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diff --git a/19905-8.txt b/19905-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..def34ab --- /dev/null +++ b/19905-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,9564 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Clovers and How to Grow Them, by Thomas Shaw + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Clovers and How to Grow Them + +Author: Thomas Shaw + +Release Date: November 23, 2006 [EBook #19905] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CLOVERS AND HOW TO GROW THEM *** + + + + +Produced by Tom Roch and the Online Distributed Proofreading +Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from +images produced by Core Historical Literature in Agriculture +(CHLA), Cornell University) + + + + + + + + +[Illustration: Alsike Clover in Northern Wisconsin] + + + + + CLOVERS + AND + HOW TO GROW THEM + + + BY + THOMAS SHAW + + + Author of "Forage Crops Other than Grasses," + "The Study of Breeds," "Soiling Crops and + the Silo," "Animal Breeding," "Grasses + and How to Grow Them," etc. + + + + NEW YORK + ORANGE JUDD COMPANY + 1906 + + + + COPYRIGHT, 1906 + By ORANGE JUDD COMPANY + + + + TO ALL PERSONS + WHO ARE OR MAY BE INTERESTED + IN THE + GROWING OF CLOVERS + THIS WORK IS MOST RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED + BY THE AUTHOR + + + _St. Anthony Park, Minn._ + _1906_ + + + + +ACKNOWLEDGMENTS + + +In preparing this work, the chief sources of information beyond the +author's experience and observation have been the bulletins issued by +the various experiment stations in the United States and discussions in +the Agricultural Press. + +For the illustrations the author is indebted to Professor A. M. Soule of +the experiment station of Tennessee, Professor H. H. Hume of the +experiment station of Louisiana and Mr. W. T. Shaw of the experiment +station of Oregon. + + + + +THE AUTHOR'S PREFACE + + +Some books have been written on Clover in the United States, and as far +as they go they serve a good purpose. Many references and discussions +have also appeared in various bulletins and reports issued by the +experiment stations. These have proved helpful not only in the States in +which they have been issued, but also in other States where the +conditions are similar. But no book or bulletin has yet appeared which +discusses the growth of clovers as applicable to all parts of the United +States and Canada. Nor has any been issued which takes up the subject in +orderly and consecutive sequence. It is evident, therefore, that there +is not only room for a book which will cover the ground with at least +measureable fulness, but also in concise and orderly succession, but +there is great need for it. It has been the aim of the author to write +such a book. + +Only those varieties of clover are discussed at length which are +possessed of economic value. The treatment of the subjects is virtually +the same as was adopted in writing the book on "Grasses and How to Grow +Them." Some references are made to the history, characteristics and +distribution of each variety. These are followed by discussions with +reference to soil adaptation; place in the rotation; preparing the +soil; sowing; pasturing; harvesting for hay; securing seed; and renewing +the stand. + +The book is intended, in some measure at least, to meet the needs of the +students of agriculture, with reference to the plants discussed and also +of all who are concerned in the tilling of the soil. + +_St. Anthony Park, Minn._ +_1906_ + + + + +TABLE OF CONTENTS + + + CHAPTER I. PAGE. + Introductory 1 + + CHAPTER II. + General Principles for Growing Clovers 6 + + CHAPTER III. + Medium Red Clover 57 + + CHAPTER IV. + Alfalfa 114 + + CHAPTER V. + Alsike Clover 194 + + CHAPTER VI. + Mammoth Clover 218 + + CHAPTER VII. + Crimson Clover 238 + + CHAPTER VIII. + White Clover 258 + + CHAPTER IX. + Japan Clover 279 + + CHAPTER X. + Burr Clover 291 + + CHAPTER XI. + Sweet Clover 300 + + CHAPTER XII. + Miscellaneous Clovers 316 + + + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS + + + FIG. PAGE. + 1 Alsike Clover--_Frontispiece_. + 2 Medium Red 61 + 3 Alfalfa 115 + 4 Field of Alfalfa 171 + 5 Alsike 195 + 6 Crimson 239 + 7 White 259 + 8 Japan 281 + 9 Sweet 301 + 10 Sainfoin 318 + 11 Beggar Weed (Flower and Seed Stems) 339 + 12 Beggar Weed (Root System) 341 + + + + +CHAPTER I + +INTRODUCTORY + + +In this book all the varieties of clover will be discussed that have +hitherto been found of any considerable value to the agriculture of +America. Varieties that are of but little value to the farmer will be +discussed briefly, if discussed at all. The discussions will be +conducted from the standpoint of the practical agriculturist rather than +from that of the botanist. It is proposed to point out the varieties of +clover worthy of cultivation, where and how they ought to be cultivated, +and for what uses. + +=Definition of Clover.=--According to Johnson's Encyclopædia, clover or +trefoil is a plant of the genus _Trifolium_ and the family _Leguminosæ_. +The Standard Dictionary defines it as any one of several species of +plants of the genus _Trifolium_ of the bean family _Leguminosæ_. Viewed +from the standpoint of the American farmer it may be defined in the +collective sense as a family of plants leguminous in character, which +are unexcelled in furnishing forage and fodder to domestic animals, and +unequaled in the renovating influences which they exert upon land. The +term _Trefoil_ is given because the leaves are divided into three +leaflets. It is also applied to plants not included in the genus, but +belonging to the same order. + +The true clovers have their flowers collected into roundish or oblong +heads and in some instances into cone-shaped spikes. The flowers are +small and of several colors in the different varieties, as crimson, +scarlet, pink, blue, yellow and white, according to the variety, and +some are variously tinted. The stems are herbaceous and not twining. The +seeds are inclosed in pods or seed sacks, each of which contains one, +two and sometimes, but not often, three or four seeds. The plants have +tap roots, and in some varieties these go far down into the subsoil. The +roots are also in some varieties considerably branched. + +=Varieties.=--At least twenty varieties, native or naturalized, are +found in Great Britain; more than twelve varieties belong to the United +States. The more valuable varieties found in this country have been +introduced from Europe, unless it be the small white clover (_Trifolium +repens_). Viewed from the standpoint of the agriculturist the varieties +that are most generally useful include medium red clover (_Trifolium +pratense_), alfalfa (_Medicago sativa_), alsike (_Trifolium hybridum_), +mammoth (_Trifolium magnum_), crimson (_Trifolium incarnatum_) and small +white (_Trifolium repens_). The varieties which flourish only in the +South include the Japan (_Lespedeza striata_) and the burr clover +(_Medicago denticulata_). Sweet clover (_Melilotus alba_), sometimes +called Bokhara, which will grow equally well North and South, is worthy +of attention because of its power to grow under hard conditions, in +order to provide honey for bees and to renovate soils. Other varieties +may render some service to agriculture, but their value will not compare +with that of the varieties named. + +The most valuable of the varieties named in providing pasture, include +the medium red, the mammoth, the alsike and the small white. The most +valuable in providing hay are the medium red, alfalfa and alsike. The +most valuable, viewed from the standpoint only of soil renovation, are +the medium red, mammoth, alsike, crimson, Japan and sweet. The most +valuable in producing honey accessible to tame bees, are the small +white, alsike and sweet. + +=Distinguishing Characteristics.=--Clovers differ from one another in +duration, habit of growth, persistence in growth, their power to endure +low or warm temperatures, and ability to maintain a hold upon the soil. +Of the varieties named, alfalfa, the small white and alsike varieties +are perennial. That most intensely so is the first variety named. The +medium red and mammoth varieties are biennial, but sometimes they assume +the perennial quality. Sweet clover is biennial. The crimson, Japan and +burr varieties are annual. + +Some varieties, as alfalfa, crimson and sweet clover, are upright in +their habit of growth. Others, as the small white and the burr, are +recumbent. Others again, as the medium red, alsike and mammoth, are +spreading and upright. The alfalfa and medium red varieties grow most +persistently through the whole season. The sweet, small white and alsike +varieties can best endure cold, and the sweet, Japan and burr varieties +can best endure heat. The small white, Japan, burr and sweet clovers +stand highest in ability to maintain a hold upon the soil. + +The minor points of difference are such as relate to the shape and color +of the leaves, the tints of shade that characterize the leaflets, the +shape and size of the heads and the distinguishing shades of color in +the blossoms. + +The characteristics which they possess in common are the high protein +content found in them, the marked palatability of the pasture and hay, +unless in the sweet and burr varieties, the power which they have to +enrich and otherwise improve soils, and the honey which they furnish. + +=Plan of Discussion.=--Chapter I., that is, the present chapter, as +already indicated, is introductory, and outlines the nature, scope and +plan of the work. Chapter II. deals with the general principles and +facts which relate to the growing of clovers. A close study of these +will, in the judgment of the author, prove helpful to those who engage +in growing any of the varieties of clover discussed in the book. +Chapters III. to XI. inclusive treat of individual varieties, a chapter +being devoted to each variety. It has been the aim of the author to +discuss them in the order of the relative importance which they bear to +the whole country and to devote space to them accordingly. + +The following varieties are discussed and in the order named: Medium Red +clover, Alfalfa, Alsike, Mammoth, Crimson, Small White, Japan, Burr and +Sweet. All of these varieties will be found worthy of more or less +attention on the part of the husbandmen in the various parts of this +continent. + +Chapter XII. is devoted to a brief discussion of miscellaneous varieties +which have as yet been but little grown in this country, or of varieties +of but local interest. The former are Sainfoin (_Onobrychis sativa_), +Egyptian clover (_Trifolium Alexandrianum_), yellow clover (_Medicago +lupulina_), Sand Lucerne (_Medicago media_), and a newly introduced +variety of Japanese clover (_Lespedeza bicolor_). These may prove more +or less valuable to the agriculture of the United States when they have +been duly tested, a work which as yet has been done only in the most +limited way. The latter include Florida clover (_Desmodium tortuosum_), +more frequently called Beggar Weed, Buffalo clover (_Trifolium +reflexum_), and Seaside clover (_Trifolium invulneratum_). These may be +worthy of some attention in limited areas where the conditions are +favorable, but it is not likely that they will ever be very generally +grown. They are dwelt upon rather to show their small economic +importance and with a view to prevent needless experimentation with +plants possessed of so little real merit. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +SOME GENERAL PRINCIPLES WHICH APPLY TO THE GROWING OF CLOVERS + + +In growing clovers, as in growing other crops of the same species, which +embrace several varieties, certain features of management will apply +more or less to all of these in common. It will be the aim to point out +the chief of these in the present chapter. + +=Adaptation in Clovers.=--Adaptation in the varieties of clover +considered will be more fully given when discussing these individually, +but enough will be said here to facilitate comparisons. Clover in one or +the other of its varieties can be grown in almost all parts of the +United States and Canada. Speaking in a general way, the medium and +mammoth varieties can be grown at their best between parallels 37° and +49° north latitude. Alfalfa has special adaptation for mountain valleys +of the entire West, but it will also grow in good form in parts of all, +or nearly all, the other States. Alsike clover grows in about the same +areas as the common and mammoth varieties, but it may also be grown +further North, owing to its greater hardihood. Crimson clover has +highest adaptation to the States east of the Allegheny Mountains and +west of the Cascades, but will also grow in the more Central States +south, in which moisture is abundant. Small white clover will grow in +any part of the United States or Canada in which moisture is +sufficiently present. Japan and burr clover grow best south of parallel +37° and east of longitude 98°. Sweet clover will grow in all the States +and provinces of the United States and Canada, but has highest +adaptation for the Central and Southern States. + +With reference to adaptation to soils, medium and mammoth clover grow +best on upland clay loam soils, such as have sustained a growth of +hardwood timber, and on the volcanic ash soils of the Western mountain +valley. Alfalfa flourishes best on those mountain valley soils when +irrigated, or when these are so underlaid with water as to furnish the +plants with moisture. Alsike clover has much the same adaptation to +soils as the medium and mammoth varieties, but will grow better than +these on low-lying soils well stored with humus. Crimson clover has +highest adaptation for sandy loam soils into which the roots can +penetrate easily. Small, white clover has adaptation for soils very +similar to that of alsike clover. Japan clover and burr clover will grow +on almost any kind of soil, but on good soils the growth will, of +course, be much more vigorous than on poor soils. Sweet clover seems to +grow about equally well on sandy loams and clay loams, but it has also +much power to grow in stiff clays and even in infertile sands. + +=Place in the Rotation.=--All the varieties of clover discussed in this +volume may be grown in certain rotations. Their adaptation for this use, +however, differs much. This increases as the natural period of the life +of the plant lessens and _vice versa_. Consequently, the medium red +variety, the mammoth, the crimson, the Japan and the burr varieties +stand high in such adaptation. The alsike, living longer, is lower in +its adaptation, and alfalfa, because of its long life, stands lowest in +this respect. The small, white variety is almost invariably grown or +found growing spontaneously along with grasses, hence no definite place +has been or can be assigned to it in the rotation. Sweet clover being +regarded by many as a weed has not had any place assigned to it in a +regular rotation, although in certain localities it may yet be grown for +purposes of soil renovation. (See page 306.) + +All these crops are leguminous without any exception. This fact is of +great significance where crops can be rotated. They have power to gather +nitrogen from the air and store it in the soil in tubercles which form +on their roots, in all soils in which they produce a vigorous growth. +This fact indicates where they should come in the rotation. They should +be grown with a view to gather food for other crops made to follow them, +which have not the same power. They should, therefore, be made to +precede such crops as the small cereals, corn, the sorghums, the millets +and cotton. But since these clover plants have the power to bring +nitrogen from the air, it must not be supposed that they will grow with +sufficient vigor in soils destitute of this element. They must be able +to appropriate enough from the seed soil to give them a good start +before they can draw nitrogen from the air, hence, though they may be +made to follow almost any kind of crop, it may sometimes be necessary to +apply some nitrogenous fertilizer before they will make a vigorous +growth. + +The clovers, unless in the case of some of the smaller varieties, are +more commonly sown to provide hay than pasture in the first crops +obtained from them. The value of the hay is increased or lessened in +proportion as weeds are present. To insure cleanliness in the hay crop, +therefore, the system which aims to sow clover seed on land to which +clean cultivation has been given while growing on them a cultivated +crop, as corn or field roots, meets with much favor. The mechanical +condition of the soil immediately after growing these crops also favors +the vigorous growth of the young clover plants, more especially when +they are sown upon the surface of the land after some form of surface +cultivation, rather than upon a surface made by plowing the land after +cultivation has been given to it, but to this there may be some +exceptions. + +Clover in some of its varieties is frequently grown from year to year in +orchards and for the two-fold purpose of gathering food for the trees +and providing for them a cover crop in winter. The medium red and +crimson varieties are preferred for such a use. The latter is the more +suitable of the two, since it does not draw on soil moisture needed by +the trees, owing to the season at which it is grown. Enough of the seed +of these crops may be allowed to mature to re-seed the land from year to +year, and thus keep it producing. The clover plants not only gather +nitrogen for the fruit trees, but in their decay they increase the power +of the soil to retain moisture for the benefit of the trees. + +Some varieties of clover may be grown as catch crops, that is, as crops +which are grown in addition to some other crop produced the same season. +When thus grown, it is usually for purposes of soil improvement rather +than to furnish food. The varieties best adapted for this purpose in the +Northern States and Canada are the medium red and the crimson, the +latter being much more circumscribed in the area where it will grow +successfully than the former. When medium red clover is thus grown, it +is commonly sown along with one of the small cereal grains, and is +buried in the autumn or in the following spring. (See page 75.) The +extent of the advantage is dependent chiefly on the amount of the growth +made, and this in turn is influenced by the character of the soil, the +season, and the nurse crop. In certain areas favorable to the growth of +clover some good farmers sow clover along with all the small cereal +grains which they grow. Crimson clover is usually sown in the late +summer after some crop has been reaped and it is plowed under the +following spring. (See page 250.) + +In the Southern States Japan clover and burr clover will serve the +purpose of catch crops better than the other varieties. The former will +follow a winter crop (see page 284), and the latter a summer crop. (See +page 294.) + +Although alfalfa is not usually looked upon as a rotation crop in the +Rocky Mountain valleys, it may be made such a crop. In these it grows +so vigorously as to fill the soil with its roots in one or two seasons, +hence it may be made to rotate profitably with other crops. (See page +135.) In such instances, however, medium red clover would probably +answer the purpose quite as well, and possibly better, since the labor +of burying it with the plow would be less difficult. + +While some varieties of clover may be grown in various rotations and +with profit, one of the best of these, where the conditions are +favorable, is a three years' rotation. The first year some small cereal +grain is grown and clover is sown along with it or, at least, on the +same land. The next year the clover is grown for hay or pasture. The +third year a crop of corn, potatoes or vegetables is grown, and the +following year small cereal grain and clover. The clover may thus be +made to furnish nitrogen indefinitely for the other crops, but in some +instances it may be necessary to add phosphoric acid and potash. + +=Preparing the Soil.=--Clovers are usually sown with a nurse crop. The +exceptions are crimson clover, and in many instances alfalfa. When thus +grown, the preparation of soil for the nurse crop will usually suffice +for the clovers also. But there may be instances in which it would be +proper to give more attention to cleaning and pulverizing the soil to +properly fit it for receiving the clover seed. The leading essentials in +a seed-bed for clover are fineness, cleanness, moistness and firmness. +Ordinarily black loam soils, sandy loam soils, sandy soils, humus soils +and the volcanic ash soils of the West are made sufficiently fine +without great labor. Clay soils may call for the free use of the harrow +and roller used in some sort of alternation before they are sufficiently +pulverized. Excessive fineness in pulverization of these soils is also +to be guarded against in rainy climates, lest they run together, but +this condition is present far less frequently than the opposite. + +Cleanness can usually be secured when clovers follow cultivated crops by +the labor given to these when the land is not plowed in preparing it for +the clovers. In other instances the longer the land is plowed before +putting in the seed and the more frequently the surface is stirred +during the growing part of the season, the cleaner will the seed-bed be. + +In the spring the land is usually sufficiently moist for receiving the +seed. In the autumn moisture is frequently deficient. Stirring the +surface of the soil occasionally with the harrow will materially +increase the moisture content in the soil near the surface, even in the +absence of rain. As crimson clover is usually sown in the late summer +and alfalfa is frequently sown in the autumn, it may sometimes be +necessary to give much attention to securing sufficient moisture to +insure germination in the seed. + +When clovers are sown in the spring on land which is also growing a +winter crop, no preparation is necessary in preparing the land for +receiving the seed. On some soils the ground becomes sufficiently +honeycombed through the agency of water and frost to put it in a fine +condition for receiving the seed. When this condition is not present, +the seed will usually grow if sown amid the grain and covered with the +harrow. + +When clovers are sown on sod land for the purpose of renewing pastures, +disking them will prepare them for receiving the seed. The extent of the +disking will depend on such conditions as the toughness of the sod and +the nature of the soil. Usually disking once when the frost is out a +little way from the surface, and then disking across at an angle will +suffice, and in some instances disking one way only will be sufficient. +On newly cleared lands the clovers will usually grow without any +stirring of the land before sowing, or any harrowing after sowing. +Clovers that are grown chiefly for pasture, as the small white, the +Japan and the burr, will usually obtain a hold upon the soil if +scattered upon the surface which is not soon to be cultivated. + +=Fertilizers.=--On certain soils low in fertility and much deficient in +humus, it may be necessary to apply fertilizers in some form before +clovers will grow vigorously. Such are sandy soils that have been much +worn by cropping, and also stiff clays in which the humus has become +practically exhausted. In such instances green crops that can be grown +on such lands, as rye, for instance, plowed under when the ear begins to +shoot, will be found helpful. If this can be followed on the sandy soil +with some crop to be fed off upon the land, as corn, for instance, and +the clover is sown, successful growth is likely to follow. On clays in +the condition named it may not be necessary to grow a second crop before +sowing clover, since in these soils the lack is more one of humus than +of plant food. The application of farmyard manure will answer the same +purpose, if it can be spared for such a use. + +Other soils are so acid that clovers will not grow on them until the +acidity is corrected, notwithstanding that plant food may be present in +sufficient quantities. Such are soils, in some instances at least, that +have been newly drained, also soils that grow such plants as sorrels. +This condition will be improved if not entirely corrected by the +application of lime. On such soils this is most cheaply applied in the +air-slaked form, such as is used in plastering and in quantities to +effect the end sought. These will vary, and can only be ascertained +positively by experiment. + +Usually it is not necessary to apply much farmyard manure in order to +induce growth in nearly all varieties of clover, and after free growth +is obtained, it is not usually necessary to supply any subsequently for +the specific purpose named. In some soils, however, alfalfa is an +exception. It may be necessary to enrich these with a liberal dressing +of farmyard manure to insure a sufficiently strong growth in the plants +when they are young. Having passed the first winter, further dressings +are not absolutely essential, though they may prove helpful. + +Farmyard manure applied on the surface will always stimulate the growth +of clovers, but it is not common to apply manure thus, as the need for +it is greater in growing the other crops of the farm. When thus applied, +it should be in a form somewhat reduced, otherwise the coarse parts may +rake up in the hay. It is better applied in the autumn or early winter +than in the spring, as then more of the plant food in it has reached the +roots of the clover plants, and they have also received benefit from the +protection which it has furnished them in winter. + +In a great majority of instances, soils are sufficiently well supplied +with the more essential elements of fertility to grow reasonably good +crops of clover, hence it has not usually been found necessary to apply +commercial fertilizers to stimulate growth, as in the growing of +grasses. In some instances, however, these are not sufficiently +available, especially is this true of potash. Gypsum or land plaster has +been often used to correct this condition, and frequently with excellent +results. It also aids in fixing volatile and escaping carbonates of +ammonia, and conveys them to the roots of the clover plants. It is +applied in the ground form by sowing it over the land, and more commonly +just when the clover is beginning to grow. The application of 50 to 200 +pounds per acre has in many instances greatly increased the growth, +whether as pasture, hay or seed. The following indications almost +certainly point to the need of dressings of land plaster: 1. When the +plants assume a bluish-green tint, rather than a pea-green, while they +are growing. 2. When the plants fail to yield as they once did. 3. When +young plants die after they have begun to grow in the presence of +sufficient moisture. 4. When good crops can only be grown at long +intervals, as, say, 5 to 8 years. It has also been noticed that on some +soils where gypsum has long been used in growing clover the response to +applications of the plaster is a waning one, due doubtless to the too +rapid depletion of the potash in the soil. + +Potassic fertilizers give the best results when applied to clovers, but +dressings of phosphoric acid may also be helpful. Applications of +muriate or sulphate of potash or kainit may prove profitable, but on +many soils they are not necessary in growing clover. Wood ashes are also +excellent. They furnish potash finely divided and soluble, especially +when applied in the unleached form. When applied unleached at the rate +of 50 bushels per acre and leached at the rate of 200 bushels, the +results are usually very marked in stimulating growth in clover. + +=Seasons for Sowing.=--Clovers are more commonly sown in the springtime +in the Northern States and Canada than at any other season and they are +usually sown early in the spring, rather than late. On land producing a +winter crop, as rye or wheat, they can be sown in a majority of +instances as soon as the snow has melted. That condition of soil known +as honeycombed furnishes a peculiarly opportune time for sowing these +seeds, as it provides a covering for them while the land is moist, and +thus puts them in a position to germinate as soon as growth begins. Such +a condition, caused by alternate freezing and thawing, does not occur on +sandy soils. Where it does not so occur, sowing ought to be deferred +until the surface of the ground has become dry enough to admit of +covering with a harrow. As in sowing the seeds of certain grasses good +results usually follow sowing just after a light fall of snow, which, as +it melts, carries the seed down into the little openings in the soil. +But there are areas, especially in the American and Canadian northwest, +where in some seasons the young clover plants would be injured from +sowing the seed quite early. This, however, does not occur very +frequently. When sown on spring crops, as spring wheat, barley and oats, +the seed cannot, of course, be sown until these crops are sown. The +earlier that these crops are sown the more likely are the clovers sown +to make a stand, as they have more time to become rooted before the dry +weather of summer begins. In a moist season the seed could be safely +sown any time from spring until mid-summer, but since the weather cannot +be forecast, it is considered more or less hazardous to sow clovers in +these northern areas at any other season than that of early spring. If +sown later, the seed will more certainly make a stand without a nurse +crop, since it will get more moisture. If sown later than August, the +young plants are much more liable to perish in the winter. + +In the States which lie between parallels 40° and 35° north, and between +the Atlantic and the 100th meridian west, clover seeds may be sown in +one form or another from early spring until the early autumn without +incurring much hazard from winter killing in the young plants, but here +also early spring sowing will prove the most satisfactory. The hazard +from sowing in the summer comes chiefly from want of sufficient moisture +to germinate the seed. + +In the Southern States the seed is sown in the early spring or in the +autumn. If sown late, the heat of summer is much against the plants. +Seeds sown in the early autumn as soon as the rains come will make a +good stand before the winter, but there are some soils in the South in +which alternate freezing and thawing in winter, much more frequent than +in the North, would injure and in some instances destroy the plants. + +In the Western valleys where irrigation is practiced, clover seeds may +be sown at any time that may be desired, from the early spring until the +early autumn. The ability to apply water when it is needed insures +proper germination in the seed and vigor in the young plants. + +=Methods of Sowing.=--Clover seed may be sown by hand, by hand machines, +and by the grain drill, with or without a grass-seed sowing attachment. +These respective methods of sowing will be discussed briefly here, but +since they are practically the same as the methods to be followed in +sowing grass seeds, and since they are discussed more fully in the book +"Grasses and How to Grow Them" by the author, readers who wish to pursue +the subject further are referred to the book just named. + +When clovers are sown by hand, usually but one hand is used. Enough seed +is lifted between the thumb and two forefingers of the right hand to +suffice for scattering by one swing of the same. On the return trip +across the field the seed should be made to overlap somewhat the seed +sown when going in the opposite direction. In other words, the seed is +sown in strips or bands, as it were, each strip being finished in one +round. Some sowers, more expert at their work, sow with both hands and +complete the strip each time they walk over the field. When the ground +is plowed in lands of moderate width the furrows will serve to enable +the sower to sow in straight lines. Where the sowing is done on land +sown to grain by the drill, the drill marks may be made to effect the +same result. When sown on light snows, the foot-marks will serve as +guides. In the absence of marks it will be necessary to use stakes to +guide the sower. Four stakes are used, two of which are set at each end +of the field, and these are moved as each cast is made. At each round +made over the field, from 12 feet to 15 feet may be sown by the sower +who sows only with one hand. The sower with two hands will accomplish +twice as much. + +A comparatively still time should be chosen for sowing the seed by hand, +more especially when grass seeds, which are usually lighter, are sown at +the same time. In hand sowing much care is necessary in scattering the +seed, so that each cast of the seed will spread evenly as it falls, +leaving no bare spaces between the cast from the hand or between the +strips sown at one time. Hand sowing, especially in the Western States, +is in a sense a lost art, owing to the extent to which machine sowing is +practised; nevertheless, it is an accomplishment which every farmer +should possess, since it will oftentimes be found very convenient when +sowing small quantities of seed, and in sowing seeds in mixtures which +cannot be so well sown by machines. + +Hand machines are of various kinds. Those most in favor for ordinary +sowing consist of a seeder wheeled over the ground on a frame resembling +that of a wheelbarrow. It sows about 12 feet in width at each cast of +the seed. It enables the sower to sow the seed while considerable wind +is blowing and to sow it quite evenly, but it is not adapted to the +sowing of all kinds of grass and clover mixtures, which it may be +desirable to sow together, since they do not always feed out evenly, +owing to a difference in size, in weight, in shape and in the character +of the covering. + +When clover seed is sown with the grain drill, it is sometimes sown +separately from grain; that is, without a nurse crop, and is deposited +in the soil by the same tubes. But it is only some makes of drills that +will do this. Clover seed, and especially alfalfa, may be thus sown with +much advantage on certain of the Western and Southern soils, especially +on those that are light and open in character, and when the seed is to +be put in without a nurse crop. Eastern soils are usually too heavy to +admit of depositing the seed thus deeply, but to this there are some +exceptions. + +When sown with a nurse crop, the seed is in some instances mixed with +the grain before it is sown. In some instances it is mixed before it is +brought to the field. At other times it is added when the grain has been +put in the seed-box of the drill. This method of sowing is adapted to +certain soils of the Western prairies and to very open soils in some +other localities, but under average conditions it buries seeds too +deeply. There is the further objection that they all grow in the line of +the grain plants and are more shaded than they would be otherwise. +Nevertheless, under some conditions this method of sowing the plants is +usually satisfactory. + +One of the most satisfactory methods of sowing clover seeds along with a +nurse crop is to sow the clover with a "seeder attachment;" that is, an +attachment for sowing small seeds, which will deposit the same before or +behind the grain tubes as may be desired. The seed is thus sown at the +same time as the grain, and in the process is scattered evenly over the +surface of the ground. These seeder attachments, however, will not sow +all kinds of clover and grass mixtures any more than will hand-sowing +machines do the same. + +=Depth to Bury the Seed.=--The depth to bury the seed varies with the +conditions of soil, climate and season. Clover seeds, like those of +grasses, are buried most deeply in the light soils of the prairie so +light that they sink, so as to make walking over them unusually tiresome +when working on newly plowed land, and in other instances so light as to +lift with the wind. On such soils the seeds may be buried to the depth +of 2 to 3 inches. On loam soils, a covering of 1 inch or less would be +ample, and on stiff clays the covering may even be lighter under normal +conditions. + +Clover seeds are buried more deeply in dry than in moist climates, and +also more deeply in dry portions of the year than when moisture is +sufficient. While it may be proper in some instances to scatter the +seeds on the surface without any covering other than is furnished by +rain or frost, it will be very necessary at other seasons to provide a +covering to insure a stand of the seed. + +When clover seed is sown on ground honeycombed with frost, no covering +is necessary. When sown on winter grain in the spring, the ground not +being so honeycombed, covering with the harrow is usually advantageous. +When sown on spring crops and early in the season, it may not be +necessary to cover the seed, except by using the roller, even though the +seed should fall behind the grain tubes while the grain crop is being +sown, or should be sown subsequently by hand. In other instances the +harrow should be used, and sometimes both the roller and the harrow. +Under conditions such as appertain to New England and the adjacent +States to Ontario and the provinces east and to the land west of the +Cascade Mountains, clover and also grass seeds do not require so much of +a covering as when sown on the prairie soils of the central portion of +the continent. + +=Sowing Alone or in Combinations.=--Whether clover seed should be sown +alone or in combination with the seeds of other grasses will depend upon +the object sought in sowing it. When sown to produce seed, it is usually +sown without admixture, but not in every instance; when sown to produce +hay, it is nearly always sown in mixtures, but to this there are some +exceptions; when sown to produce pasture, it is almost invariably sown +with something else; and when sown to enrich the land, it is, in all, +or nearly all, instances, sown without admixture. + +When sown primarily to produce seed, there are no good reasons why +timothy and probably some other grasses may not be sown with medium red +and mammoth clover, when pasture is wanted from the land in the season +or seasons immediately following the production of seed. + +The presence of these grasses may not seriously retard the growth of the +clover plants until after they have produced seed, and subsequently they +will grow more assertively and produce pasture as the clover fails. +Moreover, should they mature any seed at the same time that the clover +seeds mature, they may usually be separated in the winnowing process, +owing to a difference in the size of the seeds. But timothy should not +be sown with alsike clover that is being grown for seed, since the seeds +of these are so nearly alike in size that they cannot be separated. + +When hay is wanted, the practice is very common of sowing timothy along +with the medium red, mammoth and alsike varieties of clover. Timothy +grows well with each of these; supports them to some extent when likely +to lodge; matures at the same time as the mammoth and alsike clovers; +comes on more assertively as the clovers begin to fail, thus prolonging +the period of cropping or pasturing; and feeds upon the roots of the +clovers in their decay. + +Next to timothy, redtop is probably the most useful grass to sow with +these clovers, and may in some instances be added to timothy in the +mixtures. Some other grasses may also be added under certain conditions, +or substituted for timothy or redtop. In certain instances, it has also +been found profitable to mix certain of the clovers in addition to +adding grass seeds when hay is wanted. The more important of these +mixtures will be referred to when treating of growing the different +varieties in subsequent chapters. When growing them, the aim should be +to sow those varieties together which mature about the same time. The +advantages from growing them together for hay include larger yields, a +finer quality of hay, and a more palatable fodder. + +In the past it has been the almost uniform practice to sow alfalfa +alone, but this practice is becoming modified to some extent, and is +likely to become more so in the future, especially when grown for +pasture. + +When sown to produce pasture, unless for one or two seasons, clover seed +is sown in various mixtures of grasses in all or nearly all instances. +The grasses add to the permanency of the pastures, while the clovers +usually furnish abundant grazing more quickly than the grasses. Several +of them, however, are more short-lived than grasses usually are, hence +the latter are relied upon to furnish grazing after the clovers have +begun to fail. In laying down permanent pastures, the seed of several +varieties is usually sown, but in moderate quantities. The larger the +number of the varieties sown that are adapted to the conditions, the +more varied, the more prolonged and the more ample is the grazing +likely to be. + +When clovers, except the crimson variety, are sown for the exclusive +purpose of adding to the fertility of the land, they are usually sown +along with some other crop that is to be harvested, the clover being +plowed under the following autumn or the next spring. These are usually +sown without being mixed with other varieties, and the two kinds most +frequently sown primarily to enrich the land are the medium red and +crimson varieties. The former grows more quickly than other varieties, +and the latter, usually sown alone, comes after some crop already +harvested, and is buried in time to sow some other crop on the same land +the following spring. + +=Sowing with or without a Nurse Crop.=--Nearly all varieties of clover +are usually sown with a nurse crop; that is, a crop which provides shade +for the plants when they are young and delicate. But the object in +sowing with a nurse crop is not so much to secure protection to the +young plants as to get them established in the soil, so that they will +produce a full crop the following season. Two varieties, however, are +more commonly sown alone. These are alfalfa and crimson clover. + +Alfalfa is more commonly sown alone because the young plants are +somewhat delicate and easily crowded out by other plants amid which they +are growing. Because of the several years during which alfalfa will +produce crops when once established, it is deemed proper to sacrifice a +nurse crop in order to get a good stand of the young plants. The other +clovers are usually able to make a sufficient stand, though grown along +with a nurse crop. In some situations alfalfa will also do similarly, +as, for instance, where the conditions are very favorable to its growth. +Crimson clover is more commonly sown alone for the reason, first, that +it is frequently sown at a season when other crops are not being sown; +second, that it grows better without a nurse crop; and third, that if +grown with a nurse crop the latter would have to be used in the same way +as the clover. + +Some have advocated sowing clovers without a nurse crop under any +conditions. Such advocacy in the judgment of the author is not wise. It +is true that in some instances a stand of the various clovers is more +certainly assured when they are sown without a nurse crop, but in such +situations it is at least questionable if it would not be better to sow +some other crop as a substitute for clover. But there may be instances, +as where clover will make a good crop of hay the year that it is sown, +when sowing it thus would be justifiable. In a majority of instances, +however, it will not make such a crop, because of the presence of weeds, +which, in the first place, would hinder growth, and in the second, would +injure the quality of the hay. + +The nurse crops with which clovers may be sown are the small cereal +grains, as rye, barley, wheat and oats. Sometimes they are sown with +flax, rape and millet. They usually succeed best when sown along with +rye and barley, since these shade them less and are cut earlier, thus +making less draft on moisture in the soil and admitting sunlight at an +earlier period. Oats make the least advantageous nurse crop, because of +the denseness of the shade, but if they are sown thinly and cut for hay +soon after they come into head, they are then a very suitable nurse +crop. One chief objection to flax as a nurse crop is that it is commonly +sown late. The chief virtue in rape as a nurse crop is that the shade is +removed early through pasturing. The millets are objectionable as nurse +crops through the denseness of the shade which they furnish and also +because of the heavy draught which they make on soil moisture. Peas and +vetches should not be used as nurse crops, since they smother the young +clover plants through lodging in the advanced stages of their growth. + +=Amounts of Seed to Sow.=--The amounts of clover seed to sow are +influenced by the object sought in sowing; by combinations with which +the seeds are sown, and by the relative size of the seeds. The soil and +climate should also be considered, although these influences are +probably less important than those first named. + +When clovers are sown for pasture only, or to fertilize the soil +speedily and to supply it with humus, the largest amounts of seed are +sown. But for these purposes it is seldom necessary to use more than 12 +pounds of seed per acre. These amounts refer to the medium red and +mammoth varieties, which are more frequently used than the other +varieties for the purposes named. They also include the crimson sown +usually to fertilize the soil. When sown to provide seed only, 12 pounds +per acre of the medium red, mammoth and crimson varieties will usually +suffice. Half the quantity of alsike will be enough, and one-third the +quantity of the small white, or a little more than that. Whether alfalfa +is grown for seed, for hay or for pasture, about the same amounts of +seed are used; that is, 15 to 20 pounds per acre. When sown with nurse +crops and simply to improve the soil, it is customary to sow small +rather than large quantities of seed, and for the reason that the hazard +of failure to secure a stand every season is too considerable to justify +the outlay. From 4 to 5 pounds per acre are frequently sown and of the +medium or mammoth variety. + +When the mammoth and medium varieties of clover are sown for hay with +one or two kinds of grass only, it is not common to sow more than 6 to 8 +pounds of either per acre. The maximum amount of the seed of the alsike +required when thus sown with grasses may be set down at 5 pounds per +acre. These three varieties are chiefly used for such mixtures. With +more varieties of grass in the mixtures, the quantities of clover seed +used will decrease. When clovers are sown with mixtures intended for +permanent pastures, it would not be possible to name the amounts of seed +to sow without knowing the grasses used also, but it may be said that, +as a rule, in those mixtures, the clovers combined seldom form more than +one-third of the seed used. + +The seeds of some varieties of clover are less than one-third of the +size of other varieties. This, therefore, affects proportionately, or at +least approximately so, the amounts of seed required. For instance, +while it might be proper to sow 12 pounds of medium or mammoth clover to +accomplish a certain result, less than one-third of the quantity of the +small white variety would suffice for the same end. + +The influences of climate and soil on the quantities of seed required +are various, so various that to consider them fully here would unduly +prolong the discussion. But it may be said that the harder the +conditions in both respects, the more the quantity of seed required and +_vice versa_. + +=Pasturing.=--When clover seed is sown in nurse crops that are matured +before being harvested, the pasturing of the stand secured the autumn +following is usually to be avoided. Removing the covering which the +plants have provided for themselves is against their passing through the +winter in the best form. In some instances the injury proves so serious +as to result in a loss of all, or nearly all, the plants. The colder the +winters, the less the normal snowfall and the more the deficiency of +moisture, the greater is the hazard. But in some instances so great is +the growth of the clover plants that not to graze them down in part at +least would incur the danger of smothering many of the plants, +especially in regions where the snowfall is at all considerable. + +But when the seed is sown alone or in mixtures of grain and even of +other grasses in the spring, grazing the same season will have the +effect of strengthening the plants. This result is due chiefly to the +removal of the shade that weeds and other plants would furnish were +they not thus eaten down, but it is also due in part to the larger share +of soil moisture that is thus left for the clover plants. Pasturing +clover sown thus should be avoided when the ground is so wet as to poach +or become impact in consequence. Unless on light, spongy soils which +readily lose their moisture, such grazing should not begin until the +plants have made considerable growth, nor should it be too close, or +root development in the pastures will be hindered. + +It would not be possible to fix the stage of growth when the grazing +should begin on clover fields kept for pasture subsequent to the season +of sowing. The largest amount of food would be furnished if grazing were +deferred until the blossoming stage were reached and the crop were then +grazed down quickly. But this is not usually practicable, hence the +grazing usually begins at a period considerably earlier. In general, +however, the plants should not be grazed down very closely, or growth +will be more or less hindered. + +Grazing clover in the spring and somewhat closely for several weeks +after growth begins, has been thought conducive to abundant seed +production. This result is due probably to the greater increase in the +seed heads that follow such grazing. This would seem to explain why +clover that has been judiciously grazed produces even more seed than +that clipped off by the mower after it has begun to grow freely. + +In nearly all localities the grazing of medium red clover, and even of +mammoth clover, somewhat closely in the autumn of the second year, is to +be practised rather than avoided. These two varieties being essentially +biennial in their habit of growth will not usually survive the second +winter, even though not grazed, hence not to graze them would result in +a loss of the pasture. + +With nearly all kinds of clover there is some danger from bloat in +grazing them with cattle or sheep while yet quite succulent, and the +danger is intensified when the animals are turned in to graze with empty +stomachs or when the clover is wet with dew or rain. When such bloating +occurs, for the method of procedure see page 95. The danger that bloat +will be produced is lessened in proportion as other grasses abound in +the pastures. + +=Harvesting.=--All the varieties of clover, except alfalfa, are best cut +for hay when in full bloom. Here and there a head may have turned brown. +If cut earlier, the crop is difficult to cure, nor will it contain a +maximum of nutriment. If cut later it loses much in palatability. +Alfalfa should be cut a little earlier, or just when it is nicely coming +into bloom, as if cut later the shedding of the leaves in the curing is +likely to be large. + +All clovers are much injured by exposure to rain or dew. They will also +lose much if cured in the swath, without being frequently stirred with +the tedder; that is, it will take serious injury if cured in the swath +as it fell from the mower. If cured thus, it will lose in aroma and +palatability, through the breaking of leaves and, consequently, in +feeding value. To avoid these losses, clover is more frequently cured in +the cock. When cured thus, it preserves the bright green color, the +aroma and the tint of the blossoms, it is less liable to heat in the mow +or stack and is greatly relished by live stock when fed to them. + +To cure it thus, it is usually tedded once or twice after it has lost +some of its moisture. It is then raked as soon as it is dried enough to +rake easily, and put up into cocks. When the quantity to be cured is not +large caps are sometimes used to cover the cocks to shed the rain when +the weather is showery. These are simply square strips of some kind of +material that will shed rain, weighted at the corners to keep them from +blowing away. The clover remains in the cocks for two or three days, or +until it has gone through the "sweating" process. Exposure to two or +three showers of rain falling at intervals while partially cured in the +swath or winrow will greatly injure clover hay. + +When the area to be harvested is large, clover is sometimes cured in the +swath. When thus cured it is stirred with the tedder often enough to aid +in curing the hay quickly. It is then raked into winrows and drawn from +these to the place of storage. In good weather clover may be cured thus +so as to make fairly good hay, but not so good as is made by the other +method of curing. It is much more expeditiously made, but there is some +loss in leaves, in color and in palatability. + +Some farmers cure clover by allowing it to wilt a little after it is +cut, and then drawing and storing it in a large mow. They claim that it +must be entirely free from rain or dew when thus stored. This plan of +curing clover has been successfully practised by some farmers for many +years; others who have tried it have failed, which makes it evident that +when stored thus, close attention must be given to all the details +essential to success. + +Clover may also be cured in the silo. While some have succeeded in +making good ensilage, in many cases it has not proved satisfactory. The +time may come when the conditions to be observed in making good silage +from clover will be such that the element of hazard in making the same +will be removed. In the meantime, it will usually be more satisfactory +to cure clover in the ordinary way. + +Grasses cure more easily and more quickly than clovers. Consequently, +when these are grown together so that the grasses form a considerable +proportion of the hay, the methods followed in curing the grasses will +answer also for the clovers. For these methods the reader is referred to +the book "Grasses and How to Grow Them" by the author. The influence +that grasses thus exert on the growing of clovers furnishes a weighty +reason for growing them together. + +=Storing.=--Clovers are ready to store when enough moisture has left the +stems to prevent excessive fermentation when put into the place of +storage. Hay that has been cured in the cock is much less liable to heat +when stored so as to produce mould, than hay cured in the swath or +winrow. The former has already gone through the heating process or, at +least, partially so. Some experience is necessary to enable one to be +quite sure as to the measure of the fitness of hay for being stored. +When it can be pitched without excessive labor it is ready for being +stored, but the unskilled will not likely be able to judge of this +accurately. If a wisp is taken some distance from the top of the winrow +or cock and twisted between the hands, if moisture exudes it is too +damp, and if the hay breaks asunder readily it is too dry. When no +moisture is perceptible and yet the wisp does not break asunder, the hay +is ready to be drawn. Care must be taken that the wisp chosen be +representative of the mass of the hay. To make sure of this, the test +should be applied several times. + +Where practicable the aim should be to store clover hay under cover, +owing to the little power which it has to shed rain in the stack. This +is only necessary, however, in climates with considerable rainfall +during the year and where irrigation is practised, as in the mountain +States clover hay may be kept in the stack without any loss from rain, +and it can be cured exactly as the ranchman may desire, since he is +never embarrassed when making hay by bad weather. When storing clovers, +the time of the day at which it is stored influences the keeping +qualities of the hay. Hay stored at noontide may keep properly, whereas, +if the same were stored while dew is falling it might be too damp for +being thus stored. + +Much care should be taken in stacking clover hay that it may shed rain +properly. The following should be observed among other rules of less +importance that may be given: 1. Make a foundation of rails, poles or +old straw or hay that will prevent the hay near the ground from taking +injury from the ground moisture. 2. Keep the heart of the stack highest +from the first and the slope gradual and even from the center toward the +sides. 3. Keep the stack evenly trodden, or it will settle unevenly, and +the stack will lean to one side accordingly. 4. Increase the diameter +from the ground upward until ready to draw in or narrow to form the top. +5. Aim to form the top by gradual rather than abrupt narrowing. 6. Top +out by using some other kind of hay or grass that sheds the rain better +than clover. 7. Suspend weights to some kind of ropes, stretching over +the top of the stack to prevent the wind from removing the material put +on to protect the clover from rain. + +=Feeding.=--The clovers furnish a ration more nearly in balance than +almost any other kind of food. If the animals to which they are fed +could consume enough of them to produce the desired end, concentrated +foods would not be wanted. They are so bulky, however, relatively, that +to horses and mules at work, to dairy cows in milk and cattle that are +being fattened, to sheep under similar conditions, and to swine, it is +necessary to add the concentrated grain foods, more or less, according +to the precise object. But for horses, mules, cattle, sheep and goats +that are growing subsequent to the weaning stage, and for mature animals +of these respective classes not producing, that is, not yielding +returns, a good quality of clover hay will suffice for a considerable +time at least without the necessity of adding any other food. + +It is considered inferior to timothy as a fodder for horses. This +preference is doubtless owing largely to the fact, first, that clover +breaks up more and loses more leaves when being handled, especially when +being transported; and second, that clover is frequently cured so +imperfectly as to create dust from over-fermentation or through breaking +of the leaves, because of being over-dried, and the dust thus created is +prejudicial to the health of these animals. It tends to produce +"heaves." This may in part be obviated by sprinkling the hay before it +is fed. When clover is properly cured, it is a more nutritious hay than +timothy, and is so far preferable for horses, but since timothy +transports in much better form, it is always likely to be more popular +in the general market than clover. The possibility of feeding clover to +horses for successive years without any evils resulting is made very +apparent from feeding alfalfa thus in certain areas of the West. + +Clover hay is specially useful as a fodder for milk-producing animals, +owing to the high protein content which it contains. Dairymen prefer it +to nearly all kinds of fodders grown, and the same is true of shepherds. +When very coarse, however, a considerable proportion of the stems is +likely to be left uneaten, especially by sheep. Because of this it +should be the aim to grow it so that this coarseness of stem will not be +present. This is accomplished, first, by growing it thickly, and second, +by growing the clovers in combination with one another and also with +certain of the grasses. + +Clovers are especially helpful in balancing the ration where corn is the +principal food crop grown. The protein of the clover crop aids greatly +in balancing the excess of carbo-hydrates in the corn crop, hence much +attention should be given to the production of clovers in such areas. + +=Renewing.=--Because of the comparatively short life of several of the +most useful of the varieties of clover, no attempt is usually made to +renew them when they fail, unless when growing in pasture somewhat +permanent in character. To this, however, there may be some exceptions. +On certain porous soils it has been found possible to maintain medium +red clover and also the mammoth and alsike varieties for several years +by simply allowing some of the seed to ripen in the autumn, and in this +way to re-seed the land, a result made possible through moderate grazing +of the meadow in the autumn, and in some instances through the absence +of grazing altogether, as when the conditions may not be specially +favorable to the growth of clover. + +It is not uncommon, however, to renew alfalfa, by adding more seed when +it is disked in the spring, as it sometimes is to aid in removing weeds +from the land. The results vary much with the favorableness of the +conditions for growing alfalfa or the opposite. + +In pastures more or less permanent in character, clovers may be renewed +by disking the ground, adding more clover seed, and then smoothing the +surface by running over it the harrow, and in some instances also the +roller. This work is best done when the frost has just left the ground +for a short distance below the surface. + +Some kinds of clover are so persistent in their habit of growth that +when once in the soil they remain, and therefore do not usually require +renewal. These include the small white, the yellow, the Japan, burr +clover and sweet clover. In soils congenial to these respective +varieties, the seeds usually remain in the soil in sufficient quantities +to restock the land with plants when it is again laid down to grass. +Nearly all of these varieties are persistent seed producers; hence, even +though grazed, enough seed is formed to produce another crop of plants. + +=Clovers as Soil Improvers.=--All things considered, no class of plants +grown upon the farm are so beneficent in the influence which they exert +upon the land as clovers. They improve it by enriching it; they improve +it mechanically; and they aid plant growth by gathering and +assimilating, as it were, food for other plants. + +All clovers have the power of drawing nitrogen from the air and +depositing the same in the tubercles formed on the roots of the plants. +These tubercles are small, warty-like substances, which appear during +the growing season. They are more commonly formed on the roots within +the cultivable area, and therefore are easily accessible to the roots of +the plants which immediately follow. Clovers are not equally capable of +thus drawing nitrogen from the air, nor are the same varieties equally +capable of doing this under varying conditions. The relative +capabilities of varieties to thus deposit nitrogen in the soil is by no +means equal, but up to the present time it would seem correct to say +that relative capability in all of these has not yet been definitely +ascertained. With reference to the whole question much has yet to be +learned, but it is now certain that in all, or nearly all, instances in +which clovers are grown on land, they leave it much richer in nitrogen +than it was when they were sown upon the same. + +They also add to the fertility of the surface soil by gathering plant +food in the subsoil below where many plants feed. They have much power +to do this, because they are deep rooted and they are strong feeders; +that is, they have much power to take up food in the soil or subsoil. +Part of the food thus gathered in the subsoil helps to form roots in the +cultivable area and part aids in forming top growth for pasture or for +hay. If grazed down or if made into hay and fed so that the manure goes +back upon the land the fertility of the same is increased in all leading +essentials. This increase is partly made at the expense of the fertility +in the subsoil. But the stores of fertility in the subsoil are such +usually as to admit of thus being drawn upon indefinitely. + +Clovers improve soils mechanically by rendering them more friable, by +giving them increased power to hold moisture, and by improving drainage +in the subsoil. Of course, they have not the power to do this equally, +but they all have this power in degree and in all the ways that have +been named. + +Clovers send down a tap root into the soil and subsoil as they grow. +From the tap roots branch off lateral roots in an outward and downward +direction. From these laterals many rootlets penetrate through the soil. +When the plants are numerous, these roots and rootlets fill the soil. +When it is broken up, therefore, particles of soil are so separated that +they tend to fall apart, hence the soil is always made more or less +friable, even when it consists of the stiffest clays. The shade +furnished by the clover also furthers friability. This friability makes +the land easier to work, and it is also more easily penetrated by the +roots of plants. The influence on aeration is also marked. The air can +more readily penetrate through the interstices in the soil, and, in +consequence, chemical changes in the soil favorable to plant growth are +facilitated. + +The roots of clovers are usually so numerous that they literally fill +the soil with vegetable matter. This matter, in process of decay, +greatly increases the power of the soil to hold moisture, whether it +falls from the clouds or ascends from the subsoil through capillary +attraction. The moisture thus held is greatly beneficial to the plants +that immediately follow, especially in a dry season and in open soils, +and the influence thus exerted frequently goes on, though with +decreasing potency, for two, three or four seasons. + +Reference has already been made to the tap root which clover sends down +into the soil and subsoil. In the strong varieties this tap root goes +down deeply. When the crop is plowed up, the roots decay, and when they +do, for a time at least, they furnish channels down which the surface +water percolates, if present in excess. Thus it is that clover aids in +draining lands under the conditions named. The channels thus opened do +not close immediately with the decay of the clover roots, hence the +downward movement of water in the soil is facilitated for some time +subsequently. + +It has been stated that clovers have more power than some other plants +to gather plant food in the soil. In some instances they literally fill +the soil with their roots. When other plants are sown after the clover +has been broken up they feed richly on the decaying roots of the clover. +Thus it is that clover gathers food for other plants which they would +not be so well able to gather for themselves, and puts it in a form in +which it can be easily appropriated by these. The nitrogen in clover is +yielded up more gradually and continuously as nitrates than it could be +obtained from any form of top dressings that can be given to the land. +In this fact is found one important reason why cereal grains thrive so +well after clover. + +Since the roots of clovers act so beneficently on soils, it is highly +important that they be increased to the greatest extent practicable. +Owing to the relation between the growth of the roots of plants and the +parts produced above ground, development in root growth is promoted much +more when the clover is cut for hay than when it is fed off by grazing. +Experiments have also demonstrated that the development of root growth +is much enhanced in medium red clover by taking a second cutting for +hay or seed. They have also demonstrated that more nitrogen is left in +the soil by clover roots after a seed crop than after a crop of hay. + +From what has been said, it will be apparent that the extent to which +clovers enrich the soil will depend upon the strength of the growth of +the plants and certain other conditions. It will not be possible to +reduce to figures the additions in plant food which clovers add to the +soil other than in a comparative way. Dr. Voelker has stated that there +is fully three times as much nitrogen in a crop of clover as in the +average produce of the grain and straw of wheat per acre. Dr. Kedzie is +on record as having said that in the hay or sod furnished by a good crop +of clover, there is enough nitrogen for more than four average crops of +wheat, enough phosphoric acid for more than two average crops and enough +of potash for more than six average crops. He has said, moreover, that +the roots and stubble contain fully as much of these elements as hay. + +It will also be apparent that where clover grows in good form no cheaper +or better way can be adopted in manuring land, and that in certain areas +the judicious use of land plaster on the clover hastens the renovating +process. It is thought that in some instances the mere loading and +spreading of barnyard manure costs more than the clover and plaster. +Especially will this be true of fields distant from the farm steading. +It is specially important, therefore, that in enriching these, clover +will be utilized to the fullest extent practicable. + +=Clover as a Weed Destroyer.=--Where clover is much grown, at least in +some of its varieties, it becomes an aid in reducing the prevalence of +many forms of weed growth. It is thus helpful in some instances, because +of the number of the cuttings secured; in others because of its +smothering tendencies, and in yet others because of the season of the +year when it is sown and harvested or plowed under, as the case may be. + +Alfalfa and medium red clover are cut more frequently than the other +varieties and, therefore, because of this, render more service than +these in checking weed growth. The former is cut so frequently as to +make it practically impossible for most forms of annual weed life to +mature seed in the crop. The same is true of biennials and also +perennials. But there are some forms of perennial weeds which multiply +through the medium of their rootstocks that may eventually crowd +alfalfa. Medium red clover is usually cut twice a year, hence, in it +annuals and biennials cannot mature seed, except in exceptional +instances, and because of the short duration of its life, perennials +have not time to spread so as to do much harm. + +The clovers that are most helpful in smothering weeds are the mammoth, +the medium and the alsike varieties. These are thus helpful in the order +named. To accomplish such an end they must grow vigorously, and the +plants must be numerous on the ground. When grown thus, but few forms of +weed life can make any material headway in the clover crop. Even +perennials may be greatly weakened, and in some instances virtually +smothered by such growth of clover. To insure a sufficient growth of +clover it may be advantageous to top dress the crop with farmyard manure +sufficiently decayed, and in the case of medium red clover to dress the +second cutting with land plaster. If the second growth is plowed under, +subsequent cultivation of the surface will further aid in completing the +work of destruction. + +The crimson variety is sown and also harvested at such a time that the +influence on weed eradication is very marked. The ground is usually +prepared in the summer and so late that weeds which sprout after the +clover has been sown cannot mature the same autumn. In the spring it is +harvested before any weeds can ripen. When plowed under, rather than +harvested, the result is the same. + +When clover is grown in short rotations, its power to destroy weeds is +increased. For instance, when the medium red or mammoth varieties are +grown in the three years' rotation of corn or some root crop, followed +by grain seeded with clover, the effects upon weed eradication are very +marked, if the cultivation given to the corn or roots is ample. Under +such a system weeds could be virtually prevented from maturing seeds at +any time, especially if the medium variety of clover were sown, and if +the stubbles were mown some time subsequent to the harvesting of the +grain crop. Such a system of rotation faithfully carried out for a +number of years should practically eradicate all, or nearly all, the +noxious forms of weed life. + +=Clover Sickness.=--On certain of the soils of Great Britain and +probably on those of other countries in Europe, where clover has been +grown quite frequently and for a long period, as good crops cannot be +grown as previously, and in some instances the crop is virtually a +failure. The plants will start from seed in the early spring and grow +with sufficient vigor for a time, after which they will show signs of +wilting and finally they die. Various theories were advanced for a time +as to the cause before it was ascertained by experiment what produced +these results. Some thought they arose from lack of water in the soil, +others claimed that they were due to the presence of parasites, which in +some way preyed upon the roots, others again attributed them to improper +soil conditions. It is now just about certain that they arose from a +deficiency of soluble potash in the subsoil. Such, at least, was the +conclusion reached by Kutzleb as the result of experiments conducted +with a view to ascertain the cause of clover wilt. + +The cause being known, the remedy is not difficult. It is to grow clover +less frequently on such soils. Sufficient time must be given to enable +more of the inert potash in the subsoil to become available. Another way +would be to apply potash somewhat freely to these soils, and subsoil +them where this may be necessary. + +It is thought that clover sickness is as yet unknown in the United +States and Canada, although its presence had sometimes been suspected in +some sections where clover has been much grown. This does not mean that +it may not yet come to this country. Should the symptoms given above +appear on soils on which clover has been grown frequently and for a long +period, it would be the part of wisdom to take such indications as a +hint to grow clover less frequently in the rotation. + +=Possible Improvement in Clovers.=--Some close observers have noticed +that there is much lack of uniformity in the plants found growing in an +ordinary field of clover, especially of the medium red and mammoth +varieties. Many of the plants vary in characteristics of stem, leaf, +flower and seed; in the size and vigor of the plants; in the rapidity +with which they grow; and in earliness or lateness in maturing. So great +are these differences that it may be said they run all the way from +almost valueless to high excellence. Here, then, is a wide-open door of +opportunity for improving clover plants through selection. This question +has not been given that attention in the past which its importance +demands. + +There may be a difference in view as to all the essential features of +improvement that are to be sought for, but there will probably be +agreement with reference to the following in desirable varieties: 1. +They will have the power to grow quickly and continuously under average +conditions. This power will render them valuable as pasture plants in +proportion as they possess it. 2. They will produce many stems not too +coarse in character. This will affect favorably the character of the hay +and will also have a bearing on increase in the production of seed. 3. +There should be an abundance of leaves. Such production will affect +favorably palatability in the pasture and also in the hay. 4. The +blossoms should be so short that the honey which they contain may be +accessible to the ordinary honey bee. The importance of this +characteristic cannot be easily overestimated. It would not only tend to +a great increase in seed production through the favorable influence +which it would have on fertilization, but it would greatly increase the +honey harvest that would be gathered every year, and 5. They should be +possessed of much vigor and hardihood; that is, they should have much +power to grow under adverse conditions, as of drought and cold. The +person who will furnish a variety of red clover possessed of these +characteristics will confer a boon on American agriculture. + +=Bacteria and Clovers.=--The fact has long been known, even as long ago +as the days of Pliny, and probably much before those days, that clover, +when grown in the rotation, had the power to bring fertility to the +soil. This fact was generally recognized in modern agriculture and to +the extent, in some instances, of giving it a place even in the short +rotations. But until recent decades, it was only partially known how +clover accomplished such fertilization. It was thought it thus gathered +fertility by feeding deeply in the subsoil, and through the plant food +thus gathered, the root system of the plants were so strengthened in the +cultivated surface section of soil as to account for the increased +production in the plants that followed clover. According to this view, +the stems and leaves of the plants were thus equally benefited and, +consequently, when these were plowed under where they had grown these +also added plant food to the cultivated portion of the soil, in addition +to what it possessed when the clover seed which produced the plants was +sown upon it. In brief, this theory claimed that fertility was added by +the clover plants gathering fertility in the subsoil and depositing it +so near the surface that it became easily accessible to the roots of +other plants sown after the clover and which had not the same power of +feeding so deeply. This theory was true in part. The three important +elements of plant food, nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash, were and +are thus increased in the soil, but this does not account for the source +from which the greater portion of the nitrogen thus deposited in the +soil was drawn, as will be shown below. + +It was also noticed that when the seed of any variety of clover was sown +on certain soils, the plants would grow with more or less vigor for a +time and then they would fail to make progress, and in some instances +would perish. It was further noticed that if farmyard manure was applied +freely to such land, the growth made was more vigorous. Yet, again, it +was noticed that by sowing clover at short intervals on such soils, the +improvement in the growth of the plants was constant. But it was not +understood why clover plants behaved thus under the conditions named. It +is now known that ill success at the first was owing to the lack of +certain micro-organisms, more commonly termed bacteria, in the soil, +the presence of which are essential to enable clover plants to secure +additional nitrogen to that found in the soil and subsoil on which to +feed. When manure was applied, as stated above, the clover plants +secured much or all of their nitrogen from the manure. Bacteria were +introduced in very limited numbers at first, it may be through the +medium of the seed or in some other way, and because of an inherent +power which they possess to increase rapidly in connection with +continued sowing of clover at short intervals, they came at length to be +so numerous in the soil as to make possible the growth of good crops of +clover where these could not be thus grown a few years previously. + +Careful observers had noticed that certain warty-like substances were +found attached to the roots of clover plants, and that the more +vigorously the plants grew, the larger and more numerous were these +substances, as a rule. It was thought by many that these warty +substances, now spoken of as nodules, were caused by worms biting the +roots or because of some unfavorable climatic influence or abnormal +condition of soil. It is now known that they are owing to the presence +of bacteria, whose special function is the assimilation of free nitrogen +obtained in the air found in the interstices; that is, the air spaces +between the particles of soil. This they store up in the nodules for the +use of the clover plants and also the crops that shall follow them. + +The nodules in clover plants vary in size, from a pin head to that of a +pea, and they are frequently present in large numbers. Bacteria are +present within them in countless myriads. They gain an entrance into +the plant through the root hairs. The exact way in which benefit thus +comes to the clover plants is not fully understood, but it is now quite +generally conceded that the nitrogen taken in by these minute forms of +life is converted into soluble compounds, which are stored in the +tissues of the roots, stems and leaves of the plants, thus furnishing an +explanation to the increased vigor. It cannot be definitely ascertained +at present, if, indeed, ever, what proportion of the nitrogen in clover +is taken from the air and from the soil, respectively, since it will +vary with conditions, but when these are normal, it is almost certain +that by far the larger proportion comes from the air. But it has been +noticed that when soil is freely supplied with nitrogen, as in liberal +applications of farmyard manure, the plants do not form nodules so +freely as when nitrogen is less plentiful in the soil. The inference +would, therefore, seem to be correct, that when plants are well supplied +with nitrogen in the soil they are less diligent, so to speak, in +gathering it from the air. In other words, clover plants will take more +nitrogen from the air when the soil is more or less nitrogen hungry than +when nitrogen abounds in the soil. And yet the plants should be able to +get some nitrogen from the soil in addition to what the seed furnishes +to give them a vigorous start. + +This power to form tubercles, and thus to store up nitrogen, is by no +means confined to clovers. It is possessed by all legumes, as peas, +beans and vetches. It is claimed that some of these, as soy beans, cow +peas and velvet beans, have even greater power to gather nitrogen from +the air and store it in the soil than clover, since the nodules formed +on the roots of these are frequently larger. In some instances, on the +roots of the velvet bean they grow in clusters as large as an ordinary +potato. With reference to all these leguminous plants it has been +demonstrated that under proper conditions good crops may be grown and +removed from the soil and leave it much richer in nitrogen than when the +seed was sown. It is thus possible by sowing these crops at suitable +intervals to keep the soil sufficiently supplied with nitrogen to grow +good crops other than legumes, adapted to the locality, without the +necessity for purchasing the nitrogen of commerce in any of its forms. +They may be made to more than maintain the supply of nitrogen, +notwithstanding the constant loss of the same by leeching down into the +subsoil in the form of nitrates, and through the more or less constant +escape of the same into the air in the form of ammonia, during those +portions of the year when the ground is not frozen. + +They will do this in addition to the food supplies which they furnish, +hence they may be made to supply this most important element of +fertility, and by far the most costly when purchased in the market, +virtually without cost. The favorable influences which these plants thus +exert upon crop production is invaluable to the farmer. They make it +possible for him to be almost entirely independent of the nitrogen of +commerce, which, at the rate of consumption during recent years, will +soon be so far reduced as to be a comparatively insignificant factor in +its relation to crop production. It is possible, however, and not +altogether improbable, that by the aid of electricity a manufactured +nitrate of soda or of potash may be put upon the market at a price which +will put it within reach of the farmer. The power of legumes to increase +the nitrogen content in the soil should allay apprehension with +reference to the possible exhaustion of the world's supply of nitrogen, +notwithstanding the enormous waste of the same in various ways. + +The more common sources of loss in nitrogen are, first, through the +leeching of nitrates into the drainage water; second, through oxidation; +third, through the use of explosives in war; and fourth, through the +waste of the sewerage of cities. When plant and animal products are +changed into soluble nitrates, they are usually soon lost to the soil, +unless taken up by the roots of plants. When vegetable matter on or near +the surface of the ground is broken down and decomposed, in the process +of oxidation, there is frequently much loss of nitrogen, as in the rapid +decomposition of farmyard manure in the absence of some material, as +land plaster, to arrest and hold the escaping ammonia. Through +explosives used in war there is an enormous vegetable loss of nitrogen, +as nitrate salts, which should rather be used to preserve and sustain +life than to destroy it. The waste of nitrogen through the loss of +sewerage is enormous, nor does there seem to be any practicable way of +saving the bulk of it. + +In many soils the germs which produce nodules are present when clovers +are first grown on them. But where they are not present, the clover +plants have no more power to gather nitrogen than wheat or other +non-leguminous crops. But since in other soils they are almost entirely +absent, how shall they be introduced? The process of introducing them is +generally referred to as a process of inoculation, and soils when +treated successfully are said to be inoculated. + +Three methods have been adopted. By the first, as previously indicated, +the grower perseveres in sowing clover at short intervals in the +rotation. He may also add farmyard manure occasionally, and thus, +through the inherent power of multiplication in the bacteria, they +increase sufficiently to enable the land to grow good crops. By the +second method, inoculating is effected through soil which is possessed +of the requisite bacteria; and by the third, it is effected through the +aid of a prepared product named nitragin. + +When fields are to be inoculated by using soil it is obtained from areas +which have grown clovers successfully quite recently, and which are, +therefore, likely to be well filled with the desired bacteria. In some +instances the seed is mixed with the soil and these are sown together. +To thus mix the seed with the soil and then sow both together broadcast +or with a seed drill is usually effective, and it is practicable when +minimum quantities of soil well laden with germs are used. In other +instances the soil containing germs is scattered broadcast before or +soon after the seed is sown. Considerable quantities of earth must needs +be applied by this method. + +It should be remembered that each class of legumes has its own proper +bacteria. Because of this, inoculation can only, or at least chiefly, be +effected through the use of soils on which that particular class of +legumes have grown, or which are possessed of bacteria proper to that +particular species. In other words, bacteria necessary to the growth of +vetches will not answer for the growth of clovers, and _vice versa_. Nor +will the bacteria requisite to grow medium red clover answer for growing +alfalfa. In other words, the bacteria proper to the growth of one member +of even a family of plants will not always answer for the growth of +another member of the same. But in some instances it is thought that it +will answer. The study of this phase of the question has not yet +progressed far enough to reflect as much light upon it as could be +desired. It is certainly known, however, that alfalfa will grow on soils +that grow burr clover (_Medicago maculata_) and sweet clover (_Melilotus +alba_), hence the inference that soil from fields of either will +inoculate for alfalfa. + +Nitragin is the name given by certain German investigators to a +commercial product put upon the market, which claims to be a pure +culture of the root tubercle organism. These cultures were sold in the +liquid form, and it was customary when using them to treat the seed with +them before it was planted. Their use has been largely abandoned, +because of the few successes which followed their use compared with the +many failures. But it is now believed that these cultures can be +prepared and used so as to be generally effective and without excessive +cost to the grower. + +In preparing cultures it has been found that by gradually reducing the +amount of nitrogen in the culture of media, it is possible to increase +the nitrogen fixing power in these germs from five to ten times as much +as usually occurs in nature. It is now known that the bacteria thus +grown upon nitrogen free media retain high activity if carefully dried +and then revived in liquid media at the end of the varying lengths of +time. Some absorbent is used to soak up the tubercle-forming organisms. +The cultures are then allowed to dry, and when in that condition they +can be safely sent to any part of the country without losing their +efficacy. It is necessary to revive the dry germs by immersing them in +water. By adding certain nutrient salts the bacteria are greatly +increased if allowed to stand for a limited time--as short, in some +instances, as 24 hours. The culture thus sent out in a dry form, and no +larger than a yeast cake, may thus be made to furnish bacteria +sufficient to inoculate not less than an acre of land. It is stated that +the amount of inoculating material thus obtained is only limited by the +quantity of the nutrient water solution used in increasing the germs, so +that the cost of inoculating land by this process is not large. The +culture may be applied by simply soaking the seed in it, by spraying the +soil, or by first mixing the culture into earth, spreading it over the +field and then harrowing it. Inoculations thus tried under the +supervision of the United States Department of Agriculture have proved +quite successful. + +Where any legume is extensively grown surrounding soils come to be +inoculated through the agency of winds and water. The increase brought +to the yield of plants on various soils runs all the way from a slight +gain to 1000-fold. And when soil is once inoculated it remains so for a +long time, even though the proper legume should not be grown again on +the same soil. + +The amount of nitrogen that may thus be brought to many soils by growing +clover and other legumes upon them is only hedged in practically by the +nature of the rotation fixed upon. An acre of clover when matured will +sometimes add 200 to 300 pounds of nitrogen to the soil under favorable +conditions. Where the soil contains the requisite bacteria, the young +plants begin to form tubercles when but a few weeks old, and continue to +do so while the plant is active until mature. That the plants use much +of the nitrogen while growing would seem to be clear, from the fact that +toward the close of the growing season the tubercles become more or less +broken down and shrunken. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +MEDIUM RED CLOVER + + +Medium Red Clover (_Trifolium pratense_) is also known by the names +Common Red Clover, Broad-Leaved Clover and Meadow Trefoil. The term +medium has doubtless come to be applied to it because the plants are in +size intermediate between the Mammoth variety (_Trifolium magnum_) and +the smaller varieties, as the Alsike (_Trifolium hybridum_) and the +small white (_Trifolium repens_). But by no designation is it so +frequently referred to as that of Red Clover. + +This plant is spreading and upright in its habit of growth. Several +branches rise up from the crown of each plant, and these in turn +frequently become branched more or less in their upward growth. The +heads which produce the flowers are nearly globular in shape, inclining +to ovate, and average about one inch in diameter. Each plant contains +several heads, and frequently a large number when the growth is not too +crowded. When in full flower these are of a beautiful purple crimson, +hence, a field of luxuriant red clover is beautiful to look upon. The +stems of the plants are slightly hairy, and ordinarily they stand at +least fairly erect and reach the height of about one foot or more; but +when the growth is rank, they will grow much higher, even as high as 4 +feet in some instances, but when they grow much higher than the average +given, the crop usually lodges. The leaves are numerous, and many of +them have very frequently, if not, indeed, always, a whitish mark in the +center, resembling a horseshoe. The tap roots go down deeply into the +soil. Usually they penetrate the same to about 2 feet, but in some +instances, as when subsoils are open and well stored with accessible +food, they go down to the depth of 5 or 6 feet. The tap roots are +numerously branched, and the branches extend in all directions. When +they are short, as they must needs be in very stiff subsoils and on thin +land underlaid with hard soil, the branches become about as large as the +tap roots. It has been computed that the weight of the roots in the soil +is about equal to the weight of the stem and leaves. + +Medium red clover is ordinarily biennial in its habit of growth, but +under some conditions it is perennial. Usually in much of the +Mississippi basin it is biennial, especially on prairie soils. On the +clay loam soils of Ontario, Ohio, Michigan, Wisconsin, Indiana and some +other States, it is essentially biennial, but many of the plants will +survive for a longer period. In the mountain valleys in the Northwestern +States, and on the Pacific slope west of the Cascade Mountains, it is +perennial. Medium red clover meadows in these have been cut for several +successive years without re-seeding the crop. The duration of this plant +is also more or less influenced by pasturing as compared with cutting +for seed. Grazing the plants has the effect of prolonging the period of +their growth, while maturing seed from them has the opposite effect. + +Medium red clover is characterized by a rapid growth. Seed sown in the +spring has in certain climates produced a crop of hay in 120 days from +the date of sowing. It is also most persistent in its growth from spring +until fall when sufficient moisture is present. In this property it far +outranks any of the other varieties of clover. It comes into bloom in +the South during the latter half of May and in the North during the +month of June, early or later, according to location, and in about sixty +days from the time that it is cut for hay. Ordinarily, a second cutting +of hay may be taken from it and still later some pasture. + +It furnishes excellent pasture, soiling food and hay for nearly all +classes of live stock. While it is much relished by the stock, it is +probably not exceeded in its capacity for quick and prolonged growth +throughout the growing season by any pasture plant, except alfalfa. For +a similar reason it stands high as a soiling food. No other variety of +clover grown in America will furnish as much of either pasture or +soiling food. For animals producing milk and for young animals, the +pasture is particularly excellent. It is also the standard pasture for +swine where it can be grown, and where alfalfa is not a staple crop. +When the hay is well cured, it makes a ration in even balance for cattle +and sheep, and for horses it is equally good. The prejudice which exists +in some quarters against feeding it to horses has arisen, in part, at +least, from feeding it when improperly harvested, when over-ripe, when +damaged by rain, or by overcuring in the sun, or when it may have been +stored so green as to induce molding. It may also be fed with much +advantage to brood sows and other swine in winter. + +As a soil improver, medium red clover is probably without a rival, +unless it be in mammoth clover, and in one respect it exceeds the +mammoth variety; that is, in the more prolonged season, during which it +may be plowed under as a green manure. Its quick growth peculiarly +adapts it to soil enrichment. For this reason, it is more sown than any +of the other varieties in the spring of the year, along with the small +cereal grains to be plowed under in the late autumn or in the following +spring, after the clover has made a vigorous start, since it produces +two crops in one season, the first crop may be harvested and the second +plowed under after having made a full growth. This can be said of no +other variety of clover. More enrichment is also obtained from the +falling of the leaves when two crops are grown than from the other +varieties. + +The influence of this plant on weed destruction when grown for hay is +greater than with the other varieties of clover. This is owing in part +to the shade resulting from its rapid growth and in part to the two +cuttings which are usually made of the crop. These two cuttings prevent +the maturing of the seeds in nearly all annual weeds, and to a very +great extent in all classes of biennials. The power of this crop to +smother out perennials is also considerable, and when this is linked +with the weakening caused by the two cuttings, it sometimes proves +effective in completely eradicating for the time being this class of +weeds. + +[Illustration: Fig. 2. Medium Red Clover (_Trifolium pratense_) + Oregon Experiment Station] + +=Distribution.=--Medium red clover is thought to be native to Europe. It +was probably introduced into England some time early in the seventeenth +century. That it was attracting attention about the middle of the +century or a little later, is rendered probable by the fact that it is +discussed at considerable length in the third edition of Blyth's +"Improver Improved," published in 1662, while it is not mentioned in the +first edition, published in 1650. It was doubtless introduced into the +United States by the early colonists and at sundry times. + +Medium red clover will grow in good form only in the temperate zone, +since it cannot stand excessive heat or excessive cold. The northerly +limit of its successful growth in North America is somewhere about 50° +north latitude on the wind-swept prairies, but on suitable soils, and +protected somewhat by trees and winter snows, it will probably grow 10 +degrees further to the north. In British Columbia, on the Pacific slope, +it will probably grow as far north as Alaska. But on prairies eastward +from the Rocky Mountains, it has not been grown with much success much +further north than 48°, unless under the eastern shadow of the Rocky +Mountains. Low temperatures in winter, where there is only a moderate +covering of snow, are far less fatal to clover plants than exposure to +the sweep of the cold winds. Even where the thermometer is not so low as +in the areas just referred to, such winds are particularly damaging to +the plants when they blow fiercely just after a thaw which has removed a +previous covering of snow. In some instances, one cold wave under the +conditions named has proved fatal to promising crops of clover over +extended areas. + +In a general way, the southerly limit of vigorous and reliable growth +may be put at about 37°. But in some localities good crops may be grown +further South, especially in some parts of Tennessee. Nor would it be +correct to say that medium red clover grows at its best in many +localities much south of 38°. On the plateaus it can be grown further +South, where the soil is suitable. + +This plant flourishes best in a moist climate. In fact, the abundance +and continuance of the growth for the season are largely dependent on +the amount of the precipitation, and on the distribution of the same +throughout the season. In climates in which it is usual for a long spell +of dry weather to occur in mid-summer, the plants will not make rapid +growth after the first cutting of the season; but under conditions the +opposite, they will grow continuously from spring until fall. Continuous +growth may be secured through all the season on irrigated land. Although +the plants root deeply, they will succumb under drought beyond a certain +degree, and in some soils the end comes much more quickly than on +others; on porous and sandy soils, it comes much sooner than on clays. +On the latter, drought must be excessive to destroy clover plants that +have been well rooted. White clover can withstand much heat when +supplied with moisture. Moderate temperatures are much more favorable to +its growth. + +Spring weather, characterized by prolonged periods of alternate freezing +and thawing, is disastrous to the plants on dry soils, possessed of an +excess of moisture, when not covered with snow. They are gradually drawn +up out of the soil and left to die on the surface. In some instances, +the destruction of an otherwise fine stand is complete. In other +instances, it is partial, and when it is, a heavy roller run over the +land is helpful in firming the soil around the roots that have been thus +disturbed. + +Medium red clover can be grown with some success in certain parts of +almost every State in the Union. But in paying crops it is not much +grown south of parallel 37°. With irrigation it grows most vigorously in +the mountain valleys between the Rocky and Cascade mountains, and +between about 37° and 50° north latitude. In these valleys its habit of +growth is perennial. Without irrigation, the highest adaptation, all +things considered, is found in Washington and Oregon, west of the +Cascades, except where shallow soils lying on gravels exist. East of the +mountains, the best crops are in the States of Michigan, Ohio, Indiana, +Kentucky, Illinois, Missouri, Iowa, Wisconsin and Minnesota. The soils +of Northern Minnesota, Wisconsin and Michigan, that have produced +hardwood timber, have unusually high adaptation to the growth of this +plant, and as the snow usually covers the ground in these areas in +winter, the crop may be relied upon with much certainty. But on the +sandy soils, which more or less abound in these areas, it does not +succeed so well. It has not yet proved a marked success in Western +Minnesota or in the Dakotas, owing in part probably to the lack of the +proper bacteria in the soil. Its growth in these localities, however, is +extending from year to year. Indiana and Ohio are great clover States, +and the same is true of much of Illinois and Iowa; but southward in +these States there is some hazard to the young plants from drought and +heat in summer, and to an occasional frost in winter when the ground is +bare. + +East of the States named, it would probably be correct to say that the +highest adaptation is found in New York and Pennsylvania, particularly +the former, in many parts of which excellent crops are grown. In various +parts of the New England States good crops may also be grown. Much of +the soil in these is not sufficiently fertile to grow clover as it can +be grown in the more Central States. The same is true of the States of +Delaware, Maryland and Eastern Virginia, east of the Rocky Mountains, +south from the Canadian boundary and west from Minnesota, Iowa and +Missouri, but little success has heretofore attended the efforts to grow +medium red clover. This statement does not apply equally to Eastern +Nebraska and Kansas. Usually the climate is not moist enough in summer, +the sweep of the cold winds is too great in winter, the snowfall is +usually insufficient to protect the plants, and it may be also that the +requisite bacteria is lacking in the soil. Sometime, however, these +adverse conditions may in part be overcome by man's resourcefulness. In +parts of States that lie south of the 37th parallel, it may be found +profitable to grow crops of medium red clover; but in these, other +legumes, as crimson clover, cow peas and soy beans, will probably +furnish food more reliably and more cheaply. + +In Canada the highest all-round adaptation for clover is in Ontario and +Quebec, unless it be the mountain valleys and tide lands of British +Columbia. Because of the high adaptation in the soil of the two +provinces first named, and the plentifulness of the snowfall, clover in +these is one of the surest of the crops grown. The maritime provinces of +New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Prince Edward's Island, particularly the +former, have soils a little too hungry to produce the highest returns in +clover. On the open prairies between Ontario and the Rocky Mountains, +not much success has attended the attempts to grow any kind of clover, +owing probably to present uncongeniality in soils and more especially in +climatic conditions. However, there are good reasons for believing that +with the introduction of hardy varieties and through the use of Northern +grown seed, an inoculated soil, where inoculation may be necessary, that +medium red clover will yet be grown over wide areas in all the provinces +of Northwestern Canada, south of and including the Saskatchewan valley. + +=Soils.=--Fortunately, this most useful plant will grow in a +considerable variety of soils, though, of course, not equally well. +Highest in general suitability, probably, are clay loams underlaid with +a moderately porous clay subsoil. They should at the same time be moist +and reasonably well stored with humus. On such a soil, in a climate with +sufficient rainfall and properly distributed, a stand of clover should +be looked upon as reasonably certain any season when properly sown. It +would also be correct to say that on the volcanic soils of the mountain +States in the West, clover will grow equally well when supplied with +moisture, and in these it is also very tenacious of life. + +Next in adaptation are what may be termed loam soils, also underlaid +with clay. The proportion of the clay in them will exercise an important +influence on the growth of the clover. Loamy sands will grow clover +better than sandy loams, although both are very suitable, the other +conditions being right. + +It would seem to be correct to assign third place to stiff clays, +whether of the white or red cast. The better that these are supplied +with vegetable matter, and the more moist the season, the better is the +stand of the clover likely to be. In seasons that are generally +favorable, excellent crops of clover may be obtained from such soils, +but in dry seasons it is easy to secure a good stand of the plants. They +are also considerably liable to heave in these soils in the spring of +the year from the action of the frost. The more perfectly they are +drained, the less will be the injury from this source, but it is +scarcely possible to drain such lands so perfectly that there will be no +loss of clover plants in these from the source named in the winters, +characterized by frequent rains, accompanied by frequent alternations of +freezing and thawing. The loss from this source in such lands varies +from nothing at all to 100 per cent. + +Nearly, if not equal to the former, are dark loam soils with a gravel or +sand drainage underneath, providing, first, that the sand and gravel do +not come too near the surface, and second, that the normal rainfall is +sufficient. On such soils it seldom fails to grow, is not liable to +heave in the winter or spring, and usually produces excellent crops when +these soils are properly tilled. It has special adaptation for being +grown on calcareous or limy soils. It also, usually, grows well on soils +underlaid with yellow clay of more or less tenacity. + +The black humus soils of the prairie vary much in their suitability for +growing medium red clover. Much depends on the clay content in such +soils. The more of this element in them and the nearer an underlying +clay subsoil is to the surface, the better will this clover grow on +them. In large areas of the prairie, red clover will grow more +successfully on the subsoil when laid bare than when on the surface +soil. It has been the experience in many instances that when the humus +soils of the prairie, porous and spongy in character, were first tilled, +clover grew on them so shyly that it was difficult to get a good stand +of the same until it had been sown for several seasons successively or +at intervals. Eventually, good crops were grown on these lands, and are +now being grown on them. This was the experience that faced a majority +of the first settlers on the prairie where excellent crops are now being +grown, and it is the experience which faces many to-day, who are +located on sections of the prairie but newly broken. + +Two reasons may be given by way of explanation, but these may not +furnish all the reasons for the experience just referred to. First, much +of the land was so porous in its nature that in dry seasons the young +plants perished for want of moisture. As such lands become worn through +cropping, they lie more firmly and compactly; hence, there is less loss +of moisture through the free penetration of the soil within a short +distance of the surface of the dry atmosphere. And second, the requisite +bacteria is not in these soils until it is brought to them by sowing +seed repeatedly, more or less of which grows, and in growing increases +the bacteria in the soil until that point is reached when good crops of +clover can be grown with the usual regularity. + +The suitability of sandy and gravelly lands for growing clover depends +much on the amount of plant food which they contain, on the character of +the climate, and on the subsoil. Such soils when possessed of some loam +when underlaid with clay, and in a climate with 20 inches and more per +annum of rainfall, usually grow good crops of clover; but when +conditions the opposite prevail, the growth of this plant is precarious. +However, when sandy or gravelly soils low in fertility are underlaid +with the same and the rainfall is sufficient, good crops of clover may +be grown if these soils are first sufficiently supplied with vegetable +matter and then sufficiently fertilized. + +Muck soils do not seem to have the proper elements for growing clover in +the best form. But when these have in them some clay, and especially +when they are underlaid with clay not distant from the surface, they +will grow good crops of clover, especially of the alsike variety. Thus +it is that lands which have grown black ash and tamarack generally make +good clover lands also. But clover will not succeed well on unreduced +peaty soils, since it is not able in these to gather food supplies. But +when sufficiently reduced, some kinds of clover will succeed better on +these than on some other soils. + +Deposit soils, such as are found in the bottom lands of rivers and +streams, vary much in the suitability for growing clover, owing to the +great differences in the compositions; but since they are usually +possessed of sufficient friability, fertility and moisture, good crops +of clover may generally be grown upon them where the climatic conditions +are suitable. The injury from overflow on such soils will depend on the +depth of the same and its duration, also the season of the year when it +occurs. Overflow in the spring season before growth has begun, or when +it is about starting, will be helpful rather than harmful, especially if +some deposit is left on the land by the subsiding waters. But if the +overflow should be deep and of any considerable duration, and, moreover, +if it should occur when the clover was somewhat advanced in growth, and +in hot weather, the submergence of the clover would probably be fatal to +it. + +It may be proper to state here that the lands which grow hardwood timber +will usually grow clover. By hardwood timber is meant such trees as +maple, beech, birch, oak, elm, basswood, butternut and walnut. Where +forests are found comprising one or more varieties of these trees +anywhere on this continent, and especially comprising several of them, +the conclusion is safe that medium red clover will grow, or, at least, +can be grown, on such soils. If a considerable sprinkling of pine trees +is found in the same, the indications are not changed in consequence. +Where the forest is largely composed of maple and birch, excellent crops +of clover may be looked for when the land has been cleared. But because +of what has been said, the conclusion must not be reached that clover +will not grow well under some conditions where soft woods abound, but +rather that where the former abound the indications of suitability for +clover production are more certain than where soft timbers abound. + +=Place in the Rotation.=--Medium red clover may be made to precede or to +follow almost any crop that is grown upon the farm. Notwithstanding, +there are certain crops which it precedes or follows with much more +advantage than others. Since it brings nitrogen to the soil from the air +and deposits the same for the benefit of the crops that immediately +follow, it is advantageous to plant such crops after it as require much +nitrogen to make them productive, as, for instance, wheat. Since, +through the medium of its roots, it stores the ground with humus, such +crops should come after it as feed generously on humus, as, for +instance, corn and potatoes. And since it tends to lessen weed growth +through smothering, it may with advantage be followed by crops for which +a clean seed bed is specially advantageous, as flax. It may, therefore, +be followed with much advantage by wheat, oats or barley, corn and +sorghum in all their varieties, flax, potatoes, field roots, vegetables +and such small fruits as strawberries. Where wheat is a success it is +usually first grown among the small cereal grains after clover, since it +is less able to flourish under the conditions which become decreasingly +favorable in the years that follow the breaking up of the clover. +Whether wheat or flax, corn or potatoes should immediately follow the +growing of clover, should be determined in great part by the immediate +necessity for growing one or the other of these crops, but also to some +extent by the crops that are to follow them. + +Clover may follow such crops as require cultivation while they are +growing, and of a character that will clean the soil. This means that it +may with advantage be made to follow corn, sorghum, potatoes or field +roots. It may also follow the summer fallow bare, or producing crops for +being plowed under where these come into the rotation. Of course, since +clover can to a considerable extent supply its own nitrogen, it may be +successfully grown on lands that are not clean, and that may not possess +high fertility, but when thus sown the nurse crop with which it is +usually sown is not likely to succeed well, because of the presence of +weeds in it, and from the same cause the quality of the first of the +clover is likely to be much impaired. The conditions of the time of +sowing are also less favorable for getting a stand of the seed. + +There is probably no rotation in which clover may be grown with more +advantage than when it is made to alternate with corn or potatoes and +some small cereal grains, as wheat or oats, growing each crop for but +one season. Of course the clover must be sown with the grain and +harvested the following year, taking from it two cuttings. In no other +form of rotation, perhaps, can clover be used to better advantage, nor +would there seem to be any other way in which land may be made to +produce abundantly for so large a term of years without fertilization +other than that given to the soil by the clover. It would fully supply +the needs of the crops alternating with it in the line of humus, and +also in that of nitrogen. In time the supply of phosphoric acid and +potash might run low, but not for a long term of years. The cultivation +given to the corn and potatoes would keep the land clean. Fortunate is +the neighborhood in which a rotation may be practised, and fortunate are +the tillers of the soil who are in a position to adopt it. + +Medium red clover may be followed with much advantage by certain catch +crops sown at various times through the season of growth. It may be +pastured in the spring for several weeks, and the land then plowed and +sowed with millet or rape, or planted with corn, sorghum, late potatoes, +or certain vegetables, or it may be allowed to grow for several weeks +and then plowed, to be followed by one or the other of these crops. It +may also be harvested for hay in time to follow it with millet or rape +for pasture, and under some conditions with fodder corn. But when the +stand of clover is good, it would usually be profitable to utilize the +clover for food rather than the crops mentioned, since doing so would +involve but little labor and outlay. After the second cutting for the +season, winter rye may be grown as a catch crop by growing it as a +pasture crop. + +=Preparing the Soil.=--Speaking in a general way, it would be correct to +say that it would not be easy to get soil in too friable a condition for +the advantageous reception of medium red clover seed. In other words, it +does not often happen that soils are in too fine tilth to sow seed upon +them without such fineness resulting in positive benefit to the plants. +The exceptions would be clays of fine texture in climates subject to +rainfalls so heavy as to produce impaction. On the other hand, the +hazard would be even greater to sow clover on these soils when in a +cloddy condition. The rootlets would not then be able to penetrate the +soil with sufficient ease to find enough food and moisture to properly +nourish them. Some soils are naturally friable, and in these a tilth +sufficiently fine can be realized ordinarily with but little labor. +Other soils, as stiff clays, frequently require much labor to bring them +into the condition required. Usually, however, if sufficient time +elapses between the plowing of the land and the sowing of the seed, this +work may be materially lessened by using the harrow and roller +judiciously soon after rainfall. + +When preparing prairie soils so open that they will lift with the wind, +the aim should be to firm them rather than to render them more open and +porous; otherwise they will not retain sufficient moisture to properly +sustain the young plants, if prolonged dry weather follows the sowing of +the seed. Plowing such land in the autumn aids in securing such density. +The same result follows summerfallowing the land or growing upon it a +cultivated crop after the bare fallow, or after the cultivated crop has +been harvested prior to the sowing of the clover seed, otherwise the +desired firmness of the land will be lessened, and weed seeds will be +brought to the surface, which will produce plants to the detriment of +the clover. In preparing such lands for the seed, cultivation near the +surface is preferable to plowing. + +When the clover is sown late in the season, as is sometimes the case, in +locations where the winters are comparatively mild, the ground may be +made reasonably clean before the seed is sown, by stirring it +occasionally at intervals before sowing the seed. This is done with some +form of harrow or weeder, and, of course, subsequently to the plowing of +the land. + +=Sowing.=--The time for sowing clover seed is influenced considerably by +the climatic conditions. Under some conditions it may be sown in the +early autumn. It may be thus sown in the Southern States and with much +likelihood that a stand will be secured, yet in some instances an +inauspicious winter proves disastrous to the plants: all things +considered, it is probably safer to sow clover in the South at that +season than the spring, when vegetation is beginning to start. It may +also succeed in some instances in areas well to the North when sown in +the early autumn, providing snow covers the ground all the winter, but +should the snow fail to come the subsequent winter, or fail to lie when +it does come, the clover plants would perish. The element of hazard, +therefore, is too great in northerly areas to justify sowing the seed +thus. But on the bench lands of the mountain valleys there may be +instances in which the seed may be sown so late in the autumn that it +will not sprout before winter sets in, but lies in the soil ready to +utilize the moisture, so all important in those areas, as soon as the +earliest growth begins in the spring. + +The seed may be sown with no little assurance of success in the late +summer. But this can only be done where moisture is reasonably plentiful +from the time of sowing onward, and where the winters are not really +severe. In some of the Central States this method of sowing may succeed +reasonably well. Clover and timothy sown thus without any nurse crop +will produce a full crop the next season. When the seed is sown thus, it +may, of course, be made to follow a crop grown on the land the same +season. It may also insure a crop the following season, when the clover +seed sown the spring previously may for some reason have failed. + +While medium red clover is frequently sown in the South and in some +areas of the far West in the months of January and February on the snow, +in the North it is usually sown in the early spring. This also is in a +great majority of instances the best time for sowing. In many locations +it may be sown with safety as soon as the winter snows have gone. On the +whole, the earlier that it is sown in the spring the better, that the +young plants may have all the benefit possible from the moisture, which +is more abundant than later. But there are certain areas, as, for +instance, in the northerly limits of the Mississippi basin, in which +young clover plants perish by frost after they have germinated. This, +however, does not happen very frequently. When the seed is sown on the +snow, or while the ground is yet in a honeycombed condition from early +frost, it must of necessity be sown early. But where the hazard is +present that the young plants will be killed by frost, it will be safer +to defer sowing the seed until it can be covered with the harrow when +sown. + +Whether it will be more advisable to sow the seed on bare ground earlier +than the season when growth begins, or to sow later and cover with the +harrow, will depend to a considerable degree upon the soil and the +condition in which it happens to be. On timber soils newly cleaned the +early sowing would be quite safe where the young plants are not liable +to be killed after germination, because of the abundance of humus in +them. On the same soils, early sowing would probably be preferable, even +when much reduced in humus, providing they were in a honeycombed +condition at the time of sowing. This condition is far more +characteristic of clay and clay loam soils, than of those sandy in +texture. To sow the seed on clay soils that are worn would be to throw +it away, unless in a most favorable season for growth. The same would +prove true of the sandy soils low in humus, since these do not honeycomb +at any season. Seed sown on honeycombed ground falls into openings made +in the soil, and is covered by the action of the frost and the sun on +the same. The rule should be to defer sowing the seed where the ground +does not honeycomb until it can be covered with the harrow. + +In some instances the seed is sown successfully just after a light fall +of snow in the spring. The seed is carried down into little crevices or +fissures in the soil when these are present, but the seed should not be +thus sown. Usually it is not quite safe to sow clover seed where the +winter snow still lingers to any considerable depth, lest much of it +should be carried down to the lower lands by the sudden melting of the +snows. The chief advantage of sowing before the ground can be harrowed +arises from the benefit which the young plants derive from the plentiful +supply of moisture in the soil at that season. They are more firmly +rooted than plants sown later, and, therefore, can better withstand the +dry weather that frequently characterizes the later months of the +summer. There is also the further advantage that the labor of harrowing +at a season that is usually a busy one is dispensed with. + +Various modes of sowing clover seed have been adopted. Sometimes it is +sown by hand. In other instances a sower is used which is strapped to +the shoulder and turned with a crank. Sometimes the seed is sown by a +distributor, which is wheeled over the ground on a frame resembling that +of a wheelbarrow. Again, it is sown with a seeder attachment to the +ordinary grain drill or to the broadcast seeder, and yet again with the +grain in the ordinary drill tubes, or scattered with the same by the +broadcast seeder; which of these methods should be adopted will depend +on such conditions as relate to season, climate and soil. + +The seed may be sown by hand at almost any time desired, whether it is +covered or not. The advantages of hand sowing are that it may be done +under some conditions when no other method will answer as well, as, for +instance, when it is sown upon snow or upon the ground honeycombed. The +disadvantages are that it takes more time than some of the other +methods, especially when the sower only scatters the seed with one hand, +that it cannot be thus sown when the wind blows stiffly or fitfully, and +most of all, only a limited number of persons who sow seed are thus able +to sow it with complete regularity. A still time should, if possible, be +chosen for hand sowing; such a time is usually found in the early +morning. When one hand is used, the seed may be sown from a light dish +or pail or sowing-bag, but when both hands are used a sowing-box or a +sowing-sack suspended in front of the breast is necessary. Clover seed +may be sown when a considerable breeze is blowing by having a due regard +to the wind. When facing it, the cast of seed should be low; when going +before the wind it should be high. But when the wind is blowing at +right angles, much care must be observed by the sower as to where he +walks, in relation to the cast that is being sown. + +When the seed is sown on grain that has been drilled, the rows of grain +will suffice to serve as a guide to the sower, and when the grain is not +up, the drill marks may be made to serve the same end. + +The advantages of the hand seeder held in place by straps are that the +sowing may be done by an individual who cannot sow by hand, that the +seed may be easily distributed and that it may be used with advantage in +sowing seed among brush. The disadvantages are that it cannot be used +when much wind is stirring, and when using it stakes are sometimes +necessary for the guidance of the sower. + +The advantages from using the seeder wheeled over the ground are that +the work may be done by any one able to wheel the seeder, that the seed +is distributed evenly, that it may be sown when a fairly stiff wind is +blowing, and that stakes are not necessary for the guidance of the +sower, as the distance of the cast may be gauged at least fairly well by +the wheel marks made. One disadvantage is that it cannot be used with +much satisfaction on certain soils when the ground is cloddy or frozen, +or when it is wet. There is also the disadvantage to all three methods +of sowing by hand, that it is frequently necessary to provide a covering +for the seed by subsequently using the harrow. + +The advantages from sowing with the seeder attachment to the grain drill +are that the seed may be made to fall before or behind the tubes as may +be desired, or it may be sown with the seed along with the grain, and +that when sown by any of these methods there is much saving of time as +compared with sowing by hand. In some sections of the prairie the seed +is sown with the grain drill by driving the same across the newly sown +grain rows. If necessary to insure sufficiently thin sowing, the seed +should be first mixed with some substance such as common salt. + +In the moist areas of the upper Atlantic coast, Ontario and the Puget +Sound region, the seed is frequently made to fall behind the grain tubes +on clay and clay loam soils, and is covered by running the roller over +the ground subsequently; but in States more inland the seed is usually +made to fall before the drill tubes, when, in some instances, the sowing +of the grain will provide a sufficient covering; but in others the +harrow is used in addition, and sometimes both the harrow and the +roller. When clover seed is sown along with grain and by the same tubes, +it will in some soils be buried too deeply, but in others the objection +does not hold good. The young plants are also injured more by shade from +the grain, since they grow only in the line of the row along with the +grain, and yet this method of sowing clover seed in some localities +seems to answer reasonably well. + +When the broadcast seeder is used in sowing clover seed, time is also +saved as compared with hand sowing, but the seed can only fall before +the seeder, and must, therefore, be given the same covering as the +grain, as, when the seed is sown with the grain drill, it will in some +instances be buried too deeply. In other instances it is not so. + +The depth to which the seed of medium and other clovers ought to be +buried should vary with soil and climatic conditions, and with the +season of sowing. The more stiff the soil, the more moist the climate, +and the earlier that the seed is sown, the less the covering required, +and _vice versa_. As has been shown, under certain conditions (see page +22), early sown clover seed does not require any covering artificially +given, and sometimes when sown later, a reasonably copious rain will +provide sufficient covering, providing it falls quite soon after the +sowing of the seed. But in certain of the soft, open, spongy soils of +the prairie, it may sometimes be buried to the depth of at least 3 +inches, with apparent benefit. Lower than 5 or 6 inches in any soil, +clover seed will not germinate till brought nearer the surface. On all +soils that lift with the wind, the seed should, as a rule, be buried +deeply. Ordinarily, from half an inch to an inch, or an approximation to +these distances, is considered a proper depth to bury clover seed. + +Some authorities recommend sowing medium and other clovers without any +nurse crop. The advantages claimed are that more or less of a crop may +be obtained the same season, and that a stand of clover is more certain +when the seed is sown thus. The first claim is correct in the main. In +some localities favored with long seasons for growth, as in certain +areas of Missouri, for instance, good yields may be obtained from sowing +the seed thus. This has happened even in Minnesota. But in other areas +and under other conditions, the yield would be light. In some +localities, as, for instance, the Willamette Valley, Oregon, +satisfactory returns have been obtained by sowing clover seed and rape +seed in May and then pasturing both. + +The chief objections to sowing clover seed thus are, first, that in a +great majority of instances a sufficient stand of the plants may be +obtained when the seed is sown with a nurse crop; and second, that when +it is not thus sown, the first cutting of the hay will contain more or +less of weeds. That a stand is more assured when clover seed is sown +alone in areas where adverse weather conditions prevail cannot be +disputed. Nevertheless, the fact remains that whenever in order to get a +stand of a short-lived crop, like clover, it is necessary to sow it +alone, and in many instances get but little return the same season, it +will be well to consider if there is not some more satisfactory way of +securing a crop that will prove an equivalent. In northerly areas the +stubbles of the nurse crop frequently render substantial service to the +clover by holding the snow on the crop, and also by protecting it more +or less from the effect of the cold winds. The old-time practice of +sowing clover with a nurse crop is likely to be continued, +notwithstanding that it has some disadvantages. + +These disadvantages include the following: 1. The young plants are +liable to be weakened by the crowding and by overmuch shading from the +grain when it grows rankly and thickly, and to such an extent that they +perish; 2. When the grain lodges, as it frequently does, on rich +ground, the clover plants underneath the lodged portions succumb from +want of light; 3. Where the supply of moisture is low, in the struggle +for the same between the stronger plants of the nurse crop and the +weaker plants of the clover, the former secures the larger share. As a +result, when the nurse crop is harvested, should the weather prove hot +and dry beyond a certain degree, the clover plants will die. This is an +experience not at all uncommon on the loose prairie soils of the upper +Mississippi basin. + +Injury from crowding and overshading may be prevented, or at least +lessened, by pasturing the nurse crop with sheep for a time, at an early +stage in its growth. The lodging of the grain may also be prevented by +the same means. Injury from drought may also be lessened by cutting the +crop at the proper stage of advancement, and making it into hay, as in +the ripening stage of growth it draws most heavily on the moisture in +the soil. The oat crop is the most suitable for being thus dealt with. + +Clover seed may be sown with any of the small cereal grains as a nurse +crop, but not with equal advantage. Rye, barley, wheat and oats are +probably suitable in the order named. Rye shades less than wheat and +oats and is harvested early; hence, its suitability for a nurse crop. +Winter rye and winter wheat are more suitable than spring varieties of +the same, since, on these the crop may usually be sown earlier, and the +soil is likely to lose less moisture from surface evaporation. The +marked suitability of barley as a nurse crop arises chiefly from the +short period which it occupies the ground. Nor is the shade so dense as +from grains that grow taller. Oats are the least suitable of all the +crops named as a nurse crop, since they are characterized by a dense +growth of leaves, which shut out the sunlight too much when the growth +is rank. Notwithstanding, the oat crop may well serve such an end when +sown thinly and cut for hay. Mixed grains grown together, as, for +instance, wheat and oats, or a mixture of the three, answer quite as +well for a nurse crop as clover and oats. The objection to them for such +use arises from the fact that they are frequently sown more thickly than +grain sown alone. + +Clover may also be sown with flax or millet or mixed grains grown to +provide soiling food. When the weather is moist, it is likely to succeed +well with flax, as the latter does not form so dense a shade when it is +growing as some other crops. But flax is usually sown so much later than +these crops, that in some climates the dry weather following injures and +in some instances destroys the young plants. The dense shade furnished +by millet is also detrimental to the clover plants; nevertheless, owing +to the short period which the former occupies the ground, under +favorable conditions a stand of clover may be secured. But since millet +is sown later than flax, it frequently happens that there is not +sufficient moisture in the soil to sustain both crops. Mixed grains sown +as soiling food are usually sown reasonably early, and as they are cut +before maturity, the danger is so far lessened that the young plants +will perish from want of moisture, but since these crops are usually +grown thickly and on rich land, owing to the dense character of the +growth, the plants are much more likely to be injured by the dense shade +thus provided. + +Clover seed may also be sown with corn and certain other crops that are +usually grazed down, as rape and mixed grains. When sown with corn, the +seed is usually scattered over the ground just before the last +cultivation given to the corn. Attention is now being given to the +introduction of cultivators which scatter such seeds as clover and rape +in front of them, and so preclude the necessity for hand sowing. From +Central Ohio southward, this method of securing a stand of clover will +succeed in corn-growing areas, the other conditions being right. North +from the areas named, the young clover plants may be winter killed when +the seed is sown thus. The less dense the shade furnished by the corn, +and the less dry the weather subsequently to sowing the seed, the better +will be the stand of the plants secured. + +When sown with rape that has been broadcast, clover usually makes a good +stand, providing the rape crop is not sown too late in the season. When +the rape is grazed down, the grazing does not appear to materially +injure the clover, and when the shade has been removed by such grazing, +the clover plants may be expected to make a vigorous growth on such +land. In northerly areas, clover seed may be sown along with rape seed +as late as the end of May. If sown later than that time, the season may +prove too short subsequently to the grazing of the rape to allow the +plants to gather sufficient strength to carry them safely through +northern winters. When clover seed is sown with rape, the seeds may be +mixed and sown together. + +Clover seed in several of the varieties may be successfully sown on +certain grain crops grown to provide grazing, especially when these are +sown early. Such pastures may consist of any one of the small cereal +grains, or more than one, or of all of them. + +The seed may be sown in these the same as with any crop sown to furnish +grain. A stand of clover may thus be secured under some conditions in +which the clover would perish if sown along with the grain to be +harvested; under other conditions it would not succeed so well. The +former include soils so open as to readily lose moisture by surface +evaporation. The tramping of the animals on these increases their power +to hold moisture, the grazing down of the grain lessens its demands upon +the same, thus leaving more for the clover plants, and they are further +strengthened by the freer access of sunlight. The latter include firm, +stiff clays in rainy climates. To pasture these when thus sown, if moist +beyond a certain degree, would result in so impacting them that the +yield of the pasture would be greatly decreased in consequence. + +Medium red clover is quite frequently sown alone; that is, without +admixture with clovers or grasses. It is always sown thus when it is to +be plowed under, as green manure. It is also usually sown alone in +rotations where it is to be cropped or grazed for one year. But when +grown for meadow, which is to remain longer than one season, it is +commonly sown along with timothy. The first year after sowing, the crop +is chiefly clover, and subsequently it is chiefly timothy. Orchard grass +or tall oat grass, or both, may also be sown along with medium red +clover, since these are ready for being cut at the same time as the +clover. + +When medium red clover is sown to provide pasture for periods of limited +duration, it is frequently sown along with alsike clover and timothy. +Sometimes a moderate amount of alfalfa seed is added. But in arable +soils in the semi-arid West, these will provide pastures for many years +in succession, if supplied with moisture. The same is true of much of +the land west of the Cascades, and without irrigation. East from the +Mississippi and for some distance west from it, much of the medium red +clover will disappear after being grazed for one season, but the alsike, +timothy and alfalfa will endure for a longer period. + +In permanent pastures, whether few or many varieties of seed are sown, +medium red clover is usually included in the mixture. It is sown because +of the amount of the grazing which it furnishes the season after sowing, +and with the expectation that it will virtually entirely disappear in +the pastures in two or three seasons after it has been sown. + +When medium red clover is sown for being plowed under as green manure, +it is always sown with a nurse crop. Some farmers, in localities well +adapted to the growth of clover, sow more or less of the medium red +variety on all, or nearly all, of the land devoted to the growth of such +cereals as rye, wheat, barley and oats, when the land is to be plowed +the autumn or spring following. Reduced quantities of seed are used. +They believe that the benefit from the young clover plants to the land +will more than pay for the cost of the seed and the sowing of the same. + +The amount of seed to sow will depend on the degree of suitability in +the conditions for growing medium red clover. The more favorable these +are, the less the necessity for using maximum quantities of seed, and +_vice versa_. More seed is required when the clover is not grown with +other grasses or clovers than when it is grown with these. When grown +without admixture, 16 pounds of seed per acre may be named as the +maximum quantity to sow and 8 pounds as the minimum, with 12 pounds as +an average. With all the conditions quite favorable, 10 pounds should +suffice. In New England and some of the Atlantic States, many growers +sow much more seed than the quantities named, and it may be that the +necessities of the land call for more. In Great Britain also, +considerably larger quantities are sown. + +When sown in grass or clover mixtures, the amount of the seed required +will vary with the other factors of the mixture, and the amount of each +that is sown; that is, with the character of the hay or pasture that is +sought. The seed is much more frequently sown with timothy than with any +other kind of grass, and the average amount of each of these to sow per +acre may be put at 8 pounds of clover and 6 pounds of timothy. When +other clovers are added, as the mammoth or the alsike, for every pound +of the seed of the former added, the seed of the medium red may be +reduced by one pound, and for every pound of the alsike added it may be +reduced by 1-1/2 pounds. In mixtures for permanent pastures, 6 pounds +may be fixed upon as the maximum quantity of medium red clover seed to +sow, and 3 pounds as the average quantity. When sown to provide green +manure, maximum quantities of seed are used when it is desired to +improve the soil quickly. Usually not less than 12 pounds per acre are +sown, and quite frequently more. But when the gradual improvement of the +land is sought, by sowing the seed on all land devoted to the small +cereal grains, not more than 6 pounds per acre are used, and frequently +even less than 4 pounds. The greater the hazard to the plants in sowing +the seed thus, the less the quantities of the seed that are usually +sown, with a view to reduce the loss in case of failure to secure a +stand of the clover. + +A stand of medium red clover is sometimes secured by what may be termed +self-sowing. For instance, where clover has been cut for hay and then +allowed to mature even but a portion of the seed before being plowed +under the same autumn, the seed thus buried remains in the ground +without sprouting. When the land is again plowed to the same depth and +sown with some kind of grain, the clover seed thus brought to the +surface will germinate. If the plowing last referred to is done in the +autumn, it ought to be done late rather than early, lest the seed +should sprout in the autumn and perish in the winter, or be destroyed by +the cultivation given in sowing the grain crop that follows. The same +result may be obtained from clover pastured after the first cutting for +the season, when the pasturing is not close. + +When medium red clover is much grown for seed, many of the ripe heads +are not cut by the mower, since they lie near the ground, and many break +off in the curing process. The seed thus becomes so distributed in the +ground, that many plants come up and grow amid the grain every season. +These may, of course, be grazed or plowed under for the enrichment of +the land, as desired. Seed thus buried is, therefore, not lost by any +means. The plants which grow will render much assistance in keeping the +land in a good condition of tilth, as well as in enhancing its +fertility. + +When clover seed is much grown, therefore, on any piece of land, the +quantity of seed sown may be reduced materially. In fact, it may be so +much reduced that it has been found possible to grow clover in rotation +for many years without adding seed. The first growth of the clover was +taken as hay, and the second growth as seed. The ground was then plowed +and a crop of corn was taken. The corn land was then plowed and sown +with some cereal, such as wheat, oats or barley. + +=Pasturing.=--Medium red clover will furnish grazing very suitable for +any kind of live stock kept upon the farm. All farm animals relish it, +but not so highly as blue grass, when the latter is tender and +succulent. No plant is equally suitable in providing pasture for swine, +unless it be alfalfa; hence, for that class of stock, it has come to be +the staple pasture outside of areas where alfalfa may be readily grown. +When desired, the grazing may begin even at a reasonably early stage in +the growth of the plants, and it may continue to the end of the +pasturing season. + +Usually it is considered unwise to pasture medium red clover the same +season in which it has been sown when sown with a nurse crop. It has +been noticed that when so pastured, it does not winter so well, and that +the later and more close the pasturing and the colder the winter +following, the greater is the hazard from pasturing the clover. This +hazard arises chiefly from the exposure of the roots to the sweep of the +cold winds. It should be the rule, therefore, not only to refrain from +pasturing clover thus, but also to leave the stubbles high when +pasturing the grain. Where the snowfall is light and the cold is +intense, to leave the stubbles thus high is important, since they aid in +holding the snow. But there may be instances when the clover plants grow +so vigorously that in places of heavy snowfall, smothering may result +unless the mass of vegetation is in some way removed. In such instances, +pasturing may be in order; but when practised, the grazing should be +with cattle rather than sheep or horses, and it should cease before the +covering is removed. There may also be locations where much benefit +follows in several ways close, or reasonably close, cutting of the +stubbles quite soon after the nurse crop has been harvested. + +When clover is sown without a nurse crop, it may be not only proper, but +advantageous, to pasture it. The grazing should not, however, be +continued so late that the plants will not have time to make a +sufficiency of growth to protect them in winter. Such grazing is better +adapted to areas in which the season of growth is long, rather than +short; where weed growth is abundant, as on certain of the soils of the +prairie, it may be necessary to call in the aid of the mower once or +even twice during the season of growth. + +When a crop of medium red clover is desired, the surest way to obtain it +in good form is to pasture the field during the early part of the +season, and closely enough to have the clover eaten down on every part +of the field. When it is not so eaten, the mower should be so used that +the growth and maturing of the seed crop may be even and uniform. The +season for removing the live stock will depend upon latitude and +altitude, but it will be correct to say that it ought to be from two to +three weeks earlier than the proper season for cutting clover for hay. + +When clover is not grazed the year that it is sown, in some seasons the +stronger plants will bear seed, if allowed. To such an extent does this +follow under certain conditions and in certain areas, that a +considerable crop of seed could be obtained if this were desired, even +as many as 4 or 5 bushels per acre in some instances. But it has been +noticed that if thus allowed to produce seed, the effect upon the +growth of the crop the next season is decidedly injurious. To prevent +such a result the mower should be run over the field as soon as much +hazard is certainly apparent, and the earlier in the season that this +can be done the better, for the reason that all weeds growing are +clipped off, and the clover has also a better chance to provide +protection for the winter by growth subsequently made. When there is an +over-luxuriant growth in the plants, it may be well to thus mow the +field, even though seed should not be produced. The growth made by the +plants and the mulch provided by the portion cut make an excellent +preparation for entering the cold season. + +But few pasture crops grown will furnish as much grazing in one season +as medium red clover. It will probably furnish the most grazing if +allowed to grow up before it is grazed until the stage of bloom is +approached or reached, but since it is seldom practicable to graze it +down quickly enough after that stage has been reached, and since there +is frequently waste from tramping, grazing usually begins, and properly +so, at an earlier period. + +When cattle and sheep graze upon young clover, there is some danger that +hoven or bloating may result to the extent of proving quickly fatal if +not promptly relieved. The danger is greater if the animals are hungry +when turned in upon the clover, and when it is wet with dew or rain, or +in a more than ordinarily succulent condition. Such danger may be +lessened, if not, indeed, entirely eliminated, by giving the animals +access to other food, as dry clover hay, for instance, before turning +them in on the pasture, and the danger is always less in proportion as +grasses are abundant in the pasture. + +Should bloating occur, relief must usually be prompt to be effective. In +mild cases, certain medicines may bring relief. One of the most potent +is the following: Give spirits of turpentine in doses of 1 to 5 +tablespoonfuls, according to the size of the animal. Dilute with milk +before administering. In bad cases, the paunch should be at once +punctured. The best instruments are the trocar and canula, but in the +absence of these a pocket knife and goose quill may be made to answer. +The puncture is made on the left side, at a point midway between the +last rib and hook point, and but a few inches from the backbone. The +thrusting instrument should point downward and slightly inward going +into the paunch. With much promptness the canula or the quill should be +pushed down into the paunch and held there till the gas escapes. Before +the tube is withdrawn the contents of the paunch that have risen in the +same should be first pushed down. + +=Harvesting for Hay.=--Medium red clover is at its best for cutting for +hay when in full bloom, and when a few of the heads which first bloomed +are beginning to turn brown; that is to say, in the later rather than in +the earlier stage of full bloom. If cut sooner, the curing of the crop +is tedious. If cut later the stalks lose in palatability. But when the +weather is showery it may be better to defer cutting even for several +days after the clover has reached the proper stage for harvesting, as +the injury from rain while the crop is being cured may be greater than +the injury from overmaturity in the same before it is mown. + +When curing the crop, the aim should be to preserve to the greatest +extent practicable the loss of the leaves. To accomplish such a result, +the clover ought to be protected as far as possible from exposure to dew +or rain, and also from excessive exposure to sunshine. Dew injures more +or less the color of the hay and detracts from its palatability. Rain +intensifies such injury in proportion as the crop being harvested is +exposed to it. It also washes out certain substances, which, when +present, affect favorably its aroma. + +The injury from such exposure increases with the interval between +cutting and storing the crop. Exposure to successive showers may so +seriously injure the hay as to render it almost valueless for feeding. +After the mown clover has been exposed in the swath to the sunlight +beyond a certain time, it turns brown, and if exposed thus long enough +the aroma will be lost. The aim should be, therefore, to cure the clover +to the greatest extent practicable by the aid of the wind rather than by +that of the sun. + +The method of procedure to be followed is in outline as given below: Mow +as far as possible when the meadow is not wet with rain or dew. Mow in +the afternoon rather than the forenoon, as the injury from dew the night +following will be less. Stir with the tedder as soon as the clover has +wilted somewhat. The tedder should be used once, twice or oftener as +the circumstances may require. The heavier the crop and the less drying +the weather, the more the tedding that should be given. Sometimes +tedding once, and in nearly all instances twice, will be sufficient. The +hay should then be raked. It is ready for being raked as soon as the +work can be done easily and in an efficient manner. When clover is not +dry enough for being raked, the draught on the rake will be +unnecessarily heavy, the dumping of the hay will be laborious, and it +does not rake as clean as it would if the hay were in a fit condition +for being raked. + +The aim should be to have the crop put up in heaps, usually called +"cocks," but sometimes called "coils," before the second night arrives +after the mowing of the clover; and in order to accomplish this, it may +be necessary to work on until the shades of evening are drawing near. + +When there is a reasonable certainty that the weather shall continue +dry, it is quite practicable to cure clover in the winrow, but in +showery weather to attempt to do so would mean ruin to the clover. In no +form does it take injury so quickly from rain as in the winrow, and when +rain saturates it, much labor is involved in spreading it out again. Nor +is it possible to make hay quite so good in quantity when clover is +cured in the winrow, as the surface exposed to the sunshine is much +greater than when it is mixed with timothy or some other grass that +purpose, nevertheless, to cure it thus, especially when it is mixed with +timothy or some other grass that cures more easily and readily than +clover. It may also be taken up with the hay-loader when cured thus, +which very much facilitates easy storing. But when it is to be lifted +with the hay-loader, the winrows should be made small rather than large. + +When the clover is to be put up into cocks, these should be small rather +than large, if quick curing is desired. In making these, skilled labor +counts for much. The cocks are simply little miniature stacks. The part +next to the ground has less diameter than the center of the cock. As +each forkful is put on after the first, the fork is turned over so that +the hay spreads out over the surface of the heap as it is being +deposited. Smaller forkfuls are put on as the top is being reached. The +center is kept highest when making the cock. Each one may be made to +contain about 100 pounds and upward of cured hay, but in some instances +they should not contain more than half the amount to facilitate drying. +When the heap has become large enough, the inverted fork should be made +to draw down on every side the loose portions, which in turn are put +upon the top of the cock. Such trimming is an important aid to the +shedding of rain. An expert hand will put up one of these cocks of hay +in less time than it takes to read about how it is done. + +A light rain will not very much injure a crop of clover after it has +been put up into cocks, but a soaking rain will probably penetrate them +to the bottom. To guard against this, in localities where the rainfall +may be considerable in harvest time, hay caps are frequently used. These +may be made from a good quality of unbleached muslin or strong cotton, +or they may be obtained from some of those who deal in tent awnings and +stack covers. When of good quality and well cared for they should last +for 10 to 20 years. Care should be taken in putting them on lest the +wind which frequently precedes a thunder storm should blow them away. +The pins used at the corners of the caps should be carefully and firmly +inserted in the hay or the ground, or the caps should have sufficiently +heavy weights attached to them at the corners to prevent their lifting +with the wind. In putting up the hay the size of the cocks should be +adjusted to the size of the covers used. One person should apply the +covers as quickly as two will put up the hay. + +When clover hay is put up into cocks, it undergoes what is termed the +"heating" process; that is, it becomes warm in the center of the heaps +up to a certain point, after which the heat gradually leaves it. The +heat thus generated is proportionate to the size of the cocks and the +amount of moisture in the clover. The sweating process usually covers +two or three days, after which the hay is ready for being stored. When +clover is cured in the winrow, it does not go through the sweating +process to the same extent as when cured in the cock; hence, it is +liable to sweat in the mow, and to such an extent as to induce mold, if +it has been stored away with moisture in it beyond a certain degree. If +a wisp of clover is taken from the least cured portion of the winrow or +cock, and twisted between the hands, it is considered ready for being +stored if no liquid is discernible. If overcured, when thus twisted it +will break asunder. A skilled workman can also judge fairly well of the +degree of the curing by the weight when lifted with the fork. + +Under some conditions, it may be advisable to "open out" the cocks two +or three hours before drawing them, that the hot sunshine may remove +undue moisture. When this is done, if the cocks are taken down in +distinct forkfuls, as it were, each being given a place distinct from +the others, the lifting of these will be much easier than if the clover +in each cock had been strewn carelessly over the ground. The lowest +forkful in the cock should be turned over, since the hay in it will have +imbibed more or less of dampness from the ground. But in some instances +the weather for harvesting is so favorable that the precaution is +unnecessary of thus opening out the cocks or even of making them at all. + +=Storing.=--Storing clover under cover is far preferable to putting it +up in stacks, except in rainless climates. With the aid of the +hay-loader in lifting it from winrows in the field, and of the hay fork +in unloading, the hand labor in storing is greatly reduced, but when it +is unloaded with the horse fork, the aim should be to dump the hay from +the fork on different parts of the mow or stack, lest it should become +too solidly pressed together under the dump, and heat and mold in +consequence. + +When the hay is stacked, especially in climates of considerable +rainfall, a bottom should be prepared on which to stack it. This may be +made of poles or rails. A few of these should first be laid one way on +the ground and parallel, and others across them. Where such material +cannot be had, old straw or hay of but little value should be spread +over the stack bottom to a considerable depth. Where these precautions +are not taken, the hay in the bottom of the stack will be spoiled for +some distance upward by moisture ascending from the ground. In building +the stack, the center should be kept considerably higher than the outer +edges, that rain may be shed, and the width of the same should increase +up to at least two-thirds of the height, the better to protect the hay +underneath. The tramping should be even, or the hay in settling will +draw to one side, and the topping out should be gradual rather than +abrupt. + +In topping out a clover stack some hay should be used not easily +penetrated by rain, as, for instance, blue grass obtained from fence +corners, or slough hay obtained from marshes. The last-named is better +put on green. If the clover is not thus protected, a considerable +quantity will spoil on the top of the stacks. It is not a good hay to +turn rain. The shape of the stack should in a considerable degree be +determined by its size. It is probably preferable to make small stacks +round, since they are more easily kept in shape, but large stacks should +be long rather than round, as large, round stacks call for undue height +in bringing them to a top. Because of the ease with which rain +penetrates clover, it is very desirable to have it put under a roof. +Where it cannot be protected by the roof of a barn or stable, the aim +should be to store it in a hay shed; that is to say, a frame structure, +open on all sides and covered with a roof. Such sheds may be +constructed in a timber country without great cost. + +Should the clover hay be stored a little undercured, some growers favor +sowing salt, say, from 4 to 8 quarts over each load when spread over the +mow. They do so under the conviction that its preservative qualities +will be to some extent efficacious in preventing the hay from molding, +and that it adds to the palatability of the hay. While it may render +some service in both of these respects, it would seem probable that the +benefits claimed have been overrated. + +The more frequently clover hay is handled, the more is its feeding value +impaired, because of the loss of heads and leaves which attend each +handling of the crop. Because of this, it is not so good a crop for +baling as timothy, and also for other reasons. It should be the aim when +storing it for home feeding to place it where it can be fed as far as +possible directly from the place of storage. In the location of hay +sheds, therefore, due attention should be given to this matter. + +In climates that are moist, some growers store clover in a mow when it +has only reached the wilting stage in the curing process. When thus +stored it is preserved on the principle which preserves silage. The aim +is when storing to exclude the air as far as possible by impacting the +mass of green clover through its own weight, aided by tramping. It +should be more or less wilted before being stored, according to the +succulence in it, and it is considered highly important that it shall +also be free from external moisture. When thus stored it should be in +large mows, and it should be well tramped, otherwise the impaction may +not be sufficient. To this method of storage there are the following +objections: 1. The hay has to be handled while it is yet green and wet. +2. There is hazard that much of the hay will be spoiled in unskilled +hands. 3. Under the most favorable conditions more or less of the clover +is pretty certain to mold near the edges of the mass. Where clover can +be made into hay in the ordinary way without incurring much hazard of +spoiling, the practice of storing it away in the green form, except in a +silo, would seem of questionable propriety. The making of clover into +ensilage is discussed in the book "Soiling Crops and the Silo" by the +author. + +=Securing Seed.=--As a rule, seed is not produced from the first cutting +for the season of medium red clover. It is claimed that this is due to +lack of pollenization in the blossoms, and because they are in advance +of the active period of working in bumble bees, the medium through which +fertilization is chiefly effected. This would seem to be a sufficient +explanation as to why medium red clover plants will frequently bear seed +the first year, if allowed to, though the first cutting from older +plants will have little or no seed. But it is claimed that the ordinary +honey bee may be and is the medium for fertilizing alsike and small +white clover, but not that through which the mammoth variety is +fertilized. + +Experience has shown, further, that, as a rule, better crops of clover +seed may be obtained from clover that has been pastured off than from +that which has been mown for hay, although to this rule there are some +exceptions. This arises, in part, from the fact that the energies of the +plant have been less drawn upon in producing growth, and, therefore, can +produce superior seed heads and seed, and in part from the further fact +that there is usually more moisture in the soil at the season when the +plants which have been pastured off are growing. There would seem to be +some relation between the growing of good crops of clover seed and +pasturing the same with sheep. It has been claimed that so great is the +increase of seed in some instances from pasturing with sheep till about +June 1st, say, in the latitude of Ohio, that the farmer who has no sheep +could afford to give the grazing to one who has, because of the extra +return in seed resulting. The best crops of seed are obtained when the +growth is what may be termed medium or normal. Summers, therefore, that +are unusually wet or dry are not favorable to the production of clover +seed. + +If weeds are growing amid the clover plants that are likely to mature +seed, they should, where practicable, be removed. The Canada thistle, +ragweed, plantain and burdock are among the weeds that may thus ripen +seeds in medium clover. When not too numerous they can be cut with the +spud. When too numerous to be thus cut, where practicable, they should +be kept from seeding with the aid of the scythe. To prevent them from +maturing is important, as the seeds of certain weeds cannot be +separated from those of clover with the fanning mill, they are so alike +in size. + +The crop is ready for being cut when the heads have all turned brown, +except a few of the smaller and later ones. It may be cut by the mower +as ordinarily used, by the mower, with a board or zinc platform +attachment to the cutter bar, by the self-rake reaper, or by the grain +binder. The objection to the first method is that the seed has to be +raked and that the raking results in the loss of much seed; to the +second, that it calls for an additional man to rake off the clover; and +to the third, that the binder is heavier than the self-rake reaper. The +latter lays the clover off in loose sheaves. These may be made large or +small, as desired, and if care is taken to lay them off in rows, the +lifting of the crop is rendered much easier. + +When the clover is cut with the mower, it should be raked into winrows +while it is a little damp, as, for instance, in the evening. If raked in +the heat of the day many of the heads will break off and will thus be +lost. From the winrows it is lifted with large forks. When the crop is +laid off in sheaves it may be necessary to turn them once, even in the +absence of rain, but frequently this is not necessary. In the turning +process gentle handling is important, lest much of the seed should be +lost. The seed heads of a mature crop break off very easily in the hours +of bright sunshine. Rather than turn the sheaves over, it may be better, +in many instances, just to lift them with a fork with many tines, and +set them down easily again on ground which is not damp under them, like +unto that from which they have been removed. + +Clover seed may be stored in the barn or stack, or it may be threshed +directly in the field or from the same. The labor involved in handling +the crop is less when it is threshed at once than by any other method, +but frequently at such a busy season it is not easily possible to secure +the labor required for this work. It is usually ready for being threshed +in two or three days after the crop has been cut, but when the weather +is fair it may remain in the field for as many weeks after being +harvested without any serious damage to the seed. If, however, the +straw, or "haulm," as it is more commonly called, is to be fed to live +stock, the more quickly that the threshing is done after harvesting, the +more valuable will the haulm be for such a use. + +When stored in the barn or stack, it is common to defer threshing until +the advent of frosty weather, for the reason, first, that the seed is +then more easily separated from the chaff which encases it; and second, +that farm work is not then so pressing. When threshed in or directly +from the field, bright weather ought to be chosen for doing the work, +otherwise more or less of the seed will remain in the chaff. + +In lifting the crop for threshing or for storage, much care should be +exercised, as the heads break off easily. The fork used in lifting it, +whether with iron or with wooden prongs, should have these long and so +numerous that in lifting the tines would go under rather than down +through the bunch to be lifted. The wagon rack should also be covered +with canvas, if all the seed is to be saved. If stored in stacks much +care should be used in making these, as the seed crop in the stack is +even more easily injured by rain than the hay crop. The covering of old +hay of some kind that will shed rain easily should be most carefully put +on. + +Years ago the idea prevailed that clover seed could not be successfully +threshed until the straw had, in a sense, rotted in the field by lying +exposed in the same for several weeks. The introduction of improved +machinery has dispelled this idea. The seed is more commonly threshed by +a machine made purposely for threshing clover called a "clover huller." +The cylinder teeth used in it are much closer than in the ordinary grain +separator. The sieves are also different, and the work is less rapidly +done than if done by the former. During recent years, however, the seed +is successfully threshed with an ordinary grain threshing machine, and +the work of threshing is thus more expeditiously done. Certain +attachments are necessary, but it is claimed that not more than an hour +is necessary to put these in place, or to prepare the machine again for +threshing grain. + +Since the seed is not deemed sufficiently clean for market as it comes +from the machine, it should be carefully winnowed by running it through +a fanning mill with the requisite equipment of sieves. It is important +that this work should be carefully done if the seed is to grade as No. 1 +in the market. If it does not, the price will be discounted in +proportion as it falls below the standard. A certain proportion of the +seed thus separated will be small and light. This, if sold at all, must +be sold at a discount. If mixed with weed seeds it should be ground and +fed to some kind of stock. + +The haulm, when the seed crop has been well saved, has some feeding +value, especially for cattle. If not well saved it is only fit for +litter, but even when thus used its fertilizing value is about +two-thirds that of clover hay. More or less seed remains in the chaff, +and because of this the latter is sometimes drawn and strewn over +pastures, or in certain by places where clover plants are wanted. Seed +sown in the chaff has much power to grow, owing, it is thought, to the +ability of the hull enclosing the seed to hold moisture. The yields in +the seed crops of medium red clover vary all the way from 1 to 8 bushels +per acre. The average yields under certain conditions are from 3 to 4 +bushels per acre. Under conditions less favorable, from 2 to 3 bushels. + +Within the past two decades the seed crop has been seriously injured by +an insect commonly spoken of as the clover midge (_Cecidomyia +leguminicola_) which preys upon the heads so that they fail to produce. +A field thus affected will not come properly into bloom. The remedy +consists in so grazing or cutting the clover that the bloom will come at +that season of the summer when the insects do not work upon the heads. +This season can only be determined by actual test. In Northern areas it +can usually be accomplished by pushing the period of bloom usual for the +second crop two to four weeks forward. + +=Renewing.=--When clover is grown for hay, it is not usual to try to +renew the crop, because of the short-lived period of the plant. But in +some instances it has been found advantageous. On light prairie soils +sandy in texture, located in the upper Mississippi basin, it has been +found possible to grow timothy meadow for several years in succession +with a goodly sprinkling of clover in it without re-seeding. In such +instances, the land is not pastured at all, except in seasons quite +favorable to growth, and in these the pasturing is not close. The clover +plants that grow after the crop has been cut for hay produce seed. The +heads in due time break off and are scattered more or less over the soil +by the winds. In time they disintegrate, and more or less of the seed +germinates, thus forming new plants, some of which, especially in +favorable seasons, retain their hold upon the soil. This method may be +worthy of imitation in localities where it has been found difficult to +get a stand in dry seasons on this class of soils. + +When the stand of clover secured is variable, that is to say, partial, +as when the clover is abundant in the lower portions of the land and +entirely absent on the higher ground, it may be worth while to re-sow +the seed on the latter early the following spring. But before doing so, +the land should be carefully disked in the fall, and the clover seed +harrowed or otherwise covered in the spring. Should the summer following +prove favorable, the seed thus sown may produce hay, but not likely in +time to be harvested with the other portions of the field. But though it +should not produce much hay the seed is likely to be benefited to an +extent that will far more than repay the outlay involved in labor and +seed. + +If the clover has been sown for pasture, the renewal of the same on +higher ground may be made as stated above, but with the difference that +the same kind or kinds of grain may also be sown at the same time as the +clover is becoming rooted. + +In pastures, medium red clover may be renewed whenever the attempt is +made to renew the pastures, as by disking them and then sowing upon them +the seeds of certain grasses or clovers or both. The disking is usually +done in the spring and while the frost is out for only a short distance +below the surface. The amount of seed to sow need not be large, usually +not more than 2 or 3 pounds per acre, especially when seed of other +varieties is sown at the same time. One stroke of the harrow following +will provide a sufficient covering for the seed. + +=Clover as a Fertilizer.=--It would probably be correct to say that no +plant has yet been introduced into American agriculture that has been +found so generally useful as clover in fertilizing land and in improving +the mechanical condition. Some who have investigated claim that there is +more nitrogen in a clover sod after the removal of a good crop of clover +than will suffice for four average farm crops, more phosphoric acid than +will suffice for two, and more potash than will suffice for six. It +begins to draw nitrogen from the air as soon as the tubercles commence +to form and continues to add thus to the enrichment of the land during +all the succeeding period of active growth. As previously stated, the +nitrogen is drawn in great part from the air; consequently, soil from +which a bountiful crop of clover has been removed will be considerably +richer in nitrogen than before it grew the same, and this will hold true +as intimated above, even though the crop should be removed and sold. +Under the same conditions it will also be true in available phosphoric +acid and potash. But the latter are gathered from the soil and subsoil +while the plants were growing. Consequently, if crops of clover are +grown in short rotation periods and if no fertilizer is given to the +land other than the clover brings to it, while it will be abundantly +supplied with nitrogen, a time will come when the supply of phosphoric +acid and potash may be so reduced that the soil will not grow even good +crops of clover. When this point is reached the soil is spoken of as +"clover sick." Happily, however, nearly all soils are so well stored +with phosphoric acid and potash that this result is not likely to follow +for many years. But lest it should, attention should be given to +fertilizing the land occasionally with farmyard manure, or with +phosphoric acid and potash applied as commercial fertilizers. Because of +this, and also for other reasons, it is usually considered more +profitable in the end to feed clover on the farm and return it to the +land in the form of manure. But clover may cease to grow on land where +once it grew well, because of other reasons, such as changes in the +mechanical condition of the soil caused by the depletion of its humus +and changes in its chemical condition, such as increased acidity. The +remedy is the removal of the cause. + +The roots also put large quantities of humus in the soil. Where crops +are regularly grown in short rotations they will suffice to keep it +amply supplied for ordinary production. Because of this it is usually +considered more profitable to cut both the crops which medium red clover +produces in one season, or to pasture off one or both, than to plow +under either as green manure. But when soils are too stiff or too open +in character it may be advantageous to bury clover to restore the +equilibrium. It may also be necessary to bury an occasional crop in +order to put the land quickly in a condition to produce some desired +crop, the growth of which calls for large supplies of humus. When clover +is plowed under it will usually be found more profitable to bury the +second growth of the season than the first. The crop is in the best +condition for being plowed under when the plants are coming into bloom. +If left until the stems lose their succulence the slow decay following +in conjunction with the bulkiness of the mass plowed under might prove +harmful to the crop following the clover. The influence of the roots +upon the mechanical condition of the soil is most beneficial. The roots +go down deep into the subsoil and also abound in fibrous growth. The tap +roots in their decay furnish openings through which the superfluous +water may go down into the subsoil. The fibers adhering to the main +roots so ramify through the soil that when even stiff land is filled +with them it is rendered friable, and is consequently brought into a +good mechanical condition. + +While all varieties of clover may be utilized in producing food and in +enriching land, none is equal to the medium red for the two purposes +combined. This arises from the fact that none save the medium red grows +two crops in one season under ordinary conditions. Though the first crop +should be taken for food, as it generally is, there is still ample time +for a second crop to grow for plowing under the same season. This second +growth is ready for being plowed under when time is less valuable than +it would be when the mammoth or alsike varieties would be in season for +being thus covered. And yet the work may be done sufficiently early to +admit of sowing fall or winter crops on the land which produced the +clover. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +ALFALFA + + +Alfalfa (_Medicago sativa_) previous to its introduction into +California, from Chili, about the middle of the last century, was +usually known by the French name Lucerne. The name Alfalfa is probably +Arabic in its origin, and the term Lucerne has probably been given to it +from the Canton Lucerne in Switzerland. It has followed the plant into +Spain and South America, and now it seems probable that soon it will be +known by no other name over all the United States and Canada. It has +also been known by names applied to it from various countries for which +it has shown high adaptation, as, for instance, Sicilian Clover, Mexican +Clover, Chilian Clover, Brazilian Clover, Styrian Clover and Burgundy +Clover. In yet other instances, names have been applied to it indicative +of some peculiarity of growth, as, for instance, Branching Clover, +Perennial Clover, Stem Clover and Monthly Clover. + +Alfalfa is upright and branching in its habit of growth, more so than +the common varieties of clover. It usually grows to the height of 2 to 3 +feet, but it has been known to reach a much greater height. Although +possessed of a single stem when the plants are young, the number of the +stems increases up to a certain limit, with the age of the plants and +the number of the cuttings. Forty to fifty stalks frequently grow up +from the crown of a single plant where the conditions are quite +favorable to growth, and in some instances as many as a hundred. The +leaves are not large, but numerous, and in the curing of the plants they +drop off much more easily than those of the more valuable of the +clovers. The flowers are borne toward the top of the stems and branches, +and they are in a long cluster, rather than in a compact head. They are +usually of a bluish tint, but the shades of the color vary with the +strain from blue to pink and yellow. The seeds are borne in spirally +coiled pods. They resemble those of red clover in size, but are less +uniform in shape. The color should be a light olive green. The tap roots +go down deeply into the soil and subsoil where the conditions as to +texture and moisture are favorable. It has been claimed that alfalfa +roots have gone down into congenial subsoils 40 to 50 feet, but usually +less, probably, than one-fourth of the distances mentioned would measure +the depths to which the roots go. And with decreasing porosity in the +subsoil, there will be decrease in root penetration until it will reach +in some instances not more than 3 to 4 feet. But where the roots are +thus hindered from going deeper, they branch out more in their search +for food. + +[Illustration: Fig. 3. Alfalfa (_Medicago sativa_) + Oregon Experiment Station] + +Alfalfa is perennial. In the duration of its growth, no fodder plant +grown under domestication will equal it. It has been known, it is +claimed, to produce profitable crops for half a century. In some of the +Western States are meadows from 25 to 40 years old. Ordinarily, +however, the season of profitable growth is not more than, say, 6 to 12 +years when grown on upland soils. The meadows usually become more or +less weedy or possessed by various grasses, and some of the plants die. +The plants at first send up a single stem. When this matures or is cut +back the uncut portion of the stem dies down to the crown of the plant, +which then sends out other stems. This is repeated as often as the stems +are cut down until many stems grow up from one plant as indicated above, +unless the plants are so crowded that such multiplication is more or +less hindered. The plants grow rapidly as soon as spring arrives, and as +often as cut off they at once spring again into vigorous life, where the +conditions are favorable to such growth; hence, from one to twelve +cuttings of soiling may be obtained in a single season, the former +result being obtained in arid climates, where the conditions are +unpropitious, and the latter being possible only in congenial soils, +where the winters are very mild and where the soils are irrigated. +Usually, however, even on upland soils and in the absence of irrigation, +not fewer than 3 to 5 cuttings of soiling food are obtained each year +and not fewer than 2 to 4 crops of hay. + +A number of varieties so called are grown in this country. They differ +from each other more, however, in their adaptation in essential +properties relating to the quality of the pasture and fodder produced, +than in the quality of food product obtained from them. The variety +commonly grown from seed produced in the West is usually spoken of +simply as alfalfa, while that grown from seed European in origin has +been more commonly called Lucerne. The former of these has a tendency to +grow taller than the latter and to send its roots down to a greater +depth. In addition to these, such strains as the Turkestan, the Rhenish, +the Minnesota and Sand Lucerne have been introduced. + +The Turkestan variety was introduced by the United States Department of +Agriculture during recent years. It was brought from provinces beyond +the Caspian in Russia, Asia. The object sought was to introduce a +variety that would better withstand the rigors of a climate dry in +summer and cold in winter than the variety commonly grown. Some strains +of this variety have proved drought resistant to a remarkable degree. It +has also shown itself capable of enduring without injury temperatures so +low as to result in the destruction of plants of the common variety. In +trials made by growers in North Dakota and Northern Minnesota, it has +been found able to endure the winter's cold in these areas. But it has +also been found that while the plants produced some seed in the Central +Mountain States, they did not produce much seed when grown in the +Northern States. Unless seed can be secured from plants grown in the +latter in sufficient quantities to meet the needs of growers, it is +feared that in time some of the hardy characteristics of this variety +will be lost if the Central and Southern Mountain States must be relied +upon as the American sources of seed supplies. + +The Rhenish strain comes from Central Europe. It has been highly +commended by some European seedsmen for its hardihood, but it has been +as yet grown to only a limited extent in America. The Minnesota strain +was doubtless brought to Carver County by German farmers, by whom it has +been grown in the neighborhood of Lake Waconia for nearly 20 years. It +has been found much hardier than the common variety when grown in that +neighborhood, and the endurance of plants grown from seed of this strain +far northward has been very pronounced. As this variety produces +reasonably good seed crops in Central Minnesota, it would seem +reasonable to expect that it will become popular in Northern areas. Sand +Lucerne, which comes from Central Europe, has considerable adaptation +for poor and light soils, and in trials made at the Michigan experiment +station was found possessed of distinctive merit for such soils. + +Where alfalfa can be grown freely, it is unexcelled as a pasture for +swine, and is in favor also as a pasture for horses. While cattle and +sheep grazed upon it are exceedingly fond of it, the danger that it will +produce bloat in them is so frequently present as to greatly neutralize +its value for such a use. It is a favorite pasture for fowls. In +furnishing soiling food where it produces freely, it is without an equal +in all the United States. It is highly relished by all kinds of farm +animals, not excluding rabbits and goats, and when fed judiciously may +be fed in this form with perfect safety. Its high value in producing +such food rests on its productiveness, its high palatability and the +abundant nutrition which it contains. As a hay crop, it is greatly +prized. Even swine may be wintered in a large measure on cured alfalfa +hay. + +As a fertilizer, the value of alfalfa will be largely dependent on the +use that is made of the plants. When pastured or fed upon the farm, the +fertility resulting being put back upon the land, it ranks highly as a +producer of fertility. But this question is further discussed on page +191. As a destroyer of weeds much will depend upon the way in which it +is grown. This question also is discussed again. (See page 185.) + +=Distribution.=--It is thought that alfalfa is more widely distributed +over the earth's surface, furnishes more food for live stock, and has +been widely cultivated for a longer period than any other legume. It is +grown over wide areas of Asia, Europe, North and South America, and its +cultivation is constantly extending. It was grown on the irrigated +plains of Babylon long before the days of Nebuchadnezzar. It was the +principal fodder used in the stables of the kings of Persia. From +Persia, it is thought, it was brought to Greece about 470 B. C., and +that its cultivation in Italy began at least two centuries before the +Christian era. Several Roman writers, as Virgil, Columella and Varro, +mention it. From Italy it was introduced into Spain and from Spain it +was doubtless carried by missionaries of the Roman Catholic Church to +Mexico and the South American States which lie west of the Andes, as +Peru and Chili. In the arid and semi-arid regions of the Andes, the +conditions were found so favorable to the growth of alfalfa that it is +now the principal forage crop grown. It is almost certain that it was +brought from Chili to California, from which it has spread over much of +the cultivated portion of the arid and semi-arid west. Western grown +seed is also the chief source of supply at the present time for all the +States of the Union. + +Fully a century ago attempts were made by Chancellor Livingstone and +others to introduce it into the Eastern States, but without much +success, owing, probably, to the lack of knowledge on the part of the +people as to how it should be grown. The seed at that time was doubtless +brought from European sources, probably France. It has been noticed by +more recent growers in these States that the results from sowing such +seed do not prove as satisfactory as those from American grown seed, but +that alone should not sufficiently explain why the attempts to grow +alfalfa just referred to were not successful. + +But it is not alone in the areas named that alfalfa has proved so +helpful to agriculture. In Central Asia and northward it has for long +centuries furnished the Tartars with the principal forage crop grown. In +Turkestan and other places it will grow under conditions so dry as to +forbid the vigorous growth of many hardy grasses. In Southern Asia, from +India to Arabia, it has lost none of the popular favor accorded to it +long centuries ago. In Southern Russia it is extensively grown, and up +and down the basin of the Danube. In the Mediterranean provinces of +Southern Europe it is still one of the leading forage crops. In France +it stands high in the popular estimate, and also in some parts of +Germany. And even in humid England it is grown more or less freely on +dry, calcareous soils. And the day is doubtless near when in many parts +of Africa, Australia, New Zealand and Eastern South America this great +fodder plant will be found capable of yielding abundant harvests. In +some parts of Argentina it has been claimed that it grows like a weed. + +It is believed by many that alfalfa if exposed to very low temperatures +will perish and that it cannot stand as much winter exposure as medium +red or alsike clover. This is only true of some varieties. Other +varieties, as the Turkestan, for instance, will endure lower +temperatures and more exposure than the clovers named. Alfalfa has been +grown with some success at the government experiment station, Indian +Head, Sask, Canada, and yet it sometimes winter kills in Texas. As with +clover, it is injured most by exposure to sweeping winds blowing over it +in winter when the mercury is low, and the injury is more fatal just +after the removal of a snow covering and when the plants are young. Ice +forming over the fields after a sudden thaw and remaining for a time is +very liable to kill the plants. It can stand considerably more summer +heat than any of the clovers grown northward, as witnessed in the good +crops grown in some parts of Louisiana during the hottest weather of +summer. Nevertheless, with reference to temperatures, what may be termed +a mild climate, such as characterizes Southern France in Europe and +Western California in the United States, is best adapted to its growth. + +It is better adapted to climates that are dry, where the plants can be +irrigated, as then rains do not interfere with the harvesting of the +hay. Even in the absence of irrigation, a climate that is reasonably dry +is preferable to one where drenching rains frequently fall, which wash +away the soil when sandy, or which fill it full of water when composed +of clay. But where rains fall frequently and in moderation, as in the +northern Puget Sound region, the effect is helpful to the growth of the +alfalfa plants, although it may add somewhat to the labor of making +alfalfa hay, and to the hazard in curing it. Alfalfa will maintain its +hold for years on some portions of the table lands of the mountain +States under conditions so dry that the plants can only furnish one +cutting of hay in a season. It is safe to assume, therefore, that +alfalfa can be grown under a wider range of climatic conditions than any +other legume grown in the United States. But the influence which climate +should be allowed to exercise on the use that is to be made of it should +not be lost from view. In climates much subject to frequent rains in +summer, it should be grown rather for soiling food and pasture than for +hay, whereas in dry climates, and especially where it can be irrigated, +it should be grown for hay, soiling food and pasture, but especially the +former. + +While alfalfa can be successfully grown in one or the other of its +varieties in some portion of every State in the Union, it has its +favorite feeding grounds. The best conditions for growing it are found +in the valleys of all the Rocky Mountain States, where the growth can be +regulated by the application of irrigating waters. In these the +conditions southward are superior to those northward, because of the +milder climate, which precludes the danger of winter killing by +exposure, which occasionally happens in the more northerly of the +mountain States, and because of the more prolonged season for growth, +which adds to the number of the cuttings. This does not mean that the +river bottoms in other parts of the United States will not be found good +for growing alfalfa. It can be grown in many of these; in fact, in +nearly all of them, and to some extent by the aid of irrigation, if the +waste waters were stored, but the deposit soil in these valleys being of +much closer texture than that in the western valleys, is, on the whole, +lower in adaptation than the soil in the latter. + +In the western valleys of the mountain States, alfalfa is the crop +around which it may be said that agricultural production centers. It is +the principal hay crop of those States. The extent to which it may be +grown there is revolutionizing the production of live stock on the +ranges, as it is providing food for them in winter, which is fast +removing, and will probably soon entirely remove, the element of hazard +from live stock dependent on the range pastures for support in that +season. The dairy and swine industries in those valleys must largely +depend upon it. Fruit orchards must ultimately grow on buried alfalfa +meadows, and the rotation of all crops in the same will be largely +dependent upon the growing of alfalfa. Next in adaptation to the +mountain States are, it is thought, certain soils that lie between the +Rocky Mountains and the Mississippi, especially such as are in proximity +to rivers, or are underlaid with sheet water not far distant from the +surface. But an unusually large proportion of the upland soil in these +States, from Central Minnesota southward, have high adaptation for the +growth of this plant. Particularly is this true of the soils of Nebraska +and Kansas and of considerable portions of Missouri, Arkansas and +Louisiana. + +In States east of the Mississippi, the adaptation is not so general, and +is more dependent on soil conditions than on those that are climatic. In +nearly all of the river bottoms of these States it will grow with more +or less success. On nearly all upland soils it will also grow well, +where the subsoil furnishes naturally good drainage. For the exception, +see page 132. But in no State east of the Mississippi, is such a +proportion of the area so highly adapted to growing alfalfa as in many +of the States west of that river. In other States areas are found in +which alfalfa will produce excellent crops, but usually these do not +embrace the larger portion of the entire area in any State. In a +considerable number of the States such areas are more or less limited, +and usually they are distributed variously in the different States; that +is, they do not lie side by side. The favorite soil conditions in these +are a good loam, preferably more or less sandy and resting upon a porous +subsoil. + +A more exact idea will be given of relative adaptation in various States +in what is now submitted. In California, Nevada, Utah, Colorado and New +Mexico, alfalfa is now grown chiefly by the aid of irrigation, and all +of these States have highest adaptation for its growth. In some parts of +California 6 to 10 tons of cured hay are obtained in one year, with +pasture in winter additional. In Utah, good crops have been grown +successively on the same land for more than a quarter of a century. In +Colorado two cuttings are obtained the first season, and it is said that +there the plants are not easily destroyed. It yields enormously in the +irrigated valleys of New Mexico and Arizona. + +In Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Montana and Wyoming, it is grown with and +without irrigation. In large areas in all these States, excellent crops +are and may be grown, but the season of growth being shorter, not so +many cuttings are obtained per year as in the mountain States further +south. In Northern Idaho two cuttings may be obtained per year, even on +high, dry land. + +In North Dakota, especially westward, alfalfa gives promise of +successful growth. It will grow well in much of South Dakota, especially +on sandy soils not too distant from water. In Minnesota it has been +grown successfully in Carver County since 1886. Good success is being +obtained from growing it in other parts of the State, even in some parts +of the Red River valley. In Western Iowa it is being grown with much +success, and in some portions of Eastern Iowa. In Missouri, the two +important centers for growing it are the northwest and the southeast, +but in other areas it has also done well. In Kansas it will grow well in +all parts of the State where the subsoil is porous. It has been cut for +hay in that State in less than 60 days from the date of sowing. It grows +equally well over at least two-thirds of Nebraska, especially the +eastern half, and its growth in Nebraska is rapidly extending. In the +Arkansas valley it luxuriates, and it is also being grown in Oklahoma. +In Louisiana immense fields are being grown along the Red River and in +other parts of the State. In Texas it is being grown more or less north, +east and south, and especially in the valley of the Brazos. + +In the Southern States alfalfa has not in many instances been given a +good chance where tried. The plants have too frequently had to contend +there as elsewhere with ill-prepared and weedy soils and imprudent +pasturing. Yet it is being grown with considerable success, though as +yet in limited areas, in all the Southern States. It has done well in +parts of Kentucky, Tennessee, Mississippi and Alabama, and in Georgia +are some alfalfa meadows 25 years old. In the other Southeastern States, +viz., Virginia, the Carolinas and Florida, it does well only in areas +more or less circumscribed, but it has been grown with some success even +in the rainy climate of Southern Florida. + +In the States northward from the Ohio River, that is, Illinois, Indiana, +Ohio, Michigan and Wisconsin, the necessity for growing alfalfa has not +been so much felt as in some other States, because of the excellence of +the crops of clover grown in these. Its growth, however, is extending in +all of these States. Much of the soil in Illinois, it is said, must +first be inoculated with the bacteria proper to alfalfa before vigorous +crops can be grown, and this is probably true of sections of Indiana +soil. Some sections of Ohio are becoming noted for the crops of alfalfa +which they have grown, and in Wisconsin Hon. W. D. Hoard succeeded in +securing 5.7 tons of alfalfa hay in one season from four cuttings made +on three-fifths of an acre. + +In all the Eastern and New England States, alfalfa is being grown to +some extent. In some counties of New York, as Onondaga and Madison, it +is becoming the leading soiling and hay crop. In Massachusetts it has +borne cuttings year after year on sandy loam soil. On Long Island three +to four cuttings each season have been obtained for a series of years. +It is believed that it will grow over nearly the whole of Southern +Maryland and also in much of the eastern part of that State, and its +growth has been quite successful in parts of Delaware and Pennsylvania. + +Alfalfa will grow well in considerable areas in Canada. The statement +would seem safe that at the present time profitable crops could be grown +in some parts of every province of Canada in which the land is tilled. +In Quebec, even on high land, it usually endures the winters. Near +Montreal it has been cut for soiling food at the height of 30 inches as +early as May 15th. In some parts of Eastern Ontario good crops can be +grown, and also over considerable areas of Western Ontario. The author +grew it with much success at the experiment station at Guelph in 1890 +and subsequently, and during recent years considerable areas are being +grown in several of the Lake Erie counties and in those that lie north +from them. But in no part of Ontario are the conditions for growing +alfalfa better than in some of the mountain valleys of British Columbia. + +But few crops, if, indeed, any, are being experimented with at the +present time to so great an extent as alfalfa; hence, the expectation is +reasonable that there will be an enormous increase in the area grown in +the future that is near. The two chief causes of failure in the past +were want of knowledge in growing and caring for it on the part of the +growers, and the absence of the proper bacteria in the soil. Acidity in +some soils and want of drainage in others are also responsible for many +of the failures referred to. But even where it does grow reasonably +well, some trouble is found from the alfalfa failing in spots. In some +instances the cause can be traced, as when coated with ice in winter, or +where the soil is not uniform, but in other instances the precise causes +have not been determined. Notwithstanding these drawbacks, however, +greatly increased areas will be grown in the future, especially in +States in which the dairy interest is paramount or even important. + +=Soils.=--It was formerly thought by many that alfalfa would only grow +vigorously on soils and subsoils sandy in character, and underlaid at +some distance from the surface with water. It is now being ascertained +that it will grow on a great variety of soils, providing they are +reasonably fertile, free from acidity, sufficiently porous below to +carry away water with reasonable quickness, and not underlaid with hard +pan or a subsoil so tenacious that it is almost impervious to water. + +The best soils for alfalfa are those of the Western mountain States, and +in these the deposit soils of the river valleys stand among the +foremost. These soils are usually of much depth. Many of them have water +underneath, and the subsoil is usually so porous that the roots can go +far down in them, such is the character of nearly all the bottom land +west of the Mississippi. But in nearly all of the mountain region of the +West, from Banff in British Columbia to Mexico, alfalfa will grow well +under irrigation, or in the absence of irrigation, if ground water is +not too distant from the surface. In this region alfalfa grows more +vigorously and more persistently than in almost any other portion of the +United States. + +In regions where alfalfa is not dependent upon irrigation, the best +soils probably are deep, rich calcareous loams, clay or sandy, and +underlaid with what may be termed a mild or reasonably porous clay +subsoil. With such soils the plants may be in no way influenced by sheet +water below, as on some of these in Nebraska, for instance, such water +is fully 150 feet below the surface. These soils are usually possessed +of abundant food supplies to nourish the plants, and the roots can go +far down into the subsoils to gather food and moisture. Such lands are +found more or less in nearly all the States of the Union east from the +Rocky Mountains; hence, when the requisite bacteria are present, good +crops can be grown on them in every State in the Union. + +On the ordinary black soils of the prairie, alfalfa will usually grow +reasonably well if underlaid with clay not too distant nor too +tenacious. When the roots get down into the subsoil, they can usually +find much food in the same, and unless in very dry areas a sufficiency +of moisture, but in many instances it may be necessary to introduce the +requisite bacteria, and to apply farmyard manure to encourage sufficient +growth to carry the roots down quickly to the subsoil. In some prairie +soils the growth will be vigorous from the start, but usually these are +lands that have grown hardwood timber, and that have in them more or +less clay. + +In climates where the rainfall is considerable, alfalfa will frequently +grow well on gravelly soils and on those that are stony. Some of the +best alfalfa soils in the State of New York, New England States, and in +the Canadian provinces of Quebec and Ontario are of this character. + +Alfalfa will frequently grow fairly well even on stiff clays, and in +some instances on gumbo soils. But these soils must not be so retentive +as to collect and hold water for any considerable time within a few feet +of the surface. Such lands have usually much staying power; hence, +alfalfa grown on them frequently improves for years after it has been +sown. On the reddish soils that cover much of the South, it has been +found, as in growing alfalfa on stiff clays in the North, that where +deep subsoiling is practiced alfalfa is not only more easily +established, but it also grows with added vigor. + +On upland soils sandy or gravelly in character where the rainfall is +much less than normal and where the subsoil is not underlaid with sheet +water, alfalfa will not usually succeed, notwithstanding that it may +grow well on these soils where the rainfall is normal. On such soils it +is not easy to get a stand of the plants, as they are much apt to perish +in the dry weather of the first season, but if once established on such +soils the plants have much power to grow even where the rainfall is +considerably less than normal. + +Alfalfa will not grow well in soils naturally wet until they are +drained. And when drained it will not grow with normal vigor, on what +may be termed slough soils, where the subsoil is far down and covered +with a deep covering of vegetable mold. What are termed slough soils in +the Western prairies, therefore, are not well fitted for the growth of +alfalfa. On these it may not succeed well, when it may grow with much +vigor on the adjoining upland. When some wet soils are drained, alfalfa +may not succeed well on them for a time and later may grow luxuriantly. +This may arise from the lack of time for proper aeration after being +drained, or from the want of lime to further correct acidity in the +soil, or from the want of the proper bacteria. Notwithstanding that +alfalfa will not grow well on undrained lands that are naturally wet, +and notwithstanding that it will perish if the roots reach standing +water at a distance too near the surface, the best crops by far are +usually grown on irrigated lands. This arises, first, from the ability +to adjust the supplies of water to meet the needs of the plants, and +second, from the congenial character of the soil and subsoil. Next to +these the best crops are grown where congenial soils are underlaid with +ground water, not too near nor too distant from the surface. On these +soils the plants are largely supplied with moisture from the water below +ascending on the principle of capillary attraction. How near or how +distant such water should be will depend somewhat on subsoil conditions. +It would seem correct to say that it ought never to come nearer to the +surface than 3 feet, nor should it be more than 20 feet down. The most +suitable distance would be, say, 8 to 16 feet. When the roots of alfalfa +reach water at too short a depth they will die. + +Alfalfa may sometimes be grown satisfactorily on soils subject to +overflow, but usually there is hazard in growing it on these. If the +overflow occurs comparatively early in the season, if it is not of great +depth, if it is of short duration, and if the waters quickly drain out +of the subsoil possessed by the alfalfa, it may receive little or no +harm from such overflow. Instances are on record wherein ice has formed +on alfalfa and yet the plants survived, but such a condition will +usually prove fatal to them. But should the overflow take place in hot +weather, usually it will injure the plants seriously, and may, indeed, +completely destroy them. So great is such hazard, that care must be +taken against the application of an excess of irrigating waters under +such conditions. Overflow waters that are stagnant are more injurious +probably than those that are in motion, owing, it may be, to the less +supply of dissolved oxygen in the former. + +Soils suitable in themselves, but lying on stiff clay bottoms or +underlaid with hard pan within two or three feet of the surface, will +not maintain a good stand of alfalfa. The plants in these may grow well +for a time, probably a year or two, after which they will fail. The +roots are not able to go down to gather food. When the subsoils are +simply stiff clays, deep subsoiling, as already intimated, may render +much service, but when composed of hard pan this may not be practicable. +In moist climates, however, reasonably good crops have been obtained +from soils with underlying rock not more than four feet below the +surface. + +The fact should not be overlooked that soils may have the requisite +physical conditions for growing alfalfa, and they may possess in fair +supply the essential elements of plant food, and yet alfalfa will not +succeed at the first when sown on these, because of the absence of the +soil bacteria, the presence of which is essential to the vigorous growth +of the plants. Because of this, growers should be slow to conclude that +alfalfa will not flourish on the soils on which they sow it until they +have first tried to grow it on those soils that have been inoculated +with the requisite alfalfa bacteria. For the methods of procedure in +such cases see page 53. Some persons claim that soils which will grow +medium red clover in good form will also grow alfalfa in good form. +This does not necessarily follow. While there is much of similarity in +the soils suitable for the growth of both, alfalfa may fail on lands +that grow red clover luxuriantly until the bacteria proper to alfalfa +have been introduced. Soils may be tested for bacteria, and even in +winter, by sowing some seed in pots and treating them like +well-cared-for house plants. When the plants are 2 to 3 months old, if +tubercles are found on the roots, the conclusion would seem safe that +such soil does not require inoculation. + +=Place in the Rotation.=--In a certain sense it can scarcely be said of +alfalfa that it is a rotation plant, because of the long term of years +for which it is grown in an unbroken succession. Nevertheless, in all +places it cannot always be maintained for a long term of successive +years without renewal. In the Eastern States it is frequently, though +not always so crowded by various grasses, that the fields in which it +grows are broken up at some period short of ten years, and not +infrequently at the end of five or six years. When thus grown, it +becomes a rotation plant, though grown in what may be termed long +rotations. But even in the West, where, under irrigation, it may be +grown for a quarter of a century or even for a longer period without +renewal, it may be used when desired in short rotations. In such +situations it grows so readily and becomes established so quickly, that +the fields may be broken with a view to alternate with other crops at +the end of the second year, or of any year subsequently from the sowing +of the seed that may be desired. Alfalfa in these soils will serve even +better than medium red clover in such situations, since while it is +growing, it will produce more hay or soiling food, and consequently +should excel the former in the fertility which it makes available. + +East of the Mississippi and north of the Ohio River, alfalfa will +frequently follow cultivated crops, as corn, potatoes and field roots, +and when the fields are broken, it will be followed by crops other than +legumes. On many soils the influence which this crop has on relieving +the surface soil from excessive moisture, through channels opened into +the subsoil by the decaying roots, is so helpful as to considerably +stimulate production in addition to the fertilizing influence which it +exerts directly. Particularly good crops of corn, the small cereal +grains, and even field roots may be grown after alfalfa. + +On soils east of the Mississippi and south of the Ohio, the rotation +will be somewhat similar. But on Southern soils alfalfa will frequently +follow immediately crops especially grown to be plowed under as green +manures for the benefit of the alfalfa. These crops include cow peas, +soy beans, crimson clover, and to a limited extent, burr clover. It will +also be followed frequently by crops of cotton and other non-leguminous +plants, the growth of which in the United States is confined to the area +now being considered. + +In the area west of the Mississippi and east of the semi-arid region +beside the mountains, alfalfa may follow the small cereal grains, and +may in turn be followed by them and also by millets. It may also follow +and precede corn, or the non-saccharine sorghums, where the climatic +conditions are suitable for growing the latter. + +In the irrigated regions of the West, alfalfa may be made to serve +almost any purpose in the rotation that may be desired. By growing it as +a rotation crop in these valleys it may be made to furnish the soil +indefinitely with supplies of nitrogen and humus. In these soils it may +be made to follow directly almost any crop grown on them, and similarly +it may be made to precede the growth of almost any crop for which the +locality has marked adaptation. Small cereal grains, timothy, +vegetables, field roots, potatoes, corn, small fruits and orchards may +be profitably grown on buried alfalfa meadows. This does not imply, +however, that alfalfa meadows should not, as a rule, be maintained for a +long term of years. + +=Preparing the Soil.=--In preparing the soil for alfalfa the aim should +be to make a seed-bed clean, rich, fine, moist, even, and sufficiently +firm or friable, according to the conditions. The subsoil should also be +made sufficiently dry and open. From what has just been said, it will be +apparent that in properly preparing the seed-bed, it will be necessary +to study closely the requisite conditions. + +The advantage from having a clean seed-bed will be apparent when it is +called to mind that alfalfa is a somewhat delicate plant when young, and +that because of this, it is ill able to overcome in the fight with +weeds. Cleanness in the surface soil may be obtained by summerfallowing +the land, by growing a root crop or a crop of corn or any of the +non-saccharine sorghums. When the seed is spring sown, this preparation +must be given the year previously, but when autumn sown, it may be given +the same season. In preparing the land thus, the aim should be to make +the surface as clean as possible, rather than to get weed seeds out of +the lower strata of the cultivated soil, in which they will likely +perish before the field sown to alfalfa is broken up again. +Summerfallowing makes an excellent preparation for the land, because of +the fine opportunity which it furnishes for cleaning the same perfectly +and leveling it off properly. The excellent condition in which it puts +the seed-bed, viewed from the standpoint of the duration of the years of +cropping that are likely to follow, would seem to more than justify such +preparation of the land. The outcome may more than justify the loss of +the crop for one season when thus summerfallowing the land. But it may +not be necessary to lose the production of one season whether the seed +is sown spring or autumn, as the summerfallowing in the North may follow +the pasturing off of some crop, and in the South the interval for +fallowing the land may be sufficiently long after the harvesting of an +early winter grain crop, before sowing the seed in the autumn. (See page +136.) + +When sowing the seed autumn or spring, on land that is filled with weed +seeds near the surface, it is frequently better to defer sowing the seed +for some weeks to give time for sprouting many of these than to sow at +once. This suggestion is specially applicable to spring sowing. It +should also be mentioned that when the weeds infesting the soil are +annual or even biennial in character, the harm done to the alfalfa by +these will be much less than when the land is infested with perennials +at the time of sowing. The former may be prevented from seeding by +clipping back frequently, while the latter remain in the soil, increase +from year to year, and injure the plants by crowding. Where crab grass +grows abundantly, as in some parts of the South, unless the alfalfa is +sown and cultivated, spring sowing ought to be avoided. But it is less +objectionable to sow alfalfa on land that is weedy when the adaptation +of the land for the crop is high than when it is low, as the alfalfa in +the former instance has so much more power to fight its own battle. On +good alfalfa soils, therefore, it may be wiser in some instances to sow +alfalfa in weed-infested land than to defer sowing for a whole year in +order to clean the land. + +It is greatly important that the land shall be rich in available plant +food on which the seed is sown. If naturally poor, it should be well +fertilized before sowing. When this cannot be done, it is better not to +sow. A vast preponderance of the land in the Rocky Mountain region, when +first broken, would seem to possess abundantly all the essential foods +required by alfalfa; hence, for a time, at least, it is not necessary to +enrich these before sowing the seed. The sandy and hungry gravelly +soils, which are considerable in the South, in the Atlantic States, and +in some of the Central and Northern States, should be fertilized before +laying them down to alfalfa. Such fertilization usually calls for both +humus and readily available plant food, and these are most cheaply +supplied by growing certain green crops and plowing them under, or by +applying farmyard manure. These may be supplemented when necessary by +commercial fertilizers. Some precede alfalfa on such soils by growing +cow peas or soy beans, followed by crimson clover, both crops being +plowed in, and shortly before sowing the alfalfa they apply more or less +of phosphoric acid and potash, which is usually incorporated in the +surface soil by the harrow. On some soils, as in some parts of Florida, +two successive crops of cow peas should be plowed under before sowing +alfalfa. When farmyard manure can be used in fertilizing those leechy +soils it is well when it can be applied on the surface in a somewhat +decomposed form and also kept near the surface during the subsequent +cultivation given when preparing the seed-bed. In the North it is best +applied in the autumn or winter, and in the South in the summer. But on +loam soils with a reasonably retentive subsoil, the better way to apply +farmyard manure is to make a heavy application of the same to the crop +preceding the alfalfa. It has thus become incorporated with the soil, +and many weed seeds in it will have sprouted before sowing the alfalfa. +The results from applying manure on soil somewhat stiff and not highly +productive have been noticeably marked. This may have been owing in part +to the mechanical influence of the manure on the land. The relation +between the free application of farmyard manure and abundant growth in +alfalfa is so marked in all, or nearly all, soils west of the +Mississippi River that in many instances better crops will be obtained +from poor soils well manured than from good soils unmanured. The +relation between abundant manuring and soil inoculation is worthy of +more careful study, in the judgment of the author, than has yet been +accorded to it. + +Fine pulverization of the surface soil is advantageous when sowing +alfalfa, because of the influence which it has upon the retention of +moisture near the surface, and upon the exclusion from the soil of an +overabundance of light. It is in clay soils, of course, that this +condition is most difficult to secure. The agencies in securing it are +the cultivator, the harrow and the roller, and in many instances the +influences of weather, after the land has been plowed, especially when +plowed in the autumn prior to spring seeding. + +Moistness in the seed-bed sufficient to promptly sprout the seed is a +prime essential, but it is very much more important where the seasons +are dry than where the lack of rain is but little feared. When the seed +is sown after summerfallow or cultivated crops, it is usually considered +preferable to make the seed-bed without using the plow, but to this +there may be some exceptions. If sowing is deferred for a few weeks in +the spring on such lands, or on other lands autumn plowed or early +spring plowed, a free use of the harrow ought to be made in the +interval, because of the favorable influence which this will have on the +retention of moisture. In preparing some soils for autumn sowing after +a grain crop, as in some parts of Nebraska and Kansas, it is only +necessary to use the harrow; in preparing others the disk and harrow; +and in yet others the disk and harrow and roller. In preparing other +soils, as the clays of the South, it may be necessary first to plow and +subsoil, and subsequently to use sufficiently the harrow and roller. + +Evenness in the soil on the surface is important when it is so retentive +that water may collect in the depressions after heavy rain. In such +places the plants are much liable to fail, especially in the early +winter, or even shortly after they may have begun to grow, if moisture +is excessive. In order to smooth and even the land sufficiently, it may +be necessary to run over it some form of leveller. This does not mean, +however, that it will not be necessary sometimes to plow the land in +ridges, or "lands," as they are sometimes called, but it does mean that +the slope from the center of the lands toward the furrows shall be even +and gradual, in order that an excess of surface water, as in rainy +climates, shall be carried away by the latter. + +Firmness in the seed-bed is necessary chiefly to prevent too much drying +out near the surface in dry weather, and the holding of too much water +in the spaces between the particles near the surface in wet weather, +followed by freezing of the soil. The less deep the stirring of the +cultivated portion when preparing it, the longer the interval between +such stirring and the sowing of the seed, and the heavier the pressure +when rolling, the more firm will the seed-bed be. The deeper the land +is plowed, therefore, the longer should be the interval before it is +sowed, but ample rainfall will shorten this period. Firmness in the +seed-bed is more important, relatively, in summer or early autumn when +evaporation from the surface soil is the most rapid. On some soils of +the Middle States which border on the Mississippi, the early sown autumn +crop will sometimes perish after the plants have grown some distance +above the ground, because of want of firmness in the soil; hence, in +such locations harrowing the surface of the ground thoroughly may +sometimes be a more suitable preparation than plowing and harrowing. + +Friability in the seed-bed is important when the soils are heavy. The +influences which promote it are the presence of humus, liberal +cultivation, and sometimes weather influences, as rain and frost. Unless +heavy clay soils are brought into this condition, the roots of the +alfalfa will not be able to penetrate the soil quickly enough or deeply +enough in search of food. + +As has been intimated, it will not avail to sow alfalfa in soils not +sufficiently drained naturally or otherwise. Usually, good alfalfa soils +have sufficient drainage naturally, the subsoil being sufficiently open +to admit of the percolation of water down into the subsoil with +sufficient quickness. But good crops of alfalfa may be grown on subsoils +so retentive that underdrainage is necessary to facilitate the escape of +an excess of moisture with sufficient quickness. The question has been +raised as to whether the roots of the plants will be much liable to +enter and choke the drains at the joints between the tiles. While it +would not be safe to say that this would never happen, it is not likely +to happen, owing to the character of the root growth. Where too much +water is held near the surface, in climates characterized by alternate +freezing and thawing in winter, the young plants will certainly be +thrown out through the heaving of the soil. + +The subsoiling of lands not sufficiently open below will be greatly +helpful to the growth of alfalfa. This may also be true of lands not +over-retentive naturally, but made so by the treading of the animals for +successive years on the soil under the furrow when plowing the land. In +some conditions, without subsoiling thus, the growing of alfalfa will +not be successful, but in doing this work, care should be taken not to +bring up raw subsoil to the surface. In subsoiling for alfalfa, usually +the more deeply the ground can be stirred by the subsoiler, the better +will be the results that will follow. Subsoiling is particularly helpful +to the growing of alfalfa on many of the clay soils of the South. + +In the far West, toward the mountains, and probably within the same, are +areas in which excellent stands of alfalfa may be obtained by simply +sowing the seed on surfaces stirred with a disk or with a heavy harrow +weighted while it is being driven over the land. The implements should +be driven first one way and then the other, and, of course, the seed is +harrowed after it has been sown. Where the soil is sufficiently level, +this plan of preparing will prove satisfactory, more especially where +water can be put upon the land, but it will also succeed frequently in +the absence of irrigating waters. In some instances the disking and +sowing are both done by the same implement, which is driven both ways +across the field. + +Alfalfa is sometimes sown, and with profit, on steep hill sides which +are inclined to wash. When set on these it tends to prevent the washing +of the land. In such situations it is better to sow with a nurse crop, +which will help to hold the soil until the alfalfa becomes rooted. Where +land is so loose as to blow and irrigation cannot be practiced, only as +much should be sown each season as can be covered with stable litter and +well-rotted straw drawn out at the proper season. + +=Sowing.=--The best season for sowing alfalfa will depend upon such +conditions as relate to soil, moisture and climate. On rather stiff clay +soils, the other conditions being right, the most satisfactory results +are obtained from sowing the seed in the spring, and on land that has +been plowed in the autumn and exposed to the mellowing influences of +winter. But to this there may be some exceptions. On lands so light as +to lift with the wind, that season should be avoided in sowing, if +possible, when lifting winds prevail. Such winds are common in some +localities in the spring, and may uncover the seed in some places and +bury it too deeply in others. + +Where moisture is deficient the seed must be sown at those times when it +is most plentiful. This may be in the autumn, but more commonly it is in +the quite early spring. In some of the mountain States the best results +have been obtained under semi-arid conditions from sowing the seed in +the late autumn, so that it would be ready for germination at the first +commencement of the period of growth in the spring. Under some +conditions the too dry character of the weather may preclude the sowing +of alfalfa in the summer and autumn months. Where moisture is plentiful +all the season of growth, alfalfa may be sown almost any time, except +the early spring or late autumn. Where irrigating waters are plentiful, +the only hindrances to sowing alfalfa at any season of the year are such +as may arise from climate. Far South in very mild areas it may be sown +almost any time. + +Where the temperatures are low in winter, the best results are obtained +from sowing alfalfa in the spring and early summer, otherwise the plants +do not become sufficiently well established to withstand the rigors of +the winter following. Under some conditions, sufficiently satisfactory +results follow sowing in the early summer, even in Northern latitudes. +Where the winters are sufficiently mild and the moisture is sufficiently +plentiful, early autumn sowing, as in August or September, according to +the locality, is, all things considered, the most satisfactory, for the +reason, first, that it follows, or may follow, a crop grown the same +season; second, that the plants are less hindered in their growth by +weeds when they are young; and third, that they produce crops of soiling +food or hay the first season after sowing. Many weeds do not grow in +autumn and winter; hence, the less injury done by them to alfalfa +plants, since the latter are so strong by spring that they overshadow +the weeds in their effort to grow. When alfalfa is sown at such a time, +the growth of one year virtually is gained by the process. + +North of parallel 40°, that is, north of the latitude of Columbus, Ohio, +and Denver, Colorado, speaking in a general way, alfalfa is more +commonly sown in the spring, but not usually so early as clover, lest +the young plants, which are more tender than clover plants, should be +nipped by spring frosts. This danger is frequently present in the region +of the upper Missouri. East of the Mississippi it may usually be +advisable to sow in the spring some distance south from the latitude +named. West from the same are areas where early autumn sowing is +frequently the best. In much of the Southern and Southwestern States, +early autumn sowing is considered better practice than spring sowing, +but to this there are exceptions. Under some conditions alternate +freezing and thawing of the land near the surface tend to throw out +young plants, as, for instance, those autumn sown, more readily than +plants from spring-sown seed. + +Alfalfa is usually sown much the same as medium red clover (see page +75), but there are the following points of difference: 1. Since alfalfa +is more commonly sown in dry areas, it is more important, relatively, +that the seed shall be buried more uniformly and deeply in the soil in +such areas. 2. Since it is liable to be more injured, relatively, by a +nurse crop than the clovers, it is more frequently sown without one. +And 3. Since it is expected to furnish food for a much longer term of +years than any of the clovers, it is relatively more important that the +seed shall be sown with a view to seek a uniform and sufficient stand of +the plants. + +Whether the seed is sown by hand, or by any of the hand machines in use, +the results will usually prove satisfactory, but in climates where +moisture is deficient, decidedly better results are obtained from sowing +the seed with some form of seed drill. A press drill is preferred in +soils so light and open as to dry out easily or to lift easily with the +wind. Under conditions of ample moisture, a light covering with a harrow +will suffice, but under conditions the opposite, more covering is +necessary. In areas where spring and early autumn showers are frequent, +the roller will provide a sufficient covering, especially where the +soils are well charged with a clay content. On other soils, as those +which cover much of the prairie, the seed should be buried from 1 to 2 +inches deep. + +Where alfalfa is much sown on soils well supplied with humus, and on the +soils which prevail in the Rocky Mountain region, many growers sow the +seed with the grain drill, and before sowing they first mix the seed +with some material, as earth, some kind of coarse meal, bran or other +substance to make it feed out more regularly. In some instances one-half +of the seed is sown the first time the drill is driven over the land, +and the balance is sown by driving again over the same at right angles +to the drill marks previously made. When thus sown, the plants are more +evenly distributed over the soil, and produce, it is thought, a more +uniform quality of stalk. This method meets, in part, at least, the +objection sometimes made to drill sowing, that it does not distribute +the plants sufficiently in the soil. + +In the Northern and Atlantic States, also west of the Cascade Mountains, +and in some parts of the South, alfalfa is frequently sown with a nurse +crop, and under favorable conditions the results are usually +satisfactory, if the nurse crop is not sown too thickly. The best nurse +crops in the areas named are barley and winter rye, but oats will answer +also, if sown thinly and cut for hay. It has also been sown quite +successfully along with winter wheat in the spring and also with spring +wheat. When sown with winter wheat or winter rye, it is usually +advantageous to cover the seed well with the harrow. In many instances, +however, even in these areas, it is thought better to sow the seed +without a nurse crop, in order that the plants may have all the benefit +from moisture and sunlight which it is possible to give them. This is +specially desirable when the fear is present that they may succumb the +first winter to the severity of the weather. As weeds grow rapidly along +with the plants, the mower should be run over the field from one to +three times during the season. If the mowing is done at the proper time, +it will not be necessary to remove what has been cut off by the mower. +It may be allowed to lie as a mulch on the land. But should the growth +of weeds be excessive before the mowing is done, it would then be +necessary to remove them, in order to avoid smothering the plants. The +clipping back of the alfalfa plants is helpful, rather than hurtful. +When not thus clipped back the leaves frequently assume a yellowish tint +on the top of the plants, which gradually extends downward until the +greater portion of the leaves may be thus affected. Such condition +frequently betokens a lack of nitrogen, but it may also be induced by +other causes. When it does appear, the mower should at once be used and +also as often as it appears. As soon as mowed off the plants usually +stool out, sending up fresh shoots more numerously. They thus form a +crown, somewhat like the crown in clover plants. Root growth is also +strengthened, and the plants are thus made much stronger for going into +the winter. Each clipping during the season, of course, cuts down weeds +and prevents them from making seed. If not thus clipped, they would +frequently injure the crop more by shade and crowding than would a nurse +crop. The mulch thus made through clipping back the plants is in many +instances quite helpful to them, because of the check which it gives to +the escape of ground moisture. There is some difference in the view held +as to whether close clipping is preferable, but the balance of authority +is in favor of reasonably close clipping. + +Alfalfa is usually sown alone, but in some instances it maybe +advantageous to sow more or less of some other kind or kinds of grass or +clover along with it. When grown for hay it is usually preferable to +sow the seed without admixture. But there may be instances in which +medium red or alsike clover may improve the crop the first year or two +that it is mown for hay. But where red clover grows much more vigorously +than alfalfa the first season, it should not be thus sown in any +considerable quantities, or the clover plants will injure the alfalfa +plants by crowding and overshading. Nevertheless, alfalfa may frequently +with profit form a considerable factor in clover grown as pasture. + +Where the main purpose of sowing alfalfa is to provide pasture, various +grasses and clovers may be sown along with it, and in varying +quantities, according to the attendant conditions. The choice of the +variety or varieties to sow along with the alfalfa should be based on +the needs of the stock to be pastured, and on the degree of the vigor +with which these grow and maintain themselves in the locality. In the +Northern States and Eastern Canada timothy and Russian brome grass +(_Bromus inermis_) may be chosen. In areas with Southern Illinois as a +center, red top and timothy should be satisfactory. In the Southern +States, the claims of orchard grass and tall oat grass would probably be +paramount. In areas with Iowa as a center, nothing would be more +suitable, probably, than Russian brome grass. In the mountain States, +with Wyoming as a center, timothy and alsike clover would be suitable. +In the dry upland country in Washington and Oregon, Russian brome grass +or tall oat grass would answer the purpose. In many areas the plan of +sowing clover chiefly with the alfalfa is a good one, providing the +alfalfa is cut for a year or two, and is then grazed, as by that time +grasses indigenous to the locality, or which grow well in the same, come +in to such an extent as to form a very considerable proportion of the +pasture. Blue grass frequently behaves thus in the North, and crab grass +in the South. + +The amounts of seed to sow will vary with the character of the soil and +climate, with the use that is to be made of the alfalfa, and with the +manner in which it is sown. On soils and in climates quite favorable to +the growth of alfalfa it is common to sow more seed than in those with +less adaptation, and with a view, probably, to check coarseness in the +growth of the stems. If sown thinly in such areas, the rank growth which +follows would be coarse. This explains why in the Western and mountain +States more seed is usually sown than in the Eastern and Northern +States. Averaging the whole country, 20 pounds of seed per acre is more +frequently mentioned as the proper amount to sow than any other +quantity. In the Northern States many growers sow 15 pounds per acre, +and judging by the yield obtained, this amount of seed has proved +satisfactory. Some growers even mention 10 to 12 pounds as satisfactory. +The amounts last named are certainly too small for average conditions. +Fifteen to 20 pounds may be fixed upon as the proper amounts to sow on +soil in good condition for speedy germination. But many growers claim +satisfactory results from sowing larger amounts of seed than those +named. Under semi-arid conditions, where irrigation cannot be given, a +moderate amount of seed will be more satisfactory than very thick +seeding, as when sown too thickly the plants would suffer more from want +of moisture than if sown more thinly. The aim should be to obtain a +stand that will cover the ground evenly and as thickly as will admit of +the vigorous growing of the plants. Because of the relatively long +duration of the period of the growth of alfalfa fields, it is specially +important that good stands shall be obtained at the first, and for the +further reason that the plants will then be better able to contend with +intruding weeds, the great bane of alfalfa meadows. + +When alfalfa is grown mainly for seed, it should be more thinly sown +than when it is grown for hay or soiling food. It has been noticed that +when the plants stand thickly beyond a certain degree, they do not seed +well. Twelve to 16 pounds have been mentioned as quite enough to sow for +such production in the mountain States. Where both objects are +important, medium thick sowing would be the most suitable. + +When sown in combinations such as have been named above, it will be +necessary to modify somewhat the amounts of alfalfa seed sown, according +to the proportion of the other seeds sown with the alfalfa. But since +many grasses are more aggressive than alfalfa, it is not necessary to +reduce the amount of alfalfa seed sown proportionately to the amounts of +the other seeds that may be sown along with it. In many instances it may +be proper not to reduce the amount of the alfalfa seed at all, as some +of these grasses will soon crowd the alfalfa plants, to their injury, +even though the usual amount of seed should be sown. The amount of the +grasses sown with the alfalfa will, of course, vary. It will seldom be +necessary in any instance to sow more than 6 or 7 pounds per acre, and +under many conditions not more than 5 pounds. When alfalfa is sown with +timothy and clover in temporary meadows or pastures, it is seldom +necessary to sow more than 3 to 5 pounds per acre, and the same is true +of it when sown in a permanent pasture. The crop is so little grown for +hay in mixtures, that it is scarcely necessary to dwell upon the nature +of these, or the respective amounts of seed to sow in making them. + +When alfalfa is sown with the grain, there will be a saving of seed to +the extent of at least 20 per cent., as compared with broadcast sowing. +This arises from the more general sprouting of all the seeds, since they +are planted at a more uniform depth, and from the subsequent loss of a +smaller percentage of the plants through drought, and it may be other +causes. But when sowing broadcast, it will in many instances prove more +satisfactory to add 20 per cent. to the amounts mentioned above, as +suitable for being sown without admixture with other grasses and +clovers, rather than to deduct 20 per cent. from these amounts when +sowing the seed with the drill. + +=Cultivating.=--Under some conditions, it is, in a sense, necessary to +sow alfalfa in rows, and to give it cultivation during the first season +and sometimes for a longer period. In some parts of Florida, for +instance, the most satisfactory results have been obtained from sowing +in rows with 12 to 24 inches between the rows, and then to cultivate +between these as may be necessary to keep down the growth of weeds. +Under some conditions also in the Atlantic States, the most satisfactory +results have been obtained from sowing alfalfa in rows 14 to 16 inches +apart and cultivating between them. Even hand hoeing the first season +may be justifiable along the line of the rows for small areas, but with +the price of labor as at present, would be too costly for large areas. +When grown in rows as indicated in the Atlantic States and westward from +these, the yields of seed have been more satisfactory than when sown +broadcast, but the crop is less satisfactory for hay, owing to the +coarse and uneven character of the stems. The amounts of seed wanted for +such sowing will, of course, vary chiefly with the distance between the +rows. As small an amount as 6 pounds or even less will in some instances +suffice per acre. + +=Pasturing.=--The practice of pasturing alfalfa the first season, +especially where it cannot be irrigated, is usually condemned, lest it +should weaken the plants unduly for entering the winter. It would seem +probable, however, that under some conditions such grazing would be +helpful rather than hurtful. The cropping of the plants by stock, in the +influence which it exerts upon the plants, is akin to that which arises +from cutting them back frequently during the summer. The animals thus +grazed will also crop down weeds. This, at least, is true of sheep. The +author has succeeded in getting a good stand of alfalfa by sowing seed +at the rate of 15 pounds per acre, along with 2 to 4 pounds of Dwarf +Essex rape seed, and grazing the same with sheep. Other growers, during +recent years, have succeeded similarly. The grazing should not begin +until the plants have made a good start, but it should not be deferred +so long that the rape and the weeds will unduly shade the alfalfa +plants. The pasturing should not be too close, nor should it be so long +continued that the alfalfa plants will not be able to provide a good +growth in the early autumn before the advent of winter. + +The management of the spring-sown crop the first season requires careful +attention in areas where the hazard exists in any considerable degree +that the plants may take serious harm at that season, or, indeed, fail +altogether. In Western areas, from Canada to Kentucky and Missouri, it +is important that the stubbles of the grain shall be cut high, amid +which alfalfa grows when it is sown with a nurse crop. When not thus +sown, it is of prime importance that the plants shall stand up several +inches above the surface of the ground before the advent of winter. This +is specially important in States west of the Mississippi River. The +objects effected are three-fold. First, the snow is arrested and held +for the protection of the plants, and to furnish them with moisture when +the snow melts. The extent to which the stubbles and the erect young +alfalfa plants will hold snow is simply surprising. On the exposed +prairies, the snow usually drifts so completely from unprotected lands, +that during almost any winter a large proportion of the area will be +quite bare. The melting of the snow thus held is also of much value to +the crop in the moisture which it brings to it, especially in areas +where the rainfall is less than normal. Second, the plants are thus +protected from the sweep of the cold winds which blow so much of the +season in the unprotected prairie, and which are frequently fatal to +various winter crops. Third, they are also protected from the intensity +of the frost, which may in some instances kill young alfalfa plants in +areas northward. + +In the Northern States east of Minnesota, the New England States, and +the provinces of Canada east of Lake Huron, the considerable covering on +the ground is not so important, relatively, to protect the plants +against the coming winter, but it is also of considerable importance, as +sometimes the early snows melt so completely that the fields are left +bare in midwinter. The warm temperatures which melt the snow may be +followed by a cold wave, which may be greatly injurious to the plants. +There may be instances, as where the snow usually falls very deeply, in +which the covering left would prove excessive, and so tend to smother +the plants; hence, sometimes it may be necessary to guard against too +much covering. + +If the plants should lack age or vigor on entering the first winter, a +top-dressing of farmyard manure will render great service in protecting +them. This, however, is only practicable with comparatively limited +areas. It is sometimes practiced in the North Atlantic States, where +the manure thus applied will prove greatly helpful to the growth of the +alfalfa during the following season. These precautions to guard against +the severity of winter weather are not nearly so necessary in the Rocky +Mountain States where irrigation is practiced. In these, alfalfa spring +sown is sometimes pastured during the following winter, and without any +great harm to the crop. Thus greatly do conditions vary. + +It may also be well to remember that where rainfall is usually plentiful +and sometimes excessive, that a better stand of the young plants can be +obtained when the rainfall is moderate than when it is copious. +Saturated ground is hurtful to the young plants. They will not grow +properly under such conditions and are likely to assume a sickly +appearance. Mildew may appear and the plants may fail in patches. And +this may happen on land which will ordinarily produce reasonably good +crops of alfalfa after they have once been established. + +The value of alfalfa in providing pasture is more restricted than in +providing hay. This arises in part from the injury which may come to the +plants from grazing too closely at certain times, and in a greater +degree from injury which may result to certain animals which may feed +upon the plants, more especially cattle and sheep, through bloating, to +which it frequently gives rise. + +This plant is pre-eminently a pasture for swine. They may be grazed upon +it with profit all the season, from spring until fall. No plant now +grown in the United States will furnish so much grazing from a given +area in localities well adapted to its growth. Swine are very fond of +it. Some growers do not feed any grain supplement to their swine when +grazing on alfalfa, but it is generally believed that, under average +conditions, it is wise to supplement the alfalfa pasture daily with a +light feed of grain, carbonaceous in character, as of rye, corn or +barley, and that this should be gradually increased with the advancement +of the grazing season. One acre of alfalfa will provide pasture for 5 to +15 head of swine, through all the grazing season, dependent upon the +degree of the favorable character of the conditions for growth in the +alfalfa, the age of the swine, and the extent to which the pasture is +supplemented with grain. But in some instances the area named will graze +at least 15 hogs through all the growing season without a grain +supplement. + +Swine may be turned in to graze on alfalfa when well set, as soon as it +begins to grow freely in the spring. It should be so managed that the +grazing will be kept reasonably tender and succulent. For swine pasture +the plants should never be allowed to reach the blossoming stage. This +can be managed by running the field mower over the pasture occasionally +when the stems are growing long and coarse. Close and prolonged grazing +by swine will tend to shorten the period of the life of the alfalfa. The +extent to which this result will follow will depend upon soil and +climatic conditions and the closeness of the grazing. To avoid such a +result and also to secure the utilization of the food to the utmost, +some growers advocate cutting the alfalfa and feeding it to swine as +soiling. The advisability of handling it thus will be dependent to some +extent on the relative price of labor. + +The best results, relatively, from growing alfalfa to provide pasture +will be found in the Western valleys, where alfalfa grows with much +vigor, and in certain areas of the South, where it grows freely and can +be pastured during much of the year. In areas eminently adapted to the +growth of clover, it is not so necessary to grow alfalfa for such a use. +In Western areas, where Canada field peas are a success, and especially +where artichokes are not hidden from swine by frost, pork can be grown +very cheaply, and without the necessity of harvesting any very large +portion of these crops, except through grazing them down by swine. + +Such conditions would be highly favorable to the maintenance of health +in the swine, and the quality of the pork made would be of the best. In +some instances a small stack of Canada field peas is put up in the swine +pasture that the swine may help themselves from the same the following +year, as in rainless or nearly rainless climates, where such grain will +keep long without injury. + +Alfalfa furnishes excellent grazing for horses, more especially when +they are not at work. Like other succulent pastures, it tends too much +to induce laxness in the bowels with horses which graze it, without any +dry fodder supplement. But it has high adaptation for providing pasture +for brood mares, colts, and horses that are idle or working but little. +While it induces abundant milk production in brood mares, and induces +quick and large growth in colts until matured, it is thought by some +practical horsemen that horses grown chiefly on alfalfa have not the +staying power and endurance of those, for instance, that are grazed +chiefly on Kentucky blue grass and some other grasses. There is probably +some truth in the surmise, and if so, the objection raised could be met +by dividing the grazing either through alternating the same with other +pastures or by growing some other grass or grasses along with the +alfalfa. + +The alfalfa furnishes excellent grazing for cattle, whether they are +grown as stockers, are kept for milk producing, or are being fattened +for beef. For the two purposes first named it has high excellence, and +it will also produce good beef, but alfalfa grazing alone will not +finish animals for the block quite so well without a grain supplement as +with one. But the danger is usually present to a greater or less degree +that cattle thus grazed may suffer from bloat, induced by eating the +green alfalfa. This danger increases with the humidity of the +atmosphere, with the succulence of the alfalfa, and with the degree of +the moisture resting on it, as from dew or rain. This explains why in +some sections the losses from this source are much greater than in +others. It also explains why such losses are greater in some areas than +in others. It is considered that grazing alfalfa with cattle in the +mountain valleys is less hazardous than in areas East and Southeast, as +the atmosphere is less humid, the danger from the succulence can be +better controlled by the amount of irrigating water supplied, and +because of the infrequency of the rainfall. Nevertheless, the losses +from bloat are sometimes severe in both cattle and sheep in the mountain +States, notwithstanding that some seasons large herds are grazed upon +alfalfa through the entire season without any loss. + +Cattle grazed upon alfalfa may be so managed that the extent of this +hazard will be very much lessened, if not entirely obviated, but with +large herds some of the precautionary methods now to be submitted may +not always be practicable. They should never be turned in to graze upon +alfalfa when hungry. Some grazers adopt the plan of leaving them on the +grazing continuously when once put in to graze. Others leave them in for +a limited time each day at the first, increasing the duration of the +pasturing period from day to day. After managing them thus for a week or +two, the animals are only removed from the pasture for such purposes as +milking. Others, again, feed some alfalfa or other food in the morning +before turning them on to alfalfa pastures. Another plan adopted is to +graze them on a field of other grazing, located, if possible, beside the +alfalfa field, until after the dew has lifted, and then to open the gate +into the alfalfa pasture. This is readily practicable with a herd of +cows, but not to anything like the same extent with a large herd being +grown for beef. + +The danger from bloat in pasturing sheep upon alfalfa is at least as +great as in pasturing cattle on the same, and the methods of managing +them while thus being grazed are not far different. So, too, the +experiences in such grazing are very similar. The losses from such +grazing some seasons have been slight. Other seasons they have proved so +heavy as to make such grazing unprofitable. When sheep are being grazed +on alfalfa, a light feed of grain given in the early morning reduces +materially the danger from bloat. It also enables the flock-master to +finish his sheep or lambs for the market cheaply and in fine form, since +this small grain factor, not necessarily more than half a pound a day, +whether given as wheat, rye, barley, oats or corn, puts the ration +practically in balance for the purpose named, and it may be given to the +sheep daily in troughs without taking them out of the pasture. + +It is thought that there is more danger to cattle and sheep from grazing +on alfalfa than on any of the clovers, and probably such is the case. +But whether this is true or not, the danger is very considerable, and is +enhanced by the presence of frost as well as the presence of moisture, +from much succulence in the plants, from rain and from dew. So great is +the danger that the inexperienced should proceed with much caution in +such grazing. When bloat does occur, the method of dealing with it is +given on page 95. + +The tendency to produce bloat in alfalfa pastures decreases with the +extent to which other grasses are present in the pastures. Should +alfalfa be grown, therefore, for the purpose of providing pasture, some +other grass or grasses should be sown along with it. Which of these +should be thus sown ought to depend chiefly on the adaptation of the +grasses for producing vigorous growth under the conditions present. In +the States east of the Mississippi and north of the Ohio, and in all of +Canada east from Lake Huron, alfalfa may be made an important feature in +pastures variously composed. For instance, on suitable soils alfalfa may +be made an important feature in pastures composed otherwise of medium +red and alsike clover and timothy. The author can speak from experience +as to the slightness of the danger from grazing cattle and sheep on such +pastures. In the Southern States tall oat grass could be sown with the +alfalfa, and probably orchard grass. In some areas alfalfa will maintain +its hold on lands smitten with Johnson grass, both producing freely. In +much of Kansas meadow fescue would answer the purpose, northward brome +grass would probably answer, and in some places timothy. In Idaho and +the States adjoining, tall oat grass, meadow fescue and orchard grass +will all be helpful, and in some of the mountain States it has been +found that when alsike clover is grown freely in alfalfa pastures, the +tendency to bloat is not only lessened in the animals grazing, but the +value of the pasture, especially for winter grazing, is greatly +improved. Some grazers, especially in the mountain States, have adopted +the plan of sowing other pastures, as wheat or barley, beside the +alfalfa pastures, and these are made accessible at will to the animals +that are being grazed. The plan has some commendable features, but +grazing animals thus does not reduce the danger as much as when they are +grazed on pastures in which other grasses grow up amid alfalfa. In some +of the Western States pure alfalfa meadows are grazed through successive +seasons with but little loss, but in such instances the grazing began in +the spring and was continuous. Judicious care should be exercised in +grazing alfalfa lest the stand of the plants shall be injured. The +liability to injury in the plants from injudicious grazing increases +with the lack of adaptation in the soil and climate for abundant and +prolonged growth in the alfalfa. + +In a large majority of instances, as previously intimated, it is not +wise to graze down alfalfa at all closely the season of sowing, and in +some instances it should not then be grazed to any extent, lest the +plants be unduly weakened for entering the winter. In cold areas the +hazard is much greater from such grazing than in those that are mild, +and likewise, it is greater when the growth is only moderately vigorous +than in areas where alfalfa grows with the vigor of a weed, as in +Western mountain valleys. In areas where the winters are cold, and +especially where the snowfall is light and the winds have a wide sweep, +the animals which graze upon alfalfa should be removed in time to allow +the plants to grow up to the height of several inches before the advent +of winter. The growth thus secured will catch and hold the snow, and the +protection thus furnished is greatly helpful to the preservation and +vigor of the plants. Experience has shown that in Northern areas +pasturing alfalfa in winter, especially when the ground is bare and +frozen, brings imminent hazard to the plants. On the other hand, grazing +in winter in the mountain valleys, when as far north as Central +Montana, may be practiced with little or no hazard to the stand of +plants when these have become well established. In such areas alfalfa +may be grazed practically as may be desired, providing this grazing is +not too close. + +Cattle injure alfalfa less than other animals when they graze upon it, +as they do not crop it too closely; swine injure it more, if the grazing +is constant. Horses do even greater injury, through biting the crowns of +the plants too closely; but sheep injure alfalfa pastures more than any +of these animals, when the grazing is close, owing to the extent to +which they trim off the leaves. + +=As Soiling Food.=--For being fed as soiling food, alfalfa has the very +highest adaptation, owing, 1. To the long period covered by the growth. +2. To the rapidity of the growth resulting in large relative production. +3. To the palatability of the green food produced. 4. To the entire +safety to the animals fed. And 5. To its high feeding value. In +Louisiana, for instance, alfalfa may be made to furnish soiling food for +nine months in the year. In the North, of course, the duration of +production is much less, but it is seldom less than five months. The +growth is so rapid that cuttings for soiling food may usually be made at +intervals of four to six weeks, according to season and climate; hence, +the cuttings for soiling food will run all the way from two to eight or +nine each season. It is so palatable that horses, mules, cattle, sheep +and swine relish it highly. When wilted a little before being fed, the +danger of producing bloat is eliminated. Its feeding value is nearly +the same as that of the medium red clover, thus making it in itself what +may be termed a balanced or perfect food for horses, mules, cattle and +sheep until development is completed and subsequently when they are at +rest; that is, when they are not producing, as in the form of labor or +milk. + +The highest use, probably, from feeding alfalfa when green will arise +from feeding it to milch cows. Its high protein content in combination +with its succulence pre-eminently adapts it to such a use. Wherever +alfalfa can be grown and will produce even two cuttings a year, it will +serve a good purpose in producing milk. Every dairyman dependent more or +less on soiling food will find it to his advantage to grow alfalfa where +it may be grown in good form. When fed to milch cows, some meal added, +carbonaceous in character, as corn or non-saccharine sorghum seed, may +prove a paying investment, and it may also be advisable to alternate the +green alfalfa, morning or evening, with such other green crops as oats +and peas, millet, rape, corn or sorghum when in season, to provide +variety. But even though alfalfa alone should be thus made to supplement +the pastures, the outcome should be at least fairly satisfactory. When +fed to horses that are working, some care must be exercised in feeding +it, lest too lax a condition of the bowels should be induced, and a +grain factor should be fed at the same time. It has frequently been +given to sheep that were being fitted for show purposes, but may also be +fed green to the entire flock, with a view to supplement the pastures. +It has special adaptation for promoting large growth in lambs, and, +indeed, in any kind of young stock to which it may be fed. When fed to +swine, a small grain supplement properly chosen and fed will insure more +satisfactory growth. It is thought that more satisfactory results will +be obtained from allowing the alfalfa to get fairly well on toward the +blossoming stage before beginning to feed, and to continue to feed until +in full bloom. This in practice may not always be possible, but usually +an approximation to it may be reached, especially when the production of +the alfalfa will more than supply the needs in soiling food. The ideal +plan is to commence cutting the alfalfa as soon as a good growth is +made, cutting enough daily or every other day to supply the needs of the +animals. If the growth becomes too much advanced before the field is +gone over thus, the balance should be made into hay, and the cutting +should begin again where it began previously. + +There is no question but that considerably more food can be obtained +from a given area when green alfalfa is fed in the soiling form, instead +of being grazed. The difference in such production would not be easy to +determine, but of the fact stated there cannot be any doubt. Ordinarily, +each cutting of green alfalfa for soiling should not produce less than 4 +tons; hence, where 8 cuttings can be secured, not fewer than 32 tons of +soiling food could be obtained per season. But whether the increase from +soiling alfalfa, as compared with pasturing the same, would repay the +cost of the extra labor, will depend upon conditions that vary with time +and place. Alfalfa fields thus managed or cut for hay will also produce +for a longer period than when the fields are grazed. + +Continuity in the production of soiling food may not be possible some +seasons in the absence of irrigation; hence, under such conditions +provision should always be made for a supply of such other soiling foods +as may be needed, and of a character that will make it practical to turn +them into dry fodder when not wanted as soiling food. But where +irrigating waters are unfailing, it is quite possible to furnish soiling +food from alfalfa soils through practically all the growing season. +Dairymen thus located are in a dairyman's paradise. + +Alfalfa, like clover, may be made into silage. In dry climates this +would seem to be unnecessary, but in rainy climates it may be wise in +some instances to make alfalfa ensilage, the better to insure the curing +of the crop. What has been said with reference to clover ensilage will +apply almost equally to alfalfa. (See page 103.) It would be more +desirable, usually, to make the first cutting from alfalfa into ensilage +than later cuttings, because of the showery character of the weather at +that season, but the strong objection stands in the way of doing so, +that no carbonaceous food, as corn, sorghum or soy beans, is ready for +going into the silo then as they are later, with a view of aiding in the +better preservation of the ensilage and of making a better balanced +ration. Good alfalfa silage is more easily made when the alfalfa has +been run through a cutting-box than when in the uncut forms. + +=Harvesting for Hay.=--The best time to harvest alfalfa for hay is just +after the blossoms begin to appear. Ordinarily, not more than one-third +of the blossoms are out when the harvesting should begin, but when the +hay is to be fed to horses the cutting may be deferred until more than +half the blooms are out. If cut earlier, the loss of weight in the crop +will be considerable, as much as 30 to 45 per cent., as compared with +cutting when in full bloom. If cut later, the stems become over-woody, +and the loss of leaves in curing will be much greater. When the cutting +is delayed beyond the period of early bloom, the growth of the next +cutting is retarded, and when it is deferred until some of the leaves +turn yellow or until some seed is formed, in many situations the +influence on the succeeding crop is seriously adverse, and in some +instances this influence would seem to react against the vigorous growth +of the plant during the remainder of the season. In other instances, as +where the conditions are quite favorable to the growth of the plant, +these results are not present in so marked a degree. When large areas of +alfalfa are to be harvested, the importance of beginning early cannot +easily be overestimated. It would be much better to sacrifice something +in loss of weight in the hay, through cutting too early, than to meet +with greater loss in weight in the next crop or crops by cutting too +long deferred. + +Much that has been said about the harvesting of medium, red clover +will apply equally to alfalfa. (See page 95.) The mowing should begin as +soon as the dew has lifted in the morning. The tedder should follow +after the hay has wilted somewhat, and later, the horse rake, the aim +being to get the crop made into winrows, preferably small, before +nightfall, and when the weather is uncertain, the aim should be also to +put the hay up into small cocks the same evening. This may not always be +practicable. If the loss of leaves is likely to be considerable when +raking the hay, raking should be deferred until the influence of evening +dews begins to be felt. After the hay has become wilted it should not be +stirred or handled any more than is really necessary, that loss of +leaves and of the tips of the stems and branches may be avoided, and the +handling during the curing process should be done to the greatest extent +practicable before or after the sunshine has waxed strong. In showery +weather, when small areas are being harvested, hay caps can be used with +profit. Where large areas are to be harvested and where there is no +danger of rain, the crop when nicely wilted is drawn into winrows, and +in these the curing is completed without further stirring or handling. +From the winrows it is drawn usually on rakes of a certain make, and the +rake loads thus slid over the ground are lifted bodily onto the stack by +the use of the "rickers." (See page 100.) + +[Illustration: Fig. 4. Field of Alfalfa in California] + +=Storing.=--When cured in cocks, these are preferably made small to +facilitate quick curing, but usually from two to four days are necessary +to complete the curing. If the cocks require opening out before being +drawn, the work should be done with care. Ordinary stacking and storing +may be done in practically the same way as in handling medium red +clover, and the same care is necessary in protecting the stacks. In +areas where considerable rain falls in the autumn, hay sheds will prove +a great convenience in storing alfalfa in the absence of better +facilities. In the Eastern States alfalfa is sometimes stored in mows +undercured, by putting it into the mow in alternate layers with straw. +The straw not only aids in preserving the alfalfa in good condition, but +the alfalfa imparts an aroma to the straw which induces live stock to +eat it readily. In showery weather this method of curing alfalfa merits +careful attention where straw can be had near at hand and in sufficient +quantities. + +The method is sometimes adopted of cutting alfalfa even for hay by using +the self-rake reaper. The sheaves thus made are allowed to lie on the +ground undisturbed until they are ready for being drawn. By this method +of cutting, the loss of leaves is almost entirely avoided, but there are +these objections to it: that it exposes unduly to sunlight during the +curing process, and in case of rain the sheaves are easily saturated and +do not dry readily unless turned over. + +Rain falling on alfalfa will injure it quite as much as it does red +clover. (See page 96.) In climates with much rainfall in May or June, +when the first cutting of alfalfa is ready for being harvested, +according to locality, in instances not a few much difficulty is found +in curing alfalfa without loss. Sometimes the entire cutting will be +rendered practically useless by rain. Because of this, as previously +intimated, it may be well to arrange, where practicable, to cut the +first crop of the season for soiling food. + +The number of cuttings during the year depends on such conditions as +relate to the length of the season, the character of the soil, the +abundance of moisture present, and the use to which the alfalfa is put. +In some of the river bottoms southward in the Rocky Mountains, where +irrigating waters are plentiful, it is claimed that alfalfa may be made +to furnish one cutting for soiling food every month in the year. Even in +the Northern western valleys, as many as five or six cuttings for the +use named may be obtained. North from the Ohio and Potomac rivers three +to five cuttings of soiling food may be looked for each season, and +south of these rivers even a larger number. North of the same rivers the +hay crops run from two to four, and southward from the same they are +seldom less than three. In the western valleys they range from three to +five or six, according to location. In States bordering on the semi-arid +States eastward and some distance south of the Canadian boundary, from +three to four cuttings may usually be expected. In Colorado and States +north and south from the same, two good crops of alfalfa may be cut from +spring-sown seed the same season, but where irrigation is not practiced +it is seldom that one crop of hay is harvested under similar conditions +of sowing. But in the semi-arid belt not more than one cutting is +usually obtained each season in the absence of water. But the number of +cuttings will be reduced when one of these is a seed crop. When a seed +crop is taken, the vitality of the plants is apparently so much reduced +for the season that the subsequent growth is much less vigorous than if +seed had not been thus taken. + +The yield of hay from each cutting will, of course, vary much with +conditions, but it is seldom less than a ton. An approximate average +would place the average cutting at about 1-1/4 tons, but as much as 2 +tons have been obtained per acre at a cutting, and, again, not more than +1/2 ton. In New Jersey an average of 4.57 tons per acre was obtained +under good conditions of management, but without irrigation, at the +experiment station for three years in succession. In Kansas, 4 to 6 tons +per acre may usually be expected from good soils. In Tulare County, +California, as much as 6 to 10 tons have been secured under irrigation. + +The yields from the various cuttings are by no means uniform, especially +in the absence of irrigation. They are much influenced by rainfall. In +such areas, the second cutting is usually the best for the season, the +subsequent cuttings being considerably less. Where irrigation is +practiced, the crops are much more uniform, but even in mild climates, +as the season advances, there is a tendency to lesser yields, indicative +of the necessity of at least partial rest for plants during a portion of +the year. The yields of alfalfa are usually exceeded by those of no +other crop, where the conditions are quite favorable to its growth, even +in the absence of irrigation. At the New Jersey Experiment Station, as +stated in Bulletin No. 148, one acre of alfalfa produced 36,540 pounds +of green food; of corn, 24,000; of red clover, 14,000; of crimson +clover, 14,000; of millet, 16,000; of cow peas, 16,000; and of oats and +peas, 14,000 pounds. But where only two, or even three, cuttings can be +obtained per year, some crops may produce larger yields than alfalfa. In +the distinctive alfalfa belt in the West, no forage crop can be grown +that will compare with it in the yields obtained. The protein in alfalfa +is also relatively high. At the station quoted above it was found one +ton of alfalfa contained 265 pounds of protein; hence, its high relative +value as a food; red clover, 246 pounds; timothy, 118 pounds; and wheat +bran, 118 pounds. At the Delaware Experiment Station, in Bulletin No. +55, it is stated that maximum crops of cow peas and of crimson clover +gave 720 pounds of protein, while a maximum crop of alfalfa gave 1230 +pounds. + +Where alfalfa is irrigated, it is usual to apply irrigating waters just +after each cutting of the crop. It is a matter of some importance that +the water shall be applied at once as soon as the previous crop has been +harvested, otherwise time will be lost in growing the next crop. There +are instances where it is necessary to apply water before the first crop +is grown, but usually the moisture which falls in the winter and spring +will suffice to produce the first crop of the season. Some irrigators +apply water some time previous to harvesting the crop, but not so late +as to leave the ground in a soft condition when mowing is begun. The +amount of water required will vary with the soil, the season of the +year, the distance of the ground water from the surface, and the +precipitation. The more porous the soil and subsoil, the hotter the +weather, the less the precipitation and the farther below the surface, +up to a certain limit, the greater will be the amount of water needed. +There are situations, as in some of the islands in the Yellowstone +River, in which ground water is so near the surface that alfalfa grown +on these is able to get enough of water from this subterranean source to +produce good crops. Care should be taken not to apply water in excess of +the needs of the crop, or the yields will be proportionately reduced. +The amounts that will best serve the end sought can only be ascertained +by actual test. Caution is also necessary where the winters are cold not +to apply water late or in excessive quantities, lest a sappy condition +of the plants shall be induced, which will make them succumb to the cold +of the winter following. Moreover, on some soils alfalfa fields will +produce good crops, if irrigated only the first season, until the roots +get down to moisture, the irrigating waters being utilized when more +needed. + +Alfalfa hay is fed freely to all kinds of domestic animals on the farm, +and with results that should prove highly satisfactory. Properly fed, it +is an excellent food for horses and mules. It not only serves to +maintain flesh, but it is favorable to glossiness in the coat. Horses +that are working hard should be accustomed to it gradually. When it is +fed to them too freely at the first, it induces too much of a laxity in +the bowels, too free urination, and profuse sweating. When fed to such +horses or mules, some authorities claim that several weeks should be +covered in getting them on to what is termed a "full feed" of alfalfa. +When fed to milch cows, free lactation results. Alfalfa fine in +character is now manufactured into food suitable for calves and other +young stock. Cattle and sheep are now fattened for slaughter on alfalfa +hay fed alone, but when thus fattened the finish made is not equal to +that resulting from adding grain to the alfalfa. To meet the needs of +the best markets, alfalfa alone does not produce enough of fat or of +firmness in the flesh, but it has been claimed, and probably it is true, +that one-half the amount of grain required for finishing along with +carbonaceous fodder, such as corn stalks or timothy, will give equally +good and quick increase when fed with alfalfa hay. It is most excellent +fodder on which to grow cattle and sheep, even in the absence of a grain +supplement. The later cuttings of the season are thought to be the most +suitable for calves and also for sheep and lambs, because of the greater +fineness of the fodder and the greater abundance of leaves on it. +Alfalfa hay is used with much advantage in wintering swine, especially +brood sows. Swine have been wintered on alfalfa hay without any grain +supplement where the winters are mild, but they will fare much better +with a grain supplement. It is thought that half the usual amount of +grain fed will produce equal results when fed with alfalfa, to those +obtained from feeding a full allowance of grain in its absence. Alfalfa +and sorghum properly grown make an excellent food for swine, and the two +may be profitably fed thus where the conditions may be over-dry for +corn, but not for sorghum. When feeding alfalfa, the aim should be to +use it in conjunction with a carbonaceous food, as corn. Fortunate is +the country which grows good crops of corn and alfalfa. + +=Securing Seed.=--Localities differ much in their capacity to produce +alfalfa seed. The best crops of seed are now grown west and southwest of +the Mississippi River. Certain areas in the semi-arid country east of +and between the ranges of the Western mountains seem to have special +adaptation for growing seed. At the present time the greatest +seed-producing States are Kansas, Colorado, Utah, Arizona and +California. But in some areas east of that river paying crops can be +grown. It has also been noticed that when the crop is sown less thickly +than it is usually sown for hay, the plants seed more freely, when sown +with sufficient distance between the rows to admit of cultivating the +crop, and when such cultivation is given, the influence on seed +production is also markedly favorable; such treatment given to the +varieties of recent introduction may possibly result in the production +of seed from the same, notwithstanding that they bear seed very shyly +when grown in the ordinary way. + +Nearly all the seed now grown in the United States is produced by fields +that have been sown in the usual way, and primarily to produce hay, but +in some areas, especially where irrigation is practiced, it is +sometimes grown mainly for seed. On the irrigated lands of the West it +is customary to grow the first cutting of the season for hay and the +second for seed. But in many instances the second cutting also is made +into hay, and the seed is taken from the third cutting; even in the +States east of the Mississippi, and also in Ontario and Quebec, seed is +usually taken from the second cutting. But in Montana, Washington and +Idaho, on the higher altitudes, seed is not unfrequently taken from the +first cutting for the season, since, in the short season for growth of +those uplands, seed from cuttings later than the first does not always +mature so well. In a large majority of instances seed does not form so +profusely from plants of the first cutting as from those of later +growths. This is thought to arise, in part, at least, from the fact that +bees, and it may be other insects, are then less active in searching for +food, and because of this do not aid in the fertilization of the plants +as they do later. Nor does seed of the first cutting ripen so evenly. An +important justification is also found for taking seed from the later +cuttings, in the fact that when a crop has produced seed, it grows less +vigorously during the subsequent period of growth that same season. So +pronounced is this habit of growth in alfalfa, that in many localities, +if the first growth is allowed to produce seed, but little subsequent +growth will be made again the same season. The second cutting, all +things considered, is the most favorable to seed production, as, unless +on irrigated lands, the third cutting is not usually possessed of that +vigor necessary to induce abundant seeding in the plants. + +The yields of seed are also much influenced by moisture. An excess of +moisture is more unfavorable to the production of seed than a shortage +in the same. Hence, in areas where the rainfall for the season is very +abundant, but little seed will be produced. Where irrigation is +practiced, the excessive application of water would have a similar +effect, though less pronounced in degree; hence, the apportionment of +the water to the prospective needs of the seed crop calls for careful +adjustment. Where the first crop is grown for seed, where irrigation is +practiced, in many instances no water is applied until after the seed +crop has been harvested. + +The seed is ready for being harvested when a majority of the seed-pods +assume a dark brown tint. The pods of later formation will still possess +a yellow tint, and some of them may still possess the green color. These +do not produce seed nearly equal in quality to the pods which ripen +earlier. To wait for all the later maturing pods to ripen before +harvesting the crop would mean the loss of much of the best seed through +shattering. Another test of maturity is made by shelling the pods in the +hand. When the seed can be thus shelled in a majority of the pods in a +single plant, it is ready for being harvested. Alfalfa seed shatters +easily; hence, it is important to harvest the seed crop with promptness +when it is ready, to handle it with due carefulness, and in some +instances to refrain from handling during the hottest hours of +sunshine. + +The seed crop is sometimes cut with the mower and raked into winrows, +and in some instances put up into cocks. When it is handled thus, the +aim should be to do the work, as far as this may be practicable, in the +early and late hours of the day, but not, of course, while much dew is +on the crop. Sometimes the seed is drawn from the winrows to the +thresher; in other instances from the cocks, and in yet other instances +it is stacked before being threshed, a work that calls for the exercise +of much care in the storing of the crop, lest the seed should be injured +by heating in the stack. This method of harvesting is usually attended +with much loss of seed. + +There is probably no better way of harvesting alfalfa than to cut it +with the self-rake reaper or the binder. The loose sheaves dry quickly, +and when lifted, the aim is to carry them directly to the thresher. Less +seed, it is considered, will be lost in this way than by the other mode +of harvesting given above, and the work is more expeditiously done. But +owing to the difficulty in securing a thresher to thresh the seed, it is +sometimes found necessary to stack the crop, but in areas where +irrigation is practiced such stacking is seldom necessary. + +The seed is frequently threshed with the ordinary threshing machine, but +in many instances it is also threshed with a clover huller. The huller +does the work less quickly, but probably, on the whole, more perfectly. +Threshing machines, with or even without certain adjustments in the +arrangement of the teeth in the cylinder and concave, and with extra +screens, are now doing the work with much despatch, and with a fair +measure of satisfaction. But the opinion is held by competent judges +that a machine that would more completely combine the qualities of the +thresher and the huller would be still more satisfactory. It is easily +possible to have the crop too dry to thresh in the best condition, and +care should be taken to regulate the feed in threshing so that the +alfalfa will not enter the cylinder in bunches. More than 200 bushels of +seed have been threshed in a day from crops which yielded abundantly. +The seed should be carefully winnowed before putting it on the market. +The seed crops, as would naturally be expected, vary much; crops are +harvested which run all the way from 1 to 20 bushels per acre. From +irrigated lands the yields are, of course, much more uniform than from +unirrigated lands, since in the former the supply of moisture may be +controlled. Fair to good average yields on these may be stated at from 4 +to 6 bushels, good yields at from 6 to 8 bushels per acre, and specially +good yields at from 10 to 12 bushels. The bushel weighs 60 pounds. +Growing alfalfa seed under irrigation has frequently proved very +profitable. The seed grown in such areas is larger and more attractive +to the eye than that ordinarily grown in the absence of irrigation, and +because of this many are lured into sowing it on unirrigated land when +the former would better serve their purpose. The seed is frequently +adulterated with that of yellow clover (_Medicago lupulina_), which +resembles it closely, but this is more likely to be true of imported +than of American grown seed. + +=Renewing.=--Alfalfa may be renewed and also renovated where the stand +secured at the first has been insufficient, where it may have been +injured from various causes, where it is being crowded with weeds, and +even with useful grasses, and where the land requires enriching. + +The stand of alfalfa secured is sometimes thin and uneven. This may +arise from such causes as sowing too little seed; whether over-dry or +through the crowding of the young plants. When this happens, in many +situations it is quite practicable to thicken the stand by disking the +ground more or less, adding fresh seed, according to the need of the +crop, and then covering the seed thus added with the harrow. Such +renovation would be comparatively easy on clean land, were it not for +fact that the alfalfa plants already rooted overshadow the young plants, +always to their injury, and sometimes to their total destruction. The +spring will probably be the best season to attempt such renovation, but +there may be instances where the winters are not severe, in which autumn +seeding will succeed as well or better than spring seeding. Because of +the uncertainty of the results of such renovation, the aim should be so +to prepare the land and sow the seed that a good, thick stand will be +secured at the first. + +Should the alfalfa fields be spotted, because in places the nurse crop +lodged and smothered the plants, or because excessive moisture destroyed +them on the lower portions of the field in an abnormally wet season, +the renewing process is simple indeed. It consists in disking those +parts so thoroughly as to destroy all vegetation that may have become +rooted on them, and sowing seed in the usual way without a nurse crop. +But should the low places be such as to hold an excess of water at any +time of the year under normal conditions for days in succession, even +though it should not rise to the surface, the attempts to make alfalfa +grow successfully on these will prove abortive. + +When weeds and grasses crowd the crop, the plan of disking the fields to +destroy these is becoming quite common, especially in the West. The work +is usually done in the early spring. In doing it, disk harrows are +driven over the field, usually two ways, the second disking being done +at right angles to the first. The disks are set at that angle which will +do the least injury to the plants, and that will at the same time do the +work effectively. This can only be determined by actual test in each +instance. Some of the crowns of the plants will be split open by the +disk, which some authorities claim is an advantage in that it tends to +an increase in the number of the stems produced, an opinion which is by +no means held in common at the present time, and yet there are +localities where it has certainly proved advantageous. Occasionally, a +plant will be cut off. There can be no doubt, however, that such +disking, when necessary, does tend to clean the land and also to +strengthen growth in the alfalfa crop, on the principle that cultivation +which does not seriously disturb growing plants is always helpful to +them. The frequency of such diskings will depend on the needs of the +crop. Some advocate disking every spring, some every other spring, and +some not at all. That plan which disks the ground only when it is +necessary to keep the weeds at bay would seem to be the most sensible. +This would mean that sometimes, as where crab grass has a firm hold, +disking may be necessary at least for a time every spring. In other +instances it would be necessary only every second or third season, and +in yet other instances not at all. However, some growers in dry areas +advocate disking frequently, as, for instance, after some of the +cuttings of the hay, and with a view to retain moisture. It is at least +questionable, however, if disking so frequently would not soon tend to +thin the plants too much, to say nothing of the labor while the work is +being done. + +The idea of stirring the surface soil in alfalfa fields is by no means +new. In England the plan prevailed to some extent years ago of harrowing +the fields in the autumn with heavy harrows until, when the process was +completed, they would take on the appearance of the bare fallow for a +time. In the Eastern States and in some parts of Canada the harrow is +used instead of the disk, but usually the latter will do the work more +effectively and with less cost. Frequently, when the disk has been used +on alfalfa, it may also be advantageous to run a light harrow over the +ground to smoothen the surface. + +With a view to renovate the crop and increase the yields, in some +sections, as in the Atlantic States, it has been recommended to +top-dress alfalfa fields with farmyard manure every autumn. This, no +doubt, would prove very effective, but it would also be very expensive, +unless in the neighborhood of large cities. It would be impracticable +without neglecting the needs of the other crops of the farm. In the +mountain areas of the West, it has been found that the cost of +fertilizing with farmyard manure is in the meantime greater than the +increased production in the alfalfa is worth, but it may not be always +thus, even on these rich lands. Some Eastern growers also apply more or +less gypsum. This is generally sown over the fields after the crop has +begun to grow in the spring. + +Renovating alfalfa fields is much more easily and effectively done, as +would naturally be expected, in areas where conditions are highly +favorable to its growth than where these are only moderately favorable. +In some of the mountain valleys instances have occurred in which alfalfa +fields have been plowed and sown with oats, with a result, first that a +good crop of oats was reaped, and second, that fairly good crops of +alfalfa were harvested the following season without re-sowing the field. + +=Sources of Injury to Alfalfa.=--Chief among the sources of injury to +alfalfa, after the plants have become established, are frost in +saturated ground, ice, floods, grasshoppers, gophers, dodder, and +pasturing by live stock in the late autumn or winter. When it happens +that two or three of these act in conjunction, the injury following is +just so much more rapid and complete. As has been intimated, where +water is excessive, in a climate which in winter or spring is +characterized by alternations of freezing and thawing, the plants will +either have the roots snapped asunder, or they will be gradually raised +out of the ground. This will only happen in soil with a subsoil more +retentive than is compatible with well-doing of the highest order in the +plants. The danger from this source is greatest during the first winter +after sowing the plants, as then the roots are not really established. +The only remedy for such a contingency is the draining of the land. + +Some reference has also been made to injury done through ice, where it +collects in low places in land. The destructiveness of the ice depends +on its thickness and its nearness to the ground. When it rests upon the +ground for any considerable time the plants die. If, however, water +intervenes, the plants may live when the submergence is for a limited +time. One instance is on record in Onondaga County in New York State, in +which alfalfa survived submergence for a considerable period under a +thin sheet of water covered by three inches of ice, but when growth came +it was for a time less vigorous than normal. + +Floods in warm weather are greatly injurious to alfalfa. The extent of +the injury done increases with increase of depth in the waters of +submergence, increase in stagnation in the waters, and increase in the +duration of the period of overflow. Stagnant water sooner loses its +dissolved nitrogen; hence, the plants cannot breathe normally. The harm +done, therefore, by floods in each case can only be known by waiting to +see the results. These summer floods always harm the crops temporarily, +and in many instances kill them outright. Occasional periods of overflow +should not prevent the sowing of alfalfa on such lands, since on these +it is usually not difficult to start a new crop, but the seed should not +be sown on such lands when overflow occurs at such a season. When it +occurs in cool weather and quickly subsides, it may be possible to grow +paying crops of alfalfa. + +In some areas grasshoppers are a real scourge in alfalfa fields. Because +of the shade provided by the ground and the influence which this exerts +in softening it, they are encouraged to deposit their eggs and remain so +as to prove a source of trouble the following year. It has been found +that through disking of the land both ways after sharp frosts have come +is greatly effective in destroying the grasshopper eggs deposited in the +soil. They are thus exposed to the action of the subsequent frosts and +so perish. The disking has also tended to stimulate growth in the crop +the following year. The eggs will not, of course, be all destroyed by +such disking, but so large a percentage will, that the crop should be +practically protected from serious injury, unless when grasshoppers come +from elsewhere. + +It would seem correct to say that gophers do more injury to alfalfa +fields in certain areas of the West than comes to them from all other +sources combined. They not only destroy the plants by feeding upon them, +but they fill the soil with mounds, which greatly interfere with the +harvesting of the crops. They are destroyed by giving them poisoned +food, trapping, shooting, and suffocating through the use of bisulphide +of carbon. Poison is frequently administered by soaking grain in +strychnine or dropping it on pieces of potato and putting the same in or +near the burrows. Bisulphide of carbon is put upon a rag or other +substance, which is put into the burrow and the opening closed. + +Dodder is a parasitical plant introduced, probably, in seed from Europe, +which feeds upon alfalfa plants, to their destruction. The seeds of +alfalfa sometimes become so impregnated with the seeds of dodder that +the latter will grow where the seed is sown, thus introducing it to new +centers. The dodder starts in the soil and soon throws up its +golden-colored thread-like stems, which reach out and fasten on the +alfalfa plants that grow sufficiently near. The dodder then loses its +hold upon the soil and gets its food entirely from the alfalfa plants, +which it ultimately destroys. But since the seeds of the dodder remain +at least for a time in the soil, and the adjacent soil becomes infected +with them, the circles in which the dodder feeds continually widen. In +certain parts of New York State some fields have become so seriously +affected as to lead to investigations conducted through officials from +the State experiment station. Pending these investigations, the exercise +of great care in the purchase of seed and the immediate plowing of the +infested areas are recommended. + +Some reference has already been made to injurious results from +pasturing close in the autumn or winter, except in the most favored +alfalfa regions. In addition to what has been already said, the wisdom +of not grazing alfalfa the first year is here emphasized, and also the +mistake of grazing at any time when the ground is frozen, at least in +areas east of and, generally speaking, adjacent to the Mississippi +River. + +=Alfalfa as a Fertilizer.=--Alfalfa is not considered equal to medium +red clover as a direct means of fertilizing and otherwise improving the +land on which it grows. This does not arise from less inherent power on +the part of alfalfa to draw nitrogen from the air and deposit it in the +soil, but rather from the fact that clover establishes itself more +quickly, and is much more frequently grown in the rotation. Several +crops of medium red clover can be grown in short rotations, each one +being a source of much benefit to the crops that follow, while one crop +of alfalfa occupies the land. But when the alfalfa is all fed upon the +farm on which it grew, where the plants grow freely, it then becomes a +source of fertilization without a rival, probably, among plants grown +upon the farm. + +The fertility thus furnished does not consist so much in the plant food +deposited in the soil directly as in that furnished in the successive +crops that are grown and fed every year. In Farmers' Bulletin No. 133, +published by the United States Department of Agriculture, it is stated +that the Wyoming Experiment Station found 44 pounds of nitrogen, 8.27 +pounds of phosphoric acid, and 50.95 pounds of potash in one ton of +alfalfa. This would mean that in the yield of alfalfa hay from a given +area, estimated at four tons per acre for the season, alfalfa would +furnish 176 pounds of nitrogen, 33.08 pounds of phosphoric acid, and +203.8 pounds of potash. If this alfalfa were fed upon the farm, it would +not only prove a cheap source of protein for feeding, but it would +furnish fertility, as stated above, without seriously diminishing the +supply of the same in the surface soil, since much of the fertilizing +material produced would come from the air and subsoil. The manure thus +made, if carefully saved and applied, would thus add materially to the +fertility of the land. If, however, the alfalfa were sold, the mineral +matter drawn from the cultivable area of the soil and from the subsoil +lying under it would be reduced to the extent of the draft made upon +these in growing the alfalfa. + +The direct influence of alfalfa upon the fertility of the land on which +it grows is shown in the greatly increased production in the crops which +follow alfalfa. This increase is not only marked, but it is frequently +discernible for several successive years. But as has been intimated, the +benefit that would otherwise accrue from growing alfalfa as a direct +means of fertilizing the land is much circumscribed by the long term of +years for which it is usually grown. + +The mechanical effects of alfalfa upon the land are beneficent. It +improves the tilth by means of the shade furnished, and the extent to +which the roots fill the soil. These in their decay further influence +favorably that friability which is so desirable in soils that are +cultivated, and as previously stated, the long, deep roots in their +decay exercise a salutary influence on drainage. + +The work of breaking alfalfa fields is frequently laborious, owing to +the number and size of the roots. If, however, a plow is used, the share +of which has a serrated edge, the roots will be cut or broken off more +easily and more effectively. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +ALSIKE CLOVER + + +Alsike Clover (_Trifolium hybridum_) takes its name from a parish in the +south of Sweden. From there it is probable that it was introduced into +England. Linnæus gave it the name of _hybridum_, imagining it to be a +cross between the red and the white varieties. Botanists do not +generally hold this view. It is known by various names, as Swedish, +White Swedish, Alsace, Hybrid, Perennial Hybrid, Elegant and Pod Clover, +but more commonly in America it is spoken of as alsike. + +The plants of this variety are more slender than those of the medium red +variety, although they grow in some instances to a greater height. The +slender stems are much branched. The leaves are numerous and oblong in +shape, the flowers are of a pinkish tint, the heads are globular and are +about three-fourths of an inch in diameter, and the pods, like those in +white clover, contain more than one seed. The roots are in no small +degree fibrous, and yet the slender tap root goes down to a considerable +distance. + +Alsike clover is a perennial. In favorable situations it will live for +many years. Ordinarily, it grows to the height of 18 to 24 inches, but +in slough lands it sometimes grows to the height of 5 feet. The plants +do not reach their full size until the second year, and in some +instances until a period even later. They grow less rapidly than those +of medium red clover, are several weeks later coming into flower, and +grow much less vigorously in the autumn. Ordinarily, they furnish but +one cutting of hay each year. Because of the more fibrous character of +the root growth, the plants do not heave so readily as those of red +clover. In moist situations they are much given to lodge; hence, the +importance of growing this crop, when grown for hay, along with some +kind of grass that will help to keep the stems erect. + +[Illustration: Fig. 5. Alsike Clover (_Trifolium hybridum_) + Oregon Experiment Station] + +Alsike clover furnishes a large amount of pasture. It is relished, at +least, fairly well. The leaves are slightly bitter, but not enough to +seriously interfere with their palatability. The quality of the hay is +excellent. This arises from its fineness, from the number of the small +branches and leaves on the stems, and from its fragrance when well +cured. While it makes a very suitable hay for horses and cattle, it has +peculiar adaptation for sheep, owing to its fineness. + +As a fertilizer it is probably not equal to medium red clover, since the +root growth is not so bulky. Nor does it produce a second cutting +anything like so vigorous as the former. Nevertheless, the roots possess +even stiff soils to such an extent that they not only furnish them with +much plant food, but they also tend to disintegrate them and to render +them more easy to pulverize. + +As a honey plant, alsike clover is without a rival among clovers, unless +it be in the small white variety. It is a great favorite with +bee-keepers. Many of them sow it to enable them to furnish pastures for +their bees. The bloom remains for a relatively long period. The honey is +also accessible to the common honey bee, since the branches are numerous +on the stems, and since each branch bears a head, the flower heads are +relatively quite numerous. Since the honey is accessible to the common +bee, pollination in the plants is assured; hence, the failures in the +seed crop are few, and when other conditions are favorable, seed +production is abundant. Because of the many good qualities of this +clover it is deservedly a favorite wherever it can be successfully +grown. When in full bloom, a field of alsike clover is a very beautiful +sight. The flowers are a pale white at first, but gradually they deepen +into a beautiful pink of tinted shades, and their fragrance is fully +equal to their beauty. + +=Distribution.=--Alsike clover is found in Europe, Northern Africa and +Western Asia. In these it has been cultivated for a long time, but its +favorite home in the Old World would seem to be in Northern Europe. It +would doubtless be correct to say that it is indigenous to Europe, and +probably that it is indigenous to each of the three continents named. It +is not indigenous to America, but was introduced into the same probably +from Great Britain or Scandinavia. In some parts of North America it +grows with a luxuriance equal to, if not, indeed, greater, than that +shown by this plant when grown under the most favorable conditions +which Europe furnishes. + +This plant is better adapted to a cool and humid climate than to one hot +and dry. It is even more hardy than medium red clover, in the sense of +enduring cold, and will live under conditions of climate so austere as +to be fatal to red clover. It may, therefore, be grown further north +than medium red clover, and under conditions so exposed as to cause +medium red clover to fail. But it does not succeed quite so well as the +former toward the southerly limit of the successful production of medium +red clover; hence, the limit of production in the semi-arid belt ceases +sooner than in the case of the other variety. The best climatic +conditions for growing it are found not far from the boundary line +between the United States and Canada, and in the vicinity of the +Atlantic and Pacific oceans and the Great Lakes. + +In the United States the best crops are grown in the States which border +on Canada, and in these the highest adaptation, climate and soil +considered, is found in Michigan, Wisconsin and Northeastern Minnesota. +But in New York the adaptation is also high, and also in certain parts +of Montana, Idaho and Washington. Good crops may also be grown in nearly +all the second tier of States that lie southward from the Canadian +boundary. The exceptions are those embraced in the semi-arid belt. +Further south than the second tier of States to which reference has just +been made, the successful growth of alsike generally lessens, and yet in +parts of these States, as, for instance, Kentucky, Tennessee and +Missouri, good crops are grown. Some of the Rocky Mountain valleys, more +especially those that can be irrigated, and that are also sufficiently +elevated, grow excellent crops of alsike. Much of the province of +Ontario has very high adaptation to the growth of alsike clover, and in +several counties of that province large quantities are grown, not only +for hay, but also for seed. In Ontario County in the said province, are +certain clay soils rich in lime; in fact, almost marley in character, +which have been found especially well adapted to growing alsike clover +seed, and in certain areas in proximity to the Georgian Bay, adaptation +exists about equally high. In some parts of Quebec good crops are also +grown. But this variety of clover has not been grown as yet with much +success in Manitoba, Assiniboia, Alberta or Saskatchewan. Both soil and +climate, however, in these provinces should not be uncongenial to it in +the main. In the cultivable lands of British Columbia, as in those of +Washington, it grows remarkably well. Especially in the river bottoms +and on the tide lands can immense crops be grown, as also on the tide +lands of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, but not on the upland sandy +soils of these provinces. + +=Soils.=--The most suitable soil for alsike clover is a moist clay loam, +not too friable nor too dense, and moist and deep. A goodly impregnation +of lime in the same is favorable to maximum production. Abundant +moisture conduces to the same end. This plant will, however, produce +good crops, and in a moist season, excellent crops, on the stiffest +clays, whether white or red, after a good stand has once been secured, +providing hard pan is not found near the surface, but in dry seasons it +is not easy to secure a stand on such soils. The plants send their +fibrous roots down into the soil in all directions, and in this way +render it much more friable when it is broken up. + +Next in adaptation, probably, come slough soils, even though covered +with humus to a considerable depth, providing that clay lies under the +humus. Enormous crops of hay or pasture can be grown on such soils, but +the crops of seed are not usually so large as on the moist clays +referred to above. On these also the hay is much more liable to lodge, +unless supported by some kind of grass growing along with it. + +After slough soils come those that have been deposited by the action of +water, as in river beds and on lake bottoms, when the waters have +subsided, providing the clay element so necessary to the successful +growth of this clover is plentifully present. In some instances the very +best crops of alsike can be grown on such lands, but in many other +instances these deposit soils have in them too much sand to produce +these. + +Good crops can be grown on sandy loam soils, if well stored with +vegetable matter, and at the same time fairly well impregnated with +clay, but if one or both of these elements is lacking, adaptation in +these soils will be correspondingly reduced. + +On the average upland prairie soil, alsike clover does not grow so +vigorously as the medium red. The less of density that these possess +under ordinary conditions, the less suitable are they to the needs of +this plant, but when ample moisture is present, good crops may be grown +on much of the soil in prairie areas. + +Soils lowest in adaptation to the growth of alsike include infertile +sands and gravels, and the vegetable soils of the prairie so light that +when cultivated they lift more or less with the wind. On such soils the +growth of alsike is short and feeble, and any lack of moisture renders +it increasingly so. + +This plant not only requires much moisture to insure the most vigorous +growth, but it is also able to thrive under conditions of soil +saturation such as some of the useful forage plants could not endure. +When the weather is cool, it may be covered with shallow water for +several days in succession without apparent injury. The possession of +this characteristic makes it possible to grow alsike clover in sloughs +not yet drained, but which are dry certain portions of the year. + +=Place in the Rotation.=--Much of what has been said about the place for +medium red clover in the rotation may also apply to alsike clover. (See +page 70.) On upland soils its place in the rotation will be very similar +to that of the other variety, but with the difference that the rotations +will be longer, because of the perennial habit of growth in the alsike. +It will be best sown, therefore, on clean land which has produced a crop +that has been cultivated the previous year. Consequently, it may follow +such crops as corn, potatoes, field roots and beans in the North, and +the same crops in the South, with the addition of cow peas, soy beans +and the non-saccharine sorghums. But it may be sown after other crops +when necessary, especially when it is to be pastured. One chief +objection to sowing it thus for hay is that the hay will be less free +from weeds. + +On upland this crop may be followed with any kind of a crop requiring +much nitrogen. No crops can be made to follow it with more advantage, +however, than corn and the sorghums, or potatoes. Rape will feed +ravenously on the overturned sod, and wheat and the other small grains +will also feed similarly. + +On low lands, especially when they partake of the nature of sloughs, the +rotation is different. In some instances alsike may follow the natural +grasses produced by the slough in the drained or undrained form, as the +case may be, and may be made to supersede them without breaking the +land, but more commonly on these it is sown after the natural sod has +been broken and has decayed somewhat, by growing on it some such crop as +rape or flax. On these lands it is usually grown in long rotations for +pasture and also for hay, and when the sod is again plowed, it is +followed by corn, potatoes, rape, and grains grown for soiling uses, +since such land has naturally high adaptation for these. Flax also is a +favorite crop to sow in such situations after alsike clover. + +=Preparing the Soil.=--The preparation of the land for alsike clover on +ordinary soils is the same as for medium red clover. (See page 74.) +Usually, that degree of fineness in the pulverization which best +prepares the soil for the nurse crop with which alsike clover is sown, +will also best prepare it for the alsike. But there may be some +instances, as in strong clays, when a fine pulverization that would +suffice for the needs of the nurse crop would be advantageous to the +alsike. This finer pulverization can only be secured by the judicious +use of the roller and the harrow. In loose-lying soils, more especially +in areas where the precipitation in winter comes in the form of snow, +and, therefore, does not wash the land as it does when it falls as rain, +if the land on which alsike is to be sown is plowed in the fall, and +only harrowed in the spring, or cultivated and harrowed when preparing +it, the moisture will be better conserved than if it were plowed in the +spring. When thus managed, strong clays in the area under consideration +will usually have a much finer pulverization than can be obtained from +spring plowing. When the preceding crop has been given clean +cultivation, to plow land subsequently before sowing to alsike would +bring up many weed seeds to the surface, where they would at once begin +to grow. On slough lands, where water saturation is present during a +portion of the year, even to the extent of appearing for a short +interval over more or less of the surface, the seed may be sown without +any previous preparation of the land, and in some instances +successfully. In other instances it will fail should the following +summer prove adverse. The stand is rendered much more certain in such +instances by first burning off the grass, sowing the seed upon it, +covering it more or less with the harrow and running the mower over the +ground, say, twice in the season, to let in sunlight to the young +plants. The grass thus mown may be left as a mulch. Pasturing, but not +too early in the season, will in some instances give results equally +good. In such situations the sowing should be done, and also the +harrowing, before the frost has left the ground, except for a short +distance from the surface, or the horses may sink too deeply when doing +the work. The success is dependent in no small degree on the denseness +or want of denseness of the root growth of the grass plants already +covering the soil. The more dense these are, the less easy is it to +obtain a stand, and the more peaty the soil immediately underneath the +surface, the greater is the danger that the young plants will perish in +a time of drought. + +When alsike seed is sown on drained sloughs, the aim should be to reduce +the excess of coarse vegetable matter, if present, and to secure a +smooth surface, such as will facilitate the easy mowing of the crop. +More especially should this be the aim if the alsike is sown to produce +hay. This can be most easily and speedily done by growing on it some +reducing crop, as flax or rape, and then smoothing the surface by +implements best suited to such work, as, for instance, some form of plow +leveler. + +=Sowing.=--The time at which alsike clover may best be sown is the same +as that for sowing the medium red variety; that is to say, the early +spring. (See page 75.) Since it is hardier than the medium red variety, +the danger is less that spring frosts will destroy the plants after they +begin to grow. As with medium red clover, it may also be sown at sundry +times, from the opening of spring until the late summer when the +opportunity offers, and when the conditions for growth are favorable. +For instance, there may be seasons when alsike clover, and, indeed, any +kind of clover, will succeed along with a catch crop sown for pasture or +to provide soiling food. But it should not be sown in the autumn unless +where the winters are mild, or the young plants will not survive their +rigors. + +Alsike clover is more commonly sown with a nurse crop. As with medium +red, the crops with which it may be best sown are the small cereal +grains, as winter rye, barley, wheat and oats, favorable in the order +named. But it may also be sown with flax, with rape, and with grain +crops that are to be cut for soiling or to be grazed down. + +The method of sowing alsike clover is virtually the same as that +followed in sowing medium red clover (see page 78); that is to say, it +may be sown by hand machines, with a grass-seeder attachment to the +grain drill, or with the ordinary tubes of the grain drill and along +with the grain. The seed is very small, and, consequently, may not admit +of being buried so deeply as medium red clover, but in the open soils of +the prairie it will sometimes succeed as well sown along with the grain +as when buried less deeply, but in many soils the roller will provide a +sufficient covering. Especially is this true in climates that are moist. + +Alsike clover has special adaptation for being sown along with timothy +and red top on slough soils, and soils made up of rich deposit. It +matures about the same time as these grasses. They support the slender +stems of the alsike, and in doing so prevent lodging more or less. This +greatly improves the quality of the hay. The more numerous the plants in +those mixtures, the finer also will be the quality of the hay. If but +two varieties are wanted in the mixture, ordinarily these two should be +alsike clover and timothy. Both furnish hay of excellent quality; hence, +when the proportion of alsike is not too large, such hay sells readily +to dairymen who have to purchase fodder. + +Although this clover does not mature until three to four weeks later +than the medium red, nevertheless, it may be well to add the latter to +the timothy and alsike clover mixture. When these are thus sown in due +balance, the first cutting will be mainly red clover, after which there +will be but little of the red present. But the medium red clover will +add much to the pasture after the first cutting for hay. Subsequently, +the hay crop will usually consist of alsike and timothy. Alsike clover +along with timothy may also be sown with mammoth clover, since the two +mature about the same time. But the mammoth variety will monopolize the +ground while the first hay crop is being produced. The advantage from +sowing the seed thus lies chiefly in prolonging the period of clover +production along with timothy grown chiefly for hay. It is not wise, +usually, to sow alsike clover alone for hay, owing to its tendency to +lodge. In the South it is frequently sown with red top and orchard +grass, especially the latter. It fills in the spaces between the plants +in the orchard grass, and in so doing adds much to the hay or to the +pasture. + +There may be conditions in which it would be advisable to sow alsike +clover alone, as when it is wanted for seed, and subsequently for +pasture. But ordinarily to provide pasture, it is better to sow it along +with some other grass or clover, or with a number of these. It greatly +improves a timothy pasture in the upland or in the valley. It has also +been used with much advantage in strengthening alfalfa pastures for +horses in winter in certain of the Rocky Mountain valleys. It would +probably be correct to say that with the area of adaptation for this +plant, no kind of pasture can be grown on reasonably moist land that +would not be benefited by having alsike in it. Among the clovers it has, +relatively, high adaptation for permanent pastures, because of its +enduring character. + +The seeds of alsike clover are small. They are considered to be less +than half the size of those of medium red clover, consequently, the +amounts of seed are relatively much less. When alsike clover is sown +alone and for seed, from 3 to 5 pounds of seed should suffice per acre, +according to the soil conditions. Four pounds are frequently sown. In +the various mixtures given above, the amounts of seed will vary with +local and other conditions, but the following amounts may be given as +averages: Alsike and timothy, 4 and 6 pounds, respectively, per acre; +alsike, timothy and red top, 3, 4 and 3 pounds; alsike, timothy and red +clover, 3, 4 and 3 pounds; alsike, timothy and mammoth clover, 3, 4 and +3 pounds. When sown with other grasses for pasture, it would not be +possible to give the amounts to sow that would best meet the needs of +the grower under all conditions. But it may be said that 1 to 2 pounds +of alsike seed per acre, sown under almost any circumstances in moist +soils and within the alsike clover area, will be a good investment when +laying down pastures of any considerable permanency. + +This clover is also sometimes added to the seed sown in making lawns, +more especially on farms where the lawn cannot be given that close +attention which is necessary to keep it in the most presentable form. +Because of its permanence, it is helpful in giving variety to the sward, +and when mown but two or three times in the season, as is frequently the +case with such lawns, it provides considerable bloom in the same, which +is very attractive. The amount of seed to use on these lawns may vary to +suit the desires of the owner. It is not usual, however, to sow in these +more than maximum amounts for field crops. At the rate of 3 to 4 pounds +of seed per acre should be ample. + +=Pasturing.=--Alsike clover has by some authorities been assigned to a +high place as a pasture plant. For such a use it has no little merit, +but in the judgment of the author it is not nearly equal to medium red +clover as a pasture plant, under average conditions, since it does not +grow so well, relatively, on average upland soils, and because the +aftermath is usually light, after the crop has been cut for hay or for +seed. Nor is it thought to be relished quite as highly by stock as the +medium red clover. Nevertheless, domestic animals eat it freely, and +under suitable conditions it will furnish for them a considerable amount +of grazing. This feature has been finely illustrated by an experiment in +grazing conducted at the Agricultural Experiment Station of Montana, on +irrigated land, at Bozeman, in the Gallatin valley. Full particulars +relating to this unique experiment are given in Bulletin No. 31, issued +by the afore-mentioned station. In the summer of 1900, 18 cattle, one +and two years old, were pastured on 5.04 acres of alsike clover for 102 +days, beginning with June 9th. The increase in the weight obtained from +the pasture in the time stated was 4560 pounds. This gain was valued at +the very moderate price of 4 cents per pound live weight; hence, the net +return per acre for the pasture for the season was $36.19. It would +scarcely be possible under any conditions, howsoever favorable, to +obtain such results without irrigation. + +Ordinarily, the results from pasturing alsike clover will be more +satisfactory when one or two other plants are grown along with it, as, +for instance, medium red clover or medium red clover and orchard grass, +since both of these plants tend to prolong the period of grazing. In +slough lands, red top and timothy add considerably to the value of the +grazing. When grazing alsike clover, much more pasture will be obtained +if it can be allowed to make a good start in the spring, and if it is +then kept grazed so short that the plants do not come into flower. Such +treatment tends very much to prolong the period of grazing for the +season. Should the grazing be so uneven as to admit of certain areas in +the pasture pushing on into the flower stage, the mower may sometimes be +profitably used to prevent such a result. Weeds should also be kept from +going to seed in the pastures by using the mower or the scythe, or both. +Nor should the fact be lost sight of that the tendency to produce bloat +in alsike clover is much the same as in medium red clover. + +=Harvesting for Hay.=--Alsike clover is ready to harvest for hay when +the plants are just beginning to pass beyond the meridian of full bloom. +Some of the first blossoms will then have turned brown and some of the +smaller ones will still be deepening their tints, since the season of +bloom is about the same as for timothy, and since alsike for hay is more +commonly grown with timothy than with any other grass, both may be cut +when at their best, especially when intended for cows and sheep. But +when the hay is intended for horses, it should stand a few days longer +than the stage indicated above, in order to have the timothy in the +condition best suited to feeding horses. But the alsike, in the +meantime, would lose something in digestibility. + +If grown alone for hay, the process of harvesting would be much the same +as in harvesting medium red clover. (See page 95.) But since the stems +of alsike clover are finer than those of the medium red, less time will +suffice for curing it. It will also cure more quickly along with some +other grass than if alone, since it does not then lie so closely in the +winrow or in the cock. Grasses, as a rule, cure more quickly than +clovers, and this also has a bearing on hastening curing in clover when +the two are grown together; and also in lessening the degree of the +fermentation after the crop has been stored. Ordinarily, when the +weather is bright, alsike clover along with timothy may be cut in the +forenoon, tedded once or twice soon after cutting, raked into small +winrows the same evening and stored away the following afternoon. When +thus managed, the hay loader may be used in lifting the hay from the +winrows. Alsike clover growing alone could not be cured thus quickly. +Nor would it be wise in showery weather to try and cure the crop without +putting it into cocks, whether grown alone or with some other crop. When +properly cured, the heads retain much of their bloom and the stems much +of their greenness. + +The yields of hay vary greatly with the soil. On dry, sandy uplands the +yields of cured hay may not exceed 1/2 ton, while on rich loam soils it +may exceed 3 tons. Ordinarily, on good soils a combined crop of alsike +clover should yield from 1-1/2 to 2 tons per acre of very excellent hay. +Some authorities speak of getting two cuttings per year, but this is not +usual. Under quite favorable conditions it would be possible to get two +cuttings for soiling uses, providing the first was taken when the plants +were coming into bloom. Usually, the growth of the aftermath, when the +hay has been removed, is very moderate. + +=Securing Seed.=--Alsike is a great producer of seed. This arises in +part from the relatively large number of the heads on the plants, and in +part from the completeness of the pollinations, through the action of +the honey bee. These are relatively much more numerous than the bumble +bees, which alone among bees, it has been claimed, aid in the +pollination of medium red and mammoth clover. Although the seeds are +considerably less than half the size of those of medium red clover, as +much as 8 bushels of seed have been secured from an acre. Frequently, +however, the yields are less than 2 bushels. Good average yields may be +stated as running from 3 to 4 bushels per acre. The best yields are +usually obtained from the first crop, but under favorable conditions +this clover may be cut for seed for two and even three years in +succession. Better yields are usually obtained from crops of medium +vigor than from those of excessive rankness. The latter lodge to such an +extent as to reduce materially the yields of the seed, since the heads +do not fill well. The cost of harvesting and threshing such crops is +also greater, relatively, than of those of medium growth. To prevent +such excessive growth in the seed crop, pasturing for a time is +frequently resorted to. The grazing should begin reasonably early in the +season before growth anywhere becomes so rank that the animals do not +eat it in certain portions of the field, whereas, at the same time, they +graze other portions of the field too closely. Rather close grazing, +from the time that grazing begins, is preferable to grazing that leaves +the crop uneven. When certain portions of the field are left ungrazed, +or only partially grazed, the mower should be run over such portions +about the time that the grazing ceases. If this is done a few days +before the removal of the stock, they will eat much of the clover thus +mown. Unless the mower is thus used, under such conditions the seed will +ripen unevenly in the grazed and ungrazed portions of the same. + +The duration of the grazing is much dependent on the soil and the +season. The more moist and rich the soil and the more moist the season, +the more prolonged should the grazing be. In Northern areas it seldom +begins earlier than May 1st, and seldom extends beyond June 1st. If +prolonged unduly and dry weather follows, the growth of the plants will +not be enough to produce average crops of seed. Quite frequently on +upland soils, the grazing should cease before the end of May. + +Either cattle or sheep, or both, may be used in the grazing. Cattle do +not graze quite so closely as sheep, which is so far favorable to +subsequent growth. But sheep will glean weeds to a much greater extent +than cattle. When the field is made to carry so much stock that the +grazing is quickly and thoroughly done, the results are usually more +satisfactory than when the opposite method is practiced. + +It is important that weeds shall be prevented from maturing seeds in the +clover. To prevent this, it may be necessary to run the mower over the +whole field at the close of the grazing season. In crops that are not +grazed, it may be necessary to use the scythe in clipping back weeds and +in cutting off any stray heads of timothy that may be pushing up toward +maturity. In some instances it may even be found profitable to use the +spud in destroying weeds of more dwarfish growth than those which can be +clipped with the scythe. It is more important, relatively, that weeds +shall be thus dealt with in growing alsike clover than in growing clover +of the larger varieties, since, owing to the small size of the seeds of +alsike, it is more difficult to remove foul seeds with the winnowing +mill. No kind of seed, probably, is more difficult to separate from +alsike seed than timothy; hence, when the former is grown for market, +these plants should not be grown together. If, perchance, they should be +so grown and the crop cut for seed, it would be well not to try to +separate the seeds, but to sow them thus, as even when thus mixed the +seed has a considerable market value. + +The crop is ready for being harvested when nearly all the heads are +fully matured. The bloom will then have left them and they will be +characterized by a reddish cast. The earlier heads will have turned a +dark color, almost black. Some bloom may yet linger on the later and +smaller heads, but harvesting should not be delayed until these mature. + +The seed crop can best be cut with the self-rake reaper, which throws +off the sheaves unbound. If cut with the grain binder, the sheaves +should not be bound. A sort of box attachment may be fastened to the +cutter-bar of the mower, which will enable the workmen to leave the hay +in sheaves, but to do this an additional hand is wanted to rake or pitch +off the sheaves. The sheaves should be laid off in rows, and by system, +rather than at random, for convenience in storing. + +Usually, the sheaves are not disturbed until ready for being stored, but +in case of very heavy rain it may be necessary to turn the sheaves, to +prevent the seeds which come in contact with the ground from sprouting. +The sheaves should be carefully lifted, otherwise many of the heads will +break off and be lost. Because of this, it may be wise, frequently, to +refrain from lifting the sheaves for loading in the middle of the day. +Large forks, which may be run under the bunches, are more suitable than +ordinary forks. + +When absolutely necessary, the seed crop may be harvested with the field +mower, as ordinarily used, but when it is thus harvested, the crop +should be cut with all promptness as soon as it is ready. It must then +be raked into winrows and lifted as hay is usually lifted. All the work +of harvesting should be done in those portions of the day when the heads +will break off less freely, and when at the same time the dew is not +resting on the seed plants in any considerable degree. When, however, a +crop of alsike is thus harvested for seed, many heads will break off, +howsoever careful the workmen may be. + +The seed may be threshed at once or stored. Storing under a roof is +preferable to storing in the stack, but the latter method will suffice, +if the tops of the stacks are well protected with a covering of marsh +hay or of some other suitable material. When the seed is not threshed at +once it is usual to defer threshing until cold weather, as with medium +red clover, as then the seed is much more easily removed from the seed +pod. Ordinarily, the work can best be done by clover hullers, the same +as are used in threshing medium red and mammoth clover, but grain +separators, with certain attachments, will now do this work in good +form. Much care should be exercised in winnowing the seed. It ought to +be so cleaned that it will grade as No. 1, and so bring the highest +current price. Due care in this matter will make the major part of even +ordinary seed bring the best price. + +=Renewing.=--When the stand of the alsike is but partial, as, for +instance, when young plants have failed, or partially so, on the high +land, and are sufficiently plentiful on the lower land, a full stand may +sometimes be secured by simply scattering seed where it is needed so +late in the fall that it will not sprout before winter, covering with +the harrow and then top dressing with farmyard manure well decomposed. +But where the winters are so mild that the clover might be sprouted +during some warm spell followed by severe weather, the seed should not +be sown then. + +On certain soils, as those naturally moist and porous, it may be +possible so to renew alsike clover that it will produce hay or pasture +crops almost indefinitely, by simply allowing some heads to seed every +year and fall to the ground. In meadows, this may be done by not +grazing after the hay has been harvested until other heads have formed +and ripened. A limited number of these will thus form after the crop has +been mown for hay. If the crop has been cut for seed, many heads will in +any event be left upon the ground. The same result will follow when +grazing the crop, if grazing is made to cease at the right time, and for +a period long enough to allow a considerable number of heads to mature. +This method of renewal will not prove a complete success on all soils, +as, for instance, on those very stiff and very light. + +Natural meadows that lie low may be changed in whole or in part into +alsike meadows or pastures in some of the States, as has been previously +intimated, by sowing seed on them in the early spring. (See page 202.) +In some instances such change has been effected by sowing seed but once, +and at the rate of from 3 to 4 pounds per acre. In other instances it +has been found preferable to sow a less quantity for two successive +seasons, lest one of the two should prove adverse to successful growth +in the plants. But on some slough soils a stand cannot be secured by +this method of sowing, more especially when they are composed of raw +peat. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +MAMMOTH CLOVER + + +Mammoth Clover (_Trifolium magnum_) was long ago named _Trifolium +medium_ by Linnæus. However appropriate the designation may have been at +the time, it is not so now, at least under American conditions, as in +this country there is no other variety of clover so large, unless sweet +clover (_Melilotus alba_). To apply to it the distinguishing term +medium, therefore, is positively misleading, since the smaller variety +of red clover commonly grown occupies such middle ground, as the term +medium would indicate. Because of this, the author has ventured to +designate it _Trifolium magnum_. It has also been classified, and with +no little appropriateness, _Trifolium pratense perenne_, which has +reference to the mildly perennial habit of growth in this plant. In +common phrase it is known by such names as Large, Tall, Saplin or +Sapling, Giant, Meadow, Perennial Red, Red Perennial Meadow, Pea Vine, +Zigzag, Wavy Stemmed, Soiling, and Cow clover or Cow grass. Each of +these names has reference to some peculiarity of growth in the plant. +For instance, the terms Large, Tall, Saplin and Giant have reference to +the size of the plant; and the terms Pea Vine, Zigzag and Wavy Stemmed +to the somewhat irregular and trailing habit of growth in the stems, +and so of the others. The designation Cow grass is an English term. + +Mammoth clover is a large variety of red clover; in fact, the largest +variety of red clover in America. The plants are strong, stronger than +those of the medium red variety, and the stems are much larger. They are +softer than those of the medium red, which to some extent may account +for the less erect habit of growth which characterizes it. The leaves +are usually destitute of the white spot found on those of the other +variety. The heads are also probably larger and somewhat more open, but +there is no appreciable difference in the size of the seed. The plants, +notwithstanding, bear so much resemblance to those of the common red +variety that it is not easy to distinguish them unless by the large size +of the plants of the former. The roots are larger and stronger than +those of the medium red variety, and as a result have more power to +gather plant food in the soil. + +Mammoth clover is biennial under some conditions and under others it is +perennial, although it is not usually a long-lived perennial. It has a +stronger habit of growth than the medium red, and is, therefore, rather +better fitted to thrive under adverse conditions, more especially when +it has once obtained a hold upon the soil. It grows chiefly in the first +half of the season, and makes but little growth, relatively, in the +autumn, or, indeed, any time the same season after the crop has been +harvested for hay. In the Northern States it comes into flower about +the middle of July, and in those of the South correspondingly earlier. + +It is relished by all kinds of domestic animals kept upon the farm, but +the hay is relatively better adapted to cows and other cattle than to +horses and sheep. If cut too late, or much injured in the curing, it is +too dusty for horses, and the growth is too coarse to make first-class +hay for sheep. It makes excellent soiling food, because of the abundance +of the growth and the considerable season during which it may be fed in +the green form. + +It is peculiarly valuable as a fertilizer and as an improver of soils. +In addition to the nitrogen which it draws from the air and deposits in +the soil, it brings up plant food from the subsoil and stores it in the +leaves and stems, so that when fed it can be returned to the land. It +also fills the soil with an abundance of roots and rootlets. These +render stiff soils more friable, and sandy soils less porous; they +increase the power of all soils to hold moisture, and in their decay +yield up a supply of plant food already prepared for the crops that are +next grown upon the ground. + +Mammoth clover may also be utilized with advantage in lessening the +numbers of certain noxious weeds, and in some instances of eradicating +them altogether. This it does in some instances by smothering them, +through the rankness of the growth. In other instances it is brought +about through the setback which is given to the weeds by first pasturing +the crop and then cutting it later for seed. + +=Distribution.=--Mammoth clover has long been grown in several of the +countries of Europe and Western Asia. It is also grown in certain parts +of Siberia. It was doubtless introduced into the United States from +Europe by emigrants from that continent, but when exactly is not known. +It has probably been many years since its introduction into America, but +it is only within the more recent of the decades that it has attracted +general notice. In some areas in this country it grows with great +luxuriance, fully equaling, if not exceeding, the crops grown in any +part of Europe. + +Mammoth clover calls for climatic conditions about the same as those for +medium red clover. (See page 61.) It flourishes best in moist climates +of moderate temperature, and it will endure more drought than the medium +red variety and possibly more cold. + +The distribution of mammoth clover covers nearly all the States of the +Union, but as with medium red clover the adaptation for it is relatively +higher in the Northern than in the Southern States of the Union. The +highest adaptation for mammoth clover is probably found in certain parts +of Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, the northern valleys of the Rocky +Mountain States, the elevated portions of those further south and the +country around Puget Sound. The adaptation is also high in much of New +York, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, Kansas and Nebraska. In +the Southern States that lie northward, good crops may be grown in some +locations, but not in all. As the semi-arid belt is approached, mammoth +clover will grow further west than the medium red, but in the greater +portion of this region it will not succeed. The adaptation of the North +Atlantic States, including those of New England, is not of a high order, +but rather more so, probably, than for the medium red. + +In Canada also the adaptation of medium and mammoth clover is much the +same as for the medium red. In some parts of Ontario, especially Western +Ontario, it grows remarkably well; but in the maritime provinces it does +not grow so well; nor does it thrive in the provinces of the Canadian +Northwest as it does in Ontario. + +As with medium red clover, the distribution of this variety has not been +fully determined in either the United States or Canada, more especially +on soils of the prairie, where it does not succeed well at present. It +is probable that under some conditions on these soils, and also in the +South, the absence of the requisite bacteria in the soil may account, in +part, at least, for failure in attempts made to grow it. With the +introduction of these, the area of successful cultivation may be +considerably extended. + +=Soils.=--Mammoth clover may usually be successfully grown in soils well +adapted to the growth of the medium red variety. (See page 65.) This +means that it will usually grow with much luxuriance in all areas which +produce hardwood timber, and are usually covered with a clay or muddy +loam soil underlaid with clay. It will also grow with great luxuriance +in the volcanic ash soils of the irrigated valley lands of the Rocky +Mountain States, and in the loam and light loam soils of the Puget +Sound country. It has greater power than the common red variety to grow +in stiff clays, in sandy soils underlaid with clay, and in areas where +moisture is insufficient near the surface soil. In stiff clays the roots +penetrate to a greater distance than those of the medium red variety and +gather more food. Consequently, a stiff clay soil that would only +furnish a light crop of the medium red variety in a dry season may +furnish an excellent crop of the mammoth. The quality of the hay is +likely to be superior to that grown on soils altogether congenial, since +it is not likely to be over-rank or coarse. + +On sandy soils underlaid with clay, and especially where the clay is +some distance from the surface, this clover is more certain to make a +stand, since the vigor of the plants enables them to gather food until +the roots go down into the clay. + +In areas where the moisture is more or less deficient, the other +conditions being favorable, this clover can send its roots down into the +subsoil, where moisture is more abundant than on the surface. Because of +this power, it is better adapted than the medium red to much of the area +of Southwestern Minnesota, Western Iowa, Western Kansas and Nebraska, +and, in fact, much of the area bordering on the semi-arid country. + +On clay soils that are so saturated with water that in the winter or +spring the clover is much liable to heave, there is conflict in opinion +as to whether the mammoth or the common red variety will heave the more +readily, but the preponderance of the evidence favors the view that the +roots of the mammoth variety can better resist such influences than +those of the common red. + +This clover, like the common red, is not well adapted to hungry, sandy +soils, to the blow soils of the prairie, to the muck soils of the watery +slough, or to the peaty soils of the drained muskeg. + +=Place in the Rotation.=--The place for mammoth clover in the rotation +is much the same as for the medium red variety. (See page 70.) It may, +therefore, be best sown on a clean soil; that is to say, on a soil which +has grown a crop the previous season that has called for clean +cultivation, as, for instance, corn, potatoes, sorghum, or one or the +other of the non-saccharine sorghums, field beans, soy beans, cow peas +and field roots. But it is not so necessary that it shall be made to +follow either kind of beans or cow peas as the other crops named, since +these have already gathered nitrogen, which is more needed by leguminous +crops. This clover should rather be grown in rotations where more +nitrogen is wanted, when the soil will profit by increased supplies of +humus, and where strong plants are wanted, the root growth of which will +have the effect of rendering the cultivated portion of the soil more +friable when stiff and more retentive when sandy, and that will have the +effect of opening up many little channels in the subsoil when the roots +decay, through which an excess of surface water may percolate into the +subsoil. It may precede such crops as revel in humus and that feed +ravenously on nitrogen. These include all the small cereals, corn and +all the sorghums, rape, and all kinds of garden vegetables and +strawberries. It is, of course, better adapted to short than to long +rotations, because of the limited duration of the life of the plants. + +The length of the rotation will, of course, depend upon various +contingencies. Frequently, the clover is cropped or pastured but one +season following the year on which the seed was sown, whatsoever the +character of the crops that precede or follow it, but in more instances, +probably, it is used as crop or pasture for two years. When timothy is +sown along with this clover the pasturing or cropping may continue for +one or more seasons longer before the ground is broken, but in such +instances the timothy will have consumed much or all of the nitrogen put +into the soil by the clover, save what has escaped in the drainage +water. One of the best rotations in which to sow mammoth clover, as also +the medium red, is the following: Sow in a nurse crop of rye, wheat, +oats or barley, as the case may be, in order that it may be pastured or +cut for hay the following season, and then follow with a crop of corn or +potatoes. This in turn is followed by one or another of the small +grains. This constitutes a three years' rotation, but in the case of +mammoth clover it is frequently lengthened to four years. The year +following the sowing of the clover, it is cut for hay or for seed, and +the next year it is pastured with or without a top-dressing of farmyard +manure. This rotation meets with considerable favor in certain areas of +Wisconsin, well adapted to the growth of the plant. + +=Preparing the Soil.=--The preparation of the soil called for by the +mammoth clover is virtually the same as that required when preparing a +seed-bed for the medium red variety. (See page 74.) Clay loam soils, +whatsoever their color, cannot easily be made too fine and smooth, and +the same is true of sandy loams. Stiff clays should be made so fine as +to contain ample loose mold to germinate the seed readily, and yet they +ought not to be made so fine that they will readily run together under +the influence of a soaking rain. Usually, such soils are seldom made too +fine, but sometimes they are. The aim should be to firm sandy soils, +especially when light enough to lift with the wind, and to leave them +more or less uneven on the surface when the seed is sown. + +In many States the ground should be plowed in the fall for spring +sowing, and in yet others it should be plowed in the spring. Conditions +of soil and climate govern this feature of the work. Usually, however, +the longer the soil is plowed and then properly worked on the surface +before receiving the seed, the finer, cleaner, firmer and moister it is +likely to be, and the larger the store of the available fertility to +promote the growth of the young plants. Because of this, after +cultivated crops, the ground is not usually plowed or otherwise stirred +on the surface. + +When the soil is low in fertility, it may be necessary to fertilize it +before a crop of mammoth clover can be successfully grown. For such +fertilization, farmyard manure is very suitable. When soils are low in +the content of humus, before a good crop of clover can be grown, it may +be necessary to supply humus. But few soils are so deficient in +fertility that they will not grow clover if supplied with humus. +Farmyard manure supplies both humus and fertility, but in its absence, a +crop of rye buried in the soil will insure a stand of clover. In other +instances it may be necessary to follow with some kind of a crop that +has much power to gather plant food, as corn of some hardy variety, and +to graze or otherwise feed it from the land. + +=Sowing.=--Much of what has been said about the sowing of medium red +clover will apply also to the sowing of mammoth clover. East of the +Mississippi and north of the Potomac and Ohio rivers, mammoth clover is +usually sown in the spring, and for the reason that the young plants are +frequently killed by the severity of the winter weather when sown in the +autumn. But when sown at that season, the seed being mixed with winter +rye and being deposited by the drill as early as September 1st, the +plants frequently survive the winter as far north as Marquette County in +Wisconsin. The rye in the line of the drill marks provides a sufficient +protection for the clover. But this only occurs where the conditions are +eminently favorable to the growth of the clover. Around Puget Sound it +may also be sown with advantage in the early autumn, as then it should +produce a full crop the next season, and the same is true of nearly all +the Rocky Mountain valley region, but in these areas it may also be sown +in the spring. Between the Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains and +Oklahoma and Canada, spring sowing is usually preferable, and in much of +the area is an absolute necessity to insure a stand. In the South the +seed may be sown fall or spring; which season is to be preferred should +be determined chiefly by the character of the soil. On soil much given +to heaving in the winter it is usually preferable to sow in the spring. +In all, or nearly all, parts of Canada spring sowing only is admissible. + +When the seed is sown in the early spring, it should usually be sown +quite early, as early, in fact, as the ground is in condition to receive +the seed when the nurse crop has been sown the previous autumn. When the +ground is smooth and impacted on the surface, it is considered +preferable to defer sowing until the ground is dry enough to admit of +covering the seed with the harrow. When deposited at the same time as +spring-sown nurse crops, and with these, the time of sowing will be +determined by the most suitable time for sowing the nurse crop. This +plant may be sown under certain conditions as late in the spring as +moisture exists in the soil sufficient to produce vigorous germination +in the seed. This means that it may be sown as late as June, if sown +alone, and even later. When sown thus late it should be on soil that has +been well cleaned near the surface. When sown in the autumn, as with +medium red clover, the aim should be to put the seed in as early as the +arrival of the autumn rains, that the plants may be well rooted before +the arrival of freezing weather. + +Ordinarily, mammoth clover, like the medium red, is sown with a nurse +crop, whether sown fall or spring. (See page 84.) The nurse crops in the +North include winter rye, winter wheat, barley, spring wheat and oats, +suitable, probably, in the order named, also such pasture crops as rape, +vetches, and various mixtures of grain sown on certain soils to provide +pasture for cattle, sheep or swine. The best nurse crops in the South +include winter rye, winter barley and winter oats, even though the seed +should not be sown on them until the spring. On certain sandy loam soils +a stand of mammoth clover is more assured if sown with a pasture crop +than if sown with a grain crop which is to mature. (See page 82.) Under +certain conditions of soil and climate, this crop may be sown on plowed +or disked land in certain of the States, after a crop of grain, and in +other instances by sowing amid the stubbles and covering with the +harrow. But there is more of hazard in growing thus than by other +methods. Sometimes this clover is sown amid standing corn, at the last +cultivation, but too much shade or too little moisture may cause only +partial success, or even failure, whereas at other times the plan may +succeed. + +The modes of sowing the clover are virtually the same as those to be +followed in sowing medium red clover. (See page 78.) It will be sown by +hand, by hand machines, and by the grain drill, with or without +attachments. The seed of this variety, however, will, on the whole, be +more frequently mixed in with the grain than the seed of the medium red +clover, because of the stronger growth that it makes. This will +frequently be found the preferable mode of sowing it when sown in the +autumn. + +When sown to provide hay, mammoth clover and timothy make an excellent +combination for the reasons, first, that they mature about the same +time; second, that more of this clover is likely to survive the first +year of cutting than of the common red; and third, that more food, it is +believed, will be furnished to the timothy in the dead roots of this +clover than of the medium red. The first year of cutting, the hay crop +is likely to be nearly all clover; the second year, clover and timothy +mixed, and the third year, timothy. But if alsike is sown in the +mixture, though it may be little in evidence the first year, it will +show itself the second year and probably the third year. When sown for +pasture in short rotations, this clover may be sown alone or with other +varieties of clover, timothy or tall oat grass being added. When sown +for seed, it is probably better to sow it alone, but there is no very +strong objection to sowing timothy alone with the clover, since the +latter may aid in sustaining the clover, and it is not difficult to +separate mammoth clover seed and timothy seed. + +When mammoth clover is sown alone for hay or for seed, not fewer than 12 +pounds per acre of seed should be used. When sown with timothy, 6 and 8 +pounds, respectively, would be an average seeding. If alsike clover is +added, the seed of the mammoth may be reduced by one pound, and the same +amount of alsike added to the mixture. When sown with the medium red +variety to provide short rotation pastures, about 6 pounds of each may +be sown. The pasture furnished will be more continuous than where only +one kind is sown. If timothy or tall oat grass is added, a pound of one +or the other of these should be added for every pound of the clover +withheld from the mixture. For permanent pastures 6 pounds of the +mammoth clover may be set down as the maximum to sow per acre, varying +the quantity with varying conditions. And when the clover is sown with +small grain to be plowed under in the fall or early in the spring, +usually only very moderate amounts of seed ought to be used, especially +where the hazard is considerable that the dry weather may cause failure +in the catch of the seed. + +=Pasturing.=--Mammoth clover furnishes much pasture when it is grazed, +on into July and sometimes even into August, because of the vigorous +character of the growth, but after that season the growth is usually +light. Nor is there generally much growth after the crop has been cut +for hay. The palatability of the pasture is much the same as that of the +medium red variety. More grazing is furnished where the crop is fairly +well grown before the pasturing begins, but it is not so palatable, and +when unduly rank, to defer pasturing thus long would result in a +considerable waste of pasture, which the stock would tread under foot. +When the crop is wanted for hay, there may be instances in which it may +be advantageous to pasture it for a time to prevent the growth from +becoming overly luxuriant. There have been instances in which the +clover has grown so rankly that the lodged clover killed nearly all the +plants by excluding the air from the roots. When grown on soils that in +a normal season produce a rank growth, the quality of the hay will, in +nearly all instances, be improved by grazing. This, however, should be +done soon after the growth begins and should not be long continued, and +it should be close, in order to promote evenness and uniformity in the +growth of the hay crop. + +When grown for seed, mammoth clover is quite frequently pastured. In +fact, in a majority of instances it is either pastured or cut with the +mower when a seed crop is wanted. The pasturing usually continues until +June 1st, but in some instances it is prolonged far on into June. The +duration of the pasturing season should be gauged largely by the +character of the soil and weather. The better the conditions for growth +in the plants, the longer may the pasturing be continued, and _vice +versa_. There are also conditions in which such pasturing may not be +necessary. But when the grazing is not close, the mower should be run +over the field, otherwise the seeds will not ripen evenly. + +There is the same danger from bloating that is present when pasturing +medium red clover. (See page 94.) To avoid this danger, cattle that are +being thus pastured are in some instances given access to cured clover +hay. In other instances the haulm of the seed is left in the field so +that the cattle have access to it. But the second season of grazing, the +danger from bloat is not so great as the first season, as usually more +of other pasture plants grow amid the clover. + +Horses, cattle, sheep or swine may be used in grazing off the clover for +seed. All of these may be used at the same time. Horses bite the crowns +of the plants so closely as to somewhat injure subsequent growth; sheep +also crop rather closely; cattle do not crop the plants so closely; +consequently, they are so far preferable to horses or sheep for such +grazing. On the other hand, sheep will prove far more destructive to +weed growth in the pasture. + +=Harvesting for Hay.=--Ordinarily, the methods of making the hay crop +are the same as those followed in curing medium red clover. The mammoth +variety, however, frequently requires a longer season in which to cure, +owing, first, to the heavier character of the growth, and second, to the +larger stems of the latter. After it has been mown there is greater +reason for using the tedder in getting it ready for being raked, and it +calls for more curing before it is put into cocks. The larger the +proportion of the timothy in the crop, the more easily it is cured. It +is ready for cutting when in full bloom, and loses more than the medium +red when cutting is too long deferred, because of the larger proportion +of coarse stems in the crop. It is also relatively more injured by rain +in the cocks, since it sheds rain even less readily than the medium red +clover, and the same is true of it in the stack. + +Some farmers cure mammoth clover in its green form in the mow as they +also cure the medium red variety, but the same objections apply to +curing it thus that apply to the similar curing of the medium red. (See +page 102.) Others cure it in the mow by storing good bright straw, +preferably oat straw, in alternate layers along with the clover. From +one-third to one-half the quantity of the straw as compared with the hay +will suffice for such curing, varying with the degree of the wilting in +the hay. Clover cut in the morning after the dew has lifted may be thus +stored the same day. Where the facilities are present such a method of +curing mammoth clover may be eminently wise in showery weather. The +natural color of the hay and blossoms is thus preserved and the straw is +eaten with avidity, because of what it has imbibed from the clover. + +=Securing Seed.=--It has been already intimated more seed will be +obtained when the clover has been pastured or cut back with the mower. +(See page 233.) When the mower is used, it should not be set to cut +quite low, or the subsequent growth will not be so vigorous as it would +otherwise be. The state of growth at which the clover ought to be cut +will be influenced by the luxuriance of the growth, but ordinarily +clover seed should not be more than 6 to 8 inches high when the mower is +used. What is thus cut by the mower is left on the ground as a mulch. +Mowing the crop thus will also be helpful in destroying weeds, but some +weeds will sprout again and mature seed as quickly as the clover. + +When mammoth clover is neither pastured nor mown early in the season, +when grown for seed some kinds of weeds may be prevented from going to +seed in it by cutting them off with the scythe. When not too plentiful +they may be removed with the spud. Among the more troublesome weeds that +infest mammoth clover are the Canada thistle (_Cirsium arvense_), the +plantain (_Plantago lanceolata_), and in some instances the horse nettle +(_Solanum Carolinense_) and spring nightshade (_Solanum_). + +The yields of the clover seed will be much influenced by the character +of the weather. Excessive rankness in the crop and excessive rainfall +during the blossoming season are adverse to abundant seed production. +But the seed crop is more injured by drought than by too much rain. When +injured by drought the growth will not be sufficiently strong, or, if it +is, the blossoms will be of a pale red tint. Warm winds while the seed +is forming are also adverse to seed production, since they cause the +crop to mature too quickly. Some experience will enable the capable +observer to forecast with no little certainty the probable yield of the +seed. If the indications point to a yield of seed less than 2 bushels +per acre, it is deemed more profitable, as a rule, to cut the crop for +hay. Large heads of a rich dark purple shade accompanied by vigor in the +entire plant are indicative of abundant seed production. + +The crop is ready for being harvested when a majority of the heads have +ripened so far that the bloom on them is all gone and the shade of color +in the head has not yet become brown. If left until a majority of the +heads are brown many of them will break off while being harvested. The +crop is usually cut with a self-rake reaper, but it may be cut with a +mower. When cut by either method the sheaves should be made small, so +that they will dry out quickly. + +It is important that the crop shall be threshed before it is rained on, +as one thorough wetting will so far bedim the attractive brightness as +compared with seed that has not been rained on that it will considerably +discount the price that would otherwise be obtained for it. It is +usually threshed with a huller, but may also be threshed like the medium +red variety by a grain separator with a suitable attachment. + +The yields of the seed vary much. Instances are on record where as much +as 11 or 12 bushels per acre have been reaped, but ordinarily even on +good producing soils the yields are not more than 4 to 5 bushels per +acre, and under ordinary conditions for the production of mammoth clover +they are even less than the amount named. Notwithstanding the greater +strength of the plants, the seeds are apparently no larger than those of +the medium red variety, nor can they be distinguished from them unless +by an expert. + +=Renewing.=--Much that has been said with reference to the renewing of +medium red clover will apply equally to the renewing of the mammoth. +(See page 109.) Where seed crops are much grown, the soil becomes so +impregnated with the seed that more or less of the plants will appear +any season. Renewal in the South is more important, relatively, than in +the North, as under some conditions the plants survive for a longer +period in Southern soils. + +=Compared with Medium Red Clover.=--1. The mammoth is larger and coarser +than the medium red and is considerably less erect in its habit of +growth. It has larger and longer roots; hence, it goes down more deeply +into the subsoil in search of food. + +2. It is, on the whole, longer lived than the medium red variety and has +greater power to grow in a sandy soil and under conditions in which +moisture is not plentiful. + +3. It provides more pasture than the medium red variety during the early +part of the season, but not so much after harvest, the season of growth +being less continuous then than with the former. + +4. The hay which it furnishes is usually considerably more bulky and +coarse, and because of this it is not so highly prized by stock. + +5. It blooms about three weeks later than the medium red variety and +remains a little longer in bloom and seeds more freely, but can only be +cut once in a season. + +6. It furnishes more green food for plowing under than the medium red; +hence, it is, on the whole, a better improver of the soil. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +CRIMSON CLOVER + + +Crimson Clover (_Trifolium incarnatum_) is also known by the names +French, German, German Mammoth, Italian, Egyptian and Carnation clover. +In America it is common in certain areas to speak of it as winter +clover, from the greater powers of growth which it possesses at that +season as compared with other clovers. + +The plants have an erect habit of growth, and yet they are soft and +hairy, and they have much power to stool. More than 100 stems have been +produced by one plant, but under conditions the most favorable. The +leaves are numerous. The heads are oblong, cylindrical, and considerably +cone-shaped, and are from 1 to 2 inches long, and much larger than those +of medium red clover. The bloom is scarlet or crimson and of the richest +dye; hence, a more beautiful sight is seldom seen than that of a +vigorous crop of crimson clover in full bloom. The average height of the +plants may be put at about 18 inches, but they have been grown to the +height of 3 and even 4 feet. The root growth is fully twice that of the +stems. The roots are strong, go down straight into the soil, and are to +some extent branched. + +Crimson clover is an annual, although usually the growth covers a part +of two years. Sown in the summer or early autumn, growth is completed +by the advent of the following summer. It is, therefore, pre-eminently a +catch crop, and because of this, when conditions admit of it, serves a +purpose in American agriculture, which can be served by none of the +other varieties of clover that are now grown. It has much power to grow +in cool weather, when the clovers are practically dormant. It does not +cease to grow until the ground has become frozen, and as soon as the +frost leaves the soil growth begins at once; hence, the greater relative +value this plant has for areas in which the winters are mild. + +[Illustration: Fig. 6. Crimson Clover (_Trifolium incarnatum_) + Tennessee Experiment Station] + +Crimson clover is much relished by farm animals, whether used as +pasture, soiling food, silage or hay. Under some conditions it may be +pastured autumn and spring, and even through much of the winter. As a +soiling plant, its value is high, not only because it is a legume, but +because it comes in season at a time when it may be fed with winter rye +used as soiling. But the period is short during which it furnishes +soiling food. Its value as hay will always be lessened by the difficulty +in curing it so early in the season, and because of the danger from +feeding it to horses when cut at a too advanced stage of growth. It is +much in favor for furnishing chicken pasture in winter. + +As a catch crop crimson clover may be made to do duty in seasons in +which other clover crops may have failed. As a cover crop or a mulch for +orchards, it is in high favor, as the growth which it produces protects +the roots of the same. But its greatest use lies in the beneficial +influence which it exerts upon soils by enriching them and also +improving their mechanical condition. It is likely, therefore, to be +grown more for this purpose than for any other. While growing it in many +instances will not render unnecessary the use of commercial fertilizers, +it will greatly reduce the quantity of these that would otherwise be +necessary. Owing to the season at which it is grown, it will be found +quite helpful in destroying weeds. + +The behavior of crimson clover has thus far been somewhat erratic, even +in areas where the conditions are looked upon as generally favorable to +its growth. The opinions of practical men differ much with reference to +its value. There have been many instances of success and failure in the +same locality, and even in the experience of the same individual. These +varied experiences are doubtless due in a considerable degree to a +difference in seasons, to want of acclimation in the seed sown, to a +difference in varieties and to want of knowledge on the part of the +growers, whose work, heretofore, has been largely tentative. Five +different varieties have been grown, and these have not shown equal +degrees of hardiness. But the rapidly increasing sales of seed point to +the conclusion that larger areas are being sown every year. The increase +referred to may be expected to grow greater for many years to come; +since, when the needs of the plant are better understood, the failures +will be fewer. + +=Distribution.=--Crimson clover is probably indigenous to certain parts +of Europe, especially to the countries that lie southwest and south. It +has been grown to a considerable extent in France, Germany and Italy. +The name Egyptian would seem also to imply that it is grown in Egypt. It +is not grown to any considerable extent north and west in Europe, owing, +probably, to the too severe conditions of climate which characterize +these. It is not indigenous to America, but was probably introduced from +Europe two or three decades ago. Its late introduction accounts for the +fact that its adaptation in some parts of the United States is as yet +controverted. + +This plant needs a climate rather mild and decidedly moist. It cannot +withstand severe freezing when the ground is bare; hence, its uniformly +successful growth cannot be relied on very far north of the Ohio and +Potomac rivers. True, in certain winters of much snowfall it has come +through in good form considerably north of the rivers mentioned, but in +more instances it has failed. On the other hand, while it grows best in +warm climates, the growth in these is made chiefly when the weather is +cool, as in the autumn and spring, and in some instances in the winter. +It would be about correct to say that the climatic adaptation of this +plant is nearly the same as that of the peach. Climates too cold for +fruitage in the latter would be too cold for the uniformly safe +wintering of crimson clover. It would also seem correct to state that on +suitable soils and with sufficient precipitation, this clover will do +best in the United States when the climate is too warm for the medium +red clover to grow at its best. In the United States, soil and climatic +conditions taken together, would probably give Delaware, New Jersey, +Maryland, Virginia and Tennessee highest adaptation for the growth of +this plant. Taking in a wide area, highest adaptation would lie in the +States south of the Potomac and Ohio rivers and east of the Mississippi. +Washington and Oregon, west to the Cascade Mountains, would probably +furnish exceptions, but in these the necessity for growing crimson +clover is not likely to be so great as in the area just referred to, +owing to the ease with which other varieties of clover may be grown. In +some parts of New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio and Michigan many farmers +have succeeded well in growing crimson clover, but a larger number have +failed. The failures have arisen largely through dry weather in the +autumn, want of plant food in the soil and the severity of the winter +weather. Westward from these States to the Mississippi, the adaptation +is still lower, and the same is true of the New England States. In fact, +it is so low in these that it is far more likely that it will fail than +that it will succeed. Between the Mississippi and the Cascade Mountains, +crimson clover is not likely to be much grown. It will not grow well in +any part of the semi-arid belt. In the mountain valleys it would +probably succeed, but in these alfalfa and some other varieties of +clover will give far better returns. + +Crimson clover will not grow well in any part of Canada, except in that +narrow strip of land between the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific. The +winter climate is too cold for it. Some crops have been grown +successfully in the peach-producing areas of Ontario contiguous to Lakes +Erie and Ontario, but even in these it is an uncertain crop. The attempt +has been made to grow it in some of the provinces of Canada, and in +several of the States, by sowing the seed in the spring. Some fairly +good crops have been thus obtained, but usually not so good as can be +grown by sowing certain other varieties of clover at the same season. It +is but reasonable to expect, however, that adaptation in growing crimson +clover will widen with the acclimation of the plant, and with increasing +knowledge as to its needs on the part of those who grow it. + +=Soils.=--Crimson clover though usually grown for the enrichment of +soils will not, as a rule, make satisfactory growth on soils very low in +the elements of fertility, whatsoever may be their composition or +texture. On orchard lands liberally fertilized, in the Middle Atlantic +States, excellent crops have been obtained, whereas on adjacent soils +precisely similar they have failed. In the Southern States, however, +better results, relatively, will be obtained from sowing this clover on +comparatively infertile lands, owing to the longer season which it has +for continuous growth. Where the winters are possessed of considerable +severity and when the protection of snow is more or less wanting, unless +the plants are strong when they enter the winter, they are almost +certain to perish. Loam soils with reasonably porous subsoils are best +adapted to its growth. Of these, sandy loams have a higher adaptation +than clay loams, when equal to the former in fertility, as in the latter +the plants can more quickly gather the needed food supplies, since the +roots and rootlets can penetrate them more readily. Such soils are well +adapted to the growth of orchards, especially peach orchards, and it is +in such areas that crimson clover has been grown with highest success. +In the alfalfa soils of the Rocky Mountain valleys it should also grow +well, but on these it would be less profitable to grow than alfalfa, +because of the permanency of the alfalfa. Even on sandy soils a good +growth will be obtained when these have been fertilized and sufficient +moisture is present. On stiff clays the growth is too slow to produce +crops highly satisfactory either North or South, and in dry weather it +is also difficult to obtain a stand of the plants. The alluvial soils of +river bottoms in the South produce good crops. The vegetable soils of +the prairie do not grow the plants very well, and the adaptation in +slough or swamp soils is even lower. Good crops will not be obtained on +soils underlaid with hardpan which comes up near the surface, whatsoever +the nature of the top soil may be, since the roots cannot penetrate +these. + +=Place in the Rotation.=--It cannot be said of crimson clover, in the +ordinary usage of the word, that it is a rotation plant. It has probably +no fixed place in any regular rotation, and yet it can be used almost +anywhere in the rotation that may be desired, and in any rotation +whether long or short, regular or irregular. As previously intimated, it +is usually grown as a catch crop, and primarily to fertilize the land; +and since its growth is chiefly or entirely made in the late summer, +autumn, winter and early spring, that is to say, when the land is not +otherwise occupied, the only hindrances to using it anywhere in the +rotation are such as arise from the nature of the weather, the +mechanical condition of the land and the needs of the crops that are to +follow. For instance, at the usual season for sowing it, the weather may +be so dry as to preclude the hope of successful germination in the seed. +This influence may also make it impossible to bring the land into that +mechanical condition which makes a good seed-bed without undue labor, +and ordinarily it would not be necessary to have crimson clover precede +another leguminous crop; since the latter, under many conditions, can +secure its own supply of nitrogen. To this there may be some exceptions. +There may be instances, as on light, porous and leechy soils, when it +might be proper to grow crimson clover as an aid in securing a stand of +the medium red variety, or in growing a crop of peas for the summer +market. Ordinarily, however, this crop is grown to increase the supply +of plant food in the soil for crops which require nitrogen, and to give +soils more or less porous, increased power to hold moisture and applied +fertilizers. It is probably seldom grown to improve the mechanical +condition of stiff soils, since on these it grows slowly. Some other +plants can do this more effectively. It is pre-eminently the catch crop +for the orchardist and the market gardener, and yet it may be made the +catch crop also of the farmer, under certain conditions. + +Crimson clover may be made to follow any crop, but it is seldom +necessary to have it follow another leguminous crop which has brought +nitrogen to the soil. Nor is it usually sown after a grass crop which +has brought humus to the land. It is frequently sown after small cereal +grain crops that have been harvested. It may be made to follow any of +these. Sometimes it is sown in standing corn. But oftener than anywhere +else probably, it is sown in orchards and on soils from which early +potatoes and garden vegetables have been removed. + +It is peculiarly fitted for being grown in orchards. In these it may be +grown from year to year. It may be thus grown not only to gather +nitrogen for the trees, but to make them more clean than they would +otherwise be when the fruit is being gathered, to protect the roots of +the trees in winter and to aid in the retention of moisture when plowed +under. But this plant may also, with peculiar fitness, be made to +precede late garden crops. It may be plowed under sufficiently early to +admit of this, and when so buried it aids in making a fine seed-bed, +since the roots promote friability in the land. When grown under what +may be termed strictly farm conditions, it usually precedes a cultivated +crop, as potatoes, corn, or one of the sorghums. It is equally suitable +in fitting the soil for the growth of vine crops, such as melons, +squashes and pumpkins. + +But in some localities this crop may be grown so as to break down the +lines of old-time rotations, since in some instances it may be +successfully grown from year to year for several years without change. +Potatoes and sweet corn, for instance, may be thus grown. + +=Preparing the Soil.=--In preparing the seed-bed for crimson clover, the +aim should be to secure fineness of pulverization near the surface and +moistness in the same. The former is greatly important, because of the +aid which it renders in securing the latter at a season when moisture is +often lacking in the soil. As it is rather grown on soils deficient in +humus than on those plentifully supplied with the same, fineness in the +seed-bed is not so important as it is with some classes of prairie +soils. + +In starting the seed, drought is the chief hindrance to be overcome in +the North, owing to the season at which the seed must be sown; hence, +the aim should be to begin preparing the seed-bed as long as possible +before the sowing of the seed. The preparation called for will be +influenced by the kind of soil, the crop last grown upon it and also the +weather; hence, the process of preparing the seed-bed will vary. The +judgment must determine whether the land should be plowed, or disked and +pulverized, or simply harrowed. After potatoes and other garden crops, +harrowing may suffice; after certain grain crops on soils not too stiff, +disking may suffice; but where much trash is to be buried, plowing would +be necessary, and when the ground is at all cloddy, the roller should be +freely used. In corn fields the last cultivation will make a suitable +seed-bed, and the same is sometimes true in cotton fields. + +To grow good crops of crimson clover, it is necessary that there shall +be a considerable amount of plant food in the soil that is readily +available. Farmyard manure when it can be spared or secured will supply +the need. But the results will probably be more satisfactory where the +manure has been applied to the previous crop, as, for instance, to +potatoes or corn, and for the reason, probably, that in the relatively +dry season at which the seed of this plant is sown, the residue of the +manure still in the soil is more readily available than freshly applied +manure would be. Good crops have been grown on land thus manured, when +at the same time seed sown on land under similar conditions and similar +in other respects failed to give satisfactory yields. + +In a majority of instances farmyard manure cannot be spared for such a +use. When it cannot, if necessary, commercial fertilizers may be +applied. Those rich in phosphoric acid and potash are usually most +needed, but sometimes nitrogen also is necessary. When nitrogen is used, +it may be best applied on the growing crop and while it is young. +Phosphoric acid and potash may be fitly applied when the land is being +prepared, and in a way that will incorporate them with the surface soil. +These may be used in the form of wood ashes, bone meal, Thomas' slag, +Kainit, sulphate or muriate of potash, South Carolina rock and acid +phosphate. Acid phosphate and muriate of potash stand high in favor with +some growers when applied in the proportions of 9 and 1 parts and at the +rate of, say, 200 pounds more or less per acre. + +=Sowing.=--The date for sowing crimson clover would seem to depend more +upon latitude than upon any other influence. North of the Ohio River it +should seldom be sown later than September 1st, lest the growth of the +plants should not be strong enough to endure the winter weather. Nor +should it be sown earlier than July 1st, lest the plants should reach +the blooming stage without having made a sufficient growth, an objection +which applies to sowing earlier than July 1st in any part of the United +States. All things considered, August is the most favorable month for +sowing the seed north of the Ohio and Potomac rivers. In the South, +sowing at a later period is preferable. In the latitude of Tennessee, +September would usually prove more suitable for sowing than an earlier +date, and near the Gulf, October. But it may be sown earlier and later +in these respective latitudes. It is a good time to sow the seed in much +of the South when the autumn rains begin to come, and the same is true +of the Puget Sound country. + +The seed may be sown by hand, by the aid of hand machines, by some makes +of grain drills in the same way as grain is sown, and by others with a +grass-seeder attachment. When sown by the latter, the seed should +usually be allowed to fall before the grain tubes to aid in securing a +covering for it; the covering thus provided should be supplemented by +additional harrowing and in some instances rolling. When sown by hand or +by hand machines on soils East and South, the roller should in many +instances follow and then the harrow, but on cloddy surfaces the harrow +should be used first and then the roller. No method of sowing the seed +is more satisfactory than that which sows it by grain drills, which can +deposit it in the soil as grain is sown, as it is then buried at an even +depth. Sowing to a medium depth, say, 1/2 to 1-1/2 inches, is preferable +to either extreme. + +Whether it is advisable to sow a nurse crop will depend upon conditions. +When the seed is sown early, in hot weather the young plants are helped +by more or less of shade. Such shade is usually provided by the other +factor or factors of the mixture. But when shade only is wanted from the +nurse crop, a thin seeding of buckwheat has been found to answer. Melons +and tomatoes have in some instances furnished shade satisfactorily, and +in others upright growing varieties of cow peas or soy beans. The less +complete the preparation of the seed-bed, the greater also is the +necessity for shade. In orchards the shade of the trees is usually +ample, and in some instances excessive. The same is true of vigorous +corn and cotton crops. + +Whether this clover should be sown alone or in mixtures will also depend +upon conditions. If the crop is wanted solely for the enrichment of the +land, it will usually be better to sow it alone, as crops other than +legumes do not bring as much fertility to the land. As a rule, +therefore, it should be sown alone in orchards. It should also, usually, +be sown alone for soiling crops and for hay, but in some instances for +both uses it may be sown with such crops as winter oats or winter +vetches. On some soils, however, these will too much crowd the clover +plants. On others the reverse will be true. For seed the crop should, of +course, always be sown alone. + +For pasture, crimson clover is sometimes sown with rape, winter rye, +winter oats, the common vetch or the sand vetch. When sown with rape, +the date of the sowing should be early. With the other crops named the +most suitable date for sowing the clover will usually prove the most +suitable also for sowing these. + +When sown alone, from 10 to 20 pounds of seed are used per acre. With +all the conditions favorable, 12 to 15 pounds should suffice. When sown +with rape for pasture, 3 pounds of rape and 10 of the clover, or even a +less quantity, should be enough. When sown with winter rye or winter +oats, about 1 bushel of each and 10 pounds of clover should suffice, and +when sown with the common or the sand vetch, 1/2 bushel of either and 10 +pounds of the clover should be enough. When sown in the chaff, from 2 to +3 bushels ought to suffice, but the amount required will be much +affected by the character of the seed crop. + +=Pasturing.=--Crimson clover may be pastured in the autumn or in the +spring or at both seasons, either when sown alone, or in conjunction +with some other pasture crops, as winter rye, oats, barley or vetches. +But it is not probable that it will ever become so popular as some other +pasture plants that grow during the same seasons of the year; since, +first, when it is grown, it is usually wanted for green manure; second, +it does not under some conditions grow satisfactorily with other crops; +and third, when grazed down in the autumn the covering thus removed +renders the plants much more liable to perish in the winter. When, +however, it is sown early in the season, as in July, along with Dwarf +Essex rape, or even alone, much grazing may be furnished, even though +the clover should not survive the winter. + +It may be grazed by horses, mules, cattle, sheep or swine, but when +grazed with cattle and sheep, it is probable that some danger from hoven +or bloat will be present, as when grazing other kinds of clover. (See +page 94.) This danger, however, will be lessened, if not entirely +removed, when nurse crops are grown with the clover, except in the case +of rape. The grazing should not begin when the plants are small, lest +the growth should be too much hindered at a season when growth is +critical. + +=Harvesting for Hay.=--Crimson clover is ready to be cut for hay when +coming into, and a little before it is in, fullest bloom. Some +authorities claim that it should be harvested when the blooms begin to +appear. It should certainly not be allowed to pass the stage of full +bloom, lest the hay when cured should prove hurtful to horses and +possibly to other live stock, because of the presence of hair balls, +which are then liable to form from the hairs so numerously found on this +plant. These balls produce death by forming an impermeable wedge in the +intestines of horses, thereby impeding and in some instances totally +arresting the process of digestion. These balls, almost circular in +form, are composed of minute and rather stiff hairs, and several have +been found in one animal. These hairs, numerous on the heads; do not +stiffen sooner than the period of full bloom; hence, until that stage is +reached in the growth of the plants, the danger from feeding cured hay +made from them does not occur. + +In New Jersey and the neighboring States, crimson clover is ready for +being cut sometimes in May earlier or later, as the season is early or +late. Further South it is fit to harvest earlier. At that season it is +not easily cured, since then rains are more frequent than in the +ordinary harvest season and the weather is less drying. Consequently, +hay caps may frequently be used with much advantage by the growers of +this hay. (See page 98.) + +It is harvested as other clover; that is, it is cut with the field +mower, raked when wilted, put up into cocks, and left to stand in these +until it has gone through the sweating process, when the cocks are +opened out again on a bright day for a few hours prior to drawing them. +The tedder should be used freely in getting the hay ready to rake, as at +that season of the year it dries slowly. + +=Securing Seed.=--Crimson clover does not ripen quite so quickly after +flowering as common red clover, owing, in part, at least, to the less +intense character of the heat and drying influences at the season when +it matures. Nevertheless, when it is ripe, unless it is cut with much +promptness, the seed will shed much from the heads, and the heads will +break off much during the curing process. If cut even two or three days +too soon, the seeds will not be large and plump. Moreover, showery or +muggy weather will soon greatly injure the crop. One or two days of such +weather after the crop has been cut will stain the seed; two or three +days of the same will cause much of the seed to sprout, and three or +four days will practically ruin the crop. + +Because of the ease with which the seed sheds off the heads, it is +better to cut the seed crop while it is a little damp, or at least to +refrain from cutting during the greatest heat of the day. In some +instances it is cut with the mower and raked early or late in the day, +put up in small cocks and threshed from these in four or five days after +being cut. But this method of harvesting, however carefully done, is +attended with much loss of seed. It is better to harvest with the +self-rake reaper, the rakes being so adjusted that the hay will be +dropped off in small gavels or sheaves, so small that in two or three +days they may be lifted without being turned over; Much care should be +exercised in lifting the sheaves to avoid shedding in the seed, and it +should be drawn on wagons with tight racks. + +While it is not absolutely necessary to thresh the seed crop at once, +the work can usually be done at that time with less outlay and with less +loss of seed. It is threshed with a huller or with a grain separator +with suitable attachments. Some attention must be given to the +arrangement of the teeth used in the machine, lest many of the seeds, +which are large; should be split; and as it is not easy to separate the +seeds from the haulms, specially made riddles and sieves must needs be +used. + +The seed crop is usually harvested in June north of the Ohio and Potomac +rivers, and southward from these in the month of May. The yield of seed +runs all the way from 10 bushels per acre downwards. The average crop is +4 to 5 bushels. + +=Renewing.=--Since crimson clover is an annual, but little can be done +in the sense of renewing it on the same land without breaking the +ground. But in orchards, it is sometimes grown from year to year by what +may be termed a process of self-seeding. When the seed is not quite ripe +in the heads, or even somewhat earlier, the orchard is plowed so as to +leave some of the heads standing up along the line of the furrow. When +these have matured, the land is harrowed, which scatters the seeds in +the chaff, and from these another crop is produced. But to this plan +there is the objection that it allows the clover to draw too heavily on +the moisture in the soil before it is plowed under. + +=Facts Regarding Crimson Clover.=--1. When crimson clover is sown so +early in the season that it has at least three to four months in which +to grow before winter sets in, the benefits to the land from sowing the +seed will usually more than pay for the seed and labor, even though it +should not survive the winter. + +2. Prominent among the causes of failure where crimson clover does not +succeed are: (_a_) The seed fails to germinate because of the want of +moisture, or having germinated the young plants are killed by heat or +drought; (_b_) they perish in the winter from exposure to cold winds or +frosts, or by alternate freezing and thawing in the soil; or (_c_) the +land is too low in fertility to produce a sufficiently vigorous growth +in the plants. + +3. The mechanical effects upon the soil from growing crimson clover on +it are very marked, especially when it inclines to stiffness, owing to +the strong development of the root growth. + +4. When crimson clover has been sown in the spring, a reasonably good +growth is usually obtained before midsummer, even as far north as the +Canadian boundary line, but since hot weather checks further growth and +frequently causes wilting in the plants, this variety is not equal to +some of the other varieties of clover for being sown at that season. + +5. In the Southern States, crimson clover has been found to render +considerable service by aiding in preventing land from washing in the +winter season. + +6. When plowed under in orchards, the work should be done at an early +rather than a late stage in the growth of the plants, lest it should rob +the trees of their rightful share of the moisture. Because of this, in +some instances, if not in all, the plants should be buried before the +season of full bloom and sometimes before the blooms begin to open. + +7. The seed is more certain to germinate while yet enclosed in the chaff +scales, and because of this, where home-grown seed is used, it may be +worth while to secure it in this form by flailing out the seed or +treading it out with horses. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +WHITE CLOVER + + +White Clover (_Trifolium repens_) is also called Dutch, White Dutch, +White Trefoil, Creeping Trifolium and Honeysuckle clover. The name Dutch +clover has doubtless been applied to it because of the extent to which +it is in evidence in the pastures and meadows of Holland; the name +Creeping Trifolium, because of the creeping character of the stems, +which, under favorable conditions, send roots down into the soil; and +Honeysuckle clover, because of the honey supplies which it furnishes for +bees. It is one of the plants known as Shamrock, the national emblem of +Ireland. + +White clover is perennial, the stems of which creep along the ground +and, as above intimated, root at the joints; so that from this source +plants are indefinitely multiplied. They also come from the seed. The +leaves are small and very numerous, and with the exception of the flower +stems and flowers, furnish all the forage obtained. The flowers are very +numerous, especially when showery weather precedes and accompanies the +flowering season. They are large for the size of the plant, are +supported by a leafless stem of considerable length, and are white or +tinted with a delicate rose color. The roots are numerous and fibrous. +They cannot go down into the soil so deeply as the larger clovers; +hence, the dwarfing effect of dry seasons upon the growth. + +[Illustration: Fig. 7. White Clover (_Trifolium repens_) + Oregon Experiment Station] + +This plant is exceedingly hardy. It comes out from under the snow with a +green tint, and the leaves are not easily injured by the frosts of +autumn. The growth is not rapid until the general late rains of spring +fall freely. It then pushes on rapidly, and, sending up innumerable +flower stems, turns the pastures in which it abounds into immense flower +gardens in the months of May and June, according to the latitude of the +locality. The bloom remains out for a considerable time, and free +grazing has the effect of prolonging the period of bloom. Under such +conditions, blossoms continue to form and mature seeds during much of +the summer. When these escape being grazed, they fall down upon the land +and aid in forming additional plants. Hence it is that when white clover +has once possessed a soil, it so stores the land with seed possessed of +so much vitality that subsequently white clover plants grow, as it were, +spontaneously on these lands when they have been thus grazed even for a +limited term of years. + +The power of this useful plant to travel and possess the land is only +equalled by that of blue grass. When timber lands are cleared, white +clover plants soon appear, and in a few years will spread over the whole +surface of the land. But the amount of grazing furnished by it varies +greatly with the character of the season. Some seasons its bloom is +scarcely in evidence; other seasons it overspreads the pastures. + +While it is an excellent pasture plant for stock, they do not relish it +so highly as some other pasture plants; when forming seed, it is least +valuable for horses, owing to the extent to which it salivates them. Its +diminutive habit of growth unfits it for making meadows, unless in +conjunction with other hay plants. In nutritive properties, it is placed +ahead of medium red clover. Some growers have spoken highly of it as a +pasture plant for swine. + +Being a legume, it has the power of enriching soils with nitrogen, but +probably not to so great an extent as the larger varieties of clover. +Its rootlets, however, have a beneficent influence on the texture of +soils, because of their number, and because of the power of the stems to +produce fresh plants, which occupy the soil when other plants die. The +latter furnish a continued source of food to other grasses, which grow +along with white clover in permanent pastures. + +Along with blue grass, white clover plants aid in choking out weeds. +This result follows largely as the outcome of the close sod formed by +the two. But in some soils, plants of large growth and bushes and young +trees will not thus be crowded out. + +=Distribution.=--White clover is certainly indigenous to Europe and to +the Northern States, and probably Western Asia. It grows in every +country in Europe, but with greatest luxuriance in those countries which +border on the North Sea, the climates of which are very humid, and more +especially in the Netherlands and Great Britain. It stands in high +favor in Holland, but is not regarded so highly in England, owing, +probably, to the great variety of grasses grown there in permanent +pastures. It is generally thought that it was not indigenous to the +Southern States, but has reached these from those farther north. It +would seem to be capable of growing in all countries well adapted to the +keeping of cattle; hence, it follows in the wake of successful +live-stock husbandry. + +White clover seems able to adapt itself to a great variety of climatic +conditions. Nevertheless, it is certainly better adapted to a moderately +cool climate than to one that is hot, and to a moist, humid climate than +to one that is dry. It has much power to live through dry seasons, but +it will not thrive in a climate in which the rainfall is too little for +the successful growth of small cereal grains. Where snow covers it in +winter, this clover will grow on timber soils as far north as any kind +of cereal can be made to mature; and it will also grow as far south as +the Mexican boundary on the higher grounds, when there is enough +moisture present to sustain it. + +It would probably be correct to say that this plant is found in every +State in the Union, and that it succeeds well in nearly all the Northern +States, from sea to sea. Although it grows well in certain parts of the +Southern States, especially in those that lie northward, the general +adaptation in these is not so high as in those further north. The +highest adaptation in the United States is probably found in the Puget +Sound region and in the hardwood timber producing areas of the States +which lie south from the Great Lakes and in proximity to them, as +Northeastern Minnesota, Northern Wisconsin, Michigan, Ohio and New York. +But the adaptation is also high in the more elevated of the mountain +valleys of the Northwestern States when irrigated waters may be led on +to these lands. The areas lowest in adaptation are those that lie within +the semi-arid belt. The low-lying lands of the South, where hot weather +is prolonged in summer, are likewise low in their adaptation, but not so +low as the former. The prairie areas of the Northern Mississippi basin +have an adaptation for growing white clover that may be termed +intermediate, but where hardwood forests grow naturally on these the +adaptation is high. In New England the climatic conditions are very +favorable, much more so than the soil conditions. + +In Canada, conditions are found highly favorable to the growth of this +plant in the country lying eastward from Lake Huron, north of Lakes Erie +and Ontario and also on both sides of the St. Lawrence River. Adaptation +is also high along the Pacific and in the mountain valleys not distant +from the Pacific. In all the areas of Canada, which once produced +forests, this plant will grow well. But north from Lakes Huron and +Superior, the soil conditions are against it, because of their rocky +character. Certain forest areas west from Lake Superior, and also in +other parts, the sandy soils of which sustain a growth of Jack Pine +(_Pinus murrayana_) trees, do not grow white clover with much vigor. +The prairie areas of Canada, westward from Lake Superior to the +mountains, do not grow white clover with much success, and the +adaptation for its growth would seem to lessen gradually until the Rocky +Mountains are approached. + +=Soils.=--Small white clover will grow on almost any kind of soil, but +by no means equally well. Highest, probably, in adaptation, especially +when climatic conditions are considered along with those of soil, are +the clay loams west of the Cascade Mountains and northward from +California to Alaska. During the moist months of early summer, this +plant turns the pastures in these areas into a flower garden. Almost +equally high in adaptation are the volcanic ash soils of the Rocky +Mountain valleys. When amply supplied with water, the finest crops of +white clover can be grown even superior to those grown on the lands +described above. Almost the same may be said of what are termed the +hardwood timber soils, which are usually made up of clay loam lying upon +clay. Such areas abound in Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, Ontario and +some States further south. In these soils it grows with much luxuriance, +more especially when lime and potash are abundant. Similar luxuriance +may be looked for in the deposit soils of river basins in which the clay +element predominates, but not in those that are largely made up of sand. +It will also grow well on the stiffest clays, whether white or red, when +moisture is present. On prairie soils, the success attending it is +dependent largely on their texture, composition and the moisture which +they contain under normal conditions. The more firm these soils are, +the better will the clover grow in them, and _vice versa_. This is +equivalent to saying that the more clay they contain, the better will +the white clover grow in them. + +Where the humus soils of the prairies are deep and are underlaid with +clay, white clover will grow much better in the subsoil, if laid bare, +than in the surface soil. Prairie soils which lift with the wind are ill +adapted to the growth of this plant, whatsoever may be their +composition. Much of the soil in the semi-arid belt would grow this +plant in fine form, but want of moisture, where irrigation is absent +makes its growth prohibitory in a large portion of this area. On +ordinary slough soils, this clover finds a congenial home, but it will +not grow quite so well, relatively, in these as alsike clover. On sandy +soils, such as those on which Jack pine and Norway pine (_Pinus +resinosa_) grow, this plant will maintain itself, and in wet seasons +will make considerable showing on these; but in very dry seasons the +plants will die, the growth the following season coming from seeds +already in the soil. In the soils of the extreme South, the inability of +white clover to make a good showing is probably more the result of +summer heat than of want of power in the plants to gather food. In those +of the Southwest, want of moisture and excessive heat render its growth, +in a sense, prohibitory. + +=Place in the Rotation.=--Since white clover is usually not sown for +meadow, but is rather sown for pasture, it can scarcely be called a +rotation plant in the strict sense of the term; and yet, because of the +extent to which it grows when it has once obtained a footing in soils, +it is more or less frequent in all rotations in which grass or clover is +one of the factors. As it usually comes into the grass pastures, when +these have become established, it will occupy about the same place as +blue grass in rotations; that is to say, whatever would be proper to sow +after the blue grass would be proper to sow after this plant; since the +two usually unite in making the same sod. It will, therefore, be in +order to follow this plant with corn to feed upon the nitrogen furnished +by the clover. The same will be true of any small cereal that has +special adaptation for being grown on overturned sod, as for instance, +flax or oats, or of any crop that revels in the decay of vegetable +matter, more especially in the early stages of such decay, as, for +instance, potatoes and rape. When white clover is sown on land that is +cultivated, though only sown as a factor in a pasture crop, as with all +other clovers it may best be sown on land that is clean; that is, on +land on which the preceding crop has been cultivated to the extent of +securing a clean surface on the same. If, however, this crop must needs +be sown on land that has not been thus cleaned, its great inherent +hardihood will enable it to establish itself where some clovers and +grasses would fail. + +It is common to sow white clover on land from which the forest has +recently been removed, also on natural prairie, where it has not +previously grown. In these instances it simply follows the crop of +forest in the one case and of native prairie in the other. But it will +not take possession of the land in either case to the exclusion of other +grasses. + +=Preparing the Soil.=--The preparation of the soil for growing this +plant is much the same as for growing other plants of the clover or +grass family. Fineness, firmness, cleanness and moistness are the chief +essentials to be looked for in making the seed-bed. For the same reason +that it has much power to grow among weeds for so small a plant, it has +also much power to grow on surfaces not in the best condition of +preparation for receiving so small a seed. But when sown to provide a +seed crop, it is specially necessary to make the land thoroughly clean +before sowing the seed. This is necessary for the reason, first, that +small white clover, because of its tardiness in growing in the spring, +and because of its comparatively small growth has not much power to +crowd weeds; and second, because of the labor involved in preventing +weed seeds from maturing in a crop that ripens its seeds somewhat late +in the season. While it is advantageous to burn off the grass from a +natural meadow where white clover, is to be sown, it is not so +essential, nevertheless, as when preparing such land for being sown with +some other varieties of grass or clover. The young plants will endure +under conditions which would cause those of many other varieties to +fail. + +=Sowing.=--White clover is sown by much the same methods as the medium +red variety. (See page 75.) But it will stand more hardship than the +other variety; hence, it may be sown earlier. This means that it may be +sown in northerly latitudes any time, from the melting of the winter +snows until early summer, and in southern latitudes almost any season, +except during the hot summer months. In either latitude, however, the +early spring is usually the most suitable season for sowing. + +The seed may be sown by hand, by hand machines, or by the seeder +attachment of grain drills. It is more commonly sown along with other +clovers and grasses, and the methods of sowing these will also be +suitable for the sowing of white clover. (See page 18.) But when the +seed is sown alone, as for producing seed crops, the nurse crop need not +of necessity be sown thinly, from the fear that the young plants should +be smothered by an undue density of shade. + +There is no mixture of clovers and grasses grown for pasture to which +this plant may not be added with profit, providing the seed is not +already in the land in sufficient supply. But it is seldom sown with +either clovers or grasses, or with these combined, for the production of +hay. It is the judgment of the author, however, that in localities which +have special adaptation for the growth of this plant, it should render +excellent service in providing hay for sheep, if sown along with alsike +clover, and a little timothy; the latter being sown mainly to support +the clovers so that they will not lodge. The white clover would furnish +hay considerably finer even than the alsike; hence, such hay should be +peculiarly adapted to the needs of sheep. Some authorities object to the +presence of white clover in hay intended for horses or cattle, lest it +should induce in them more or less salivation. The author leans to the +opinion that in cured hay injury from the source named will in no +instance prove serious, owing to the small amount, relatively, of white +clover in average hay crops. + +The amount of seed to sow will vary with such conditions as soil, +climate and the nature of the pasture, but in any event it need not be +large. The seeds of white clover are small, considerably smaller than +those of alsike. For ordinary grazing along with other grasses, or +grasses and clovers, it will seldom be necessary to sow more than 1 +pound of seed per acre. Sometimes a less quantity will suffice, as when +there is more or less of seed in the land, and, as already intimated, +because of the store of seed in the land in many instances, it is not +necessary to sow it at all. Especially is this true of sections which +have been tilled for some time. When sown with alsike clover to provide +hay, 2 pounds of seed per acre would be a maximum amount, and 4 pounds +when sown alone to provide seed. + +When sown in newly cleared forest lands or on prairie sod, the methods +to be followed will depend upon circumstances. More commonly when thus +sown the seed is not covered artificially; consequently, much of it in +dry seasons may not grow. The plan, therefore, of sowing small amounts +of the seed on such lands two years in succession would be safer than to +sow twice the amount of the same in one year. In time this clover would +find its way into such areas. It comes through such agencies as birds, +hay fed to teams engaged in lumbering, and the overflow of streams; and +as soon as it gets a foothold its distribution is further accelerated by +the droppings of cattle which contain the seeds, and by the winds. + +The power of this plant to increase is simply wonderful. This is owing +to: 1. The relatively large number of seedheads produced from the +plants. 2. The power which these have to multiply by means of rootlets +from the incumbent stems, which fasten into the soil. 3. The prolonged +season during which the heads form. 4. The habit of growth in many of +the heads, because of which they are not grazed off. 5. The strong +vitality of the seed. And 6. The great hardihood of the plants. + +=Pasturing.=--White clover ranks next to blue grass as a pasture plant +within the area of its adaptation (see page 261), when its +productiveness, continuity in growth, ability to remain in the land, +palatability and nutritive properties are considered together. In +palatability it ranks as medium only. In the early part of the season +while it is still tender and juicy, it will be eaten by stock with +avidity, but as the seed-maturing season is approached, it is not so +highly relished. In nutrition it ranks higher than medium red clover. It +does not make much of a showing in the early part of the season, but in +favorable seasons, about the time that blue grass begins to fail, it +grows rapidly and furnishes much pasture. + +It is pre-eminently the complement of a blue-grass pasture. When these +grow together, the two will furnish grazing in a moist year through all +the season of grazing. Both have the property of retaining their hold +indefinitely in many soils and of soon making a sward on the same +without being re-sown, when the cultivation of the ground ceases. The +blue grass grows quickly quite early and late in the season, and the +clover grows likewise during much of the summer. As the older plants of +the clover fail, fresh ones appear, and the blue grass feeds on the +former in their decay. They thus furnish humus and nitrogen for the +sustenance of the blue grass. + +But much moisture is necessary in order to insure good blue grass +pastures, and they are more luxuriant when the moisture comes early in +the season, rather than when the plants are nearing the season of bloom. +To such an extent is white clover influenced in growth by such weather, +that in some seasons it will abound in certain pastures, while in others +it will scarcely appear in the same. Those favorable seasons are +frequently spoken of as being "white-clover years." + +While this plant furnishes good grazing for all kinds of domestic +animals kept upon the farm, as a pasture for horses and mules, there is +the objection to it that it will in a considerable degree so salivate +them that much "slobbering" follows. This is sometimes produced to such +an extent as to be seriously harmful. The trouble from this cause +increases as the seed-forming season is approached. It has been known +thus to salivate cattle, but the danger of injury to them from this +source is slight. These injurious results to horses will be obviated in +proportion as the other grasses are allowed to grow up amid the clover; +in other words, in proportion as the pasture is not grazed closely early +in the season. The animals which then graze on these pastures must take +other food with the clover. + +=Harvesting for Hay.=--Since white clover is seldom grown alone for hay, +and since it seldom forms the most bulky factor in a hay crop, the +methods of harvesting will be similar to those practiced in harvesting +the more bulky factor or factors of the crop. The want of bulk in this +clover is against it as a hay crop, owing to the smallness of the +yields, compared with the other hay crops that may be usually grown on +the same land. As a factor of a hay crop, however, this little plant +will add much to its weight and also to its palatability, especially for +sheep and dairy cows. + +When it is grown for hay in mixtures in which the large clovers or +timothy predominates, the white clover should, of course, be cut at the +most suitable season for cutting these clovers or the timothy, as one is +present in excess. When the larger clovers predominate, the method of +curing will be the same as for curing these (see page 234), that is to +say, it can best be cured in cocks. When timothy predominates, the +method of curing will be the same as for timothy; that is to say, it may +be cured in the cock or in the winrow, according to circumstances. Owing +to the fineness of the stems, it may be cured more quickly than red +clover; hence, its presence in a crop of timothy will not delay much the +curing of the latter unless when present in great abundance. + +Under some conditions it would be easily possible to grow white clover +for hay alone, and in some instances with profit, more especially in +providing what would be a matchless fodder for young lambs and young +calves. It might be so grown in the clover lands that lie immediately +southward from Lakes Superior and Huron, in the northern Rocky Mountain +valleys and on the valley lands around Puget Sound. On these lands in a +favorable season, it would be quite possible to cut not less than 2 tons +per acre, while on average land white clover alone would not yield more, +probably, than 1/2 ton per acre. But even when grown for the purpose +named, some alsike clover sown along with the white clover would add to +the yield of hay, and without in any considerable degree lessening its +value for the use named. + +=Securing Seed.=--White clover is a great seed-producing plant. The +season for bloom covers a period relatively long, and the number of +blossoms produced under favorable conditions on a given area is very +large. But when seed crops are to be produced with regularity, it is +necessary that moisture can be depended upon in sufficient supply in the +spring months to produce a vigorous growth in the plants. Such a climate +is found in the Puget Sound country and in a less degree for some +distance south from Lakes Huron and Superior. In areas which can be +irrigated, it is not imperative that the climate shall be thus moist. +Such areas, therefore, may be looked upon as possessed of superior +adaptation for the growth of seed crops of white clover. + +The areas are limited, however, in which seed crops are grown in the +United States; so limited are they that it has been found very difficult +to locate them. Wood County in Central Wisconsin grows a considerable +quantity, and some counties northward in the same State, and probably +also some parts of Northern Michigan, will grow seed equally well. + +Where a seed crop is grown every care should be exercised to have it +free from foul weeds. The aim should be to grow it on clean land. +Sometimes, however, the seed is self-sown; that is, it comes into the +land without being sown, but even in such areas it is safer to sow 3 +pounds of seed per acre in the early spring along with a nurse crop. The +best seed crops in Wisconsin and Michigan are grown on a reasonably +stiff clay soil. To get a full crop of seed, it should be pastured for a +time in the spring, or the crop should be run over with the mower about +June 1st, setting the mower bar so as to cut 3 or 4 inches high. No harm +will follow if some of the tops of the clover should be cut off. The +grass and weeds thus cut are usually left on the ground, but sometimes +it may be necessary to remove them. In a short time the field should be +one mass of bloom. + +The crop is ready for being harvested when the bulk of the heads have +turned a dark brown and when the bulk of them have assumed a reddish +brown tint, notwithstanding that some of the later heads may still be +in full flower. Vigorous crops may be cut with the self-rake reaper set +to cut low, otherwise many of the heads will not be gathered. To +facilitate this process, the ground should be made quite smooth even +before sowing the seed. But the seed crop is more commonly cut with the +field mower, to the cutter bar of which a galvanized platform is bolted, +the sides of which are about 6 inches high. From this the clover is +raked off into bunches with a rake. These bunches should not be large, +and since nearly all the heads in them will point upward, they should +not be turned over if rained on, but simply lifted up with a suitable +fork and moved on to other ground. + +The seed crop cures quickly. It may be drawn and threshed at once, or it +may be stacked and threshed when convenient. If stacked, a goodly supply +of old hay or straw should be put next the ground, and much care should +be taken to protect the clover by finishing off the stack carefully with +some kind of grass or hay that will shed the rain easily. Since the +heads are very small and numerous, and since, as with all clovers, they +break off easily when ripe, much promptness and care should be exercised +in harvesting the seed crop. The best machine for threshing a seed so +small is the clover huller. + +The yields of seed will run all the way from less than 3 bushels per +acre to 5 bushels, and some crops have been harvested in Wisconsin which +gave 7 bushels per acre. Four bushels would probably be about an average +yield. As the price is usually relatively high compared with other +clovers, the seed from white clover would be quite remunerative were it +not that in a dry season the yield is disappointing. In some instances +two crops are grown in succession; in others, one crop is reaped. The +land is then sown to barley the next year, and the following year clover +seed may be reaped again without sowing a second time. Usually, after +two successive crops of seed have been cut, blue grass crowds the +clover. + +It should be possible to grow prodigious crops of white clover in +certain of the northern Rocky Mountain valleys, as, for instance, in +Montana and Washington, where the conditions for the application of +water to grow the plants and of withholding the same when ripening the +seed are completely under the control of the husbandman. The soils in +these valleys, as previously intimated, have high adaptation for growing +white clover. + +=Renewing.=--White clover is probably more easily renewed than any plant +of the clover family. In fact, it seldom requires renewal in a pasture +in which it has obtained a footing as long as it remains a pasture. This +arises from the abundance of the seed production and from the power of +the same to retain germinating properties for a long period. +Nevertheless, there may be instances when it may be wise to scatter more +seed in the early spring in a pasture in which white clover may not be +sufficiently abundant. It is also renewed, in a sense, when suitable +fertilizer is applied on the pastures. A dressing of potash will greatly +stimulate the growth of any kind of clover on nearly all soils; hence, +the marked increase in the growth of the clover that usually follows the +application of a dressing of wood ashes, especially in the unleached +form. Top-dressings of farmyard manure are also quite helpful to such +growth. + +The conclusion must not be reached that because white clover is not much +in evidence in a permanent pasture for one or two, or even three dry +seasons, if these should follow each other, that it will not come again +and with great vigor and in much abundance when a wet season arrives +again. + +=For Lawns.=--No other plant of the clover family is so frequently sown +when making lawns. For such a use it is not sown alone, but is always +the complement of Kentucky blue grass or of a mixture of grasses. No two +plants can be singled out that are more suitable for lawn making than +white clover and Kentucky blue grass. Both are fine in their habit of +growth. The two in conjunction usually make a more dense sward than +either alone, and the clover will grow and produce many flowers, if not +kept clipped too closely when the blue grass is resting in midsummer. + +As lawns are usually small, and a dense sward is desired as quickly as +it can be obtained; the seed should be sown thickly on lawns, at the +rate of not less than 5 pounds of seed to the acre. The early spring is +the best time for sowing the seed, but in mild climates it may be sown +at almost any season that may be convenient, providing the ground is +moist enough to germinate the seed. In cold climates, the seed should +be sown not later than August, unless when sown too late for autumn +germination. This in some instances may not only be proper, but +commendable. + +=As a Honey Plant.=--White clover is proverbial for its ability to +furnish honey. There is probably no single plant which furnishes more or +better honey. But its value for such a use varies greatly in different +years. In seasons that are quite dry in the spring, it makes but little +growth and produces but few blossoms; hence, in such seasons bees can +obtain but little honey, relatively, from such a source. It would +doubtless be good policy, therefore, for the growers to encourage the +sowing of alsike clover where bees are much kept, since the growth of +this clover is less hindered by dry weather at the season named. Less +close pasturing than is commonly practiced would favorably influence the +production of honey from white clover, and would also result in +considerably greater yields of pasture. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +JAPAN CLOVER + + +Japan Clover (_Lespedeza striata_) was introduced from China or Japan, +or from both countries, into South Carolina in 1849, under the name +Japan clover. It is thought the seed came in connection with the tea +trade with these countries. According to Phares, the generic term +_Lespedeza_, borne by the one-seeded pods of the plants of this family, +was assigned to them in honor of Lespedez, a governor of Florida under +Spanish rule. It is sometimes called Bush clover, from the bush-shaped +habit of growth in the plants when grown on good soils, but is to be +carefully distinguished from the Bush clovers proper, which are of +little value as food plants. + +Japan clover is an annual, but owing to its remarkable power to retain +its hold upon the soil, through the shedding of the seed and the growing +of the same, it has equal ability with many perennials to retain its +hold upon the soil. It does not start until late in the spring, nor can +it endure much frost; but its ability to grow in and retain its hold +upon poor soils is remarkable, while its powers of self-propagation in +the South would seem to be nearly equal to those of small white clover +(_Trifolum repens_) in the North. It is, therefore, one of the hardiest +plants of the clover family. Where it has once obtained a foothold, in +some soils, at least, it has been known to crowd out Bermuda grass and +even broom sage. + +The form of the plants is much affected by the character of the soil in +which they grow. On poor soils, the habit of growth is low and +spreading; on good soils, it is more upright. But it is always more or +less branched, and the stems are relatively stiffer than those of other +clovers. They rise but a few inches above the ground in poor soils, not +more than 2 to 4; but in good rich soils it will attain to the height of +2 feet. About 1 foot may be named as the average height. The leaves are +trifoliate. The flower produced in the axils of the leaves are numerous, +but quite small. They appear from July onward, according to locality, +but are probably more numerous in September, and vary from a pink to a +rose-colored or purplish tint. The seed pods are small, flattish oval in +shape and contain but one seed. The tap roots are strong in proportion +to the size of the plant and are relatively deep feeding; hence, the +ability of the plant to survive severe drought. The roots have much +power to penetrate stiff subsoils. + +Japan clover is not usually relished by stock at first, but they soon +come to like it, and are then fond of it. Close grazing does not readily +injure it; it also furnishes a good quality of hay, but except on +reasonably good soils, the yields of the hay are not very large. The +chemical analysis compares well with that of red clover. + +Japan clover is also an excellent soil renovator. In the Southern +States, it is credited with the renovation of soils so poor that the +return was not worth the labor of tillage. Throughout much of the South, +it has rendered much service in thus improving soils. It also grows so +thickly on many soils as to lessen and, in many instances, entirely +prevent washing, that great bane of Southern soils. It will even grow +and produce some pasture under the shade of grass or Southern pines. + +[Illustration: Fig. 8. Japan Clover (_Lespedeza striata_) + Tennessee Experiment Station] + +=Distribution.=--Japan clover is said to be native to China and other +countries in Eastern Asia. When introduced into Japan, the soil and +climatic conditions proved so favorable that before long it spread out +over the whole island. Since its introduction into the United States it +has spread very rapidly. + +Since it does not grow early in the season, it needs a warm climate. It +grows much better in moist weather than in a time of drought, but it +will also continue to grow in the absence of rain until the drought +becomes excessive. It will then wilt down on poor soils, but grows again +as soon as rain falls. + +Since the introduction of Japan clover into the United States in 1849, +or, as some think, somewhat earlier, it has spread over the entire +South, from the Ohio River to the Gulf, from the Atlantic to the +Mississippi, and also to the States of Arkansas, Louisiana and Texas +beyond the Mississippi. It was early introduced into Georgia, and came +into much favor there. It reached Tennessee in 1870, and soon spread +over many counties. It came later into Louisiana, but soon became very +popular there, largely through the efforts of Colonel J. Burgess McGhee +of West Feliciana, who gave much attention to cultivating it and placing +it before the public. While it will grow readily in any part of the +South, it renders better service in the Gulf States than in those +farther north, owing to the longer season for growth. North of the Ohio +River it is not likely to be cultivated, since in the Northern States it +is not needed, because of the abundance of the red clovers and also the +small white. It is a less abundant producer than the red clovers, and is +also less palatable. Moreover, the season for growing it is much shorter +in these States than in those south; a fact which greatly lessens its +adaptation to northern conditions. + +Japan clover has no mission for any of the provinces of Canada, and for +the reason that it has no mission for the Northern States. + +=Soils.=--Japan clover is adapted to a wide range of soils. There would +seem to be a concensus of opinion in the Southern States that it will +grow on almost any kind of soil. It has grown well on hard, stiff clays, +both white and red; on sandy levels; on gravelly undulations and slopes; +on the banks and in the bottom of gullies; on soils too poor to produce +other crops, as on denuded hills and also in groves. But it will grow +much better, of course, on good, rich land, as on moist loams and rich +alluvial soils. While it prefers moist situations, it is not well +adapted to saturated lands. There is no useful pasture plant in the +South that would seem so well able to fight its own battle unaided on +poor soils as Japan clover, nor is there any which has brought so much +of renovation to these for the labor involved. + +=Place in the Rotation.=--Japan clover can scarcely be classed as a +rotation plant in the strict sense of the term, since it more frequently +comes into the fields, as it were, spontaneously, and owing to the +uncommon degree to which it has the power of re-seeding itself, it is +frequently grown and grazed for successive years on the land upon which +it has been allowed thus to grow. Nevertheless, since it is a nitrogen +gatherer, when it has fertilized the land sufficiently by bringing to it +a supply of nitrogen and by putting humus into it, crops should follow +such as require much of growth to grow them in best form. Such are +cotton, corn and the small cereal grains. Owing to its power to grow on +worn and even on abandoned soils, and to crowd weeds that grow on them, +on such soils it comes in between the cessation of cultivation and the +resumption of the same. It frequently grows as a volunteer crop along +with Johnson grass, and where it comes, it tends to crowd grasses of but +little value, as brown sage. + +Where pasture is desired winter and summer, it should be quite possible +in some localities to obtain it by sowing such crops annually, as winter +oats and sand vetches (_Vicia villosa_) every autumn, and the seed of +Japan clover on the same. The crops first named would provide winter and +spring grazing, and the clover, summer and autumn grazing. The clovers +and the vetches would both aid in fertilizing the land. + +=Preparing the Soil.=--While careful preparation of the land will result +in more certain and uniform germination in the seed, and more rapid +growth in the plants, careful preparation of the seed is not so +necessary with Japan clover as with many other pasture and hay plants. +The seeds are strong in germinating power and the plants are much able +to grow, even under adverse conditions, when they do germinate. Usually, +the preparation which is suited to nurse crops, amid which this clover +is sown, will be suited also to the clover when it is sown thus. + +In many instances, however, it is allowed to re-seed itself where it has +been once sown, or even where it may have come into the soil without +sowing. In this way successive pasture crops have been obtained. But +usually where hay crops are wanted, it will prove more satisfactory, all +things considered, to sow the seed. + +In many instances, simply scarifying the ground has been found a +sufficient preparation for the seed. Any implement that will pulverize +the surface for a few inches downward will answer for such work. In very +many instances, seed, of course, self-sown has become rooted and grown +vigorously on unplowed land. + +=Sowing.=--Japan clover is more commonly sown in the spring, but it is +sometimes sown in the autumn. There is more or less of hazard in sowing +it in the autumn north of the Gulf States, since when the plants are +young they will not stand much frost. For the same reason, there is the +element of hazard in sowing it too early in the spring. Spring sowing +stands highest in favor, taking the whole area into account, in which +the clover is grown. While it is possible to sow the seed too early in +the spring, it will be readily apparent that the earlier it may be sown +without hazard to the young plants, the better will be the returns, +because of the growth secured before the advent of dry weather. + +The seed may be sown by any of the methods adopted when sowing medium +red clover. (See page 78.) The method which is most labor-saving, +however, when sown with a nurse crop, is that which sows it with an +attachment to the grain drill used in sowing the nurse crop. If allowed +to fall in front of the drill tubes, it will not usually need any other +covering than that furnished by the drill tubes followed by the roller. + +It may be sown with any of the small cereals, whether these are grown +for pasture, for hay, or for grain. When these are fall sown and the +clover seed is not sown until the spring, it will be well worth while, +when the weather and soil will admit of it, to cover the seed with the +harrow. It may also be advisable to sow the seed in pastures, as, for +instance, along with orchard grass, or with tall oat grass, as it would +tend to fill the vacancies in the land. + +When sown alone, 10 pounds of seed per acre will usually suffice. But +where there is much seed in the land that has been self-sown, a less +quantity will suffice. Where hay crops are wanted from year to year on +the same land, it may be obtained by simply disking the land and +re-sowing. If the hay is allowed to approach maturity before being cut, +sufficient seed will fall to re-sow the land for the next year's crop, +but the quality of hay so ripe is not so good as if cut earlier. In +pastures, the grazing must not be too close when self-seeding is wanted. + +=Pasturing.=--Japan clover is much used in providing grazing in the +South. Some writers have spoken of it as being the most valuable grazing +plant that grows in the South. Viewed from the standpoint of +productiveness, this would be assigning it too high a place, since +Bermuda grass produces more grazing, but taking productiveness and the +probable influence exerted on soil fertility together, the estimate may +be correct. The ease with which Japan clover may be propagated is also a +strong point in its favor. + +Since it starts late in the spring, it only provides grazing during the +summer and autumn months, from May, June or July onward, according to +the locality, and it fails with the appearance of the first heavy +frosts. In moist situations, it will furnish grazing during all the +summer and autumn, if not allowed to seed, but in time of drought, it +may wither on dry, thin soils and come on again when the rains of autumn +begin to fall. In order to keep the grazing tender and palatable, it +should be reasonably close. If allowed to mature much seed before +grazing begins, the plants will then die, to the great injury of the +grazing. + +That stock do not take kindly to it at first, as they do to alfalfa and +some other plants, cannot be doubted. But they can soon learn to relish +it. It has been praised both for milk and meat production; hence, the +aim should be to have it in all permanent pastures. In some of these it +may be necessary to sow a few pounds of seed per acre at the first. If +the grazing is not too close, the plants thereafter will sufficiently +re-seed the land. It has been found quite possible in short rotations to +secure pasture from Japan clover without sowing it on land on which it +has once grown. But to accomplish this effectively, the grazing must not +be so close as to preclude a self-seeding. By growing such plants for +winter and spring grazing, as turf oats and sand vetches, and then +grazing the Japan clover, which will grow later on lands thus managed, +grazing may be furnished indefinitely from year to year. + +=Harvesting for Hay.=--Japan clover is a good hay plant when grown on +strong soils. The quality is good also when grown under adverse +conditions, but the quantity is deficient. On good soils, the yield is +from 1 to 2 tons per acre, the average being about 1-1/4 to 1-1/2 tons. +The hay is also quite merchantable in Southern markets. It is considered +superior to baled timothy--timothy brought in from the North--especially +when fed to cows producing milk. Japan clover is best cut when the +plants are in full bloom. But harvesting is frequently deferred to a +period somewhat later where self-seeding of the land is desirable. Late +cutting, however, lowers the quality of the hay, both as regards +palatability and digestibility. Much that has been said as to the +curing of medium red clover will also apply to Japan clover. + +Successive crops of hay may be grown from year to year on the same land, +as already intimated. (See page 285.) But where other crops are wanted +on the same farm, it would be wiser to grow these in some sort of +alternation or succession with the clover crops, so that the former +could feed upon the nitrogen brought to the land by the clover. + +=Securing Seed.=--Japan clover is ready for being harvested when the +major portion of the seeds are ripe. This is late in the season. The +seed crop is more easily gathered when grown on good land, owing to the +more upright habit of growth. The self-rake reaper is probably the best +implement for cutting, since it lays it off in loose sheaves, and on +well-prepared land it may be made to cut so low as to gather the bulk of +the seed. But it may also be cut with the field mower as small white +clover is frequently cut. (See page 275.) Owing to the lateness of the +season at which the seed matures, careful and prompt attention may be +necessary to secure the seed crop without loss, owing to the moistness +which characterizes the weather at that season. + +When Japan clover is to be harvested for seed, care should be taken to +prevent weeds from ripening their seeds in the same. With a view to +prevent this, it will be found helpful in many instances to run the +mower over the field some time after the clover has begun to grow freely +in the late spring or early summer. Such clipping will also have the +effect of securing more uniformity in the ripening of the seed. + +The seed may be threshed in much the same way as other clover seed. (See +page 107.) The yields per acre should run from 3 to 8 bushels. It weighs +20 pounds per bushel. + +=Renewing.=--Since Japan clover is an annual, it is not necessary to +renew it, in the sense in which more long-lived clovers are renewed, as, +for instance, the alsike variety. (See page 216.) About the only renewal +practicable is that which insures successive crops of pasture, hay or +seed from the same land where the crop has once been grown. (See page +285.) But the growth may, of course, be stimulated by the application of +dressings of fertilizer, such as gypsum, or those that may be termed +potassic in character. + + + + +CHAPTER X + +BURR CLOVER + + +Burr Clover (_Medicago maculata_) is sometimes called Spotted Medick and +sometimes California clover, also Yellow clover. The name burr clover +has doubtless arisen from the closely coiled seed pod, which, being +covered with curved prickles, adhere to wool more or less as burrs do. +The name Spotted Medick has been given because of the dark spot found in +the middle of the leaflets, in conjunction with the family of plants to +which it belongs. The name California clover is given because of the +claim that it was much grown in California after having been introduced +there from Chili, and the name yellow clover, from the color of the +blossoms. After its introduction into the United States, seedsmen sell +California and Southern burr clover as two varieties, but the +correctness of the distinction thus made has been questioned. Many +persons were wont to confuse it with alfalfa, or, as it is frequently +called, lucerne, but the latter is much more upright in its habit of +growth, grows to a greater height, has more blossoms, blue in color, and +seed pods more loosely coiled. It is also to be distinguished from a +variety (_Medicago denticulata_) which bears much resemblance to it, and +which, growing wild over portions of the plains and foothills of the +West, affords considerable pasture. + +Burr clover may properly be termed a winter annual, since the seed comes +up in the autumn, furnishes grazing in the winter and spring, and dies +with the advent of summer. It is procumbent or spreading and branched. +On good soil some of the plants radiate to the distance of several feet +from the parent root. They have been known to overlap, and thus +accumulate until the ground was covered 2 feet deep with this clover, +thus making it very difficult to plow them under. It is only under the +most favorable conditions, however, that the plants produce such a mass +of foliage. The leaves are composed of three somewhat large leaflets. +The flowers, as previously intimated, are yellow, and there are but two +or three in each cluster, but the clusters are numerous; hence, also the +pods are numerous. They are about 1/4 of an inch broad, and when mature +are possessed of considerable food value. + +Burr clover grows chiefly during the winter, and is at its best for +pasture during the months of March and April, and in the Gulf States +dies down after having produced seed in May. Though it is frequently +sown, it has the power of self-propagation to a marked degree, which +makes it possible to grow many crops in succession without re-seeding by +hand. + +It is not considered a good hay plant, but its value for pasture is +considerable, although, as a rule, animals do not take kindly to it at +first, as they do to alfalfa or medium red clover, but later they become +fond of it, but less so, probably, in the case of horses than of other +animals. Being a legume, it is helpful in enriching the land, and being +a free grower, it improves the soil mechanically through its root +growth, and also through the stems and leaves, when these are plowed +under. + +=Distribution.=--Burr clover is said to be native to Europe and North +Africa, but not to North America, although it has shown high adaptation +in adapting itself to conditions as found in the latter. + +Although this plant is hardy in the South, and, as previously stated, +makes most of its growth in the winter, it is not sufficiently hardy to +endure the winters far northward. Its highest adaptation is found in +States around the Gulf of Mexico. It also grows with more or less vigor +as far north as North Carolina, Tennessee and Arkansas. For these States +its adaptation is, on the whole, higher than crimson clover, although +where the latter will grow readily it is considered the valuable plant +of the two. + +For Canada, burr clover has no mission, owing to the sternness of the +winter climate in that country. + +=Soils.=--While burr clover will grow with more or less success on +almost any kind of soil possessed of a reasonable amount of fertility +and moisture, it is much better adapted to soils alluvial in character +and moist, as, for instance, the deposit soils in the bottom of rivers. +Its power to fight the battle of existence on poor lands is much less +than that of Japan clover, but on soils that grow crops, such as corn or +cotton, it may be made to render a service which the other cannot, +since it grows chiefly in winter and early spring, whereas Japan clover +grows in the summer and early autumn, when cultivated crops occupy the +land. + +=Place in the Rotation.=--Burr clover is grown more in the sense of a +catch crop and for pasture than in that of a crop to be marketed +directly. Since it is grown in the winter and spring, it may be made to +come in between various crops. On good producing lands of the South it +has given satisfaction as a pasture plant for winter for many successive +years without re-sowing by hand, when sown in conjunction with crab +grass (_Panicum sanguinale_) for hay. Dr. Phares grew it thus in +Mississippi for about 20 years. In June crab grass sprang up on the +ground, and being cut when in blossom, produced a good crop of hay in +August. A lighter cutting was again taken in October. The clover then +took possession of the land and was grazed until spring, but not so +closely as to prevent re-seeding in May, after which the plants died +down. + +By thus allowing the plants to mature seed, any crop may follow that can +be grown after May. By following burr clover with cow peas, land may be +much fertilized in one year. By reversing the process on land low in +fertility, that is, sowing the peas first and the clover later, a much +better growth of the clover will be secured. The seed may also be sown +in corn and cotton crops, with a view to enriching the land. But it is +only in the Gulf States that much attention is given to growing burr +clover thus, and for the reason, probably, that the winters are too +cold to admit of the plants furnishing a sufficiency of grazing at that +season. + +Burr clover is sometimes grown with Bermuda grass. The latter furnishes +summer grazing. There is some merit in the plan, if the seed of the burr +clover were sown from year to year. When the re-seeding of the plants is +depended on from season to season there is difficulty in adjusting the +grazing so as to admit of the plants properly re-seeding for the growth +that is to follow. If the Bermuda grass is not closely grazed many of +the burrs which contain the seeds may not reach the ground in time to +germinate. + +=Preparing the Soil.=--Since burr clover has much power to re-seed the +land without preparation, it is more commonly reproduced thus. But, as +with all other plants, it will grow more quickly and more luxuriantly on +a well-prepared seed-bed, where it may be thought worth while to thus +prepare the land. The cultivation given to such crops as corn, cotton or +cow peas makes an excellent preparation of the soil on which to sow burr +clover. + +=Sowing.=--Usually, burr clover is allowed to re-seed itself after it +has once become established in the soil. In this respect it is not +unlike small white clover and Japan clover, but it does not grow so well +as these on poor soil. Where not yet established, it must, of course, be +sown where it is desired to grow it. + +The seed is commonly sown in September or early October, but some +growers recommend sowing in the burrs as early as June or July, that the +tough surrounding which encloses the seed may have time to decay. When +seed separate from the burr is used, it is sown in the months named. +When sown on well-prepared soil, grazing should be plentiful from +February onward. + +Burr clover is more commonly sown in the burr. The burrs are usually +scattered by hand and on land that has been pulverized, but it is easily +possible, when the conditions are favorable, to obtain a stand on land +that has not been plowed. Where seed is scarce, the burrs are sometimes +planted in squares 3 feet apart each way, a limited number of burrs +being dropped at one time. When thus planted, 1 bushel of burrs will +plant several acres. The plants will soon possess all the ground, but to +enable them to do so, pasturing must be deferred for one season. Whether +sown in the burr or otherwise, it is better to cover the seed with the +harrow. + +One bushel of burrs weighs from 10 to 12 pounds. It has been stated 1 +bushel of clean seed weighs 60 pounds. When sown in the burr, it is +usual to sow 3 to 5 bushels per acre, but in some instances less is sown +and in some more. When seed apart from the burr is sown 12 pounds per +acre should suffice. In some instances it is sown on Bermuda sod, but +the attempts to grow it thus have not always proved satisfactory. At the +Louisiana Experiment Station it was found that the burr clover remained +long enough and grew large enough to injure the Bermuda. Possibly closer +grazing would have prevented such injury. When sown on Bermuda grass, +June, July or August are the months chosen for scattering the seed. + +Burr clover is also sometimes sown in corn and cotton to provide winter +grazing, but when thus sown the object more frequently sought is to +enrich the land. Both ends may be accomplished in some degree. + +=Pasturing.=--Opinions differ as to the palatability of this grass. All +are agreed that stock do not take kindly to it at first, but that they +come to relish it at least reasonably well when accustomed to it. It is +said to be relished less by horses and mules than by other domestic +animals. It has been praised as a pasture for swine. It is more +palatable in the early stages of its growth, and will bear close +grazing, and also severe tramping. It will provide pasture for six +months, but not so bountifully in the first months of growing as later. + +=Harvesting for Hay.=--Burr clover is not a good hay plant. Owing to the +recumbent character of the growth it is not easily mowed, nor has it +much palatability in the cured form. The yield is said to be from 1/2 to +1 ton per acre. + +=Securing Seed.=--In the Gulf States the seed matures in April and May. +The plants grow seed profusely. Sown in October, stock may usually be +allowed free access to it until March, and if then removed, it will +spring up quickly and mature seed so profusely that when the plants die +and partially decay seed may sometimes be collected in hollows, into +which it has been driven by the wind. It is more commonly sown in the +burr form, the form in which it is usually gathered. The more common +method of saving the seed, as given by Mr. A. H. Beattie of Starkville, +Mississippi, is to first rake off the dead vines so as to leave the +burrs on the ground and then sweep them together with a suitable wire or +street broom. It is then lifted and run through two sets of sifters of +suitable mesh by hand to remove the trash swept up in gathering the +seed. It is probable that other methods more economical of labor are yet +to be devised when harvesting the seed crop. As much as 100 bushels of +burrs have been obtained from an acre, but that is considerably more +than the average yield of seed. + +=Renewing.=--Since this plant is an annual, it cannot be renewed in the +sense in which renewal is possible with a perennial. But as has been +shown above (see page 294), it may be grown annually for an indefinite +period in the same land and without re-sowing by hand. It has also been +shown that by sowing the seed in certain crops at the proper season, +from year to year, it may be made to grow from year to year where the +rotation will admit of this. (See page 295.) When the ground is well +stored with seed, the plants will continue to come up freely in the soil +for at least two or three years, even without any re-seeding of the +land. + +=As a Fertilizer.=--The growing of burr clover exercises a beneficial +influence on the land. Its value for this purpose, since it can be grown +as a catch crop, is probably greater than its value in providing food +for stock. Like all plants that are more or less creeping in their habit +of growth, it shades the soil and keeps it moist, which, in conjunction +with the influence of the roots, puts it in a friable condition. When +the plants grow rankly, it is not easy to bury them properly with the +ordinary plow, but in such instances, if cut up with a disk harrow, the +work is facilitated. The plants quickly die down so as to make plowing +easily possible, but the aim should be to have such decay take place +within the soil rather than above it. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +SWEET CLOVER + + +Sweet clover is so named from the sweet odor which emanates from the +living plants. It is of two species. These are designated, respectively, +_Melilotus alba_ and _Melilotus officinalis_. The former is also called +Bokhara clover, White Melilot and Tree clover. It is possibly more +widely known by the name Bokhara than by any other designation. The +latter is sometimes called Yellow clover. The difference between these +in appearance and habits of growth does not seem to be very marked, +except that the blossoms of the former are white and those of the latter +are yellow. + +Sweet clover is upright and branched in its habit of growth. It attains +to a height of from 2 to 8 feet, according to the soil in which the +plants grow. The somewhat small and truncate leaves are not so numerous, +relatively, as with some other varieties of clover, and the stems are +woody in character, especially as they grow older. The blossoms are +small and white or yellow, according to the variety, and the seed pods +are black when ripe. The roots are large and more or less branched, and +go down to a great depth in the soil; especially is this true of the +main, or tap root. + +The plants, according to Beale, are annual or biennial, but more +commonly they are biennial. They do not usually blossom the year that +they are sown, but may blossom within a year from the date of sowing. +For instance, when sown in the early autumn, they may bloom the +following summer. They are exceedingly hardy, having much power to +endure extremes of heat and cold, and to grow in poor soils and under +adverse conditions. In some soils they take possession of road sides and +vacant lands, and continue to grow in these for successive years. The +impaction of such soils by stock treading on them seems rather to +advance than to hinder the growth. They start growing early in the +spring and grow quickly, especially the second year. They come into +bloom in June, early or later, according to the latitude, and ordinarily +only in the year following that in which they were sown. Because of the +fragrant odor which is emitted from the plants as they grow, they are +sometimes introduced into gardens and ornamental grounds. + +[Illustration: Fig. 9. Sweet Clover (_Melilotus alba_) + Tennessee Experiment Station] + +The uses of the plants are at least three. It has some value as a food +for live stock. It has much value as a fertilizer. It has probably even +more value as a food for bees. It has also been used in binding soils. +Its value as a food for stock has probably been overestimated. It is +bitter, notwithstanding the fragrant odor that emanates from it; hence, +it is not relished by stock, insomuch that they will not eat it when +they can get other food that is more palatable. As hay, it is hard to +cure and of doubtful palatability when cured. As a fertilizer, its value +does not seem to have been sufficiently recognized, and the same is +probably true of it as bee pasture, although many bee-keepers are alive +to its great merit for such a use. + +This plant does not seem to find much favor with many. The United States +Department of Agriculture has spoken of it as a "weedy biennial, +concerning which extravagant claims have been made." The laws of some +States proscribe it as a weed, and impose penalties directed against any +who allow it to grow. Legislatures should be slow to class a legume as a +weed, especially one that has much power to enrich soils. The author +cherishes the opinion that this plant has a mission in the economy of +agriculture and of considerable importance to farmers, especially in +soils that are poor and worn, as soon as they come to understand it +properly. + +=Distribution.=--Sweet clover is probably indigenous to the semi-arid +regions of Asia. The name Bokhara would seem to indicate as much, but it +is also found in many parts of Europe, and if the facts were known, was +doubtless brought from Europe to North America by the first settlers. +For many decades it has been represented in many flower gardens in all +parts of the country. + +The plant will endure almost any amount of cold when it is once +established. It has stood well the winters of Manitoba. It can also +endure extreme summer heat, since it thrives well in some parts of +Texas. It grows most vigorously where the rainfall is abundant, as in +Western Oregon, and it makes a strong growth in the dry areas of Western +Kansas and Nebraska. + +Sweet clover will grow vigorously in some part or parts of every State +in the Union. Of course, it has higher adaptation for some conditions +than others. In some of the Central and Southern States, it has +multiplied to such an extent without cultivation as to have assumed the +character of a weed; hence, the legislation against it. When it is +called to mind that this plant is a legume, and when the further fact is +recognized that it may be used not only in enriching soils, but at the +same time improving them mechanically, in addition to other benefits +that it may be made to render, surely the enactments which prohibit its +growth should be repealed in any State where these exist. In the +Northern States, with a normal rainfall, the mission of this plant is +likely to be circumscribed, for the reason that other legumes possessed +of a much higher food value may be grown in these. In the Southern +States, its mission will be more important, since it may be used in some +of these with decided advantage in binding soils and in renovating them, +even when too poor to produce a vigorous growth of cow peas. It is +likely also that it may yet be made to render good service in the +semi-arid country west of the Mississippi River, where other clovers +cannot be grown. + +Sweet clover will grow in all the provinces of Canada. For economic +uses, however, it is not likely to grow to any great extent east of Lake +Superior, or west of the Rocky Mountains. Other legumes more useful may +be grown in these areas. But in the intervening wheat-growing region it +is possible that it may come to be used for purposes of soil +renovation. + +=Soils.=--But little can be gleaned from American sources on this +subject. Notwithstanding, it may be said with safety that it has greater +power to grow on poor, worn and hard soils than any forage plant that +has yet been introduced into America for economic uses. + +It will probably be found true of it, as of other clovers, that it will +thrive best on soils that have produced timber, and more especially +timber of the hardwood varieties. This means, therefore, that it will +grow well in probably all kinds of clay soils and also in loam soils +underlaid with clay. It has high adaptation for soils abounding in lime. +It can be made to succeed on hard clay subsoils from which the surface +soil has been removed. But it will also grow well on sandy soils and +even on gravels when a reasonable amount of moisture is present. The +author succeeded in growing it in good form in 1897 and 1898 in a vacant +lot in St. Paul, from which 6 to 8 feet of surface soil had been removed +a short time previously. The subsoil was so sandy that it would almost +have answered for building uses. + +This clover will probably grow with least success on soils of the +prairie so light in texture as to lift with the winds, and in which the +underlying clay is several feet from the surface, also in slough soils +that are much saturated with water. + +Since it grows vigorously on road sides, in rocky waste places and even +in brick yards when sown without a covering, the idea has gained +currency that the harder the soil, the better the plants will grow, and +the more surely will they be established in the soil; but this view does +not seem to be in accord with the principles which usually govern plant +growth. It will, however, send its roots down into hard subsoils so +deeply that in certain seasons the plants could not be dug up without +the aid of a pick. + +=Place in the Rotation.=--Since sweet clover seed is more commonly +scattered in byplaces, or is self-sown from plants that have run wild, +it can scarcely be said that it has ever been grown as a regular crop +and in a regular rotation. Nor is it ever likely to become a factor in +such a rotation unless its properties shall be so modified that it can +be grown acceptably as a pasture plant. In such an event it would have +the same place in the rotation as other clovers; that is, it would +naturally follow a cultivated, that is, a cleaning crop, and precede +some crop or a succession of crops that would profit from the nitrogen +and humus which it had brought to the soil, and also from the influence +which the roots would exercise mechanically upon the same. But the +necessity for sowing it on clean ground would not be so great as with +the other clovers, since it has greater power than these to overshadow +weeds when the two grow together. + +In the meantime, this plant will probably continue to be grown as in the +past; that is, if sown, it will be sown: 1. In byplaces to provide +pasture for bees, in which case in time it will be superseded by other +plants. 2. On worn lands so poor that they refuse to grow valuable food +products sown, partly, at least, with a view to renovate them. And 3. In +cuttings made by railroads and in gullies that have been made in fields, +with a view to prevent soil movement. It may also come to be sown in +grain crops in localities where other varieties of clover will not grow, +to be plowed under the following spring. + +=Preparing the Soil.=--Since sweet clover will grow on the firmest and +most forbidding soils, even when self-sown, it would not seem necessary, +ordinarily, to spend much time in specially preparing a seed-bed for it. +The fact stated is proof of its ability to grow on a firm surface. It +does not follow, however, that such a condition of the seed-bed will +give a better stand of the plants than a pulverized condition of the +same, as some have contended. It may be that on soils that are quite +loose near the surface, and under conditions that incline to dry a +seed-bed firm and even hard, may be more conductive to growth in the +plants than one in which the conditions are the opposite. Much rolling +of loose soils has been recommended when preparing the seed-bed with a +view to firm them. + +When the seed is sown along with grain, the preparation of the soil +needed for grain would be ample preparation also for the clover. When +sown on stubble land, in many instances no preparation by way of +stirring the soil would seem necessary. And when sown on railroad +embankments, road sides, rocky situations and byplaces generally no +preparation of the soil would be possible. + +=Sowing.=--In the North sweet clover is best sown in the spring. In +fact, it can only be sown then with the assurance that it will survive +the winter north of a certain limit. That limit will vary with altitude, +but it will probably run irregularly across the Middle States, from the +Atlantic westward to the Cascade Mountains, beyond which it will veer +away to the North. In the Southern States, it may be sown fall or +spring, but if sown late in the fall the young plants will in some +instances succumb to the frost of winter. Early fall sowing, therefore, +is much to be preferred to sowing late. + +The method of sowing may be the same as in sowing medium red clover (see +page 78); that is, when the seed is sown with grain crops. When sown in +byplaces, it will ordinarily be sown by hand. In such places it will +re-seed itself and will likely grow in these for successive seasons. On +railroad embankments, the seed is scattered more commonly on the upper +portion, and from the plants which grow there the seeds produced scatter +downward. The plants not only lessen washing in the soil, but they +prepare the same for the growth of grasses. They also aid thus in the +introduction of grasses into rocky and very hard soils. + +Sweet clover may be sown with almost any kind of a nurse crop desired, +which does not destroy it with an over-abundant shade. Or it may be sown +alone where such a necessity exists. But the instances are not numerous +in which it would be desirable or necessary to sow it alone on arable +soils. There may be conditions when it could be sown successfully at the +time of the last cultivation given to corn and with a view to soil +enrichment. + +Since sweet clover is seldom sown for the purpose of providing food for +live stock, it is not sown in mixtures, nor is it well adapted for being +sown thus, because of the large and luxuriant character of the growth, +which would tend to smother other plants sown along with it. + +The amount of seed to sow has been variously stated at from 15 to 20 +pounds per acre. The smaller amount should be enough for almost any +purpose, and a much smaller amount should suffice for sowing in byplaces +and along road sides, where the plants retain possession of the ground +through self-seeding. + +=Pasturing.=--Because of the bitter aromatic principle which it +contains, known as commarin, stock dislike it, especially at the first. +And it is questionable if they can be educated to like it in areas where +other food, which is more palatable, grows abundantly. In an experiment +directed by the author at the Minnesota University Experiment Station, +sheep pastured upon it, and did not take kindly to it; but by turning +them in to graze upon it in the morning, they cropped it down. In +localities where good grazing is not plentiful, if live stock have +access to it, especially when the plants are young, they will so crop it +down that in a few years it will entirely disappear. But where other +pastures are abundant, it will continue to grow indefinitely. It would +not seem wise to sow it for the purpose of providing grazing, unless +where the conditions for growing other and better grazing are +unfavorable. + +Some have spoken favorably of sweet clover for soiling uses. It makes a +very rapid growth quite early in the season, and when cut and wilted +more or less before being fed, the palatability is thereby considerably +increased. Small plots of this plant near the outbuildings may in this +way be utilized with some advantage in the absence of better soiling +plants. + +=Harvesting for Hay.=--Sweet clover is not a really good hay plant under +any conditions, and if not cut until it becomes woody, is practically +valueless for hay. It ought to be cut for hay a little before the stage +of bloom. If cutting is longer deferred, the plants become woody. Such +early cutting, however, adds much to the difficulty of curing the crop, +since, while naturally succulent, its succulence is then, of course, +considerably more than at a later period. It should be cured like medium +red clover. (See page 96.) If not cut sufficiently early, and cured with +as much care as is exercised in curing alfalfa, there will be +considerable loss from the shedding of the leaves. + +More commonly the plants are not cut for hay the year that they are +sown, but some seasons such harvesting is entirely practicable in +certain situations. The hay crop or crops are usually taken the second +year. Sometimes the crop is cut twice. It is entirely practicable to +obtain two cuttings under ordinary conditions, because of the vigor in +the growth, and because of the early season at which it must be +harvested for hay. From 3 to 4 or 5 tons may thus be obtained in many +instances from the two cuttings. + +=Securing Seed.=--Nearly all of the seed sown in this country is +imported. The author has not been able to obtain information with +reference to growing seed within the United States; hence, the inference +is fair that but little of it has been grown for that purpose up to the +present time. Since, however, it seeds freely, and since the price of +seed is high, seed crops, more especially when the plants are also +utilized as bee pasture, ought to prove remunerative in the hands of +judicious growers. + +The seed crop is obtained usually, if not always, the second year after +the sowing. If cut for hay before coming into bloom, it will grow up +again and bear seed profusely. This would seem preferable on strong +soils, as it would prevent that rankness in growth which would militate +against abundant seed production, and which would add much to the labor +of handling the crop. + +The seed crop may be cut and handled in substantially the same way as +medium red clover when grown for seed. It may also be cured and thrashed +essentially in the same way. (See page 105.) The author has not been +able to obtain information with reference to the average yield of the +seed crop under American conditions. The seed, like that of the medium +red variety, should weigh 60 pounds per bushel. + +=Renewing.=--In the sense of a pasture or hay crop, it would not seem +necessary to try to renew this crop, because of the relatively low value +which it possesses for these uses. When grown for bee pasture, it will +renew itself for an indefinite period when the plants are not cut for +seed and where the conditions are favorable to growth. When grown to +keep soils from washing or railroad embankments from breaking down, it +will, of course, renew itself in the same way. In time, however, it is +usually superseded by some kind of grass, for which it has prepared the +way by the ameliorating and renewing influence which it exerts upon the +soil. + +=Value for Bee Pasture.=--All authorities are agreed as to the high +value of this plant as a honey producer. The claim has been made for it +that for such a use it is more valuable acre for acre than any ordinary +grain crop. By cutting a part of the crop before it comes into bloom, +the season of honey production may be prolonged from, say, July 1st +until some time in the autumn, as the part thus cut will come into bloom +after the blooms have left the plants that were cut. When not disturbed, +sweet clover yields honey in the interval between the blooming of the +basswood and the golden rod. The honey is of excellent quality. There +should be no good reasons, therefore, why bee-keepers should not sow the +seed in by and waste places. But the wisdom of growing it as a +honey-producing crop on valuable land where other honey crops, as alsike +and white clover, can be grown in good form may be questioned. + +=Value as a Fertilizer.=--The high value of this plant as a fertilizer +and soil improver cannot be questioned. But whether it should ever be +sown for such a use will depend on the capacity of the soil to produce +other crops valuable for fertilizing and also more valuable for +producing forage or fodder. Where other clovers more useful can be +grown, also cow peas, soy beans and other legumes valuable for food +uses, it would seem unwise to sow sweet clover. This would restrict its +use, therefore, as a soil renovator; first, to soils too poor to grow +those useful legumes; second, to areas where the climate conditions will +not admit of the growth of these; and third, to areas from which the +surface soil has been removed, and which it is desirable to so +ameliorate and improve the soil thus laid bare that it could later be +covered with some more valuable cover crop. Under present conditions +this would restrict its growth for the purpose named to sandy and +gravelly soils, to certain areas in the semi-arid region east of the +Rocky Mountains, and to such small areas as the surface soil had been +removed from. + +In the semi-arid region where crops of grain and also some varieties of +field corn can be grown successfully, but where the clovers are not +successful; it would seem practicable to sow a few pounds of sweet +clover seed per acre at the same time as the grains, and to plow under +the plants produced some time in the month of May the next season. The +clover thus buried could be at once followed by corn or potatoes, or, +indeed, by any kind of a cleaning crop. The high price of seed at +present practically forbids growing clover thus. + +Whether sweet clover grown for renovating uses should be turned under +the season in which it has been sown will depend largely on the growth +that has been made. In many instances, the growth made is so rank as to +justify plowing it under the following autumn. In other instances, +better results will follow plowing it under the next season. It +frequently happens that the growth made is so rank that a strong plow +and also a strong team are necessary to do the work properly. + +=Value on Alkali soils.=--This plant has been grown to some extent to +aid in removing alkali from soils superabundantly impregnated with the +same. It will grow, it is claimed, under certain conditions on such +soils so surcharged with alkali as to prohibit almost every other form +of vegetable growth. The extent to which it may be thus used profitably +had not yet been fully demonstrated. But where it can be grown on such +soils, the fact that it takes up and removes relatively large quantities +of alkali would appear to be well established. + +=Destroying the Plants.=--Should the conditions be found so favorable to +the growth of the plant that it persists in growing where it is not +wanted, it will soon cease to appear, if prevented from going to seed. +Ordinarily, the blossoms appear only during the second year of growth. +If, therefore, the plants are cut off when in bloom, seed forming will +not only be prevented, but since sweet clover is a biennial, the plants +will die. When thus dealt with, the only source from which other plants +may come while extermination is being thus sought is from seed lodged in +the soil and still capable of germinating. + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +MISCELLANEOUS VARIETIES OF CLOVER + + +In addition to the varieties of clover that have been discussed at some +length in previous chapters are a number the value of which may be +considerable to areas more or less local and limited. These include +Sainfoin, Egyptian clover, Yellow clover, Sand lucerne, Japanese clover, +Beggarweed and Seaside clover. Some of these, as Sainfoin and Buffalo +clover, have been in the country for several years, and yet but little +is known as to their behavior, except in very limited areas. Others, as +Buffalo clover, native to the country are thought to have merit, and yet +the degree of such merit does not appear to have been yet proved under +cultivation. The three varieties but recently introduced are thought to +have considerable promise for certain soils and climates to which they +have special adaptation, but sufficient trial has not been given them to +determine even approximately the measure of their worth to this country. +These varieties will now be discussed, but for the reasons stated above +it will be manifest that the discussion will of necessity be imperfect +and fragmentary in character. + + +SAINFOIN + +Sainfoin (_Onobrychis sativa_) is a perennial, leguminous, clover-like +forage plant of the bean family. The word Sainfoin is equivalent to the +French words for sound or wholesome hay. It is also frequently called +Esparcette or Asperset, more especially in Germany. It is further known +in England by the name Cock's Head, French Grass and Medick Vetchling. +In some parts of France and Switzerland the name has been and probably +is yet applied to lucerne (_Medicago sativa_). + +In its habit of growth it is more woody in the rootstock than clover and +more branched. It also grows to a greater average height. The stems, +which are covered with fine hairs, bear numerous leaves long and +pinnate. The blossoms are numerous and of an attractive, pinkish color, +brightening into a crimson tint. The seed pods are flattened from side +to side and wrinkled, and are also sickle-shaped. They bear but one +seed. The roots are strong and more or less branched. + +Sainfoin, as already intimated, is perennial in its habit of growth. +When a field is once well set with the plants, it should continue to +produce crops for a decade, but will eventually be crowded out with +weeds or other grasses. It grows very early in the season, quite as +early, if not earlier, than alfalfa, and continues to grow until autumn. + +The feeding value of sainfoin is much the same as that of alfalfa. It is +much esteemed where it can be grown for the production of pasture, of +soiling food, and also hay, valuable for enriching the land, through the +medium of the roots, and also when the tops are plowed under as green +manure. + +Sainfoin is native throughout the whole of Central Europe and over +much of Siberia. Although native to the southern counties of England, it +does not appear to have been cultivated there before the year 1651, at +which time it is said to have been introduced from Flanders. From what +has been said with reference to the distribution of sainfoin in Europe +and Asia, it will be apparent that it is a hardy plant, which has +highest adaptation for climates temperate and mild to moderately cool. +Its hardihood has been shown by its surviving the winters in the +latitude of the St. Lawrence River, but the abundant snow covering then +provided should not be lost sight of. + +[Illustration: Fig. 10. Sainfoin (_Onobrychis sativa_) + Oregon Experiment Station] + +Its adaptation to the United States does not appear to have been proved +yet, except in limited areas. In some of the Montana valleys good crops +have been grown with much success in many of those western valleys, and +even on the bench lands at the base of foothills. Nor would there seem +to be any good reasons for supposing that good crops could not be grown +in various parts of the United States where the soil is suitable. + +In Canada, sainfoin has succeeded in Quebec. In trials made by the +author at the Ontario Agricultural College at Guelph success was only +partial, but the trials were limited. There would seem to be no good +reasons why this plant should not succeed in many places in Canada where +limestone soils prevail. + +This plant is best adapted to dry soils calcareous in their composition +and somewhat porous in character. This explains its great affinity for +the chalk soils which abound in the south of England. On the dry, +limestone soils of this country it ought to succeed. It has shown much +adaptation for the volcanic soils of the Western mountain region, where +it has been tried. On stiff clays it grows too slowly to be entirely +satisfactory. It ought not to be sown on soils wet or swampy in +character. + +Since sainfoin is perennial in its habit of growth, and since, when once +well set, it will retain its hold upon the soil for several years, it is +not in the strict sense of the term a rotation plant. When it is grown, +however, it should be followed by crops which require large quantities +of nitrogen easily accessible, to enable them to complete their growth. +If this plant should ever be grown to any considerable extent in the +mountain States, much that has been said with reference to the place for +alfalfa in the rotation will also apply to sainfoin. (See page 135.) + +It has been found more difficult to get a good stand of sainfoin plants +than of other varieties of the clover family. This is owing to the low +germinating power frequently found in the seed. The stand of plants is +frequently found to be too thin and scattering. Weeds, therefore, and +sometimes grasses are much liable to come into the soil occupied by the +sainfoin and to crowd the same. Because of this it is specially +important that sainfoin shall be sown on a clean seed-bed. + +The seed is very frequently sown in the hull, and usually in the early +spring. But there would seem to be no reasons why the seed should not be +sown in the early autumn in localities where alfalfa can be sown thus. +(See page 145.) In the rough form, it is usually broadcasted by hand, +but would probably also feed through a seed drill. When sown apart from +the hull, the seed may be sown by the same methods as alfalfa. (See page +147.) In the rough form, from 3 to 5 bushels per acre are sown. In the +clean form, it is claimed that 40 pounds of seed should be sown, but +that amount of clean and good seed would seem to be excessive on +well-prepared land. The seed in the hull weighs 26 pounds per bushel. +The plan of sowing 2 to 3 pounds per acre of the seed of alsike clover +along with the sainfoin would doubtless be found helpful under some +conditions, as it would tend to thicken the crop, more especially the +first season. + +Sainfoin is a good pasture plant when properly grazed. It does not +produce bloat in cattle or sheep as alfalfa does. In this fact is found +one of the strongest reason why it should be grown in areas where +alfalfa is wanted for pasture. It will furnish grazing about as early as +alfalfa, and considerably earlier than medium red clover. + +This plant is more frequently grown for soiling food than for hay. For +the former use it has high adaptation, since it will furnish several +cuttings of soiling food per season. It will also furnish two cuttings +of hay, or one of hay and one of seed, and under some conditions more +than two cuttings can be obtained. In the latitude of Montreal it is +ready to be cut for hay during the early days of June. It is ready for +being cut when the blossoms begin to expand. Much care is necessary in +curing the hay, in order to prevent the too free shedding of the leaves. +The methods for making alfalfa hay will apply also to sainfoin. + +Seed may be obtained from the first or second cutting of the crop. It is +usually obtained from the second cutting, as the yield is much larger +than that obtained from the first cutting. The author has not been able +to obtain any facts based on experience regarding the harvesting of the +seed crop under American field conditions. But the methods followed in +obtaining seed from alfalfa would probably also answer equally well for +sainfoin. Great care is necessary in handling the seed crop, owing to +the ease with which the seed shatters. Special pains are also necessary +to keep the germinating power of the seed from injury from overheating. +Nor does the seed seem able to retain germinating power as long as the +seeds of some other varieties of clover. In experiments conducted by +Professor C. A. Zavitz at the Ontario Experiment Station at Guelph in +1902 and 1903, the average yield per acre was 426.1 pounds. + + +EGYPTIAN CLOVER + +Egyptian clover (_Trifolium Alexandrianum_) is more commonly known in +the Nile valley as Berseem. It is of at least three varieties. These are +the Muscowi, Fachl and Saida, all of which are more or less closely +related to medium red clover. The term _Alexandrianum_ as applied above +is somewhat misleading, as its growth is not specially identified with +Alexandria, nor is its growth in Egypt supposed to be of great +antiquity, since no trace of it is found upon the ancient monuments. + +The Muscowi variety, which is commonly grown more especially in lower +Egypt, sometimes grows to the height of 5 feet and over, but usually it +is not more than half the height named. In its habit of growth it is +rather upright, like alfalfa, but the hollow stems are softer and more +succulent, and the blossoms occur on heads resembling those of clover, +but not so compactly formed, and they are white in color. The seeds bear +a close resemblance to those of crimson clover. The roots are much +shorter, but more spreading in their habit of growth than those of +alfalfa, and in Egyptian soils they bear small tubercles abundantly. +This variety, which is usually grown on land that can be irrigated at +any season, produces in some instances 5 cuttings in a season. The Fachl +variety is usually grown on land irrigated by the basin system; that is, +the system which covers the land with water but once a year, and for a +period more or less prolonged. But one crop a year is taken from such +land. The hay from this variety is heavier for the bulk than that of the +Muscowi. The Saida variety is of a lower habit of growth than the +Muscowi and has a longer tap root, which enables it to stand drought +better than the Muscowi. It is more commonly sown in Egypt southward +from Cairo. + +All these varieties are annual. The period of growth covered by any one +of them is never more than 9 months, and usually not more than 6 +months; that is to say, from October to March. The Muscowi variety +especially grows very rapidly. + +Egyptian clover in all its varieties is pre-eminently a soiling plant. +It is sometimes pastured and is also made into hay. It is practically +the one fodder crop of Egypt, and is more commonly fed in the green +form. All kinds of stock are fond of it, and it is fed freely to horses, +donkeys and camels at labor, to cows in milk, and to cattle that are +being fattened. It also serves to keep Egyptian soils supplied with +nitrogen, for the support of crops grown on them in summer, especially +cotton, and various kinds of grain. Moreover, because of the frequency +of the cuttings, with the Muscowi variety, its growth tends very much to +check the growth of weeds. + +Egyptian clover is not native to Egypt, but was introduced from some +country outside of Egypt, yet bordering on the Mediterranean. This, at +least, is the view presented in Bulletin No. 23, issued by the Bureau of +Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture, from which +source much of what is written with reference to this plant has been +obtained. In Egypt more than 1,000,000 acres are grown annually. It is +also being tried, with much promise, in other portions of Northern +Africa, as Tunis and Algiers. It is also now being experimented with in +various parts of the Southern and Southwestern States. + +Egyptian clover is only adapted to a warm climate. In those parts of the +United States which have a climate not unlike that of Egypt, in many +respects, as Florida, Southern Texas, New Mexico and Arizona, it may +have an important mission. It may yet be grown in these areas, or some +of them, where irrigation is practiced in conjunction with cotton, or +with certain of the cereals. If it can be thus grown, it will prove of +much value, as it would only occupy the land when not occupied by the +crops usually grown in summer, and it would bring much fertility to the +same, in addition to the forage provided. Since in Tunis it has been +found that the plants have not been killed by cold 2° below zero and in +Algiers 9° below that point, the hope would seem to be justifiable that +this clover may yet be grown much further north than the States named. +If grown thus, however, it should not be as a substitute for alfalfa, +but rather to occupy the ground in winter when not producing otherwise. +It may yet be found that the Saida variety may have adaptation for some +localities in the West where irrigation cannot be practiced. This clover +is not likely to render any considerable service to any part of Canada, +because of the lack of adaptation in the climate. + +Egyptian clover has highest adaptation for deposit soils, such as are +made by the settling of silt held in solution by waters that overflow. +In these it will grow with vigor, though they rest upon coarse sand or +even upon gravel not too near the surface. Irrigating waters to some +extent are necessary to grow the plants in best form, although, as +previously intimated, the Saida variety may yet be grown without the aid +of such waters. It is the first crop sown on reclaimed alkaline lands, +and growing it on these tends to remove the alkali and to sweeten and +otherwise improve the soils. + +The place for this plant in the rotation is readily apparent. Like +crimson clover, it is clearly a catch crop, as it were, and a winter +plant, but with the difference that it grows much more rapidly under +suitable conditions and furnishes much more food. The advantage of +growing it northward in the Western mountain valleys when sown in +spring, as intimated by the writer of the bulletin already referred to, +would seem to be at least problematical, since it could not be sown +early enough in the spring to produce a crop as early as alfalfa already +established. It would then be grown also as the crop of the season, +rather than as a catch crop. The place for Egyptian clover in the +rotation is clearly that of a winter crop, to provide soiling food for +stock and plant food for the land, which may be utilized by the summer +crop that follows. + +In Egypt the seed is frequently sown on the silt deposited by the waters +that have subsided and before it would be dry enough to plow. At other +times, it is sowed on land stirred on the surface to a greater or less +depth, and sprouted through the aid of irrigating waters. In the valleys +of the West that preparation of the soil found suitable for alfalfa +would also, doubtless, be found suitable for this clover. + +The seed is sown in the autumn in Egypt, usually in October, but the +season of sowing lasts from September to January, and some crops have +been obtained sown as late as April 1st, but when sown late, the number +of the cuttings is reduced and the occupancy of the soil by the clover +interferes with the growing of other crops. Under American conditions, +it will doubtless be found that the best season for sowing Egyptian +clover will be just after the removal of the crop that occupied the land +in summer. The seed is usually sowed by hand and without admixture, but +the Fachl variety is sown in some instances with wheat or barley when +seed is wanted. The methods of sowing found suitable for alfalfa would +also seem to be proper for sowing Egyptian clover. (See page 78.) As +much as one bushel of seed is sown per acre, but it is thought that a +less amount will suffice under good methods of tillage. + +Egyptian clover is sometimes pastured, but it has higher adaptation to +soiling, because of the softness of the stems. When pastured reasonably +close, cropping would probably be preferable, as there would then be +less waste from the treading of the plants. Nevertheless, in Egypt +considerable quantities of the hay are stored for feeding in the summer +months when green fodder is scarce. + +Egyptian clover is sometimes made into hay, but it is not essentially a +hay plant. Much care is necessary when it is being cured to prevent loss +in the leaves, and when cured the stems are so brittle that it is +difficult to prevent waste in handling the hay. It is pre-eminently a +soiling crop, and the greater portion is fed in the green form. From 4 +cuttings of the Muscowi variety as much as 25 to 30 tons of green +fodder are harvested, and about 10 tons are produced by 2 cuttings of +the Saida variety. + +Egyptian clover has not been grown sufficiently long in this country to +justify giving information based upon American experience that could be +taken as authoritative, with reference to the best methods of harvesting +the seed crop. There would seem to be no reasons, however, to suppose +that the methods followed in harvesting alfalfa could not be followed +with equal advantage in harvesting Egyptian clover. Nor can anything be +said as yet with reference to which cutting of the series will furnish +the best seed crop. + +The best service, probably, which this crop can render to the United +States is the enrichment of the soils on which the plants are grown. As +the same bacteria which inoculate alfalfa soils will not answer for +Egyptian clover, and as the requisite bacteria may not be found in soils +where it is desirable to grow this clover, the conclusion that it will +not grow sufficiently well in certain soils on which it is being tried +should not be reached until the question relating to the presence or +absence of the proper bacteria has been settled. If necessary to +introduce bacteria from Egypt, the obstacles in the way of such +introduction would not be at all serious, if undertaken by the +Department of Agriculture. + + +YELLOW CLOVER + +Yellow clover (_Medicago lupulina_) is to be carefully distinguished +from Hop clover (_Medicago procumbens_), which it resembles so closely +in the form of the leaves and the color of the bloom as to have given +rise in some instances to the interchangeable use of the names. The +latter is so named from the resemblance of the withered head when ripe +to a bunch of hops. Its growth has been almost entirely superseded by +_Medicago lupulina_, since the other variety was low in production and +also in nutrition. _Medicago lupulina_ is also called Black Medick, +Nonesuch, Black Nonesuch and Hop Trefoil. In both England and Germany it +is now more commonly grown than white clover. It is more or less +recumbent in its habit of growth, but the stems do not root as do the +runners in the small white variety. The stems, though tender in the +early spring, become woody as the season advances. The flowers, as the +name would indicate, are yellow, and the plants produce seed numerously. +The roots, like those of the small white variety, are more fibrous than +in some of the larger varieties. + +Yellow clover is perennial. Owing to the power which the plants have to +multiply through rooting and re-seeding, they can stay indefinitely in +congenial soils. The growth is vigorous in the early part of the season, +but less so later, and with the advance of the season the herbage +produced becomes more woody in character. + +This plant furnishes considerable pasture during the spring months, but +in the summer and autumn it makes but little growth. Though palatable +early in the season, it is less so later. Nevertheless, it may be made +to add materially to the produce of pastures in which it grows. It also +aids in fertilizing the soil, though probably not quite to the same +extent as white clover. + +Yellow clover is indigenous to Europe. It is grown to a considerable +extent in pastures in certain areas in Great Britain, France, Germany +and other countries. It has highest adaptation for climates that are +moist and temperate. Although this plant is not extensively grown in the +United States, it would seem probable that it will grow at least +reasonably well in a majority of the States. The exceptions will be +those lacking in moisture in the absence of irrigation. It will grow +best in those that more properly lie within the clover belt; that is, in +those that lie northward. It grows with much vigor in Oregon and +Washington west of the Cascade Mountains. In Canada, yellow clover will +grow with much vigor in all areas susceptible of cultivation, unless on +certain of the western prairies. + +Yellow clover has highest adaptation for calcareous soils. In certain +parts of England it has grown so vigorously on soils rich in lime as +almost to assume the character of a troublesome weed. It will grow well +on all clay loam soils, and reasonably well on stiff clays, the climatic +conditions being suitable. It has greater power to grow on dry soils +than the small white variety. + +Since yellow clover is usually grown as an adjunct to permanent +pastures, it can scarcely be called a rotation plant. But, like other +clovers, it enriches the soil, and, therefore, should be followed by +crops that are specially benefited by such enrichment, as, for +instance, the small cereal grains. + +Yellow clover when sown is usually sown with other grass mixtures, and +along with grain as a nurse crop; hence, that preparation of the soil +suitable for the nurse crop will also be found suitable for the clover. +It is, moreover, a hardy plant, insomuch that in some instances, if the +seed is scattered over unplowed surfaces, as those of pastures, in the +early spring, a sufficient number of plants will be obtained to +eventually establish the clover through self-seeding. + +The seed is usually sown in the early spring, but in mild latitudes it +may also be sown in the early autumn. It may be sown by the same methods +as other clovers. (See page 267.) It is usually sown to provide pasture, +the seed being mixed with that of other pasture plants before being +sown. As the plants, like those of the small white variety, have much +power to increase rather than decrease in pastures, it is not necessary +to sow large quantities of seed, not more usually than 1 pound to the +acre. But should the crops be wanted for seed, then not fewer than 3 to +5 pounds per acre should be sown and without admixture with other +grasses or clovers. When the plants once obtain a footing on congenial +soils, there is usually enough of seed in the soil to make a sufficient +stand of the plants in pastures without sowing any seed, but since the +seed is usually relatively cheap, where an insufficient supply in the +soil is suspected, more or less seed should be sown. + +Since the stems of yellow clover plants become tough as the season of +growth becomes considerably advanced, where it forms a considerable +proportion of the pasture the aim should be to graze most heavily during +the early part of the season. The plants do not make much growth during +the autumn. It would probably be correct to say that it can grow under +conditions more dry than are suitable for white clover, and, +consequently, it is more uniformly prominent in evidence in permanent +pastures when it has become established. + +Yellow clover is not a really good hay plant, owing to its lack of +bulkiness. But in some soils its presence may add considerably to the +weight of a crop of hay, of which it is a factor. + +This plant produces seed freely. The seeds are dark in color and weigh +60 pounds to the bushel. The seed matures early, usually in June or +July, according to locality. The methods of harvesting, threshing and +preparing the seed for market are substantially the same as those +adapted in handling small white clover. (See page 272.) + +While yellow clover is not the equal of the small white clover in +adaptation to our conditions, it would seem that there are no reasons +why it should not be sown to a greater extent than it is sown under +American conditions. A plant that is so hardy, that provides a +considerable quantity of reasonably good pasture, that stores nitrogen +in the soil, and that, moreover, does not stay in the soil to the extent +of injuring crops that follow the breaking up of the pastures, should +certainly be encouraged to grow. + + +SAND LUCERNE + +Sand Lucerne (_Medicago media_), sometimes designated _Medicago +falcata_, is probably simply a variety of the common alfalfa (_Medicago +sativa_). Some botanists, however, look upon these as two distinct +species. Others believe that _Medicago sativa_, with blossoms ranging +from blue to violet purple, and _Medicago falcata_, with yellow +blossoms, are two distinct species, while _Medicago media_, with +blossoms ranging from bluish and purple to lemon yellow, is a hybrid +between these. The name Sand Lucerne has doubtless been given to this +plant because of the power which it has to grow in sandy soils. + +Sand lucerne is so nearly like common alfalfa in appearance and habits +of growth, that until the blossoming season, careless observers cannot +distinguish between the plants. (See page 114.) Sand lucerne, however, +has a more spreading habit of growth than common alfalfa, the seed-pods +are less coiled and the seeds are lighter. The root system is strong and +the roots are probably more branched than those of ordinary alfalfa. +Under Michigan experience, given in Bulletin No. 198 of the Michigan +Experiment Station, it has shown considerably higher adaptation to +light, sandy and gravelly soils than the former. The feeding properties +of sand lucerne would not seem to be far different from those of common +alfalfa (see page 119), but it is claimed that the former is +considerably less liable to produce bloat in cattle and sheep than the +latter. + +Sand lucerne is probably native to Europe and Asia. Some attention is +given to growing it in Germany, the principal source from which comes +supplies of seed at the present time. It was introduced into Michigan by +the experiment station of that State in 1897, and its behavior in +several trials made to grow it on sandy and gravelly soils in various +places, has, on the whole, been encouraging. + +Since this variety, like the Turkestan, being considerably hardier than +common alfalfa, can undoubtedly be grown further north than the latter, +there would seem to be no reasons at the same time why sand lucerne +would not grow satisfactorily on sandy soils that lie far south, but +this does not seem as yet to have been proved by actual demonstration. +It is possible, therefore, that this plant may render considerable +service to areas scattered over considerable portions of the United +States and Canada, in which the soil is light. + +While sand lucerne has higher adaptation than common alfalfa for sandy +and gravelly soils, it does not follow that it has equal adaptation for +being grown on ordinary alfalfa soils. No advantage, however, would +result from growing sand lucerne where common alfalfa will grow equally +well, as it is not superior to the latter as a food, if, indeed, it is +equal to the same, and there would be a distinct disadvantage in the +greater cost of the seed of sand lucerne. + +Sand lucerne is not any more a rotation plant than the common variety. +In fact, it is even less so, since it would not be practicable to +introduce it into short rotations when grown in northerly latitudes, as +it does not reach a maximum growth for several years after the seed has +been sown. But in mild latitudes, it may be found practicable to +introduce it into short rotations, like other alfalfa (see page 135), +and on land that is too sandy to grow the common variety in the best +form. + +Much of what has been said about the preparation of the soil for common +alfalfa will equally apply to the preparation of the same for sand +lucerne. (See page 137.) But when the latter is sown on sandy or +gravelly land, a moist condition of the seed-bed at the time of sowing +is even more important than when sowing common alfalfa under ordinary +conditions. + +The same methods of sowing the seed will be in order as are suitable for +sowing common alfalfa in any particular locality. (See page 147.) This +will mean that in Northern areas sand lucerne can best be sown in the +spring and as early as the danger from frost is over, that the plants +may get as much benefit as possible from the moisture in the soil before +dry weather begins. It will also mean that if sown southward in the +autumn, it may in some instances be necessary to wait longer for the +sandy soils on which the seed is sown to become sufficiently moist to +sprout the seed than for such a condition in soils on which common +alfalfa is usually sown. The amounts of seed to sow will also be +practically the same. (See page 152.) + +The adaptation of sand lucerne for providing pasture is as high, if not, +indeed, higher, than that of common alfalfa, since it is said that it +has less tendency to produce bloat in cattle and sheep, and it is not +so easily destroyed, at least in Northern areas, by grazing. In +providing pasture, its higher adaptation is in furnishing the same for +cattle, swine and horses. + +With ample moisture, even as far north as Lansing, Michigan, three crops +of hay may ordinarily be looked for. At the Michigan Experiment Station, +sand lucerne sown in 1897 yielded cured: In 1898, at the rate of 6800 +pounds per acre; in 1899, 10,580 pounds; in 1900, 12,310 pounds; and in +1901, 13,839 pounds. The methods of cutting and curing are the same as +for other varieties of alfalfa. (See page 170.) The quality of the hay +is not far different from that of common alfalfa. If there is a +difference, it would, perhaps, be a little against the sand lucerne, +owing to the nature of the land producing it. For soiling food, it may +be handled in the same way as common alfalfa. (See page 166.) + +No further information would seem to be available with reference to the +production of seed in the United States than the statement that the +efforts to grow it in Michigan had not been altogether successful. The +question thus raised has an important bearing on the future growth of +the plant, as, if seed is to be imported from Europe when sand lucerne +is to be sown, the expense of securing seed is likely to militate +against extending its growth. It is probable, however, that this +difficulty will be overcome through the more perfect acclimation of the +plants in the North, or by growing seed from the same in Western areas +which have shown higher adaptation to the production of alfalfa seed. + +The value of sand lucerne in fertilizing sandy and gravelly soils in +this country may yet be very considerable. Its value in putting humus +into the same may prove equally high. This value will arise chiefly from +its greater ability to grow on such soils than various other legumes. +When sown primarily for such a use, heavy seeding would seem to be +preferable to ordinary seeding. + + +JAPANESE CLOVER + +The United States Department of Agriculture has quite recently +introduced a variety of clover known botanically as _Lespedeza bicolor_. +In 1902 small lots of seed were distributed to ascertain the value of +the plant grown under American conditions. Sufficient time has not yet +elapsed to prove its value, but the indications encourage the belief +that it will be of some agricultural value under certain conditions. + +This variety of clover is more erect and less branched in its habit of +growth than the Japanese variety _Lespedeza striata_. Under Michigan +conditions it was found to grow to the height of 3 feet on sandy soil +and to about half that height on clay soil, the seed having been sown +about the middle of May. The stalks are about the same in structure as +those of alfalfa, and like alfalfa they do not lodge readily. The leaves +are ovate in form and of a pea-green tint. The seed is formed in pods +resembling those of lentils, only smaller. The seeds are larger than +those of crimson clover and are oblong in shape. In color they are +mottled brown, yellow and green. The roots in the Michigan test produced +nodules freely and without inoculating the soil by any artificial means. +The plants in the same tests were killed to the ground by early October +frosts. + +This variety, like that grown so freely in the Southern States, is an +annual. In the absence of experience in growing it under varied +conditions, it would be premature to dwell upon its value. If it should +grow readily on sandy land, as the Michigan test would seem to indicate, +it would render substantial service in fertilizing such soils. In the +grass garden of the Department of Agriculture at Washington, D. C., its +behavior has been such as to encourage making further tests. + + +FLORIDA CLOVER + +Florida clover (_Desmodium tortuosum_) is sometimes grown both for hay +and pasture, more especially in the Gulf States. It has been designated +botanically _Desmodium molle_, and is also known by the common names +Beggar Weed, Giant Beggar Weed, Beggar Ticks and Tickweed. The name +Florida Clover has been given to it because of its prevalence on the +light soils of Florida. The name "beggar" has probably been applied to +this plant because of its relation to poverty in soils, in which it is +more commonly grown, and the name "ticks" from the clinging habit of the +seed-pods to surfaces with which they come in contact. + +Beggar Weed is an erect and branching plant, which grows from 2 to 10 +feet high. The branches are woody in character, especially in the lower +parts, which prevents close cropping by animals grazing on the plants. +The trifoliate leaves are numerous, especially on the upper portions. +The panicle is erect and is considerably branched. The pods are prickly +and have many joints. These break asunder when matured, and are +frequently distributed by adhering to the covering of animals and the +clothing of men. The strong, spreading roots have much power to gather +food in the soil and also to enrich the same by means of the tubercles +formed on the roots. + +[Illustration: Fig. 11. Beggar Weed or Florida Clover + (_Desmodium tortuosum_) (Flower and Seed Stems) + North Carolina Experiment Station] + +This plant grows only in warm weather, and it is able to withstand much +drought. Its value for pasture and hay would seem to depend considerably +on the stage of growth at which it is grazed or harvested for hay. When +nearing maturity, stock do not relish it much, either as pasture or hay. +It is frequently classed as a weed, but in certain poor soils it has +been deemed worthy of cultivation. + +Beggar weed is native to the West India Islands and also, it is thought, +to Southern Florida. In 1879 seeds were distributed by the Department of +Agriculture. It is now grown more or less in the wild or cultivated form +in all the Gulf States. While it may be successfully grown as far north +as the Ohio River, it is not probable that it will be sown far north of +any of the Gulf States, since other fodder plants more valuable in +producing food can be grown to supply the wants of live stock. At the +Minnesota University Experiment Farm, the author sowed seed in May. +The plants came into bloom in September, but did not mature any seed. + +[Illustration: Fig. 12. Beggar Weed + (_Desmodium tortuosum_) (Root System) + North Carolina Experiment Station] + +Beggar weed will grow on almost any kind of soil reasonably free from an +excess of ground moisture. Its power to grow on poor and light soils, +even light enough to lift with the wind, is very considerable. Its +highest use will probably be found on soils so light and sterile that +better forms of useful vegetation are not easily grown on them. + +It can scarcely be called a rotation plant, since it more commonly grows +in the wild form, and on lands so poor as to be considered unprofitable +for regular cropping. But when cultivated, it should be followed by some +crop that can make a good use of the nitrogen left in the soil in the +tubercles formed on the roots of the beggar weed plants. + +The soil does not, as a rule, require deep stirring when preparing it +for beggar weed. This fact finds demonstration in the ability of the +plants to re-seed the ground when grown for grazing. + +The seed is usually sown in the Gulf States late in March or early in +April. It germinates slowly, and the plants make the most vigorous +growth after the weather becomes warm. The seed is more commonly +scattered broadcast, but may be drilled in, and at distances that will +or will not admit of cultivation as may be desired. Thick seeding is +preferable to prevent coarseness and woodiness in the growth of the +plants. Not less than 10 pounds of hulled seed per acre should be sown +in the broadcast form when sown for hay. When sown in drills, less seed +is required, but usually the seed is sown broadcast. In the hulled form, +in which the seed is more commonly sold, according to Professor H. H. +Hume, the measured bushel weighs 60 to 64 pounds, and with the hulls on, +from 10 to 40 pounds, the average weight, as purchased by dealers, being +about 20 pounds. The cleaned seed bears considerable resemblance to +clover seed. + +All kinds of farm stock, as cattle, horses, mules, sheep and even swine, +are said to do well when grazing on beggar-weed pastures in the summer +and autumn. They do not usually graze it closely after it has been well +started, owing to the woody character of the stems. When thus cropped +back, it starts out afresh, and thus continues to produce grazing until +the arrival of frost. It is said that the pasture is of but little value +in winter. One strong point, however, in favor of such pastures, is the +ability of the plants to re-seed the land when not grazed too closely, +and thus to perpetuate the grazing from year to year. + +No little diversity of opinion exists as to the value of this plant for +producing hay. Some growers speak highly of its palatability and +nutrition. Others speak of it as being of very little value as a hay +plant. This difference in opinion is doubtless due largely to cutting +the crop at different stages of growth. If allowed to become too +advanced before it is cut, the woody character of the hay would +doubtless make it unpalatable, whereas, if cut early, at least as early +as the showing of the first blooms, if not, indeed, earlier, it would be +eaten with a much greater relish. The yields of hay are said to usually +exceed 2 tons per acre. + +The seed matures in September and October. The methods of saving the +seed have usually been of a somewhat primitive character, as by hand +when saved in small quantities. But there would seem to be no reason why +the seed crop could not be harvested by the binder. + +Where alfalfa or cow peas can be successfully grown, either crop would +be preferable. But on some soils these are not a success, especially +when the first attempts are made to grow crops. The choice of hay may be +one between a crop of beggar weed and no crop at all. All are agreed as +to the renovation which it brings to soils; hence, when grown or allowed +to grow on unproductive soil for a few years and then plowed under, the +soil becomes productive. Since it grows late rather than early in the +season where the seed is in the land, it will not interfere with the +growth of the corn, but will come on later, and thus exert a beneficial +influence on the soil. But the fact should not be overlooked that beggar +weed once in the land has considerable power to stay there. In other +words, like sweet clover, it has some of the characteristics of a weed. + + +BUFFALO CLOVER + +Buffalo clover (_Trifolium stoloniferum_) is a native species procumbent +in its habit of growth. The leaves are most abundant at the base of the +plants. The flower heads, about an inch in diameter, are rose colored, +and rise to the height of about one foot from the ground. + +This variety, said to be perennial in its habit of growth, is probably +the same as _Trifolium reflexum_, said to be biennial in Kansas. Plants +are found growing wild in prairies, between forests, and in open +woodlands, from Kentucky on the east, to Kansas on the west. It is +thought that this clover would repay cultivation, but the author has not +been able to get any information bearing upon its behavior under +cultivation. + + +SEASIDE CLOVER + +Seaside clover (_Trifolium invulneratum_) has rendered some service to +agriculture in what is known as the "Great Basin," which includes parts +of Oregon and Nevada. In Bulletin No. 15, Bureau of Plant Industry, +issued by the United States Department of Agriculture, it is referred to +as one of the most promising species for cultivation in that area. Under +the influence of irrigation it has spread, in one instance cited, into +sage brush soil, and there, along with timothy and red top, has aided in +producing fine crops. In, low, swampy, non-alkaline areas, it often +yields from 1/2 to 1-1/4 tons of hay per acre. It has been estimated +that with correct conditions it would be found about equal in producing +power and feeding value to alsike clover. It is at least questionable, +however, if it is likely to supersede to any considerable degree the +varieties already under general cultivation. + + + + +INDEX + + Alfalfa + discussion of 114-193 + described 114 + distribution 120 + soils 129 + place in rotation 135 + preparing the soil 137 + sowing 145 + cultivating 154 + pasturing 155 + as soiling food 166 + harvesting for hay 170 + storing 172 + securing seed 179 + renewing 184 + sources of injury 187 + as a fertilizer 191 + + Alsike clover + discussion of 194-217 + described 194 + distribution 197 + soils 199 + place in rotation 201 + preparing the soil 202 + sowing 204 + pasturing 208 + harvesting for hay 210 + securing seed 212 + renewing 216 + + Bloating 94 + + Buffalo clover + discussion of 344 + + Burr clover + discussion of 291-299 + described 291 + distribution 293 + soils 293 + place in the rotation 294 + preparing the soil 295 + sowing 295 + pasturing 297 + harvesting for hay 297 + securing seed 297 + renewing 298 + as a fertilizer 298 + + Clover + introduction 1-5 + definition 1 + varieties 2 + distinguishing characteristics 3 + plan of discussion 4 + + Clover, general principles for growing + discussion of 6-56 + adaptation in 6 + place in the rotation 7 + preparing the soil 11 + fertilizers 13 + seasons for sowing 16 + methods of sowing 18 + depth to bury the seed 21 + sowing alone or in combinations 22 + with or without a nurse crop 25 + amounts of seed to sow 27 + pasturing 29 + harvesting 31 + storing 33 + feeding 35 + renewing 37 + as soil improvers 38 + as a weed destroyer 43 + clover sickness 45 + possible improvement in 46 + bacteria and clovers 47 + + Clovers, synonyms + Alexandrian 322 + Alsace 194 + Aspercet 317 + Berseem 322 + Beggar ticks 338 + Beggar weed 338 + Black Medic 329 + Black Nonesuch 329 + Bokhara 300 + Branching 114 + Broad-leaved 57 + Burgundy 114 + California 291 + Chilian 114 + Cocks head 317 + Cow clover 218 + Cow grass 218 + Creeping Trifolium 258 + Dutch 258 + Elegant 194 + Esparcette 317 + Fachl 323 + French clover 338 + French grass 317 + German 238 + German mammoth 238 + Giant beggar weed 338 + Giant 218 + Honeysuckle 258 + Hop 328 + Hop trefoil 329 + Hybrid 194 + Italian 238 + Large 218 + Lucerne (Alfalfa) 114 + Mammoth 57 + Meadow 218 + Meadow trefoil 57 + Medick vetchling 317 + Mexican 114 + Minnesota 118 + Monthly 114 + Muscowi 323 + Nonesuch 329 + Pea vine 218 + Perennial 114 + Perennial hybrid 194 + Perennial red 218 + Pod 194 + Red perennial meadow 118 + Rhenish 218 + Saida 323 + Sand Lucerne 118 + Saplin 218 + Shamrock 258 + Sicilian 114 + Soiling 218 + Spotted Medick 291 + Stem 114 + Swedish 194 + Styrian 114 + Tall 218 + Tickweed 338 + Tree 300 + Turkestan 118 + Wavy stemmed 218 + White Dutch 258 + White Melilot 300 + White Swedish 194 + White trefoil 258 + Winter 238 + Yellow 291 + Zigzag 218 + + Crimson clover + discussion of 238-257 + described 238 + distribution 241 + soils 244 + place in the rotation 245 + preparing the soil 248 + sowing 250 + pasturing 252 + harvesting for hay 253 + securing seed 254 + renewing 256 + facts regarding 256 + + Dodder 190 + + Egyptian clover + discussion of 322-328 + + Florida clover + discussion of 338-344 + + Grasshoppers 189 + + Hoven 94 + + Inoculation, soil 53 + + Japan clover + discussion of 279-290 + described 279 + distribution 282 + soils 283 + place in the rotation 284 + preparing the soil 285 + sowing 285 + pasturing 287 + harvesting for hay 288 + securing seed 289 + renewing 290 + new variety 337 + + Mammoth clover + discussion of 218-237 + described 218 + distribution 220 + soils 222 + place in the rotation 224 + preparing the soil 226 + sowing 227 + pasturing 231 + harvesting for hay 233 + securing seed 234 + renewing 236 + compared with medium red 237 + + Medium red clover + discussion of 57-113 + described 57 + distribution 61 + soils 65 + place in the rotation 70 + preparing the soil 74 + sowing 75 + pasturing 91 + harvesting for hay 95 + storing 100 + securing seed 103 + renewing 109 + as a fertilizer 110 + + Micro-organisms 48 + + Nitragin 53 + + Nodules in clover plants 49 + + Root tubercles 50 + + Sand Lucerne + discussion of 333-337 + + Sainfoin + discussion of 316-322 + + Seaside clover + discussion of 345 + + Sweet clover + discussion of 300-315 + described 300 + distribution 303 + soils 305 + place in the rotation 306 + preparing the soil 307 + sowing 308 + pasturing 309 + harvesting for hay 310 + securing seed 311 + renewing 311 + value for bee pasture 312 + as a fertilizer 313 + value on alkali soils 314 + destroying the plants 314 + + Tubercles, root 50 + + Weeds troublesome 235 + + White clover + discussion of 258-278 + described 258 + distribution 261 + soils 264 + place in the rotation 265 + preparing the soil 267 + pasturing 270 + harvesting for hay 271 + securing seed 273 + renewing 276 + for lawns 277 + as a honey plant 278 + + Yellow clover + discussion of 328-332 + + +=Alfalfa= + +By F. D. COBURN. Its growth, uses, and feeding value. The fact that +alfalfa thrives in almost any soil; that without reseeding, it goes on +yielding two, three, four, and sometimes five cuttings annually for +five, ten, or perhaps 100 years; and that either green or cured it is +one of the most nutritious forage plants known, makes reliable +information upon its production and uses of unusual interest. Such +information is given in this volume for every part of America, by the +highest authority. Illustrated. 164 pages. 5 x 7 inches. Cloth. $0.50 + + +=Ginseng, Its Cultivation, Harvesting, Marketing and Market Value= + +By MAURICE G. KAINS, with a short account of its history and botany. It +discusses in a practical way how to begin with either seed or roots, +soil, climate and location, preparation, planting and maintenance of the +beds, artificial propagation, manures, enemies, selection for market and +for improvement, preparation for sale, and the profits that may be +expected. This booklet is concisely written, well and profusely +illustrated, and should be in the hands of all who expect to grow this +drug to supply the export trade, and to add a new and profitable +industry to their farms and gardens, without interfering with the +regular work. New edition. Revised and enlarged. Illustrated. 5 x 7 +inches. Cloth. $0.50 + + +=Landscape Gardening= + +By F. A. WAUGH, professor of horticulture, university of Vermont. A +treatise on the general principles governing outdoor art; with sundry +suggestions for their application in the commoner problems of gardening. +Every paragraph is short, terse and to the point, giving perfect +clearness to the discussions at all points. In spite of the natural +difficulty of presenting abstract principles the whole matter is made +entirely plain even to the inexperienced reader. Illustrated. 152 pages. +5 x 7 inches. Cloth. $0.50 + + +=Hedges, Windbreaks, Shelters and Live Fences= + +By E. P. POWELL. A treatise on the planting, growth and management of +hedge plants for country and suburban homes. It gives accurate +directions concerning hedges; how to plant and how to treat them; and +especially concerning windbreaks and shelters. It includes the whole art +of making a delightful home, giving directions for nooks and balconies, +for bird culture and for human comfort. Illustrated. 140 pages. 5 x 7 +inches. Cloth. $0.50 + + +=Animal Breeding= + +By THOMAS SHAW. This book is the most complete and comprehensive work +ever published on the subject of which it treats. It is the first book +which has systematized the subject of animal breeding. The leading laws +which govern this most intricate question the author has boldly defined +and authoritatively arranged. The chapters which he has written on the +more involved features of the subject, as sex and the relative influence +of parents, should go far toward setting at rest the wildly speculative +views cherished with reference to these questions. The striking +originality in the treatment of the subject is no less conspicuous than +the superb order and regular sequence of thought from the beginning to +the end of the book. The book is intended to meet the needs of all +persons interested in the breeding and rearing of live stock. +Illustrated. 405 pages. 5 x 7 inches. Cloth $1.50 + + +=Forage Crops Other Than Grasses= + +By THOMAS SHAW. How to cultivate, harvest and use them. Indian corn, +sorghum, clover, leguminous plants, crops of the brassica genus, the +cereals, millet, field roots, etc. Intensely practical and reliable. +Illustrated. 287 pages. 5 x 7 inches. Cloth. $1.00 + + +=Soiling Crops and the Silo= + +By THOMAS SHAW. The growing and feeding of all kinds of soiling crops, +conditions to which they are adapted, their plan in the rotation, etc. +Not a line is repeated from the Forage Crops book. Best methods of +building the silo, filling it and feeding ensilage. Illustrated. 364 +pages. 5 x 7 inches. Cloth. $1.50 + + +=The Study of Breeds= + +By THOMAS SHAW. Origin, history, distribution, characteristics, +adaptability, uses, and standards of excellence of all pedigreed breeds +of cattle, sheep and swine in America. The accepted text book in +colleges, and the authority for farmers and breeders. Illustrated. 371 +pages. 5 x 7 inches. Cloth. $1.50 + + +=Profits in Poultry= + +Useful and ornamental breeds and their profitable management. This +excellent work contains the combined experience of a number of practical +men in all departments of poultry raising. It forms a unique and +important addition to our poultry literature. Profusely illustrated. 352 +pages. 5 x 7 inches. Cloth. $1.00 + + +=Land Draining= + +A handbook for farmers on the principles and practice of draining, by +MANLY MILES, giving the results of his extended experience in laying +tile drains. The directions for the laying out and the construction of +tile drains will enable the farmer to avoid the errors of imperfect +construction, and the disappointment that must necessarily follow. This +manual for practical farmers will also be found convenient for reference +in regard to many questions that may arise in crop growing, aside from +the special subjects of drainage of which it treats. Illustrated. 200 +pages. 5 x 7 inches. Cloth. $1.00 + + +=Barn Plans and Outbuildings= + +Two hundred and fifty-seven illustrations. A most valuable work, full of +ideas, hints, suggestions, plans, etc., for the construction of barns +and outbuildings, by practical writers. Chapters are devoted to the +economic erection and use of barns, grain barns, horse barns, cattle +barns, sheep barns, cornhouses, smokehouses, icehouses, pig pens, +granaries, etc. There are likewise chapters on birdhouses, doghouses, +tool sheds, ventilators, roofs and roofing, doors and fastenings, +workshops, poultry houses, manure sheds, barnyards, root pits, etc. 235 +pages. 5 x 7 inches. Cloth. $1.00 + + +=Irrigation Farming= + +By LUTE WILCOX. A handbook for the practical application of water in the +production of crops. A complete treatise on water supply, canal +construction, reservoirs and ponds, pipes for irrigation purposes, +flumes and their structure, methods of applying water, irrigation of +field crops, the garden, the orchard and vineyard, windmills and pumps, +appliances and contrivances. New edition, revised, enlarged and +rewritten. Profusely illustrated. Over 500 pages. 5 x 7 inches. Cloth. +$2.00 + + +=Forest Planting= + +By H. NICHOLAS JARCHOW, LL. D. A treatise on the care of woodlands and +the restoration of the denuded timberlands on plains and mountains. The +author has fully described those European methods which have proved to +be most useful in maintaining the superb forests of the old world. This +experience has been adapted to the different climates and trees of +America, full instructions being given for forest planting of our +various kinds of soil and subsoil, whether on mountain or valley. +Illustrated. 250 pages. 5 x 7 inches. Cloth. $1.50 + + +=Coburn's Swine Husbandry= + +By F. D. COBURN. New, revised and enlarged edition. The breeding, +rearing and management of swine, and the prevention and treatment of +their diseases. It is the fullest and freshest compendium relating to +swine breeding yet offered. Illustrated. 312 pages. 5 x 7 inches. Cloth. +$1.50 + + +=Home Pork Making= + +The art of raising and curing pork on the farm. By A. W. FULTON. A +complete guide for the farmer, the country butcher and the suburban +dweller, in all that pertains to hog slaughtering, curing, preserving +and storing pork product--from scalding vat to kitchen table and dining +room. Illustrated. 125 pages. 5 x 7 inches. Cloth. $0.50 + + +=Harris on the Pig= + +By JOSEPH HARRIS. New edition. Revised and enlarged by the author. The +points of the various English and American breeds are thoroughly +discussed, and the great advantage of using thoroughbred males clearly +shown. The work is equally valuable to the farmer who keeps but a few +pigs, and to the breeder on an extensive scale. Illustrated. 318 pages. +5 x 7 inches. Cloth. $1.00 + + +=The Dairyman's Manual= + +By HENRY STEWART, author of the "Shepherd's Manual," "Irrigation," etc. +A useful and practical work, by a writer who is well known as thoroughly +familiar with the subject of which he writes. Illustrated. 475 pages. 5 +x 7 inches. Cloth. $1.50 + + +=Feeds and Feeding= + +By W. A. HENRY. This handbook for students and stockmen constitutes a +compendium of practical and useful knowledge on plant growth and animal +nutrition, feeding stuffs, feeding animals and every detail pertaining +to this important subject. It is thorough, accurate and reliable, and is +the most valuable contribution to live stock literature in many years. +All the latest and best information is clearly and systematically +presented, making the work indispensable to every owner of live stock. +658 pages. 6 x 9 inches. Cloth. $2.00 + + +=Farmer's Cyclopedia of Agriculture= + +_A Compendium of Agricultural Science and Practice on Farm, Orchard and +Garden Crops, and the Feeding and Diseases of Farm Animals_ + + _By_ =EARLEY VERNON WILCOX, Ph.D.= + _and_ =CLARENCE BEAMAN SMITH, M.S.= + +_Associate Editors in the Office of Experiment Stations, United States +Department of Agriculture_ + +This is a new, practical, and complete presentation of the whole subject +of agriculture in its broadest sense. It is designed for the use of +agriculturists who desire up-to-date, reliable information on all +matters pertaining to crops and stock, but more particularly for the +actual farmer. The volume contains + +=_Detailed directions for the culture of every important field, orchard, +and garden crop_= + +grown in America, together with descriptions of their chief insect pests +and fungous diseases, and remedies for their control. It contains an +account of modern methods in feeding and handling all farm stock, +including poultry. The diseases which affect different farm animals and +poultry are described, and the most recent remedies suggested for +controlling them. + +Every bit of this vast mass of new and useful information is +authoritative, practical, and easily found, and no effort has been +spared to include all desirable details. There are between 6,000 and +7,000 topics covered in these references, and it contains 700 royal 8vo +pages and nearly 500 superb half-tone and other original illustrations, +making the most perfect Cyclopedia of Agriculture ever attempted. + +_Handsomely bound in cloth, $3.50; half morocco (very sumptuous), $4.50, +postpaid_ + + =ORANGE JUDD COMPANY=, + 52 Lafayette Place, New York, N.Y. + Marquette Building, Chicago, Ill. + + + + +Transcriber's Notes: + +List of Illustrations: The number '2' was missing before 'Medium Red'. +Changed. + +Page 53: The term 'nitragin' though an odd spelling and is capitalized +elsewhere, as it is a commercial name. Unchanged. + +Page 60: The term 'adap s' is a typo for 'adapts'. Changed. + +Page 69: The term 'throgh cropping' is a typo for 'through cropping'. +Changed. + +Page 100: The phrase 'skilled workmen' is a typo for 'skilled workman'. +Changed. + +Page 103: The term 'pollenization' may be a substitute for 'pollenation' +or 'pollination'. Unchanged. + +Page 122: The term 'Sask' is apparently a substitute or abbreviation +here for the province of 'Saskatchewan'. + +Page 124: The phrase 'western alleys' is a typo for western valleys. +Changed. + +Page 124: The phrase 'largely de-depend' is a typo for 'largely depend'. +Changed. + +Page 189: The phrase 'many instance' is a typo for 'many instances'. +Changed. + +Page 197: The phrase 'with beekeepers' changed to 'with bee-keepers' to +be consistent with two other occurrences. + +Page 229: The term 'Seee page 78' is a typo for 'See page 78'. Changed. + +Page 309: The phrase 'ground through self-feeding' is a typo for 'ground +through self-seeding'. Changed. + +Page 317: The term 'Asperset' is spelled 'Aspercet' in the index. +Unchanged. Couldn't determine correct spelling. + +Page 326: The phrase 'it it clearly a catch crop' is a typo for 'it is +clearly a catch crop'. Changed. + +Index Page 349: Although the term 'Sanfoin' is an acceptable alternate +spelling for 'Sainfoin', it doesn't match other occurrences in this +text. Changed. + +Several instances of comma and periods either missing or interchanged in +original text have been fixed without listing each. They are obvious +errors. + +Various: The term 'midsummer' is also spelled 'mid-summer' in this book. +Unchanged. + +End of Transcriber's Notes. + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Clovers and How to Grow Them, by Thomas Shaw + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CLOVERS AND HOW TO GROW THEM *** + +***** This file should be named 19905-8.txt or 19905-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/1/9/9/0/19905/ + +Produced by Tom Roch and the Online Distributed Proofreading +Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from +images produced by Core Historical Literature in Agriculture +(CHLA), Cornell University) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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