+art. Indeed, certain points in the MS. 3225&mdash;viz.
+that Zeus is always red and Venus fair,
+that certain costumes and colours of drapery are
+specially appropriated&mdash;would lead to the supposition
+that even then there existed a code of
+rules like those of the Byzantine Guide, and that
+therefore the art owed its origin to the Greeks.</p>
+
+<p>Between this MS. and the first known Christian
+book work there may have been many that have
+now perished, and which, had they remained,
+would have marked the transition more gradually.
+But even as they stand there is no appreciable
+difference between the earliest monuments of
+<a name="Page_21" id="Page_21"></a>Christian art and those of the period which preceded
+them. Nor shall we find any break, any
+distinct start on new principles. It is one continuous
+series of processes&mdash;the gradual change
+of methods growing out of experience alone&mdash;not
+owing to any change of religion or the adoption
+of a new set of theological opinions. Of course
+we shall find that for a very long time the preponderance
+of illuminated MSS. will be towards
+liturgical works; and we shall also find that
+where the contents of the MS. are the same the
+subjects taken for illustration are also selected
+according to some fixed and well-known set of
+rules. We shall see the explanation of this by-and-by.</p>
+
+<p>The first example of a Christian illuminated
+MS. is one containing portions of the Book of
+Genesis in Greek preserved in the Imperial
+Library at Vienna. It is a mere fragment, only
+twenty-six leaves of purple vellum&mdash;that is, bearing
+the imperial stain&mdash;yet it contains eighty-eight
+pictures. We call them miniatures, but we must
+remember that by &ldquo;miniator&rdquo; a Roman bookseller
+would not understand what we call a miniaturist;
+and, as we have said, the word &ldquo;illuminator&rdquo; was
+not then known.</p>
+
+<p>This Vienna Genesis is not introduced among
+illuminated books, therefore, because of its
+miniatures&mdash;pictures we prefer to call them&mdash;but
+because the text is nearly all written in <i>gold</i> and
+<i>silver</i> letters. The pictures, according to the
+Greek manner, are placed in little square frames.
+They were executed, no doubt, by a professional
+<a name="Page_22" id="Page_22"></a>painter, not without technical skill and not
+hampered by monastic restrictions. The symbolism
+which underlies all early art is here shown in
+the allegorical figures (such as we shall meet with
+again in later Byzantine work), which are introduced
+to interpret the scene. We see the same
+thing in the catacombs. Being a relic of great
+importance, this Genesis codex has been often
+described and examples given of its pictures. Of
+course, in a little manual like the present we
+cannot pretend to exhibit the literature of our
+subject. We can scarcely do more than refer
+the reader to a single source. In this case
+perhaps we cannot do better than send the inquirer
+to the Victoria and Albert Museum at
+South Kensington.</p>
+
+<p>If we select another MS. of this early period it
+is the one which may be said to be the oldest
+existing MS. in which the ornamentation is worthy
+of as much notice as the pictures. We refer to
+the Collection of Treatises by Greek physicians
+on plants, fishing, the chase, and kindred matters
+in the same library as the Genesis fragment. It
+goes under the name of &ldquo;Dioscorides,&rdquo; who was
+one of the authors, and dates from the beginning
+of the sixth century. The Genesis is a century
+older. Engravings from the Dioscorides are given
+in Labarte's <i>Arts industriels, etc.</i>, pl. 78, and in
+Louandre's <i>Arts somptuaires, etc.</i>, i., pl. 2, 3.</p>
+
+<p>Enough has been said on these earlier centuries
+to show quite clearly the character of the art
+known as Early Christian. It is simply a continuation
+of such art as had existed from classical
+<a name="Page_23" id="Page_23"></a>times, and had, in fact, passed from the Greeks,
+who were artists, to the Romans, who were rarely
+better than imitators. It is carried on to the
+period when it again is nourished by Greek ideas
+in the Later Empire, and once more attains distinction
+in the splendid revival of art under the
+Emperor Justinian.</p>
+
+<p>NOTE.&mdash;Julius Capitolinus, in his Life of the exquisite
+Emperor Maximin, junior, mentions that the emperor's
+mother<a name="FNanchor_1_8" id="FNanchor_1_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> made him a present of a copy of the poems of
+Homer, written in golden letters on purple<a name="FNanchor_2_9" id="FNanchor_2_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> vellum. This
+is the earliest recorded instance of such a book in Christian
+times. Its date would be about 235 A.D.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_8" id="Footnote_1_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Qu&aelig;dam parens sua.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_9" id="Footnote_2_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Purpureos libros.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24"></a><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V</h2>
+
+<h3>BYZANTINE ILLUMINATION</h3>
+
+
+<p>The rebuilding of the city of Byzantium the beginning of Byzantine
+art&mdash;Justinian's fondness for building and splendour&mdash;Description
+of Paul the Silentiary&mdash;Sumptuous garments&mdash;The
+Gospel-book of Hormisdas&mdash;Characteristics of Byzantine
+work&mdash;Comparative scarcity of examples&mdash;Rigidity of
+Byzantine rules of art&mdash;Periods of Byzantine art&mdash;Examples&mdash;Monotony
+and lifelessness of the style.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> signal event which gave birth to medi&aelig;val
+illumination, or rather to the ideas which
+were thereby concentrated upon the production
+of magnificent books, was the rebuilding of the
+Imperial Palace and the Basilica of Constantine,
+henceforward to be known as the Church of
+Sancta Sophia, or the Divine Wisdom, at Byzantium.
+The Emperor Justinian had been reigning
+six years when a terrific fire, caused by the conflicts
+between the various seditions, called Circus
+factions, of the time, almost entirely destroyed
+not only his own palace and the great Christian
+church adjoining it, but the city of Constantinople
+itself. So important a scheme of reconstruction
+had probably never been forced upon a government
+since the great fire in Rome under Nero.
+Justinian, whose early training had been of the
+most economical kind, and whose disposition
+<a name="Page_25" id="Page_25"></a>seemed to be rather inclined to parsimony than
+extravagance, now came out in his true character.
+For various reasons he had hitherto studiously
+concealed his master-passion; but this catastrophe
+of the fire, which seemed at first so disastrous,
+was really a stroke of fortune. It afforded the
+hitherto frugal sovereign the chance he had long
+waited for of spending without stint the hoarded
+savings of his two miserly predecessors, and
+gratifying his own tastes for magnificent architecture
+and splendour of apparel.</p>
+
+<p>Not only Asia, with its wealth of gold and
+gems, but all the known world capable of supplying
+material for the reconstructions, were called
+upon, and ivory, marbles, mosaics, lamps, censers,
+candelabra, chalices, ciboria, crosses, furniture,
+fittings, pictures&mdash;in short, everything that his
+own taste and the experience of four or five of
+the ablest architects of the time could suggest&mdash;administered
+to the gorgeous, the unspeakable
+splendour of the new edifices and their furniture.</p>
+
+<p>Paul the Silentiary, an eye-witness of the whole
+proceeding, has left a description in verse, and
+the accurate Du Fresne in prose, which enable
+us easily to trace how the Roman city of Constantine
+became transformed into the semi-oriental
+Byzantium of Justinian. During the two centuries
+which had elapsed since the days of the first
+Christian emperor many foreign luxuries had
+found their way into the Eastern capital. Byzantine
+jewellery and Byzantine silks were already
+famous. The patterns on the latter were not
+merely floral or geometrical, but four-footed
+<a name="Page_26" id="Page_26"></a>animals, birds, and scenes from outdoor sports
+formed part of the embellishment, which, therefore,
+must have taken the place occupied in later
+times by the tapestries of Arras and Fontainebleau.</p>
+
+<p>Hitherto the Byzantines had imported their
+silks from Persia. After the rebuilding of the
+Basilica, Justinian introduced silk-culture into
+Greece. The garments ridiculed by Asterius,
+Bishop of Amasia, in the fourth century, were
+repeated in the sixth century. &ldquo;When men,&rdquo;
+says he, &ldquo;appear in the streets thus dressed,
+the passers-by look at them as at painted walls.
+Their clothes are pictures which little children
+point out to one another. The saintlier sort wear
+likenesses of Christ, the Marriage of Galilee...and
+Lazarus raised from the dead.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>On the robe of the Empress Theodora&mdash;the
+wife of Justinian, who is shown in one of the
+mosaics of St. Vitale at Ravenna as presenting
+rich gifts to that church&mdash;there is embroidered
+work along the border, showing the Adoration of
+the Magi. <i>Theodora pia</i> was one among the many
+r&ocirc;les played by that all-accomplished actress; but
+this seems to have been after her death. Like
+Lucrezia Borgia, perhaps, she was better than
+her reputation. With such surroundings liturgical
+books could not have existed without sharing in
+the universal luxury of enrichment. And, in point
+of fact, we still have records of such books. While
+Justinian reigned in Byzantium it happened that
+Hormisdas, a native of Frosinone, was Pope of
+Rome. He was a zealous eradicator of heresy
+<a name="Page_27" id="Page_27"></a>(especially of the Eutychian and Manich&aelig;an), and
+in recognition of his services in this direction the
+Greek Emperor, with his thanks, sent him a great
+Gospel-book richly decorated, no doubt, with those
+splendid Eusebian canons and portraits of the
+Evangelists, the like of which we see in the Byzantine
+examples still preserved at Paris, in
+London, and elsewhere. Plates of beaten gold,
+studded with gems, formed the covers of the
+Gospel-book of Hormisdas.</p>
+
+<p>Nor was this sumptuous volume the only, or
+even a rare, example of its kind. We read that
+the art of book decoration had become a fashionable
+craze. No expense was spared in the search
+for costly materials. Colours were imported from
+India, Persia, and Spain, including vermilion and
+ultramarine, while the renowned Byzantine gold
+ink was manufactured from imported Indian gold.
+Persian calligraphers had taught its use afresh to
+the Byzantine scribes.</p>
+
+<p>If, as we may believe, the first object of the
+Roman miniatores was distinctness combined
+with beauty, we may now believe that the object
+of the Byzantine scribes was splendour. The
+progress had been from mere &ldquo;cheirography&rdquo;
+to calligraphy; now it was from calligraphy to
+chrysography and arguriography.</p>
+
+<p>This employment of gold and silver inks may
+be looked upon as the first step in the art of
+illumination as practised in the Middle Ages.
+And the preliminary to the use of metallic inks
+was attention to the tint of the vellum. The
+pioneers in this career of luxury no doubt had
+<a name="Page_28" id="Page_28"></a>observed that very white vellum fatigued the eye.
+Hence, at first, they tinted or stained it with
+saffron, on one side at least, sometimes on both.
+Once begun, the tinting of the vellum extended
+to other colours. For works of the highest rank
+the favourite was a fine purple, the imperial
+colour of the Roman and Greek emperors. For
+chrysography, or gold-writing, the tint was nearly
+what we call crimson. For arguriography, or
+silver-writing, it became the bluish hue we call
+grape-purple. On the cooled purples vermilion
+ink was used instead of, or together with, the
+gold or silver. As the usage began with the
+Greeks, we may be sure that it came originally
+from Asia.</p>
+
+<p>The Emperor Nero, once having heard that an
+Olympic Ode of Pindar in letters of gold was
+laid up in one of the temples at Athens, desired
+that certain verses of his own should be similarly
+written and dedicated on the Altar of Jupiter
+Capitolinus at Rome. This was an imperial
+luxury several times repeated by other princes.</p>
+
+<p>After the official establishment of Christianity
+it became a common practice to have the greater
+liturgical books executed in the same costly
+fashion. And between the time of Constantine
+and that of Basil the Macedonian many a burning
+homily was directed against the custom,
+denounced as a sinful extravagance, which no
+doubt it was, but in vain until the fashion had
+worn itself out.</p>
+
+<p>It might fairly be expected, this being the case,
+that many examples of this kind of codex would
+<a name="Page_29" id="Page_29"></a>still be in existence. But owing to war, fire,
+robbery, and other misfortunes but very few
+remain. One of the oldest and finest is the
+so-called <i>Codex Argenteus</i>, or Silver-book, now
+kept at Upsala, in Sweden, containing portions
+of the Gospels of the M&aelig;sogothic Bishop Ulfilas.
+Originally the effect of the stamped or burnished
+silver on the rich purple of the vellum must have
+been very splendid, but now the action of the air
+has blackened it, as it has done in many other
+instances where silver was used in illumination.
+Even gold will gather tarnish, and in several such
+MSS. has turned of a rusty red. Gold ink was
+not invariably confined to tinted vellum; it was
+often used on the plain ground. The copy of the
+Old Testament in Greek, presented by the high
+priest Eleazar to King Ptolemy Philadelphus, was
+a roll of fine white vellum, upon which the text
+was written in letters of gold.</p>
+
+<p>To enter upon the antiquities of Greek pal&aelig;ography
+would lead us too far from our track in
+view of the brevity of our present survey. We
+therefore with some reluctance turn from this
+interesting topic to our more immediate subject.
+We may remark, however, that the great majority
+of Greek MSS. are written on vellum. In the
+eleventh century are found instances of what is
+called <i>charta bombycina</i>, or cotton-paper, appearing
+more plentifully in the twelfth century, but
+on the whole vellum is the chief material of Byzantine
+illuminated books. Much has been said
+about the want of life and total lack of variety
+of treatment in this school of art. To a very
+<a name="Page_30" id="Page_30"></a>great extent the charge is just, yet it could
+scarcely be otherwise. The one circumstance
+which compelled Byzantine work to remain so
+long as if cast in one unalterable mould, and
+thus to differ so strangely from that of Western
+artists, was due to the fact that in very early
+Christian times the scribes and illuminators were
+enrolled into a minutely organised corporation
+originating primarily in monasticism, but by no
+means confined to the monastic Orders. Lay
+guilds existed, the regulations and methods of
+which were rigid beyond modern belief. So that,
+as a class, Byzantine art has acquired the reputation
+of a soulless adherence to mechanical rules
+and precedents, depriving it of originality and
+even of individuality, and therefore excluding the
+remotest scintilla of artistic genius. Of the great
+crowd of examples of ordinary work this may be
+true, but it certainly is not true of the best, by
+which it has the right to be judged, as we shall
+see from the examples referred to by-and-by.
+Certainly there is one invaluable particular in
+which Greek MSS. are superior to those of the
+West, Latin or otherwise. That is, they are
+much more frequently signed with the names,
+localities, and dates of the copyists and illuminators.</p>
+
+<p>It will be some help towards our knowledge of
+this school if we divide its existence into chronological
+sections or periods.</p>
+
+<p>1. From pr&aelig;-Christianity to the Age of Justinian,
+<i>i.e.</i> down to the year 535. (Justinian reigned from
+526 to 564.)</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31"></a>This period marks the decadence of ancient art,
+but carries with it the characteristics and methods
+of the ancient Greek painters.</p>
+
+<p>2. From the Age of Justinian to the Iconoclastic
+paralysis of art under Leo&nbsp;III. the Isaurian,
+<i>i.e.</i> 564 to 726. (Leo reigned from 717 to 741.)</p>
+
+<p>During this period vast numbers of illuminated
+liturgical books were destroyed for religious or
+fanatical reasons, just as in our own Cromwellian
+times numbers of <i>Hor&aelig;</i>, Missals, etc., were destroyed
+as papistical and superstitious.</p>
+
+<p>This Edict of 726 did not absolutely put an end
+to all art in MSS. It only had the effect of excluding
+images of God, Christ, and the saints,
+as in Arabian and Persian MSS., leaving the artist
+the free use of flowers, plants, and line ornament,
+after the manner of the Mohammedan arabesques.</p>
+
+<p>3. From Leo&nbsp;III. to the Empress Irene, who
+restored the worship of images in part, <i>i.e.</i> from
+741 to 785. (Irene ruled from 780 to 801.)</p>
+
+<p>This was a period of stagnation, though by no
+means of extinction of art.</p>
+
+<p>4. From Irene to Basil&nbsp;I. the Macedonian, <i>i.e.</i>
+from 801 to 867.</p>
+
+<p>A half-century and more of rapid renaissance
+to the most brilliant epoch of Byzantine art
+since the time of Justinian, if not the zenith of
+the school.</p>
+
+<p>Basil&nbsp;I. was a great builder&mdash;building, in fact,
+was his ruling passion&mdash;so that it may be said
+that he took Justinian for his model both as a
+ruler and as a patron of the arts. (He reigned
+from 867 to 886.)</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32"></a>5. From Basil the Macedonian to the Fall of
+Constantinople, <i>i.e.</i> from 886 to 1453.</p>
+
+<p>Allowing for a few flashes of expiring skill in
+various reigns, this may be considered as a period
+of gradual but certain decline to a state worse
+than death, for though the monks of Greek and
+Russian convents still kept up the execution of
+MSS., it was only with the driest and most lifeless
+adhesion to the Manual. This so-called art still
+exists, but more like a magnetised corpse than a
+living thing.</p>
+
+<p>Examples of the first period are seldom met
+with. We have one signal specimen in the
+British Museum Add. MS. 5111, being two
+leaves only of a Gospel-book, and containing
+part of the Eusebian canons, or contents-tables
+of the Four Gospels, etc. The work is attributed
+to the time of Justinian himself. It is of the
+kind already referred to as probably affording the
+model of work to the early illuminators of France
+and Ireland, and as being like the Gospel-book
+of Hormisdas and those brought to England by
+Augustine in 596. Another example of the same
+Eusebian canons is found in Roy. MS. 1 E. vi.</p>
+
+<p>Of the fourth period&mdash;<i>i.e.</i> the ninth century&mdash;perhaps
+the most typical example is the Menologium
+(a sort of compound of a calendar and
+lives of the saints), now in the Vatican Library
+(MS. Gr. 1613). This MS. shows that the revival
+under Basil the Macedonian was a return
+not to Roman, but to ancient Greek art, the facial
+types being of the purest classical character.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/001.jpg" width="500" height="830" alt="EVANG. GR&AElig;CA" title="EVANG. GR&AElig;CA" />
+<span class="caption">EVANG. GR&AElig;CA<br />
+6TH CENT.<br />
+<i>Brit. Mus. Add. MS. 5111, fol. 13</i><br />&nbsp;</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/002.jpg" width="500" height="618" alt="EVANG. GR&AElig;CA" title="EVANG. GR&AElig;CA" />
+<span class="caption">EVANG. GR&AElig;CA<br />
+9TH CENT.<br />
+<i>Brit. Mus. Burney MS. 19 fol. 1 v.</i></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In some of them we see the horizontal frown
+<a name="Page_33" id="Page_33"></a>of the Homeric heroes (&#963;&#973;&#957;&#959;&#966;&#961;&#965;&#962; &#927;&#948;&#965;&#963;&#963;&#949;&#965;&#962;), and of
+the Georgian and Armenian races shown in the
+features of the Emperor Johannes Ducas. We
+have, too, the large Hera-like eye with its mystic
+gaze, which, in later Byzantine work, becomes
+first a gaze of lofty indifference, as in the portraits
+of the emperors and empresses, and lastly a stony
+and expressionless stare; still, if possible, more
+stony and glaring when transferred to Celtic and
+Carolingian Gospel-books. (See chapter on Carolingian
+Illumination.)</p>
+
+<p>Of this fourth period we might indeed point to
+many examples. One must suffice. It is the
+beautiful Greek Psalter, now at Paris (MS., p. 139),
+containing lovely examples of antique design, including
+remarkable personifications or allegorical
+figures. In this MS. is one of the most graceful
+personifications ever painted, that of <i>Night</i>, with
+her veil of gauze studded with stars floating overhead.
+The seven pictures from the Life of David
+are among the best ever put into a MS. But
+personification is carried to an extreme. Thus the
+Red Sea, the Jordan, Rivers, Mountains, Night,
+Dawn, etc., are all represented as persons. The
+drawings are really beautiful and the illuminated
+initials and general ornament in good taste.</p>
+
+<p>For other examples the reader may consult the
+British Museum Cat. of Addit. MSS., 1841-5,
+p. 87; also Du Sommerard, <i>Les Arts au Moyen-&acirc;ge</i>,
+tom. v., 1846, pp. 107, 162-8, and album, 2<sup>e</sup> s&eacute;r.
+pl. xxix., 8<sup>e</sup> s&eacute;r. pl. xii.-xvi.</p>
+
+<p>It is noticeable in these Byzantine pictures that
+while the figure-painting is often really excellent,
+<a name="Page_34" id="Page_34"></a>the design skilful, and the pose natural, the
+landscape, trees, etc., are quite symbolic and
+fanciful. The painters seem to have been utterly
+ignorant of perspective. Buildings, too, without
+any regard to relative proportion, are coloured
+merely as parts of a colour scheme. They are
+pink, pale green, yellow, violet, blue, just to
+please the eye. That the painter had a system
+of colour-harmony is plain, but he paid no regard
+to the facts of city life, unless, indeed, it was the
+practice of the medi&aelig;val Byzantines to paint the
+outside of their houses in this truly brilliant style.
+Possibly they did so; we have similar things in
+Italy even nowadays.</p>
+
+<p>No doubt the French illuminators of the thirteenth
+and fourteenth centuries drew from these
+sources both their perspective and their architectural
+colouring. As for ornamental illumination,
+the principal method of decoration was a square
+heading,<a name="FNanchor_1_10" id="FNanchor_1_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> perhaps including a semicircular arch
+sweeping over several arcades, the corners and
+wall-space being occupied either with arabesque
+patterns, showing them to be after the time of
+Leo&nbsp;III., or with scrolls of line-ornament enriched
+with acanthus foliages. Under this the
+scribe has placed his title.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_10" id="Footnote_1_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> It has been thought to represent the Greek &#960;, and to
+mean &#960;&#973;&#955;&#951;, a gate or door.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/003.jpg" width="500" height="546" alt="CARVED IVORY COVER" title="CARVED IVORY COVER" />
+<span class="caption">CARVED IVORY COVER<br />
+LATIN PSALTER OF MELLISENDA<br />
+12TH CENT.<br />
+<i>Brit. Mus. Egert. MS. 1139</i><br />&nbsp;</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/004.jpg" width="500" height="753" alt="CODEX AURENS" title="CODEX AURENS" />
+<span class="caption">CODEX AURENS<br />
+(GOLDEN GOSPELS OF ATHELSTAN)<br />
+C. 835<br />
+<i>Brit. Mus. Harl. MS. 2788, fol. 176</i></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Other examples have a square frame filled with
+the latter kind of scrolls and foliages, leaving a
+sort of open panel in the centre, in which is
+placed a small scene of sacred history or perhaps
+of country life. Sometimes the title, in golden
+<a name="Page_35" id="Page_35"></a>letters, is surrounded with medallions containing
+heads of Christ and the Virgin, apostles, and
+saints. The peculiar interlacing bands of violet,
+yellow, rose, blue, etc., which are still often seen
+in Russian ornament, are also features of these
+Byzantine MSS.; but most of all is the lavish
+use of gold. Perhaps the fact most to be remembered
+about these MSS. is that the painters
+of them worked in a manner that was absolutely
+fixed and rigid, the rules of which are laid down
+in a manual called the <i>Guide to Painting</i>, a work
+which has been translated by M. Didron.</p>
+
+<p>So fixed and unalterable, indeed, is the manner
+that there is absolutely no difference to indicate
+relative antiquity between a MS. of the eleventh
+century and one of the sixteenth or even later,
+we might almost say, of the present day. In the
+matter of saint-images this is strictly true.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36"></a><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI</h2>
+
+<h3>CELTIC ILLUMINATION</h3>
+
+<p>Early liturgical books reflect the ecclesiastical art of their time&mdash;This
+feature a continuous characteristic of illumination down
+to the latest times&mdash;Elements of Celtic ornament&mdash;Gospels
+of St. Chad&mdash;Durham Gospels&mdash;Contrast of Celtic and
+Byzantine&mdash;St. Columba&mdash;Book of Kells&mdash;Details of its
+decoration.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">In</span> the earlier centuries of Christianity, when
+liturgical books were the chief occupation of
+the illuminator, it will need little pointing out to
+demonstrate that the page of the illuminated
+manuscript, where it contained more than the mere
+ornamental initial, was simply a mirror of the
+architectural decoration of the church in which
+it was intended to be used. Where the church
+enrichments consist, as on the Byzantine basilicas,
+of panellings, arcades, and tympana of gilded
+sculpture in wood or stone, with figures of saints,
+the pages of the Gospel-book bear similar designs.
+Where, as in the Romanesque, they are rich in
+mosaics, and fretted arcades interlacing each
+other, so are the illuminated Lives of the Saints,
+the Menologia, Psalters, and Gospel-books.
+Where, as in the Gothic cathedrals of the West&mdash;of
+France, Germany, or Italy&mdash;the stained
+glass is the striking feature of the interior, so
+<a name="Page_37" id="Page_37"></a>it is with the illumination; it is a &ldquo;vitrail&rdquo;&mdash;a
+glass-painting on vellum. On this latter point we
+shall have more to say when we reach the period
+of Gothic illumination.</p>
+
+<p>Incidentally, also, the book reflects the minor
+arts in vogue at the period of its execution.
+Often in the illumination we may detect these
+popular local industries. We see mosaic enamelling,
+wood- and stone-carving, and lacquer-work,
+and as we approach the Renaissance, even gem-cutting
+and the delicate craft of the medallist. In
+Venice and the Netherlands we have the local
+taste for flower-culture; in Germany we find
+sculpture in wood and stone; in France the
+productions of the enameller and the goldsmith;
+until at length, in the full blaze of the Renaissance
+itself, we have in almost every land the
+same varieties of enrichment practised according
+to its own special style of work.</p>
+
+<p>It has been said that the oldest Celtic illuminated
+MSS. show no signs of classic, or even Byzantine,
+influence, yet the plan or framework of the designs
+makes use both of the cross and the arch, as used
+in the earliest Byzantine examples. The details,
+indeed, are quite different, and manifestly derived
+from indigenous sources. It may be, therefore,
+that the framework is merely a geometrical coincidence
+which could not well be avoided. The
+fact that the basis of pure Irish ornament <i>is</i> geometrical,
+and developed out of the prehistoric and
+barbarous art of the savages who preceded the
+Celts in Ireland; such art as is used on the carved
+shafts of spears, and oars, and staves of honour,
+<a name="Page_38" id="Page_38"></a>and afterwards on stone crosses and metal-work,
+may account for the similarity of ideas in ornament
+developed by old Roman decorators in their
+mosaic pavements, and may reconcile, in some
+measure, the varied opinions of different writers
+who have approached the subject from different
+points of view. Westwood adhered to the theory
+of its being purely indigenous. Fleury, on the
+other hand, in his Catalogue of the MSS. in the
+Library at Laon, asserts that we owe the knots
+and interlacements to the influence of the painters,
+sculptors, and mosaicists of Rome. &ldquo;These interlacings,
+cables, etc., there is no Gallo-Roman
+monument which does not exhibit them, and,
+only to cite local instances, the cord of four or
+five strands is seen in the beautiful mosaics discovered
+in profusion within the last five years
+(1857-62) at Blanzy, at Bazoches, at Vailly, and
+at Reims. It was from them that the Franks
+borrowed their knots and twists and ribbons for
+their belts and buckles, their rings and bracelets&rdquo;
+(pt. i., p. 8).</p>
+
+<p>The elements, therefore, of book ornament, as
+used by the Celtic penmen, are such as were
+employed by the prehistoric and sporadic nations
+in the textile art in plaiting and handweaving,
+and afterwards transferred to that of metal-work.
+Terminals of animal, bird, or serpent form afterwards
+combine with the linear designs. The dog
+and dragon are common, as may be seen in the
+archaic vases produced by the Greeks before they
+came under the influence of ideas from Western
+Asia.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39"></a>Among Celtic artists, as among those of later
+times, the practice of working in various materials
+was common to the same individual, and Dag&aelig;us
+(d. 586) may compare with Dunstan, Eloy, Tuotilo,
+and others.</p>
+
+<p>To apply these observations to the style of
+illumination which now comes under our notice
+it may be said that if we allow the cross and arch
+to be copied from the Byzantine MSS. introduced
+from abroad, the details are undoubtedly supplied
+by the wickerwork and textile netting familiar to
+the everyday life of the artist. Assisted by the
+fertile imagination of bardic lore in snakes,
+dragons, and other mythic monsters of heroic
+verse, the illuminator produces a pencilled tapestry
+of textile fabric or flexile metal-work as
+marvellous as it is unique. No amount of description
+can give a true idea of what Celtic
+work is like; it must be seen to be comprehended.
+One glance at a facsimile of such a MS. as the
+Book of Kells or the Lindisfarne Gospels, or
+those of St. Chad at Lichfield, or wherever, as at
+St. Gall, such work is to be met with, will supersede
+the most laboured attempt at description.
+We must therefore at once refer the reader to the
+facsimile. When that has been inspected, we
+may proceed. In the first place it may be noted
+that with these Occidental MSS. begins the importance
+and development of the initial, which,
+indeed, as regards the illumination of Western
+Europe, is the very root of the matter. It is the
+development of the initial letter first into the
+bracket, then into the border, which forms the
+<a name="Page_40" id="Page_40"></a>great distinction of the &ldquo;Art of Paris,&rdquo; as Dante
+calls it, from that of Byzantium. The latter is
+almost always of a squared or tabular design,
+traced and painted on a ground of burnished
+gold. The former exhausts itself first in fantastic
+lacertine forms, twisted into the shapes of the
+commencing letters or words of the writing, to
+which the suggestion of some Byzantine MS,
+perhaps occasionally adds a frame. Next come
+birds, dogs, dragons, vine-stems, and spirals embedded
+in couches of colour; but, whatever its
+character, always it is the letter that governs and
+originates the ornament. Only at the very end
+of its life, when the border has completely eclipsed
+the initial, is the idea of origin forgotten. Then,
+indeed, we find the border treillages of flower-stem
+or leaf-work starting from meaningless points
+of the design, or scattered shapelessly at random.</p>
+
+<p>When we meet with work of this sort, we need
+no further proof that the real art is dead. We
+have before us in such a performance&mdash;a trade
+production&mdash;a mere object of commerce, valuable
+so far as it is the result of labour, but not as a
+work of art.</p>
+
+<p>According to the Abb&eacute; Geoghegan,<a name="FNanchor_1_11" id="FNanchor_1_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> Christianity
+was known to the people of Ireland in the fourth
+century. The Greek Menology asserts that it
+was carried thither by Simon Zelotes, but this is
+contradicted by the Roman Breviary and the
+Martyrologists. Simeon Metaphrastes attributes
+it to St. Peter, Vincent of Beauvais to St. James.
+Unreliable as these traditions may be taken
+<a name="Page_41" id="Page_41"></a>singly, they nevertheless agree in placing the
+conversion of Ireland at a very early date, probably,
+as Geoghegan says, in the fourth century.
+It is certain that about the middle of the sixth
+century an Irish prince of distinguished ancestry,
+and himself a saint, led a band of missionaries
+from Donegal to Iona. It is curious to observe
+that the event is almost contemporary with the
+renovations of Justinian at Byzantium, and only a
+short time before the founding of the famous
+Abbey of Monte Cassino by St. Benedict. Before
+the existence of the Benedictine Order
+there was a monastery at Durrow, in Ireland,
+and in this monastery the aforesaid prince was
+educated. His name was Columba. At least, so
+he is called, but whether it be merely in allusion
+to his mission&mdash;&ldquo;the Dove&rdquo;&mdash;or really a patronymic,
+it is hard to say. He was the messenger of
+peace to the natives of Iona, and even the name
+of the island seems to suggest an allusion to the
+Old Testament missionary to the Ninevites, Jonah.
+The Irish missionaries called the spot to which
+they went <i>I. columcille</i>, &ldquo;the cell of the Dove's
+isle,&rdquo; or Columba's cell. It is usually spoken of
+as the Monastery of Iona. Columba went on
+many other missions, but ultimately returned to
+his beloved Iona, where he died in 597, the year
+after the arrival of Augustine at Canterbury.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_11" id="Footnote_1_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> <i>Hist. de l'Irlande.</i></p></div>
+
+<p>His companions busied themselves with the
+transcription of the Gospels for the use of new
+converts, after the model of those they had seen
+and used at Durrow. It is even traditionally
+asserted that Columba himself took part in the
+<a name="Page_42" id="Page_42"></a>work, and transcribed both a Psalter and a
+Gospel-book, moreover, that one of the Iona
+Gospel-books written by him is still in existence.
+This MS., whether the work of St. Columba or
+not, and probably it is not, is the earliest
+known monument of Irish calligraphic art. It
+is known as the Book of Kells, and there is
+no doubt that it is the most amazing specimen
+of penmanship ever seen. It is at once the
+most ancient, the most perfect, and the most
+precious example of Celtic art in existence.
+It exhibits the striking peculiarities and features
+of the style&mdash;the band work knots and
+interlacings, such as may be seen on the
+stone crosses which mark the burial-places of
+British and Irish chieftains. Witness, for instance,
+the Carew, or the Nevern Cross, described
+in the <i>Journal of the Arch&#339;logical Institute</i>, iii.
+71, which might be taken to represent an initial
+&ldquo;I&rdquo; wrought in stone. There is no foliage, no
+plant form at all. It is not, therefore, derivable
+from Romanesque, Byzantine, or Oriental ornament.
+It is indigenous, if not to Ireland, at
+least to those prehistoric Aryan tribes of which
+the Irish were a branch. Its basis is the art of
+weaving, and in some respects resembles the
+matting of Polynesia much more closely that the
+vine-stems of Sicily or the arabesques of Byzantium.
+Spirals occur that bewilder the eye, yet
+are so faultlessly perfect that only the magnifying-glass
+brings out the incredible accuracy of the
+drawing. Among them are mythological and
+allegorical beasts, snakes, and lizards&mdash;thought
+<a name="Page_43" id="Page_43"></a>to represent demons, like the gargoyles of Gothic
+architecture&mdash;in every conceivable attitude of
+contortion and agony. There are also doves and
+fishes, but the latter, being sacred emblems
+together with the lamb, are seldom made grotesque.
+It was a monkish legend that the devil
+could take the shape of any bird or beast, except
+those of the dove and the lamb.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44"></a><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII</h2>
+
+<h3>CELTIC ILLUMINATION&mdash;<i>continued</i></h3>
+
+<p>The Iona Gospels&mdash;Contrast with Roman and
+Byzantine&mdash;Details&mdash;Treatment of animal forms&mdash;Colour schemes&mdash;The
+Gospel-book of St. Columbanus&mdash;That of Mael Brith Mac
+Durnan&mdash;The Lindisfarne Gospels&mdash;<i>Cumdachs</i>&mdash;Other book-shrines.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">We</span> have seen that in both Roman and Byzantine
+MSS. the titles and beginnings of books
+were merely distinguished by a lettering in red or
+gold, rather smaller, in fact, than the ordinary
+text, but rendered distinct by the means referred
+to. The handwriting, too, is clear and legible,
+whether capital, uncial, or minuscule.</p>
+
+<p>In absolute contrast to all this the Iona Gospels
+have the first page completely covered with ornament.
+On the next the letters are of an enormous
+size, followed by a few words, not merely in
+<i>uncials</i>, but in characters varying from half an
+inch to two inches in height. The page opposite
+to each Gospel is similarly filled with decoration,
+separated into four compartments by an ornamented
+Greek cross. This may, of course, be
+simply a geometrical device in no way connected
+with Greece, but, taken in connection with other
+features, we see in it an indication of contact with
+<a name="Page_45" id="Page_45"></a>Byzantine work and the side of illumination which
+deals rather with the tabular enrichment of the
+page than the development of the initial. Further,
+the writing, though large, is not easily legible,
+for it is involved, enclaved, and conjointed in a
+manner sufficiently puzzling to those who see it
+for the first time.</p>
+
+<p>The plaiting and inlaying are certainly borrowed
+from local usages, and the survival of the same
+kind of interlaced plaiting in the Scottish tartans
+is some evidence of the long familiarity of the
+Celtic race with the art of weaving. When we
+remember that some of the early illuminators
+were also workers in metals, we can understand
+that penmen like Dag&aelig;us, Dunstan, and Eloy had
+designs at their command producible by either
+method. So we see, both in the MS. and in the
+brooch and buckle, the same kind of design.
+Among the earliest animals brought into this
+Celtic work we find the dog and the dragon; the
+latter both wingless and winged, according to
+convenience or requirement. The dog is so
+common in some of the Celto-Lombardic MS., of
+which examples still exist at Monte Cassino, as
+almost to create a style; while the dragon survives
+to the latest period of Gothic art.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever is introduced into a Celtic illumination
+is at once treated as a matter of ornament.
+When the human figure appears it is remorselessly
+subjected to the same rules as the rest of the
+work; the hair and beard are spiral coils, the
+eyes, nostrils, and limbs are symmetrical flourishes.
+Colour is quite regardless of natural
+<a name="Page_46" id="Page_46"></a>possibility. The hair and draperies are simply
+patterned as compartments of green or blue, or
+red or black, as may be required for the <i>tout
+ensemble</i>; the face remains white. Lightened
+tints are preferred to full colours, as pale yellow,
+pink, lavender, and light green. A very ludicrous
+device is made use of to denote the folds of the
+drapery; they are not darkened, there is no light
+and shade in Celtic work, but are simply lines of
+a strongly contrasting colour. The blue and red
+appear to be opaque, and therefore mineral
+colours; the rest are thin and transparent.
+Nothing can be more wayward than the colouring
+of the symbolic beasts of the Gospels. In
+the Evangeliary of St. Columbanus (not Columba,
+but the founder of Luxeuil and Bobbio, who died
+in 614) the Lion of St. Mark is an admirable
+beast in a suit of green-and-red chain armour in
+the form of mascles or lozenges. (See the illustration
+in Westwood's <i>Pal&aelig;ographia Sacra Pictoria</i>
+of a figure page from the Gospels of Mael Brith
+Mac Durnan for a typical example.)<a name="FNanchor_1_12" id="FNanchor_1_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_12" id="Footnote_1_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> See also an article by Westwood in <i>Journal Arch&aelig;ol.
+Inst.</i>, vii. 17, on &ldquo;Irish Miniatures.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<p>The only point that might argue the freedom
+in Celtic work from Byzantine influence is the
+absence of gold, but perhaps this was only
+because the earlier Irish illuminators could not
+obtain it; we find it later on. In the Book of
+Kells and the Lambeth Gospels there is no gold.
+The former dates somewhere in the seventh century,
+not the sixth, as sometimes stated; the
+latter, shortly before 927. In the Lindisfarne
+<a name="Page_47" id="Page_47"></a>Gospels (698-721) gold is used. In the Psalter
+of Ricemarchus, now in Trinity College, Dublin,
+are traces of silver. It is in connection with
+these Irish MSS. that decorated and jewelled
+cases, called <i>cumdachs</i>, make their appearance,
+such as the one attached to the Gospels of St.
+Moling in the Library of Trinity College, Dublin.
+These book-shrines are almost exclusively an
+Irish production. In other countries the idea was
+to adorn the volume itself with a splendid and
+costly binding, perhaps including gold, silver,
+and gems. In Ireland the idea of sacredness was
+carried out in another way. Instead of decorating
+the covers of the book itself, it was held, as
+in such a MS., for instance, as the Book of Durrow,
+to be too venerable a relic to be meddled with,
+and a box or case was made for it, on which they
+spent all their artistic skill. Generally the case
+is known as a <i>cumdach</i>; but one kind, called the
+<i>cathach</i>, was so closed that the book was completely
+concealed, and it was superstitiously
+believed that if it were opened some terrible
+calamity would overtake its possessors. Such
+was the <i>cathach</i> of Tyrconnell. We must remember,
+however, that in this instance the keepers
+were not men of book-learning, but hardy warriors
+who carried the <i>cathach</i> into battle as a charm
+and an incitement to victory.</p>
+
+<p>Of similar shrines, which were made for
+precious books by both the Greeks and Lombards,
+the oldest and most famous is that made
+for Theudelinde, wife of Agilulf, King of the
+Lombards, and given by her, in 616, together
+<a name="Page_48" id="Page_48"></a>with the famous iron crown and other relics, to
+the Cathedral of Monza, where they are still
+to be seen.</p>
+
+<p>The enrichment of the covers of books themselves,
+as distinct from the use of cases or shrines,
+has been usual in almost all ages and styles of
+decoration. When we come to speak of Carolingian
+MSS. we shall find several remarkable
+instances.</p>
+
+<p>We must now pass on from this curiously
+attractive theme of Celtic calligraphy to its contemporary
+styles of France, Germany, Spain,
+and Italy, only remarking by the way that no
+other style of its time had so marked an influence
+on the local <i>scriptoria</i> into which it was introduced
+as this same Celtic of Ireland. It is not
+only traceable, but easily recognised all along
+the Rhine, in Burgundy, the Swiss Cantons, and
+Lombardy, until at length overwhelmed by the
+general introduction of Romanesque or Byzantine,
+which was restored and filtered through the
+Exarchate and the Lombard schools during the
+early days of the new Carolingian Empire.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49"></a><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII</h2>
+
+<h3>SEMI-BARBARIC ILLUMINATION</h3>
+
+<p>Visigothic&mdash;Merovingian&mdash;Lombardic&mdash;Extinction of classic
+art&mdash;Splendid reign of Dagobert&mdash;St. Eloy of Noyon&mdash;The
+Library of Laon&mdash;Natural History of Isidore of
+Seville&mdash;Elements of contemporary art&mdash;Details of ornament&mdash;Symbolism&mdash;Luxeuil
+and Monte Cassino&mdash;Sacramentary of
+Gellone&mdash;&ldquo;Prudentius&rdquo;&mdash;&ldquo;Orosius&rdquo;&mdash;Value of the
+Sacramentary of Gellone.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">To</span> reach the beginning's of these various degenerate
+and illiterate attempts at book-work
+we have only to watch the last expiring gleams of
+classic art beneath the ruthless footsteps of the
+barbarian invaders of the old Roman Empire.</p>
+
+<p>In the sixth century the light of the old civilisation
+was fast fading away. Perhaps we may look
+upon the so-called splendour of the reign of Dagobert
+in France as the spasmodic scintillations of
+its latest moments of existence. The kingdom
+of Dagobert, after 631, was almost an empire.
+For the seven years preceding his death, in 638,
+he ruled from the Elbe and the Saxon frontier to
+that of Spain, and from the Atlantic Ocean to the
+confines of Hungary. It was during his reign
+that we read of the skill in metal-work of the
+celebrated St. Eloy of Noyon, the rival of our
+own St. Dunstan.</p>
+
+<p>St. Eloy or Eligius (588-659) began his artistic
+<a name="Page_50" id="Page_50"></a>career as the pupil of Abbo, the goldsmith and
+mint-master to Chlothaire&nbsp;II., and rose from the
+rank of a goldsmith to that of Bishop of Noyon.
+Among his handiwork were crowns, chalices, and
+crosiers, and he is reputed to have made the chair
+of bronze-gilt now in the National Library at
+Paris, called the <i>fauteuil</i> of Dagobert, and many
+other works, which disappeared either during the
+wars of Louis&nbsp;XV. or those of the Revolution of
+1789. He founded the Abbey of Solignac, near
+Limoges, and it is not improbable that the reputation
+of this city for metal-work and enamelling
+may be dated from his foundation. With such
+works as those of Eloy before them, it is difficult
+to believe that the wretched and puerile attempts
+at ornamental penmanship and illumination which
+are shown at Laon and other places as the work
+of this period can possibly represent the highest
+efforts of the calligrapher. But we must remember
+that St. Eloy was an extraordinary genius
+in his art, and that the bulk of the clergy, not to
+mention ordinary workmen, were very ignorant
+and ill-taught. Very few, indeed, were men who
+could be considered cultured. Gregory of Tours,
+the historian, and Venantius Fortunatus, the
+hymn-writer, are among the few.</p>
+
+<p>In the Library at Laon, M. Fleury describes a
+MS. of the Natural History of Isidore of Seville,
+which is looked upon as a work of reference both
+as regards art and learning. It was at one time
+a very popular book, being a Latin cyclop&aelig;dia,
+dealing with the sciences and general knowledge
+of the time; yet the example referred to by
+<a name="Page_51" id="Page_51"></a>M. Fleury shows us only a crowd of initials
+learnedly styled by the Benedictine authors and
+others &ldquo;ichthio-morphiques&rdquo; and &ldquo;ornithoeides,&rdquo;
+<i>i.e.</i> made up of fishes and birds, and about equal
+in quality and finish to the efforts of a very
+ordinary schoolboy.</p>
+
+<p>These initials betray an utter decadence from
+the beautiful uncials of the fifth and sixth
+centuries, seen in the St. Germain's Psalter, for
+example, now in the National Library at Paris.
+The colours are coarse and badly applied, and
+even where brightest are utterly unrefined and
+without taste.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding, however, the apparently total
+eclipse or extinction of Roman art in Gaul, or, as
+it must henceforth be called, France, it is claimed
+by M. Fleury<a name="FNanchor_1_13" id="FNanchor_1_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> that the interlacements which
+constitute the principal feature of these earlier
+Merovingian MSS. are derived from the remains
+of Roman mosaics found profusely at Blanzy,
+Bazoches, and Reims. This may be so, but
+those mosaics would not account for the same
+features in the Irish work, for the Romans never
+reached Ireland as occupants or colonists.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_13" id="Footnote_1_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> See later.</p></div>
+
+<p>Take another example from the Laon collection,
+the History of Orosius. The first page is a type
+of the species to which it belongs, and, moreover,
+a good sample of the earliest efforts of all pictorial
+art. An ordinary rectangular cross occupies the
+centre of the page. The centre shows us the Lamb
+of the Apocalypse and St. John. On the arms are
+the beasts which typify the Evangelists&mdash;their
+<a name="Page_52" id="Page_52"></a>emblems, as they are sometimes called. We
+notice that they are all symbolic, and not intended
+to be natural imitations of reality. The various
+animals scattered about the page are all symbolic&mdash;all
+have a mystical interpretation and <i>raison
+d'&ecirc;tre</i>. A border-frame, passing behind each extremity
+of the cross, contains a number of dog-like
+animals, some plain, others spotted, while the
+body of the cross itself is occupied with attempts
+at foliage ornaments. In the left upper corner
+are the letters &ldquo;X P I,&rdquo; in the right &ldquo;I H V,&rdquo;
+thick foliage springing from the &ldquo;I&rdquo; and &ldquo;V&rdquo;
+and falling back over the monogram. In the
+lower corners are two fishes and two doves, each
+pair hanging to a penwork chain.</p>
+
+<p>The emblem of John, on the upper extremity of
+the cross, is an eagle-headed and winged man
+holding a book; its opposite one of Lucas at foot
+is a singularly conceived anthropoid and winged
+ox, also with a book. On the left Marcus, whose
+head is indescribable; and on the right Matthew,
+with human head, the rest of the figures being as
+before. The eye in all the figures is a most
+remarkable feature. Both in the pictures and the
+initials of this MS. the outline has been drawn in
+black ink, and the colours yellow, red, brown,
+and green applied afterwards.</p>
+
+<p>As the new masters of the West were not so
+much interested in the artistic remains of the
+mangled civilisation they were endeavouring to
+destroy as in mastery and military success, it was
+left for the monasteries and the church to see to
+the welfare of books and monuments.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53"></a>In the seventh century it was the monasteries
+that saved almost all we know of the preceding
+centuries. During the turmoil of the period from
+the fifth to the eighth century we find certain
+quiet corners where learning and the arts still
+breathed, grew, and dwelt in security. L&eacute;rins,
+founded by St. Honoratus of Aries; Luxeuil by
+Columbanus, Bobbio his last retreat; and, above
+all, Monte Cassino, the great pattern of monasticism,
+the Rule of whose founder was destined to
+become the basis of all later Orders, were each of
+them steadily labouring to rescue the civilisation
+daily threatened by the ravage of war, and to
+preserve it for the benefit of the ignorant hordes
+who, because of their ignorance, now only aimed
+at its entire destruction. We have seen how
+these monks and clerics, with more goodwill than
+ability, did their best to adorn the books which
+came into their hands. It is a poor show, but
+there is no better. It is absolutely our only
+record of how civilisation managed to struggle
+through the storm.</p>
+
+<p>Let us, then, be thankful even for the Laon
+&ldquo;Orosius,&rdquo; for the Sacramentary of Gellone, and
+the Mozarabic Liturgies of Puy. They are
+among the links between ancient and medi&aelig;val
+art.</p>
+
+<p>As already stated, the handwriting of Merovingian
+MSS. is mainly an adaptation of the
+Roman uncial, as it is in Irish and Lombardic, or,
+we might say, everywhere else. Abbreviations
+we still uncommon. Where minuscules are used,
+the writing is not quite so legible as in the larger
+<a name="Page_54" id="Page_54"></a>hands, but we are not met by the singular difficulties
+of some of the Lombardic texts.</p>
+
+<p>A few solitary texts of the earliest time are in
+capitals, such as the really handsome &ldquo;Prudentius&rdquo;
+of the Paris National Library, where the entire
+text of the great Christian poet is boldly inscribed
+in the centre of a large white page of vellum, like
+a series of separate inscriptions. The first few
+words are &ldquo;rubrished&rdquo; in the antique manner.
+The MS. is supposed to date previous to the year
+527. A little later than this St. Columbanus
+founded the monastery of Luxeuil, and later still,
+viz. in 616, that of Bobbio.</p>
+
+<p>If we turn to the Visigothic area, including the
+South of France and the entire peninsula of Spain,
+our first and typical example is the celebrated Sacramentary
+of Gellone. This MS. dates, it is said,
+from the eighth century. It is written throughout
+in Visigothic uncials, though executed in the
+South of France. Its ornamentation is frankly
+barbaric. The colours used are yellow, red, and
+green. The great initials are double lined, and
+the interlinear space filled in with a flat tint of
+colour and lines of red dots, as in the Book of
+Kells occasionally follow the contours. Here, also,
+are the fish or bird-form letters as in the Laon
+&ldquo;Orosius.&rdquo; Now and then occurs a tiny scene&mdash;perhaps
+a fight between two grotesque brutes,
+neither fish, nor fowl, nor beast known to the
+naturalist, but a horrible compound of the worst
+qualities of each. The human figure, when it
+occurs, is childishly shapeless. But the design
+and treatment, nevertheless, bear witness to a
+<a name="Page_55" id="Page_55"></a>lively imagination and considerable knowledge of
+Christian symbolism. It is these mental qualities
+which, in spite of the manifest absence of manual
+skill, render the Gellone Evangeliary one of the
+most precious monuments of its time. Of the
+rest of the MSS. of this wretched period we will
+say nothing.</p>
+
+<p>
+&ldquo;Non ragioniam di lor', ma guard' e passa.&rdquo;<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>We are glad to hurry on for another century or
+so, remembering that the leading idea now is the
+development of the initial letter.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56"></a><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX</h2>
+
+<h3>DEVELOPMENT OF THE INITIAL</h3>
+
+<p>The initial and initial paragraph the main object of decoration
+in Celtic illumination&mdash;Study of the letter L as an
+example&mdash;The I of &ldquo;In principio&rdquo; and the B of &ldquo;Beatus Vir.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">From</span> the moment when the initial was placed
+beneath the miniature the object of the whole
+design was not to give prominence to the initial
+but to the picture. Until then, that is, whilst the
+initial remains above or beside or outside the
+picture, it is the initial we must watch for style
+and development. And therefore we seize on one
+letter among those of the latter part of the eighth
+century, because of the frequency of its occurrence
+in the Gospel-book or Evangeliary, one of the
+commonest books of the time. This the letter
+L of &ldquo;Liber Generationis,&rdquo; etc., the commencing
+words of St. Matthew. This passage is always
+made of importance, and on the initial and arrangement
+of the words the artist expends his best
+efforts.</p>
+
+<p>Properly I should here display pictorially the
+series of which I speak. It would certainly be
+the quickest way of explaining the matter. But
+as this is out of the question for many reasons,
+and as the present little guide aims rather at
+showing the way than marching through it, the
+<a name="Page_57" id="Page_57"></a>reader must be content to take its advice about
+where to look for examples which it cannot reproduce.</p>
+
+<p>Regarding the letter L as an index of time and
+style, first we may take the Irish L of the Book
+of Kells on p. 17, pt. 1, of Miss Stokes' <i>Early
+Christian Art in Ireland</i>. Note first the form of
+the letter, then the way it is filled up with ornament.
+Compare this, which dates from the seventh
+century, with a similar L in the Ada-Codex in the
+Town Library at Tr&egrave;ves, No. 22. A black and
+white copy of this is given in taf. 6 of Lamprecht
+Initial Ornamentik. This carries up the work
+to the second half of the eighth century. Next,
+say the L in the Town Archives at Cologne,
+No. 147. This belongs to the second half of the
+ninth century. The chief departure here is towards
+the knotted band work which figures so
+largely afterwards both in German and Italian
+book ornament, the form is still unchanged. But
+with the tenth century comes change of form as
+well as of mode of filling, as for example taf. 19
+of Lamprecht, in which there is a complete alteration
+of treatment. The student may take for
+similar comparison also the I of &ldquo;In principio&rdquo; of
+St. John's Gospel, and the B of the first psalm
+in the Psalter, and carry the comparison on to the
+end of the fourteenth century, by referring to the
+MSS. in the British Museum and other public
+libraries, or in the numerous illustrated works
+to be found in those collections.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58"></a><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X</h2>
+
+<h3>FIRST ENGLISH STYLES</h3>
+
+<p>Transition from Iona to Lindisfarne&mdash;Influence of Frankish
+art&mdash;The &ldquo;Opus Anglicum&rdquo;&mdash;The Winchester school and
+its characteristics&mdash;Whence obtained&mdash;Method of
+painting&mdash;Examples&mdash;Where found and described.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> succession of the school of Iona shows
+us in the first examples of English illumination
+the type exemplified in the Book of Kells,
+modified, but not very much, by its transference
+to Lindisfarne.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever doubt may be felt as to the influence
+of Byzantine or Romanesque models on pure Irish
+work, such as the Book of Kells, there can be
+none as regards the Lindisfarne Gospels. In the
+first place we have gold both in the lettering and
+ornament. This MS., known also as the Durham
+Book (Brit. Mus., Nero D. iv.), was the work of
+Abbat Eadfrith, of Lindisfarne. It has been often
+described, as it is really a most precious example
+of eighth-century art in this country. No other
+MS. of its time is to be found in any continental
+scriptorium to be compared with it. It is not a
+collection of clumsy inartistic attempts at ornamental
+writing, but high-class, effective work,
+which should be seen and studied by every
+student of illumination.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59"></a>From its style of execution, its details of portraiture,
+and other features, it may be looked
+on as one of the earliest links between the two
+extremes of Oriental and Occidental Art.</p>
+
+<p>Another MS. in the British Museum (Vesp. A. 1),
+which combines the Roman method of painting as
+in the Vergils with the penwork of these Anglo-Celtic
+Gospel-books, may also repay careful examination.</p>
+
+<p>It is very possible that the celebrated <i>scriptoria</i>
+of York and Jarrow may have been furnished with
+both MSS. and copyists from Rome, yet there can
+be little doubt that the intercourse with Durham
+would be quite as active. Nor is it less probable
+that similar intercourse would keep them <i>en
+rapport</i> with Oxford, St. Alban's, Westminster,
+Glastonbury, and other <i>scriptoria</i>, so that in the
+eighth century England stood with respect to art
+second to no other country in the Christian world.</p>
+
+<p>During the ninth century active intercourse
+with the Frankish Empire enriched English
+churches and religious houses, especially Winchester,
+with examples of Byzantine and Roman
+models, which Charlemagne had introduced into
+his own palatine schools. From such secondary
+models as the Sacramentaries and Evangeliaries
+executed at Tours, Soissons, Metz, and other
+busy centres of production, English illuminators
+succeeded in forming a distinctive style of their
+own. In the French or, rather, Frankish MSS.,
+while the richness of the gold and the beauty and
+delicacy of the colouring are in themselves most
+charming, and while certain features may in
+<a name="Page_60" id="Page_60"></a>general be recognised as no doubt suggestive
+there is nothing which quite predicts the remarkable
+treatment which characterises the English
+work. &ldquo;Opus Anglicum&rdquo; was its distinctive
+title. The term, indeed, was applied to all English
+artistic productions more or less&mdash;embroidery
+among the rest. The women of England, says
+William of Poitiers, were famous for their needlework,
+the men excelled in metal-work and jewellery.
+But it was the illuminated Service Books
+that have perpetuated the term.</p>
+
+<p>From the Lindisfarne Gospels to the Winchester
+Benedictionals is a far cry&mdash;but Art is long
+and time is fleeting, hence many pages of intervening
+description must be omitted. We may,
+however, refer the reader to Westwood's <i>Pal&aelig;ographia
+Sacra Pictoria</i>, the Pal&aelig;ographical
+Society's publications, and other works, for enlightenment
+on this period. On the Rouen and
+Devonshire Benedictionals much interesting information
+may be found in vol. 24 of the <i>Arch&aelig;ologia</i>
+and in the recent volume of the Bradshaw
+Society concerning them.</p>
+
+<p>The work is peculiar; and if we consider the
+treatment of foliage apart from the colour, we
+cannot but notice its similarity to the ivory
+carving observable in the consular diptychs.
+Ivory carving was then a popular artistic occupation.
+The foliage is graceful, the composition
+well-balanced, and the colour mostly bright body
+colour applied in the Greek manner. The fault of
+the heads is that they are too small for the figure,
+and of the draperies that the folds are overdone
+<a name="Page_61" id="Page_61"></a>too much fluttering detail. The gilding
+differs from the Byzantine in not being laid on the
+vellum in the form of burnished leaf, but painted
+on like the colours, not only in the figures but in
+the framework and ornaments.</p>
+
+<p>The British Museum contains several characteristic
+examples, but, as has been said, the very finest
+are those at Rouen and in the library of the Duke
+of Devonshire.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps no genuine example exists earlier than
+the Golden Charter of King Edgar of true
+Winchester illumination, executed forty years after
+the accession of Athelstan, whose Coronation
+Book (Brit. Mus., Tib. A. 2) is most probably
+not English at all, but Carolingian of the finest
+type. Many other <i>scriptoria</i> in England in the
+tenth century were equally busy with Winchester,
+but none could vie with the royal city in the
+production of illuminated books.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62"></a><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI</h2>
+
+<h3>CAROLINGIAN ILLUMINATION</h3>
+
+<p>Why so-called&mdash;Works to be consulted&mdash;The Library of St.
+Gall&mdash;Rise and progress of Carolingian art&mdash;Account of
+various MSS.&mdash;Features of the style&mdash;Gospels of St. Sernin&mdash;The
+Ada-Codex&mdash;Centres of production&mdash;Other splendid
+examples&mdash;The Alcuin Bible&mdash;The Gospel of St. M&eacute;dard of
+Soissons.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Once</span> more crossing the Channel let us now inquire
+what has been doing among the Franks
+since the Gellone Sacramentary, especially in the
+schools instituted by the Emperor Charles the
+Great. Materials for this inquiry are most
+abundant. One of the more important works
+on the subject is the lucid monograph of Dr.
+Rahn, of Zurich, on the Golden Psalter of
+Folchard at St. Gall, which deals more or less
+with the whole question of Carolingian art, while
+M. L&eacute;op. Delisle's brochure on the Evangeliary
+of St. Vaast of Arras gives us a copious account
+of the Franco-Saxon branch of it. Apart, however,
+from these sources of information, we have
+not a few original MSS. still extant, which, of
+course, more vividly speak for themselves, and
+only require pointing out to the student.</p>
+
+<p>The clearest method of study being to take
+things in the order of their creation, so in order
+<a name="Page_63" id="Page_63"></a>to understand the &ldquo;character of savage grandeur
+and na&iuml;ve originality&rdquo; which has been attributed
+to this style, it will be best to take up these MSS.
+chronologically. At the same time, if anyone
+merely wishes to know what the style is like at
+its best, Dr. Rahn must be his guide, as the Golden
+Psalter which he has selected for study is as
+splendid an example as perhaps may be found in
+the whole career of the art. We have noticed
+how the Irish missionary-artists carried their
+work to their continental settlements, how they
+planted their schools in Burgundy, Switzerland,
+and Lombardy. Of all their depositories, however,
+numerous as they are elsewhere, none is
+richer in the relics of their work than the celebrated
+abbey which takes its name of St. Gall
+from that disciple of St. Columbanus, who in 614
+founded his little cell beside the Steinach, about
+nine miles south of the Lake of Constance. Under
+Charles Martel the cell had become a monastery,
+which he endowed as a Benedictine abbey. In
+830 was founded its magnificent library of MSS.
+The library still exists, and at the present moment
+gives shelf-room to 1,800 MSS. and more than
+41,700 printed books. Besides this, another, called
+the Town Library, founded in the sixteenth century,
+and containing 500 MSS. and 60,400 printed
+books, gives this upland, busy, modern manufacturing
+Swiss town no mean importance as a
+centre of literary culture. Physically it is probably
+the highest town in Europe, its street-level being
+very nearly 2,200 feet above that of the sea. Its
+libraries and museums are rich storehouses of
+<a name="Page_64" id="Page_64"></a>medi&aelig;val treasures. The architect raves over its
+monastic buildings; the scholar and pal&aelig;ographer
+gloat over its books and MSS. In the libraries
+of St. Gall are some of the masterpieces of Irish
+Saxon, and Carolingian art, and its great Benedictine
+abbey under Grimald from 841, <i>i.e.</i> during
+the later Carolingian period, possessed one of the
+most active <i>scriptoria</i> in Europe. To begin with
+the beginning, however, we must leave St. Gall,
+and, passing by some less important MSS., go
+back to the year 781 and the city of Toulouse.
+In that year, and in the Abbey of St. Sernin
+(Saturninus) in that city, was finished a wonderful
+and truly splendid manuscript of the Gospels as
+a present to the Emperor and his wife Hildegardis.
+This is our first example. It now is to be seen in
+the National Library, Paris (Nouv. acqu. Lat.
+1203).</p>
+
+<p>Next comes the Evangeliary of Abbat Angilbert
+of Centula (now St. Riquier), near Abbeville,
+Charlemagne's son-in-law. This MS., executed
+about the year 793, is still preserved in the Town
+Library of Abbeville. In the same rank, but somewhat
+finer in execution, comes a third Evangeliary,
+that of St. M&eacute;dard of Soissons, now in the
+National Library, Paris (No. 8850, Lat.).</p>
+
+<p>In these three MSS., reproductions from which
+are to be found in various modern works on art,
+the writing and ornamentation are the parts into
+which the artist puts his best work, not the figure
+drawing. Although in the St. Sernin MS. there
+is, in the Christ-figure, a distinct attempt at
+portraiture quite different from the coils and pen-<a name="Page_65" id="Page_65"></a>flourishes
+which make up the Gospel-figures in
+the Irish and Merovingian MSS. Here the inspiration
+is clearly Greek, not Irish. The figure
+is draped in green and violet&mdash;seated on an
+embroidered cushion before a low castellated wall.
+The hair is light, and the chin beardless. The
+design shows a decided likeness to the consular
+ivory diptychs, and the painting follows the
+Eastern methods. In the details of ornament
+only are Irish features. Thus we trace in this
+MS. the sources of Carolingian art. The MS.
+being dated, is important as affording a means
+of comparison with other undated work. It was
+presented to St. Sernin on the occasion of the
+visit of the Emperor and Empress with their son,
+the amiable Louis &ldquo;le Debonaire,&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_1_14" id="FNanchor_1_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> just after the
+latter had been made King of Aquitaine. Godeschalk,
+the writer of it, on the last two leaves tells
+us that it took him seven years to accomplish.
+It is written throughout in gold and silver letters
+on purple vellum, and is, moreover, ornamented
+with borders, pictures, portraits, and panellings.
+At first it was kept in a <i>cumdach</i> of silver, set
+with precious stones, but that has disappeared.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_14" id="Footnote_1_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Mod. Fr. &ldquo;Debonnaire.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<p>The Golden Gospels of St. M&eacute;dard, like the
+Centula MS., are similar, but betoken an advance
+in both taste and execution. The figures are still
+rude and deformed, but the artist shows a laudable
+desire, an ambition, in fact, to imitate the
+work of better artists than himself. Nevertheless,
+the calligraphy and borderwork are the best parts
+of his performance. In this MS. the use of silver
+<a name="Page_66" id="Page_66"></a>betrays a tendency to prodigality. In design, the
+influence of the artists who built the new church
+of San Vitale at Ravenna, a church which became
+the model for the Abbey of St. M&eacute;dard itself, is
+quite manifest, yet perhaps need not be traced
+further than Soissons or Pavia. In certain of the
+illustrations, as, for instance, the &ldquo;Fountain of
+Life,&rdquo; there is at once a likeness and a variation as
+compared with the same symbol in the Evangeliary
+of St. Sernin. They are both too intricate to
+describe, but of both it may be said that they
+show an intimate acquaintance with early Christian
+symbolism. The ivory carving and architecture
+of Ravenna have evidently been known to the
+director of these frames and backgrounds. In
+the year which saw the completion of Godeschalk's
+Gospels, Alcuin was at Parma, but when the St.
+M&eacute;dard's Gospels were written he was Abbot of
+St. Martin's at Tours. It was the presence of
+Alcuin at the Court of Charlemagne that accounts
+for the prevalence of the Saxon character in the
+new and beautiful handwriting we now call Carolingian.
+It was the presence of Paul Warnefrid
+that accounts for much of the classic and most of
+the Lombardic features, both of the writing and
+the illumination. Many other scholars assisted
+these two in the various centres in which Alcuin
+established branches of the palatine schools. The
+intercourse with Italy and England was constant,
+and led to the frequent interchange of books, and
+community of methods and models. Another fine
+MS. of the same period (c. 780) is the Golden
+Ada-Codex of St. Mesmin or Maximin, of Tr&egrave;ves.
+<a name="Page_67" id="Page_67"></a>In 1794 this MS. was taken from Tr&egrave;ves to Mainz;
+in 1815 it was transferred to Aix-la-Chapelle, and
+is now back again at Tr&egrave;ves. The externals of
+the Ada-Codex are very costly, its binding being a
+late Gothic pendant to the cover of the Echternach
+Evangeliary at Gotha. In the centre of the fore-cover
+there is a magnificent topaz,<a name="FNanchor_1_15" id="FNanchor_1_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> with several
+imperial figures. Inside, the work is a handsome
+example of the early Carolingian.<a name="FNanchor_2_16" id="FNanchor_2_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> It contains
+the four Gospels written by order of the &ldquo;Mother
+and Lady Ada,&rdquo; sister of Charles the Great,
+Abbess of St. Mesmin. Next we have in the
+British Museum another grand example of the
+style as modified by English or Saxon influence.
+Also the Zurich Bible, of the same date, executed
+at Tours&mdash;and the Bamberg Bible, said to be a copy
+of the Alcuin Bible of the same school. Then follow
+the Drogo Sacramentary, presented by the Emperor
+to his natural son Drogo, Archbishop of
+Metz (826-855), perhaps illuminated at Metz, but
+of the same school as those above mentioned.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_15" id="Footnote_1_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> Or sardonyx (Lamprecht says topaz.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_16" id="Footnote_2_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> A photograph of the cover is sold by F. Linz of Tr&egrave;ves.</p></div>
+
+<p>In our own National Library, again, we have the
+Athelstan Gospels (Harl. 2788), also in all probability
+executed at Metz. At Paris (Nat. Lib.,
+Theol. Lat. 266) is the Evangeliary of Lothaire&mdash;a
+most beautiful example of gold-writing and
+ornament. So we might enumerate a score of
+splendid MSS., and classify them into their various
+minor schools. But such is not our object. All
+we want here is a general but clear idea of the
+style as a whole.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68"></a>To characterise it broadly by the names of its
+most important elements we should call it a Lombard-Saxon
+style&mdash;the interlacing bands and knots
+and other minor features and the main character
+of the writing being of Saxon origin, the classical
+foliages and manner of painting the figures and
+certain ideas of design Lombardic, strengthened by
+direct contact with the sources of the latter style.
+Whatever variations there may be, they can
+generally be accounted for according to locality
+and centre of production. We have instanced a
+few examples of the earlier time as showing the
+principal features of the style. Under the Emperor
+Charles the Great's grandson, Charles the Bald,
+Carolingian illumination reached its highest point
+of excellence, and the MSS. executed for him or
+his contemporaries accordingly give a correct idea
+of what Carolingian illuminators considered as
+good work. The chief centres were still Tours
+and Metz&mdash;the latter a branch of the former, but
+gradually developing distinct features of its own;
+and among the productions of these schools there
+still remain precious&mdash;we might say priceless&mdash;examples,
+such as the Vivien Bible of the Paris
+Library, so-called because presented by Count
+Vivien, Abbat of St. Martin's of Tours, to
+Charles the Bald in 850.<a name="FNanchor_1_17" id="FNanchor_1_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> It contains a fine picture
+of the presentation with <i>beardless</i> figures. It
+has also a number of exceedingly splendid initials
+showing strong Byzantine influence&mdash;capitals of
+columns of classic origin and traces of Merovingian
+in letter forms and ornamental details. It is
+<a name="Page_69" id="Page_69"></a>like the Evangeliary of Lothaire, already mentioned,
+a most sumptuous example rich in silver
+and gold&mdash;the latter having a grand portrait of
+Lothaire seated on his throne. Both MSS. are
+in the National Library at Paris, the Vivien,
+No. 1 (Theol. Lat.), the Lothaire, No. 266. But the
+one example to which we would call the reader's
+attention, though among the earlier productions
+of the period, as not only most readily accessible,
+but most precious to the English student, is the
+celebrated Alcuin Bible in the British Museum
+(Add. MS. 10546). This venerable MS. is a copy
+of the Vulgate revised by Alcuin himself, and
+said to be exactly similar to the one at Bamberg.
+Biblical revision was perhaps the most important
+of his many literary occupations, and this volume
+is reasonably believed to be the actual copy prepared
+for presentation to Charlemagne under the
+reviser's own superintendence, possibly, in part
+at least, the work of his own hand. It is a
+large folio, finely written in a neat minuscule,
+mainly Saxon hand, with uncial initials in two
+columns. The miniatures, including their architectural
+details, are in the Roman manner, the
+ornaments partly Byzantine, partly Celtic. The
+great similarity of design between different manuscripts
+is strikingly exemplified by a comparison
+of three borders from (<i>a</i>) the Evangeliary of St.
+Vaast of Arras, fol. 28 <i>v.</i> (see Delisle); (<i>b</i>) the
+Evangel. in National Library, Paris, anc. fds. Lat.
+257 (see Louandre), and Evangeliary No. 309
+Bibl. de Cambrai (see Durieux).</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_17" id="Footnote_1_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> Plate in t. 1 of Louandre.</p></div>
+
+<p>Indeed, comparisons of this kind are very in<a name="Page_70" id="Page_70"></a>structive
+frequently as suggestive of <i>provenance</i>,
+as each working centre would have its own set of
+models and designs. Of course, comparison of
+the MSS. themselves is out of the question, but
+the comparisons can often be effected by the
+student's having Louandre, Durieux, Fleury,
+Labarte, etc., by his side during the examination
+of any given period. The limits of our little book
+forbid our speaking of other examples of this
+splendid style, but we cannot conclude without
+noticing that in the opinion of M. Ferdinand
+Denis, the Golden Gospels of St. M&eacute;dard of
+Soissons is the most beautiful Carolingian MSS.
+extant.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71"></a><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a>CHAPTER XII</h2>
+
+<h3>MONASTIC ILLUMINATION</h3>
+
+<p>Introductory&mdash;Monasteries and their work from the sixth to
+the ninth century&mdash;The claustral schools&mdash;Alcuin&mdash;Warnefrid
+and Theodulf&mdash;Clerics and monastics&mdash;The
+Golden Age of monasticism&mdash;The Order of St. Benedict&mdash;Cistercian
+houses&mdash;Other Orders&mdash;Progress of writing in
+Carolingian times&mdash;Division of labour.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">In</span> the sixth century the monasteries, such as
+they were, necessarily kept themselves very
+quiet and unobtrusive. They were situated usually
+in out-of-the-way corners, solitudes apart from
+civilisation, or, at least, apart from the busy
+haunts of men. In the eighth century there is
+a marked difference. The Capitular of Aix-la-Chapelle,
+of 789, required that minor schools
+should be attached <i>to all monasteries and cathedral
+churches</i> without exception, and that children of
+all ranks, <i>both noble and servile</i>, should be received
+into them. Also that the larger monasteries
+should open major schools in which the seven
+sciences of mathematics, astronomy, arithmetic,
+music, rhetoric, dialectics, and geography, were
+to be taught&mdash;and this in two ways. There were
+to be two sorts of schools&mdash;interior or <i>claustral</i>,
+intended for monastics only, and exterior or
+<i>canonical</i>, intended for secular students. These
+<a name="Page_72" id="Page_72"></a>schools were under separate scholastics or
+masters, and lay students were received in the
+exterior schools as freely and fully as in the public
+schools of the present time. Mabillon<a name="FNanchor_1_18" id="FNanchor_1_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> gives a
+list of some twenty-seven monastic and cathedral
+schools, by no means confined to great or wealthy
+cities, but well distributed throughout the Empire.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_18" id="Footnote_1_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> Pr&aelig;fat. in iv. S&aelig;cul. 184.</p></div>
+
+<p>In the time of Charlemagne those most in
+repute were Tours, St. Gall, Fulda, Reims, and
+Hirsfeld.</p>
+
+<p>We have given the names of Alcuin and Paul
+Warnefrid as the chief promoters of the Carolingian
+Revival, but we should not omit that of
+Theodulf, of Orleans, the indefatigable school
+inspector of the time. He it was who assisted
+the artistic side of the movement by his ingenious
+contrivances as a writer and illustrator of school
+books. Undoubtedly it was from his suggestions
+that we so often find in medi&aelig;val scientific treatises
+of the driest kind those graphic and wonderful
+tabulations and edifices, labelled and turreted,
+which make Aristotle, Priscian, and Marcianus
+Capella, not only comprehensible, but attractive.
+Theodulf composed in simple and easy Latin
+verse&mdash;somewhat after the style of the <i>Propria
+qu&aelig; maribus</i> our own childhood&mdash;the description
+of a supposed tree of science, which he had drawn
+and painted, on the trunk and branches of which
+were the figures and names of the seven liberal
+arts. At the foot sat Grammar&mdash;the basis of all
+learning&mdash;holding on her hand a lengthy rod
+(ominous for the tender student). On the right
+<a name="Page_73" id="Page_73"></a>Rhetoric stretched forth her hand. On the left
+was Dialectic. Philosophy sat on the summit;
+the rest being disposed according to their relative
+importance. The whole was explained in the
+<i>Carmina de septem artibus</i>, in which the bishop,
+who was one of the famous poets of the age,
+strove in flowery language to render these dry-as-dust
+studies acceptable to the youthful understanding.
+Theodulf was a great scholar, and
+assisted Alcuin in the revision of the Bible, one
+copy of which he himself had written whilst still
+Abbat of Fleury, about 790. At the beginning of
+this Bible is a poem in golden letters on purple,
+and a preface in prose, also in golden letters, giving
+a synopsis of the several books. The text differs
+somewhat from the Alcuin Bible, as it is that of
+Jerome before Alcuin's revision. This MS. is
+now at Paris. Another Bible executed to the
+order of Theodulf is now in the Town Library at
+Puy.</p>
+
+<p>It seems incredible, after the efforts made by
+Charlemagne and his ministers for the maintenance
+of learning and the arts, that there should
+ever be any risk of a return to barbarism, but it
+is a fact that the dissolution of the Empire proved
+in certain localities the suspension of prosperity.
+Fortunately the monastics&mdash;especially the Benedictines&mdash;and
+the canons of the cathedrals still
+kept up the practice of copying books; but almost
+all the South of France, Languedoc, and Provence,
+always conservative, remained more or less
+illiterate. They produced poets and jongleurs,
+but seldom artists or scholars. And even in the
+<a name="Page_74" id="Page_74"></a>North, where the capitular schools were most
+flourishing&mdash;as Paris, Reims, and Chartres&mdash;the
+general tendency was towards relapse. In High
+Germany it was even worse. In spite of all
+efforts of the clergy by the extension of secular
+schools, the laity preferred the excitement of
+chase and camp to the quiet humdrum of the
+schoolroom. Religion seemed to be regarded
+rather as a profession than a principle, quite right
+in its place, <i>i.e.</i> the Church and the monastery,
+but unsuited for active life. The wealthy land-owners,
+therefore, did not cease to endow religious
+houses or to build churches, but they left book-learning
+to the clerics. Accordingly the clerics
+and the monastics flourished exceedingly.</p>
+
+<p>From the beginning of the tenth century to the
+beginning of the thirteenth was the Golden Age of
+monasticism. The Order of St. Benedict scattered
+its foundations thickly over France and Western
+Germany, while its reformed colonies of Cluny,
+Citeaux, Clairvaux, and the Chartreuse again
+spread their settlements in all directions. Thus
+we find Cluny established in 910, Grammont in
+1076, the Chartreuse in 1080, Citeaux in 1098,
+Savigny in 1105, Tiron in 1109, Austin Canons in
+1038, Premonstrants in 1120, Crutched Friars in
+1169. In England, from 1100, scarcely a year
+passed by without the establishment of some fresh
+foundation. During the thirty-five years of the
+reign of Henry&nbsp;I. more than 150 religious houses
+were founded. And even during the disastrous
+reign of Stephen, in less than twenty years, no
+fewer than 100 houses of various Orders were
+<a name="Page_75" id="Page_75"></a>established. The twelfth century in England was
+especially the age of monasteries.</p>
+
+<p>It is true that not very much in the way of
+original literature, except theological treatises, can
+be assigned to the three centuries referred to, but
+the unwearied labours of the copyist and illuminator
+did much to preserve the works which previous
+centuries had created. Of course, in so long a
+period changes were many and great. So great,
+indeed, that between a MS. of 850 and another of
+1200 scarcely is there a common feature.</p>
+
+<p>From 850 to 1000 in France the Carolingian
+minuscule, from the first so clear and beautiful,
+remained with scarce a stroke of alteration. But
+immediately after the opening of the eleventh
+century a series of rapid changes set in, and by
+the beginning of the twelfth a new hand, perfectly
+clear and regular, but quite different from the
+Carolingian, had been formed, which lasted until
+it was superseded by the Gothic, while a system
+of contractions adopted because of the scarcity of
+parchment creates a fresh need for study apart
+from the peculiarities of personal habits. Side
+by side, too, with this there grows up a non-professional
+hand&mdash;the so-called cursive or running
+hand of the ordinary writer&mdash;in many cases,
+especially in deeds and other brief compositions,
+all but utterly illegible, except to the professional
+pal&aelig;ographer. Occasionally these autographs are
+of the highest importance and intensely interesting,
+as, for instance, when in an English MS. we come
+Across a note in the handwriting of Ordericus
+(Vitalis) or Matthew Paris.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76"></a>From 900 to 1200 the vast majority of MSS.,
+illuminated and otherwise, were the work of
+monastics. Every house of any note had its
+room set apart for writing. The larger monasteries
+sometimes utilised the cloisters of the
+churches themselves, in recesses of which they
+had desks or tables placed for the copyist.
+Usually, however, they had a large common
+room called the scriptorium, where either the
+copyist and illuminator worked separately and
+each on his own account, or where a number of
+copyists awaited with pen and parchment the
+dictation by one of the fraternity of some work
+of which a number of copies had to be made.
+&ldquo;No admittance except on business&rdquo; was the
+rule of this chamber. There, under the direction
+of the <i>armarius</i>, the expert writers did their
+work.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes a single monk executed the book
+from first to last by himself. He prepared the
+vellum, ruled it with the fine metal point, copied
+the text, painted the illuminations, put on the
+gilding, and even added the binding. Generally,
+however, the labour was divided&mdash;one monk
+scraped and polished the parchment; another
+ruled it; another wrote the text, leaving spaces
+for initials and miniatures; another put in the
+initials and did the gilding and flourishing with
+borders, etc.; and another painted the miniatures.
+This in the monasteries was done in the case of
+large and important MSS., and afterwards, when
+illuminating became a lay-craft, subdivision of
+labour was the common practice. Binding was
+<a name="Page_77" id="Page_77"></a>done in a special apartment, and by one
+specially skilled therein.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>scriptorium</i> was looked upon as a sort of
+sacred place, and the work of copying often considered
+as a labour of piety and love&mdash;entered
+upon with devout prayer, and solemnly blessed
+by the superior, especially in cases where the
+books to be written were Bibles, or connected
+with the services of the house, the Lives of the
+Saints, or Treatises on Theology.</p>
+
+<p>Very frivolous or absurd indeed are sometimes
+the inducements to copyists to do gratuitous work
+of this kind, such as that every letter transcribed
+paid for one sin of the copyist, and it is said that
+a certain monk&mdash;a heavy sinner&mdash;only owed his
+salvation to the fact that the number of letters in
+a Bible which he copied exceeded by a single unit
+the sum total of his sins.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78"></a><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a>CHAPTER XIII</h2>
+
+<h3>MONASTIC ILLUMINATION&mdash;<i>continued</i></h3>
+
+<p>The copyists&mdash;Gratuitous labour&mdash;Last words of copyists&mdash;Disputes
+between Cluny and Citeaux&mdash;The Abbey of
+Cluny: its grandeur and influences&mdash;Use of gold and
+purple vellum&mdash;The more influential abbeys and their work
+in France, Germany, and the Netherlands.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Of</span> course, only really expert calligraphers were
+employed on great and important works.
+In the monastery all such labour was gratuitous,
+that is, the copyist received no pecuniary remuneration,
+only his food and lodging. Yet even this
+had to be provided for. Hence the frequent
+requests for donations from the laity.</p>
+
+<p>To give a volume to a monastery did not always
+mean actually to present the book, but to stand
+the expense of its production in the monastery
+itself. In the case of specially distinguished penmen,
+their entertainment in a monastery was
+sometimes an expensive business. It was only
+in later times, however, when lay-artists were
+invited to reside in the monastery to do their
+work that money was paid for their services.
+Very often we find notices at the end of volumes
+that &ldquo;So-and-so&rdquo; had ordered the book to be
+written and illuminated at his expense, and an
+<a name="Page_79" id="Page_79"></a>invocation for the gratitude of the reader and
+remembrance in his prayers is added, sometimes
+with the date to the very hour when the book was
+finished.</p>
+
+<p>The copyist's last words after his task was
+completed are often very full of weariness&mdash;sometimes
+pious, sometimes hankering after fleshly
+lusts, occasionally quite too dreadful to repeat.
+&ldquo;May Christ recompense for ever him who caused
+this book to be written.&rdquo; At the end of a Life of
+St. Sebastian: &ldquo;Illustrious martyr, remember the
+monk Gondacus who in this slender volume has
+included the story of thy glorious miracles. May
+thy merits assist me to penetrate the heavenly
+kingdom; and may thy holy prayers aid me as
+they have aided so many others who have owed
+to them the ineffable enjoyments both of body and
+soul.&rdquo; Wailly quotes the following: &ldquo;Dextram
+scriptoris benedicat mater honoris&rdquo; (&ldquo;May the
+mother of honour bless the writer's right hand&rdquo;).
+A very common ending is &ldquo;Qui scripsit scribat
+semper cum Domino vivat&rdquo; (&ldquo;He who wrote, let
+him write; may he ever live with the Lord&rdquo;).
+Another: &ldquo;Explicit expliceat. Bibere scriptor
+eat&rdquo; (&ldquo;It is finished. Let it be finished, and let
+the writer go out for a drink&rdquo;). Another ending
+is &ldquo;Vinum scriptori reddatur de meliori&rdquo; (&ldquo;Let
+wine of the best be given to the writer&rdquo;). And
+again: &ldquo;Vinum reddatur scriptori, non teneatur&rdquo;
+(&ldquo;Let wine be given to the writer; let it not be
+withheld&rdquo;). Here is the recompense wished for
+by a French monk: &ldquo;Detur pro pen&acirc; scriptori
+pulcra puella&rdquo; (&ldquo;Let a pretty girl be given to
+<a name="Page_80" id="Page_80"></a>the writer for his pains,&rdquo; or &ldquo;as a penance&rdquo;)
+The monks enjoyed puns, as &ldquo;bibere,&rdquo; a common
+pun on &ldquo;vivere.&rdquo; One writer groans thus:
+&ldquo;Scribere qui nescit, nullum putat esse laborem&rdquo;
+(&ldquo;Whoso knows not how to write, thinks it is no
+trouble&rdquo;).</p>
+
+<p>As time goes on, after the tenth century, it is
+noticeable that the more beautiful a manuscript
+becomes in its writing the less accurate becomes
+its Latinity. And so the monks who once were
+noted for learning, gradually lose their grip on
+Latin. The manuscripts executed in Benedictine
+abbeys became inaccurate&mdash;almost illiterate.
+Faults of ignorance of words; misrendering of
+proper names; blundering in the inept introduction
+of marginal notes and confounding such notes
+with the text, showing that the heart of the
+copyist was not in his work nor his head capable
+of performing it. His hand is simply a machine,
+which when it goes wrong does so without remorse
+and without shame. So in the greater
+houses, men were appointed whose sole business
+was to supervise the copyists&mdash;in fact, to supply
+the brains, while the scribe furnished the manipulation
+of the pen. Even they, however, did not
+always succeed to perfection, as very few of them
+were too well furnished with scholarship. There
+were not many Alcuins or Theodulfs in the
+twelfth century. What they did usually keep free
+from serious error were the books used in their
+own services. It was the aim, particularly among
+the Cistercian houses, to have their liturgical texts
+absolutely without fault. In respect of illumina<a name="Page_81" id="Page_81"></a>tion,
+there was a great quarrel between the Abbey
+of Citeaux and that of Cluny. The great Abbey
+of Clugny (or Cluny) in ancient Burgundy was
+founded in 910, and in the course of a century or
+obtained a degree of splendour, influence, and
+prosperity unrivalled by any other medi&aelig;val
+foundation. It possessed enormous wealth and
+covered Western Europe with its affiliated settlements.
+Under Peter the Venerable, when the
+controversy began, it was the chief monastic
+centre of the Christian world. The words of
+Pope Urban&nbsp;II., when addressing the community,
+were: &ldquo;Ye are the light of the world.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The grand Basilica at Cluny was completed in
+1131, and, until the erection of St. Peter's at
+Rome, was the largest church in Christendom,
+and even then was only ten feet shorter than the
+Roman edifice. The building is a masterpiece of
+architectural beauty and massiveness, being with
+its narthex added by Abbat Roland de Hainaut,
+no less in length than 555 feet. The splendour of
+the church, its gorgeous tombs and mausoleums,
+its huge coronals for lights of brass, silver, and
+gold&mdash;the grand candelabrum before the altar,
+with its settings of crystal and beryl&mdash;the mural
+painting of the cupola, and the general luxury and
+magnificence of the whole constituted an unpardonable
+sin in the eyes of the stern and self-denying
+Cistercians. Hence arose long disputes
+between the abbats of the two houses about tithes
+and other matters. Among the other matters
+were included questions of candlesticks and bindings
+and gildings of books. The two houses
+<a name="Page_82" id="Page_82"></a>were long at variance on the right definition of
+luxury in living, and this variance may to this
+day be observed in their separate and distinct
+styles, both of architecture and the ornamentation
+of books. The use of gold was still continued in
+the older Benedictine abbeys, but was long forbidden
+in the Cistercian, almost all the ornament
+of the latter being confined to pen-drawing and
+the use of coloured inks. The employment of
+gold for the text of manuscripts so common in the
+ninth century became rare in the eleventh. Only
+here and there do we hear of such volumes.
+Where the gold lettering still lingers, it is confined
+to the first page or two, and the same may be said
+of the purple vellum. A certain monk, Ad&eacute;mar,
+who died at Jerusalem in 1034, wrote a Life of
+St. Martial of Limoges entirely in letters of gold;
+but it was quite an exceptional volume. Another
+example occurs in an Evangeliary, which was
+probably a copy of a ninth-century model, as at
+first glance it might be assigned to that age, but
+on closer examination it is found that in one of
+the borders is a medallion bearing the name of
+the Emperor Otho, showing that it cannot be later
+than the latter part of the tenth century. It is
+now in the National Library at Paris.</p>
+
+<p>Before speaking of Othonian illumination it
+may be well to refer to that of the Netherlands in
+these earlier centuries.</p>
+
+<p>The most ancient writings known in this district
+were charters and other documents, and the pious
+effusion of the occupants of the monasteries, such
+as St. Amand, Lobbes, Stavelot, etc.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83"></a>It was the revival of art and literature under
+Charlemagne that was the beginning of artistic
+calligraphy, then followed the production of books
+outside the monasteries, classical authors, chronicles,
+and mirrors of various sciences. In the
+eleventh century we find monastic books and
+others of which the ornamentation is sometimes
+even splendid, such as Psalters, Evangeliaries,
+Bibles, and Missals, glowing with gold and colours.
+Already the Abbeys of Stavelot and Li&eacute;ge were
+high-class centres of production. St. Martin's
+of Tournay had a famous scriptorium also, noted
+for the beauty of its writing and its grand initial
+letters. Immediately following St. Martin's, the
+Abbeys of Gembloux, St. Bavon at Ghent, and
+others, produced or acquired MSS. of the most
+sumptuous kind, and before the thirteenth century
+the Netherlands had established quite a distinguished
+reputation.</p>
+
+<p>In a later chapter we shall deal with the development
+of its remarkable schools, whose work eventually
+took rank, not only among the most artistic,
+but the most prolific in Europe.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84"></a><a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV"></a>CHAPTER XIV</h2>
+
+<h3>OTHONIAN ILLUMINATION</h3>
+
+<p>Departure from Carolingian&mdash;Bird and serpent&mdash;Common use
+of dracontine forms in letter-ornament&mdash;Influence of metal-work on the forms of scroll-ornament&mdash;The vine-stem and its
+developments&mdash;Introduction of Greek taste and fashion into
+Germany&mdash;Cistercian illumination&mdash;The Othonian period&mdash;Influence
+of women as patronesses and practitioners&mdash;German
+princesses&mdash;The Empress Adelheid of Burgundy&mdash;The
+Empress Theophano&mdash;Henry&nbsp;II. and the Empress
+Cunegunda&mdash;Bamberg&mdash;Examples of Othonian art.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Perhaps</span> the first departure towards a new
+style arising out of the elements of Carolingian
+illumination is in the combination of the
+bird and serpent used for letter forms and continued
+into coils of vine-stem and foliage in combination
+with golden panelled frames or pilasters.
+The monsters thus produced seem to be a revival
+of the dracontine forms of the semi-barbarous
+Celtic and early Frankish arts. But the difference
+in elegance and refinement of drawing and beauty
+of colouring is very great indeed. Other animal
+forms are also made use of, nor is the human
+figure altogether absent. Sometimes entire letters
+are made up of the latter in various attitudes.
+Little scenes illustrative of the subject which the
+<a name="Page_85" id="Page_85"></a>initial commences are often placed within it, as,
+for instance, in the B of the first psalm.<a name="FNanchor_1_19" id="FNanchor_1_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_19" id="Footnote_1_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> A characteristic Othonian Evangeliary of the eleventh
+century, executed at the Abbey of Stavelot, may be seen in
+the Royal Library at Brussels.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/005.jpg" width="500" height="783" alt="BIBLIA SACRA" title="BIBLIA SACRA" />
+<span class="caption">BIBLIA SACRA<br />
+12TH CENT. (LATE)<br />
+<i>Brit. Mus. Harl. MS. 2799, fol. 185 v.</i><br />&nbsp;</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/006.jpg" width="500" height="769" alt="EVANGELIA (PARIS USE)" title="EVANGELIA (PARIS USE)" />
+<span class="caption">EVANGELIA (PARIS USE)<br />
+C. 1275<br />
+<i>Brit. Mus. Add. MS. 17341, fol. 120 v.</i></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Many twelfth-century initials look like designs
+in metal-work placed on the panelled grounds of
+coloured enamels. But the rapid development of
+the vine-stem coils out of the stemless foliages
+of the Carolingian and Winchester styles is one
+of the wonders of the early German revival
+after the accession of the Emperor Otho&nbsp;I. A
+still greater improvement takes place after the
+marriage of his son Otho&nbsp;II. to the Princess
+Theophano, daughter of Romanus&nbsp;II., attributable,
+no doubt, to a fresh accession of artistic
+enthusiasm from the home of the new Empress.
+In point of elegance of design, beauty of curve,
+adaptation of every part to its share in the composition,
+nothing could be finer than the initial
+letters of the Othonian period of illumination.
+The year 963 introduced Greek fashions and Greek
+artists into Germany, the results of which are at
+once traceable in the increased splendour of
+monastic illumination in that country. The details
+of Greek ornament become the fillings of the
+frames and panels of the large initials.</p>
+
+<p>The Cistercian illuminators, or rather calligraphers,
+while they constantly repudiate the
+golden splendour and monstrous follies of their
+rivals, absolutely excel in this same ornamental
+draughtsmanship. What, for example, could be
+finer than the pen-drawing of the great Arnstein
+<a name="Page_86" id="Page_86"></a>Bible in the British Museum (Harl. 2800)? The
+ornament is mostly in a red ink, with flat-coloured
+blue, green, or yellow backgrounds, but it is
+not to be surpassed. No, the interlacements and
+coils, foliages and panels of the twelfth century
+are absolutely among the finest examples of ornamental
+lettering ever conceived. Illuminating
+seemed at this epoch to be more and more closely
+following the details of contemporary architecture,
+and so paving the way to the next great variety
+of the art, which is looked upon by some writers
+as the real beginning of medi&aelig;val illumination.</p>
+
+<p>It must be admitted, however, that the excellence
+limits itself to the ornament. The human
+figure is wretchedly incorrect&mdash;even barbarous.
+It may be asked why is this? How is it that
+while the decorative portion of an illuminated
+book is beautiful in the highest degree, both in
+line and colour, and yet occasionally the artist
+seems not to have the remotest idea of the true
+shape of hands and feet or any part of the human
+body? Of course the usual explanation offered
+is that monastic education did not permit the
+study of the nude, and hence the monkish ignorance
+of figure drawing. But that is scarcely an
+excuse for the monstrous hands and feet and exaggerated
+facial expression of the miniatures.
+The Italian monk Angelico, in spite of his
+monastic limitations, succeeded in a most graceful
+rendering of the figure, and a charming delicacy
+in the forms of the hands. As in some
+instances the artist does reach a fair standard, it
+must be admitted that where he does not is
+<a name="Page_87" id="Page_87"></a>owing to actual inability in himself and not in his
+system. The three emperors who give the name
+of Othonian to the period immediately succeeding
+the Carolingian ruled Germany, and had much
+to do with the ruling of Italy, from 936, when
+Otho&nbsp;I., called the Great, succeeded Henry the
+Fowler about five years before the death of Athelstan,
+whose sister Eadgyth<a name="FNanchor_1_20" id="FNanchor_1_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> was Otho's first
+wife. His mother Mathilda was the patroness of
+the cloister-schools for women, working in them
+personally. She herself taught her servants and
+maids the art of reading. Her daughter Mathilda,
+the famous Abbess of Quedlinburg, in 969 persuaded
+the Abbat Wittikind of Corvey to write
+the History of the Saxon Kings, Henry her
+father, and Otho her brother (now in the Royal
+Library at Dresden). Hazecha, the Treasury-mistress
+of Quedlinburg, also employed the
+monks of Corvey, with whose beautiful initial
+drawing she was greatly pleased, to illuminate her
+own Life of St. Christopher. The beautiful but
+imperious Princess Hedwig, another of Otho's
+sisters, read Virgil with Ekkehard of St. Gall,
+and taught the child Burchard Greek, while
+Otho's niece Gerberga, Abbess of Gandersheim,
+was the instructress of the celebrated Hrosvita,
+&ldquo;the oldest German poetess.&rdquo; And this reminds
+us that at this time the women-cloisters of
+Germany and the Netherlands were among the
+most active centres of learning and book-production.
+The great monument of feminine erudition
+<a name="Page_88" id="Page_88"></a>and artistic skill, called the &ldquo;Hortus Deliciarum,&rdquo;
+was of a somewhat later time, but other examples
+still exist, among them the beautiful Niederm&uuml;nster
+Gospels of the Abbess Uota, now at Munich. A
+wood-cut by Albert D&uuml;rer prefixed to the first
+edition of Hrosvita's works (N&uuml;rnberg, 1501)
+represents the nun Hrosvita kneeling before the
+Emperor and beside the Archbishop Wilhelm of
+Mainz presenting her book.<a name="FNanchor_2_21" id="FNanchor_2_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> As to the literary
+labours of Hrosvita, this is not the place to discuss
+them. She is simply an incidental figure in
+our view of the brilliant Court of the Othos. A
+MS. of her works 500 years after her death was
+found among the dust of the cloister-library at
+St. Emmeram of Regensburg by Conrad Celtis,
+and, as we have seen, printed for the first time
+in 1501. Thus she stands out as an illustration
+of the fact often alluded to, of the importance of
+feminine foundations in the monastic scheme.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_20" id="Footnote_1_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> The chroniclers are rather confused as to the name of
+this Princess.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_21" id="Footnote_2_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> It is thought, however, by some that the figure behind
+is that of the Abbess&mdash;not the Archbishop. See D&uuml;rer Soc.
+Portfolio for 1900.</p></div>
+
+<p>Her picturesque story of the romantic adventures
+of Adelheid of Burgundy, her marriage in
+947 to King Lothaire of Italy, her widowhood
+and perils, her misfortunes and eventual marriage
+to the Emperor Otho, reads more like a chapter
+from the <i>Morte d'Arthur</i> or the <i>Arabian Nights</i>
+than a veracious history of real people. The
+Empress Adelheid was, indeed, a remarkable
+woman, and the nun of Gandersheim is full of
+her praises. In her younger days she had been
+a zealous patron and protectress of the Abbey of
+<a name="Page_89" id="Page_89"></a>Cluny, which stood on her native land of Burgundy,
+and her sympathies remained always with
+the religious houses. In this respect, indeed, she
+was a worthy successor of the pious Mathilda and
+her daughters. She died in her seventy-first year
+in her Abbey of Selz in Elsass, leaving a memory
+rich in benefits to the monastics, especially those
+of Cluny, and venerated as the patroness of
+many an illuminated volume of poems or theology,
+not to mention the liturgical books executed at
+her expense for use in her various foundations.
+The tenth century seems to have been an age of
+illustrious women. No sooner do we leave the
+story of Adelheid than we enter upon that of the
+young wife of Otho&nbsp;II., the Empress Theophano,
+daughter of the Greek Emperor, Romanus&nbsp;II.
+When little more than a child she was married
+to the son of Adelheid, he himself being in his
+twentieth year in the year 972, and in the city of
+Rome. The young Greek Princess who had been
+reared amid the luxury and splendour of the
+Eastern capital at once became the fashion&mdash;the
+manners of her Byzantine household became those
+of her Roman court, and were transplanted to her
+German home at Bamberg. Artists, limners,
+copyists, musicians, scholars, formed part of her
+retinue, and at once the German Court became
+the rival of those of England, Byzantium, Cordova,
+and Rome.</p>
+
+<p>It was, indeed, a Renaissance, an awakening
+in literature, art, and social life. Nor did its glory
+fade until eclipsed by the succeeding rivalries of
+France and Italy. Theophano survived her hus<a name="Page_90" id="Page_90"></a>band,
+who died in 983, and proved herself a
+capable Regent during the infancy of her son
+Otho&nbsp;III. She, however, did not live to see his
+early death, nor indeed to see that of the aged
+Adelheid, who survived her eight years, and died
+in the same year (999) as Otho's aunt, Matilda,
+Abbess of Quedlinburg.</p>
+
+<p>The death of Otho&nbsp;III. in 1002 did not affect
+materially the steady advance of monastic art.
+Bamberg, St. Gall, Corvey, Luxeuil, Bobbio,
+Monte Cassino continued their accustomed labours.
+Under the Capetian Kings the French foundations
+maintained the reputations they had won
+during the Carolingian times, while others were
+added from time to time throughout the Rhineland,
+Limousin, and the South of France, where the
+Romanesque or Byzantine tastes had not yet
+penetrated, and whose work therefore remained
+distinct from that of Italy and the German
+Empire.</p>
+
+<p>Henry&nbsp;II. and the Empress Cunigunda made
+Bamberg the great centre of German art, and
+it is to Bamberg, St. Gall, Luxeuil, Monte
+Cassino, and Magdeburg that we have to look
+for the finest productions of the eleventh century.
+Among the earlier works of the Othonian period
+we may mention the famous Gospel-book executed
+for the minister of Otho&nbsp;II., Egbert, Archbishop of
+Tr&egrave;ves, and known as the Codex Egberti. It was
+written in 980 at Reichenau on the Lake of Constance
+(or Bodensee, as it is locally known) by
+two monks, Kerald and Heribert, whose dwarfish
+figures appear beneath that of the archbishop on
+<a name="Page_91" id="Page_91"></a>the frontispiece. It contains fifty-seven illuminations
+and several folios of violet parchment with
+golden ornaments and lettering. But its pictures
+are rather remarkable, mostly the figures are too
+short and the limbs and extremities badly drawn,
+but in some of the statelier personages the error
+is reversed and they are too tall&mdash;this seems to be
+owing to Greek influence, while the Byzantine taste
+shows itself in the treatment of the border-foliages.
+Beasts are unnatural&mdash;demons and swine are alike,
+both in form and colour (Pub. Lib., Tr&egrave;ves).</p>
+
+<p>An Evangeliary, formerly in the Cathedral
+Treasury at Bamberg, but now in the Royal
+Library at Munich (Cimel. 58), is a good example
+of the kind of work that at first glance appears
+to be actually Carolingian both in the figures,
+attitudes, and treatment of drapery, but which on
+closer examination proves to be really due to the
+reign of Otho&nbsp;II. In this MS. the beginning of
+St. Matthew contains four medallions&mdash;two of
+Henry&nbsp;I. (the Fowler), one of Otho&nbsp;I., his son,
+and another of his grandson, Otho&nbsp;II. (Nat. Lib.,
+Paris, Lat. 8851).</p>
+
+<p>A still more notable MS. is kept in the Munich
+Library (Cimel. 58), containing a two-paged picture
+of tributary cities bringing gifts to the Emperor
+Otho&nbsp;III. In the painting in this MS., notwithstanding
+the exaggerated solemnity of expression,
+the faces are well drawn and the features carefully
+modelled. The painting is in the Greek manner,
+as is also the general character of the draperies.
+The small, ill-drawn feet are by no means comparable
+with the heads.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92"></a>The Imperial crown is square, like those of the
+Magi in the Bremen MS. now in the Library of
+Brussels, or like that of Baldwin as Emperor of
+Constantinople. In the several enthronements
+which occur among the Imperial miniatures at
+Munich there are important and significant
+differences which might not be noticed unless
+pointed out.</p>
+
+<p>The changes in the shape and treatment of the
+orb, for instance, mean more than a mere advance
+in enrichment, or an improvement in artistic skill.
+The difference indicates a change in political
+usage. In the miniature of Charles it does not
+occur at all; in that of Otho&nbsp;III. it is a mere
+symbol; in that of Henry&nbsp;II. it is the actual
+emblem of sovereignty presented by the Pope to
+the Emperor, to be held by the latter in token of
+his investiture.</p>
+
+<p>It was Selden's opinion that the orb, surmounted
+by the cross, never appears in western art until
+the time of Henry&nbsp;II. Thus it is here one of the
+many seemingly insignificant details which, in
+the miniature art of the Middle Ages, contribute
+to the elucidation of History.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93"></a><a name="CHAPTER_XV" id="CHAPTER_XV"></a>CHAPTER XV</h2>
+
+<h3>FRANCONIAN ILLUMINATION</h3>
+
+<p>The later Saxon schools&mdash;Bernward of Hildesheim&mdash;Tuotilo
+and Hartmut of St. Gallen&mdash;Portrait of Henry&nbsp;II. in MS. 40
+at Munich&mdash;Netherlandish and other work compared&mdash;Alleged
+deterioration of work under the Franconian
+Emperors not true&mdash;Bad character of the eleventh century
+as to art&mdash;Example to the contrary.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> MS. just referred to (Munich, Cimel. 58)
+brings us most probably to the time of the
+third. Otho, but it is really with his father's
+marriage to the Princess Theophano that the
+great revival in the arts began, and the names of
+St. Bruno of Cologne and Augsburg, Gerbert,
+Bernward of Hildesheim, Tuotilo, Salomon,
+Hartmut, Folchard, and Sintramn of St. Gallen,
+are, as it were, points of light and centres of
+expanding circles of artistic skill. Bruno and
+Gerbert are too well known to need any further
+remark. Bernward of Hildesheim, made bishop
+there in 992 by Theophano, and tutor to her son
+Otho&nbsp;III., &ldquo;excelled no less in the mechanical
+than in the liberal arts. He was an excellent
+penman, a good painter, and as a household
+manager was unequalled.&rdquo; Such is Tangmar's
+tribute to his pupil's character. He was, indeed,
+<a name="Page_94" id="Page_94"></a>an enthusiast in painting, mosaic, and metal-work,
+and used to collect all the objects of art he could
+lay hands on, to form a museum or studio for the
+instruction of a class of art students and workmen.
+The collection was formed mainly out of
+the numerous presents brought to the young
+Emperor from foreign, and especially Greek and
+Oriental, princes, and contained many examples
+of beautiful metal-work and Greek illumination.
+His own Cathedral of Hildesheim was supplied
+with jewelled service-books, in part at least the
+work of his own hand. The chalices and incense-burners
+and the massive golden corona or candelabrum
+of the cathedral were also the productions
+of his own workshops. The mural paintings,
+too, were executed by himself. His handiwork,
+so lovingly described by his old schoolmaster
+Tangmar, may still be seen in Hildesheim, where
+visitors to that quaint old Saxon city are told
+that the bronze gates of the cathedral and the
+jewelled crucifix were placed there by the venerable
+bishop himself in 1015, while in the cathedral-close
+rises a column adorned with bronze reliefs
+from the Life of Christ, authoritatively declared
+to be the work of his own hands&mdash;let us say they
+came out of his own workshops, in the year 1022,
+nearly a thousand years ago. St. Bernward was
+canonised by Celestine&nbsp;III. in 1194. His sarcophagus
+is in the crypt of the Basilica of St.
+Michael at Hildesheim. Of Tuotilo, the pupil of
+Moengall (or Marcellus), it is said that he was
+physically almost a giant; just the man, says his
+biographer, that you would choose for a wrestler.
+<a name="Page_95" id="Page_95"></a>He was a good speaker, had a fine musical voice,
+was a capital carver in wood, and an accomplished
+illuminator. Like most of the earlier monks of
+St. Gallen, he was a clever musician, equally skilful
+with the trumpet and the harp. And the charm
+about it all was that he was always cheerful and
+in excellent spirits, and in consequence a general
+favourite. Nor is this all. Besides being teacher
+of music in the upper school to the sons of the
+nobility, he was classical tutor, and could preach
+both in Latin and Greek. His chief accomplishments,
+however, were music and painting, and on
+these his reputation mainly rests. He composed
+songs, which, like an Irish bard, he sang to the
+harp&mdash;the popular instrument of this Irish foundation.
+Being thus multifariously accomplished (he
+was, by the way, an excellent boxer), he was much
+in request, and by the permission of his abbot
+travelled to distant places. One of his celebrated
+sculptures was the image of the Blessed Virgin
+for the cathedral at Metz, said to be quite a
+masterpiece. Nay, he was even a mathematician
+and astronomer, and constructed an astrolabe or
+orrery, which showed the courses of the planets.</p>
+
+<p>This allusion to the astrolabe reminds us that
+it was Abbat Hartmut of St. Gallen, who was also
+an accomplished illuminator, who constructed a
+large map of the world&mdash;one of the extremely
+few that until that time the world had ever seen.</p>
+
+<p>St. Gallen and its artists, however, must not be
+permitted to monopolise our attention too long.
+The reader must for the rest refer to Dr. Rahn
+and the writers whom he quotes. Sometimes it
+<a name="Page_96" id="Page_96"></a>is said that the illuminations of the eleventh century
+are proofs of the rapid decline of art, and
+to demonstrate the fact that they are frankly
+hideous, some writers bring forward instances
+such as the miniatures of a Missal, especially a
+Crucifixion, said to be at Paris,<a name="FNanchor_1_22" id="FNanchor_1_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> and a MS. at
+Berlin said to have been executed in the earlier
+days of the Franconian dynasty (1034-1125) containing
+another Crucifixion, which, though not
+quite so horrible as the one just referred to, is
+sufficiently bad. These miniatures are irredeemably
+barbaric and not in any sense typical of the
+age. Such examples, in fact, can be found in any
+age and in any country. Were they really representative
+of the best art of the time, there might
+be an excuse for their reproduction, but they are
+not, and therefore no reliance can be placed on
+their evidence.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_22" id="Footnote_1_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> <i>Le Livre, etc.</i>, par M.P. Louisy, Paris, 1886, 8&deg;, p. 79.</p></div>
+
+<p>In the miniatures of MSS. executed for the
+Othos and Henrys of the early Saxon dynasty the
+worst they can be charged with, as compared
+with the periods before and after them, is slavish
+imitation. The portrait of Henry&nbsp;II. (Saint
+Henry, husband of Cunegunda) in MS. 40 at
+Munich is by no means barbaric&mdash;it is more Greek
+than anything else&mdash;but it is down to the smallest
+element of composition a direct imitation of the
+similar portrait of Charles the Bald in the
+Emmeram Gospels. It is not a copy, for there
+is a significant difference in the attitudes of the
+emperors. Henry holds a sceptre in his right
+hand and an orb in his left, like Otho&nbsp;III. in the
+<a name="Page_97" id="Page_97"></a>miniature already described, whereas Charles is
+empty handed. Then both on the Emperor's
+head and on the smaller figures the crowns are
+different&mdash;the panelling of the Imperial canopy is
+different, and, of course, there is a different inscription.
+Lastly, it may be said that some of the
+differences are improvements. Another change is
+characteristic&mdash;Charles was beardless, Henry has
+a pointed beard.</p>
+
+<p>It is true this is an example belonging to the
+very brightest years of the Othonian revival. But
+to pass over other Saxon MSS., there are extant
+examples from Evroul (when Roger de Warenne,
+son of the great Earl of Surrey, practised as a
+scribe and illuminator on his retirement to that
+monastery), St. Martin's of Tournay, St. Amand,
+Benedictbeuern, Lobbes, and Weissobrunn could all
+boast accomplished calligraphers. The last establishment
+produced the celebrated Diemudis, who,
+though a woman, was distinguished by a most
+extraordinary activity and skill.</p>
+
+<p>Nor are these all that could be named, for by
+no means least among them we may quote Monte
+Cassino, many of whose elegant productions have
+been published by the present occupants of the
+monastery. Then the Greek miniaturists of the
+eleventh century are once more to the front. The
+famous Slav Evangeliary of Ostromir (1056-67)
+shows us a MS. probably executed for a governor of
+Novgorod, which contains by no means despicable
+work, whether in the figures of the evangelists or
+the ornamental borders. Of course, in Greek
+MSS. we know pretty well what to expect; fairly
+<a name="Page_98" id="Page_98"></a>good ornament, rich details of embroidery, etc.,
+wilfulness of colour in architecture, mannerism in
+the attitudes and faces, but good, clever technic
+and bright gold.</p>
+
+<p>Lastly, there is the celebrated Evangeliary given
+to San Benedetto of Mantua by the Countess
+Matilda now in the Vatican, enriched with little
+miniatures from the Life of the Virgin, which
+Lanzi declares surpass everything else he ever
+saw of the same period.</p>
+
+<p>The Poitevin MS. at Poitiers, a biographical
+compilation of saints in honour of St. Radegonde,
+though nothing wonderful, is worth recording as
+a transitional example just before the close of the
+century. As an example of the latter part of a
+continual deterioration, it should be worse than
+anything preceding. Yet it is not so. It is certainly
+heavy and rather dull, and the drawing far
+from excellent, but it is also, on the other hand,
+far from &ldquo;frankly horrible.&rdquo; In introducing
+examples of other schools into this chapter the
+writer's object has solely been to vindicate the
+illuminators of the eleventh century from the
+sweeping charge sometimes made against them
+of absolute deterioration. Of the school directly
+under our notice, the charge is certainly not true,
+and the wretched stuff cited in support of it can
+only be looked upon as accidental salvages of no
+artistic value whatever.</p>
+
+<p>In proof that the book-work of the eleventh
+century was not all worthless, we may refer to
+just one example. It is a MS. consisting of but a
+few fragments executed at Luxeuil under Abbat
+<a name="Page_99" id="Page_99"></a>Gerard&nbsp;II. The remains are such as to cause
+regret for the loss of the rest. On one page
+Christ is shown seated on a rich <i>sella</i> covered with
+an embroidered cushion in the manner of the
+consular diptychs. He is clothed in a pale yellow
+tunic, over which is worn a purple pallium with a
+white border. He is beardless, and his brown
+hair is kept close to the head and neck, and falls
+over the shoulders. The feet are nude and by no
+means ill-drawn. Surrounding the head is a
+cruciform nimbus enclosed in a circle&mdash;both cross
+and circle being pale green, the latter outlined
+with red. The chief fault of the head is the
+excessive length of the nose and the wide stare
+of the eyes. The right arm is raised somewhat
+as in the St. Sernin Evangeliary, but with the
+palm outwards, and much superior in drawing.</p>
+
+<p>The whole figure is painted on, or at least surrounded
+by, a golden background&mdash;so far indicating
+the Byzantine origin of the design. It is
+enclosed in a cusped aureola formed of several
+coloured bands of green, violet, and rose. This
+shows German taste. Eight circlets or medallions
+surround this figure of Christ, four of which contain
+the symbols of the evangelists; the other
+four&mdash;Isaiah, Daniel, Ezechiel, and Jeremiah. All
+hold portions of the band which connects them,
+and on which appears a series of inscriptions in
+Latin. These consist of passages from the Vulgate.</p>
+
+<p>The whole picture is placed in a square frame
+consisting of bands of various colours and gold
+outlined in red. The inner ground is chiefly blue,
+<a name="Page_100" id="Page_100"></a>and the names of the prophets and evangelists
+are painted on it in white Roman capitals. Taken
+altogether it is a very splendid page, but even
+this is surpassed in gorgeous richness of ornament
+by the miniature of St. Mark. And the
+borders of other pages in this Luxeuil fragment
+are full of ornament, giving the impression that
+the work was imitated from that of the goldsmith
+and enameller. The figures and symbols of the
+evangelists in these early Gospel texts are fully
+explained after St. Jerome by Alcuin, whose revision
+of the Vulgate forms the text of the Durham
+Book already referred to.</p>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;Manual&rdquo; shortly to be mentioned differs
+somewhat in its explanation of these symbols.
+The curious combination called the &ldquo;Tetra
+morph&rdquo; is a compound of the four attributes
+or symbols into a single figure, to signify that
+the four evangelists give only one gospel, and
+ought not to be separated. It occurs frequently
+in Greek, but only seldom in Latin or Western
+iconography.<a name="FNanchor_1_23" id="FNanchor_1_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_23" id="Footnote_1_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> On this figure see <i>Annales Arch&eacute;ologiques</i>, tom. 8,
+p. 206, etc.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101"></a><a name="CHAPTER_XVI" id="CHAPTER_XVI"></a>CHAPTER XVI</h2>
+
+<h3>ARTISTIC EDUCATION IN THE CLOISTER</h3>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;Manual&rdquo;&mdash;Its discovery&mdash;Its origin and contents&mdash;Didron's
+translation&mdash;The &ldquo;Compendium&rdquo; of Theophilus&mdash;Its
+contents&mdash;English version by Hendrie&mdash;Benedictine
+and Cistercian illumination&mdash;How they differ&mdash;Character of
+monastic architects and artists.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">About</span> the twelfth century comes forward the
+mention of a certain manual minutely detailing
+every process of painting, and laying down
+rules for the due composition and arrangement of
+every subject to be represented in the sacred
+history and other books connected with divine
+service. How long such a manual had been in
+use is unknown, but it is thought that something
+of the kind must have existed from the time,
+at least, of Justinian, perhaps earlier. The
+manual here referred to was found by M. Didron
+at Sphigmenou, on Mt. Athos. This little
+monastery is said to have been founded by
+the Empress Pulcheria, sister of the Emperor
+Theodosius the Younger. She died in the year
+453. Theodosius, it may be remembered, was
+himself an admirable penman and illuminator,
+so much so as to have acquired the cognomen of
+Kalligr&aacute;phos.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102"></a>The monastery is built in a narrow valley by
+the seaside, between three little hills, and as it
+were &ldquo;squeezed&rdquo; in, and hence its name (in
+Greek &#963;&#966;&#953;&#947;&#956;&#941;&#957;&#959;&#962;), which describes its situation
+exactly. It is occupied by about thirty unusually
+neat and orderly monks, who are justly proud of
+the few relics and curiosities which they exhibit
+to visitors. It was at Sphigmenou that Curzon
+saw the piece of <i>ancient</i> jewellery set with diamonds
+and a Russian or Bulgarian MS. of the Gospels.</p>
+
+<p>The book which M. Didron found there is the
+copy of an older MS. which, it is said, was copied
+by Dionysius, one of the monks, from the works
+of the once celebrated master, Manuel Panselines
+of Thessalonica, who was the Giotto of the Byzantine
+school and flourished in the twelfth century.
+If by works the monk meant literary, it is most
+likely that it was the transcript of a still older
+document. If by works Dionysius meant paintings,
+it is a manual of his practice. One of his
+pupils, in order to propagate the art of painting
+which he had learnt at Thessalonica, writes down
+the series of subjects to be taken from the Bible,
+so as to epitomise the divine scheme of salvation,
+and describes the manner in which the events of
+the Old Testament, and the miracles and parables
+of the New, ought to be represented. He mentions
+the scrolls and inscriptions (such as we
+noticed in the Gospels of Luxeuil) belonging to
+each of the prophets and evangelists, with the
+names and characteristics of the principal saints
+in the order of the menologium or martyrology,
+and then goes on to direct how the subjects
+<a name="Page_103" id="Page_103"></a>should be arranged on the walls and cupolas of
+the churches.</p>
+
+<p>The Manual of Dionysius is an abstract of this
+wide scheme, but is still very comprehensive.
+The copy of it seen by Didron was one belonging
+to a monk of Sphigmenou named Joasaph, who
+was himself a painter. It was &ldquo;loaded with
+notes added by himself and his master, which in
+course of time would be incorporated, according
+to immemorial custom, in the text.&rdquo; In this way,
+indeed, the Manual has grown to what it is at
+present. A transcript of it may probably be
+found in every monastery belonging to the Greek
+Church. Another monk named Macarios, also a
+painter, had a fine copy of it laid open in his
+atelier, and his pupils read from it in turn, whilst
+the rest painted according to its directions. For
+the scheme itself we must refer the reader to the
+second volume of Didron's <i>Christian Iconography</i>,
+p. 193. Unfortunately the transcriber did not
+think it of sufficient importance or relevancy to
+copy the first part, as being purely technical and
+dealing merely with the art of painting. The
+scheme, therefore, only contains the part relating
+expressly to iconography. It is to be regretted,
+too, that this part also has been in some places
+considerably abridged, as dealing with Greek art
+and martyrology more copiously than, it was
+thought by the translator, would be interesting to
+English readers. There are numerous good and
+reliable introductory works dealing with early
+Christian art, besides the greater treatises to
+which the student who wants to pursue this line
+<a name="Page_104" id="Page_104"></a>of research shall be directed later on. But there
+is another of these original manuals to which we
+must call attention, as especially dealing with the
+practice of monastic artists in the twelfth and
+following centuries.</p>
+
+<p>The one to which we now refer is quite distinct
+from the Greek Manual which we just mentioned,
+and by way of contrast may be called the Latin
+Manual as being originally composed in that
+language. Moreover, as the Greek Manual formed
+the guide and <i>vade mecum</i> of all the painters of
+the Greek Church, so this Latin one became the
+indispensable monitor in all Latin foundations.
+Its origin was German, and said to be the compilation
+of a Benedictine monk who is variously spoken
+of as Rutgerius, Rugerius, Rotkerius, etc., and
+assigned by different editors and critics to either
+the eleventh, twelfth, or thirteenth centuries.
+Probably we shall not be far wrong in placing
+him about the middle of the twelfth. The treatise
+is known as <i>Diversarum Artium Schedula</i>, and
+the compiler of it calls himself simply <i>Theophilus
+presbiter humilis</i>, which, of course, records nothing
+but his personal modesty.</p>
+
+<p>It was at first attributed to Tuotilo of St. Gallen.
+This opinion was put forward by Lessing, but it
+had no foundation whatever beyond the fact of
+Tuotilo's well-known versatility.<a name="FNanchor_1_24" id="FNanchor_1_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> Besides, Tuotilo
+lived in the ninth century. But really the question
+of attributions does not concern us here. It
+<a name="Page_105" id="Page_105"></a>matters little who he was outside the Treatise,
+and certainly we shall not discuss the question
+further. It is with the Treatise that we are concerned.
+We shall simply call the author Theophilus,
+and his work the Compendium. Let us
+turn to it at once.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_24" id="Footnote_1_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> Tuotilo was renowned throughout all Germany as
+painter, architect, preacher, professor, musician, calligrapher,
+Latinist, Hellenist, sculptor, and astronomer.</p></div>
+
+<p>The Compendium, which is thus known to contain
+the working methods of all the monastic
+illuminators, mosaicists, glass painters, enamellers,
+and so forth, throughout Germany, Lombardy,
+and France, consists of three books, containing
+altogether one hundred and ninety-five chapters
+of definite and special instructions in artistic
+matters. Book&nbsp;I., comprising forty chapters,
+treats of the preparation, mixture, and use of
+colours for wall-painting, panel, and parchment,
+<i>i.e.</i> for the decoration of churches, furniture, and
+books. It contains some most curious and valuable
+instructions for the employment of gold,
+silver, and other metals in the decoration of
+MSS.; how it should be applied; whether in leaf
+or as an ink; how raised and burnished, down to
+the minutest details of practice; how colours are
+to be tempered (<i>i.e.</i> mixed); what <i>media</i> or temperings
+are best for each colour, according to
+the surface to which it is to be applied. Such is
+the Compendium. We need not, therefore, wonder
+at its popularity and the estimation in which
+it was held.</p>
+
+<p>Thirty-one chapters on glass, glass painting,
+enamelling, etc., form a second book, and the
+third and last book contains some hundred and
+twenty-four chapters on gold and silver work&mdash;<a name="Page_106" id="Page_106"></a>the
+art of the goldsmith&mdash;in cups, chalices, vases,
+candelabra, shrines, and so on. It is the first
+book that is of most interest to us, and had we
+space we would have liked to quote from its
+pages. But as it is we can only refer the reader
+to the work itself. It is to be met with in various
+forms and editions. First, we recommend the
+English translation by Robert Hendrie. The
+oldest MS. of the work is one of the twelfth
+century in the Library at Wolfenb&uuml;ttel. The next
+is in the Imperial Library at Vienna. Fragments
+of other copies exist in several other public
+libraries, but the completest copy known is that
+in the Harl.<a name="FNanchor_1_25" id="FNanchor_1_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> Collection of the British Museum
+used by Hendrie as the basis of his translation
+(8&deg;, 1847).</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_25" id="Footnote_1_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> 1 Harl. MS. 3915.</p></div>
+
+<p>It was, as we have said, in the eleventh and
+twelfth centuries especially that the great abbeys
+were founded. And it cannot be too clearly stated
+that the principal abbatial churches&mdash;those most
+splendid monuments of architecture whose structure
+and dimensions are still the admiration of
+the most cultured critics, and in which all the
+rules of art were so marvellously applied&mdash;were
+the work of simple monks. The great Church of
+St. Benignus at Dijon (so often spoken of by
+writers on Burgundian art) was built in 1001,
+under Abbat William, assisted by a young monk
+named Hunaldus. The period between 1031 and
+1060 saw the creation of the grand abbatial
+Church of St. Remi at Reims. In the words of
+the Comte de Montalembert: &ldquo;From the very
+<a name="Page_107" id="Page_107"></a>beginning of the Monastic Orders St. Benedict
+had provided in his Rule that there should be
+artists in the monasteries. He had imposed on
+the exercise of their art only one condition&mdash;humility.&rdquo;
+Hence it is that all we know of the
+author of the Compendium from himself is
+&ldquo;humilis presbiter Theophilus.&rdquo; For the same
+reason Tuotilo and Folchard and Sintramn and the
+rest are never anxious to put their names upon
+their work. For the same reason the occurrence
+of an artist's name in a monastic MS. is quite
+exceptional and unexpected. The foresight of
+St. Benedict &ldquo;was accomplished and his law
+faithfully fulfilled.&rdquo; The Benedictine monasteries
+soon possessed not only libraries but ateliers,
+where architecture, painting, mosaic, sculpture,
+metal-chasing, calligraphy, ivory carving, gem-setting,
+book-binding, and all the branches of
+ornamentation were studied and practised with
+equal care and success, without interfering in the
+least with the exact and austere discipline of the
+foundation. The teaching of these various arts
+formed an essential part of monastic education.
+&ldquo;The greatest and most saintly abbeys were precisely
+those most renowned for their zeal in the
+culture of Art. St. Gallen in Germany, Monte
+Cassino in Italy, Cluny in France, were for
+centuries the mother-cities of Christian Art.&rdquo;
+And after the establishment of the reformed
+colony at Citeaux, the Cistercian Order became
+the one above all others which has left the most
+perfect edifices, and if the Cistercian illumination
+may not claim the splendour of some contemporary
+<a name="Page_108" id="Page_108"></a>examples, it often excels them in soundness of
+design and severe correctness of execution.</p>
+
+<p>In saying that all this kind of work was executed
+by monks, we are speaking literally. The
+monks were not only the architects, but also the
+masons, and even the hodmen of their edifices.
+Nor were the superiors in this respect different
+from their humble followers. Whilst ordinary
+monks were often the architects-in-chief of the
+constructions, the abbats voluntarily accepted
+the r&ocirc;le of labourers. During the building of
+the Abbey of Bee, in 1033, the founder and first
+abbat, grand-seigneur though he was, worked
+as a common mason's labourer, carrying on his
+back the lime, sand, and stones necessary for
+the builder. This was Herluin. Another Norman
+noble, Hugh, Abbat of Selby in Yorkshire, when,
+in 1096, he rebuilt in stone the whole of that
+important monastery, putting on the labourer's
+blouse, mixed with the other masons and shared
+their labours. Monks, illustrious by birth, distinguished
+themselves by sharing the most menial
+occupations. It is related of Roger de Warenne
+that when he retired to Evroul, he took up quite
+a serious r&ocirc;le of this kind in cleaning the shoes
+of the brethren, and performing other offices
+which a mere cottager would have probably considered
+degrading.</p>
+
+<p>Occasionally in our school histories we come
+across the mention of a man like Dunstan, of
+whom it is related as a wonderful thing that he
+was at the same time a metal worker, architect,
+and calligrapher; but monastic biographies
+<a name="Page_109" id="Page_109"></a>abound in such instances. We have already
+quoted several. &ldquo;The same man was frequently,&rdquo;
+says Montalembert, &ldquo;architect, goldsmith, bell-founder,
+miniaturist, musician, calligrapher, organ
+builder, without ceasing to be theologian, preacher,
+litterateur, sometimes even bishop, or intimate
+counsellor of princes&rdquo;.<a name="FNanchor_1_26" id="FNanchor_1_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_26" id="Footnote_1_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> &ldquo;L'Art et les Moines,&rdquo; <i>Ann. Arch&eacute;ologiques</i>, t. vi. p. 121, etc.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110"></a><a name="CHAPTER_XVII" id="CHAPTER_XVII"></a>CHAPTER XVII</h2>
+
+<h3>THE RISE OF GOTHIC ILLUMINATION</h3>
+
+<p>Germany the chief power in Europe in the twelfth century&mdash;Rise
+of Italian influence&mdash;The Emmeram MSS.&mdash;Coronation
+of Henry&nbsp;II.&mdash;The Apocalypse&mdash;The
+&ldquo;Hortus Deliciarum&rdquo;&mdash;Romanesque&mdash;MS. of Henry the Lion&mdash;The
+Niederm&uuml;nster Gospels&mdash;Description of the MS.&mdash;Rise of
+Gothic&mdash;Uncertainty of its origin&mdash;The spirit of the age.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">In</span> the chapter on Othonian art we saw how the
+ornamentation of books was drawn away from
+the great French centres, and began to take a
+new departure from the various leading cities of
+Germany, such as Bamberg, which the Othos had
+made their capital. Whilst the decline, which
+was the inevitable consequence of a personal
+government like that of Charlemagne, took
+place in France, it was but natural that the new
+artistic movement at Bamberg should become the
+fashion, and Germany predominant in art, as
+she was in politics. In the twelfth century the
+German Empire was the principal power in
+Europe. France, Italy, England, and Spain
+were all more or less secondary. Italy, however,
+was already on the alert. She was initiating
+certain movements in social life that must soon
+withdraw the cultivation of all the arts from the
+control of the monasteries. At the same time
+<a name="Page_111" id="Page_111"></a>the love of learning and personal accomplishments
+of the second and third Othos and (St.)
+Henry&nbsp;II. soon prepared the Imperial Court to
+become as brilliant as classical scholarship and
+artistic skill of the highest class could make it.</p>
+
+<p>The wave of Byzantine influence which had
+passed over Germany by the time of Henry&nbsp;II.
+had immensely benefited the Germans. We
+notice it especially in the miniatures of the
+Gospel-books. The technic is much more masterly,
+the painting really methodical in soundly
+worked body-colour with a delicate sense of
+harmony, and showing no longer that coarse
+handling and slovenliness of execution that
+marks some of the Carolingian miniatures. In
+the figure a sense of proportion has been gained,
+the tendency, perhaps, being rather to excessive
+tallness, as compared with the thick-set proportions
+of the Carolingian work. Again, expression
+is improved&mdash;the faces are more intellectual&mdash;not
+beautiful but strong, and quite superior to the
+utterly expressionless faces of the Carolingian
+type.</p>
+
+<p>Take, for example, that fine Missal now at
+Munich (Cimel. 60&mdash;Lat. 4456), in which St.
+Henry, who is bearded, receives his crown from
+a bearded Christ, his arms being upheld by two
+bishops, Ulrich of Augsburg and Emmeram of
+Regensburg, the two great saints of Bavaria.
+We know these to be the personages represented,
+because two inscriptions tell us so. To the
+one supporting the King's right hand: &ldquo;Huius
+VODALRICVS cor regis signet et actus.&rdquo; To
+<a name="Page_112" id="Page_112"></a>the other: &ldquo;EMMERANVS ei faveat solamine
+dulci.&rdquo; The Christ is seated on a rainbow within
+a cusped aureola or &ldquo;amande&rdquo; of several bands
+of different colours, on the central one being inscribed
+in a mixture of Greek and Latin characters&mdash;one
+of the new fashions brought in by the
+Greek revival:</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span style="margin-left: -3.8em;">&ldquo;Clemens XPE tuo longum da vivere XPIC to:</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: -4.8em;">Ut tibi devotus non perdat temporis usus.&rdquo;</span></p>
+
+<p>Some writers have thought this to be a picture
+of the Emperor's apotheosis, and that the crown
+is that of Life or Immortality; but such is certainly
+not the import of the above verses.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span style="margin-left: -4.2em;">&ldquo;O gentle Christ give to thy Christ long to live</span><br />
+That devoted to Thee he may not lose the use of time.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Besides, two angels on either side Christ precipitately
+bestow on the Emperor the spear and
+sword of a temporal sovereignty. Round the
+Emperor are the words: &ldquo;Ecce coronatur divinitus
+atque beatur. Rex pius Heinricus proavorum
+stirp(e) polosus,&rdquo; all which can scarcely refer to
+anything but his German Empire.</p>
+
+<p>The expression, &ldquo;give to thy Christ,&rdquo; is an
+allusion to the Hebrew usage of calling the king
+the &ldquo;anointed&rdquo; or the &ldquo;Christ.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Besides the interest possessed by this MS. as
+a monument of the art of its own time, it has
+a special value resting in the fact that its illuminations
+were copied from the famous Emmeram
+Golden Gospels of Charles the Bald, written by
+Linthard and Berenger, and sent as a present to
+Regensburg. Another illumination in it, represent<a name="Page_113" id="Page_113"></a>ing
+the enthronement of the Emperor, is extremely
+interesting as showing how the later artist renders
+the work of the earlier one. The general composition
+is precisely the same, the lower figures
+in the same attitudes and bearing the same insignia.
+But in the details of costume, and in the
+significant position of the Emperor, there are
+alterations. In the miniature of the Emmeram
+Gospels the two angels above are simply winged
+messengers of the usual biblical type; in the
+Missal they are cloaked and crowned and bear
+horns in their hands. In the older MS. the two
+crowned figures with horns on either side wear
+simple mural crowns; in the later one they are
+regal like those of the Emperor. The details also
+of the canopies are different. But the remarkable
+difference is that while Charles the Bald is beardless
+and bears nothing in his hands, merely sitting
+as if addressing an assembly, Henry&nbsp;II. holds
+in his right hand a sceptre and in his left an orb
+and cross. Here is a distinctly new feature with
+a meaning. Here are the symbols of authority
+in the Emperor's own hands, and not merely in
+those of his attendants.<a name="FNanchor_1_27" id="FNanchor_1_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> These two MSS. are
+worthy of careful study.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_27" id="Footnote_1_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> See p. 92.</p></div>
+
+<p>In another Missal in the library at Bamberg is
+a miniature of the Emperor presenting the book
+to the Virgin. In the great Evangeliary presented
+by the Emperor Henry&nbsp;II. to the Cathedral of
+Bamberg there is a grand picture of the Emperor
+and his consort the famous saint Cunegunda being
+crowned by Christ, with SS. Peter and Paul stand<a name="Page_114" id="Page_114"></a>ing
+at the sides. Here also, as in the Carolingian
+MS. already mentioned, are the nations bringing
+tribute, but not in the same order. Here Germany
+stands upright between two figures of Gaul and
+Rome, while six others appear simply as busts
+(Munich, Cimel. 60. 4456).</p>
+
+<p>The twelfth century was clearly much given to
+symbolism and allegory, as shown in apocalyptic
+commentaries and similar works. A very remarkable
+&ldquo;Apocalypse&rdquo; is that in the library of the
+Marquis d'Astorga. The latter is remarkably rich
+in pictures, which have been described by M.A.
+Bachelin of Paris. The drawing in these pictures
+reminds one of the bas-reliefs of the campaigns
+of Hadrian and Trajan and other work of the
+early Roman centuries. One hundred and ten
+miniatures of uncommon interest constitute the
+illustrations, many of which are perfect curiosities
+of symbolism, depicting not only the four figures
+of the evangelists, but the mysteries of the seals
+and vials, serpents, beasts, etc., on yellow, red,
+green, blue, and brown backgrounds. The draperies
+in some of the miniatures show Byzantine
+teaching, but with the grandiose style of the early
+Roman times. The MS. it might be compared
+with of the twelfth century is the &ldquo;Hortus Deliciarum&rdquo;
+of the Abbess Herrade. This latter
+MS., which unfortunately was burnt with many
+other treasures during the siege of Strassburg by
+the Germans in 1870, was a veritable treasury of
+medi&aelig;val customs, furniture, and costumes, illustrating
+a medley of encyclop&aelig;dic information for
+the use of the nuns and secular students of the
+<a name="Page_115" id="Page_115"></a>Abbey of Hohenburg in Alsace. The good abbess
+called her book a &ldquo;Garden of Delights.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>It is known that it dated from 1159, as that
+date and also the date of 1175 occurred in its pages.
+We do not know whether the authoress was also
+the illuminatrix, but at any rate she directed the
+illumination. Their style is of the same type as
+that of the Apocalypse just spoken of, somewhat
+monumental as figures of the Liberal Arts, allegorical
+figures of the virtues and vices, and the
+syrens as symbols of sensual temptation. There
+was a figure of the Church riding upon a beast
+with the four heads of the evangel-symbols&mdash;the
+sun and moon in chariots as in the classical mythology,
+and scenes of warfare, marriage festivities,
+banquets, everything indeed depicting the life of
+contemporary persons.<a name="FNanchor_1_28" id="FNanchor_1_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> The drawing and treatment
+generally is of no very skilful kind&mdash;the
+colouring bright and in body-colour. Draperies
+as usual much folded and fluttering, and the heads
+generally of the calm expression of the later French
+school, but the action sometimes very spirited.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_28" id="Footnote_1_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> For a copious and exhaustive account of the &ldquo;Hortus,&rdquo;
+see &ldquo;Het Gildeboek,&rdquo; Utrecht, 1877, v. i. Also Engelhardt,
+Herrad v. H., etc., 8&deg;, with atlas of twelve plates,
+1818.</p></div>
+
+<p>The title began thus: &ldquo;Incipit hortus deliciarum,
+in quo collectis floribus scripturarum assidue
+jucundetur turmula adolescentularum.&rdquo; In the
+<i>Rhytmus</i> came the lines:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center">&ldquo;Salve cohors virginum<br />
+<span style="margin-left: -1.2em;">Hohenburgensium</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: -1em;">Albens quasi lilium</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: -1.7em;">Amans dei filium</span><br />
+<a name="Page_116" id="Page_116"></a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: -0.9em;">Herrat devotissima</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: -2.4em;">Tua fidelissima</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: -1.4em;">Mater et ancillula</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: -1.1em;">Cantat tibi cantica</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: -2.1em;">Sic et liber utilis</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: -2.15em;">Tibi delectabilis</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.2em;">Et non cesses volvere</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.2em;">Hanc in tuo pectore.&rdquo;</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>In the Netherlands, which mostly at this time
+lay within the boundary of Lotharingia or Lorraine,
+the style of illumination was much the same
+as in other German districts. Gospel-books and
+Psalters, however, exhibit features somewhat akin
+to English work.</p>
+
+<p>In the eleventh and twelfth centuries the continental
+methods prevail in more solid painting
+and less penwork.</p>
+
+<p>Of the twelfth-century work of Germany examples
+are exceedingly numerous, stretching over
+every province from West to East, as Westphalia,
+the Palatinate, Burgundy, Switzerland and Bavaria,
+extending even into Bohemia. An Evangeliary in
+the University Library at Prag agrees altogether
+with those of Germany.</p>
+
+<p>Towards the middle of the twelfth century, with
+the accession of the House of Hohenstaufen
+(1138, etc.), arose a new style, since called Romanesque,
+of which many examples are to be found
+in various libraries. It is not very easy to select
+the most typical examples, but one good and
+typical MS. is found in a Gospel-book at Carlsruhe,
+which contains some capital miniatures of
+this most thoroughly German style.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117"></a>Under Frederick Barbarossa, as under the Caroling
+Emperors and the Othos, we may note a wave
+of new life, especially in Saxony. A contrast as
+regards artistic ability to the &ldquo;Hortus Deliciarum&rdquo;
+is the Gospel-book executed for Henry the Lion
+at the convent of Helmershausen, once in the
+Cathedral Library at Prag, and bought by King
+George of Hanover.<a name="FNanchor_1_29" id="FNanchor_1_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> In the page of the Eusebian
+Canons we see features which take us across the
+plains of Lombardy to the doors of S. Michele of
+Pavia, and to the churches of Venice. The columns
+rest on crouching animals. Allegorical figures
+are introduced striving with each other as in the
+later Gothic illuminations. A half-nude figure of
+Faith vanquishes the champion of Paganism.
+On the dedication page sits the Madonna with
+SS. John Baptist and Bartholomew, and below
+them the patron saints of Brunswick, Blaize, and
+Egidius leading forth the Duke and his wife,
+Mathilda. It may indeed be called a splendid
+book. Among the rest of the pictures, some of
+them within richly decorated borders, occurs
+the usual representation of the Duke and his
+Duchess receiving crowns. The figures are well
+drawn, even elegant, the draperies good, and the
+colouring skilful.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_29" id="Footnote_1_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> See F. Culemann in <i>Neue hannov. Zeitung</i>, 1861,
+Nos. 22-4.</p></div>
+
+<p>One of the many characteristic MSS. of this
+period to be seen in continental libraries is the
+&ldquo;Mater Verborum&rdquo; of the monk Conrad, of
+Scheyern in Bavaria, a noted scribe, illuminator,
+goldsmith, and grammarian. The subject is one
+<a name="Page_118" id="Page_118"></a>that scarcely gives promise of lending itself to
+pictorial illustration, but after the successful
+attempts of Theodulf we may be prepared for
+anything in the way of diagram and symbol.
+Imagine a dictionary in which not only actual
+objects are pictorially represented, but also
+abstract terms. Music, philosophy, virtues and
+vices illustrated by historical instances&mdash;sacred
+subjects treated in the manner of the glass
+painters which is so commonly found in German
+and French work of this period.</p>
+
+<p>Of twelfth-century illumination in general it
+may be said that it shows a marked effort towards
+true artistic design and subtle beauty of linear
+outline. Some of the noblest curve-drawing,
+with rich and massive grouping of foliages, is
+to be found in the ornamental initials and dignified
+border designs presented on the later examples
+of the century, and it is very interesting
+to observe the rapid pace at which the climax
+is reached in mere calligraphic ornament after the
+opening of the Gothic period. Initials become
+smaller but exquisitely drawn, and reasonable
+expression takes the place of the senseless stare
+or grotesque exaggeration of attitude and feature
+which detract from the artistic value of all preceding
+efforts. To conclude our list of German
+illuminations of purely monastic production, we
+will bring forward one more example of women's
+work, which whether as regards its curious illustrations
+of symbolism, or its richly foliaged geometrical
+backgrounds and borders, is one of the
+most interesting MSS. in any collection. It is the
+<a name="Page_119" id="Page_119"></a>Evangeliary of the Abbess Uota, or perhaps,
+rather, Tuota of Niederm&uuml;nster, a lady of the
+House of the Counts of Falckenstein (1177-80);
+or of Utta, abbess from 1009 to 1012, but more
+probably the former. Another, Tutta, ruled the
+abbey from 920 to 934, and still another 1239-42.
+This precious MS., which Cahier has very
+fully described as the &ldquo;Manuscrit du Niedermuenster
+de Ratisbonne,&rdquo; is now in the Royal
+Library at Munich (Cimel. 35). Some writers,
+in speaking of it, have classed it among the MSS.
+of the eleventh century, but it is too refined and
+too well done for that period, and, indeed, that it
+belongs to the <i>latter part</i> of the twelfth is almost
+proved from the work itself. Perhaps it was the
+profusion of inscriptions or legends placed all
+over the miniatures that gave the idea of its
+belonging to the eleventh century. In this
+respect the MS. certainly resembles the Evangeliary
+of Luxeuil already described. The miniature
+of the Crucifixion is very remarkable.
+Besides the figure of Christ showing a return to
+the primitive Syriac idea,<a name="FNanchor_1_30" id="FNanchor_1_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> instead of the figures
+as usual of Mary and John, here are given
+allegorical figures <i>of</i> Life and Death. (Cf. Fest.
+in exaltatione sce crucis. Ad Laudes, 14th
+Sept.). Perhaps the best commentary on these
+old figures is the &ldquo;Biblia Pauperum,&rdquo; as it is
+commonly called, or as it should be called, the
+Bible of the poor preachers. It also has the old
+allegories and inscriptions rendered into later
+forms.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_30" id="Footnote_1_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> Cf. the Rabula MS. at Vienna.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120"></a>As for the texts or inscriptions, they would
+require a commentary to themselves&mdash;not to
+speak of translations and remarks upon the
+calligraphy. One of these remarkable miniatures
+may be described, as it depicts the presentation
+of the volume to the Madonna. Our Lady
+in the centre of the design is seated on a Byzantine
+<i>sedile</i> with the infant Jesus on her knees.
+She is crowned, and has the nimbus, and appears
+as if intended to represent the glory of the
+Church. Her hand is raised as in the act of
+teaching. Christ, also, has the nimbus, but with
+the cross upon it, and raises his hand in the attitude
+of benediction. In the tympanum of the
+semicircle over the Madonna, written in letters
+of gold on purple, surrounded by the word
+&ldquo;Sancta&rdquo; in ordinary ink, is the monogram of
+Maria, having a small sun and moon above it,
+and other inscriptions, partly Latin, partly Greek.
+Below the Madonna, on the left, stands the
+abbess, her knees slightly bent, holding up her
+book, and clothed in the costume of her Order,
+but coloured, no doubt, simply for artistic reasons.
+Thus she wears a blue veil and a claret-coloured
+robe. In the reversed semicircle before her is
+another monogram, Uota or Tuota, a name
+which perhaps may be translated Uta, Utta, Ida,
+etc. It has been said already who she is likely
+to have been. It does not follow, of course, that
+she herself wrote or illuminated the book she
+is presenting, but judging from similar instances,
+as <i>e.g.</i> Herrade of Landsberg and Hrosvita of
+Gandersheim, she may have done so.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121"></a>Still the work looks technically too masterly for
+anyone not a trained artist to have done. In the
+corners are small quadretti, containing busts of
+the four cardinal virtues:&mdash;Prudence, Justice,
+Temperance, and Fortitude; and in circlets in
+the centre of each border are Faith, Hope, and
+Charity, the latter twice, at top and bottom. A
+number of extraordinary beasts fill up little niches
+in the design, which may possibly be also symbolical,
+but possibly also nothing but artistic fancies.
+The other miniatures we must pass over. Nevertheless
+those representing the four evangelists are
+worth examination;<a name="FNanchor_1_31" id="FNanchor_1_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> the ornamentation being
+especially rich and elaborate. Let us now turn
+our attention to a new element&mdash;a new spirit we
+might term it&mdash;which was manifesting itself in
+Italy and France. We cannot too strongly insist
+upon the fact that whatever appears in illumination
+has appeared first in architecture and its
+auxilliary arts. Now we have to see how this fact
+begins to change almost entirely the character of
+the ornamentation of books. During the latter
+part of the twelfth century, when precisely we
+cannot say, nor where, a new form of architecture
+began to show itself. This new style, laying aside
+both the classic cornice and the Romanesque arch,
+makes use of a new vertical principle of construction,
+called in French the <i>ogive</i> or arch, composed
+of two sections only, instead of the whole semicircle.
+By some fatality, of which no exact
+explanation can be given, English writers have
+<a name="Page_122" id="Page_122"></a>given this new style the name of Gothic. Scores
+of cathedrals throughout Europe are called
+Gothic cathedrals, whereas in all probability, if
+we exclude Sweden, there is only one really
+Gothic building in the world, that is the Tomb
+of Theodoric at Ravenna, and none of the so-called
+Gothic cathedrals are in the least like it.
+As to the invention itself, it has been claimed by
+almost every nationality in Europe. There can
+be no doubt that accidentally, or otherwise, the
+pointed arch had been used often enough without
+any idea of its adoption as a principle of construction
+even in ancient buildings. The famous
+gate at Myc&#339;ne is one instance. This is not the
+place to discuss the question, so we let it pass.
+We could point out long and elaborate arguments
+intended to prove that it originated in England&mdash;that
+it originated in France&mdash;in Germany.<a name="FNanchor_2_32" id="FNanchor_2_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a>
+Possibly they may all be right in a sense, for
+most probably the origin was not in any particular
+locality, but in the religious spirit of the
+time. It was a general revival of the Church
+itself that was its cause. If any special locality
+has more reason on its side than another, it is
+probably France, but as we say, that is not an
+essential point. It must suffice us here that it
+arose, and that by the end of the twelfth century
+it was a fact. And the remarkable part about it
+is that it was by the influence of lay artists and
+especially of the freemasons that it became the
+accepted architecture of Christendom.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_31" id="Footnote_1_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> For more about them, see Cahier, <i>M&eacute;langes d'Arch&eacute;ologie,
+etc.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_32" id="Footnote_2_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> Not to mention <i>theories</i>, which are endless.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123"></a><a name="BOOK_II" id="BOOK_II"></a><span class="smcap">BOOK II</span></h2>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="II_CHAPTER_I" id="II_CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I</h2>
+
+<h3>THE GOLDEN AGE OF ILLUMINATION</h3>
+
+<p>The Gothic spirit&mdash;A &ldquo;Zeitgeist&rdquo; not the invention of a single
+artist nor of a single country&mdash;The thirteenth century the
+beginning of the new style&mdash;Contrast between North and
+South, between East and West, marked in the character of
+artistic leaf-work&mdash;Gradual development of Gothic foliage&mdash;The
+bud of the thirteenth century, the leaf of the fourteenth,
+and the flower of the fifteenth&mdash;The Freemasons&mdash;Illumination
+transferred from the monastery to the lay workshop&mdash;The
+Psalter of St. Louis&mdash;Characteristics of French Gothic
+illumination&mdash;Rise of the miniature as a distinct feature&mdash;Guilds&mdash;Lay
+artists.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">We</span> have now reached the parting of the
+ways. The study of Nature is fast superseding
+the dogmas of the monastic code, and
+what some writers have characterised as the
+hieratic is giving way to the naturalistic treatment
+of art. Like the pointed architecture itself, it is
+an outcome of the spirit of the age. Exactly
+when it begins we cannot say. As in the physical
+sciences, our limits are necessarily somewhat
+arbitrary to suit our convenience in classification.
+We take the beginning of the thirteenth century
+as a convenient dividing line between old and new.
+We accept it as the boundary between the artistic
+<a name="Page_124" id="Page_124"></a>sway of the East and South&mdash;and that of the
+West and North&mdash;between the lifeless fetters of
+prescription and the living freedom of invention.
+The contrast between the two is very strongly
+marked. The soft and curling foliages of the
+sunny South are for a season giving way to the
+hard and thorny leafage of the wintry North. It
+would seem as if pointed architecture began with
+the hard and frozen winter of its existence, and if
+it had been the plan or design of one individual
+we might have accepted this peculiarity as part of
+the scheme, and all that followed as a natural
+consequence and development. But it is curious
+that as a system worked out by many minds
+pointed architecture should thus begin. First
+come thorns and cusps and lanceolate forms without
+foliage. Then, not perfect leaves, but buds.
+In due time the bud opens, at first into the profile
+coil, and by-and-by into the full-spread leaf.
+Then comes the flower, and finally the fruit.
+After that, rottenness and decay. It is curious
+that this should actually take place through a
+course of centuries. That it should be reflected
+in book illumination is simply the usual order of
+things&mdash;the fact has been frequently observed,
+and as it is curious, we call attention to it. But,
+as we have said, the great change itself was
+brought about by the influence of lay artists, and
+chiefly by the freemasons.</p>
+
+<p>Who and what the freemasons were everybody
+is supposed to know, but on inquiry we find very
+few people indeed know anything definite about
+them. Of course we do not refer to the friendly
+<a name="Page_125" id="Page_125"></a>societies or social guilds that now bear the name,
+but to the medi&aelig;val builders. &ldquo;Everybody
+knows,&rdquo; says Batissier,<a name="FNanchor_1_33" id="FNanchor_1_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> &ldquo;that the study of the
+sciences and of literature and the practice of the
+various branches of art took refuge in the
+monasteries during the irruptions of the barbarians
+and the strife of international war. In
+those retreats, not only painting, sculpture, engraving
+on metals, and mosaic, but also architecture
+were cultivated. If the question arose
+about building a church, it was nearly always an
+ecclesiastic who furnished the plan and monks
+who carried out the works under his direction.
+The brethren in travelling from convent to convent
+naturally exercised a reciprocal influence
+over each other. We conceive, then, that the
+abbeys of any given Order would put in vogue
+the same style, and that the art would be modified
+under certain points of view, in the same manner
+in each country.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_33" id="Footnote_1_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> <i>Hist. de l' Art Monumental</i>, p. 466, Paris, 1845, I. 8&deg;.</p></div>
+
+<p>&ldquo;It is certain, moreover, that outside the
+cloisters there were also troops of workmen not
+monastics, who laboured under the direction of
+the latter.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Masons were associated among them in the
+same way as other trade corporations. It was
+the same with these corporations in the South
+as with the communes&mdash;the <i>d&eacute;bris</i> of the Roman
+organisation; they took refuge in the Church,
+and had arrived at a condition of public life and
+independence, when order was established between
+the commune, the Seignory, and the Church.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126"></a>&ldquo;During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries
+these corporations were organised into recognised
+fraternities having their own statutes, but there
+is abundant evidence of their having a much
+earlier existence.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;A great number of masons were trained in
+Italy, and came from Lombardy, which in the
+tenth century even was an active centre of
+civilisation. Italy had its corporations of masons
+called <i>maestri comaccini</i>, enjoying exclusive privileges,
+who, having passed the different degrees of
+apprenticeship, became 'accepted'<a name="FNanchor_1_34" id="FNanchor_1_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> masons, and
+had the right of exercising their profession wherever
+they might be. The sovereigns of different
+countries granted them special privileges, and
+the popes protected them in all Catholic countries
+where they might travel. Thus the lodges grew
+and prospered. The Greek artists who had fled
+from Constantinople during the various Iconoclast
+persecutions had got themselves enrolled in the
+ranks of the freemasons, and taught their fellow-masons
+their Byzantine methods.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_34" id="Footnote_1_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> German &ldquo;angenommen.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Speedily these corporations spread through
+France, England, and Germany, where they were
+employed almost exclusively by the religious
+Orders, in building their churches and conventual
+buildings.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>While, therefore, the general plan and rules of
+construction were common to all members of the
+fraternity, the details were almost entirely left,
+under regulations, to the individual taste of
+certain members of each band of workmen, who,
+<a name="Page_127" id="Page_127"></a>being all qualified artists, were quite capable of
+putting in execution, and with masterly skill, any
+such minuti&aelig; of ornament as might be left to
+their discretion.<a name="FNanchor_1_35" id="FNanchor_1_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> Local illuminators would thus
+speedily get hold of every novelty, and the page
+of the Psalter or Bible would become, as a
+French writer has explained it, a <i>vitrail sur velin</i>.
+If not indeed exclusively following the stained
+glass, they copied the mural decorations, and so
+we find the backgrounds of the miniatures,
+whether fitted into the initials or placed separately
+in framed mouldings, faithfully reproducing the
+imbrications, <i>carrelages</i>, panellings, and diapers
+of these mural enrichments.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_35" id="Footnote_1_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a>
+Governor Pownall (&ldquo;Observations on the Origin and
+Progress of Gothic Architecture, and on the Corporation
+of Freemasons,&rdquo; <i>Arch&aelig;ologia</i>, 1788, vol. 9, pp. 110-126)
+was of opinion that &ldquo;the Collegium or Corporation of
+Freemasons, were the first formers of Gothic architecture
+into a regular and scientific order by applying the models
+and proportions of timber framework to building in stone,&rdquo;
+and that this method &ldquo;came into use and application about
+the close of the twelfth or commencement of the thirteenth
+century.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>See also Gould (R.F.), <i>History of Freemasonry</i>, vol. i.
+p. 259, note. &ldquo;Without going so far as to agree with
+Governor Pownall that the Freemasons invented Gothic, it
+may be reasonably contended that without them it could not
+have been brought to perfection, and without Gothic they
+would not have stood in the peculiar and prominent position
+that they did, that there was mutual indebtedness, and
+while without Freemasons there would have been no
+Gothic...without Gothic the Freemasons would have
+formed but a very ordinary community of trades unionists.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<p>To select an example of Gothic illumination
+which shall exemplify the earliest features of the
+<a name="Page_128" id="Page_128"></a>pointed style is not an easy matter, notwithstanding
+the number of thirteenth-century MSS. which
+still exist in public collections. In the National
+Library at Paris are several such MSS. One that
+decidedly marks the change from the German
+work hitherto in vogue is the Psalter of St. Louis
+(Nat. Lib., Paris., Lat. 10525), which contains
+nearly eighty small, delicately executed miniatures.
+It was completed about 1250. Its noticeable features
+are a vastly improved dexterity in draughtsmanship,
+which displays a refined certainty of
+touch, enabling the artist to express his intention
+with unhesitating freedom. The drawing thus
+produced in outline is filled in with flat tints of
+body-colour, without gradation or any attempt at
+brush-work shading. Whatever finishing in this
+respect might be thought necessary was added
+with the pen. Nothing could show more clearly
+that it is simply and frankly imitative of stained
+glass. As in the glass the black outline is left
+for definition. No colour is used on hands of
+faces except a slight touch of red on the cheeks
+and lips. The prevailing colours are rich blue
+and bright scarlet. Perhaps the illuminator would
+have been better advised had he neglected some
+of the harder features of this kind of work. Not
+considering that the limits of the glass painter
+did not apply to his vellum, he fettered himself
+unnecessarily, and instead of a picture he has only
+succeeded in producing a surface enamel, or a
+mere reticulation of surface-patterns. This very
+defect has by some writers been held up to
+admiration as the true perfection of all illumina<a name="Page_129" id="Page_129"></a>tion.
+Its flatness was applauded because it had
+to be shut up in a book, and was therefore the
+only appropriate way of making a picture for such
+a purpose. But whoever would dream that
+because a picture, painted in due perspective and
+proper light and shade, was to be shut up in a
+book that the figures represented in relief would
+actually be crushed. Such reasoning is most
+puerile. The supposed parallel case of a carpet
+or hearth-rug representing groups of flowers&mdash;even
+if the latter ever did deceive the domestic cat&mdash;does
+not in the least affect the most childish conception
+of a picture in a book. We see it in a
+scene in light and shade, we enjoy and admire its
+reliefs, but at the same time we know it is a
+picture, and that it is quite flat. The two tests of
+knowledge never interfere with each other. To
+suppose they do is to suppose a case of imbecility
+that even a lunatic must laugh to scorn. So far,
+therefore, we think the illuminator mistaken in
+slavishly copying the limitations of the glass-painter.
+It is no very great knowledge of nature
+that is shown in these drawings. There is a good
+example of the method of study followed by
+thirteenth-century artists in the sketch-book of a
+French mason named Villars de Honnecourt,
+still kept in the National Library at Paris.<a name="FNanchor_1_36" id="FNanchor_1_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> In
+this book the artist has made drawings, as he says,
+from the life&mdash;some are views, others drawings
+of objects of art; one represents a lion of the
+medi&aelig;val heraldic type, yet the artist assures us
+<a name="Page_130" id="Page_130"></a>it is from the life. But there is no real accuracy,
+everything is done with reference to some canon.
+It is, however, quite free from the Byzantine influence,
+though by no means free from a certain tincture
+of symbolism. The nude is rarely attempted,
+but when it is it is certainly less ugly than in Carolingian
+and Romanesque. To return to the Psalter&mdash;the
+style of the figures is rather graceful, attitudes
+are gentle and modest, though the inclination
+of head and body are such as to suggest
+a sort of undulatory movement in walking that
+is scarcely natural. The forms are slender, and
+the limbs occasionally beyond the owner's control&mdash;sometimes
+even deformed. The feet are small
+and weak&mdash;now and then over-twisted. The hands
+more delicate than formerly, especially when open.
+Faces are gently oval and sometimes expressive.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_36" id="Footnote_1_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> It has been published as the Album of V. de H., Paris,
+1858.</p></div>
+
+<p>Sometimes the &ldquo;histories&rdquo; are placed in initial
+letters, the grounds of which, when not of burnished
+gold, consist of imitations of mural <i>carrelages</i>,
+chequers, etc., or rich enamelled patterns
+imitative of engraved traceries on metal. In other
+cases they are placed in frame-mouldings, consisting
+of a bar or beading of gold supporting
+an inner bar of coloured and polished wood or
+enamel work&mdash;the polish being represented by a
+fine line of white along the centre. For illustrations
+of this precious volume the reader may refer
+to Labarte, <i>Hist. des Arts industriels</i>, album,
+pl. 92 (Paris, 1864).</p>
+
+<p>Now that the monasteries had ceased to be the
+exclusive nurseries of art and literature, the
+masters of the different arts and crafts usually
+<a name="Page_131" id="Page_131"></a>belonged to the middle classes of the towns,
+where at first each art or craft had its own
+fraternity, and as the idea of trade-association
+crew, the crafts most nearly related would form
+a guild or corporation. All who joined these
+corporations bound themselves to work only as
+the ruler of the guild permitted. Nor were outsiders
+allowed to compete with them in their own
+branches, so exclusive was the protection of the
+guild.</p>
+
+<p>Each confraternity had its altar in some particular
+church, whose patron saint became the protector
+of the guild. And indeed the constitution of the
+guild included even political rights and obligations&mdash;military
+service among the rest, like other feudal
+institutions. Each town had its own special corporations,
+which thus led to the formation of
+separate schools of art; while travelling apprenticeships
+gave the opportunity to all of acquiring
+knowledge not accessible at home. Members
+were accustomed to travel and to attach themselves
+to the service of various princes, receiving
+appointments as &ldquo;varlets&rdquo; or &ldquo;escripvains&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;enlumineurs,&rdquo; which sometimes obliged them
+to resign their membership. Occasionally they
+became political agents and even ambassadors.</p>
+
+<p>It will be remembered that, some pages back,
+we noticed the fact that in Western illumination
+generally the design of the page depended upon
+the initial letter, or that at least the initial was
+the principal object of it. In the thirteenth century,
+although the initial had very much diminished
+in size, the same principle still prevailed. The
+<a name="Page_132" id="Page_132"></a>letter itself was formed of some fabulous long-necked
+and long-tailed animal or bird, mostly a
+dragon as conceived by the medi&aelig;val artist. The
+head framed more or less on that of the mastiff
+or lion, or both; the legs of a bird of prey; the
+body and tail of a serpent; wings of heraldic
+construction to suit the form of the letter. While
+the body of this unspeakable beast formed the
+body of the letter, the tail was indefinitely extended
+to sweep down the margin of the text and
+round the base of it, so as to form a border,
+while not unfrequently slender branches would
+spring from it to form coils here and there ending
+in a kind of flower-bud, the extremity of the tail
+forming a similar coil. Very soon, however, the
+animal form was abandoned, and the letter made
+simply as a decorated initial or capital. If possible,
+one of its limbs was made to sweep up and
+down the &ldquo;margin&rdquo; and along the bottom or top
+as before. Where the interior is not occupied by
+a &ldquo;history,&rdquo; we find coiled stems ending in profile
+leaves or buds.</p>
+
+<p>At the same time the text has diminished in
+size, sometimes down to dimensions no greater
+than those of an ordinary printed book of to-day,
+but often beautiful and regular as the clearest
+printing. Such a book is the Bible written by a
+certain William of Devon, now in the British
+Museum (Roy. MS. 1 D. 1). A description of
+this beautiful MS. may be seen in <i>Bibliographica</i>,
+vol. i. p. 394, written by Sir E.M. Thompson.
+Here, though the writing is that of an Englishman,
+the style is completely French.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133"></a>Another MS. deserving of study is a richly
+illuminated Bible now in the Burney Collection of
+our National Library (No. 3). Another, which,
+owing to its being recommended for study by the
+late John Ruskin, was once known as the Ruskin
+Book, is Add. MS. 17341, which contains many
+fine initials with border and bracket foliages
+similar to those of the Evangeliary of the Sainte
+Chapelle, now in the National Library, Paris
+(MS. Lat. 17326). Both the MSS. show the contemporary
+peculiarity of presenting Bible characters,
+excepting divine personages, apostles, and
+evangelists in ordinary local costume. Paris, of
+course, is the city where most, and perhaps the
+best, of these MSS. are preserved; but those
+named above, in London, are also among the
+finest known examples.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134"></a><a name="II_CHAPTER_II" id="II_CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II</h2>
+
+<h3>RISE OF NATIONAL STYLES</h3>
+
+
+<p>The fourteenth century the true Golden Age of Gothic illumination&mdash;France
+the cradle of other national styles&mdash;Netherlandish,
+Italian, German, etc.&mdash;Distinction of schools&mdash;Difficulty
+of assigning the <i>provenance</i> of MSS.&mdash;The reason
+for it&mdash;MS. in Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge&mdash;The Padua
+Missal&mdash;Artists' names&mdash;Whence obtained.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Through</span> the thirteenth century is the epoch
+of the Gothic renaissance, it is the fourteenth
+to which really belongs the title of the Golden
+Age. The style of work remains precisely the
+same, only it grows. It changes from the bud to
+the leaf. It casts off the severity and much of the
+restraint of its earlier character. To the grace
+of youth it adds beauty, the beauty of adolescence.
+To fourteenth-century illumination we can give
+no higher praise than that it is beautiful. Not,
+indeed, because of its deliberate limitations, but
+in spite of them. For after ages have taught us
+that if in pure ornament and resplendent decorative
+completeness the pages of the fourteenth
+century cannot be surpassed, in miniature historiation
+it must take a second place. The skilled
+illuminators of the later schools are the masters
+of the mere picture. For surely no judge of art
+<a name="Page_135" id="Page_135"></a>could possibly assert that the miniatures of the
+Grunani Breviary or of the Brera Graduals as
+miniatures are inferior to those of the Psalter of
+St. Louis, the Berry Bible, or the Prayer-book
+of Margaret of Bavaria. Yet these are typical
+MSS. of the highest rank. Hence we say that
+while the illumination of the Golden Age of the
+art was beautiful, it was not absolutely perfect.
+It is not to be taken by modern students as the
+only possible model or basis simply because it
+was the best of its kind. There is no such
+despotism in art. To those who think it the only
+possible form of book decoration, let it be so by
+all means, but we may as well hope to clothe our
+soldiers in chain or plate armour, and send the
+elite of our nobility on another crusade to Jerusalem,
+or satisfy our universities with the <i>quod
+libets</i> and <i>quiddities</i> of the <i>trivium</i> and <i>quadrivium</i>,
+as hope to make popular to the England of the
+twentieth century the artistic tastes of the fourteenth.
+We indulge in no such dreams. If we
+are to have illuminated books, our own age must
+invent them. The illuminators of the Bibles,
+Romances, Mirrors, and Chronicles of the fourteenth
+century no doubt did their best, and we
+honour and praise them for it. We think their
+work among the loveliest gratifications of the
+eye that can be imagined. But the eye is very
+catholic&mdash;it has immense capacities for enjoyment.
+The window of the soul opens on illimitable prospects,
+and if the soul be satisfied for the time,
+it is not necessarily repleted for ever. Golden
+ages are cyclical, and it may be that the glory of
+<a name="Page_136" id="Page_136"></a>the books of the future shall surpass all the glories
+of the past.</p>
+
+<p>By 1350 France had absorbed all the antecedent
+varieties of illumination. From France,
+therefore, spring all the succeeding styles now
+considered national.</p>
+
+<p>And as is most natural, these styles develop by
+proximity&mdash;the nearest to French being Netherlandish.
+The next, as a result of immediate
+intercourse, Italian. Then German, Spanish, and
+the rest, as intercourse gave opportunity. It is
+not always an easy matter to say offhand whether
+a MS. is French or Flemish. In the earlier days
+it is not easy to say whether it be French or
+English, or even whether French or Italian. But
+the distinctness comes later on.</p>
+
+<p>In the fifteenth century the Italian, German,
+French, and English are quite distinct varieties.
+Towards the sixteenth the Netherlandish is quite
+as distinct. But the styles of Spain, Bohemia,
+Hungary, Poland, though possessing features
+which identify them to an experienced eye, are
+to the ordinary spectator merely sub-varieties of
+Netherlandish, Italian, or German.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the distinctions of schools or
+local centres within the same country, the evidence
+of probable origin has to be corroborated
+by historic fact. It is not safe without further
+proof than that afforded by general features to
+affirm that this or that MS. was executed at
+Paris, Dijon, Amiens, or Limoges in France; or
+at Ghent, Bruges, or elsewhere in Flanders; or
+whether a MS. be Rhenish or Saxon, Bavarian
+<a name="Page_137" id="Page_137"></a>or Westphalian, in Germany; Bolognese, Florentine,
+Siennese, Milanese, or Neapolitan in Italy;
+or executed at Westminster, St. Albans, Exeter,
+or elsewhere in England. Nevertheless the
+special characteristics of all these schools are
+quite distinguishable. In the attempt to distinguish
+them, although the diagnosis may be
+perfectly accurate, the actual facts may be otherwise
+accounted for. Hence the danger to which
+even the experienced connoisseur is liable. For
+example, certain MSS. are written in a fine
+Bolognese hand, which it is proved were actually
+executed in Flanders; others that one would feel
+sure were Netherlandish, were illuminated in
+Spain. Some very fine typical Flemish miniatures
+were painted in Italy; certain Florentine
+miniatures were the work of artists residing in
+Rome. Milanese illumination is quite distinguishable
+from Neapolitan, and Venetian from both,
+yet the school is not proof of the <i>provenance</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Illuminators, like other craftsmen, travelled
+from city to city, and princes employed men, who
+resided in their patrons' palaces, who yet had
+learned their art many leagues away. How often
+we find the names of artists with the words Dallemagna,
+il Tedesco, le Poitevin, Veronese, Franco,
+Crovata, etc., employed in Italian houses, indicating
+the place of their nativity. So that even when
+we know every feature of the work we have
+much to learn ere we can say with truth that
+it was executed in such and such a city. We
+must take into account details which are liable
+to escape the ordinary observer, such as quality
+<a name="Page_138" id="Page_138"></a>of vellum or paper, choice of pigments, mode of
+application, and other particulars quite distinct
+from style of ornament or varieties of form in
+foliage. In the Fitzwilliam Library at Cambridge
+is an Italian MS., the characteristics of
+whose ornamentation are unequivocally French,
+but whose mode of treatment shows not only that
+it is Italian but that it is Milanese, but whether
+executed in Milan or not is more than anyone can
+affirm. In the British Museum is a magnificent
+service-book called the Padua Missal, but the
+probability is that the Paduan artist who painted
+its splendid pages, painted them at Venice. That
+it was executed for Sta. Justina, at Padua, is no
+proof that the work was done in that city.</p>
+
+<p>In monastic times we have seen why the artist
+rarely signed his name. After the thirteenth
+century the lay artist had no such scruples, and
+hence we often find particulars of origin and purpose
+which explain all we wish to know. But if
+the MSS. themselves do not contain the particulars,
+very often the account-books of cathedrals
+and other establishments for which the books
+were illuminated, give the details of price and
+purpose, and add the names of the artists. The
+household expense books, guild books, municipal
+records, and the journals of the painters themselves
+are fertile sources of information. And
+if we seek with sufficient diligence these will
+probably be the means by which it may eventually
+be found.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139"></a><a name="II_CHAPTER_III" id="II_CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III</h2>
+
+<h3>FRENCH ILLUMINATION FROM THE THIRTEENTH
+CENTURY TO THE RENAISSANCE</h3>
+
+
+<p>Ivy-leaf and chequered backgrounds&mdash;Occasional introduction
+of plain burnished gold&mdash;Reign of Charles&nbsp;VI. of France&mdash;The
+Dukes of Orleans, Berry, and Burgundy; their prodigality
+and fine taste for MSS.&mdash;Christine de Pisan and her
+works&mdash;Description of her &ldquo;Mutation of Fortune&rdquo; in the Paris
+Library&mdash;The &ldquo;Roman de la Rose&rdquo; and &ldquo;Cit&eacute; des
+Dames&rdquo;&mdash;Details of the French style of illumination&mdash;Burgundian
+MSS., Harl. 4431&mdash;Roy. 15 E. 6&mdash;The Talbot Romances&mdash;Gradual
+approach to Flemish on the one hand and Italian
+on the other.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">In</span> addition to the expanding ivy leaf which
+forms the chief feature of fourteenth-century
+book-ornament, we find the miniaturist as a further
+improvement adding delicate colour in the faces.
+Also that instead of the invariable lozenging or
+diapering of the background he occasionally makes
+a background of plain burnished gold. And as if
+to prove that his predecessors were really hampered
+with the restrictions imposed by their imitations of
+painted glass, he begins to try his best to paint
+up his miniatures into real pictures with high
+lights on draperies and shading upon the folds.
+A certain amount of flatness, however, still remains,
+but it scarcely seems to have been the intention
+or aim of the painter. There is a similar flatness
+<a name="Page_140" id="Page_140"></a>in the work of all the early schools of painting,
+which had no reference whatever to the destination
+of the picture. See, for instance, the Origny
+Treasure Book in the Print Room at Berlin
+(MS. 38), and the Life of St. Denis in the
+National Library at Paris (Nos. 2090-2), both
+MSS. dating somewhere about 1315. The drapery
+shading in the latter MS. is no longer the work
+of the pen, but brush-work in proper colour.
+The Westreenen Missal in the Museum at the
+Hague, which dates about 1365, though not a
+French MS., is an example of the fact that by
+the middle of the century the tradition of penwork
+outline and flat-colouring had become pretty
+nearly obsolete.</p>
+
+<p>The reign of the afflicted Charles&nbsp;VI. of France,
+disastrous in the extreme to the material welfare
+of his own subjects, full of untold misery to the
+poor, and of oppression to the growing community
+of artisans and traders, was nevertheless, as regards
+literature and the arts, a period of progress
+and even splendour. The King's incapacity, by
+affording his uncles and brothers opportunities for
+fingering the revenues during the self-appointed
+and irresponsible regencies, enabled them to gratify
+their magnificent tastes in the purchasing of costly
+furniture and the ordering of splendid books.
+Louis of Orleans, usually credited with the worst
+of this prodigality, was by no means singular in
+his conduct. His uncle, the Duke of Berry, while
+daily earning the execrations of the tax-payers by
+his unscrupulous employment of the public money,
+was constantly enriching his library, and both he
+<a name="Page_141" id="Page_141"></a>and his brothers and nephews were in the habit of
+sending priceless volumes, illuminated by the best
+artists, as wedding and birthday gifts, to each
+other, or their wives or acquaintances. We talk,
+and justly, of the fine taste and noble love of
+literature of Jean de Berry. His contemporaries,
+at least those beneath his own rank, looked upon
+him as a tyrant and plunderer. His disastrous
+administration of Languedoc was described as
+&ldquo;one long f&ecirc;te where the excess of expenditure
+was rivalled only by the excess of scandal.&rdquo; If
+the <i>marmousets</i> could have hanged him they would.
+In default they hanged his treasurer.</p>
+
+<p>All this maladministration was very wrong, but
+we cannot afford to burn the MSS. in consequence,
+for the Bible, the &ldquo;Grandes Heures,&rdquo; and other
+books once possessed by the wicked Duke, are
+among the most precious relics of any age. Add
+to them the beautiful volumes of poetry and
+romance composing the contemporary literature
+of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, and we
+have treasures that we dare not relinquish.</p>
+
+<p>By the beginning of the fifteenth century pure
+French illumination was losing its own characteristics
+and acquiring others. In the North, in
+Flanders and Brabant, Franche-Comt&eacute; and the
+Burgundian Dukedom generally, it was becoming
+that peculiar kind of French which had received
+the name of Burgundian. It can scarcely be said
+to be Flemish enough to rank as Netherlandish,
+yet neither can it stand side by side with &ldquo;French
+of Paris.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Let us look at a few examples. There is the
+<a name="Page_142" id="Page_142"></a>Book of Offices in the Library of St. Genevi&egrave;ve at
+Paris (Bibl. Lat. 66), also the St. Augustine in the
+same library. Also a small crowd of volumes in
+the Royal Library at Brussels, another in the
+National Library at Paris. One of the richest
+examples known is the &ldquo;Psalter of the Convent
+of Salem,&rdquo; in the University Library at Heidelberg.
+Other grand MSS. are the two volumes of
+the &ldquo;Mutacion de Fortune&rdquo; of Christine de
+Pisan and the &ldquo;Cit&eacute; des Dames&rdquo; of the same
+authoress. The volume of her poems, etc., in
+the British Museum, is a marvellously fine work
+(Harl. 4431). The greater part of this volume
+is in the earlier or &ldquo;Berry&rdquo; style, <i>i.e.</i> the fine pen-sprays
+of ivy leaf of burnished gold. But the
+first grand border is altogether transitional, consisting
+of the pen-sprays of golden ivy leaf alternating
+with sprays of natural flowers. This
+innovation, it has been said, was due to the
+school of van Eyck, but as no proof is forthcoming
+that J. van Eyck ever worked on illuminating
+we may be content to say that it arose
+about 1413, and that probably it came from
+Bruges. It is the beginning of the Burgundian
+style. But the ornamental leafage is different
+from ordinary Brugeois, inasmuch as it is
+&ldquo;pearled&rdquo; along the central veins, and is not
+symmetrical. The pearling is perhaps a suggestion
+from glass painting. It was very early
+adapted in German foliage work. On the first
+fly-leaf are several signatures, including the name
+and device of Louis Gruthuse: &ldquo;Plus est en vous
+Gruthuse.&rdquo; The miniatures still remain French
+<a name="Page_143" id="Page_143"></a>with mostly panelled backgrounds, some with
+landscape. It is evidently a transitional document.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/007.jpg" width="500" height="704" alt="PSALTERM. ET OFFICIA" title="PSALTERM. ET OFFICIA" />
+<span class="caption">PSALTERM. ET OFFICIA<br />
+14TH CENT.<br />
+<i>Brit. Mus. Harl. MS. 2897, fol. 184</i><br />&nbsp;</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/008.jpg" width="500" height="691" alt="HEURES, ETC." title="HEURES, ETC." />
+<span class="caption">HEURES, ETC.<br />
+14TH CENT.<br />
+<i>Brit. Mus. Harl. MS. 2952, fol. 22</i></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The works of Christine de Pisan, the popular&mdash;one
+may fairly say fashionable&mdash;authoress, were
+perhaps among the best known and most widely
+read while Caxton was setting up his press at
+Westminster, as she was among the most welcome
+guests at the Courts of Charles&nbsp;VI. and Philip of
+Burgundy. She was the daughter of a distinguished
+Venetian savant, Thomas de Pisan,
+who had come at the invitation of Charles le
+Sage to Paris as &ldquo;Astrologue du Roi.&rdquo; At the
+age of fifteen Christine, who was as beautiful as
+she was accomplished, became the wife of a
+Picard gentleman named Estienne Castel. Two
+years afterwards the death of the King brought
+trouble upon her father, and with it sickness and
+despondency. Then followed sorrow upon sorrow.
+Whilst she was herself still burdened with the
+cares of early motherhood her father died, and
+within nine years from her marriage the sudden
+death from contagion, of her husband, to whom
+she was most fondly attached, left her a widow
+with two little children dependent upon her, and
+with only what she herself could earn as a means
+of livelihood. She was not yet twenty-six years
+old. To assuage her misery she betook herself
+to study and the composition of essays and poetry.
+Her works speedily brought her the recognition
+of distinguished personages; her children were
+provided for, and she herself soon acquired both
+fortune and reputation. Charles&nbsp;VI. allowed her a
+<a name="Page_144" id="Page_144"></a>pension, and she composed for his Queen, Isabella
+of Bavaria, several important treatises. Among
+her numerous compositions were &ldquo;Les cens
+Histoires de Troyes&rdquo; in verse, &ldquo;Le Chemin de
+longue estude,&rdquo; &ldquo;La Mutacion de Fortune,&rdquo; and
+a Life of Charles&nbsp;V., the latter composed at the
+request of Philip the Good of Burgundy. But
+the work which sets off her wit and learning to
+the best advantage was an allegorical essay on
+Womanhood, which she called &ldquo;Le Tr&eacute;sor de la
+Cit&eacute; des Dames.&rdquo; Altogether her works include
+fifteen books and about sixty smaller writings,
+which she dedicated to the King and Queen of
+France, the Dukes of Burgundy and Orleans, and
+the princesses and princes of the Court.</p>
+
+<p>One beautifully illuminated copy of the Mutation
+of Fortune in two volumes is a curious example
+of its title, for one volume of it is in the National
+Library at Paris (fonds fr. 603) and the other in
+the Royal Library at Munich. In the former we
+have her portrait. In a blue gown she sits at
+her writing-desk busy at her work. On her head
+is the muslin-draped and high-peaked &ldquo;hennin.&rdquo;
+Beside her a table covered with a green cloth
+and laden with crimson and violet-bound books
+and an inkstand. Her chair has a high back,
+and the floor is of the usual kind seen in illuminations;
+that is, as if composed of a parquetry of
+coloured woodwork or of tiles of various kinds of
+marble. On the sill of the Gothic-latticed window,
+through which we catch a glimpse of the blue
+sky, stands a vase of flowers. Not perhaps an
+ideal lady's boudoir, but still an apartment of
+<a name="Page_145" id="Page_145"></a>taste, and an altogether charming little picture.
+In the second miniature of the Munich volume
+Christine is standing in a chamber&mdash;in the same
+costume as above described. The pictures on the
+walls are&mdash;a fortress, a watchman, two knights,
+a prince with crown and sceptre, seated on his
+throne, surrounded by courtiers; a duel; and a
+martyr having his head struck off. Just such
+medi&aelig;val subjects as we may expect in a fifteenth-century
+mansion.</p>
+
+<p>In a copy of the &ldquo;Cit&eacute; des Dames&rdquo; at Munich
+is another portrait of Christine. The book is an
+Apology for the feminine sex, and it is well
+thought out. It appears that the conversation of
+the time was not always free from rather severe
+sarcasm concerning the ladies. We learn from
+Du Verdier that the continuator of the Romance
+of the Rose narrowly escaped most condign chastisement
+from some of the insulted sex at the
+French Court for the base insinuations in his
+poem against the character of women. Christine
+herself heartily disapproved of the Romance of
+the Rose, and wrote a sharp criticism upon it.
+Her &ldquo;Cit&eacute; des Dames&rdquo; is an elaborate confutation
+of the opinion that women are naturally more
+immoral and less capable of noble studies or high
+intellectual attainments than men. In her introduction
+she says: &ldquo;I reflected why men are so
+unanimous in attributing wickedness to women.
+I examined my own life and those of other women
+to learn why we should be worse than men, since
+we also were created by God. I was sitting
+ashamed with bowed head and eyes blinded with
+<a name="Page_146" id="Page_146"></a>tears, resting my chin on my hands in my elbow-chair,
+when a dazzling beam of Light flashed
+before me, which came not from the sun, for it
+was late in the evening. I glanced up and saw
+standing before me three female figures wearing
+crowns of gold, and with radiant countenances.
+I crossed myself, whereupon one of the three
+addressed me. 'Fear not, dear daughter, for
+we will counsel and help thee. The aphorisms of
+the Philosophers are not Articles of Faith, but
+simply the mists of error and self-deception.'&rdquo;
+The three ladies or goddesses are Fame, Prudence,
+and Justice, and they command Christine under
+the supervision of Reason (or Commonsense) to
+build a city for the noblest and best of her own
+sex. So the city was begun, and the elect, allegorically,
+let into it. In varied ranks following
+one another came goddesses and saintly women,
+Christian and heathen women&mdash;among them walks
+as leader the Queen of the Amazons. &ldquo;Queen&rdquo;
+Ceres, who taught the art and practice of agriculture.
+Queen Isis, who first led mankind to
+the cultivation of plants. Arachne, who invented
+the arts of dyeing, weaving, flax-growing, and
+spinning. Damphile, who discovered how to
+breed silkworms. Queen Tomyris, who vanquished
+Cyrus. The noble Sulpicia, who shared
+her husband's exile, and many others, among
+whom may be seen Dame Sarah, the wife of
+Abraham, Penelope, Ruth, and the Saints Katharine,
+Margaret, Lucia, and Dorothea. In the first
+miniature on the left sits Christine with a coif
+upon her head and a great book on her lap; on
+<a name="Page_147" id="Page_147"></a>her left hand is the plan of her new city, while
+opposite stand the three ladies already spoken of
+as her advisers, furnished with building tools and
+giving her their advice. On the right she appears
+again in elegant costume with hewn stones
+and a trowel assisted by two workmen who are
+busily at work. Before her is an unfinished wall
+and several completed towers. In two other
+miniatures the gradual progress and entire completion
+of the city are shown, and in the foreground
+of each Christine and her three patronesses
+as before. Other examples deserving of
+extended notice are the Shrewsbury Romances
+(Roy. 15 E. 6) and Augustine, Cit&eacute; de Dieu (Roy.
+14 D. 1), two great folios, the former most interesting
+for its miniatures&mdash;the latter as a fair
+example of the rougher kind of Lille work, bold
+in design, good drawing. The choice of colours
+includes marone, blue, green, and gold. The
+ornaments, as usual, consist of sprays of ivy leaf
+and grounds filled in with treillages of natural
+flowers, among which are the daisy, viola tricolor,
+thistle, cornbottle, and wild stock. Fruits
+and vegetables also, as grapes, field peas, and
+strawberries. The miniatures include a few
+rather coarse grisailles.</p>
+
+<p>A little volume (Harl. 2936) contains exquisitely
+drawn Brugeois scrolls in monochrome on grounds
+of the same colour or plain gold or black.
+Lastly we may mention &ldquo;Les Heures de la Dame
+de Saluces,&rdquo; otherwise called the &ldquo;Yemeniz
+Hours,&rdquo; in the British Museum (Add. 27967), a
+large octavo, as an example of transitional
+<a name="Page_148" id="Page_148"></a>Burgundian. Here the secondary borders have
+mostly the penwork ivy leaf with Brugeois corners
+and with strawberries, etc., in the midst of the
+sprays. Among the foliages grotesque figures
+frequently appear. The principal pages, however,
+are more like Harl. 4431, yet without
+the ivy-leaf tendrils. The miniatures are still
+Gothic, but richer and deeper in colour than
+ordinary French work. It would appear that
+two different artists were employed&mdash;one decidedly
+French, the other Netherlandish, and of
+a more individual character, still with French
+accessories. Every page has a border of some
+kind. Among the flowers the thistle is peculiar
+in having a golden cup next the down. The
+work generally resembles, in some parts, 4431
+Harl.; in others, and perhaps more strongly,
+15 E. 6. The colours are chiefly blue, scarlet,
+rose-pink, green, and gold.</p>
+
+<p>We have now pretty nearly worked our way
+into Flemish illumination. The after-history of
+French as developed through the influence of Italy
+on the schools of Paris and Tours must have a
+chapter to itself.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149"></a><a name="II_CHAPTER_IV" id="II_CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</h2>
+
+<h3>ENGLISH ILLUMINATION FROM THE TENTH TO THE
+FIFTEENTH CENTURY</h3>
+
+
+<p>Organisation of the Monastic <i>scriptoria</i>&mdash;Professional outsiders:
+lay artists&mdash;The whole sometimes the work of the same
+practitioner&mdash;The Winchester Abbeys of St. Swithun's and
+Hyde&mdash;Their vicissitudes&mdash;St. Alban's&mdash;Westminster&mdash;Royal
+MS. 2 A. 22&mdash;Description of style&mdash;The Tenison
+Psalter&mdash;Features of this period&mdash;The Arundel
+Psalter&mdash;Hunting and shooting scenes, and games&mdash;Characteristic
+pictures, grotesques, and caricatures&mdash;Queen Mary's
+Psalter&mdash;Rapid changes under Richard&nbsp;II.&mdash;Royal MS. 1 E.
+9&mdash;Their cause.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">In</span> a former chapter we left our native schools
+of illumination at work on such MSS. as the
+Devonshire and Rouen Benedictionals, and with
+the reputation of being the best schools of the
+kind in Christendom. Mention also is made elsewhere
+in dealing with monastic art of the usages
+of the <i>scriptoria</i>. Such usages, of course, could
+only obtain in houses where scribes themselves
+were to be had. Hence we should discover, were
+it not otherwise known, that writing and illumination,
+even in the monastic age, were not confined
+absolutely to the cloister.</p>
+
+<p>With respect to the secular scribes, who sometimes
+worked in the monastery, sometimes at
+their own homes, in those days when the monas<a name="Page_150" id="Page_150"></a>tic
+orders still did most of the book-production,
+there were three classes of specialists. These were
+the <i>Librarii</i> or ordinary copyists; the <i>Notarii</i> or
+law-scribes, whose business lay in copying deeds,
+charters, and such-like instruments, and taking
+notes in the courts; and <i>Paginators</i> or <i>Illuminatores</i>.
+It sometimes happened, as we have said,
+that in some monastery or other, no monastic was
+found qualified to undertake any of these duties.
+It then fell to the prior or abbat to seek the
+assistance of professional outsiders. The paging
+and rubrication, putting in initials in the spaces
+left by the common scribe, and, if needed, the
+addition of pictures or marginal drawings and
+ornaments, caricatures, heraldic illustrations, etc.,
+were the proper work of the illuminator, but it
+often happened that the same man had to do the
+whole work from the commencement to the finish.
+The Chronicon Trudonense tells us: &ldquo;Graduale
+unum propria manu formavit, purgavit, pinxit,
+sulcabit, scripsit, illuminavit, musiceque notavit
+syllabatim.&rdquo; Several of our old English chronicles,
+of which the MSS. exist in the British
+Museum and elsewhere, seem to be of this
+description.</p>
+
+<p>Reference has been made to the <i>scriptoria</i> at
+Winchester, <i>i.e.</i> at St. Swithun's and the New
+Minster. It is the latter foundation which is
+usually referred to in speaking of Winchester
+work. The Monastery of the Holy Trinity or
+the New Minster was founded in the first year of
+his reign by King Edward, son of Alfred, no
+doubt in obedience to his father's wish, if not
+<a name="Page_151" id="Page_151"></a>absolutely in the terms of his will. Its first
+charter is dated 900 (for 901) and the second in
+903. In the latter document the abbey is spoken
+of as dedicated to the Holy Trinity, the Blessed
+Virgin Mary, and to St. Peter, and is amply
+endowed under the Augustinian Rule. In 965,
+not without trouble and resistance, it was converted
+into a Benedictine abbey. In 968 Ethelgar,
+who had been trained at Glastonbury and Abingdon,
+became abbat, and from this time the New
+Minster became famous for both discipline and
+the production of MSS. As we walk along the
+High Street of Winchester now we find the story
+in moss-grown stones or other memorials how,
+among other methods, William the Norman
+punished the monks for their English warlike
+proclivities by walling them up nearly close to
+their church with the walls of his royal palace.
+In the old time, when the two monasteries stood
+side by side&mdash;St. Swithun's is close behind the
+New Minster&mdash;&ldquo;so closely packed together,&rdquo; says
+the old chronicler,<a name="FNanchor_1_37" id="FNanchor_1_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> &ldquo;were the two communities
+of St. Swithun and St. Peter that between the
+foundation of their respective buildings there was
+barely room for a man to pass along. The choral
+service of one monastery conflicted with that of
+the other, so that both were spoiled, and the
+ringing of their bells together produced a horrid
+discord.&rdquo; The result of this was, first the above-mentioned
+hemming in of the younger establishment
+and eventually its migration to another site
+in Hyde Meadow. Here while the monastic
+<a name="Page_152" id="Page_152"></a>buildings suffered much through fires and other
+disasters, the Rule remained until 1538, when it
+was surrendered into the King's hands, and the
+abbat, prior, and nineteen monks, the last survivors
+of this once-famous foundation, were pensioned.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_37" id="Footnote_1_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> Dugdale, <i>Monasticon</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p>The scriptorium at St. Alban's, to which the
+fame of book production in the Middle Ages very
+largely reverted, was not founded until nearly
+three centuries after the foundation of that abbey.
+The library began with twenty-eight notable
+volumes, and eight Psalters, a book of collects,
+another of epistles, and <i>Evangelia legenda per
+annum</i>, two Gospel-books bound in gold and silver
+and set with gems, together with other necessary
+volumes for ordinary use. Almost every succeeding
+abbat contributed something to the library
+shelves. Geoffrey, the sixteenth abbat, a Norman
+who once had a school at Dunstable, and who was
+both a popular and liberal ruler, enriched the library
+with a Missal bound in gold, another incomparably
+illuminated and beautifully written, and also
+a Psalter richly illuminated, a Benedictional, and
+others. His successor, Ralph Gubiun, also gave
+a number of MSS. Robert de Gosham, the next
+abbat, gave &ldquo;very many&rdquo; books, which he had
+caused to be written and sumptuously bound for
+the purpose. And Abbat Simon, who followed in
+1166, created the office of historiographer to the
+abbey, repaired and enlarged the scriptorium, and
+kept two or three of the cleverest writers constantly
+employed in transcription, and ordained
+that for the future every abbat should maintain
+at least one suitable and capable scribe.
+<a name="Page_153" id="Page_153"></a>Among the many choice MSS. added by Abbat
+Simon was a beautiful copy of the Bible specially
+written with the greatest care and exactness. In
+addition he presented the library with all his own
+precious collection. Another liberal benefactor
+was John de Cell, a man of vast learning in
+grammar and poetry, and also a practitioner in
+medicine. Being unfit for household management,
+he committed the secular affairs of the abbey to
+his prior Reymund, by whose zeal many noble
+and valuable books were transcribed for the
+library. And so grew in magnitude and importance
+the great collection which supplied
+Roger of Wendover and Matthew Paris with
+materials for their famous histories. St. Alban's,
+indeed, was at one period perhaps the most noted
+of all the English centres of book production.
+To dilate on other centres, such as Westminster,
+Exeter, Worcester, Norwich, or York, would lead
+us too far afield for a mere handbook like the
+present. Enough has been said to give a good
+idea of what our English abbats and priors were
+in the habit of doing for art and letters.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/009.jpg" width="500" height="777" alt="PSALTERIUM CUM CANTICIS" title="PSALTERIUM CUM CANTICIS" />
+<span class="caption">PSALTERIUM CUM CANTICIS<br />
+A.D. 1240<br />
+<i>Brit. Mus. Roy. MS. 2, A. xxii, fol. 14</i><br />&nbsp;</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/010.jpg" width="500" height="697" alt="EPISTRE AU ROY RICH. 2" title="EPISTRE AU ROY RICH. 2" />
+<span class="caption">EPISTRE AU ROY RICH. 2<br />
+C. 1375<br />
+<i>Brit. Mus. Roy. MS. 20 B, vi, fol. 1</i></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Since 980 a considerable quantity of transcription
+and illumination must have been produced,
+notwithstanding disquiet, turbulence, and war.
+At Westminster the traditions of illumination
+seem to have followed the methods of the earlier
+Winchester school. But in the twelfth century
+English work shows, on the whole, a greater
+likeness to the contemporary work of Germany.
+Of Westminster work an example occurs among
+the Royal MSS. (2 A. 22). The subject is the
+<a name="Page_154" id="Page_154"></a>Psalter, and the text is the handsome style of
+penmanship known as English Gothic of the latter
+part of the twelfth century. It would appear from
+the frequent occurrence of this particular service-book
+that it held the place of the later Book of
+Hours, and so we may expect a great similarity
+among different copies, both in the selection of
+the illustrations and their mode of treatment. It
+was usual in all such volumes to prefix to the text
+a series of subjects from the Old and New Testaments
+and the Lives of the Saints. Here we have
+them from the Life of the Virgin and from the
+Life of David, by no means unworthy samples of
+the school. One represents the Virgin and Child
+seated on a seat of the Germano-Byzantine type
+beneath an arch and within a square frame-border.
+The border seems first to have been flatly painted
+in two colours, pale blue and pale red ochre, and
+on this a foliage scroll of recurring forms in a
+bold dull red outline finely relieved with white.
+This is more or less repeated as the form of border
+to the other illuminations. Outside the whole is
+a characteristic slender frame of bright green in
+two tints. The arch overhead has two bands of
+vermilion, with white edge-reliefs and a central
+band of blue, again in two tints, with pairs of
+black cross-bars every half-inch or so resting on
+the capitals of the two pillars which form the
+sides of the scene. These pillars have each a
+green abacus at the top of each capital and
+scarlet bead below. Each pillar is of dappled
+red, marble-like porphyry, with plinths of scarlet
+and blue. Tiers of differently coloured steps
+<a name="Page_155" id="Page_155"></a>separated by bands of scarlet, green, etc., form
+the seat. The Virgin wears the hood, cape, and
+robe of the Benedictine nun, but coloured grey,
+chocolate, and blue respectively. An under garment
+of pale amber completes her dress. The
+infant wears an amber tunic, wrapped in a scarlet
+robe. A very common embroidery of the drapery
+consists of little stars or triads of white studs.
+This also is a characteristic of German and early
+Netherlandish illumination. There is a rich gold
+brocade border to the blue robe of the Virgin. Both
+mother and child have round nimbuses, the former
+in plain circular bands of russet and orange, the
+latter consisting of bands of pale blue surmounted
+by a scarlet cross. Two lumps of green glass or
+metal hang from the arch. The background is a
+plate of gold. The flesh tones are livid, being of
+a pale greenish ochre tint. One other of the
+illuminations of this exceedingly interesting MS.
+may be mentioned, viz. the David playing his
+harp. He also wears three garments&mdash;a tunic of
+white shaded with pale blue, then another of
+lavender or lilac and having rich brocaded
+borders, and, lastly, a pallium or robe of pale
+chocolate lined with ermine; orange-coloured
+hose. The throne, like the previous one, is of
+several colours&mdash;slate-blue, green, orange, and
+white, with a buff cushion. Here is a back to
+the throne of a deep blue, with a background, as
+before, of bright flat gold. The white moulding
+is shaded with pale green, with bluish slate
+corners. The outer border is of the pale red
+ochre or pink, so common in later work in contrast
+<a name="Page_156" id="Page_156"></a>with deep blue. An outer frame or edging of
+green completes the page. The harp is not gilded,
+but of a drab hue, with two quatrefoil studs or
+orifices in the frame, relieved as usual with fine
+edges of white. Compare this MS. with one in
+the Library at Lambeth.</p>
+
+<p>The English illumination of the thirteenth century
+is so like that of France that it is often
+difficult to determine its real nationality. There
+is occasionally some feature which we know from
+other sources to be English, or some circumstance
+in the history of the MS. which fixes its origin,
+as, for example, in the Additional MS. 24686,
+known as the Tenison Psalter. Sir E.M. Thompson
+also describes this MS. in the <i>Bibliographica</i>,
+i. 397. But it was previously described at some
+length by Sir Edward Bond in the Fine Arts
+<i>Quarterly Review</i>. The Psalter, which has had
+a somewhat eventful history, is one of the best
+examples of English thirteenth-century illumination.
+At least, this may be said of the early
+portion of it, for while it is illuminated throughout,
+only the first gathering is in the earlier
+manner. The peculiar value to the student lies
+in the fact that although quite in the same style
+as contemporary French work, it is the work of
+an English illuminator. The colouring, however,
+is not confined, as in somewhat earlier examples,
+to blue and dull pale rose or paled red ochre and
+gold. It gives us scarlet, crimson-lake, green,
+and brown, besides the blue and pink and bright
+gold which suggests some German influences.
+The line fillings are somewhat peculiar as
+<a name="Page_157" id="Page_157"></a>having silver tracery, on the blue, side by side
+with golden tracery on the crimson. The full ivy
+leaf appears in the long branch work of the
+borders, and some of the initials still retain the
+bird or dragon forms in their construction. The
+compound bar-frame, gold and traceried colour
+side by side, is however already taking the place
+of the mere sweeping tail or branch. But perhaps
+the best indication of English design is the presence
+of a number of grotesque animals, with
+birds and occasional humorous scenes disposed,
+not in framed miniatures, but simply among the
+stems and coils of the foliage. This is a form
+of illustration much appreciated by English illuminators
+at all times, though it appears also in
+much continental work. Among other English
+MSS. which display this taste we may point out
+Arund. 83, which among many other treatises
+and curious compositions, such as the &ldquo;Turris
+Sapienti&aelig;&rdquo; and a valuable calendar, in which are
+notes on the Arundels of Wemme, contains a
+psalter with anthems, etc., and hence is known as
+the Arundel Psalter. Its date is probably between
+1330 and 1380.</p>
+
+<p>The drolleries are very funny, and the other
+illuminations very instructive and curious. Some
+of them contain really good pen-drawing&mdash;refined,
+expressive, and graceful, but above all typical of
+English draughtsmanship. In a little scene of
+the adoration of the Magi (folio 125) the kings
+are costumed like our Henry&nbsp;III., as we find him
+'n sculpture, wall paintings, etc. Over a very
+expressive picture of the three living and the
+<a name="Page_158" id="Page_158"></a>three dead occur the lines, each over a figure:
+&ldquo;Ich am afert Lo wet ich se Methinketh hit beth
+deueles thre. Ich wes welfair Such scheltou be
+For godes loue be wer by me&rdquo; (folio 128).<a name="FNanchor_1_38" id="FNanchor_1_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> The
+three living in this illumination are three fashionable
+ladies&mdash;no doubt princesses, for they wear
+crowns. Generally they are men, as at Lutterworth
+in the sculptures over the door, and in
+the famous fresco of Gozzoli at Pisa. The subject
+occurs sometimes in Books of Hours.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_1_38" id="Footnote_1_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a>
+&ldquo;I am afraid. Lo, what I see<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.45em;">Methinketh it be devils three.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.45em;">I was well fair. Such shalt thou be.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.45em;">For love of God beware by me.&rdquo;</span><br />
+</div>
+
+<p>Many MSS. of this period and later have
+hunting scenes, shooting practice, and games.</p>
+
+<p>In MS. 264, Misc., Bodl. Lib., Oxford, there are
+such scenes, one being a game at &ldquo;Blind Man's
+Buff,&rdquo; or as literally here &ldquo;Hoodman Blind,&rdquo; for
+the latter actually wear a hood drawn down over
+his head and shoulders, and three girls are having
+a fine game with him. The goldfinch or linnet
+looking on from the border seems to enjoy the
+fun. Another fine source of similar things is the
+Louterell Psalter in the British Museum. In
+this also are some richly diapered backgrounds
+and exquisite border bands. This MS. dates
+about 1340. But the gem of English fourteenth-century
+illumination is the Royal MS. (2 C. 7)
+called Queen Mary's Psalter, not as being painted
+for her, since it had been painted nearly two
+centuries before she ever saw it. But in the
+year (?) 1553, being about to be sent abroad, it was
+<a name="Page_159" id="Page_159"></a>stopped by a customs officer and presented to
+Queen Mary Tudor. It is bound in what appears
+to be the binding put on it by the Queen&mdash;<i>i.e.</i>
+crimson velvet embroidered on each cover
+with a large pomegranate, and having gilt corner
+protections and (once upon a time) golden clasps.
+The clasps are gone, but the plates remain
+riveted on the covers, engraven with the Tudor
+badges. The MS. contains 320 large octavo
+leaves, the first fifty-six being taken up with
+illuminated illustrations of biblical history from
+the Creation to the death of Solomon. These
+pictures are arranged in pairs one over the other,
+and to each one is given a description in French,
+taken sometimes from the canonical text, sometimes
+from an apocryphal one. The drawings are
+really exquisite, they are so fine, so delicately yet
+so cleverly sketched. They are not coloured in
+full body-colours, but just suggestively, the
+draperies being washed over in thin tints, the
+folds well defined, but lightly shaded. Next
+after these subjects follows the Psalter with
+miniatures of New Testament scenes and figures
+of saints accompanied with most beautiful initials
+and ornaments, illuminated by a thoroughly practised
+hand, for the artist of this volume was by
+no means a novice at his work. A good example
+of it is given in <i>Bibliographica</i>, pl. 7 [23], which
+forms the frontispiece to vol. i., and one or two
+outlines in the folio catalogue of the Arundel MSS.</p>
+
+<p>Arund. MS. 84 is also a good example of
+thirteenth-century illumination to a rather unpromising
+subject, being a Latin translation of
+<a name="Page_160" id="Page_160"></a>Euclid from the Arabic by Athelard of Bath.
+It is illustrated with diagrams.</p>
+
+<p>Speaking of fourteenth-century illumination
+brings us to notice a very striking change which
+takes place in the reign of Richard&nbsp;II. in the
+character of English illumination. In the British
+Museum (Roy. 20 B. 6) is a MS. entitled an
+Epistle to Richard&nbsp;II., written, it is said, in Paris,
+in which the illuminations and foliages are purely
+French, but which are the type of all the English
+work of the same date. Take, for example, the
+MS. already spoken of (Roy. 2 A. 22), produced in
+the scriptorium at Westminster Abbey. Compare
+with it a Bible written for the use of Salisbury,
+and dated 1254. Then add the Tenison Psalter,
+the Arundel Psalter, illuminated 1310-20. If
+these MSS. be compared, however, with Lansd.
+451, or Roy. 1 E. 9, the least accustomed eye
+must notice the entire and almost startling change
+in the luxuriance and character of the flowers and
+foliages which constitute the initial and border
+decorations. It is not merely a development.
+There are additional features, but that these
+features are added, as usual, from France, is
+contradicted by reference to Roy. 20 B. 6, mentioned
+above. The new features are not French.
+The question is, where did they come from?</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161"></a><a name="II_CHAPTER_V" id="II_CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V</h2>
+
+<h3>THE SOURCES OF ENGLISH FIFTEENTH-CENTURY
+ILLUMINATION</h3>
+
+
+<p>Attributed to the Netherlands&mdash;Not altogether French&mdash;The
+home of Anne of Bohemia, Richard&nbsp;II.'s queen&mdash;Court of
+Charles&nbsp;IV. at Prag&mdash;Bohemian Art&mdash;John of Luxembourg,
+King of Bohemia&mdash;The Golden Bull of Charles&nbsp;IV.&mdash;Marriage
+of Richard&nbsp;II.&mdash;The transformation of English
+work owing to this marriage and the arrival of Bohemian
+artists in England&mdash;Influence of Queen Anne on English
+Art and Literature&mdash;Depression caused by her
+death&mdash;Examination of Roy. MS. 1 E. 9, and 2 A. 18&mdash;The
+Grandison Hours&mdash;Other MSS.&mdash;Introduction of Flemish
+work by Edward&nbsp;IV.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">It</span> has been suggested by a high authority that
+the immediate sources of the third period of
+English illumination were Netherlandish, but
+probable as this seems at first sight, there is
+another explanation which seems to the present
+writer to be a better one. As already pointed out,
+the influence on English work before 1377, notwithstanding
+political conditions, are distinctly
+French. After this date, though the artistic
+relation with France is not broken off, yet long
+before 1390 we find this new influence which is
+not French, and for which we have no special
+evidence that it is Netherlandish. If we go, however,
+a little farther afield, we shall find it. In
+the new work is a softer kind of foliage and a
+<a name="Page_162" id="Page_162"></a>greater variety of sweet colour, and both these
+characteristics are found in a school of illumination
+that was being formed under the auspices
+of the Emperor Charles&nbsp;IV. at Prag in Bohemia.
+The artists in that capital who executed the
+famous Golden Bull and commenced the grand
+Wenzel Bible were a select band of Frenchmen
+and Italians; the combined result of whose
+designs and labours was this very mixture of
+Gothic ivy leaf and thorn with the softer Othonian
+and Roman foliages and a new scheme of colour.
+Charles&nbsp;IV., son of that famous John of Luxembourg,
+the blind king of Bohemia, who perished
+at Cr&eacute;cy, was himself King of Bohemia as well
+as Emperor, and a man of brilliant personal accomplishments
+and cultivated tastes in literature
+and art.</p>
+
+<p>Becoming Emperor the very next year after his
+succession to the throne of Bohemia, he fixed his
+residence at Prag, where he began the building of
+the new city, and founded a university on the
+model of that of Paris, where he had studied, and
+whence he had married his first wife, Blanche,
+daughter of Charles, Count of Valois. His university
+soon attracted some thousands of students,
+and with them no small crowd of literary men
+and artists, both from France and Italy. The
+great fact, however, to remember about Charles&nbsp;IV.
+is the Golden Bull, the masterly scheme by
+which all matters concerning the election to the
+Empire were in future to be settled. All the Constitutions
+were written in a book called, from the
+<i>bulla</i> or seal of gold which was appended to it,
+<a name="Page_163" id="Page_163"></a>the Golden Bull, of which the text was drawn up
+either at Metz or Nuremberg in 1356, and many
+copies distributed throughout the Empire. It is
+further affirmed that the absolute original is at
+Frankfort. But the splendid copy made by order
+of the Emperor Wenzel in 1400 is still preserved
+in the Imperial Library at Vienna. And as it is ah
+example of the style of illumination practised in
+Prag during the reign of Charles&nbsp;IV., we may call
+it Bohemian. It is true that the foliages are a
+little more luxuriant in this Wenzel-book than in
+the earliest examples of the style seen in England,
+but the twenty years which had elapsed would
+easily account for this difference. As compared,
+however, with either French or Netherlandish,
+the new English style shows a much greater
+similarity to the work then being done in Lower
+Bavaria. In these soft curling foliages and the
+fresh carnations of the flesh-tints of the Prag and
+Nuremberg illuminators we may trace the actual
+source of the remarkable transformation seen
+in English illumination after the marriage of
+Richard&nbsp;II.</p>
+
+<p>Charles&nbsp;IV. was four times married. His
+successor, Wenzel, whose ghastly dissipations
+can only be regarded as the terrible proofs of
+insanity, was the child of his third wife. His
+fourth wife, the beautiful daughter of the Duke
+of Pomerania and Stettin, had four children, of
+whom Sigismund, the eldest, afterwards succeeded
+Wenzel as emperor, and Anne, the third, came to
+England as the wife of Richard&nbsp;II. The magnificence
+of her equipage and the crowd of persons
+<a name="Page_164" id="Page_164"></a>who formed her retinue are noticed by contemporary
+writers, and the effect upon English
+manners was instantaneous. Her beauty, sweetness
+of manners, and culture rendered her at once
+not merely the idol of her husband, who, says
+Walsingham, &ldquo;could scarcely bear her to be out
+of his sight,&rdquo; but universally beloved by all the
+English nation.</p>
+
+<p>To her the first English writer on heraldry,
+John of Guildford dedicated his book, and the
+artists who came with her from her luxurious
+home at Prag would naturally become the leaders
+of taste in their adopted country. After a while,
+indeed, the numbers of countrymen of the Queen
+were looked upon as the cause of extortions
+practised on the English people in order to supply
+the money lavished on these foreigners. More
+than once is this grievance referred to. In an old
+MS. in the Harley Library (2261), containing a
+fifteenth-century translation of Higden's Polychronicon,
+these foreigners are made responsible
+for at least one fashionable extravagance: &ldquo;Anne
+qwene of Ynglonde dyede in this year (1393) at
+Schene the vii<sup>th</sup> day of the monethe of Janius, on the
+day of Pentecoste: the dethe of whom the Kynge
+sorowede insomoche that he causede the maner
+there to be pullede downe, &amp; wolde not comme in
+eny place by oon yere folowynge where sche hade
+be, the churche excepte; whiche was beryede in
+the churche of Westmonastery, in the feste of
+seynte Anne nexte folowynge, with grete honoure
+&amp; solennite. That qwene Anne purchased of the
+pope that the feste of Seynte Anne scholde be
+<a name="Page_165" id="Page_165"></a>solenniysed in Ynglonde. The dethe of this qwene
+Anne induced grete hevynesse to noble men &amp; to
+commune peple also, for sche causede noo lytelle
+profite to the realme. But mony abusions comme
+from Boemia into Englonde with this qwene, and
+specially schoone with longe pykes, insomoche
+that they cowthe not go untylle that thei were
+tyede to theire legges, usenge that tyme cheynes
+of silvyr at the pykes of theire schoone.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>It is a fact that the Bohemian manner of illumination,
+with its three-lobed and vari-coloured
+foliages, became the fashion in every English
+centre of illumination. In the preceding remarks
+we have endeavoured to account for it. That the
+same style went from Prag to Nuremberg may
+be only the natural <i>result</i> of its being carried in
+the marriage and retinue of the Princess Margaret,
+Anne's half-sister, who became the wife of the
+Burggrave John.</p>
+
+<p>Quite a similar MS. to those executed in the
+reign of Richard&nbsp;II. in England and those of
+Bohemia is the Wilhelm van Oransse of Wolfram
+v. Eschenbach, now in the Imperial Library at
+Vienna. A similar, but inferior, work exists in
+the Prayer-book written by Josse de Weronar
+in the British Museum (Add. 15690). The English
+foliages never show quite all the varieties of
+colour seen in the continental examples, but the
+golden diapers and pounced gold patterns are
+quite as elaborate. See this work, however, in
+Arundel 83. It appears also in the mural paintings
+of the end of the fourteenth and beginning
+of the fifteenth centuries. No doubt the English
+<a name="Page_166" id="Page_166"></a>art of the fourteenth century is of French origin&mdash;so
+mainly is that of Bohemia&mdash;for Charles&nbsp;IV.
+was brought up at the Court of France. Further
+than this, we think we are justified in tracing the
+new elements in Bohemian to Italy, and those in
+English to Bohemia. The most striking proof is
+not only the foliages, but the change from the
+long, colourless faces of French miniatures to the
+plump and ruddy countenances seen, for example,
+in the Lancastrian MSS. in the Record Office and
+in Harl. 7026<a name="FNanchor_1_39" id="FNanchor_1_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> of the British Museum. Of course,
+this suggestion of source is not put forward as a
+dead certainty, but it affords this probability that
+as the style suddenly arose during the lifetime of
+Anne of Bohemia&mdash;and she was the acknowledged
+leader of fashion&mdash;so her tastes in respect of
+illuminated books and heraldic decoration would
+become those of her new subjects. Let us examine
+this fifteenth-century English work, and for this
+purpose let us take the great illuminated Bible
+in the Royal Library, 1 E. 9. It is an enormous
+folio, and rather unwieldly, but a most interesting
+example of the new style. Its initials are large,
+richly illuminated in gold and attractive colours.
+It has well-executed histories within the initials,
+and boldly designed border frames, elegantly
+adorned with foliages and conventional or idealised
+flowers. Perhaps the most noticeable feature is
+the beautiful, decorative foliage work in the limbs
+of the letters&mdash;itself a South German peculiarity&mdash;then
+the alternation of colours without interrupting
+the design, the profusion of foliage modelling
+<a name="Page_167" id="Page_167"></a>in the backgrounds of the letter panels outside
+the historiations. The next thing is the bold use
+of minium side by side even with pure rose-petal
+colour, pale bright cerulean blue, and bright gold.
+Lastly, the immense variety of leaf-forms, based
+on the three, five, and seven-lobed groupings of
+the typical form. The coil and spiral are freely
+used as the groundwork, and the colours alternated
+as the coils or spirals change from front to
+back of the leaf.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_39" id="Footnote_1_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> The Lovell Psalter.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/011.jpg" width="500" height="800" alt="MISSALE (SARUM USE)" title="MISSALE (SARUM USE)" />
+<span class="caption">MISSALE (SARUM USE)<br />
+14TH CENT. (LATE)<br />
+<i>Brit. Mus. Harl. MS. 2785, fol. 194 v.</i><br />&nbsp;</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/012.jpg" width="500" height="729" alt="HOR&AElig; E. MAR. VIESIS." title="HOR&AElig; E. MAR. VIESIS." />
+<span class="caption">HOR&AElig; E. MAR. VIESIS.<br />
+15TH CENT. (EARLY)<br />
+<i>Brit. Mus. Roy. Ms. 2, A. xviii, fol. 55</i></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Backgrounds of miniature histories are treated
+as in the Bohemian MSS.&mdash;Wilhelm v. Oransse,
+for example&mdash;that is, with fine golden tracery-patterns
+on deep, rich colours. The figure-painting
+is vastly improved&mdash;the features now being
+actually painted and modelled as in modern
+portrait painting, not merely indicated by pen
+strokes. The flesh-tints as previously noticed are
+bright and ruddy. The principal colours used on
+the foliages are blue, crimson, of various depths,
+and bright vermilion, with occasional admission
+of bright green and paled red ochre. Very similar
+to 1 E. 9 is Harl. 1892, and among other MSS.
+that may be studied with this one is 2 A. 18&mdash;a
+book of Offices, very sweetly illuminated, and full
+of typical examples of treatment both of architectural
+design and treillages of foliage.</p>
+
+<p>The Gothic pilasters are filled with the same
+kind of coiling and spiral leaves and ribbons that
+are used in 1 E. 9 and Harl. 1892, the backgrounds
+of the miniatures enriched with fine gold
+patterns. The furniture and costumes indicate
+the later years of the reign of Richard&nbsp;II., being
+<a name="Page_168" id="Page_168"></a>similar to those shown in the miniatures of Harl.
+1319, which relates the story of Richard's misfortunes.
+A few miniatures of saints accompany
+the prayers to them. One of the saints is
+peculiar, being the Prior of Bridlington, perhaps
+the &ldquo;Robertus scriba&rdquo; who copied certain theological
+treatises for the library, and who lived
+in the time of Stephen or Henry&nbsp;II.</p>
+
+<p>In the beautiful initial D is the figure of a lady
+praying, the first few words of the prayer being
+written on a floating ribbon above her head. A
+fine panelling of black and gold forms the background.
+The lady's costume is that of the end
+of the fourteenth century, her head-dress being
+somewhat lower than that worn in the time of
+Isabella of Bavaria; in other respects she recalls
+the figure of Christine de Pisan in Harl. 4431&mdash;one
+of the fine MSS. of the French school. As
+the psalter or offices was once the property of the
+Grandison family, as is shown by the numerous
+entries respecting them in the calendar, no doubt
+this lady was the first owner of the MS., and
+probably the same as shown in the beautiful
+miniature of the Annunciation previously given.
+Many charming initials follow this one, and
+brightly coloured bracket treillages and borders
+are given in profusion, introducing every variety
+of coloured ideal leaf-form known to the art of
+the time. It seems probable from its style and
+the costumes that the MS. was executed for the
+Lady Margaret, widow of Thomas, the last Lord
+Grandison, who died in 1376, and given to her by
+Sir John Tuddenham, her second husband. A
+<a name="Page_169" id="Page_169"></a>better model for the modern illuminator could not
+easily be found. Other examples may be briefly
+enumerated, in 2 B. 8, 2 B. 10, 2 B. 1, 2 B. 12 and
+13, 18 A. 12, 18 C. 26, Harl. 1719, 1892, etc. The
+Psalter 2 B. 8 has the good fortune to be dated,
+and its purpose and other particulars clearly set
+forth in a statement at the beginning of the
+volume. The gist of this is that it was composed
+at the instance of the Lady Joan Princess of
+Wales, mother of Richard&nbsp;II., and that it was
+executed by Brother John Somour (Seymour), a
+Franciscan, in 1380. Thus the illumination of it
+would probably be done about the time, of the
+young Queen's arrival in England. The Princess
+Joan died July 8th, 1385. The work corresponds
+with this date. The Grandison Psalter is perhaps
+somewhat later than Roy. 2 B. 1, and the
+rest are later still.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/013.jpg" width="500" height="731" alt="VEGETIUS FOUR BOOKS OF KNIGHTHOOD" title="VEGETIUS FOUR BOOKS OF KNIGHTHOOD" />
+<span class="caption">VEGETIUS FOUR BOOKS OF KNIGHTHOOD<br />
+(DE RE MILITARI)<br />
+15TH CENT.<br />
+<i>Brit. Mus. Roy. MS. 18 A. xii, f. 1</i><br />&nbsp;</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/014.jpg" width="500" height="818" alt="PSALTERIUM" title="PSALTERIUM" />
+<span class="caption">PSALTERIUM<br />
+C. 1470<br />
+<i>Brit. Mus. Harl. MS. 1719, fol. 73 v.</i></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>One rather fine example is seen in Arund. MS.
+109, a folio called the Melreth Missal, because
+given by William Melreth, Alderman of London,
+to the church of St. Lawrence, Old Jewry. He
+died in 1446.</p>
+
+<p>For topographical miniature a good example
+occurs in Roy. 16 F. 2, which contains a grand
+view of London, including the Tower, but this
+MS. is probably not of genuine English production.
+Nor is Roy. 19 C. 8, though a very interesting
+example as regards costume and local usages.
+The genuine English work of which Arund. 109
+is a type has received the name of Lancastrian,
+as falling to the reigns of the three Lancastrian
+kings&mdash;Henry&nbsp;IV., V., and VI.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170"></a>In the reign of Edward&nbsp;IV. we meet with the
+introduction of Flemish illumination, which
+gradually supersedes the native style, and by
+the time of Henry&nbsp;VII. the latter has almost
+disappeared. Its final extinction, however, was
+left for the sixteenth century, when either Flemish
+or Italian renaissance work entirely took its place.
+By the time of Queen Elizabeth English illumination
+was a thing of the past.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171"></a><a name="II_CHAPTER_VI" id="II_CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI</h2>
+
+<h3>ITALIAN ILLUMINATION</h3>
+
+
+<p>Barbaric character of Italian illumination in the twelfth century&mdash;Ravenna
+and Pavia the earliest centres of revival&mdash;The
+&ldquo;Exultet&rdquo;&mdash;La Cava and Monte Cassino&mdash;The writers of
+early Italian MSS. not Italians&mdash;In the early fourteenth century
+the art is French&mdash;Peculiarities of Italian foliages&mdash;The
+Law Books&mdash;Poems of Convenevole da Prato, the tutor of
+Petrarch&mdash;Celebrated patrons&mdash;The Laon Boethius&mdash;The
+Decretals, Institutes, etc.&mdash;&ldquo;Decretum Gratiani,&rdquo; other
+collections and MSS.&mdash;Statuts du Saint-Esprit&mdash;Method of
+painting&mdash;Don Silvestro&mdash;The Rationale of Durandus&mdash;Nicolas
+of Bologna, etc.&mdash;Triumphs of Petrarch&mdash;Books at
+San Marco, Florence&mdash;The Brera Graduals at Milan&mdash;Other
+Italian collections&mdash;Examples of different localities in the
+British Museum&mdash;Places where the best work was done&mdash;Fine
+Neapolitan MSS. in the British Museum&mdash;The white-vine
+style superseded by the classical renaissance.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Considering</span> the position occupied by the
+Roman Empire as the civiliser of Europe, it
+is not a little curious and somewhat surprising to
+find that in the twelfth century, when German
+and French artists were doing such good and
+even admirable work, that of Italy was almost
+barbaric. A MS. in the Vatican (4922) is shown
+as a proof of this. It is not an obscure sort of
+book that might have been written by a merely
+devout but untrained monk for his own use, but a
+<a name="Page_172" id="Page_172"></a>work of importance executed for no less a personage
+than the celebrated Countess Matilda. The
+scribe was Donizo, a monk of the Benedictine
+Abbey of Canossa. It is of the early or pr&aelig;-Carolingian
+type, rather inclined to Byzantine,
+but with the big hands and aimless expression
+of all semi-barbaric work. Yet it has a certain
+delicacy and carefulness. In Rome itself during
+the ninth century barbarism was at its very lowest
+point. Only the sea-port towns had any notion
+of what was being done in other places. Painting
+was practised, it is true, so was mosaic, but the
+worst of Oriental carpets would be a masterpiece
+of elegance beside anything done in Italy. Whatever
+gleams of artistic intelligence appear, they
+certainly emanated from Ravenna or Pavia. But
+as there were no wealthy and peaceful courts, no
+indolent, high-bred, luxurious courtiers during
+that dark and troublous period, miniature or
+illumination had no call for existence. In the
+twelfth century book-illustration consisted simply
+of pen-sketching of the most elementary kind.
+The Lombards alone produced anything like
+illumination. A sort of roll containing pictures
+of the various scenes of the Old and New Testaments
+which represented the leading doctrines of
+the Church, and which used to hang over the
+pulpit as the preacher discoursed upon them, is
+the only representative of the time. Such a roll
+was called an &ldquo;Exultet&rdquo; from its first word,
+which is the beginning of the line &ldquo;Exultet jam
+Angelica turba c&aelig;lorum&rdquo; of the hymn for the
+benediction of the paschal wax tapers on Easter
+<a name="Page_173" id="Page_173"></a>Eve. Several of these &ldquo;Exultets&rdquo; are still kept
+in the Cathedral at Pisa, and in the Barberini
+and Minerva Libraries in Rome.<a name="FNanchor_1_40" id="FNanchor_1_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> Of course the
+pictures are upside down to the reader, so as to
+be right for the congregation.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_40" id="Footnote_1_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> See one in British Mus., Add. MS. 30337, and description
+of it in <i>Journ. of the Arch&aelig;ol. Assoc.</i> vol. 34, p. 321.</p></div>
+
+<p>Very little progress was made, as we may
+imagine, until after the great revival movement
+begun by Cimabue, Giotto, and their contemporaries,
+about the middle of the thirteenth century.
+But before taking up any inquiry into Italian
+work generally we must not omit reference to the
+remarkable MSS. produced at La Cava and
+Monte Cassino during the Franco-Lombard
+period. Some idea has already been furnished
+in dealing with Celtic MSS. and the foundations
+begun by Columbanus and his scholars. Indeed,
+the general character of these Lombard MSS. is
+seen in the Franco-Celtic. The distinguishing
+feature, if there be one, is the frequent recurrence
+among the interlacements of the <i>white dog</i>.
+The La Cava Library, which was one of the
+finest in Italy, has been transferred to Naples.
+Monte Cassino still continues and maintains not
+only a library but a printing press, from which
+the learned fathers have issued at least one great
+work on the subject of Cassinese pal&aelig;ography.
+Of all the pr&aelig;-Carolingian hands, Lombardic or
+Lombardesque was certainly the most peculiar,
+and is perhaps the most difficult to read. One
+evidence of this is the diversity of opinion on the
+true reading of certain proper names in the
+<a name="Page_174" id="Page_174"></a>original MS. containing the oldest text of Tacitus
+which happens to be a Lombard MS. The characters
+and other examples of the eleventh to the thirteenth
+century that have been published at Monte
+Cassino, however, fully illustrate the peculiarities of
+the handwriting, and give besides several splendid
+examples of calligraphy.<a name="FNanchor_1_41" id="FNanchor_1_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_41" id="Footnote_1_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> The La Cava MSS. have been described by P. Gillaume
+in an essay published at Naples, 1877, and those of Monte
+Cassino by A. Caravita, Monte Cassino, 1860-71.</p></div>
+
+<p>One of the earliest illuminated Italian MS.
+which bears a date is a Volume of Letters of
+St. Bernard, now in the Library of Laon. It is
+very seldom that the earlier scribes and illuminators
+who produced Italian MSS. or worked in
+Italy were Italians. They were usually foreigners
+and mostly Frenchmen, and the art was looked
+upon at the beginning of the fourteenth century
+as a French art. This very decided example of
+Italian work is already different from the French
+work of the same period. The profile foliages
+have already acquired that peculiar trick of sudden
+change and reversion of curve, showing the other
+side of a leaf with change of colour, which is a
+marked characteristic of all fourteenth-century
+Italian illumination. For examples of it, the
+Bolognese Law Books, Decretals, and such-like,
+afford frequent illustration. Before leaving this
+first-quoted MS., we may say that it points to
+France rather than to Germany or Lombardy for
+its general form of design, but the foliages are
+quite of another kind. Another Laon MS. (352)
+shows the same treatment of foliage, but in effect
+<a name="Page_175" id="Page_175"></a>more like what may be considered as the typical
+Italian style seen in the famous Avignon Bible of
+the anti-pope, Clement&nbsp;VII. (Robert of Geneva),
+which dates between 1378 and 1394.<a name="FNanchor_1_42" id="FNanchor_1_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_42" id="Footnote_1_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> See Humphreys, <i>Illum. Books of the Middle Ages</i>,
+pl. 16; and Silvestre, <i>Pal&eacute;ographie Universelle</i>, pl. 117.</p></div>
+
+<p>A further example still more powerful in expression
+and skilful in manipulation is seen in a copy
+of the Poems of Convenevole da Prato, in the
+British Museum (Roy. 6 E. 9), executed for
+King Robert of Naples, a patron of Giotto
+(1276-1337), which, in comparison with the Laon
+Letters of St. Bernard of about the same date,
+is even still more Italian.</p>
+
+<p>Cardinal Stefaneschi, another of Giotto's patrons,
+was also a promoter of illumination. His Missal,
+now at Rome in the archives of the Canons of St.
+Peter's, is a fine example of this style. It dates
+from 1327 to 1343. The MS. of Boethius at Laon
+is another. But one of the most masterly, whether
+as to design or manipulation, is a law book in the
+Library at Laon (No. 382). This grand folio contains
+&ldquo;Glossa Ioannis Andre&aelig; in Clementinas&rdquo;&mdash;&ldquo;The
+Gloss or Explanation of Joannes Andreas
+on the Clementines.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>By the way, as illuminated law books, civil and
+canonical, form so large a section of Italian MSS.,
+it may be well in this place to warn the reader
+against random explanations sometimes offered
+in sale catalogues concerning these books, their
+authors and commentators. For instance, this
+commentator Joannes Andreas was not, as we
+have seen it confidently stated (as if it were part
+<a name="Page_176" id="Page_176"></a>of the actual contemporary title of the MS.),
+Bishop of Aleria (Episcopus Aleriersis), but a
+jurist of Bologna. The bishop lived a century or
+so after the jurist, who had completed his long
+career as professor of law at Bologna extending
+over forty-five years before the bishop was born.
+His chief works are Commentaries on the Clementines
+(printed in folio at Mayence 1471, and again
+at Dijon in 1575), and Commentaries on Five Books
+of the Decretals (printed in folio at Mayence in
+1455, and at Venice in 1581). While on this topic of
+Italian law MSS., it may be useful to state clearly
+what they are. By way of contrast to the <i>Corpus
+Juris Canonici</i>, or Body of Canon Law, the subject
+of books dealing with the so-called Decretals, the
+other branch, including the Institutes Digest and
+Novell&aelig; of Justinian, was entitled <i>Corpus Juris
+Civilis</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The Decretals, then, which we so often meet
+with in public libraries under various names, are
+the canons which mainly constitute the Canon
+Law. Strictly speaking they are the papal epistolary
+decrees (decreta), said to have existed from
+very early times. In the ninth century a collection
+of them was formed, or manufactured, in the name
+of the celebrated Isidore of Seville. But with the
+donation of Constantine to Pope Sylvester and
+many others in the later compilation of Gratian,
+these are usually looked upon as spurious and
+false. The great and authorised collection was
+completed by a simple Benedictine monk of St.
+Felix, in Bologna, a native of Chiusi, the ancient
+Clusium, in Tuscany, a man so learned in the law
+<a name="Page_177" id="Page_177"></a>as to have earned the title of &ldquo;Magister.&rdquo; This
+is the work often richly illuminated which goes
+by the name of the &ldquo;Decretum Gratiani.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_1_43" id="FNanchor_1_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> When
+glancing over the lovely initials and beautiful
+foliages or resplendent ornaments, we are apt to
+overlook the work itself which is truly monumental;
+being a summary of the papal epistolary
+decrees, the synodal canons of 150 councils,
+selections from various regal codes, extracts from
+the Fathers, and comments of Schoolmen; all
+methodically arranged and digested so as to
+facilitate its use as a manual for the schools. It
+is said to have occupied the compiler incessantly
+for twenty-five years. Immediately on its completion
+in 1151 it was at once authorised by the
+Pope Eugenius&nbsp;III. as the only text-book to be used
+in the public schools, and to govern the decrees
+of the Ecclesiastical Courts. Hence its celebrity.
+Its transcripts are very numerous, and it has been
+often printed. As to the Sext and Clementines
+they are merely additional commentaries on supplementary
+collections of decrees. Thus a new collection
+authorised by Boniface&nbsp;VIII. is called the
+<i>sext</i>, <i>i.e.</i> the sixth book of the Decretals. The
+Clementines were the constitutions of Clement&nbsp;V.
+Other collections such as that of John&nbsp;XXII. are
+called Extravagantes.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_43" id="Footnote_1_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> See Add. 15274, British Museum.</p></div>
+
+<p>The most ancient MSS. of the Decretals bear
+the title of <i>Concordantia discordantium Canonum</i> (a
+&ldquo;concordance of discordant decrees&rdquo;); afterwards
+The Book of Decrees; lastly, The Decretals. It
+was considered, however, by some, jurists and
+<a name="Page_178" id="Page_178"></a>others, to be not so much a concordance of discordant
+canons as a subjugation of the ancient
+canons to the decrees of the Papacy, and as
+already stated, many of its decrees were found
+to be false and fictitious. Nevertheless, it is by
+no means an uncommon volume among the illuminators.
+Let us now return to the Laon example&mdash;one
+of four or five of the species in that collection.
+The scene where the author is presenting
+his work to the pope&mdash;we now know them both&mdash;is
+quite a painting. Except for the defect that
+kneeling figures are somewhat mis-shapen or ill-proportioned
+in the lower limbs, the work is quite
+comparable with contemporary mural painting,
+both for composition and colour. It is almost
+modern. It is quite realistic. In costume, expression,
+easy and appropriate attitude, it has
+quite outrun French illumination altogether.</p>
+
+<p>Another dated MS. (1332) in the same Library
+(No. 357), &ldquo;Rubrics of the Decretals,&rdquo; is a most
+amusing example of the universal taste for irony
+and satire in the initial figures and corner effigies.</p>
+
+<p>A much-lauded MS. among these fourteenth-century
+examples is one that has been carefully
+and expensively reproduced by the late Cte.
+Horace de Viel-Castel, namely, the &ldquo;Statuts de
+l'Ordre du Saint-Esprit au Droit D&eacute;sir ou du
+N&#339;ud,&rdquo; an order instituted at Naples in 1352 by
+Louis&nbsp;I. d'Anjou (called Louis of Taranto), King
+of Jerusalem, Naples, and Sicily, cousin and husband
+of Queen Joanna of Naples. The style of
+the illumination is precisely the same as those just
+mentioned belonging to Laon, and as several
+<a name="Page_179" id="Page_179"></a>MSS. in the British Museum. Its stem and
+foliage ornament is very brightly coloured in fine
+green, scarlet, rose, ultramarine, and gold. The
+miniatures which occasionally contain evident
+attempts at portraiture, are painted in the manner
+of the school of Cimabue and the earlier Italian
+painters, more particularly that of Simone Memmi.
+It is substantially the Byzantine manner, but
+improved and enlivened by attention to natural
+attitude and expression. The greenish under-painting
+of the flesh-tints is often noticeable.
+The decorative portions are very skilful and
+elaborate, as well as extremely neat and symmetrical;
+the gold profuse and brilliant. Indeed, the
+whole production may be studied as a typical
+example of its time. The text, though good, is
+not so beautiful as the Bolognese hand usually
+found in Italian MSS. of the following century.
+But perhaps this should add to its value as a
+proof of its being absolutely contemporaneous
+with the foundation of the Order, and therefore
+of its being the identical MS. ordered by the
+magnificent founder, Louis of Taranto, second
+husband of the too-celebrated Joanna of Naples.
+Their marriage took place in the August of 1346,
+and on the 27th of May, 1352, being Whitsun Day,
+they were crowned. In memory of this happy
+event, Joanna founded the Church of the Virgin,
+Louis instituted the Order of the Holy Spirit, or
+of the Knot, the symbols of which appear frequently
+in the illumination of the MS. It was
+named in honour of the Day of Pentecost&mdash;&ldquo;L'Ordre
+de la Chevalerie du Saint-Esprit.&rdquo; The
+<a name="Page_180" id="Page_180"></a>phrase &ldquo;au droit d&eacute;sir&rdquo; had reference to the
+circumstances preceding the marriage. The knot
+was worn in token of the &ldquo;perfect amity&rdquo; of the
+members of the Order.<a name="FNanchor_1_44" id="FNanchor_1_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_44" id="Footnote_1_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> See reproduction, published at Paris by Englemann
+and Graf in 1853, 1. fol.</p></div>
+
+<p>Other works of the fourteenth century are
+enthusiastically praised by Italian writers, as, <i>e.g.</i>,
+those of Don Silvestro, a Camaldolese monk, who
+flourished at the same time as the illuminator of
+this MS. of Louis of Taranto, and who worked
+on the great choir books of the Monastery &ldquo;degli
+angeli,&rdquo; in Florence, so loudly commended by
+Vasari and others who had seen them. They
+have long been broken up and dispersed, and it
+is not improbable that cuttings from them were
+among those bought by Ottley, Rogers, and other
+amateurs. A fragment of an Antiphonary of
+Nocturnal Services, now in the Laurentian Library
+at Florence, finished in 1370, shows the style of
+work to be of the kind just described. Other
+great choir books of the earlier period are preserved
+in the Academy at Pisa. But the number
+of MSS. to which reference might be made is
+legion. Those of this date are chiefly civil law
+books; next to these come the canon law, and
+divinity. Among the intermediate class are the
+copies of the Rationale of Durandus, one of these
+being in the British Museum (Add. 31032). Now
+and then a fine Missal, like the &ldquo;Stefaneschi,&rdquo; or
+the Munich Missal of 1374, which may be referred
+to as being one of the models of the school of
+Prag. On the whole, perhaps, the law books are
+<a name="Page_181" id="Page_181"></a>more numerous than liturgical ones, and are
+referable generally to Bologna or Padua. The
+name of Nicholaus of Bologna occurs more than
+once in these books. A book of offices of the
+Virgin, by Nicholaus, is now at Kremsm&uuml;nster,
+and a New Testament, dated 1328, in the Vatican.
+Tommaso di Modena, another distinguished Italian
+illuminator, also had much to do with altering the
+style of the artists who worked for Charles&nbsp;IV. at
+Prag. Some of his work, or work presumed to
+be his, is still to be seen in the Bohemian capital.
+Next to these Bolognese MSS. we may place
+those of Florence&mdash;copies of the Divina Commedia
+and the Triumphs and Sonnets of Petrarch,
+which, with historians and copies or translations
+of the classics, chiefly occupied the illuminators
+of Florence and Siena, with one notable exception.
+Whoever has visited any of the North
+Italian cities cannot fail to have noticed and
+admired the magnificent choir-books still to be
+seen in the cathedrals and cathedral libraries.
+At Siena the Piccolomini service-books are truly
+splendid; those in San Marco, the Riccardi, the
+Laurentian, and other collections in Florence, are
+no less admirable. Verona's best work is chiefly
+elsewhere, at Florence, Siena, etc. At Milan the
+Brera Graduals&mdash;each of them a man's load to
+carry&mdash;are simply gorgeous in the lavish richness
+of their letters, miniatures, and decorations.
+Venice, again, has another grand collection of
+MSS. of the highest class in her Attavantes and
+Gerard Davids; Rome, in a crowd of princely
+libraries, has multitudes&mdash;literally multitudes&mdash;of
+<a name="Page_182" id="Page_182"></a>exquisitely illuminated volumes. Naples also has
+some noble examples of the great craftsmen. We
+have not yet mentioned the Ambrosian Library in
+Milan, nor, except the Vatican, a single library
+by name in Rome. The mere names of the Corsini,
+Sciarra, Barberini Libraries are enough to
+those who have ever explored their contents to
+remind them of work that can nowhere else be
+seen so perfect, so profuse, as in beautiful Italy.</p>
+
+<p>As specimens of local centres the British
+Museum offers many examples. Thus Add.
+15813, though ordered for Sta. Justina of
+Padua, was probably illuminated at Venice;
+15814 at Bologna; 15260 probably at Ferrara;
+18000 at Venice; most of the fragments in
+21412 in Rome; 20927 in Rome; 21591 at
+Naples; 28962 at Naples; 21413 at Milan; the
+majority of the Ducali, of which the museum
+contains a large collection, in Venice. Some of
+the Spanish-looking MSS. executed for Alphonse&nbsp;V.
+of Aragon were actually produced in Naples.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/015.jpg" width="500" height="775" alt="MISSALE" title="MISSALE" />
+<span class="caption">MISSALE<br />
+C. 1530<br />
+<i>Brit. Mus. Ada. MS. 15813, fol. 27</i><br />&nbsp;</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/016.jpg" width="500" height="629" alt="KATHOLISCHES GEBETHBUCH" title="KATHOLISCHES GEBETHBUCH" />
+<span class="caption">KATHOLISCHES GEBETHBUCH<br />
+1584<br />
+<i>Brit. Mus. Add. MS. 17525, fol. 155</i></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is not safe to assert that because a work is
+ordered for a monastery or a prince that the
+copyists or illuminators always went to the
+monastery or palace to do the work, though
+frequently they did so. Most of the MSS.
+executed for Matthias Corvinus, King of Hungary,
+were produced in Florence. There was
+more than one atelier of illuminators in Florence.
+There were others in Bologna, others in Rome,
+and quite a large establishment in Naples.
+Others resided in Milan, Ferrara, and Verona.
+Those at Ferrara lived chiefly at the Ducal Palace.
+<a name="Page_183" id="Page_183"></a>Those at Verona were the guests of the great
+Ghibelline leader, Can della Scala, and his immediate
+successors. Those at Naples, in the
+time of Alphonso the Magnanimous, and especially
+of his son, Ferdinand&nbsp;I., were maintained solely
+for the augmentation and embellishment of the
+Royal Library.<a name="FNanchor_1_45" id="FNanchor_1_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> A list of seventeen copyists,
+including the famous names of Antonio Sinibaldo,
+Giovanni, Rinaldo, Mennio, and Hippolito Lunensis,
+and of fourteen or fifteen illuminators, all of distinguished
+ability, is given by Signer Riccio from
+the archives of the city. The splendid work they
+achieved may still occasionally be met with. In
+the British Museum (Add. 21120) there is a
+beautiful copy of the Ethics of Aristotle, with
+very peculiar initials and ornaments; and in the
+National Library, at Paris, many other very fine
+examples of Neapolitan work. Of the handwriting
+of Mennius we have a fine example in
+Add. 11912, which is a quarto copy of Lucretius,
+written on 160 leaves of vellum. Fol. 1 has a
+grand border on a gold ground, with a miniature
+containing a handsome initial E suspended over
+the author's head, who is seated at a desk writing.
+The first three lines of the text are in
+Roman capitals, alternately gold and blue. The
+illumination is of a transitional character, inclining
+rather towards the candelabra style of the
+Milanese and Neapolitan Renaissance&mdash;the Heures
+d'Aragon, executed for Frederick&nbsp;III., show a
+similar taste for candelabra, etc. On the other
+<a name="Page_184" id="Page_184"></a>hand, the initials are of the older white stem
+type, with coloured grounds. The writing is a
+small and very neat Roman minuscule, and dates
+probably about 1485, or between 1480 and 1490.
+The penmanship of Hippolito Lunensis appears
+in Ficino's Translation of Plato; also in the
+British Museum, Harl. 3481, and in Add.
+15270, 15271.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_45" id="Footnote_1_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> Riccio, C.W., <i>Cenno Storico dell Accademia Alfonsina</i>.
+Naples, 1865.</p></div>
+
+<p>The Heures d'Aragon referred to above are
+a rich example of the Neapolitan Renaissance
+preserved in the National Library at Paris.
+Writers on Italian miniatures are very numerous,
+and a good deal of interesting information about
+Italian MSS. may be found in M. Delisle's
+<i>Cabinet des MSS.</i>, etc.</p>
+
+<p>There is one style of Italian illumination made
+very popular by the illuminators of the works of
+Petrarch, many of which are found in various
+libraries. That is the one called the vine-stem
+style. It consists of gracefully coiled stems,
+usually left uncoloured or softly tinted with yellow,
+and bearing here and there peculiar ornamental
+flowerets, while the grounds are picked out with
+various colours, on which are fine white triads of
+dots or traceries in delicate white or golden
+tendrils. A later variety of this style makes the
+stems of some pale but bright tint, and the
+grounds of deep colour. The vine-stem style
+seems to have prevailed throughout the whole of
+Italy just previous to the classic revival brought
+about by the Medici in throwing open their
+museums of sculptures, coins, and other antiquities,
+and by the liberal patronage of the new
+<a name="Page_185" id="Page_185"></a>classic work by Matthias Corvinus, King of Hungary,
+and the Dukes of Urbino. After 1500 the
+vine-stem style seems to have gradually died out,
+and thenceforward only varieties of the revived
+antique became the fashion.</p>
+
+<p>To the Italian Renaissance we shall revert in a
+later chapter.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186"></a><a name="II_CHAPTER_VII" id="II_CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII</h2>
+
+
+<h3>GERMAN ILLUMINATION FROM THE THIRTEENTH TO
+THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY</h3>
+
+<p>Frederick&nbsp;II., <i>Stupor Mundi</i>, and his MS. on hunting&mdash;The
+Sicilian school mainly Saracenic, but a mixture of Greek,
+Arabic, and Latin tastes&mdash;The Franconian Emperors at
+Bamberg&mdash;Charles of Anjou&mdash;The House of Luxembourg at
+Prag&mdash;MSS. in the University Library&mdash;The Collegium
+Carolinum of the Emperor Charles&nbsp;IV.&mdash;MSS. at Vienna&mdash;The
+Wenzel Bible&mdash;The Weltchronik of Rudolf v. Ems at
+Stuttgard&mdash;Wilhelm v. Oranse at Vienna&mdash;The Golden
+Bull&mdash;Various schools&mdash;Hildesheimer Prayer-book at
+Berlin&mdash;The Nuremberg school&mdash;The Glockendons&mdash;The
+Brethren of the Pen.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">In</span> a former chapter we brought up the story
+of German illumination to the time of the
+Hohenstaufen emperors. We may now make a
+new start with Frederick&nbsp;II., the eccentric, resolute,
+intractable, accomplished <i>Stupor Mundi</i> (1210-50).
+Not only was he a patron and encouraged
+art, but also an author. The work which he
+composed is still extant, and is preserved in the
+Vatican Library under the title <i>De arte venandi
+cum avibus</i>. Paintings of birds and hunting
+scenes embellish its pages. The art is not specially
+high class, and though in courtesy it may be
+called German, seeing that he was the German
+<a name="Page_187" id="Page_187"></a>Emperor, and in some respects is like the Imperial
+MSS. of the Saxon period, in point of fact it is
+Italian or Sicilian.<a name="FNanchor_1_46" id="FNanchor_1_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> This Sicilian school is
+peculiar, and exhibits very slight traits of relationship
+with the rest of Italy. After the Arab conquest
+of the island in 827, whilst new ideas were
+imported, still the old Greek cities kept their
+ancient traditions and methods in art, especially
+in those branches we term industrial, and just
+as both Greek and Arabic tongues existed as
+vernaculars beside the Latin, so the arts and
+industries bore the features of three artistic
+tastes.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_46" id="Footnote_1_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> (Bibl. Vatican, Palatina, No. 1071). Notice in Kobell,
+<i>Kunstv. Miniaturen</i>, p. 44.</p></div>
+
+<p>The silk-weaving of the Greek craftsmen was
+embellished with the designs of embroidery from
+Damascus, and these were mingled with patterns
+in which the foliages of Carolingian and German
+origin are distinctly traceable. Examples of the
+kind of manufacture here referred to may be seen
+in the robes of the Emperor Henry&nbsp;II., still preserved
+in the Cathedral Treasury at Bamberg.
+Also the coronation mantle of St. Stephen of
+Hungary, husband of Henry's sister Gisela&mdash;originally
+a closed <i>casula</i> covering the body, but
+now an open cloak richly embroidered with figures
+of prophets, animals, and foliages, and even portraits
+of the King and Queen. It has sometimes
+been thought, from the inscription on its border,
+that, like the Bayeux tapestries of Queen Matilda,
+the needlework was from the Queen's own hand;
+<a name="Page_188" id="Page_188"></a>but no doubt both these attributions are mistaken.<a name="FNanchor_1_47" id="FNanchor_1_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a>
+Still more Saracenic in taste are the
+mantle and alb now in the Imperial Treasury at
+Vienna, of the twelfth century, and executed at
+Palermo. Sicilian in some respects is intermediate
+between Italian and German, hence we
+deem this a proper place to speak of it, and
+rather as a transient phase than a style, for it
+perished with the Hohenstaufen dynasty.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_47" id="Footnote_1_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> See description in Bock, <i>Die Kleinodien des heiligen
+R&ouml;misches Reichs</i>, pl. 17.</p></div>
+
+<p>The cruel tyranny of the cold-blooded despot,
+remembered, but execrated, in Sicily as Charles of
+Anjou, extinguished the last <i>scintilla</i> of native art,
+and when the Italian revival of the thirteenth
+century took place, it was confined entirely to the
+North, except when such patrons as Robert or
+Ferdinand or Alfonso encouraged Tuscan artists
+by inviting them to Naples. Palermo was no
+longer of importance, though a capital, and Sicily
+existed merely as a portion of the kingdom of
+Naples.</p>
+
+<p>Let us pass, then, to the great German capital.
+Changes here, too, have taken place. It is not
+Bamberg but Prag, for the Imperial crown has
+passed from the House of Suabia through the
+Hapsburgs to that of Luxembourg, and among its
+territories is the picturesque old city with its
+historic bridge and gate-towers, a Slavonic not a
+German city in its origin. The ten German circles
+of Suabia and Franconia, Westphalia, Bohemia, and
+the rest did not as yet exist&mdash;they were the later
+<a name="Page_189" id="Page_189"></a>creation of Maximilian; the Fatherland consisted
+of some two or three hundred dukedoms, counts,
+marquisates, and lordships, all absolute sovereignties,
+but all pledged to support the Holy Roman
+Empire. Very thinly, perhaps, but still the
+Imperial sceptre meant a real supremacy, and in
+the hands of such emperors as Henry of Luxembourg,
+a supremacy maintained with real and becoming
+dignity.</p>
+
+<p>Prag, as we have said, is in a Slavonic country,
+and one sometimes hostile to the Empire. It was
+the capital of Bohemia. In 1310 its King was
+John, the restless son of the new Emperor Henry&nbsp;VII.
+of Luxembourg. Hence we find it at the
+moment we begin the study of its art a nominally
+German city. Shortly before this time were produced
+several examples of German work; as, for
+instance, the &ldquo;Minnelieder,&rdquo; with more than a
+hundred miniatures of hunting scenes and similar
+outdoor amusements, which are useful as studies
+of costume, but otherwise of little interest. But
+it is not until 1312&mdash;the new King being then, for
+the sake of acquiring the crown, though only, it
+is said, thirteen years of age, already the husband
+of the Princess Elizabeth, the late King's second
+daughter, yet neither a favourite with his wife
+nor with her father's people&mdash;that the Abbess of
+St. George's in Prag, the Princess Cunigunda,
+composed a Passionale, richly illustrated with
+interesting miniatures. The saints, histories, and
+allegories are painted in tender water-colours, the
+architectural details being in Gothic taste. It is
+still preserved in the University Library at Prag,
+<a name="Page_190" id="Page_190"></a>No. xiv., A. 17.<a name="FNanchor_1_48" id="FNanchor_1_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> The Emperor Charles&nbsp;IV., son
+of the valorous but impracticable John (born
+1316, died 1378), and who has already been
+spoken of in connection with English illumination,
+was the founder of the Bohemian school, or,
+rather, of the school of Prag. Owing probably
+his fine tastes and many accomplishments rather
+to his mother than his father, he devoted himself
+to art and literature, inviting painters and
+scholars from other countries to reside in the
+Bohemian capital. For the Collegium Carolinum,
+of which he was the founder, he caused many
+noble volumes to be executed, and among the
+vast treasures and curiosities of his celebrated
+Schloss Karlstein was a fine collection of illuminated
+MSS. In the Museum at Prag and other
+local libraries are still kept some relics of his
+library. The &ldquo;Liber Viaticus&rdquo; of Bishop John
+of Newmarkt&mdash;the &ldquo;Orationale&rdquo; of Bishop
+Arnestus (under French influence)&mdash;the &ldquo;Pontificale
+of Bishop Albert von Sternberg&rdquo; (in the
+library of the Pr&aelig;monstrant Monastery of Strahow)&mdash;the
+Missal of Archbishop Ozko von Wlaschim
+(library of the Metropolitan Chapter in Prag)&mdash;the
+Evangeliary of Canon John von Troppau
+(Johannes de Oppavia), written and illuminated at
+Brunn, in Moravia, now in the Imperial Library
+at Vienna. All these illuminated MSS. are
+examples of the great variety of styles in which
+the Bohemian colony produced their work under
+<a name="Page_191" id="Page_191"></a>the auspices of their liberal patron, yet not without
+peculiarities which mark the individuality of
+the artist. Thus while the Orationale of Arnestus
+is almost French, the Passionale of Cunegunda is
+entirely free from French influence. For costumes
+the Weltchronik of Rudolf von Ems, 1350-85,
+and now in the Royal Private Library at Stuttgard,
+is almost an encyclop&aelig;dia. Similar is the
+&ldquo;Legenda Aurea&rdquo; of 1362 in the Public Library at
+Munich (Cod. Germ. 6). A very interesting MS.
+with miniatures of costumes and curious usages
+is the &ldquo;Bellifortis&rdquo; of Conrad Kyeser (G&ouml;ttingen,
+Public Library, Philos., No. 63). The Evangeliary
+of Troppau is most beautifully written;
+its text is a model of elegant and perfect penmanship;
+its ornaments distinctly Bohemian. Three
+or four Prag MSS. executed for Charles's son
+Wenzel (1378-1409) are, it may be said, typical.
+Of these the grandest, though incomplete, is the
+illuminated Bible, called the Wenzel Bible, executed
+by order of Martin Rotl&ouml;w for presentation
+to the Emperor. The choice of illustrations in
+this singular performance are rather more than
+on a par with the woodcuts of the great English
+Bible of Cranmer. The &ldquo;Wilhelm von Oranse&rdquo;
+of 1387, now in the Ambras Museum at Vienna
+(No. 7), affords splendid examples of the fine
+embroidered and richly coloured backgrounds we
+so often see towards 1400 in English MSS., and
+the Golden Bull of Charles&nbsp;IV., also in the
+Imperial Library at Vienna (j. c. 338), has the
+softly curling foliages variously coloured, which
+form the characteristic difference between the
+<a name="Page_192" id="Page_192"></a>French and English illumination of the fifteenth
+century.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_48" id="Footnote_1_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> Wocel, <i>Mittheil. der Central.-Commiss.</i>, v., 1860, p. 75,
+with illustrations.</p></div>
+
+<p>Another rich example of German as distinct
+from French or Italian work of this period is the
+grand Salzburg Missal now at Munich (Lat.
+15710). When we reach the fifteenth century
+German illumination begins to grow gaudy,
+especially in the revived taste for parti-coloured
+border-frames, in which green and scarlet are
+often to be seen. The Kuttenberg Gradual at
+Vienna (Imp. Lib., 15501) is of the Bohemian type.
+Now and then a MS. will show the influence of
+Westphalian treatment of foliage&mdash;and, again,
+of the school of Cologne or Nuremberg or Augsburg.
+These all differ, whilst still keeping an
+unmistakable German character. The Hildesheimer
+Prayer-book at Berlin points to Cologne.
+The Frankendorfer Evangeliary at Nuremberg is
+characteristic of that city. The Choir-book of
+St. Ulrich and Afra in their abbey at Augsburg
+is typical of its locality. The Missal of Sbinco,
+Archbishop of Prag, inclines to Nuremberg rather
+than Prag (Imp. Lib., Vienna, No. 1844). It
+is eighty years earlier than the Augsburg and
+Hildesheim MSS. Passing actively onwards, we
+find illumination still in vogue in the sixteenth
+century, notwithstanding that Germany was the
+cradle of the printing press.</p>
+
+<p>In fact, it seems to wax more and more sumptuous&mdash;the
+books more profusely ornamented than
+ever. The Missal and Prayer-book of Albert of
+Brandenburg, Archbishop of Mainz, once at
+Aschaffenburg, executed about 1524 are among the
+<a name="Page_193" id="Page_193"></a>finest productions of the illuminator's art. While
+perhaps we may complain that design has given
+way to profusion and the border flowers and
+insects&mdash;a contemporary characteristic of Netherlandish
+art also&mdash;are neither more nor less than
+portraiture applied to flowers, fruits, and the
+insect world. The larger miniatures are modern
+paintings, including portraits, differing in nothing
+but dimensions from the works of the greatest
+masters of the schools of painting. In ignorance
+of the strict rules of the gilds, some writers have
+gone so far as to say that miniatures also such
+as these were the work of the Van Eycks, the
+Memlings, and the Lucas van Leydens of our
+public galleries. This particular MS. was the
+work of a famous Nuremberg miniaturist, one
+of a distinguished family of artists&mdash;Nicolas
+Glockendon.</p>
+
+<p>A very similar, but perhaps still richer, MS., is
+the Prayer-book of William of Bavaria, still kept
+in the Imperial Library at Vienna (No. 1880),
+painted by Albert Glockendon. It is one of the
+most exquisite volumes possibly to be met with.
+A Prayer-book in the British Museum (Add.
+17525), though far inferior, may give some idea
+of the sumptuous character of the Glockendon
+work.</p>
+
+<p>The first Archbishop of Prag, Arnestus or Ernest
+von Pardubitz, was an industrious collector of
+MSS. and employed many scribes. Another of
+the famous patrons in Prag was Gerhard Groot,
+who employed one of the best penmen to copy
+St. John Chrysostom's <i>Commentary on St. Matthew</i>.
+<a name="Page_194" id="Page_194"></a>In 1383 he founded at Deventer the famous House
+of the Brothers of the Common Life, who made
+a business of transcribing books; and, indeed,
+so profitably, that, for instance, Ian van Enkhuisen
+of Zwolle received five hundred golden gulden for
+a Bible. On account of the goose-quill which the
+brothers wore in their hats, they were familiarly
+known as the Brethren of the Pen.<a name="FNanchor_1_49" id="FNanchor_1_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_49" id="Footnote_1_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> Wattenbach, <i>Schriftwesen im Mittelalter</i>, p. 264.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195"></a><a name="II_CHAPTER_VIII" id="II_CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII</h2>
+
+<h3>NETHERLANDISH ILLUMINATION</h3>
+
+<p>What is meant by the Netherlands&mdash;Early realism and study
+of nature&mdash;Combination of symbolism with imitation&mdash;Anachronism
+in design&mdash;The value of the pictorial methods
+of the old illuminators&mdash;The oldest Netherlandish MS.&mdash;Harlinda
+and Renilda&mdash;The nunnery at Maas-Eyck&mdash;Description
+of the MS.&mdash;Thomas &agrave; Kempis&mdash;The school of
+Zwolle&mdash;Character of the work&mdash;The use of green landscape
+backgrounds&mdash;The Dukes of Burgundy&mdash;Netherlandish
+artists&mdash;No miniatures of the Van Eycks or Memling known
+to exist&mdash;Schools of Bruges, Ghent, Li&eacute;ge, etc.&mdash;Brussels
+Library&mdash;Splendid Netherlandish MSS. at Vienna&mdash;Gerard
+David and the Grimani Breviary&mdash;British Museum&mdash;&ldquo;Romance
+of the Rose&rdquo;&mdash;&ldquo;Isabella&rdquo; Breviary&mdash;Grisailles.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">In></span> speaking of the Netherlands we have to
+bear in mind that some portions of what are
+now called the Netherlands were once parts of
+Germany, while others were parts of France. In
+the thirteenth century Netherlandish art was
+simply a variety either of Northern German or
+Northern French. The earlier schools of Flanders
+and Hainaut, and perhaps of Brabant, belong
+rather to France, while Holland, Limburg, Luxembourg,
+and the Rhine districts were more inclined
+towards Germany. But as soon as the schools of
+Ghent and Bruges and other Burgundian centres
+began to assert their claims, it was speedily
+apparent that they had an individuality of their
+<a name="Page_196" id="Page_196"></a>own. In no country had the study of nature a
+more direct influence on the character of illumination.
+The allegorical method which so long had
+characterised both French and German art was
+promptly abandoned, and direct realism both in
+figure and landscape became the prevailing
+characteristic. Symbolism, it is true, remained in
+the representation of cities and other generalities
+of pictorial composition, but the details were in
+all cases direct imitations of contemporary facts.
+Half a dozen soldiers or houses might indicate an
+army or a city, and even some particular army or
+city named in the text, but the individual soldiers,
+though representing the army of Alexander or
+Roland, would wear the equipment or armour of
+the artist's military acquaintances, or his overlord's
+own company. The city, whether Ghent or
+Bagdad, would consist of the same sort of houses
+peaked and parapeted, the same towers and
+pinnacles that the illuminator saw before him in
+his daily walks. His conception of a scene from
+Scripture history would probably be framed more
+or less upon the traditions of the schools transmitted
+from the Sphigmenou Manual or the
+master's portfolio of &ldquo;schemes,&rdquo; but while a
+prophet, an angel, or a divinity would wear ideal
+raiment, Abraham and Pharaoh would be arrayed
+in the costume of a contemporary burgomaster,
+and an almost contemporary French king. In
+one memorable instance, we are told, so realistic
+was the scene that Isaac was about to be despatched
+with a horse-pistol; and in another, representing
+the birth of Cain, Adam was bringing to
+<a name="Page_197" id="Page_197"></a>the French tester bedside a supply of hot water
+from the kitchen boiler in a copper saucepan.
+This kind of anachronism, it is true, is to some
+degree chargeable on all early work; we see it
+among the early Italian painters no less frequently
+perhaps, but mostly accompanied with so much
+of allegory or imagination that we scarcely notice
+it, or if we do, we wink at it as part of the times
+of ignorance. It is really a mark of over-haste
+to be truthful, or at least to be understood, and
+at the worst it is no more than the natural
+rebound from the evil constraint of the old Byzantine
+tyranny over scheme and costume and invention.
+It is often truly diverting in its very
+<i>insouciance</i>. But its priceless value to us&mdash;and
+here the same remark applies to all styles of
+pictorial art before the fifteenth century&mdash;is the
+ocular record of dress, architecture, implements of
+peace and war, incidents of daily life, etc., for
+which no <i>Encyclop&aelig;dia Britannica</i> of verbal
+explanation could ever be more than the poorest
+makeshift. As we say, this same happy anachronism
+is common to other schools of illumination,
+and we cannot fail to notice it from Byzantium
+to Britain, but it is the intense realism of the
+Netherlands that forces it upon us so strongly
+that we are bound to speak of it.</p>
+
+<p>The oldest notice of illuminated work in the
+Netherlands is in a Benedictine chronicle of the
+ninth century, where mention is made of two
+ladies, daughters of the Lord of Denain, named
+Harlinda and Renilda,<a name="FNanchor_1_50" id="FNanchor_1_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> who were educated in the
+<a name="Page_198" id="Page_198"></a>convent of Valenciennes. &ldquo;In 714 they left their
+native province to found a monastery on the
+banks of the Maas&mdash;among the meadows of
+Alden and Maas-Eyck. They there consecrated
+their lives to the praise of God and the transcription
+of books, adorning them with precious
+pictures.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_2_51" id="FNanchor_2_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> About the year 1730 an Evangeliary
+of great age was discovered in the sacristy of
+the church by the Benedictine antiquary, Edmond
+Mart&egrave;ne, which on good ground has been attributed
+to the two sisters. The MS. is still in
+existence, and was exhibited in Brussels in 1880.
+It is a small folio, and contains a great number of
+miniatures in the Carolingian or, perhaps more
+strictly, Franco-Saxon manner. On the first leaf
+is a Romanesque colonnade of arches surmounted
+by a larger one. Under the smaller arches are
+the figures of saints, demons, and monsters, and
+in the tympanum scrolls of foliage and birds.
+Between the columns are the reference numbers
+to the chapters.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_50" id="Footnote_1_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> Or Relinda.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_51" id="Footnote_2_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> Bradley, <i>Dict. of Miniaturists</i>, ii. 87.</p></div>
+
+<p>The evangelist portraits are dignified and
+saintly, recalling the earliest work of the Byzantine
+school and that of the catacombs. Draperies
+and other details are heavy, dull, and ill
+drawn. In short, the work is of the same class
+as the early Carolingian. The blue, red, green,
+and gold of the borders, etc., have all kept their
+brilliancy.<a name="FNanchor_1_52" id="FNanchor_1_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> It is somewhat curious that the Van
+Eycks, the founders of Flemish painting, were
+<a name="Page_199" id="Page_199"></a>natives of this little town&mdash;then, doubtless, pretty
+and rural, now a busy place of breweries, oil-factories,
+tanneries, and other fragrant nuisances.
+Some miles further northward lie Deventer and
+Zwolle and Kempen, the land of the Brothers of
+the Pen, and of the immortal Thomas &agrave; Kempis.
+There is a style of calligraphic ornament deriving
+its origin from these Northern Hollandish foundations
+such as Zwolle, which is confined almost entirely
+to the painting of the initial letters and the
+decorating of the borders with flourished scrolls of
+penwork very neatly drawn and terminating in
+equally neat but extremely fanciful flowers finely
+painted. It seems to have been brought at some
+time from the neighbourhood of Milan, where a
+similar kind of initial and exceedingly neat penmanship
+also is found in the choir books. Many
+South German choir books are similarly ornamented,
+so that it is not easy to say at once
+where the work was done. The Dutch illuminators,
+however, may usually be recognised by the
+Netherlandish character of the miniatures combined
+with neat and sometimes rigidly careful
+penmanship in the scrolls and tendrils and a
+hardness in the outline of the flowers. Sometimes
+the large initials are entirely produced by the pen,
+the labyrinthine patterns in blue or vermilion
+being filled in with circlets, loops, and other
+designs with infinite patience and excellent effect.
+Some of the border scrolls are exceedingly pretty,
+and the borders differ from Flemish in mixing
+natural flowers painted in thin water-colours with
+the more conventional flowers painted with a
+<a name="Page_200" id="Page_200"></a>different medium, not in the later Flemish manner
+where the flowers are frankly direct imitations of
+nature, and painted in the same medium as the
+rest of the illumination.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_52" id="Footnote_1_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> See <i>Messager des Sciences</i>, etc., 110, 1858, and
+Deshaines, <i>L'Art Chr&eacute;tien en Flandre</i>, 34 (Douai, 1860, 8&deg;).</p></div>
+
+<p>After the Maas-Eyck Evangeliary the work of
+these northern foundations may well reckon either
+with the French or German schools until the
+fifteenth century. Where otherwise they are not
+distinguishable, the Netherlandish miniatures are
+usually such as prefer plain burnished gold backgrounds
+to diapered ones, or have a plain deep
+blue paled towards the horizon, and lastly replace
+the background by a natural, or what was intended
+to be a natural, landscape. As a test
+between French or German influence generally,
+the use of green shows the latter, that of blue
+the former. Not that this was any &aelig;sthetic point
+of difference in taste, but somehow the Germans
+had the green paint when the French had not,
+and so they used it. It is an open question
+whether Flanders or Italy first introduced the
+landscape background, but Flemish artists were
+so numerous, so ubiquitous, that we can hardly
+say where they were not at work&mdash;in France,
+Italy, or Spain. Plenty of so-called Spanish
+illumination is really the work of Flemish craftsmen.
+This was largely owing to the political
+conditions of the times. The Dukes of Burgundy
+and the Austrian Archdukes both ruled over
+Flemish municipalities, and employed the gildmen
+as their household &ldquo;enlumineurs.&rdquo; And, of
+course, the success of the Van Eycks, Rogier
+van der Weide (de la Pasture), Derrick Bonts,
+<a name="Page_201" id="Page_201"></a>and Hans Memling, stirred up the spirit of rivalry
+among the illuminators. They all worked in the
+same minutely, careful manner, and one could
+almost take a corporal oath on the identity of
+illuminations and panels which are really the work
+of different artists. Even yet the illuminations of
+the Grimani Breviary are attributed in part to
+Hans Memling&mdash;and no wonder! Only the best
+qualified judges can distinguish them. It is
+known that Gerard David of Oudewater, in
+Holland, a master painter, belonged also to the
+gild of miniaturists. But no miniatures are
+known to be from the hands of either Ian, or
+Hubert, or Marguerite van Eyck, or Hans
+Memling. The supposed identifications are
+merely guesses. But while this is so there is
+still no lack of illuminators, not to mention the
+illustrious few who were employed by the brothers
+of Charles&nbsp;V., King of France; and when we come
+to the days of his grandson, Philip of Burgundy
+(1419-67), we might name quite a crowd of
+distinguished illuminators. From 1422 to 1425
+Ian van Eyck was &ldquo;varlet de chamber&rdquo; to Duke
+John of Bavaria, first bishop of Li&eacute;ge, and Regent
+of Luxembourg, Holland, and Brabant. In 1425
+he passed into the service of Philip. He died in
+1440. In court service there were besides, Jean
+de Bruges, David Aubert, Jean Mielot, Jean
+Wanguelin, Loyset Lyeder, and others connected
+more or less closely with the Maas valley and the
+province of Limburg. This valley seems to have
+been the cradle of Netherlandish miniature art.
+It is from this neighbourhood that Paris was
+<a name="Page_202" id="Page_202"></a>supplied with craftsmen in the days of the brilliant
+if reckless administration of the uncles of Philip
+the Good. There were schools of illuminating
+artists in Maestricht and Li&eacute;ge, and within a very
+brief period the style of the Netherlander surpassed
+that of all competitors for facility, clearness, and
+realism. A marked feature in this mastery is the
+free use of architectural and sculptural design.
+All Gothic draperies are in some degree sculpturesque,
+and in miniatures we find sculpture to
+be the ruling principle. Perhaps it was the
+practice of uniting the crafts of painter and
+&ldquo;imagier&rdquo; in one person that fostered this
+peculiarity. But certain it is that Netherlandish
+illumination, in its border foliages, after the taste
+for the larger vine and acanthus leaf had superseded
+the ivy, the drawing is studiously sculpturesque.
+Many of the Gantois borders are like
+undercut wood carvings. Even as to colour we
+find either the gilded wood brown or the stone
+grey, quite as frequently as gayer colours, and
+much more so than any natural green. The
+after-fashion for grisailles or <i>camaieu gris</i> has
+reference probably rather to stained glass than to
+carving. Before the fifteenth century we do not
+often meet with individual illuminators by name,
+but in the Limburg Chronicle under 1380 is this
+entry: &ldquo;There was at this time in Cologne a
+celebrated painter (he was probably a native of
+Herle in Limburg), the like of whom was not in
+the whole of Christendom,&rdquo; and more to his
+praise. His name was Wilhelm. In the municipal
+expense book, under 1370-90, page 12, is written,
+<a name="Page_203" id="Page_203"></a>&ldquo;To Master Wilhelm for painting the Oath Book,
+9 marks.&rdquo; The Oath Book still exists, but unfortunately
+the miniature has been cut out.<a name="FNanchor_1_53" id="FNanchor_1_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_53" id="Footnote_1_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> Woltmann, <i>Hist. of Painting</i>, Eng. transl., i. p. 412.</p></div>
+
+<p>Of course, it may be expected that some of the
+best examples of Netherlandish illumination are
+to be found in the Royal Library at Brussels.
+The <i>Biblioth&eacute;que de Bourgogne</i>, as it is called,
+contains, indeed, a great number of them. Some,
+of course, may be classed as Burgundian. There
+are, for instance, the grand &ldquo;Chroniques de
+Hainaut&rdquo; in three immense folio volumes, written
+from 1446 to 1449 (Nos. 9242-4). Also Jean Mansel's
+&ldquo;Fleur des Histoires&rdquo; in three grand folios
+(Nos. 9231-3), written about 1475. The frontispiece
+to the &ldquo;Chroniques&rdquo; shows the Duke Philip
+with his son the Count of Charolais receiving the
+work from the author, perhaps the best illumination
+in all three volumes.</p>
+
+<p>Another (9245), the Book of the Seven Sages of
+Rome, is an example of the last quarter of the
+fourteenth century. Still another (9246), the History
+of St. Graal, or of the Round Table, is dated
+1480. A Missal and Pontifical (9216, 9217) shows
+miniatures dating about 1475.</p>
+
+<p>But other public libraries also possess admirable
+examples. The Imperial Library at Vienna possesses
+a most masterly production in the fragments
+of a folio Chronicle of Jerusalem (No.
+2533), in which both figures and architectural
+details are most delicately and minutely finished,
+so that the miniatures form a most valuable
+treasury of costumes, armour, and architecture,
+<a name="Page_204" id="Page_204"></a>correctly drawn and exquisitely painted. The
+figure of Baldwin, King of Jerusalem, shows the
+pointed toes which Anne of Bohemia is said to
+have introduced into England. At Vienna, also,
+is the richly illuminated History of G&eacute;rard de
+Roussillon in French (No. 2549). At Paris we find
+the &ldquo;Champion des Dames&rdquo; (No. 12476). Round
+the first miniature in this MS. are splendidly
+emblazoned the armorials of the various countries
+and cities of his dominions&mdash;Burgundy, Brabant,
+Flanders, Franche-Comt&eacute;, Holland, Namur, Lower
+Lorraine, Luxembourg, Artois, Hainaut, Zealand,
+Friesland, Malines, and Salins. On either side
+are scenes from the story, and beneath a symbolical
+crown is the motto of Philip's grandfather,
+Philip le Hardi, <i>aultre n'aray</i>. The same motto
+appears in the Chronicle of Jerusalem at Vienna,
+and on the velvet of the da&iuml;s of Isabella of
+Portugal, Philip's third consort.</p>
+
+<p>It may be interesting to note, as a means of
+distinguishing these Burgundian princes or their
+MSS., that the arms of Philip&nbsp;II. the Good differ
+from those of his father, during the latter's lifetime,
+by having in chief a label of three points,
+and from those of his grandfather, Philip the
+Bold, by having an inescutcheon of pretence on the
+centre of the arms of Margaret de Maele, first
+assumed by his father, John the Fearless, that is,
+&ldquo;or, a lion rpt. sa; for Flanders.&rdquo; As we have just
+said, many of the MSS. claimed as Netherlandish
+may be classed as Burgundian. The difference lies
+mainly in the miniatures. Where the latter are
+manifestly French with the mixed Brugeois bor<a name="Page_205" id="Page_205"></a>ders,
+they may pass as Burgundian; but with
+similar borders yet distinguishably Netherlandish,
+that is, broad-nosed, square-jawed, and excited
+faces as compared with the finer features and placid
+expression of the French artists, the work may
+still be Burgundian, but it will be also Netherlandish.
+The individuality of Netherlandish
+illumination above every other quality establishes
+its identity. Look at the expression of the onlookers
+in a Crucifixion, or a Christ before Pilate,
+or a Stoning of St. Stephen&mdash;the diabolical
+ferocity, the fiendish earnestness, the downright
+intentional ugliness put on some of the characters
+are in direct contrast to the sweet indifference,
+the calm complaisance, and blank unconcern of
+a crowd as shown in similar scenes by French
+illuminators.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/017.jpg" width="500" height="712" alt="HOR&AElig;" title="HOR&AElig;" />
+<span class="caption">HOR&AElig;<br />
+15TH CENT. (LATE)<br />
+<i>Brit. Mus. Add. MS. 17280. fol. 21</i><br />&nbsp;</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/018.jpg" width="500" height="665" alt="VALERE MAXIME, TRAD. PAR SIMON DE HESDIN" title="VALERE MAXIME, TRAD. PAR SIMON DE HESDIN" />
+<span class="caption">VALERE MAXIME, TRAD. PAR SIMON DE HESDIN<br />
+15TH CENT. (LATE)<br />
+<i>Brit. Mus. Harl. MS. 4375, fol. 68</i></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>We have seen something of the earlier kind of
+Netherlandish MSS. in those already referred to.
+It now remains to take a rapid glance at a few
+of the later ones, and here the difficulty is that
+of selection.</p>
+
+<p>In 1484 Gerard David appears on the list of
+illuminators of Bruges,<a name="FNanchor_1_54" id="FNanchor_1_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> and it appears that he,
+and not Hans Memling, was the painter of those
+marvellous miniatures in the Grimani Breviary at
+Venice usually attributed to the latter, and therefore
+may be considered as one of the founders of
+the school of Bruges, or at least of the later style
+that may be referred to the Grimani Breviary
+as its most perfect example. Executed in much
+<a name="Page_206" id="Page_206"></a>the same manner is a Book of Offices in the
+British Museum, containing portraits of Philip
+the Fair and his wife, the unhappy Juana <i>la Loca</i>,
+son and daughter-in-law of the Emperor Maximilian.
+Similar, again, are the &ldquo;Offices of the
+Elector, Albert of Brandenburg,&rdquo; possibly the
+work of the same artists who produced the Grimani
+Breviary. There are also some fragments in
+a guard-book in the British Museum (Add. 24098),
+which may compare with any of the preceding examples.
+But perhaps to many book-lovers no better
+specimen of the highest class of Netherlandish
+art could be more welcome or more interesting
+than the celebrated copy of the &ldquo;Roman de la
+Rose,&rdquo; also in our great national collection (Harl.
+4425). This justly famous MS. is a real masterpiece
+in every department, whether we consider
+the expression in its miniatures or the consummate
+technical skill displayed in the drawing and
+colour of the borders. These secondary embellishments
+consist of fruit, flowers, birds, beetles,
+and butterflies. But, of course, the great interest
+of this book lies in its miniatures, scenes from the
+poet's allegory, and in the little statuesque figures
+of the various characters in the poem.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_54" id="Footnote_1_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> Cf. his &ldquo;Judgement of Cambyses&rdquo; in the museum at
+Bruges.</p></div>
+
+<p>Two marvellous little volumes there are in the
+National Museum at Munich (861-2) which are
+surely unapproachable. One of the borders in
+861 consists of the eyes of peacock feathers so
+absolutely perfect that we can only wonder at its
+rainbow hues and pearly sheen of colour. Something
+similar to it exists in a fragment (No. 4461)
+in the Victoria and Albert Museum at South
+<a name="Page_207" id="Page_207"></a>Kensington. The &ldquo;Isabella Breviary&rdquo; of the
+British Museum (Add. 18851) ought not to pass unmentioned,
+but space forbids us to add more on this
+inexhaustible topic. There is, however, the class
+of work alluded to early in the chapter, and in that
+on French work, which must be at least mentioned.
+We refer to what the Italians call <i>chiaroscuro</i>
+and the French <i>grisaille</i>; <i>i.e.</i> painting executed in
+tones of grey, in which the lights are given in
+white or gold and the backgrounds in rich blue.
+Occasionally the draperies and ornaments also
+are touched with gold, and the flesh tints as in
+life. Grisaille is not limited to Netherlandish
+illuminations. We find it both in French and
+Italian, but perhaps it is among the Netherlandish
+books we meet with it most frequently. Several
+examples are to be seen in the Royal Library at
+Brussels, and there is at least one in the British
+Museum (Add. 24189).</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208"></a><a name="II_CHAPTER_IX" id="II_CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX</h2>
+
+<h3>THE FRENCH RENAISSANCE</h3>
+
+<p>Communication with Italy&mdash;Renaissance not sudden&mdash;Origin
+of the schools of France and Burgundy&mdash;Touraine and its
+art&mdash;Fouquet&mdash;Brentano MSS.&mdash;&ldquo;Versailles&rdquo; Livy&mdash;Munich
+&ldquo;Boccaccio,&rdquo; etc.&mdash;Perr&eacute;al and Bourdichon&mdash;&ldquo;Hours of Anne
+of Brittany&rdquo;&mdash;Poyet&mdash;The school of Fontainebleau&mdash;Stained
+glass&mdash;Jean Cousin&mdash;Gouffier &ldquo;Heures&rdquo;&mdash;British Museum
+Offices of Francis&nbsp;I.&mdash;Dinteville Offices&mdash;Paris &ldquo;Heures
+de Montmorency,&rdquo; &ldquo;Heures de Dinteville,&rdquo; etc.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">When</span> the new ideas derived from the Italian
+revival first reached France, it would be
+difficult to say. There must have been communication
+with Italy going on the whole time that
+Cimabue and Giotto, Memmi and the rest were
+astonishing their fellow-citizens with their divine
+performances. The roads from Lyons, Poictiers,
+Dijon, and Paris were well known, and frequently
+trodden by both artists and merchants as well as
+by soldiers. The Renaissance, therefore, was no
+sudden convulsion. Perhaps a very careful examination
+of some of our Burgundian MSS.
+might reveal the presence of notions derived
+from Italian travel, for it is in the details of
+ornament that we find the traces of a new movement,
+and when the great change of style is
+clearly noticeable it is when the habits of society
+themselves have been remodelled, and when the
+<a name="Page_209" id="Page_209"></a>once strange and foreign element has become
+a familiar guest.</p>
+
+<p>In the fixing of schools and centres much is
+owing, of course, to the residential choice of
+princes, on whose patronage depends the very
+existence of art. This explains the schools of
+Bruges and Dijon, of Paris and Tours, for while
+the earlier dukes of Burgundy and the earlier
+kings of France had lived at Bruges and Paris,
+the later dukes had preferred Dijon, and Louis&nbsp;XI.,
+Charles&nbsp;VIII., and Louis&nbsp;XII. lived mostly
+at Tours. So that while Dijon became the new
+centre of Burgundian illumination, Tours became
+to the new movement from Italy what Paris had
+been at the commencement of the Gothic period.
+Tours, in fact, became the centre of the Renaissance.
+The influence of Dijon was on the wane,
+Burgundy itself was going down. Michel Coulombe,
+the great Breton sculptor, who had been
+trained at Dijon, left it for Tours, and probably
+illuminators and other artists followed his example.
+As we know from examples, the Burgundian
+art of Dijon had the Flemish stamp
+strongly marked&mdash;the Flemish artists had a way
+of making strong impressions.</p>
+
+<p>Tours, on the other hand, had had an entirely
+different training. The artists of Touraine had
+no shadow of Flemish influence in their practice.
+Their sculptures, enamels, colour-scheme were of
+another bias. Their stamp came from Italy, and
+if not so deep as that of Flanders or Dijon, it was
+equally inevitable and more permanent.</p>
+
+<p>The first name that we meet with among the
+<a name="Page_210" id="Page_210"></a>illuminators of Touraine who are expressly connected
+with the Renaissance is that of Jean
+Fouquet. Of his origin or training nothing seems
+to be known, but he was born probably about
+1415. He must have acquired distinction even as
+a youth, for some twenty-five years afterwards
+(1440-3) he was invited to Rome to paint the
+portrait of Pope Eugenius&nbsp;IV., and he stayed in
+Italy until 1447. On his return to France he was
+made <i>valet de chambre</i> and painter to Charles&nbsp;VII.
+at Tours, and continued in the same office under
+Louis&nbsp;XI. It was part of the business of the
+<i>paintre du roy</i> to design and provide decorations
+and costumes, banners and devices for all state
+ceremonies, and this became Fouquet's duty at
+the funeral of Charles&nbsp;VII., and when Louis
+instituted the Order of St. Michel in 1470, and
+the last trace of him as an artist occurs about
+1477. His sons, Louis and Francis, were both
+painters, and, like himself, worked much at the
+illumination of books. It is curious that this
+great master&mdash;one of the greatest miniaturists
+of any school, and one of the founders of the
+French school of painting&mdash;became entirely forgotten
+until the discovery of some fragments of
+a Book of Hours painted for Estienne Chevalier,
+the King's treasurer.</p>
+
+<p>Forty miniatures of the most masterly description
+came into the hands of M. Louis Brentano-Laroche,
+of Frankfort-on-the-Maine. Their uncommon
+excellence led to a most diligent search
+for information respecting the artist, which resulted
+in the unearthing of many other examples
+<a name="Page_211" id="Page_211"></a>of his unequalled pencil. We now know of a
+dozen most precious examples. Besides the
+Brentano miniatures, two other fragments of the
+same Book of Hours have been found, and
+several large and important MSS. Among these
+we may name the &ldquo;Antiquities of the Jews,&rdquo; by
+Josephus, in the National Library at Paris (MSS.
+Des. 6891), and a Book of Hours, executed for
+Marie de Cl&egrave;ve, widow of Charles Duke of
+Orleans, in 1472. Attributed to him are the
+&ldquo;Versailles&rdquo; Livy (Nat. Lib., Paris, 6907); the
+&ldquo;Sorbonne&rdquo; Livy (fds. de Sorb. 297). A Livy
+in the public library at Tours also passes under
+his name, and the famous &ldquo;Boccaccio&rdquo; of
+Estienne Chevalier at Munich, containing ninety
+miniatures, is also confidently assigned to him.
+Other MSS. that are imputed to him are probably
+the work of his sons or scholars.</p>
+
+<p>The Paris Josephus is generally considered his
+masterpiece. The volume (which contains only
+the first fourteen books) is in folio, written most
+beautifully in two columns, and is adorned with
+miniatures, vignettes, and initials, but much
+of its interest lies in the note at the end, placed
+there by Robortet, secretary to the Due de Bourbon:
+&ldquo;En ce liure a douze ystoires les troys
+premieres de l'enlumineur du due Jehan de Berry,
+et les neuf de la main du bon paintre et enlumineur
+du roy Loys XI<sup>e</sup> Jehan Foucquet, natif de
+Tours.&rdquo; And we gather from another note that
+the book had been entrusted to Fouquet for completion
+by Jacques d'Armagnac duc de Nemours.
+A further note informs us that the book belonged
+<a name="Page_212" id="Page_212"></a>to the Duc de Bourbon. It seems to have been
+one of the rich presents made by the Due de Berry
+to Jacques de Nemours. The first three miniatures
+are by the illuminator of the Duc de Berry,
+and this artist was probably Andrieu Beauneveu,
+though other illuminators did work for him, as
+Jacques de Hesdin and Pol de Limbourg. The
+fourth miniature is by Fouquet, and represents a
+battle; the rest to the seventh are either not his
+best work or else the work of his pupils, but the
+seventh on folio 135 gives us a good idea of
+Fouquet at his best. It represents David receiving
+with his crown the news of the death of Saul.
+The eighth, ninth, and tenth are very fine, but the
+eleventh M. Paulin Paris (MSS. du Roy) thinks
+the most beautiful of all. Its subject is the
+clemency of Cyrus towards the captive Jews in
+Babylon.<a name="FNanchor_1_55" id="FNanchor_1_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> Of the other MSS. space forbids us
+reluctantly to forego description.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_55" id="Footnote_1_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> See Mrs. Mark Pattison's (Lady Dilke) <i>The Renaissance
+in France</i>, i. 273, etc.; Bradley, <i>Dict. of Miniaturists</i> art.
+&ldquo;Fouquet,&rdquo; i. 346.</p></div>
+
+<p>The characteristics of the school of Tours as
+seen in the work of the greatest of its expositors
+is (1) The clearly marked influence of Italy and
+the antique. (2) A masterly understanding of
+French landscape (see fine instances of this understanding
+also in &ldquo;Tr&eacute;sor des Histoires,&rdquo; now in
+the British Museum, Cott., Aug. 5). (3) A
+complete freedom from Gothic influence and from
+the domination of the school of Bruges. The
+colours for which Fouquet seems to have a
+preference are, first, a clear orange-vermilion,
+<a name="Page_213" id="Page_213"></a>supported by golden brown and gold, clear blue
+and green, lemon-yellow; and then, as a contrast,
+grey of various tones in walls and buildings, soft
+landscape greens, and a&euml;rial tints of distance and
+sky. Perhaps the technical skill of Fouquet has
+never been surpassed. It is so perfect that some
+have tried to explain it by supposing that he was
+trained in a Flemish studio. His sons and pupils
+continued his methods, and thus while Paris
+remains under the influence of Flemish masters,
+Tours was carrying forward a quite different type
+of traditions.</p>
+
+<p>The Valerius Maximus (Harl. 4374) of the
+British Museum will give an idea of the later
+Paris school. Its date is about the end of the
+fifteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>We ought not in this place to forget the
+influence brought into French art through the
+marriage of the murdered Duke of Orleans
+with Valentina of Milan, not only directly through
+books and artists, but by the hereditary transmission
+of that love of art and beautiful things
+for which Valentina and her family were well
+known. It was in art, letters, and books that the
+widowed princess sought such consolation as was
+possible.<a name="FNanchor_1_56" id="FNanchor_1_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> In her best days she had united in
+herself a seductive grace of carriage, beauty of
+person, and dignity of rank, which made her the
+ornament of the French Court. She was almost
+the only one about the unfortunate Charles&nbsp;VI.
+who could influence him in his moments of mental
+<a name="Page_214" id="Page_214"></a>aberration. Coming from the luxury of the most
+splendid court in Italy, she brought into France
+the most refined taste in matters connected with
+the arts. The inventory of her jewels at the
+time of her marriage includes three Books of
+Hours, three German MSS., and a volume called
+<i>Mandavilla</i>. Like her husband she was an employer
+both of copyists and illuminators, and
+before her death had collected at her Castle of
+Blois a very fine collection of beautiful books.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_56" id="Footnote_1_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> She assumed as her impresa the <i>chantepleure</i>, with the
+sorrowful motto: &ldquo;Plus ne m'est rien: rien ne m'est plus.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<p>Her son Charles, the poet, inherited her tastes,
+and added to her collections. We are not surprised,
+therefore, to find her grandson Louis,
+afterwards Louis&nbsp;XII., supporting the great
+artistic movement which he and his Queen Anne
+of Brittany helped so effectually to identify with
+the Court of France.</p>
+
+<p>About the time that we hear the last of Fouquet
+we have the earliest notices of another illuminator
+who plays an important part in the illuminations
+executed for Anne of Brittany, the noble and
+gifted Queen of France, and wife, first of
+Charles&nbsp;VIII. and then of his successor, Louis&nbsp;XII.</p>
+
+<p>In 1472 Jean Perr&eacute;al is entrusted with the glass
+paintings of the Carmelite church at Tours.
+Lemaire, in his <i>L&eacute;gende des V&eacute;nitiens</i>, calls him a
+second Zeuxis or Apelles. During the reigns of
+Charles&nbsp;VIII. and Louis&nbsp;XII. he is the chief artist
+of the time: In 1491, and perhaps earlier, he is
+engaged in the usual duties of a <i>valet de chambre</i>,
+<i>i.e.</i> designing and preparing the requisite devises,
+arms, and banners for public functions. In 1502
+he went to Italy. In 1509 his name occurs in
+<a name="Page_215" id="Page_215"></a>connection with that of Jean Bourdichon, of whom
+we shall hear more when we come to the work
+done for the Queen. In 1523 in the household of
+Francis&nbsp;I. he is still <i>valet de chambre</i>. Twenty-four
+years previously it was as <i>valet de chambre</i>
+that he prepared the decorations for Louis&nbsp;XII.'s
+entry into Lyons. On the death of Anne of
+Brittany also he performed similar duties, and
+again on that of Louis&nbsp;XII. He even came to
+England in 1514, sent by Louis&nbsp;XII., to superintend
+the trousseau of Mary Tudor, &ldquo;pour aider
+&agrave; dresser le dict appareil &agrave; la mode de France,&rdquo;
+previous to her wedding journey to Paris.<a name="FNanchor_1_57" id="FNanchor_1_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> Four
+months afterwards he was summoned to direct
+the funeral obsequies of Louis himself. No illuminated
+work can be really identified as the work of
+Perr&eacute;al, but Mrs. Patteson (Lady Dilke) strongly
+urges the probability that he painted the <i>Bible
+Histori&eacute;e</i> of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge,
+bequeathed by General Oglethorpe.<a name="FNanchor_2_58" id="FNanchor_2_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> She considers
+it quite the sort of work that would grow
+out of that of Fouquet, and dwells upon the
+fact of his official duties as <i>valet de chambre</i>
+giving him just that minute facility in the decoration
+of armour and furniture in the miniatures
+which the MS. displays. Whether this be so or
+not, it is certain that the <i>Bible Histori&eacute;e</i> is a fine
+example of the school of Tours.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_57" id="Footnote_1_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> See Vespas, b. 2 (Brit. Mus.).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_58" id="Footnote_2_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> See her <i>Renaissance of Art in France</i>, i. 303.</p></div>
+
+<p>Another court painter and <i>valet de chambre</i> to
+Louis&nbsp;XI. and his successors was Jean Bourdichon,
+an artist born at Tours in 1457, and there<a name="Page_216" id="Page_216"></a>fore
+as a youth probably one of the scholars in
+the atelier of Jean Fouquet. He is first noticed
+in the accounts in or about 1478: &ldquo;A Jehan
+Bourdichon, paintre, la somme de vingt liures dix
+sept solz ung denier tournois pour avoir paint le
+tabernacle fait pour la chapelle du Plessis du
+Pare, de fin or et d'azur.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_1_59" id="FNanchor_1_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a> Later on, after
+naming the painting of a statute of St. Martin,
+for which he received twenty golden crowns, is a
+note of his painting a MS., which we translate:
+&ldquo;To the said Bourdichon for having had written
+a book in parchment named the Papalist&mdash;the
+same illuminated in gold and azure and made in
+the same 19 rich histories (miniatures) and for
+getting it bound and covered, thirty crowns of
+gold. For this by virtue of the said order of the
+King and by quittance of the abovenamed written
+the 5th April One thousand four hundred and
+eighty (milcccciiii<sup>xx</sup>) after Easter, here rendered
+the sum of &pound;19 1. 8.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_59" id="Footnote_1_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> Comptes de l'H&ocirc;tel de Louis&nbsp;XI., 1478-81.</p></div>
+
+<p>Another quittance shows him to have been
+employed on the decorations of the ch&acirc;teau of
+Plessis les Tours. We may easily see how it is
+that these artists, when they came to illuminate
+the books entrusted to them, had such special
+knowledge of embroideries and decoration of
+armour when we read in the accounts how they
+were constantly employed in designing dresses
+for weddings, tournaments, and funeral obsequies,
+and making &ldquo;patterns for the dress and equipment
+of war.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>A notice in 1508 tells us that Anne of Brittany
+<a name="Page_217" id="Page_217"></a>made an order of payment to Bourdichon of 1,050
+<i>livres tournois</i> for having &ldquo;richly and sumptuously
+historiated and illuminated a great Book of Hours
+for our use and service to which he has given and
+employed much time, and also on behalf of other
+services which he has rendered hitherto.&rdquo; This
+refers to the celebrated &ldquo;Hours of Anne of
+Brittany,&rdquo; now in the National Library at Paris.</p>
+
+<p>This volume, peerless of its kind, has been reproduced
+in colour lithography by Curmer of
+Paris&mdash;the result, however, is disappointing from
+the flat and faded look of the prints as compared
+with the brilliancy of the original pages. The MS.
+is an invaluable monument of French Renaissance
+illumination. It is French of Touraine
+rather than of Paris, yet bearing traces in its
+flowers and fruit borders of Flemish modes of
+ornament. It has also reminiscences of Italian
+painting. But the French neatness and restraint
+from over-decoration have kept it in a manner
+unique. It has not quite the softness of Italian,
+and is far from the intensity of Flemish. Indeed,
+its fault, if it be faulty, is in its want of force.
+With the exception of Anne's own portrait given
+with her patrons, St. Anne, St. Helena, and St.
+Ursula. The Queen's gown is of brown gold
+brocade trimmed with dark brown fur. Her hair
+is brown, like the fur. She wears a necklace of
+gems set in gold. On her head is a black hood
+edged with gold and jewels, beneath which and
+next her face is a border of crimped white muslin,
+She has brown eyes and finely pencilled eyebrows.
+As to nose and mouth, she and the two younger
+<a name="Page_218" id="Page_218"></a>saints are pretty much alike. With the allowance
+of blue for black, St. Anne wears the dress of a
+Benedictine abbess. A dark crimson cloth covers
+a table before which the Queen is kneeling,
+and on which lies open a finely illuminated
+Service-book. The Calendar which follows this
+portrait is for each month enclosed in a margin
+of ornament. To the outer margin of every other
+page of the book is placed a broad tablet or
+pilaster containing flowers, fruits, insects, etc.,
+from five to six inches high, each having the
+Latin name of the plant, etc., at top in red, and
+the French one in red or blue at the bottom.
+These names may have been put in later. It must
+be admitted that the fruits, flowers, and insects
+are painted with the greatest care and neatness,
+though sometimes a little assisted by the imagination
+of the painter. The text and initials are rather
+heavy and commonplace. Now and then a border
+surrounds the text completely, where flowers or
+fruits are scattered&mdash;somewhat recklessly at times,
+but usually with good design&mdash;over a ground of
+plain gold, on which the branches, etc., cast
+heavy shadows. This part of the design is certainly
+Flemish. Where &ldquo;histories&rdquo; occur the
+border is a plain brown gilt frame within a black
+border. Undoubtedly the &ldquo;Hours of Anne of
+Brittany&rdquo; is a very precious volume. The figure
+subjects are of various degrees of excellence.
+The four evangelists are vivid, and recall the portraits
+of Ghirlandaio, and it is to Italy also that
+the illuminator is indebted for his architectural
+and sculptural details. Yet Bourdichon is in<a name="Page_219" id="Page_219"></a>ferior
+to Fouquet in colouring, as the latter is to
+the Italians in design and composition. Perhaps
+he is most successful in his flowers and insects.
+&ldquo;Nothing,&rdquo; said Muntz, &ldquo;is less like the elegant
+foliages of Ghirlandaio and Attavante, and nothing
+is more worthy of being put in comparison with
+them.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_1_60" id="FNanchor_1_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_60" id="Footnote_1_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> <i>La Renaissance en Italie, etc</i>., 547-8.</p></div>
+
+<p>An illuminator of the name of Jehan Poyet is
+said to have assisted in the &ldquo;Hours,&rdquo; thus while
+Bourdichon painted the miniatures, Poyet put
+in the flowers and fruit, etc.; but this share of
+work is by some believed to belong to a smaller
+Book of Hours executed for the Queen. Flowers
+and fruit are said to have been Poyet's speciality,
+and it is quite possible that he may have had the
+painting of the borders of the &ldquo;Grandes Heures,&rdquo;
+while Bourdichon did the rest. The writer of the
+MS. was another native of Tours, named Jehan
+Riveron. During the reign of Francis&nbsp;I. the
+school of Tours was removed to Paris because
+the Court had settled there. Louis&nbsp;XII. had died
+in the H&ocirc;tel des Tournelles, and Francis, though
+full of plans for <i>plaisances</i> elsewhere, lived mostly
+in Paris. Fontainebleau is the dream of the near
+future. Il Rosso, the Italian architect, painter,
+poet, and musician, was busy there amid a crowd
+of other artists from Florence and Rome&mdash;the
+refuse of a once brilliant sodality. It was the
+frivolous, pretty, graceful side of Italian art that
+came northward in that great migration&mdash;the
+graver and more dignified elements were left
+behind. To see what Italian art became in
+<a name="Page_220" id="Page_220"></a>France, we have only to enter the Grand Gallery
+at Fontainebleau, and we see it at its best in architecture,
+sculpture, and painting. And we cannot
+help admiring it, for it is amazingly beautiful.
+Yet it is not Italian&mdash;the Italian of the Medici and
+Farnese palaces. Il Rosso was neither a Michelangelo
+nor a Carracci; but he set a fashion. He
+changed the face of art for France. Nor was it in
+painting and sculpture only. The Italian passion
+for devises, anagrams, emblems, and mottoes
+became the rage in Paris. It first came in with
+the return of Charles&nbsp;VIII. from his Neapolitan
+campaign. Louis&nbsp;XII. adopted the hedgehog or
+porcupine, with the motto &ldquo;Cominus et eminus.&rdquo;
+His Queen Claude's motto was &ldquo;Candida candidis.&rdquo;
+The Princess Marguerite's emblem was a marigold
+or heliotrope; others assigned her the daisy.
+Her motto: &ldquo;Non inferiora secutus.&rdquo; The well-known
+emblem of Francis was a salamander&mdash;why,
+is a mystery&mdash;with the motto, &ldquo;Nutrisco et
+extinguo.&rdquo; All this entered into the taste of the
+illuminator, and elegant cartouche frames&mdash;probably
+of Dutch origin, as we see in the old map-books
+of Ortelius Cluverius and Bleau, imported
+by Ortelius and his friends into Italy, and made
+use of by Clovio, and thence transferred to France&mdash;were
+made into border-frames for miniatures,
+varied with altar-forms, doorways, and other
+fanciful frameworks from the new architecture
+decorated with flowers, ribbons, panels, mottoes.
+Another new thing, too, no doubt afforded plenty
+of suggestion to the illuminator. This was stained
+glass. Jean Cousin was in his glory in glass-<a name="Page_221" id="Page_221"></a>painting;
+Robert Pinagrier also. But it was
+Cousin who adopted the new Italian ideas, and
+whose works were models for the illuminator. In
+the backgrounds and details of his glass-paintings
+at Sens, Fleurigny, Paris, and elsewhere, we may
+trace his progress; and an excellent model, too,
+was Jean Cousin. He has other claims to remembrance
+in sculpture, engraving, authorship, but
+it is as the glass-painter that his influence is seen
+in illumination. Indeed, Mr. A.F. Didot strongly
+urged the probability that Cousin was himself the
+illuminator of the splendid Breviary or Hours of
+Claude Gouffier.<a name="FNanchor_1_61" id="FNanchor_1_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> The drawing is in his best
+manner, the frame-border of <i>caryatides</i> in camaieu
+is of a richness of ornamentation in keeping with
+the rest of the volume. The arms and motto of
+Gouffier are painted in it. It is objected that
+Cousin's name does not appear in the Gouffier
+account-books, while those of other artists are
+given. But only a portion of the accounts is
+extant. Cousin may, perhaps, only have designed
+the book, and the other miniaturists carried
+out his designs. At any rate, the accounts give
+us the names of three miniaturists which we may
+here record&mdash;Jean Lemaire, of Paris (1555),
+Charles Jourdain, and Geoffroy Ballin (1359).
+These &ldquo;enlumineurs&rdquo; are stated to have decorated
+two Books of Hours for Gouffier's wedding. As a
+good example of the style employed in the decoration
+of title-pages, we may quote the chimney-piece
+of the Ch&acirc;teau d'Anet, executed for Diane
+de Poitiers, where a sculptured marble frame
+<a name="Page_222" id="Page_222"></a>surrounds a painted landscape. Many of the
+books of the time of Francis&nbsp;I. and Henry&nbsp;II. are
+ornamented in this style.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_61" id="Footnote_1_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> Now belonging to M. le Vicomte de Tanz&eacute;.</p></div>
+
+<p>In the British Museum are several fine MSS.
+illustrative of this period of French illumination,
+viz. Add. 18853, 18854, and 18855. These three
+MSS. formed part of the purchase which included
+the Bedford Offices. 18853 is a Book of Offices
+executed apparently for Francis&nbsp;I. In some of the
+borders is a large F with the <i>Cordeli&egrave;re</i> of the
+third Order of St. Francis and a rayed crown,
+and on folio 97 v. a large monogram consisting
+of the letter F, with two crossed sceptres and
+palm branches, surmounted by the crown-royal
+of France.</p>
+
+<p>Nothing is known of the history of the MS.
+from 1547 to 1723, when it was in possession of
+the Regent Philippe d'Orleans. Possibly it had
+remained as an heirloom in the family. Philippe
+gave it to his natural son the Abb&eacute; Rothelin, a
+great lover of rare books and a noted collector,
+at whose death it was bought by Gaignat, another
+collector, who sold it to the Duc de la Valli&egrave;re,
+and so, step by step, it came at length to Sir John
+Tobin, of Liverpool, and thence to the British
+Museum.</p>
+
+<p>The partly sculpturesque character of the
+border-frames are of the kind just referred to,
+with festoons and garlands of flowers, and drapery,
+monograms, and emblems in full rich colours;
+the architecture and other ornaments sometimes
+finished with pencillings of gold. The miniatures
+are of excellent design and colour, finely modelled,
+<a name="Page_223" id="Page_223"></a>and quite in the manner of the paintings of
+Fontainebleau. The text is a combination of
+Jarry-like Roman with italic. It may be compared
+with 18854, similar in some respects, but the
+smaller miniatures and the frames look more like
+the older school of Tours. This MS. is also a
+Book of Offices, and was written for Fran&ccedil;ois de
+Dinteville, Bishop of Auxerre, in 1525, as appears
+from an inscription in gold letters on fol. 26 v.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/020.jpg" width="500" height="671" alt="OFFICM. B. MARI&AElig; VIRGINES" title="OFFICM. B. MARI&AElig; VIRGINES" />
+<span class="caption">OFFICM. B. MARI&AElig; VIRGINES<br />
+C. 1530<br />
+<i>Brit. Mus. Add. MS. 18853, fol. 52</i><br />&nbsp;</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/019.jpg" width="500" height="839" alt="OFFICM. MORTUORUM." title="OFFICM. MORTUORUM." />
+<span class="caption">OFFICM. MORTUORUM.<br />
+16TH CENT. (EARLY)<br />
+<i>Brit. Mus. Egert. MS. 2125, fol. 183</i></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Some of the border-frames are drawn in sepia,
+others in red-brown or burnt siena, and highly
+finished with gold. The writing is a small Roman
+hand. On the whole it is richer in illustration
+than 18853, but not so perfect in drawing, yet it
+is a very fine MS. Sometimes it has a border like
+those in the &ldquo;Hours of Anne of Brittany.&rdquo; On
+fol. 26 v. is a curious border of twisted ribbons
+covered with mottoes, such as &ldquo;Virtutis fortuna
+comes,&rdquo; &ldquo;Ingrates servire nephas,&rdquo; etc.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the tiny miniatures of the saints in the
+<i>Memori&aelig;</i> are very charmingly painted: St. Mary
+Magdalene, for instance, on fol. 147 v. The pillar
+architecture of some of the borders, with pendant
+festoons of flowers, is also very handsome.</p>
+
+<p>18855, folio, is a Book of Offices written in a
+Gothic text. The miniatures are large full-page
+paintings within architectural frames or porches,
+with coloured pillars or pilasters with panels of
+rich blue, covered with golden traceries, bronze
+gold pendants at side,&mdash;occasional borders as in
+the &ldquo;Hours of Anne of Brittany.&rdquo; The work is of
+the older school of Tours, but loaded with ornamental
+details from North Italian pilaster-work.
+<a name="Page_224" id="Page_224"></a>Among the best miniatures are the Nativity
+(34 v.), the Adoration of the Magi (42 v.), and the
+Bathsheba. The last perhaps a little too open a
+scene for a lady's bathroom, but placed within a
+most gorgeous architectural window or doorway
+(fol. 62 v). Compare also Harl. 5925, No. 574, for
+a title-page of French Renaissance style from a
+printed book, which suggests Venice as the source
+of the style of 18853.</p>
+
+<p>In the National Library at Paris are, of course,
+a number of this class of MSS., such as the
+Offices (MS. Lat. 10563), &ldquo;Officium Beat&aelig; Mari&aelig;
+Virginis ad usum Romanor&rdquo; (1531), or the exquisitely
+painted &ldquo;Heures de Henry 2d&rdquo; (fds. Lat.
+1429), or the magnificent &ldquo;Epistres d'Ovide&rdquo; of
+Louisa of Savoy (fds. fr. 875), and others.</p>
+
+<p>By no means of less importance we may cite
+the beautiful volume belonging to the late Comte
+d'Haussonville, now in the Mus&eacute;e Cond&eacute; at
+Chantilly, called the &ldquo;Heures du Conn&eacute;table Anne
+de Montmorency,&rdquo; and the &ldquo;Heures de Dinteville&rdquo;
+(MS. Lat. 10558), the decoration of which is quite
+on a par with the &ldquo;Heures de Montmorency,&rdquo; or
+those of Henry&nbsp;II., also the Psalter of Claude
+Gouffier (Arsenal Lib., 5095), containing the Psalms
+of Marot.</p>
+
+<p>It is scarcely worth while to carry the subject
+further. What is done later than Francis&nbsp;II. does
+not grow finer or better: it only becomes more
+overloaded with ornament, too much gold, too
+much richness. Even foliages are often variegated
+like pearls, or change gradually from colour to
+colour on the same sweep of acanthus as in a
+<a name="Page_225" id="Page_225"></a>MS. in the British Museum attributed to Pierre
+Mignard (&ldquo;Sol Gallicus,&rdquo; Add. 23745). Compare
+also the &ldquo;Heures de Louis&nbsp;XIV.&rdquo; Now and
+then an exceptional work, like that of D'Eaubonne
+at Rouen, belongs to no particular school.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226"></a><a name="II_CHAPTER_X" id="II_CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X</h2>
+
+<h3>SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE ILLUMINATION</h3>
+
+<p>Late period of Spanish illumination&mdash;Isidore of Seville&mdash;Archives
+at Madrid&mdash;Barcelona&mdash;Toledo&mdash;Madrid&mdash;Choir-books
+of the Escorial&mdash;Philip&nbsp;II.&mdash;Illuminators of the choir-books&mdash;The
+size and beauty of the volumes&mdash;Fray Andr&eacute;s
+de Leon and other artists&mdash;Italian influence&mdash;Giovanni
+Battista Scorza of Genoa&mdash;Antonio de Holanda, well-known
+Portuguese miniaturist in sixteenth century&mdash;His son
+Francesco&mdash;The choir-books at Belem&mdash;French invasion&mdash;Missal
+of Gon&ccedil;alvez&mdash;Sandoval Genealogies&mdash;Portuguese
+Genealogies in British Museum&mdash;The Stowe Missal of
+John&nbsp;III.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Since</span> all the best and best-known work of
+Spanish or Portuguese illuminators was
+executed in the sixteenth century, and is manifestly
+a reflection with peculiar mannerisms of
+either Flemish or Italian illumination of the same
+period, it may seem almost superfluous to devote
+a separate chapter to the subject. Yet there is a
+goodly list of both Spanish and Portuguese artists
+who practised the art of illumination.</p>
+
+<p>So early as the time of Isidore of Seville we
+find notices of libraries, copyists, and the like
+(see book iv. of his Encyclop&aelig;dia), and an able
+writer of the last century, Don Jos&eacute; Maria de
+Eguren, published a work on the MS. rarities of
+Spain.<a name="FNanchor_1_62" id="FNanchor_1_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a> The most important of the miniatures in
+<a name="Page_227" id="Page_227"></a>the famous Codex Vigilano are also reproduced
+in &ldquo;El Museo Espa&ntilde;ol de antiguedades,&rdquo; most
+interesting respecting the calligraphy and miniature
+art of the eleventh century.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_62" id="Footnote_1_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> <i>Memoria de los Codices notables conservados en los
+archivos ecleseasticos de Espana</i>. Madrid, 1859, L. 8&deg;.</p></div>
+
+<p>One of the earliest instances of royal patronage
+bestowed on painting in Spain is a document in
+the Royal Library at Madrid, containing the expenses
+of King Sanchez&nbsp;IV. in 1291-2. Thus
+&ldquo;to Rodrigo Esteban, painter of the king for
+many paintings done by the king's orders in the
+bishop's palace 100 golden maravedis.&rdquo; Again, in
+the archives at Barcelona we find that Juan Cesilles,
+painter of history, was engaged 16th March, 1382,
+to paint the &ldquo;History of the twelve apostles
+for the grand altar of the Church at Reps for
+330 florins.&rdquo; In 1339 one Gonzalez Ferran had
+some reputation both as a wood engraver and a
+painter. He was probably a miniaturist. In
+1340-81, Garcia Martinez, a Spanish illuminator,
+worked at Avignon. A copy of the Decretals,
+dated 1381, in the Cathedral Library of Seville
+is by his hand.</p>
+
+<p>In the fifteenth century we have many notices
+of painters, especially in Toledo, whither the taste
+was in all likelihood brought from Naples after
+the conquest of that kingdom by Alphonso&nbsp;V.
+of Aragon in 1441.</p>
+
+<p>It has been observed by those familiar with
+native Spanish art that its chief characteristic is
+that it is gloomy. This may be so, but it is not
+fairly chargeable to the artists but to the tyranny
+of the Spanish Inquisidor, who laid the embargo
+on the illuminator that he should not follow the
+<a name="Page_228" id="Page_228"></a>wicked gaiety of the Italians, nor the sometimes
+too realistic veracity of the Flemings. This
+accounts usually for backgrounds of black where
+the Fleming would have had rich colour or gold
+for the prevalence of black in the draperies and
+for the sombre tone in general of Spanish painting.
+It is not always in evidence, as may be seen in
+many of the miniatures of the famous choir-books
+in the Escorial. The sombre period began under
+Ferdinand the Catholic, and it has left its mark
+on the schools of the fifteenth century. The sixteenth
+began a new era, and under Philip&nbsp;II.
+several, both Netherlandish and Italian, miniaturists
+were invited to assist in the production of the
+enormous choir-books ordered by the King for
+San Lorenzo of the Escorial, between 1572 and
+1589. The volumes are bound in wooden boards
+covered with leather, stamped and bossed with
+ornaments of gilded bronze. It is said that 5,500
+lbs. of bronze and 40 lbs. of pure gold were
+used in the bindings. The actual dimensions of
+the volumes are 115 by 84 centimetres. Every
+volume has at least seventy folios, and every folio
+is splendidly illuminated, thus affording more
+than 30,000 pages covered with richly ornamented
+initials, miniatures, and borders. The illuminators
+and copyists of these choir-books were Cristobal
+Ramirez, who planned the work, fixed the size and
+other details of the volumes and the character of
+the handwriting, Fray Andr&eacute;s de Leon, Fray
+Julian de Fuente del Saz, Ambrosio Salazar,
+Fray Martin de Palencia, Francisco Hernandez,
+Pedro Salavarte, and Pedro Gomez. Ramirez was
+<a name="Page_229" id="Page_229"></a>engaged at the Escorial from 1566 to 1572. In the
+latter year he presented a Breviary with musical
+notation to the King, and was then engaged for
+the great undertaking mentioned above.</p>
+
+<p>Andr&eacute;s Cristobal was also an illuminator of
+note at Seville, where he worked from 1555 to
+1559. Andr&eacute;s de Leon worked at the Escorial
+from 1568, and is especially mentioned by Los
+Santos in his well-known description of the monastery
+of San Lorenzo: &ldquo;Son de gran numero y
+excelencia las iluminaciones que tienen de mano
+nuestro Fray Andr&eacute;s de Leon, que fue otro Don
+Julio en el Arte.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_1_63" id="FNanchor_1_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a> The allusion is to the celebrated
+Don Giulio Clovio, then in the height of
+his fame in Italy. Fray Julian received similar
+praise for a <i>capitolario</i> for the principal festivals
+of the year, especially for the grand dimensions
+of the miniatures, the like of which the writer
+says had never been seen before, either in Spain
+or Italy. Andr&eacute;s de Leon died at the Escorial in
+1580. Salazar continued working on them till
+they were completed, and in 1590 went to Toledo,
+where he finished two Missals for the Cathedral,
+which had been begun by the famous
+Juan Martinez de los Corrales. He was still
+engaged on similar work until his death in 1604.
+Two other illuminators, Esteban and Julian de
+Salazar, were working at the Escorial in 1585.
+Bermudez<a name="FNanchor_2_64" id="FNanchor_2_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> mentions Fray Martin de Palencia as
+having executed a volume in a fine handwriting
+<a name="Page_230" id="Page_230"></a>and with beautiful miniatures for the monastery
+of Saso. Thus we see there were numerous
+miniaturists in Spain in the latest years of the
+existence of the art that had been imported chiefly
+from Italy.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_63" id="Footnote_1_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> Fr. Francisco de los Santos, <i>Description breve del
+Monasterio de S. Lorenzo el Real del Escorial</i>, 24.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_64" id="Footnote_2_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> Diccionario, iv. 24.</p></div>
+
+<p>After most of these great choir-books had
+been finished there were still others in progress.
+In 1583 Giovanni Battista Scorza of Genoa,
+who is celebrated in the &ldquo;Galleria&rdquo; of the
+Cavaliero Marini, was invited by the King to
+take part in his great choir-book scheme.
+Scorza was then thirty-six years of age, and
+in the height of his reputation as a painter
+of small animals and insects. After a little time
+he returned to Genoa, where he lived to be ninety
+years old. He had a brother, Sinibaldo, who
+was equally skilful in miniature, and especially
+in scenes from history. The Scorzas were pupils
+of Luca Cambiaso. It may be noticed that all
+this work in miniature, although so late in its
+own history, is accomplished before the greatest
+names in Spanish painting are known. Josefo
+Ribera was born in 1588; Zurbaran in 1598;
+Velasquez in 1599; Alonzo Cano in 1601; Murillo
+in 1617. This, in a sense, is the natural course
+of things, as, generally, illumination has preceded
+the other kinds of painting.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to Portugal, very little is recorded
+that does not in some way connect itself with
+Spain. So we find that Antonio and Francesco de
+Holanda, seemingly of Netherlandish origin, are
+mentioned in relation to the books illuminated for
+the Royal Monastery of Thomar; Francesco also
+<a name="Page_231" id="Page_231"></a>worked for the monastery of Belem. Francesco
+de Holanda was a great admirer and imitator of
+Clovio, but he always insisted that his father
+Antonio was the inventor of the method of
+&ldquo;stippling,&rdquo; as the finishing with minute points of
+colour is technically called, which was brought to
+such perfection by Clovio and his scholars and
+imitators.</p>
+
+<p>Taken altogether, the work of the Spanish
+illuminators at the Escorial and those of Toledo
+and Seville is really the same, with just the variations
+we might expect from pupils and imitators,
+as that of their masters in Genoa, Rome, Venice,
+or Bruges. Examples of it may be seen occasionally
+in diplomas, such as are found in the British
+Museum and other public libraries, as, <i>e.g.</i> Claud.
+B. x. Lansd. 189, Add. 12214, 18191, 27231, etc.</p>
+
+<p>In 1572, the same year in which Luiz de
+Camoens published his Lusiades, an accomplished
+calligrapher, Miguel Barata, published
+an elaborate treatise on his own art, then in high
+repute.</p>
+
+<p>In the fourteenth century the Cancioniero of
+Don Pedro Affonso Ct. de Barcellos affords an
+example of the calligraphy (for which Spain and
+Portugal have always been famous) and illumination
+which is precious for the student. It is still
+in existence in the Palace of Ajuda. Its date is
+1320-40. And there are MSS. in the Torre do
+Tombo of Lisbon that are richly illuminated.
+Again, in Seville there is the &ldquo;Juego de las
+Tablas,&rdquo; executed under Alphonso the Wise in
+1283, with its Gothic arcades and ornaments.
+<a name="Page_232" id="Page_232"></a>M. Joaquin de Vasconcellas has made a study of
+this MS. The miniatures of the Torre do Tombo
+of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries are
+mostly of the French school.</p>
+
+<p>About 1428 33 was executed a splendid MS.
+entitled &ldquo;Leal Conselheiro,&rdquo; which is attributed
+to a famous miniaturist in his time named Vasco.
+It is, however, simply a monument of penmanship,
+as it contains no miniatures. The MS. has
+been edited by L'Abb&eacute; Roquete in 1842. The
+Portuguese MSS. of the fifteenth century betray
+a decided Flemish influence, as well they may, for
+probably the producers of them were Flemings.
+Constant intercourse with the Court of Burgundy
+had something to do with this.</p>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;Chronica do descobrimento e conquista
+de Guin&eacute;,&rdquo; now at Torre do Tombo, is clearly a
+Flemish work. It was begun about 1440, and
+finished in 1453. The portrait of the Enfante
+Don Henrique, called the Navigator, is set in a
+border evidently by a pupil or imitator of J. Van
+Eyck. The calligraphy of the MS. is most
+beautiful. This influence of the Netherlands on
+Portuguese art is, indeed, confirmed by the
+political diplomatic relations of the fifteenth century,
+and is of some importance in the history of
+art. We shall refer again to this matter when
+dealing with another MS.</p>
+
+<p>Among all the calligraphic monuments of
+Portugal it is claimed that the most splendid
+is the &ldquo;Bible of the Hieronymites.&rdquo; (See <i>Revista
+universal Lisbonense</i>, 1848, pp. 24-8.) This
+work, it is said, was a present from the Court of
+<a name="Page_233" id="Page_233"></a>Rome to Emanuel, successor of John&nbsp;II., in remembrance
+of the homage made to the Holy See,
+of the first gold brought from the Indies, but the
+story is very doubtful. The King, in bequeathing
+the seven volumes to the convent of Belem, says
+nothing about such an origin. They are manifestly
+in great part the work of foreign artists.
+One well-known miniaturist, Antonio de Holanda,
+the father of the better-known Francesco, took
+part in the work, and having a good conceit of
+his own abilities (we shall probably hear of him
+again), reserved an entire volume to himself in
+order to give proof of them. The seven volumes
+which then were covered with crimson velvet and
+silver bosses and enamels, are now simply bound
+in red morocco. In the middle of each cover are the
+arms of Emanuel King of Portugal. Vols. v. and
+vii. have those of Dona Isabel, his Spanish wife.</p>
+
+<p>The initials and ornaments show that the art of
+Italy is freely mixed with that of Portugal. Indeed,
+from the signatures in the volumes it is
+seen that the work of the penman was Italian;
+vol. i. being written at Ferrara by Sigismundo de
+Sigismundis, the well-known Italian calligrapher,
+in 1495. The second volume, also finished in
+1495, bears the name of Alessandro Verazzano,
+another famous copyist, who wrote several of the
+volumes illuminated by Attavante. Vol. iii. is
+dated 1496, and is unsigned. The next three
+volumes are also without signature. Vol. vii.
+is the work of Antonio de Holanda, who from his
+name appears to have been of Dutch descent.
+His work is certainly excellent, and renders this
+<a name="Page_234" id="Page_234"></a>volume a very precious monument of the art of
+Portugal. He was the official herald of the King,
+and he and his son Francesco gave their whole
+time to the practice of illumination. His son's
+Memoirs give a most interesting account of his
+travels and intercourse with Giulio Clovio and the
+other Italian artists whom he met with in Rome.<a name="FNanchor_1_65" id="FNanchor_1_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a>
+For some years the Hieronymite Bible was in
+Paris, having been brought thither by Marshal
+Junot, where it remained unnoticed for several
+years. Being called for by the Portuguese
+Government, Louis&nbsp;XVIII. paid 50,000 francs to
+the family of Junot, and restored it to the
+monastery of Belem. A splendidly illuminated
+atlas by an illuminator and cartographer named
+Fernando Vas Dourado was published in the year
+of his death, 1571.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_65" id="Footnote_1_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> See my Life of Clovio.</p></div>
+
+<p>As an important example of what we may
+fairly call native art, we will now briefly refer to
+the celebrated Missal of Estevam Gon&ccedil;alvez Neto,
+one of the productions of the busy second half of
+the sixteenth century. The clever amateur who
+achieved this beautiful series of paintings, for
+paintings they are, in addition to the writing and
+other ornamentation of the MS., was descended
+from a noble family of S&ecirc;rem, in the parish of
+Macinhata, forty-three leagues from Lisbon. He
+became Canon of Viseu, and during his leisure,
+after this appointment, executed the Pontifical
+Missal which bears his name. It is dedicated to
+Don Jos&egrave; Manuel, of the House of Tancos, Bishop
+of Viseu, afterwards of Coimbra, and lastly Arch<a name="Page_235" id="Page_235"></a>bishop
+of Lisbon. This prelate gave the book to
+the Church of Viseu. The original MS. was
+afterwards in the library of the Convent of Jesus,
+and is now in the Academy of Sciences at Lisbon.
+Stephen Gonsalvez died July 29th, 1627. The
+Missal is signed: &ldquo;Steph. Glz. Abbas Sereicencis
+fac. 1610.&rdquo; It has been very well reproduced in
+colours by Macia, of Paris.</p>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;Genealogies of the House of Sandoval,&rdquo;
+written and painted in Lisbon in 1612, is now in
+Paris. It is called &ldquo;Genealogia universal de la
+Nobilissima casa de Sandoval Ramo del Generoso
+tronco de los soberanos Reyes de Castilla y Leon.
+Por Don Melchior de Teves del Conseio Real de
+Castilla del Rey D&#333; Philippe&nbsp;III.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>At the foot of the page is written &ldquo;Eduardus
+Caldiera Vlisspone scripsit, Anno Dni MDCXII.&rdquo;
+This magnificent MS., which measures forty-six by
+thirty centimetres, is numbered in the Catalogue
+of the National Library as 10015. A grand frontispiece,
+formed of two columns of the Composite
+Order, occupies the first page, representing a king
+in royal robes and crown arresting the wheel of
+Fortune. Two lions accompany the scene, and
+the motto of the picture is &ldquo;Virtute duce non
+comite Fortuna.&rdquo; Page 2 contains the various
+escutcheons of the family of the Count of Lerma,
+for whom the book was written. It contains a
+great number of portraits. A final instance of
+the influence, or rather the inroad, of Flemish art
+in Portugal in the fifteenth century may be shown
+in the MS. called the Portuguese Genealogies in
+the British Museum.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236"></a>The work consists of eleven large folio sheets
+separately mounted and measuring eighteen by
+ten inches. It commences with a prologue,
+with the arms of Portugal supported by two
+savages, having clubs and shields. Outside the
+inner frame are three scenes: (1) wild animals in
+combat; (2) a sea-nymph being rescued; (3) a
+fight among sylvan savages. Next comes a
+series of portraits painted in the most finished and
+life-like style, beginning with Dom Garcia F&deg; del
+rey Abarca and Dona Constancia on a fruitful tree
+with foliage, fruits, and birds, a cat, and other
+things. The tree is an oak, beside it are apple
+and cherry trees. On the oak are green acorns.
+The birds are very beautiful, the cat simply perfect.
+These details recall the highly finished and
+lovely work of Georg Hoefnagel on the great
+Missal at Vienna. Gothic brown-gold architecture
+and three battle scenes complete the page.</p>
+
+<p>Then follow the genealogical tables, and more
+portraits, the whole showing the most patient and
+careful work. Letters on the borders of the robes
+recall the same kind of ornament in the Grimani
+Breviary at Venice. No one has been able to
+explain these curious inscriptions. In the Grimani
+Breviary they were thought to be either Croatian
+or merely ornament. Here they cannot well mean
+anything but decoration. The portraits are fanciful
+but interesting mementoes of the period, and
+include several personages noted in history.</p>
+
+<p>The last MS. to be mentioned in this hasty
+sketch is one in the British Museum (Stowe 597).
+It is a &ldquo;Missale Romanum,&rdquo; and is said to have
+<a name="Page_237" id="Page_237"></a>been illuminated for John&nbsp;III. in 1557. It was
+once the property of the Abb&eacute; Gamier, chaplain
+for near thirty years, of the French factory at
+Lisbon. The binding is red morocco, and once
+had silver clasps.</p>
+
+<p>It commences with a large mirror-like oval
+tablet, containing the title, set between two
+pillars of pink-veined marble with bronze-gold
+capitals and bases. The tablet is crimson with
+a violet-slate frame moulding of egg and dart
+pattern. At foot are two Roman legionaries, one
+seated as supporting the tablet, on each side.
+On folio 3 is the index in a rose-wood panel and
+pale green frame. The peculiar forms of the
+frames and the scroll-work on them are of the
+fantastic kind, differing from Italian, which is
+characteristic both of Spanish and Portuguese
+ornament. The chief colours are a bright emerald
+green and blue, with ochre, gold, and crimson.
+The initials are still more fantastic&mdash;partly human,
+partly plant or fish-form, sometimes sculptured
+ornament and plant-forms combined&mdash;but all so
+sweetly painted and so delicately finished as to be
+most attractive. The text is a fine and elegant
+Roman minuscule interspersed with italic.</p>
+
+<p>Here and there are exquisite little drawings of
+ecclesiastical utensils, etc., but the everlasting
+variety among the quaint and fanciful initials
+provides an unwearying fund of interest. Tiny
+birds of the loveliest plumage sit among and
+beneath the limbs of the letters, or elegant scrolls
+of pencilled gold cover the little coloured panels
+on which the plain gold Roman initials are placed.
+<a name="Page_238" id="Page_238"></a>Some of the larger initials are very finely executed
+and contain full-length figures of saints, bishops,
+or queens. One lovely initial B has a graceful
+girl simply clad in blue tunic and pale yellow
+skirt with a silken coil of pale rose forming the
+upper loop of the letter, the lower being formed
+of the curved body of a green dragon. Her left
+hand lifts the silk-work, her right, hanging by her
+side, holds a little golden pitcher. The whole is
+painted on a panel of bright gold. Another (L)
+shows a peasant rushing laughingly, with a hare
+slung over his shoulder, past the figure of a
+guardian terminus of bronze. But the Missal
+should be seen to be properly understood, for
+though in a general way it has a look of Italian
+influence, its originality is beyond question.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239"></a><a name="II_CHAPTER_XI" id="II_CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI</h2>
+
+<h3>ILLUMINATION SINCE THE INVENTION OF
+PRINTING</h3>
+
+<p>The invention of printing&mdash;Its very slight effect on
+illuminating&mdash;Preference by rich patrons for written books&mdash;Work
+produced in various cities in the sixteenth century&mdash;Examples
+in German, Italian, and other cities, and in various public
+libraries up to the present time.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> art of printing, as the reading world has
+been frequently informed, was invented in
+the fifteenth century, and undoubtedly had, to a
+considerable extent, a destructive effect upon the
+craft of professional copyists. But in the fifteenth
+century the art of the writer and that of
+the illuminator had long been separate professions.
+There was no particular reason, therefore, why
+the invention of printing should interfere with
+the illuminator. As a matter of fact, it made little
+difference. Nor, indeed, did printing entirely put
+a stop to the professional career of the scribe.
+It was prophesied, before practical experience
+of facts proved the contrary, that the invention
+of the railway engine would abolish the horse.
+The printing-press did not abolish the penman,
+but it certainly spoiled his trade. We have seen
+in the course of the preceding chapters that it
+did not spoil the trade of the illuminator. Nor
+was it quite owing to the fact that many printed
+<a name="Page_240" id="Page_240"></a>books were so adorned as to appear like illuminated
+MSS. More than one wealthy patron absolutely
+declined to have anything to do with printed
+books. The matter was too vulgar and too cheap.
+The last Duke of Urbino was a prince of this
+lofty way of thinking, and scarcely a court in
+Europe but continued to have MSS. produced as
+if no such thing as the printing-press were known.
+How they were multiplied in Spain and France we
+have seen in detail. We will now proceed to take
+a farewell look at the German and Italian libraries,
+in order to see how the illustrious presses of
+Mainz, Strassburg, Augsburg, K&ouml;ln, Munich,
+Vienna, Venice, Milan, Florence, and Rome affected
+the ateliers of the great schools of illumination
+established in most of these cities. What do we
+find? In point of fact, some of the richest, most
+magnificent books ever produced by the illuminator,
+not only whilst the press was still a novelty, but
+long after it had become perfectly familiar to
+everybody. For several of the cities aforesaid we
+have the means of proof: thus for Mainz, at the
+end of the superb copy of the Mazarine Bible, now
+at Paris, is the following inscription: &ldquo;Iste liber
+illuminatus, legatus and completus est henricum
+Cremer vicari&#363; ecclesie collegiate Sancti Stephani
+Moguntini sub anno dni Melesimo quatring
+entesimo quinquagesimo Sexto, festo assumptiois
+gloriose Virginis Marie. Deo gratias alleluya.&rdquo; This
+was in 1456, the year before the first press was
+set up. In 1524 we have two most splendidly
+illuminated MSS.&mdash;a Missal and a Prayer-book&mdash;executed
+by order of Albert of Brandenburg,
+<a name="Page_241" id="Page_241"></a>Archbishop of Mainz. Two richer examples of
+the German Renaissance cannot easily be imagined.
+We cannot dilate upon them. We may, however,
+truly say that together with very many other examples
+of illuminated work, both in manuscripts
+and printed books, they show the art of the illuminator
+to be no less splendid or elaborate after
+the invention of printing than it was before.</p>
+
+<p>On the last page of the Missal is written: &ldquo;Ich
+Niklas Glockendon zu Nurenberg hab dieses Bhuch
+illuminiert ond vollent im jar 1524.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The Prayer-book is similarly adorned with miniatures
+and brightly coloured borders. On the cover
+is a copy of the Archbishop's portrait, painted
+by D&uuml;rer, and on folio 1 is written by the
+Archbishop himself: &ldquo;Anno domini MDXXXI
+completum est presens opus, Sabbato post 'Invocavit.'
+Albertus Cardinalis moguntinus manu
+propria scripsit.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Other Glockendon books exist in other libraries.
+Then there is the Beham Prayer-book at Aschaffenburg
+and a Bible in the library at Wolfenb&uuml;ttel
+in two thick 4&deg; volumes&mdash;a work well
+worth examination. At Nuremberg is the Service-book
+executed by Conrad Frankendorfer, of
+Nuremberg, in 1498.</p>
+
+<p>In the British Museum is the fine German MS.&mdash;the
+Splendor Sous, a sixteenth century MS.
+(Harl. 3469).</p>
+
+<p>In the National Library at Paris is the Prayer-book
+of William of Baden (10567-8) executed
+at Strassburg by Frederic Brentel in 1647.</p>
+
+<p>Augsburg was producing illuminated Service-<a name="Page_242" id="Page_242"></a>books
+ten years after G&uuml;nther Zainer had set up
+the press in that city.</p>
+
+<p>Munich, also, with the Penitential Psalms, etc.,
+by Hans Mielich. Vienna, too, can show a magnificent
+Missal by Georg Hoefnagel, bearing the
+dates 1582 to 1590. Venice is represented in the
+work of Benedetto Bordone and the Ducali.
+Florence in the splendid Missals, etc., of Attavante
+and his contemporaries.</p>
+
+<p>Milan shows the gorgeous Graduals of the
+Brera belonging to the sixteenth century and the
+Sforziadas of London and Paris. So we might
+pass from city to city almost all over Western
+Europe. The great Spanish choir-books were
+almost all produced under Philip&nbsp;II. Several
+Papal Service-books are represented in the
+fifteenth- and sixteenth-century examples of the
+scrap-book 21412 of the British Museum; and the
+works of Clovio, the most noted of Italian illuminators,
+all belong to the sixteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>These instances are amply sufficient to prove
+that in every city in Europe where printing was in
+full practice the art of the illuminator continued to
+flourish until the progress of modern inventions
+and various processes, added to the general
+cheapening of books, led to its disuse. Its present
+application seems to be almost solely to diplomas
+and testimonials, and in point of quality, usually
+as poor and spiritless as the incapacity of most of
+its professors can make it.</p>
+
+<p>There seems, however, no reason why the artistic
+skill and elaborate methods of reproduction
+of the present day should not produce magnificent
+<a name="Page_243" id="Page_243"></a>books&mdash;indeed the &ldquo;Imitation&rdquo; of Thomas &agrave;
+Kempis, and other continental examples prove
+that this is amply possible.</p>
+
+<p>The next few years will probably show that
+readers are still desirous of possessing beautiful
+books, and that artists are still found capable of
+producing them.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244"></a><a name="MANUSCRIPTS_THAT_MAY_BE_CONSULTED_AS_EXAMPLES" id="MANUSCRIPTS_THAT_MAY_BE_CONSULTED_AS_EXAMPLES"></a>MANUSCRIPTS THAT MAY BE CONSULTED AS EXAMPLES</h2>
+
+<h5>(Partly taken by permission from the Victoria and Albert Museum Handbook)</h5>
+
+<table border="1" summary="">
+<tr><th colspan="6"><h3>CLASSICAL AND EARLY CHRISTIAN</h3></th></tr>
+<tr><th>No.</th><th>Name.</th><th>Where Produced.</th><th>Where Kept.</th><th>Date.</th><th>Remarks.</th></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1</td><td>Vergil (fragment)</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Vatican Lib., Rome, Cod. Vat. 3225</td><td>3rd or 4th cent.</td><td rowspan="2">Doubtful which is the older.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">2</td><td>Vergil</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Vat. Lib. 3867</td><td>4th cent.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">3</td><td>Rom. Calend.(f.)</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Imp. Lib., Vienna</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">4</td><td>Genesis (f.)</td><td align="center">......</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>5th cent.</td><td>Gold and silver text on purple vellum; 88 miniatures.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">5</td><td>Genesis (f.)</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Brit. Mus., Cott. Oth. B. 6</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Much burnt in 1731.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">6</td><td>Iliad (f.)</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Ambros. Lib., Milan</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Fine handwriting and clever pictures.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">7</td><td>Joshua (f. of Roll)</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Vat. Lib., Rome</td><td align="center">......</td><td>15 leaves, 32 ft. long, 11 in. wide. Contains from ch. 2<sup>22</sup> to 10<sup>18</sup>, brush outlines to miniatures. Rivers, etc., personified in Byzantine manner.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245"></a>8</td><td>Dioscorides, etc.</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Imp. Lib., Vienna</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;500-5</td><td>Personifications of abstract qualities.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">9</td><td>Bible of Montamiata</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Laurent. Lib., Florence</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;540</td><td>Valuable as a theological document, but poor work, and in bad condition.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">10</td><td>Syriac Gospels</td><td>Monastery of Zagfba, in Mesopotamia</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;586</td><td>Brought to Florence in 1497. Remarkable Crucifixion, see <i>Byzantine</i>, 1.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">11</td><td>Terence</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Nat. Lib., Paris</td><td>9th cent.</td><td>Copy of a 5th-cent. MS. pen-drawings.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">12</td><td>Pentateuch</td><td>Tours</td><td>Nat. Lib., Paris, Nouv. acq. 2334</td><td>7th cent.</td><td>Called the Ashburnham Pentateuch; 19 large miniatures.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th colspan="6"><h3>BYZANTINE</h3></th></tr>
+
+<tr><th>No.</th><th>Name.</th><th>Where Produced.</th><th>Where Kept.</th><th>Date.</th><th>Remarks.</th></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1</td><td>Syriac Gospels</td><td>Zagba, in Mesopotamia</td><td>Laur. Lib., Florence</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;586</td><td>Shows Byzantine influence.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">2</td><td>Gospel-book (f.)</td><td>Byzantium</td><td>Brit. Mus., Add. 5111</td><td>6th cent.</td><td>Lettering, etc., on gold ground.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">3</td><td>Menologium</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Vat. Lib., Gr. 1613</td><td>9th cent.</td><td>A typical Byzantine MS.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246"></a>4</td><td>Gregory of Nazianzum</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Nat. Lib., Paris, Gr. 510</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Fine antique design and composition.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">5</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Nat. Lib., Paris, Gr. 543</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Good small figures.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">6</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Nat. Lib., Paris, Gr. 550</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Good small figures and headings.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">7</td><td>Evangeliary</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Brit. Mus., Arund. 547</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">8</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Brit. Mus., Burney 19, 20.</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">9</td><td>Lectionary</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Brit. Mus., Harl. 5598</td><td>10th cent., end</td><td>Fine initials.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">10</td><td>Chrysostom</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Nat. Lib., Paris, Gr. 654</td><td>10th cent.</td><td>Remarkable initials.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">11</td><td>Simeon Metaphrastes</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Brit. Mus., Add. 11870</td><td>11th cent</td><td>Fine ornaments.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">12</td><td>Evangeliary</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Brit. Mus., Add. 11838</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Beautiful headings.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">13</td><td>Psalter</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Brit. Mus., Add. Egert. 1139</td><td>12th cent.</td><td>Executed for Melisenda, daughter of King of Jerusalem.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th colspan="6"><h3>IRISH OR CELTIC</h3></th></tr>
+
+<tr><th>No.</th><th>Name.</th><th>Where Produced.</th><th>Where Kept.</th><th>Date.</th><th>Remarks.</th></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1</td><td>Gospels of St. Columba</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Trin. Coll., Dublin</td><td>7th cent.</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247"></a>2</td><td>Gospels of St. Arnoul, of Metz</td><td>St. Arnoul's Abbey, Metz</td><td>Nuremberg Museum</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">3</td><td>Book of St. Columbanus</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Roy. Lib., Naples</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">4</td><td>Bible of St. Kilian</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Cath. Lib., Wurzburg</td><td>8th cent.</td><td>Curious Crucifixion.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">5</td><td>Gospels of &ldquo;Thomas&rdquo;</td><td>Monastery of Hanow</td><td>Pub. Lib., Tr&egrave;ves</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Signed &ldquo;Thomas scribsit.&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">6</td><td>Psalter</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Brit. Mus., Cott. Vesp. a. 1</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Anglo-Irish, with arched frame-border.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">7</td><td>Gospels of MacRegol</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Bodl. Lib., Oxford</td><td>9th cent.</td><td><i>See</i> Westwood, <i>Pal&aelig;ographia Sacra Pict.</i>, pl. 16.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">8</td><td>Book of Armagh</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Roy. Irish Acad., Dublin</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>P. 103. Remarkable.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">9</td><td>St. Chad's Gospels</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Lichfield Cath. Lib.</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Fine Anglo-Irish.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">10</td><td>Lindisfarne Gospels</td><td>Lindisfarne Monastery</td><td>Brit. Mus., Cott, Nero D. 4</td><td>7th cent.</td><td>Anglo-Celtic&mdash;a very fine example.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th colspan="6"><h3>CAROLINGIAN</h3></th></tr>
+
+<tr><th>No.</th><th>Name.</th><th>Where Produced.</th><th>Where Kept.</th><th>Date.</th><th>Remarks.</th></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1</td><td>Sacramentary</td><td>Abbey of Gellone</td><td>Nat. Lib., Paris, MS. Lat. 12048</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;750</td><td>Symbolism. Given by Ct. William of Toulouse.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">2</td><td>Ada-Codex</td><td>Abbey of St. Mesmin, of Tr&egrave;ves</td><td>Municip. Lib., Tr&egrave;ves</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;775</td><td>Written for Ada, sister of Charlemagne, Abbess of St. Mesmin.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248"></a>3</td><td>Psalter of Dagolfus</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Imp. Lib., Vienna Theol. Lat. 1861</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;780</td><td>Written for Queen Hildegardis, wife of Charlemagne.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">4</td><td>Evangeliarium of Godescale</td><td>Abbey of St. Sernin, of Toulouse</td><td>Nat. Lib., Paris, nouv. acq. 1203</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Written for Charlemagne and Hildegardis. Has gold and silver letters on purple vellum.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">5</td><td>Sacramentary of Gelasius</td><td>Abbey of St. Gall</td><td>Abb. St. Gall, No. 348</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Franco-Saxon.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">6</td><td>Evangeliarium of St. Angilbert</td><td>Abbey of St. Riquier</td><td>Town Lib., Abbeville</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;793</td><td>On purple vellum.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">7</td><td>Alcuin Bible</td><td>Abbey of Tours</td><td>Brit. Mus., Add. 10546</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;800</td><td>Coronation gift to Charlemagne. Very fine example.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">8</td><td>Bible</td><td>Tours</td><td>Cantonal Lib., Zurich</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Like 7.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">9</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Bamberg Roy. Lib</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Said to be an exact copy of 7.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249"></a>10</td><td>Gospels of Charles the Great (Charlemagne)</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Imp. Lib., Vienna</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Found by Emperor Otho&nbsp;III. in tomb of Charlemagne.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">11</td><td>Sacramentary of Drogo, Abp. of Metz</td><td>Abbey of Metz, or Tours</td><td>Nat. Lib. Paris, Theol. Lat. 9428</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;814</td><td>The gift of Charlemagne to his natural son Drogo.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">12</td><td>Golden Gospels of Athelstan</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Brit. Mus., Harl. 2788</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;835</td><td>A splendid example.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">13</td><td>Golden Gospels of Charles the Bald</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Roy. Lib., Munich</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;850</td><td>Ditto, written in gold letters.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">14</td><td>Evangeliary of Lothaire</td><td>Abbey of St. Martin's, Tours</td><td>Nat. Lib., Paris, Theol. Lat. 266</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Remarkably beautiful.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">15</td><td>Golden Gospels</td><td>Abbey of St. M&eacute;dard, of Soissons</td><td>Nat. Lib., Paris, Theol. Lat 8850</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>One of most beautiful Carol. MSS. known.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">16</td><td>Bible of Count Vivien</td><td>Abbey of St. Martin, of Tours</td><td>Nat. Lib., Paris, Theol. Lat 1</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Presented to Charles the Bald in 850. Miniature of presentation.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">17</td><td>Bible of St. Paul's</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Monastery of St. Calixtus, Rome</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;860</td><td>Written for Charles the Bald by Ingobert.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250"></a>18</td><td>Prayer-book (or Hours) of Charles the Bald</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Nat Lib., Paris</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;866</td><td>Written by Ingobert and presented to Charles the Bald in 866.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">19</td><td>Golden Gospels of St. Gall</td><td>Abbey of St. Gall</td><td>Lib. at St. Gall, No. 22</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;870</td><td>Written for Abbot Grimwold, or Hartmut.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">20</td><td>Psalter of Folchard</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Lib. at St. Gall, No. 23</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Written for Abbot Hartmut. Gold and silver initials.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">21</td><td>Evangeliarium Longum</td><td>St. Gall</td><td>Lib., St. Gall</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;920</td><td>Written by Sintramn of the &ldquo;Wondrous Hand.&rdquo; Profile foliages in gold and silver.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">22</td><td>Evangeliary</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Roy. Lib., Brussels, No. 16383</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;925</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">23</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Nat. Lib., Paris</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;940</td><td>Large 4&deg;, written entirely in gold letters; 5 miniatures and 12 porticoes.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">24</td><td>Psalter</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Brit. Mus., Harl. 2904</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;995</td><td>Transition to the style of the Benedictionals.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th colspan="6"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251"></a><h3>WINCHESTER WORK AND SIMILAR</h3></th></tr>
+
+<tr><th>No.</th><th>Name.</th><th>Where Produced.</th><th>Where Kept.</th><th>Date.</th><th>Remarks.</th></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1</td><td>King Edgar's Charter</td><td>Hyde Abbey, Winchester</td><td>Brit. Mus., Cott. Vesp. A. 8</td><td>966</td><td>Style of the Benedictionals of &AElig;thelwold and Robert.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">2</td><td>Breviarium Cassinense</td><td>Monte Cassino?</td><td>Mazarine Lib., Paris, 759</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Tendency to same style colouring as in school of Metz.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">3</td><td>&AElig;thelwold's Benedictional</td><td>Hyde Abbey, Winchester</td><td>Lib. of Duke of Devonshire</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;970</td><td>Best example known.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">4</td><td>Benedictional of Abp. Robert</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Pub. Lib., Rouen</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;980</td><td>Drawing bold, but colouring unequal to 3.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">5</td><td>Gospels</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Trin. Coll., Camb</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;900</td><td>Borders like Winchester work.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">6</td><td>Psalter</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Brit. Mus., Harl. 2904</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Fol. frames similar.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">7</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Brit. Mus., Tib. C. 7</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1000</td><td>Init. D on f. 115.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">8</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Winchester</td><td>Brit. Mus., Arund. 60</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">9</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Brit. Mus., Arund. 155</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">10</td><td>Cnut's Gospels</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Brit. Mus., Roy. 1 D. 9</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1017</td><td>Fine example.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">11</td><td>Leofric Missal</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Bodl. Lib., Oxford No. 579</td><td>10th cent.</td><td>Byzantine influence.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th colspan="6"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252"></a><h3>MONASTIC STYLES</h3></th></tr>
+
+<tr><th>No.</th><th>Name.</th><th>Where Produced.</th><th>Where Kept.</th><th>Date.</th><th>Remarks.</th></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1</td><td>Weissobrun Prayer-book</td><td>Weissobrun</td><td>Roy. Lib., Munich</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;814</td><td>Netherlandish.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">2</td><td>Gospels</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Nat. Lib., Paris, 8851</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;975</td><td>Medallions of Emperors Henry&nbsp;I. and Otho&nbsp;I. and II.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">3</td><td>Egbert Codex</td><td>Reichenau</td><td>Pub. Lib. Tr&egrave;ves, No. 24</td><td>977-93</td><td>Beautiful initials.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">4</td><td>Gospels</td><td>Echternach</td><td>Gotha Museum</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;990</td><td>Portrait of Otho&nbsp;III. and Theophanu. Jewelled covers.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">5</td><td>Otho Codex</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Roy. Lib., Munich Cimel. 58</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;998</td><td>See p. 91.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">6</td><td>Gospels</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Brit. Mus., Egert. 608</td><td>10th cent.</td><td>Branch-work initials.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">7</td><td>Bernward's Gospels</td><td>Hildesheim</td><td>Cath. Lib., Hildesheim</td><td>993-1022</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">8</td><td>Ellinger's Gospels</td><td>Tegernsee</td><td>Roy. Lib., Munich No. 31</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1056</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">9</td><td>Hortus Deliciarum</td><td>Landsberg</td><td>Formerly at Strassburg</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1175-80</td><td>Burnt in 1670.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">10</td><td>Life of Virgin</td><td>Tegernsee</td><td>Roy. Lib., Berlin</td><td>1173-1200</td><td>Written, etc., for the Emperor Frederick&nbsp;I. by Werinher.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253"></a>11</td><td>Plenarium</td><td>Quedlinburg</td><td>Town Lib., Quedlinburg</td><td>1184-1203</td><td>Written for Abbess Agnes.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">12</td><td>Passionale</td><td>Arnstein, near Tr&egrave;ves</td><td>Brit. Mus., Harl. 2800-2</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1194</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">13</td><td>Bible</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Brit. Mus., Harl. 2803</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1190</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">14</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Floreffe</td><td>Brit. Mus., Add. 17737-8</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1253</td><td>Chronological tables in coloured inks.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">15</td><td>Missal</td><td>St. Bavon of Ghent</td><td>Brit. Mus., Add. 16949</td><td>1150-1175</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">16</td><td>Chronicle of Jerusalem</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Roy. Lib., Brussels, No. 11142</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Fine miniatures&mdash;costumes.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">17</td><td>Psalter</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Brit. Mus., Arund. 157</td><td>12th cent.</td><td>Transition from Winchester to Othonian.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">18</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Brit. Mus., Lansd. 420</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">19</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Brit. Mus., Lansd. 431</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">20</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Brit. Mus., Roy. I D.X.</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">21</td><td>Bible</td><td>St. Nicholas, of Arnstein</td><td>Brit. Mus., Harl. 2798</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Typical 12th cent. MS.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">22</td><td>Vauclere Psalter</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Pub. Lib., Laon, No. 29</td><td align="center">......</td><td>A perfect type of 12th cent. illumination.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">23</td><td>Mater Verborum</td><td>Scheyern</td><td>Roy. Lib., Munich</td><td align="center">......</td><td>By Conrad of Scheyern, with all manner of diagrams, etc.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th colspan="6"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254"></a><h3>FRENCH AND ANGLO-FRENCH GOTHIC</h3></th></tr>
+
+<tr><th>No.</th><th>Name.</th><th>Where Produced.</th><th>Where Kept.</th><th>Date.</th><th>Remarks.</th></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1</td><td>Psalter of Queen Ingeburga</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Mus&eacute;e Cond&eacute;, Ghantilly</td><td>1193-1236</td><td>27 large miniatures Transitional to Gothic</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">2</td><td>Psalter of Queen Blanche, mother of Louis&nbsp;IX.</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Arsenal Lib., Paris, Theol. Lat. 165 B.</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1220</td><td>Hieratic, and transitional to Gothic.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">3</td><td>Psalter of St. Louis (IX.)</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Nat. Lib., Paris, No. 10525</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1250</td><td>Transitional to Gothic. 78 delicate miniatures.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">4</td><td>Joinville's Credo</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Nat. Lib., Paris</td><td>1287</td><td>Gothic portrait of St. Louis.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">5</td><td>Alfonso Psalter (Tenison)</td><td>Blackfriar's London</td><td>Brit. Mus., Add. 24686</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1284</td><td>See article in <i>Fine Arts Qu. Rev.</i>, i. 77, and <i>Bibliographica</i>, pt. 4.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">6</td><td>Bible</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Brit. Mus., Burney 3 Add. 28126</td><td>1225-52</td><td>Richly illuminated.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">7</td><td>Somme le Roy</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Brit. Mus., Add. 28162</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1300</td><td>9 large illuminations.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">8</td><td>Life of St. Denis</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Nat. Lib., Paris, fds. fr. 2090-2</td><td>1316-22</td><td>Contains view of Paris, and portrait of Philip&nbsp;V. Drolleries, coloured shading of draperies.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255"></a>9</td><td>Bible</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Brit. Mus., Roy. 1 D. 1</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1310-15</td><td>Typical work, English.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">10</td><td>Ormsby Psalter</td><td>Norwich</td><td>Bodl. Lib., Oxford, Douce 366</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1295</td><td>English work.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">11</td><td>Bible</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Brit. Mus, Add. 17341</td><td>Late 13th cent.</td><td>A typical MS.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">12</td><td>Psalter</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Brit. Mus., Roy. 2 B. 7</td><td>Early 14th cent.</td><td>Drolleries and interesting scenes.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">13</td><td>Miroir Historiale</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Arsen. Lib., Paris</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1356</td><td>Large folio richly illuminated.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">14</td><td>Louterell Psalter</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Lulworth Castle</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1340</td><td>Fine diapered backgrounds.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">15</td><td>Missal</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Westreenen Mus., The Hague</td><td>1366</td><td>&ldquo;Gouache&rdquo; painting in miniatures.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">16</td><td>Chronicle of St. Denis</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Nat. Lib., Paris, 8395</td><td>1375-80</td><td>Miniature in gold and grey.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">17</td><td>Hours of John, Duke of Berry</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Roy. Lib., Brussels, 11060</td><td>Finished 1380</td><td>Illuminated by Andr&eacute; Beauneveu and Jacquemart de Hesdin.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">18</td><td>Epistle to Richard&nbsp;II.</td><td>Paris</td><td>Brit. Mus., Roy. 20 B. 6</td><td>1370-80</td><td>Fine ivy-branch style.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">19</td><td>Offices B.M.V.</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Brit. Mus., Harl. 2897</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Prayer-book of Margaret of Bavaria. A typical MS.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">20</td><td>Little Hours of Berry</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Nat. Lib., Paris, 18014</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1400</td><td>113 beautiful miniatures.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256"></a>21</td><td>Psalter of the Duke of Berry</td><td>Paris</td><td>Nat. Lib., Paris, No. 13091</td><td>1401</td><td>Contains 24 fine miniatures by Andr&eacute; Beauneveu.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">22</td><td>Grandes Heures de Berry</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Nat. Lib., Paris, fds. Lat. 919</td><td>1409</td><td>By Jacquemart de Hesdin, Andr&eacute; Beauneveu, and Pol de Limbourg.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">23</td><td>Heures de Berry</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Mus&eacute;e Dond&eacute;, Chantilly</td><td>1410</td><td>Considered the finest example known.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">24</td><td>Poems of Christine de Pisan</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Brit. Mus., Harl. 4431</td><td>1400-6</td><td>Fine miniatures&mdash;costumes and portraits.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">25</td><td>Talbot Romances</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Brit. Mus., Roy. 15 E. 6</td><td>1400</td><td>Curious miniatures, portraits of Henry&nbsp;VI., etc.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">26</td><td>Bedford Offices</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Brit. Mus., Add. 18850</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1435</td><td>Richly illuminated. Contains French, English, and Netherlandish work.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">27</td><td>Bedford Breviary</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Nat. Lib., Paris, fds. Lat. 17294</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1430</td><td>Contains English and French work.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">28</td><td>Pontifical</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Brit. Mus., Add. 16610</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1450</td><td>Fine borders.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">29</td><td>Valerius Maximus</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Brit. Mus., Harl. 4375</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Northern French and Netherlandish.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">30</td><td>Girart de Nevers</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Nat. Lib., Paris, fds. fr. 4092</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1470</td><td>Netherlandish&mdash;costumes, etc.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th colspan="6"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257"></a><h3>GERMAN AND BOHEMIAN</h3></th></tr>
+
+<tr><th>No.</th><th>Name.</th><th>Where Produced.</th><th>Where Kept.</th><th>Date.</th><th>Remarks.</th></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1</td><td>Minnelieder</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Nat. Lib., Paris, fds. fr. 7266</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1300</td><td>Hunting scenes, costumes.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">2</td><td>Wilhelm von Oranse</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Pub. Lib., Cassel</td><td>1334</td><td>Written for Henry Landgrave of Hesse. French influence.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">3</td><td>Picture Bible</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Lib. of Prince Lobkowitz, Prag</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1300</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">4</td><td>Passionale of Abbess Cunigunda</td><td>Prag</td><td>Univ. Lib., Prag, xiv. A. 17</td><td>1312</td><td>Transparent water-colour. No French influence.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">5</td><td>Weltchronik of Rudolf v. Hohen-Ems</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Roy. Lib., Stuttgart</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1350</td><td>Old Cologne school.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">6</td><td>Liber Viaticus</td><td>Prag</td><td>Bohem. Mus., Prag</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1360</td><td>Written for John v. Neumarkt, Bishop of Leitomischl.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">7</td><td>Mariale</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1345</td><td>Written for Arnestus v. Pardubitz, Archbishop of Prag (1344-64). Bohemian school.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">8</td><td>Orationale</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Written for same prelate, in French Gothic style.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">9</td><td>Bible of Emperor Wenzel</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Imp. Lib., Vienna, No. 2759</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Executed by order of Martin Rotl&ouml;w for presentation to the Emperor.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258"></a>10</td><td>Gospels of John of Oppavia</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Imp. Lib., Vienna</td><td>1368</td><td>Beautiful penmanship and ornaments.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">11</td><td>Wilhelm von Oranse</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Ambras Museum, Vienna, No. 7</td><td>1387</td><td>Fine diapered backgrounds, costumes, and armour.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">12</td><td>Salzburg Missal</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Roy. Lib., Munich, Lat. 15710</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1350</td><td>In 5 fol. vols. Splendid colouring.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">13</td><td>Weltchronik of Rudolf v. Hohen-Ems</td><td align="center">......</td><td>15710 Pub. Lib., Stuttgart</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1383</td><td>Large folio. Westphalian school.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">14</td><td>Durandus</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Imp. Lib., Vienna, No. 2765</td><td>1384</td><td>Written for Albert&nbsp;III., Duke of Austria. Illuminated in later Bohemian.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">15</td><td>Golden Bull of Charles&nbsp;IV.</td><td>Prag</td><td>Imp. Lib., Vienna, jus. c. 338</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1399</td><td>Rich soft-leaved foliages. Ornament superior to miniatures.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">16</td><td>Wurzburg Bible</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Brit. Mus., Arund. 106</td><td>After 1400</td><td>Large foliages, fine initials, bright colours.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">17</td><td>Missal of Emperor Frederick&nbsp;III.</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Imp. Lib., Vienna</td><td>1448</td><td>German work.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259"></a>18</td><td>Gospels</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Pub. Lib., Nuremberg</td><td>1498</td><td>43 miniatures and splendid borders, etc., by Conrad Frankendorfer.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">19</td><td>Choir-book of SS. Ulrich and Afra, Augsburg</td><td>Abbey of St. Ulrich, Augsburg</td><td>Lib., Augsburg</td><td>1489</td><td>Written by L. Wagner, and illuminated by G. Beck.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">20</td><td>Miniature of presentation of 19</td><td>Augsburg</td><td>Vict. and Alb. Mus., South Kensington</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1489</td><td>Taken from 19.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">21</td><td>Offices B.M.V.</td><td>Upper Carinthia</td><td>Brit. Mus., Add. 15711</td><td>1513</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">22</td><td>Prayer-book of Albert of Brandenburg</td><td>Nuremberg</td><td>Aschaffenburg Castle Library</td><td>1524</td><td>Illuminated by A. Glockendon.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">23</td><td>Prayer-book of William&nbsp;IV. of Bavaria</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Imp. Lib., Vienna, No. 1880</td><td>1535</td><td>Illuminated by Albert Glockendon.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">24</td><td>Prayer-book</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Brit. Mus., Add. 17525</td><td>1584</td><td>School of Glockendon.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">25</td><td>Splendor Solis</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Harl. 3469</td><td>Late 16th cent.</td><td>Astrological diagrams, etc., scenes.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">26</td><td>Penitential Psalms</td><td>Munich</td><td>Roy. Lib., Munich, Cimel. Saal</td><td>1570</td><td>Painted by Hans Mielich.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260"></a>27</td><td>Hor&aelig;</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Brit. Mus., Egert. 1146</td><td>Late 16th cent.</td><td>Fine foliages and initials.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">28</td><td>Prayer-book of William of Baden</td><td>Strassburg</td><td>Nat. Lib., Paris, Nos. 10567-8</td><td>1647</td><td>2 vols., 8&deg;. Renaissance by Frederic Brentel.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th colspan="6"><h3>SICILIAN AND ITALIAN</h3></th></tr>
+
+<tr><th>No.</th><th>Name.</th><th>Where Produced.</th><th>Where Kept.</th><th>Date.</th><th>Remarks.</th></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1</td><td>De arte venandi cum avibus</td><td>Palermo</td><td>Vat. Lib., Rome, palat. 1071</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1225</td><td>Composed by Emperor Frederick&nbsp;II. (1212-50). Paintings of birds and hunting scenes.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">2</td><td>Offices, &ldquo;ordo offic. Senensis&rdquo;</td><td>Gubbio</td><td>Acad. Lib., Siena</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Attributed to Oderigi.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">3</td><td>Legends</td><td>Florence?</td><td>Canon. Lib.,</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1327-43</td><td>Attributed to Giotto.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">4</td><td>Vergil</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Rome Ambros. Lib., Milan</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1310</td><td>Attributed to Simone Martini.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">5</td><td>Durandus</td><td>Siena?</td><td>Brit. Mus., Add. 31032</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1330</td><td>Fine work.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">6</td><td>Aristotle</td><td>Bologna?</td><td>Brit. Mus., Harl. 6331</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1335</td><td>Like the &ldquo;Avignon&rdquo; Decretals.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261"></a>7</td><td>Stefaneschi Missal</td><td>Rome?</td><td>Canon. Lib., Rome</td><td>1327-43</td><td>In same vol. with 3, and attributed to Giotto.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">8</td><td>Poems of Convenevole da Prato<a name="FNanchor_1_66" id="FNanchor_1_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a></td><td>Naples?</td><td>Brit. Mus., Roy. 6 E. 9</td><td>1309-43</td><td>Bold &ldquo;gouache&rdquo; painting. Executed for King Robert of Naples.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">9</td><td>Breviarium Romanum</td><td>Florence?</td><td>Brit. Mus., Harl. 2903</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1400</td><td>Fine initials.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">10</td><td>Concordanti&aelig; Canonic&aelig;</td><td>Bologna?</td><td>Nat. Mus., Naples</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1350</td><td>Allegorical figures and &ldquo;gouache&rdquo; painting.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">11</td><td>Statuts de l'Ordre do St. Esprit</td><td>Naples</td><td>Nat. Lib., Paris, fds. fr. 4274</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1354</td><td>Executed for Louis&nbsp;I., of House of Anjou, King of Sicily and Jerusalem.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">12</td><td>Romance of Meliadus</td><td>Avignon?</td><td>Brit. Mus., Add. 12228</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1355</td><td>Executed for Louis&nbsp;II. of Naples.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">13</td><td>Triumphs of Fr. Petrarch</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Brit. Mus., Harl. 3109</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1370</td><td>Small miniatures and initials in older style.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">14</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Nat. Lib., Paris</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Miniatures of triumphs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">15</td><td>Joannes Andreae, Lib. VI. Decretalium</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Abp. of St. Florian</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1370</td><td>Fine Bolognese miniatures.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">16</td><td>Glossa Joannis Andreae in Clementinas</td><td>Bologna?</td><td>Laon, No. 382</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1330-43</td><td>Very finely illuminated.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262"></a>17</td><td>Rubrics on the Decretals</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Laon, No. 357</td><td>1332</td><td>Many grotesque figures.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">18</td><td>Decretum Gratiani</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Brit. Mus., Add. 15274, 15275</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1375</td><td>Exquisitely illuminated.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">19</td><td>Missale Romanum</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Roy. Lib., Munich, Lat. 10072</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1374</td><td>By Nicolaus de Bononia.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">20</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>St. Mark's, Venice, cl. iii. xcvii.</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1370</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">21</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Florence?</td><td>Brit. Mus., Add. 21973</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1380-1400</td><td>Fine pen work diapers and initials.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">22</td><td>Latin Bible</td><td>Bologna?</td><td>Brit. Mus., Add. 18720</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1375-1400</td><td>Sweet colouring and fine foliages.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">23</td><td>Hymnarium Heremitarum</td><td>Sienese?</td><td>Brit. Mus., Add. 30014</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1400</td><td>Fine initials.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">24</td><td>Questions on 4 Books of Sentences by Job. Scot, Franciscan</td><td>Naples</td><td>Brit. Mus., Add. 15270-3</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1458-94</td><td>Written by Hippolytus Lunensis for Ferdinand&nbsp;I., King of Naples, and finely illuminated.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263"></a>25</td><td>Platonis Opera</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Brit. Mus., Harl. 3481</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1470</td><td>Written for Ferdinand&nbsp;I., King of Naples. Finely illuminated.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">26</td><td>C&aelig;sar</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Brit. Mus., Add. 16982</td><td>1462</td><td>White stem-work.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">27</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Rome?</td><td>Brit. Mus., Harl. 2683</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1460</td><td>Executed for Pius&nbsp;II. Roman Renaissance (1458-64).</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">28</td><td>Petrarch Sonnets, etc.</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Brit. Mus., Harl. 3411</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1465</td><td>White stem-work. Written by J. And. Mussolini.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">29</td><td>Offices</td><td>Milan?</td><td>Brit. Mus., Add. 19417</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1475</td><td>A pretty little volume of Milanese work.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">30</td><td>Missale Romanum</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Brit. Mus., Add. 15260</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Like MSS. executed for the Dukes of Ferrara. Very fine.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">31</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Brit. Mus., Harl. 2875</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1480</td><td>Of Florentine type.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">32</td><td>Officium B.M.V.</td><td>Florence</td><td>Brit. Mus., Add. 15528</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1475</td><td>A small volume, but rich initials.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">33</td><td>Missale Romanum</td><td>Bologna</td><td>Brit. Mus., Add. 15814</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1495</td><td>Like 32, but finer. Written by Jo. de Lyvonia for one of the Visconti.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">34</td><td>Josephus</td><td>Rome</td><td>Brit. Mus., Harl. 3699</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1490</td><td>Roman Renaissance.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">35</td><td>Herodean</td><td>Florence</td><td>Brit. Mus., Add. 23773</td><td>1487</td><td>Written by Alexander Verazzanus.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">36</td><td>Scrapbook of cutting's</td><td>Rome and Florence</td><td>Brit. Mus., Add. 21412</td><td>1480-1500</td><td>A very interesting collection. Roman and Florentine.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264"></a>37</td><td>Grant of Ludovico Sforza (il Moro)</td><td>Milan</td><td>Brit. Mus., Add. 21413</td><td>1494</td><td>Illuminated by Antonio da Monza.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">38</td><td>Offices</td><td>Naples</td><td>Brit. Mus., Add. 21591</td><td>1500</td><td>Written and illuminated for Frederick of Aragon, King of Naples.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">39</td><td>Prayer-book of Alfonso&nbsp;I.</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Brit. Mus., Add. 28962</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1455</td><td>Finest Neapolitan work. Portraits (1416-58).</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">40</td><td>Orations of Cicero</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Imp. Lib., Vienna</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1490</td><td>Executed for Ferdinand&nbsp;I., King of Naples (1458-94). Very fine.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th colspan="6"><h3>RENAISSANCE ILLUMINATION<br /></h3>
+<h3>ITALIAN</h3></th></tr>
+
+<tr><th>No.</th><th>Name.</th><th>Where Produced.</th><th>Where Kept.</th><th>Date.</th><th>Remarks.</th></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1</td><td>Life of Manetti</td><td>Florence</td><td>Brit. Mus., Add. 9770</td><td>1506</td><td>Neat in execution.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">2</td><td>Life of St. Francis</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Brit. Mus., Harl. 3229</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1505</td><td>Very fine illumination.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">3</td><td>Eusebius</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Brit. Mus., Harl. 3308</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1515</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">4</td><td>Life of Manetti</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Brit. Mus., Lansd. 842</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1525</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">5</td><td>Eusebius</td><td>Milan</td><td>Brit. Mus., Roy</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">6</td><td>Missale</td><td>Venice</td><td>Brit. Mus., Add. 15813</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1530</td><td>Attributed to Benedetto Bordone.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265"></a>7</td><td>Ethics of Aristotle</td><td>Naples or Calabria</td><td>Imp. Lib., Vienna</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1490-1510</td><td>Fine Renaissance work. Elaborately designed frames, and fine miniatures painted in a strong &ldquo;gouache,&rdquo; by Rinaldo Piramo, for And. Matt. Acquavira, 8th Duke of Atri.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">8</td><td>St. Jerome on Ezechiel</td><td>Florence</td><td>Imp. Lib., Vienna, No. 654</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1490-1520</td><td>Illuminated by Attavante for Matt. Corvinus, King of Hungary (1443-90).</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">9</td><td>Philostratus (Latin)</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Imp. Lib., Vienna, No. 25</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Illuminated probably by Attavante for Matt. Corvinus.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">10</td><td>Missale Romanum of Corvinus</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Roy. Lib., Brussels</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Illuminated by Attavante for Corvinus. Used for admission oaths of Governors of Netherlands.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">11</td><td>Augustine: Epistles</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Imp. Lib., Vienna</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1495</td><td>Illuminated by Attavante for Matt. Corvinus. Signed &ldquo;Attavantes pinsit.&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">12</td><td>Martianus Capella</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Lib. St. Mark's, Venice</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1500</td><td>Illuminated by Attavante for Matt. Corvinus. Signed. Written by Al, Verazzanus</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266"></a>13</td><td>Psalter</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Ducal Lib., Wolfenb&uuml;ttel</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Illuminated by Attavante.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">14</td><td>Diurnale</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Laurent. Lib., Florence</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Illuminated by Attavante or Gherardo.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">15</td><td>Missal of Bp. of D&ocirc;le</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Pub. Lib., Lyons</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Illuminated by Attavante.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">16</td><td>St. Gregory on Ezechiel</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Estense Lib., Modena</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Illuminated by Attavante. Signed.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">17</td><td>Dionysii Opp.</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Pub. Lib., Besan&ccedil;on</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">18</td><td>&ldquo;Gran&rdquo; Breviary</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Nat. Lib., Paris, MS. Lat. 8879</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Probably illuminated by Boccardino il Vecchio, though attributed to Attavante.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">19</td><td>Hieronymi Breviar. in psalmos</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Nat. Lib., Paris, MS. Lat. 16839</td><td>1488-1500</td><td>Written for Matt. Corvinus by Anton Sinibaldi, and illuminated by Attavante.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">20</td><td>Poems of Eurialo d'Ascoli</td><td>Rome</td><td>Imp. Lib., Vienna</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1536</td><td>Illuminated by Giulio Clovio (1498-1578).</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">21</td><td>&ldquo;Rothesay&rdquo; Offices</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Brit. Mus., Add. 20927</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1546</td><td>Illuminated by Clovio.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267"></a>22</td><td>Commentary on St. Paul's Epistles</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Soane Mus., London</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1536</td><td>Executed for Cardinal Grimani by Clovio.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">23</td><td>Psalter of Paul&nbsp;III.</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Nat. Lib., Paris, MS. Lat. 702.</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1542</td><td>Illuminated by Vincenzio Raimondi.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">24</td><td>Papal Lectionary (Towneley Clovio)</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Lenox Lib., New York</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1546</td><td>By Clovio and his assistants.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">25</td><td>Dante</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Vat. Lib., No. 365</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1555</td><td>Illuminated in part by Clovio.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">26</td><td>Investiture from Duke of Urbino</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Brit. Mus., Add. 22660</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1560</td><td>Very fine ornament.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">27</td><td>Triumphs of Petrarch</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Lib. of Capt. Holford, London</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1550</td><td>Fine miniatures.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">28</td><td>Missal of Card. Colonna</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Rylands Lib., Manchester</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1520</td><td>Fine miniatures. Attributed, but without authority, to Raffaelle.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">29</td><td>Prayer-book</td><td>Rome, or Florence</td><td>Barberini Lib., Rome, No. 324</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1500</td><td>Many fine miniatures.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">30</td><td>Missal of Pius&nbsp;II.</td><td>Rome</td><td>Chigi Lib., Rome</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1460-70</td><td>Executed for Pius&nbsp;II.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">31</td><td>Missal of Card. Corsini</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Corsini Lib., Rome, No. 1015</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1530</td><td>Fine framed miniatures.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268"></a>32</td><td>Missal of Card. Cornaro</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Minerva Lib., Rome</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1520</td><td>Fine miniatures.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">33</td><td>&ldquo;Pavia&rdquo; Graduals</td><td>Milan</td><td>Brera Lib., Milan</td><td>1530-80</td><td>By several artists, especially G. Berretta. Enormous folios.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">34</td><td>Prayer-book of Albert&nbsp;IV. of Bavaria</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Roy. Lib., Munich, Cim. Saal. 42</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1574</td><td>Finest Roman Renaissance, but written by Hans Lenker, of Munich (not a Clovio).</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">35</td><td>Apologia di Colenuccio</td><td>Rome</td><td>Brit. Mus., Roy. 12, c. viii.</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1510</td><td>Executed for Henry&nbsp;VIII. of England.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">36</td><td>Prayer-book Bianca Maria of Milan</td><td>Milan</td><td>Roy. Lib., Munich, No. 99A</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1450</td><td>Illuminated by Giovanni da Como. Contains Visconti and Sforza arms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">37</td><td>Hours of Bona Sforza of Milan</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Brit Mus., Add. 34294</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1490</td><td>Finest Milanese Renaissance, with some Flemish additions.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th colspan="6"><h3>FRENCH</h3></th></tr>
+
+<tr><th>No.</th><th>Name.</th><th>Where Produced.</th><th>Where Kept.</th><th>Date.</th><th>Remarks.</th></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1</td><td>The &ldquo;Versailles&rdquo; Livy</td><td>Tours</td><td>Nat. Lib., Paris, 6907</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Attributed to Jehan Fouquet of Tours.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269"></a>2</td><td>The &ldquo;Sorbonne&rdquo; Livy</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Nat. Lib., Paris, fds. Sorb. 297</td><td align="center">......</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">3</td><td>Antiquities of the Jews</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Nat. Lib., Paris, Resew. 6891</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Fouquet's masterpiece.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">4</td><td>Boccacio</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Roy. Lib., Munich</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Executed for Etienne Chevalier.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">5</td><td>Tr&eacute;sor des Histoires</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Brit. Mus., Cott. Aug. v.</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1490</td><td>Fine a&euml;rial perspective and landscape.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">6</td><td>Valerius Maximus</td><td>Paris</td><td>Brit. Mus., Harl. 4374-5</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>A very fine MS.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">7</td><td>Hours of Anne of Brittany</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Nat. Lib., Paris</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1508</td><td>A magnificent example, eclectic in style, with natural flowers and insects in borders, and fine figure-painting.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">8</td><td>Hours of Claude Gouffier</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Vicomte de Janz&eacute;</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1550</td><td>Attributed to Jean Cousin. Influence of glass-painting.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">9</td><td>Offices</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Brit. Mus., Add. 18853</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1530</td><td>Probably executed for Francis&nbsp;I. of France. Excellent work, eclectic in style.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">9a</td><td>Hours of Montmorency</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Libr. of Count of Haussonville</td><td>1549</td><td>Same style as 8 and 9, and probably by J. Cousin,</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270"></a>10</td><td>Offices</td><td>Tours?</td><td>Brit. Mus., Add. 18854</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1525</td><td>Architectural details of School of Tours. Written for Fr. de Dinteville, Bp. of Auxerre.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">11</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Brit. Mus., Add. 18855</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Architectural frames to miniatures as in 10, but larger and more fanciful details, somewhat like 7 in portions.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">12</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Paris</td><td>Nat. Lib., Paris, Lot. 10563</td><td>1531</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">13</td><td>Epistres d'Ovide</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Nat. Lib., Paris, fds. fr. 875</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1500</td><td>Executed for Louise de Savoie, mother of Francis&nbsp;I.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">14</td><td>Boece</td><td>Paris</td><td>Nat. Lib., Paris, u. fds. Lat. 6643</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Fine miniatures with Renaissance architectural details.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">15</td><td>Epistres</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Nat. Lib., Paris, 6877</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Translated by Octavien de d'Ovide St. Gelay. Beautiful miniatures.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">16</td><td>Petrarch's Triumphs</td><td>......</td><td>Nat. Lib., Paris, f. fr. 7079</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1520</td><td>Very fine miniatures of triumphs. Italian influence.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271"></a>17</td><td>Chants royaux</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Nat. Lib., Paris, 6987</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Fine miniatures.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">18</td><td>Chants Royaux</td><td>Paris</td><td>Nat. Lib., Paris, f. fr. 379</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Magnificent miniatures under Italian influence of Andrea del Sarto.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">19</td><td>Petrarch</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Nat. Lib., Paris, f. fr. 225</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1503</td><td>Miniature of presentation to Louis&nbsp;XII. Many full-page miniatures.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">20</td><td>Fleur des Histoires</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Nat. Lib., Paris, f. fr. 54</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1505</td><td>Executed for Cardinal d'Amboise.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">21</td><td>Chron. de Monstrelet</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Nat. Lib., Paris, 20360-2</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Three large folio vols. Vol. i. contains five equestrian portraits of Louis&nbsp;XII.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">22</td><td>Les Echecs amoreux</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Nat. Lib., Paris, f. fr. 143</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1500</td><td>Executed for use of Francis, d. of Angoul&egrave;me, and his sister Marguerite.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">23</td><td>Boccace de claris et nobilibus mulieribus</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Nat. Lib., Paris, f. fr. 599</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>By same illuminator as 22. Executed for Louise de Savoie.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">24</td><td>Reception de Marie d'Angleterre &agrave; Paris</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Brit. Mus., Vesp. B. 2</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1514</td><td>&ldquo;Avec belles peintures.&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272"></a>25</td><td>Chants Royaux</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Nat. Lib., Paris, f. fr. 145</td><td>1515</td><td>Presented in 1515 to Louise de Savoie by the City of Amiens. The miniatures painted in grisaille by J. Plastel, and coloured by J. Pinchon. Contains portrait of Louise.</td></tr>
+<tr><td rowspan="3" align="right">26</td><td>Commentaires de C&eacute;sar, Vol. i.</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Brit. Mus.</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1519</td><td rowspan="3">Attributed to Geoffroy Tory. Part grisaille. Written in Roman text. See <i>Dict. Miniat.</i> iii. 312.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Commentaires de C&eacute;sar, Vol. ii.</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Nat. Lib., Paris, 13429</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Commentaires de C&eacute;sar, Vol. iii.</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Lib. of Duc d'Aumale</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">27</td><td>Dutillet, French Kings, etc.</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Nat. Lib., Paris, 2848</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Presented to Charles&nbsp;IX.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">28</td><td>Hours of Henry&nbsp;IV.</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Nat. Lib., Paris, Lat. 1171</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1595</td><td>Peculiar style and colouring.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273"></a>29</td><td>Gospel of St. John</td><td>Boisleduc</td><td>Brit. Mus., Roy., E. 5</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Finely written, but not illuminated by Pet. Meghen.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">30</td><td>&ldquo;Sol Gallicus&rdquo;</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Brit. Mus., Add. 23745</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1682</td><td>Painted by Pierre Mignard.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">31</td><td>Psalter</td><td>London</td><td>Brit. Mus., Roy. 2 B. 9</td><td>1565</td><td>Written by Petrucco Ubaldini, a Florentine.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">32</td><td>Book of Sentences for Lady Sumley</td><td>English? London?</td><td>Brit. Mus., Roy. 17 A. 23</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1600</td><td>Very elegant borders.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th colspan="6"><h3>ENGLISH ILLUMINATION</h3>
+
+<h4>FROM THE THIRTEENTH TO THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY</h4></th></tr>
+
+<tr><th>No.</th><th>Name.</th><th>Where Produced.</th><th>Where Kept.</th><th>Date.</th><th>Remarks.</th></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1</td><td>Offices and Prayers</td><td>Westminster</td><td>Brit. Mus., Roy. 2 A. 22</td><td>1240</td><td>Imitation of stained glass. Typical MS.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">2</td><td>Bible in Latin</td><td>Canterbury</td><td>Brit. Mus., Burney 3</td><td>1245</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">3</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Salisbury</td><td>Brit. Mus., Roy. 1 B. 12</td><td>1254</td><td>Written by Will de Hales.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">4</td><td>Tenison Psalter</td><td>London</td><td>Brit. Mus., Add. 24686</td><td>1294</td><td>Written and illuminated by order of Edward&nbsp;I.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">5</td><td>Bible in Latin</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Brit. Mus., Roy. 1 D 1</td><td>13th cent.</td><td>Written by Will of Devon.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274"></a>6</td><td>Apocalypse in French</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Brit. Mus., Roy. 19 B. 15</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1330</td><td>See <i>Bibliographica</i>, pt. v. pl. 1.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">7</td><td>Arundel Psalter</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Brit. Mus., Arund. 83</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>See <i>Bibliographica</i>, pt. v. pl. 2</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">8</td><td>Psalter of Joan of Kent</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Brit. Mus., Roy. 2 B. 8</td><td>1380</td><td>Transition from French Gothic to Lancastrian.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">9</td><td>Pontifical</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Brit. Mus., Lansd. 451</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1400</td><td>Early Lancastrian.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">10</td><td>Bible in Latin</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Brit. Mus., Roy. 1 E. ix.</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Large folio. See <i>Bibliographica</i>, pt. v. pl. 4.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">11</td><td>Breviary</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Brit. Mus., Harl. 2975</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Something like 7.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">12</td><td>Offices</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Brit. Mus., Add. 16968</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1390-1400</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">13</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Brit. Mus., Add. 16998</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1410</td><td>Executed for Anne Mauleverer.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">14</td><td>Liber Albus</td><td>London</td><td>Guildhall Lib., London</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Bracket borders.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">15</td><td>Liber de Hyda</td><td>Winchester</td><td>Shirburn Castle Lib.</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Richly illuminated borders, some unfinished. See Rolls Series. 1866.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">16</td><td>Offices</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Brit. Mus., Roy. 2 B. 1</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1400-1410</td><td>Early Lancastrian.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275"></a>17</td><td>Grandison Offices</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Brit. Mus., Roy. 2 A. 18</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1410</td><td>Fine initials with Lancastrian brackets. See <i>Bibliographica</i>, v. pl. 5.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">18</td><td>Occleve de Regim. Principum</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Brit. Mus., Ar. 38</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1415</td><td>Traceried backgrounds in Bohemian manner. Cf. Will. v. Orange MS.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">19</td><td>Ormonde Offices</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Brit. Mus., Roy. 2 B. 15</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1420</td><td>Similar to 17. Called by Humphreys (<i>Books of Middle Ages</i>) <i>Queen Mary's Breviary</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">20</td><td>Gower's Confessio Amantis</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Brit. Mus., Harl. 3490</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Lancastrian style.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">21</td><td>Psalter of Queen Mary</td><td>St. Alban's</td><td>Brit. Mus., Roy. 2 B. 7</td><td>1460</td><td>Fine English work.  Presented in 1553 to Queen Mary</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">22</td><td>Hor&aelig;</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Brit. Mus., Harl. 2884</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1460</td><td>Many mediocre illuminations.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">23</td><td>Gospels and Epistles, etc.</td><td>London</td><td>Brit. Mus., Roy. 2 B. 12, 13</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1508</td><td>Given by Stephen and Margaret Jenyns to the church at Aldermanbury, London.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">24</td><td>Bourchier Psalter</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td><td>Brit. Mus., Roy. 2 B. 14</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1458</td><td>Contains Bourchier obituaries.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">25</td><td>Psalter and Canticles, etc.</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Brit. Mus., Harl. 1719</td><td><i>c.</i>&nbsp;1470</td><td>Good text and many illuminated letters and borders.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th colspan="6"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276"></a><h3>SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE</h3></th></tr>
+
+<tr><th>No.</th><th>Name.</th><th>Where Produced.</th><th>Where Kept.</th><th>Date.</th><th>Remarks.</th></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1</td><td>Hours, etc., Lat. and Catalan.</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Brit. Mus.,  Add. 18193</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Netherlandish influence.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">2</td><td>Offices B.M.V.</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Brit. Mus., Add. 28271</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Italian influence.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">3</td><td>Hidalguia</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Brit. Mus., Add. 12214</td><td>1604</td><td>In Genoese manner.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">4</td><td>Diploma of Philip&nbsp;III.</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Brit. Mus., Roy. Claud. B. x.</td><td>17th cent.</td><td align="center">&bdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">5</td><td>Patent to Princ. de la Paz</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Brit. Mus., Add. 1706</td><td>1797</td><td>Allegorical designs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">6</td><td>Ordo Miss. Pontificales</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Brit. Mus., Add. 30857</td><td>17th cent.</td><td>Roman text, good initials.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">7</td><td>Portuguese Missal</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Brit. Mus., Stowe 597</td><td align="center">......</td><td>Written for John&nbsp;III., King of Portugal.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">8</td><td>Hidalguia de Gonsalo de Castro Cepeda</td><td>Spain</td><td>Brit. Mus., Add. 22143</td><td>1578</td><td>Granted by Philip&nbsp;II., with his portrait.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_66" id="Footnote_1_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> Petrarch's tutor.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277"></a><a name="BIBLIOGRAPHY" id="BIBLIOGRAPHY"></a>BIBLIOGRAPHY</h2>
+
+<p class="left">Abrahams, N.C.L. <i>Description des MSS. fran&ccedil;aises du
+Moyen Age de la Biblioth&egrave;que Royale de Copenhague.</i> 4to.
+Copenhagen. 1844.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Alt, H. <i>Die Heiligenbilder oder die bildende Kunst u.
+die Theologie.</i> 8vo. Berlin, 1845.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Astle, Thomas. <i>The Origin and Progress of Writing.</i>
+4to. London, 1784, 1803.</p>
+
+
+<p class="left" style="margin-top: 1.5em;">Barrois, J. <i>Biblioth&egrave;que Protypographique ou librairies
+du roi Jean.</i> 4to, Paris, 1830. 6 plates.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Bastard, Aug. <i>Librairie de Jean de France duc de Berry...illustr&eacute;e
+des plus belles miniatures de ses MSS., etc.</i>
+Folio. Paris, 1834. 32 plates.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Beissel, Stephan. <i>Des heiligen Bernward Evangelienbuch
+im Dome zu Hildesheim. Mit Hdschr. des 10. und
+11. Jahrh., etc.</i> Third edition. 26 photo-lithographs (12 x 9).
+Hildesheim, 1894.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Beissel, Stephan. <i>Vaticanische Miniaturen.</i> Folio. Freiburg
+im Breisgau, 1893. Many lithographed plates.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Birch, W. de G. History, <i>Art, and Pal&aelig;ography of the
+MS. commonly styled the Utrecht Psalter.</i> 8vo. 3 facsimile
+plates in autotype. B, Quaritch, London, 1876.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Birch, W. de G., and Jenner, H. <i>Early Drawings and
+Illuminations</i> (in MSS., chiefly in the British Museum).
+12mo. London, 1879.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Biscionii, A.M. <i>Catal. bibl. Medico-Laurentiana.</i> Folio.
+Florentine, 1752-7. (Valuable plates of facsimiles, etc.)</p>
+
+<p class="left"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278"></a>Bradley, J.W. <i>Life and Works of G.G. Clovio, Miniaturist,
+etc.</i> 8vo. London, 1891. 18 plates.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Bradley, J.W. <i>Dictionary of Miniaturists, Calligraphers,
+etc.</i> 8vo. 3 vols. Quaritch, London, 1887-90.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Bradley, J.W. <i>Venetian Ducali, in Bibliographica</i>, II.
+257. 4 phototypes.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Bucher, B. <i>Geschichte des Technischen K&uuml;nste, etc.</i>,
+vol. i. Miniatur, etc. 8vo. Stuttgart, 1875.</p>
+
+
+<p class="left" style="margin-top: 1.5em;">Cahier and Martin. <i>Nouveaux M&eacute;langes d'Arch&eacute;ologie,
+etc.</i> Large 4to. Paris, 1874-77, etc. Many fine plates of
+miniatures, etc., mostly without colour.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Campori, G. <i>Gli artisti Italiani, etc., nelle Stati Estensi.</i>
+8vo. Modena, 1855.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Campori, G. <i>Racconti artistici italiani.</i> 8vo. Firenze,
+1858.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Caravita, A. <i>I codici e le Arti a Monte Cassino.</i> 8vo.
+Montec., 1869-71.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Carta, F. <i>Codici, corali e libri a stampa miniati della
+Biblioteca nazionale di Milano.</i> Folio. Roma, 1895. With
+25 phototype facsimiles.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Chassant, Alph. <i>Pal&eacute;ographie des chartes et des MSS.
+du 11<sup>e</sup> au 17<sup>e</sup> Si&egrave;cle.</i> 8vo. Paris, 1867, and companion vols.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Curmer, L. <i>Les Evangiles des Dimanches et F&ecirc;tes.</i>
+Large 8vo. Paris, 1864. Many facsimiles in gold and
+colours from illuminated MSS.</p>
+
+
+<p class="left" style="margin-top: 1.5em;">Delisle, L. <i>M&eacute;m. sur l'Ecole calligraphique de Tours au
+IX<sup>e</sup> Si&egrave;cle.</i> Paris, 1885. 5 heliograv.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Delisle, L. <i>L'Evang&eacute;liaire d'Arras et la Calligraphie
+Franco-Saxonne du neuvi&egrave;me Si&egrave;cle.</i> 4to. Paris, 1888.
+Large heliogravure facsimiles.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Delaunay (l'Abb&eacute; H.). <i>Le livre d'Heures de la reine
+Anne de Bretagne.</i> With facsimile of the whole MS.
+Large 8vo. Paris, 1861.</p>
+
+<p class="left"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279"></a>Delia Valle, G. <i>Lettere Senese, Sopra le Belle Arti.</i>
+3 vols. 8vo. Venezia, 1782-86. (Relating to Sienese miniaturists.)</p>
+
+<p class="left">Delisle, L. <i>Le cabinet des manuscrits de la biblioth&egrave;que
+imp&eacute;riale (in Hist. g&eacute;n. de Paris).</i> 4to. Paris, 1868.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Denis, Ferd. <i>Histoire de l'ornementation des manuscrits.</i>
+8vo. Paris, 1858. (143 pp., with illustrations.)</p>
+
+<p class="left">Deshaines, C. <i>Histoire de l'Art dans la Flandre, d'Artois,
+et le Hainaut.</i> 8vo. Lille, 1886.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Dibdin, T.F. <i>The Bibliographical Decameron.</i> 3 vols.
+8vo. London, 1817.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Didron (edit.). <i>Annales Arch&eacute;ologiques.</i> Periodical 4to.
+1844, etc. (P.P. 1931, d. a. Brit. Mus.)</p>
+
+<p class="left">Derange, A. <i>Cat. descr. et raisonn&eacute; des manuscr. de la
+bibl. de Tours.</i> 4to. Tours, 1875.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Durieux, A. <i>Les Artistes Cambr&eacute;siens du IX<sup>e</sup> a XIX<sup>e</sup>
+Si&egrave;cle, etc.</i> 8vo. Cambray, 1874. (With plates in folio.)</p>
+
+<p class="left">Durieux, A. <i>Miniatures des manuscr. de la bibl. de
+Cambrai.</i> 8vo. Cambrai, 1861. 18 plates.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Du Sommerard, Andr. <i>Les Arts du Moyen-&acirc;ge.</i> 6 vols.
+Folio. Paris, 1838-46.</p>
+
+
+<p class="left" style="margin-top: 1.5em;">Fleury, E. <i>Les MSS. &agrave; miniatures de la biblioth&egrave;que de
+Soissons.</i> 4to. Paris, 1865. Lithograph facsimiles.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Fleury, E. <i>Les manuscrits &agrave; miniatures de la bibl. de
+Laon.</i> 4to. Laon, 1863. 50 plates (good).</p>
+
+
+<p class="left" style="margin-top: 1.5em;">Gabelentz, H. von der. <i>Zur Geschichte der oberdeutschen
+Miniaturmalerei im 16<sup>ten</sup> Jahrhundert.</i> Large 8vo.
+Strassburg, 1899. 12 phototypes.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Gamier, J. <i>Catalogue descriptif et raisonn&eacute; des MSS. de
+la bibl. de la ville d'Amiens.</i> 8vo. Amiens, 1843.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Girardot, B. de. <i>Cat. des manuscrits de la bibl. de
+Bourges.</i> Folio. Paris, 1859.</p>
+
+<p class="left"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280"></a>Gualandi, M.A. <i>Memorie originate Italiane risguardante
+le Belle Arti.</i> 8vo. Bologna, 1840-45.</p>
+
+
+<p class="left" style="margin-top: 1.5em;">Hardy, Sir Thomas D. <i>The Athanasian Creed in Connection
+with the Utrecht Psalter: being a Report, etc.</i> With
+autotype facsimiles. Folio. Spottiswoode and Co., 1872.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Hendrie, R. <i>Encyclop&aelig;dia of the Arts of the Middle
+Ages by the monk Theophilus.</i> Translated, with notes.
+8vo. London, 1847. One of the best collections of
+medi&aelig;val methods and recipes relating to illumination.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Humphreys, H. Noel. <i>The Illuminated Books of the
+Middle Ages.</i> Folio. London, 1849. 39 plates.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Husenbeth, F.C. <i>Emblems of Saints by which they are
+Distinguished in Works of Art.</i> 8vo. London, 1850. Second
+edition, 1860. Third edition, 1882.</p>
+
+
+<p class="left" style="margin-top: 1.5em;">J&auml;ck, J.J. <i>Viele Alphabete und ganze Schriftmuster vom
+8, bis zum 16, Jahrh. aus den Handschr. der &ouml;ffentl. Bibl.
+zu Bamberg.</i> Folio. Bamberg, 1833-35.</p>
+
+<p class="left">James, M.R. <i>Descriptive Catalogue of the Illuminated
+MSS. in the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge.</i> (Fine phototype
+facsimiles, and an excellent text.) Large 8vo. Cambridge
+University Press, 1895.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Jorand, J.B.J. <i>Grammatographie du neuvi&egrave;me si&egrave;cle.</i>
+4to. Paris, 1837. 65 plates, folio.</p>
+
+
+<p class="left" style="margin-top: 1.5em;">Kirchoff, Albr. <i>Handschriftenh&auml;ndler des Mittelalters.</i>
+Second edition. 8vo. Leipzig, 1853.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Kondakov. <i>Hist. de l'Art Byzantin consider&eacute;r&eacute;...dans les
+miniatures.</i> 2 vols. Small folio. Paris, 1891. Plates and
+woodcuts.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Kugler. <i>Kleine Schriften.</i> 3 vols. 8vo. Stuttgart.
+1853-54. (German illumination.)</p>
+
+
+<p class="left" style="margin-top: 1.5em;"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281"></a>Labarte, Jules. <i>Historie des Arts industriels au Moyen-&acirc;ge.</i> (Vol. iii.) 8vo. Paris, 1865.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Laborde, L. <i>La renaissance des arts &agrave; la cour de France.</i>
+2 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1855-56.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Lacroix, P. <i>Military and Religious Life in the Middle
+Ages.</i> 8vo. London, 1874.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Lacroix, P. <i>The Arts of the Middle Ages.</i> 4to. London,
+1870.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Lacroix, P. Manners, <i>Customs, and Dress during the
+Middle Ages.</i> 4to. London, 1874.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Lacroix, Paul, and S&eacute;r&eacute; Ferd. <i>Le Moyen-&acirc;ge et la
+Renaissance.</i> 5 vols. 4to. Paris, 1848-52, 1874.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Lacroix, P., Fournier, Ed., and S&eacute;r&eacute;, F. <i>Livre d'or
+des m&eacute;tiers.</i> 8vo. Paris, 1852.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Lambecius, P. <i>Commentar. de Bibliotheca C&aelig;sarea Vindobonensi.</i>
+Folio. Vindobona (Vienna). 1670. Plates.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Langlois, E.H. <i>M&eacute;moire sur la calligraphic les MSS.
+du Moyen-&acirc;ge.</i> 8vo. Paris, 1841. 17 plates.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Le Arti. <i>Various Articles on Illuminated MSS., by
+Frizzoni, Venturi, etc.</i> (Italian Periodical. Roma, v. 7.
+From 1898.)</p>
+
+<p class="left">Lecoy de la Marche, A. <i>Les MSS. et la Miniature.</i>
+12mo. Paris, 1884. Woodcuts.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Leitschuh, F.F. <i>Geschichte der Karolingischen Malerei,
+etc.</i> Berlin, 1894. Many prototype facsimiles.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Libri, Gul. <i>Monumens in&eacute;dits.</i> Folio. London, 1864.
+65 plates.</p>
+
+
+<p class="left" style="margin-top: 1.5em;">Madden, Sir Fred. <i>Universal Pal&aelig;ography.</i> 2 vols.
+8vo. London, 1850.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Marchal, J. <i>Cat. des MSS. de la bibl. royale des dues de
+Bourgogne.</i> 3 vols. 4to. Brussels, 1842.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Middleton, J.H. <i>Illuminated MSS. in Classical and
+Medi&aelig;val Times: their Art and their Technique.</i> Large
+8vo. Cambridge University Press, 1892.</p>
+
+<p class="left"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282"></a>Milanesi, G. <i>Documenti per la Storia dell' arte Senese,
+etc.</i> 8vo. Siena, 1854-56.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Molinier, A. <i>Les MSS. et les Miniatures.</i> 12mo. Paris,
+1892. Woodcuts.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Monte Cassino. <i>Paleografia artistica.</i> Monte Cassino,
+1877. Folio. Facsimiles in gold and colours, etc., from
+Gothic and Lombardic MSS.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Montfaucon. <i>Pal&aelig;ographia Gr&aelig;ca.</i> Small folio. Parisiis,
+1708.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Mugnier, Fr. <i>Les MSS. &agrave; miniatures de la Maison de
+Savoie, etc.</i> 8vo. Moutiers-Tarantaise, 1894. 17 phototypes.</p>
+
+
+<p class="left" style="margin-top: 1.5em;">Ottley, W.Y. <i>History of Engraving.</i> 4to. London, 1816.</p>
+
+
+<p class="left" style="margin-top: 1.5em;">Peignot, Gabr. <i>Essai sur l'histoire du parchemin et du
+v&eacute;lin.</i> 8vo. Paris, 1812.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Pinchart, A. <i>Miniaturistes, Enlumineurs, et Calligraphes
+Employ&eacute;s par Philippe le Bon, etc.</i> 8vo. Bruxelles,
+1865.</p>
+
+<p class="left"><i>Publications of the Pal&aelig;ographical Society of London.</i>
+Folio. Vol. vii., etc. Very useful.</p>
+
+
+<p class="left" style="margin-top: 1.5em;">Quaritch, B. <i>Examples of the Art of Book-illumination
+during the Middle Ages.</i> 4to. London, 1899. Fine
+facsimiles in gold and colours.</p>
+
+
+<p class="left" style="margin-top: 1.5em;">Raczynski, A. (Cte.). <i>Les arts en Portugal.</i> 8vo. Paris, 1846.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Rahn, J.R. <i>Das Psalterium Aureum v. Sanct Gallen.</i>
+Folio. St. Gallen, 1878. u chromolithogr. in colours and
+gold. 7 lithogr. and many woodcuts. (A capital account
+of Carolingian and Irish MSS.)</p>
+
+
+<p class="left" style="margin-top: 1.5em;"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283"></a>Sacken, Ed. Frh. von. <i>Die Ambraser Sammlung.</i> 8vo.
+Wien, 1855.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Sakcinski, J.K. <i>Leben des Giulio Clovio.</i> 8vo. Agram, 1852.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Sakcinski, J.K. <i>Slovnik umjetnah Jugoslavenskih.
+(Biographical Dict. of South Slavonic Artists.)</i> 8vo.
+Uzagreba, 1858.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Sanftl, K. <i>Dissertatio in aureum ac pervetustum SS.
+Evangelior. Codicem MS. Monast. S. Emmerani.</i> 410.
+Ratisbon&aelig;, 1786. Gives a large folding plate of the Gospel-book
+cover, and facsimiles of illumination and writing.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Sch&ouml;nemann. <i>100 Merkw&uuml;rdigkeiten des Herzoglichen
+Biblioth. zu Wolfenb&uuml;ttel.</i> 8vo. Hannover, 1849.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Schultz, A. <i>Deutsches Leben in 14<sup>ten</sup> und 15<sup>ten</sup> Jahrh.</i>
+2 vols. Large 8vo. Wien, 1892. (Contains many facsimiles
+in gold and colours, from German and Bohemian MSS.)</p>
+
+<p class="left">Serapeum, <i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Bibliothekens Wissenschaft.</i>
+8vo. Leipzig. Vol. vii.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Seroux D'Agincourt, J. <i>Historie de l'Art par les
+Monuments.</i> Folio. 3 vols. Paris, 1823. London, 1847.
+Engravings.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Shaw, H. <i>The Art of Illuminating as Practised in the
+Middle Ages.</i> Second edition. 4to. London, 1845. Plates.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Shaw, H. <i>Alphabets, Numerals, and Devices of the
+Middle Ages.</i> Folio. London, W. Pickering, 1845. Many
+plates, some in gold and colours.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Silvestre, J.B. <i>Pal&eacute;ographie universelle.</i> 4 vols. Folio.
+Paris, 1841. 600 plates. (Plates very good.)</p>
+
+<p class="left">Smet, J.J. de. <i>Quelques recherches sur nos anciens enlumineurs,
+etc.</i> In <i>Bulletin de l'Academie de Belgique</i>,
+t. xiv., pt. 2, p. 78, and <i>Bullet. du Bibliophile Belge</i>, t. iii.,
+p. 376, t. iv., p. 176.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Stokes, M. <i>Early Christian Art in Ireland.</i> 12mo.
+<a name="Page_284" id="Page_284"></a>London, 1887. Woodcuts. (Victoria and Albert M. Handbook.)</p>
+
+<p class="left">Swarzenski, G. <i>Die Regensburger Buchmalerei des X.
+und XI. Jahrhunderts.</i> Large 8vo. Leipzig, 1901. 35
+phototypes.</p>
+
+
+<p class="left" style="margin-top: 1.5em;">Tambroni, G. <i>Cennino Cennini: Trattato della Pittura.</i>
+8vo. Roma, 1821. Later edition (Milanesi), Firenze, 1859.
+(Contains many practical directions and recipes.)</p>
+
+<p class="left">Thompson, Sir Edward M. <i>English Illuminated MSS.</i>
+In <i>Bibliographica</i>, vol. i. pp. 129, 385, etc. Large 8vo.
+London, 1895.</p>
+
+
+<p class="left" style="margin-top: 1.5em;">Venturi, Ad. <i>La miniatura ferrarese nel secolo XV., etc.</i>
+Folio. Roma, 1899. 4 chromolithographs and 7 phototypes.
+In <i>Le Gallerie Nazionale Italiane</i>. Vol. iv., 187.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Viel-Castel, Cte. <i>Horace de. Statuts de l'Ordre du
+Saint-Esprit, etc. MS. du 14<sup>e</sup> Si&egrave;cle avec une notice sur
+la peinture des MSS.</i> Large folio. Paris, 1853. 17 very
+fine facsimiles in gold and colours.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Vogelsang, W. <i>Holl&auml;ndische Miniaturen des sp&auml;teren
+Mittelalters.</i> Large 8vo. Strassburg, 1899. Many phototype
+facsimiles.</p>
+
+
+<p class="left" style="margin-top: 1.5em;">Wailly, J.N. de. <i>&Eacute;l&eacute;mens de Pal&eacute;ographie.</i> 2 thick vols.
+4to. Paris, 1838. Many plates of writing, seals, etc.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Wallther, J.L. <i>Lexicon diplomaticum.</i> Folio. 1751.
+Many examples of writings.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Waagen, G.F. <i>On the Importance of MSS. with
+Miniatures in the History of Art.</i> 8vo. Philobiblon
+Society. Vol. i. London, 1854.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Waagen, G.F. <i>Die Vornehmsten K&uuml;nstler in Wien.</i>
+8vo. Wien, 1866. (MSS. in Imperial Library, etc., in Vienna.)</p>
+
+<p class="left">Warner, G.F. <i>Miniatures and Borders from the Hours
+<a name="Page_285" id="Page_285"></a>of Bona Sforza, Duchess of Milan.</i> Small 4to. London,
+1894. 65 sepia facsimiles.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Warner, G.F. <i>Illuminated MSS. in the British Museum.</i>
+4to. London, 1899, etc. Many coloured facsimiles.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Wattenbach, W. <i>Das Schriftwesen im Mittelalter.</i> 8vo.
+Leipzig, 1871.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Westwood, J.O. <i>Pal&aelig;ographia Sacra Pictoria.</i> 4to.
+London, 1845. 50 facsimile plates, mostly in colours and
+gold.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Westwood, J.O. <i>Miniatures and Ornaments of Anglo-Saxon
+and Irish MSS.</i> Folio. Oxford, 1868. Many fine
+facsimiles in colours.</p>
+
+<p class="left">Wyatt, M.D., and Tymms. <i>The Art of Illuminating.</i>
+Large 8vo. London, 1860. Many facsimiles in gold and colours.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286"></a><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h2>
+
+<p>
+Ada-Codex at Tr&egrave;ves, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a><br />
+Alcuin and his coadjutors, <a href="#Page_72">72</a><br />
+Andreas Joannes, <a href="#Page_175">175</a><br />
+Anglo-Celtic illumination, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br />
+Anne of Bohemia, <a href="#Page_163">163</a><br />
+&mdash; of Brittany, <a href="#Page_214">214</a><br />
+&mdash; &mdash; her portrait, <a href="#Page_217">217</a><br />
+Antonio and Francisco de Holanda, <a href="#Page_231">231</a><br />
+Arundel Psalter, <a href="#Page_157">157</a><br />
+Athelstan Gospels, <a href="#Page_67">67</a><br />
+Avignon Bible, <a href="#Page_175">175</a><br />
+<br />
+Bamberg Bible, <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br />
+Bedford Offices, <a href="#Page_222">222</a><br />
+Beham Prayer-book at Aschaffenburg, <a href="#Page_241">241</a><br />
+Benedictionals, <a href="#Page_149">149</a><br />
+Bernward, St., of Hildesheim, <a href="#Page_93">93</a><br />
+Berry MSS., <a href="#Page_141">141</a><br />
+Bible of Charles the Bald, <a href="#Page_68">68</a><br />
+Bibliography, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>-<a href="#Page_285">285</a><br />
+Bobbio, an Irish foundation of Columbanus, <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br />
+Boccaccio at Munich, by Fouquet, <a href="#Page_211">211</a><br />
+Bohemian illumination, <a href="#Page_163">163</a><br />
+&mdash; MSS. at Prag, <a href="#Page_190">190</a><br />
+Book-form, its antiquity, <a href="#Page_9">9</a><br />
+Bourdichon, Jean, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, etc.<br />
+Brentel, F., and the Prayer-book of William of Baden at Paris, <a href="#Page_241">241</a><br />
+Brera Graduals at Milan, <a href="#Page_181">181</a><br />
+Brothers of the Common Life, <a href="#Page_194">194</a><br />
+Bruno, St., of Cologne, <a href="#Page_93">93</a><br />
+Byzantine illumination, <a href="#Page_24">24</a><br />
+&mdash; &mdash; its subdivisions, <a href="#Page_31">31</a><br />
+Byzantium, rebuilding of by Justinian, <a href="#Page_26">26</a><br />
+<br />
+Cambiaso, Luca, of Genoa, <a href="#Page_230">230</a><br />
+Carolingian illumination, <a href="#Page_62">62</a><br />
+Celtic illumination, <a href="#Page_36">36</a><br />
+Charles&nbsp;IV., the Emperor, <a href="#Page_163">163</a><br />
+&ldquo;Ch&acirc;teau d'Anet&rdquo; and its style, <a href="#Page_221">221</a><br />
+Choir-book of Sts. Ulrich and Afra at Augsburg, <a href="#Page_192">192</a><br />
+Christine de Pisan and her works, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>-<a href="#Page_147">147</a><br />
+Chronicle of Jerusalem at Vienna, <a href="#Page_203">203</a><br />
+Cistercian foundations, <a href="#Page_74">74</a><br />
+Cluny and Citeaux, <a href="#Page_81">81</a><br />
+Codex, what, <a href="#Page_17">17</a><br />
+Collegium Carolinum at Prag, <a href="#Page_190">190</a><br />
+<a name="Page_287" id="Page_287"></a>Colour-scheme of Fouquet, <a href="#Page_212">212</a><br />
+Compendium of Theophilus, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a><br />
+Convenevole da Prato, poems of, <a href="#Page_175">175</a><br />
+Cunegunda, the Empress, <a href="#Page_90">90</a><br />
+&mdash; her Passionale, <a href="#Page_189">189</a><br />
+<br />
+Debonnaire, Louis le, <a href="#Page_65">65</a><br />
+Decretals, the, what they were, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, etc.<br />
+Decretum Gratiani, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br />
+Delisle, M.L., on Franco-Saxon illumination, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br />
+Dinteville Hours, <a href="#Page_223">223</a><br />
+Dioscorides at Vienna, <a href="#Page_22">22</a><br />
+Drolleries and grotesques, <a href="#Page_157">157</a><br />
+Durandus, Rationale of, <a href="#Page_180">180</a><br />
+Dutch illumination, its charateristics, <a href="#Page_199">199</a><br />
+<br />
+Emmeram Gospels, the, <a href="#Page_112">112</a><br />
+English illumination, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>-<a href="#Page_153">153</a><br />
+Escorial choir-books, <a href="#Page_228">228</a><br />
+&ldquo;Explicits&rdquo; of monastic MSS., <a href="#Page_79">79</a><br />
+Exultet roll, what, <a href="#Page_172">172</a><br />
+<br />
+Famous abbeys for book-work, <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br />
+First English styles, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br />
+Flemish illuminators, <a href="#Page_201">201</a><br />
+Fouquet, Jean, and the school of Touraine, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, etc.<br />
+Franconian illumination, <a href="#Page_93">93</a><br />
+Frankendorfer Evangeliary at Nuremberg, <a href="#Page_192">192</a><br />
+Frederick&nbsp;II., &ldquo;Stupor Mundi,&rdquo; his work on hawking, <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br />
+Freemasons, who they were, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>-<a href="#Page_127">127</a><br />
+French illumination, <a href="#Page_139">139</a><br />
+&mdash; Renaissance illumination, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>-<a href="#Page_225">225</a><br />
+&mdash; &mdash; its gradual development, <a href="#Page_208">208</a><br />
+<br />
+Gerard David of Oudewater, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a><br />
+German colouring (early), <a href="#Page_154">154</a><br />
+&mdash; illumination, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>-<a href="#Page_194">194</a><br />
+Glass-painting, <a href="#Page_128">128</a><br />
+Glockendon, A., and his work, <a href="#Page_193">193</a><br />
+&mdash; N., at Nuremberg, <a href="#Page_241">241</a><br />
+Gold and silver writing, etc., <a href="#Page_27">27</a><br />
+Golden age of illumination, <a href="#Page_123">123</a><br />
+Gothic architecture, its origin, <a href="#Page_121">121</a><br />
+&mdash; illumination, <a href="#Page_110">110</a><br />
+Grandison Psalter, <a href="#Page_169">169</a><br />
+Greek and Roman illumination, <a href="#Page_19">19</a><br />
+Grimani Breviary, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>-<a href="#Page_206">206</a><br />
+Grisaille, <a href="#Page_207">207</a><br />
+Guilds (or gilds), <a href="#Page_131">131</a><br />
+<br />
+Handwritings, classification of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a><br />
+Hartmut, Abbot of St. Gallen, <a href="#Page_95">95</a><br />
+Hendrie, R., translator of &ldquo;Theophilus,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_106">106</a><br />
+Henry&nbsp;II., the Emperor, <a href="#Page_90">90</a><br />
+&mdash; VII. of Luxembourg, the Emperor, <a href="#Page_189">189</a><br />
+Herrade von Landsberg, the abbess, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a><br />
+Hildesheimer Prayer-book at Berlin, <a href="#Page_192">192</a><br />
+Hoefnagel, G., and the Missal of Archduke Ferdinand at Vienna <a href="#Page_242">242</a><br />
+<a name="Page_288" id="Page_288"></a>&ldquo;Hortus Deliciarum,&rdquo; its style, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a><br />
+Hours of Anne of Brittany, <a href="#Page_217">217</a><br />
+&mdash; of Claude Gouffier, <a href="#Page_221">221</a><br />
+&mdash; of Francis&nbsp;I., <a href="#Page_222">222</a><br />
+&mdash; of Frederick&nbsp;III. of Aragon, <a href="#Page_183">183</a><br />
+&mdash; of Henry&nbsp;II. at Paris, <a href="#Page_224">224</a><br />
+&mdash; of Marie de Cl&egrave;ve at Paris, <a href="#Page_211">211</a><br />
+Hrosvita, poetess and copyist, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a><br />
+<br />
+Illuminating, antiquity of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a><br />
+Illumination defined, <a href="#Page_3">3</a><br />
+&mdash; not spoiled by the invention of printing, <a href="#Page_239">239</a><br />
+&mdash; since the invention of printing, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>-<a href="#Page_243">243</a><br />
+Initial, development of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br />
+Irish art, <a href="#Page_40">40</a><br />
+Isabella Breviary (Brit. Mus.), <a href="#Page_207">207</a><br />
+Italian copyists, <a href="#Page_183">183</a><br />
+&mdash; illumination, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>-<a href="#Page_185">185</a><br />
+&mdash; libraries, <a href="#Page_182">182</a><br />
+<br />
+Kells, the Book of, <a href="#Page_57">57</a><br />
+<br />
+Lala of Cyzicus, a lady, the first miniaturist on record, <a href="#Page_4">4</a><br />
+Lancastrian illumination, <a href="#Page_166">166</a><br />
+Landscape background, origin of, <a href="#Page_200">200</a><br />
+Lombardic illumination, <a href="#Page_173">173</a><br />
+&mdash; writing, <a href="#Page_14">14</a><br />
+Lothaire, Evangeliary of, <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br />
+Louis of Taranto and his Order of the Holy Spirit, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br />
+&mdash; XII., <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, etc.<br />
+Louise of Savoy and her MSS., <a href="#Page_224">224</a><br />
+Louterell Psalter, <a href="#Page_158">158</a><br />
+Luxeuil founded by Columbanus, <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br />
+<br />
+Maas-Eyck Evangeliary, <a href="#Page_198">198</a><br />
+Mazarine Bible, <a href="#Page_240">240</a><br />
+Manual of Dionysius, a Greek text-book, <a href="#Page_100">100</a><br />
+Manuscripts referred to, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>-<a href="#Page_276">276</a><br />
+&ldquo;Mater Verborum&rdquo; of Conrad of Scheyern, <a href="#Page_117">117</a><br />
+Mathilda, the Empress, patroness of copyists, <a href="#Page_87">87</a><br />
+Matilda, the Countess, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a><br />
+M&eacute;dard, St., of Soissons, Gospels of, the finest Carolingian MS. known, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br />
+Melreth Missal, <a href="#Page_169">169</a><br />
+Merovingian writing, <a href="#Page_14">14</a><br />
+Miniature, the term explained, <a href="#Page_4">4</a><br />
+Missal of Albert of Brandenburg, <a href="#Page_192">192</a><br />
+&mdash; of Estevam Gon&ccedil;alvez Neto, <a href="#Page_234">234</a><br />
+&mdash; and Prayer-book of Albert of Brandenburg, <a href="#Page_240">240</a><br />
+Monastic illumination, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>-<a href="#Page_83">83</a><br />
+&mdash; scriptoria, <a href="#Page_149">149</a><br />
+Monte Cassino and La Cava, <a href="#Page_173">173</a><br />
+Munich Library and a notable MS., <a href="#Page_91">91</a>-<a href="#Page_92">92</a><br />
+&mdash; Missal of Henry&nbsp;II., <a href="#Page_111">111</a><br />
+<br />
+National styles of illumination, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>-<a href="#Page_138">138</a><br />
+<a name="Page_289" id="Page_289"></a>Netherlandish illumination, <a href="#Page_195">195</a><br />
+&mdash; &mdash; its characteristics, <a href="#Page_196">196</a><br />
+&mdash; foliage ornament, its relation to wood-carving, <a href="#Page_202">202</a><br />
+New Minster, Winchester, <a href="#Page_150">150</a><br />
+Nicholaus of Bologna and his work at Prag, <a href="#Page_181">181</a><br />
+Niederm&uuml;nster MS. at Munich, <a href="#Page_119">119</a><br />
+<br />
+Othonian illumination, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>-<a href="#Page_92">92</a><br />
+<br />
+Papyrus, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br />
+&mdash; late use of, <a href="#Page_10">10</a><br />
+Parchment, origin of term, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br />
+Paris Josephus, Fouquet's masterpiece, <a href="#Page_211">211</a><br />
+Passionale of Cunigunda, <a href="#Page_189">189</a><br />
+Perr&eacute;al, Jean, <a href="#Page_214">214</a><br />
+Portuguese Genealogies (Brit. Mus.), <a href="#Page_236">236</a><br />
+&mdash; MSS., <a href="#Page_233">233</a><br />
+Poyet, Jean, <a href="#Page_219">219</a><br />
+Prayer-book of William of Bavaria at Vienna, <a href="#Page_193">193</a><br />
+Psalters. <i>See</i> Arundel, etc.<br />
+Pulcheria, the Empress, <a href="#Page_101">101</a><br />
+<br />
+Queen Mary's Psalter, <a href="#Page_158">158</a><br />
+<br />
+Rahn, Dr., on Carolingian illumination, <a href="#Page_62">62</a><br />
+Romance of G&eacute;rard de Roussillon at Vienna, <a href="#Page_204">204</a><br />
+Royal Library at Brussels and its treasures, <a href="#Page_203">203</a><br />
+&mdash; mottoes, <a href="#Page_220">220</a><br />
+Ruskin Book, the, <a href="#Page_133">133</a><br />
+<br />
+Sacramentary of Gellone, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>-<a href="#Page_55">55</a><br />
+Salzburg Missal at Munich, <a href="#Page_192">192</a><br />
+Sandoval Genealogies, <a href="#Page_235">235</a><br />
+Saracenic taste in Sicily, <a href="#Page_188">188</a><br />
+School of Fontainebleau, <a href="#Page_220">220</a><br />
+&mdash; of Zwolle, <a href="#Page_199">199</a><br />
+Schools of Bruges, Dijon, Paris, and Tours, <a href="#Page_209">209</a><br />
+&mdash; of Maestricht and Li&eacute;ge, <a href="#Page_202">202</a><br />
+Scorza, G.B., of Genoa, <a href="#Page_230">230</a><br />
+Scriptoria, <a href="#Page_76">76</a><br />
+Semi-barbaric illumination, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br />
+Sicilian illumination, <a href="#Page_187">187</a><br />
+Silvestro, Don, <a href="#Page_180">180</a><br />
+Similarity of English and French illumination in the thirteenth century, <a href="#Page_156">156</a><br />
+Sintramn of St. Gallen, <a href="#Page_93">93</a><br />
+&ldquo;Sol Gallicus&rdquo; (Brit. Mus.), <a href="#Page_225">225</a><br />
+Sources of English fifteenth-century illumination, <a href="#Page_161">161</a><br />
+Spanish and Portuguese illumination, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>-<a href="#Page_238">238</a><br />
+&mdash; illuminators, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, etc.<br />
+&ldquo;Splendor Solis&rdquo; (Brit. Mus.), <a href="#Page_241">241</a><br />
+St. Alban's scriptorium, <a href="#Page_152">152</a><br />
+St. Gallen, monastery of, founded, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br />
+St. Swithun's, Winchester, <a href="#Page_151">151</a><br />
+Stefaneschi, Cardinal, patron of Giotto, <a href="#Page_173">173</a><br />
+Stowe Missal, <a href="#Page_236">236</a><br />
+&mdash; &mdash; its colour-scheme and ornamentation, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>-<a href="#Page_8">8</a><br />
+Style no proof of provenance of MSS., <a href="#Page_137">137</a><br />
+<br />
+Tenison Psalter, <a href="#Page_156">156</a><br />
+<a name="Page_290" id="Page_290"></a>Theophano, the Empress, <a href="#Page_89">89</a><br />
+Torre do Tombo at Lisbon and its MSS., <a href="#Page_231">231</a><br />
+&ldquo;Tr&eacute;sor des Histoires&rdquo; (Brit. Mus.), <a href="#Page_212">212</a><br />
+Tuotilo, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a><br />
+<br />
+Vaast, St., of Arras, Evangeliary, <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br />
+Valentina of Milan, Duchess of Orleans, <a href="#Page_213">213</a><br />
+Valerius Maximus (Brit. Mus.), <a href="#Page_213">213</a><br />
+Vatican MSS., <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br />
+Vellum, etc., <a href="#Page_6">6</a><br />
+Venetian &ldquo;Ducali,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_242">242</a><br />
+Versailles Livy, etc., at Paris (Fouquet), <a href="#Page_211">211</a><br />
+Vienna Genesis, <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br />
+Vine-stem style of illumination, <a href="#Page_184">184</a><br />
+Visigothic writing, <a href="#Page_14">14</a><br />
+Volume, origin of term, <a href="#Page_16">16</a><br />
+<br />
+Wattenbach on writing quoted, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br />
+Wenzel Bible, <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br />
+Wilhelm v. Oransse, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a><br />
+Winchester work, earliest example of, <a href="#Page_61">61</a><br />
+Writing, its antiquity, <a href="#Page_11">11</a><br />
+</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Illuminated Manuscripts, by John W. Bradley
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPTS ***
+
+***** This file should be named 19870-h.htm or 19870-h.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/1/9/8/7/19870/
+
+Produced by Project Rastko, Zoran Stefanovic, H.J. Bent
+and the Online Distributed Proofreaders Europe at
+http://dp.rastko.net.
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+http://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+http://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at http://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit http://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
+To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     http://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
+
+
+</pre>
+
+</body>
+</html>
diff --git a/19870-h/images/001.jpg b/19870-h/images/001.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5caff54
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19870-h/images/001.jpg
diff --git a/19870-h/images/002.jpg b/19870-h/images/002.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e4fe0bb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19870-h/images/002.jpg
diff --git a/19870-h/images/003.jpg b/19870-h/images/003.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..92d9534
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19870-h/images/003.jpg
diff --git a/19870-h/images/004.jpg b/19870-h/images/004.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d01dbda
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19870-h/images/004.jpg
diff --git a/19870-h/images/005.jpg b/19870-h/images/005.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a1b67ca
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19870-h/images/005.jpg
diff --git a/19870-h/images/006.jpg b/19870-h/images/006.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e75062d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19870-h/images/006.jpg
diff --git a/19870-h/images/007.jpg b/19870-h/images/007.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0b5c29f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19870-h/images/007.jpg
diff --git a/19870-h/images/008.jpg b/19870-h/images/008.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5dc057e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19870-h/images/008.jpg
diff --git a/19870-h/images/009.jpg b/19870-h/images/009.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9a44425
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19870-h/images/009.jpg
diff --git a/19870-h/images/010.jpg b/19870-h/images/010.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..eb7c91e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19870-h/images/010.jpg
diff --git a/19870-h/images/011.jpg b/19870-h/images/011.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f5e7560
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19870-h/images/011.jpg
diff --git a/19870-h/images/012.jpg b/19870-h/images/012.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f590de9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19870-h/images/012.jpg
diff --git a/19870-h/images/013.jpg b/19870-h/images/013.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..728584a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19870-h/images/013.jpg
diff --git a/19870-h/images/014.jpg b/19870-h/images/014.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..923d772
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19870-h/images/014.jpg
diff --git a/19870-h/images/015.jpg b/19870-h/images/015.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c1580c5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19870-h/images/015.jpg
diff --git a/19870-h/images/016.jpg b/19870-h/images/016.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c858462
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19870-h/images/016.jpg
diff --git a/19870-h/images/017.jpg b/19870-h/images/017.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ae79210
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19870-h/images/017.jpg
diff --git a/19870-h/images/018.jpg b/19870-h/images/018.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8f2ca0b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19870-h/images/018.jpg
diff --git a/19870-h/images/019.jpg b/19870-h/images/019.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..880c2b2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19870-h/images/019.jpg
diff --git a/19870-h/images/020.jpg b/19870-h/images/020.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0e3dfb3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19870-h/images/020.jpg
diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6312041
--- /dev/null
+++ b/LICENSE.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..53d8a23
--- /dev/null
+++ b/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #19870 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/19870)
author	Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org>	2025-10-15 05:06:40 -0700
committer	Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org>	2025-10-15 05:06:40 -0700
commit	b5c905d60b86191d7cd58db3ec2f5db6df49c93f (patch)
tree	3b959b58d545ec4e9482ecd93f77820500dcca02