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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Practical Values of Space Exploration, by 
+Committee on Science and Astronautics
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Practical Values of Space Exploration
+       Report of the Committee on Science and Astronautics, U.S.
+       House of Representatives, Eighty-Sixth Congress, Second
+       Session
+
+Author: Committee on Science and Astronautics
+
+Release Date: November 24, 2006 [EBook #19911]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SPACE EXPLORATION ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Audrey Longhurst, Janet Blenkinship and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Union Calendar No. 928
+
+86th Congress, 2d Session                 House Report No. 2091
+
+
+
+
+THE PRACTICAL VALUES OF SPACE EXPLORATION
+
+
+REPORT
+
+OF THE
+
+COMMITTEE ON SCIENCE AND ASTRONAUTICS U.S. HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES
+EIGHTY-SIXTH CONGRESS SECOND SESSION
+
+PURSUANT TO
+
+H. Res. 133
+
+[Serial I]
+
+July 5, 1960.--Committed to the Committee of the Whole House on the
+State of the Union and ordered to be printed
+
+
+UNITED STATES
+
+GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
+
+58231° WASHINGTON: 1960
+
+
+
+
+
+COMMITTEE ON SCIENCE AND ASTRONAUTICS
+
+
+  OVERTON BROOKS, Louisiana, _Chairman_
+
+  John W. McCormack, Massachusetts
+  George P. Miller, California
+  Olin E. Teague, Texas
+  Victor L. Anfuso, New York
+  B. F. Sisk, California
+  Erwin Mitchell, Georgia
+  James M. Quigley, Pennsylvania
+  Leonard G. Wolf, Iowa
+  Joseph E. Karth, Minnesota
+  Ken Hechler, West Virginia
+  Emilio Q. Daddario, Connecticut
+  Walter H. Moeller, Ohio
+  David S. King, Utah
+  J. Edward Roush, Indiana
+  Thomas G. Morris, New Mexico
+  Joseph W. Martin, JR. Massachusetts
+  James G. Fulton, Pennsylvania
+  Gordon L. McDonough, California
+  J. Edgar Chenoweth, Colorado
+  Frank C. Osmers, JR. New Jersey
+  William K. Van Pelt, Wisconsin
+  A. D. Baumhart, JR. Ohio
+  Perkins Bass, New Hampshire
+  R. Walter Riehlman, New York
+
+  CHARLES F. DUCANDER, _Executive Director and Chief Counsel_
+  DR. CHARLES S. SHELDON II, _Technical Director_
+  SPENCER M. BERESFORD, _Special Counsel_
+  PHILIP B. YEAGER, _Special Consultant_
+  JOHN A. CARSTARPHEN, Jr., _Chief Clerk_
+  FRANK R. HAMMILL, Jr., _Counsel_
+  RAYMOND WILCOVE, _Staff Consultant_
+  RICHARD P. HINES, _Staff Consultant_
+  Lt. Col. FRANCIS J. DILLON, Jr., _Staff Consultant_
+  Comdr. HOWARD J. SILBERSTEIN, _Staff Consultant_
+
+
+
+
+LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
+
+
+  HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES,
+  COMMITTEE ON SCIENCE AND ASTRONAUTICS,
+  _Washington, D.C., July 1, 1960._
+
+  Hon. OVERTON BROOKS,
+  _Chairman, Committee on Science and Astronautics._
+
+DEAR MR. CHAIRMAN: I am forwarding herewith for your
+consideration a staff study, "The Practical Values of Space
+Exploration."
+
+This study was undertaken pursuant to your request for information
+covering the various utilities of the national space effort. The study
+has been prepared by Philip B. Yeager and reviewed by other members of
+the professional staff.
+
+  CHARLES F. DUCANDER,
+  _Executive Director and Chief Counsel._
+
+
+
+
+LETTER OF SUBMITTAL
+
+
+  HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES,
+  COMMITTEE ON SCIENCE AND ASTRONAUTICS,
+  _Washington, D.C., July 5, 1960._
+
+  Hon. SAM RAYBURN,
+  _Speaker of the House of Representatives,
+  Washington, D.C._
+
+DEAR MR. SPEAKER: By direction of the Committee on Science and
+Astronautics, I submit the following report on "The Practical Values of
+Space Exploration" for the consideration of the 86th Congress.
+
+  OVERTON BROOKS, _Chairman_.
+
+
+
+
+  CONTENTS
+
+
+  Introduction                                                         1
+
+  I. The unseen values                                                 3
+    Some examples of the unexpected                                    3
+    The ultimate values                                                5
+    Steering a middle road                                             6
+    The time for space                                                 7
+
+  II. National security values                                         9
+    The military uses                                                  9
+    Our position in the international community                       12
+    Space as a substitute for war                                     15
+
+  III. The economic values                                            17
+    U.S. expenditures on space                                        17
+    The spread of economic benefits                                   18
+    Creation of new industries                                        19
+      Research                                                        19
+      New power sources                                               20
+      New water sources and uses                                      21
+      Noise and human engineering                                     22
+      High speed-light weight computers                               22
+      Solid state physics                                             23
+    Economic alliances                                                24
+    Private enterprise in space                                       24
+    Jobs                                                              27
+    Automation and disarmament                                        28
+
+  IV. Values for everyday living                                      31
+    Technological benefits                                            31
+    Food and agriculture                                              35
+    Communications                                                    36
+    Weather prediction and modification                               37
+    Health benefits                                                   39
+    Education benefits                                                42
+      The demand                                                      42
+
+  V. Long-range values                                                45
+    Trouble spots                                                     45
+      Population                                                      45
+      Water shortage                                                  46
+      Soil erosion                                                    46
+      Added leisure                                                   47
+      Intensified nationalism                                         48
+    Limitations on space research                                     48
+    Fundamental knowledge about life                                  51
+    Psychological and spiritual values                                52
+    Maturing of the race                                              53
+
+
+
+
++---------------------------------------------------------------+
+|  86TH CONGRESS                                                |
+|  _2d Session_                                                 |
+|                                                               |
+|  HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES                                     |
+|                                                               |
+|  REPORT                                                       |
+|  NO. 2091                                                     |
+|                                                               |
+|                                                               |
+|                                                               |
+|                                                               |
+|THE PRACTICAL VALUES OF SPACE EXPLORATION                      |
+|                                                               |
+|       *       *       *       *       *                       |
+|                                                               |
+|JULY 5, 1960.--Committed to the Committee of the Whole House on|
+|the State of the Union and ordered to be printed               |
+|                                                               |
+|       *       *       *       *       *                       |
+|                                                               |
+|Mr. BROOKS of Louisiana, from the Committee on Science and     |
+|Astronautics, submitted the following                          |
+|                                                               |
+|  REPORT                                                       |
+|                                                               |
+|  [Pursuant to H. Res. 133]                                    |
+|                                                               |
++---------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+THE PRACTICAL VALUES OF SPACE EXPLORATION
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+This report has been undertaken for a special reason. It is to explain
+to the taxpayer just why so many of his dollars are going into the
+American effort to explore space, and to indicate what he can expect in
+return which is of value to him.
+
+Such an explanation, even after 2 years of relatively high-geared
+activity in the space exploration field, appears to be warranted. There
+is still a segment of the U.S. population which has little, if any,
+notion of the values that the space program has for the average citizen.
+To these people the expenditure of billions of dollars on missiles,
+rockets, satellites, Moon probes, and other space activities remains
+something of a mystery--particularly when so many other worthy projects
+throughout the land may be slowed or stalled for lack of funds.
+
+If, therefore, the practical value of the American space program is
+being questioned, it is a question which needs to be answered.
+
+It is interesting to note that the problem is not unique to the United
+States. In the Soviet Union, which counts itself as the world's prime
+investigator of space, there is likewise an element of citizenry which
+finds itself puzzled over the U.S.S.R.'s penchant for the interplanetary
+reaches.
+
+"What do sputniks give to a person like me?" a Russian workman
+complained in a letter which _Pravda_ published on its front page. "So
+much money is spent on sputniks it makes people gasp. If there were no
+sputniks the Government could cut the cost of cloth for an overcoat in
+half and put a few electric flatirons in the stores. Rockets, rockets,
+rockets. Who needs them now?"[1]
+
+It goes without saying that the workman was severely chastised by the
+Soviet newspaper, but his point was made.
+
+No matter where taxpayers live they want to know--and are entitled to
+know--what good a program of space exploration is to them.
+
+During the 1960's it is expected that the U.S. Government will spend
+anywhere from $30 to $50 billion on space exploration for all purposes,
+civilian and military. It is the intent of this report to delineate in
+lay language, and in terms which will be meaningful to those who have
+not followed the American space program closely, the reasons for this
+great investment and the probable returns.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 1.--A single shot of the 8-barreled
+Saturn of the future will cost millions of dollars, maybe tens of
+millions. What makes it worthwhile for the taxpayer?]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Associated Press dispatch, dateline Moscow, June 12, 1960.
+
+
+
+
+I. The Unseen Values
+
+
+The United States has not embarked upon its formidable program of space
+exploration in order to make or perpetuate a gigantic astronautic
+boondoggle. There are good reasons, hard reasons for this program. But,
+in essence, they all boil down to the fact that the program is expected
+to produce a number of highly valuable payoffs. It not only is expected
+to do so, it is doing so right now.
+
+Many of the beneficial results can be identified.
+
+Those already showing up are detailed in the sections of this report
+which follow. They include the most urgent and precious of all
+commodities--national security. Beyond that, they also include a
+strengthened national economy, new jobs and job categories, better
+living, fresh consumer goods, improved education, increased health,
+stimulated business enterprise and a host of long-range values which may
+ultimately make the immediate benefits pale into relative
+insignificance.
+
+Practical uses such as those just listed mean the taxpayer is more than
+getting his money's worth from American space exploration--and getting a
+sizable chunk of it today.
+
+Nevertheless, if we can depend on the history of scientific adventure
+and progress, on its consistent tendencies of the past, then we can be
+reasonably sure that the greatest, finest benefits to come from our
+ventures into space are yet unseen.
+
+These are the unpredictable values, the ones which none of us has yet
+thought of.
+
+Inevitably they lag behind the basic research discoveries needed to make
+them possible, and often the discoveries are slow to be put to work
+after they are made. Investors, even governments, are human, and before
+they invest in something they normally want to know: What good is it?
+
+We can be sure that many American taxpayers of the future will be asking
+"what good is it?" in regard to various phases of the space program.
+
+There was an occasion when the great Scottish physicist, James Clerk
+Maxwell, was asked this question concerning one of his classic
+discoveries in electromagnetism. Maxwell replied: "What good is a baby?"
+
+Now, as then, it takes time for new knowledge to develop and become
+useful after its conception and birth.
+
+
+SOME EXAMPLES OF THE UNEXPECTED
+
+A graphic illustration of "unseen" benefits in regard to atomic energy
+has been expressed by an experienced researcher in this way:
+
+     I remember a conversation I had with one of our nuclear scientists
+     when I was a member of the Weapons Systems Evaluations Group almost
+     10 years ago. We were talking about the possible peaceful
+     applications of fission. We really could think of little that
+     could be done with it other than making fissionable material into a
+     form of destructive power. There had been some discussion about
+     harnessing the power of fission, but this seemed to us to be quite
+     remote. It seemed difficult to conceive of the atomic bomb as
+     anything but sheer power used for destructive purposes. Yet today
+     the products of fission applied to peaceful uses are many. The use
+     of isotopes in industry, medicine, agriculture are well known. Food
+     irradiation, nuclear power reactors, now reactors for shipboard
+     use, are with us, and it is hardly the beginning. I frequently ask
+     myself, of late, what 10 years from now will be the commercial,
+     shall we call it, applications of our missile and rocket
+     programs.[2]
+
+There are innumerable examples of the way in which invention or
+discovery, or sometimes just simple human curiosity, result in useful
+payoff. And frequently no one suspects the direction the payoff finally
+takes. The point, of course, is that _any_ knowledge eventually pays
+dividends. The things we learn from our national space program will
+produce benefits in ways entirely unrelated to missiles or
+interplanetary travel. (See secs. III and IV.) The reverse is also true;
+knowledge gained in areas quite remote from outer space can have genuine
+value for the advance of space exploration.
+
+Investigation into the skin of a fish provides a good case in point.
+
+A German inventor who migrated to California after World War II had long
+been interested in ways to reduce the drag of friction produced by air
+or water on the surface of objects passing through them. One day, while
+watching a group of porpoises cavort past a speeding ship with the
+greatest of ease, it occurred to him that the skin of these animals, if
+closely studied, might shed light on ways of cutting surface friction.
+It was many years before the inventor was able to enlist the aid of
+aquarium managers in securing porpoise skins for study. In 1955,
+however, he obtained the necessary skins and found that dolphins, in
+fact, owe much of their great speed to a unique skin which markedly
+reduces the effect of turbulence against it. From this knowledge has
+come the recent development of a diaphragm-damping fluid surface which
+has real potential not only for underwater high-speed bodies, such as
+submarines, torpedoes and underwater missiles, but for any vehicle where
+fast-moving gases or fluids may cause drag.[3]
+
+The implications of this knowledge for satellites near Earth or for
+reentering spacecraft are obvious.
+
+Sometimes a reverse twist in reasoning by a speculative mind will result
+in enormous practical utility.
+
+In Cambridge, Mass., a sanitary engineer teaching at the Massachusetts
+Institute of Technology began to wonder about the principles of
+adhesion--why things stick to each other. Do they only stick together
+because some sticky substance is holding them, or are there other
+reasons? "If a person is sick," he asked himself, "is it because a cause
+of sickness is present or because a cause of health is absent? We now
+know that in infectious diseases the first alternative is true; the
+patient is ill because he harbors pathogenic germs. The opposite case
+prevails in deficiency diseases, where necessary vitamins are absent
+from food and illness is brought about by this absence. To which of the
+classes does adhesion belong? When we cannot produce a dependable bond,
+are we dealing with the lack of some adhesive force or with existence of
+an obstacle to sticking?"
+
+Operating on the theory that adhesion might result not only from the
+presence of a sticky agent but from the removal of all impediments to
+sticking, this scientist has now managed to produce strong adhesion
+between the least sticky of substances--polyethylene plastics. He has
+done it by studying the molecular structure of polyethylenes and
+removing all impurities which normally find their way into the
+manufacture of such material. The next step: "We hope to prepare
+adhesive joints in which a noble gas acts as an adhesive. Noble gases
+are the least active substances known to chemistry; if they can adhere,
+it is clear that no specific forces are needed for adhesiveness."[4]
+
+No great imagination is required to perceive the meaning which this new
+knowledge, if proved out, will have for our everyday lives--to say
+nothing of its usefulness in the making of astronautic equipment.
+
+
+THE ULTIMATE VALUES
+
+In any event, it is apparent that where research is concerned--and
+especially space research with its broad scale of inquiry--we cannot
+always see the value of scientific endeavor on the basis of its
+beginning. We cannot always account for what we have purchased with each
+research dollar.
+
+The Government stated this proposition when it first undertook to put
+the space program on a priority basis:
+
+     Scientific research has never been amenable to rigorous cost
+     accounting in advance. Nor, for that matter, has exploration of any
+     sort. But if we have learned one lesson, it is that research and
+     exploration have a remarkable way of paying off--quite apart from
+     the fact that they demonstrate that man is alive and insatiably
+     curious. And we all feel richer for knowing what explorers and
+     scientists have learned about the universe in which we live.[5]
+
+In this statement there is political support for what the historian, the
+anthropologist, the psychologist consider to be established fact--that
+some innate force in the human being makes him _know_, whatever his
+formal beliefs or whatever his unconscious philosophy, that he _must_
+progress. Progress is the core of his destiny.
+
+This is a concept which, in connection with space exploration, has been
+recognized for many years. One of the earliest and most perceptive of
+the space "buffs" stated it before the British Interplanetary Society in
+1946 in these words: "* * * our civilization is no more than the sum of
+all the dreams that earlier ages have brought to fulfillment. And so it
+must always be, for if men cease to dream, if they turn their backs upon
+the wonder of the universe, the story of our race will be coming to an
+end".[6]
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 2.--In the years immediately ahead, the
+orbiting observatory or the manned satellite will uncover crucial
+information about the nature of the universe.]
+
+
+STEERING A MIDDLE ROAD
+
+In any endeavor which is as futuristic as space exploration it is not
+difficult to become lost in the land of the starry-eyed prognosticators.
+Conversely, it is also easy to find oneself lining up with the debunkers
+and the champions of the status quo, for their arguments and views give
+the impression of being hard-headed, sensible.
+
+If one must err in either direction, however, it is probably safer,
+where space is concerned, to err in the direction of the enthusiasts.
+This is because (and subsequent parts of this report will show it) the
+Nation cannot afford not to be in the vanguard of the space explorers.
+
+Events today move with facility and lightning rapidity. Today, more than
+ever, time is on the side of the expeditious. We can no longer take the
+risk of giving much support to the scoffers--to that breed of
+unimaginative souls who thought Robert Fulton was a fool for harnessing
+a paddlewheel to a boiler, who thought Henry Ford was a fool for putting
+an internal combustion engine on wheels, who thought Samuel Langley was
+a fool for designing a contraption to fly through the air.
+
+There are always those who will say it cannot be done. Even in this era
+of sophisticated flight there have been those who said the sound barrier
+would never be broken. It was. Others said later that space vehicles
+would never get through the heat barrier. They have. Now, some say men
+will never overcome the radiation barrier in space. But we can be sure
+they will.
+
+It is undoubtedly wise for the layman, in terms of the benefits he can
+expect from the space program in the foreseeable future, to steer a
+reasonable course between the two extremes. Yet one cannot help
+remembering that the secret of taking practical energy from the atom, a
+secret which the human race had been trying to learn for thousands of
+years, was accomplished in less than a decade from the moment when men
+first determined that it was possible to split an atom. It is difficult
+to forget that even after World War II some of our most respected
+scientists sold short the idea of developing long-range missiles.
+Impractical, they said; visionary. But 6 years after the United States
+went to work seriously on missiles, an operational ICBM with a
+9,000-mile range was an accomplished fact.
+
+
+THE TIME FOR SPACE
+
+All of the glowing predictions being made on behalf of space exploration
+will not be here tomorrow or the next day. Yet this seems less important
+than that we recognize the significance of our moment of history.
+
+We may think of that moment as a new age--the age of space and the
+atom--to follow the historic ages of stone, bronze, and iron. We may
+think of it in terms of theories, of succeeding from those of Copernicus
+to those of Newton and thence to Freud and now Einstein. We may think of
+our time as the time of exploiting the new fourth state of matter:
+plasma, or the ion. Or we may think of it in terms of revolutions, as
+passing from the industrial cycle of steam through the railroad-steel
+cycle, through the electricity-automobile cycle, into the burgeoning
+technological revolution of today.
+
+However we think of it, it is a dawning period and one which--in its
+scope and potential--promises to dwarf much of what has gone before.
+Those who have given careful thought to the matter are convinced that
+while some caution is in order, the new era is not one to be approached
+with timidity, inhibited imagination or too much convention. Neither is
+there any point in trying to hold off the tempo of this oncoming age or,
+in any other way, to evade it.
+
+Mark Twain once listened to the complaints of an old riverboat pilot who
+was having trouble making the switch from sail to steam. The old pilot
+wanted no part of the newfangled steam contraptions. "Maybe so," replied
+Twain, "but when it's steamboat time, you steam."[7]
+
+Today is space time and man is going to explore it.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 3.--The versatile Atlas can be used
+either for launching man into space or to carry a nuclear warhead as far
+as 9,000 miles.]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[2] Gavin, Lt. Gen. James M., U.S. Army (retired), speech to the
+American Rocket Society, New York City, Nov. 19, 1958.
+
+[3] Kramer, Max O., "The Dolphins' Secret," New Scientist, May 5, 1960,
+pp. 1118-1120.
+
+[4] Bikerman, Dr. Jacob J., reported in New Scientist, Mar. 3, 1960, p.
+535.
+
+[5] "Introduction to Outer Space," a statement by the President, the
+White House, Mar. 26, 1958.
+
+[6] Clarke, Arthur C., "The Challenge of the Spaceships," Harper &
+Bros., New York, 1955, p. 15.
+
+[7] Related by T. Keith Glennan, Administrator, National Aeronautics and
+Space Administration, in an address before the Worcester (Mass.)
+Economic Club, Feb. 15, 1960.
+
+
+
+
+II. NATIONAL SECURITY VALUES
+
+
+There is no longer doubt that space exploration holds genuine
+significance for the security and well-being of the United States as a
+nation.
+
+It does so in at least three ways. One results from the uses which our
+Armed Forces can make of the knowledge gained from space exploration. A
+second results from the influence and prestige which America can exert
+within the world community because of her prowess in space exploration.
+A third results from the possibility that space exploration, eventually,
+may prove so immense and important a challenge that it will channel the
+prime energies of powerful nations toward its own end and thus reduce
+the current emphasis on developing means of destruction.
+
+The first two values definitely exist. The third seems to be a
+reasonable hope.
+
+
+THE MILITARY USES
+
+From the beginning it has been recognized that space exploration, the
+research connected therewith, and the ability to operate therein is of
+more than passing interest to the military.
+
+Congress recognized the fact when it passed the National Aeronautics and
+Space Act of 1958 and directed that "activities peculiar to or primarily
+associated with the development of weapons systems, military operations,
+or the defense of the United States * * * shall be the responsibility
+of, and shall be directed by, the Department of Defense."[8] In the
+amendments to the Space Act proposed in 1960, this directive was
+strengthened: "The Department of Defense shall undertake such activities
+in space, and such research and development connected therewith, as may
+be necessary for the defense of the United States."[9]
+
+It is possible to argue, and indeed it has been argued, that ballistic
+missiles such as IRBM's and ICBM's are not really "space" weapons, that
+they are simply an extension of the traditional art of artillery. For
+the purposes of this report, however, the argument appears to be largely
+a semantic one. Such missiles do traverse space, they are guided through
+space, and they employ the same engines and principles which are
+presently used for purposes of scientific space exploration. While more
+advanced "space" weapons may evolve in the future, the missile as we
+know it today cannot very well be divorced from our thinking about space
+and its practical uses.
+
+Going on this assumption, and casting an eye in the direction of the
+Iron Curtain, it is obvious that the Soviet Union is going all-out to
+exploit space for military purposes.
+
+Military men have known for years that the tremendously powerful booster
+which the Soviets have been using to launch their massive sputniks was
+originally designed to carry the primitive heavy version of the A-bomb
+across continents.
+
+If there was ever doubt of the extent to which the Soviets intend to
+make space a selected medium for military purposes it was erased when
+Premier Khrushchev made his address to the Supreme Soviet early in 1960.
+He commented in part:
+
+     Our state has at its disposal powerful rocket equipment. The
+     military air force and navy have lost their previous importance in
+     view of the modern development of military equipment. This type of
+     armament is not being reduced but replaced. Almost the entire
+     military air force is being replaced by rocket equipment. We have
+     by now sharply cut, and it seems will continue sharply to cut and
+     even discontinue the manufacture of bombers and other obsolete
+     equipment. In the navy, the submarine fleet assumes great
+     importance, while surface ships can no longer play the part they
+     once did. In our country the armed forces have been to a
+     considerable extent transferred to rocket and nuclear arms. These
+     arms are being perfected and will continue to be perfected until
+     they are banned.[10]
+
+While it is difficult to assess the actual extent of the Soviet
+preoccupation with missiles, it has been reported that the Russians are
+building upward of 100 IRBM and ICBM bases to be manned by about 200,000
+men. Most of these, at least the intermediate range bases, are said to
+be along Russia's Baltic coast, in East Germany, in the southern Ukraine
+and in the Carpathian Mountains.[11]
+
+In any event, the space age is clearly "here" so far as the military are
+concerned, and U.S. forces--particularly since the development of the
+much lighter atomic warheads--have been likewise diligent in their space
+efforts. This is because many military minds are now agreed that:
+
+     We are moving inevitably into a time of astropower. We face a
+     threat beyond imagination, should events ever lead to open conflict
+     in a world of hypersonic velocities and a raging atom chained as
+     our slave. We must be strong, we must be able to change to meet
+     change. What may come against our beloved America will not be
+     signaled by one light from the North Church steeple, if they come
+     by land, or two, if they come by sea. Never again. They will come
+     through space, and their light of warning will be the blinding
+     terror of a thermonuclear fireball.[12]
+
+It is important to note, in connection with military matters, that pure
+rocket power, is not the only avenue to success in space use. The
+American Atlas missile, for example, which can carry a nuclear warhead
+and which operates on considerably less thrust than the powerful Soviet
+boosters thus far demonstrated, has nevertheless shown the capability of
+negotiating a 9,000-mile trek and landing in the target area. This is
+about 1,500 miles farther than any Soviet shots revealed to the public
+in the 2-1/2-year period following the first sputnik. It is also a
+sufficient range to permit reaching almost any likely target on the
+globe.
+
+From the military point of view, the meaning thus brought out is that
+sophistication of missiles together with reliability and ease of
+handling is more important than pure power.
+
+When we begin to consider both the civil and military aspects of space
+use in the decades ahead, however, rocket power acquires fresh
+importance. It is, as one expert says, "the key to space supremacy."[13]
+Not only is much heavier thrust required for ventures farther out into
+space, but probably thrust developed by different means as well, such as
+atom, ion, or even photon power.
+
+This suggests the possibilities of weapons which today are considered to
+be "way out" or "blue sky"--in short, farfetched. Yet they include the
+ideas of men with solid scientific training as well as vision. For
+example, Germany's great rocket pioneer, Prof. Hermann Oberth, "has
+proposed that a giant mirror in space (some 60 miles in diameter) could
+be used militarily to burn an enemy country on Earth. For peaceful
+purposes, however, such a space mirror could be used to melt icebergs
+and alter temperatures."[14] Another reputable German scientist who has
+been working for a number of years on photon (electromagnetic ray) power
+as a source of propulsion, declares that if such power is possible so is
+"the idea of a 'death ray,' a weapon beam which burns or melts targets,
+such as enemy missiles, on which it is trained. The idea has been
+familiar in science fiction for a long time and has been scorned often
+enough. Yet, if the photon rocket is possible so is the ray gun."[15]
+
+Still another proposal, one made to the Congress, involves use of the
+Moon as a military base. "It could, at some future date, be used as a
+secure base to deter aggression. Lunar launching sites, perhaps located
+on the far side of the Moon, which could never be viewed directly from
+the Earth, could launch missiles earthward. They could be guided
+accurately during flight and to impact, and thus might serve peaceful
+ends by deterring any would-be aggressor."[16]
+
+In spite of the fact that ideas such as these are being sponsored by
+competent and responsible scientists, other scientists equally competent
+and responsible sometimes cry them down as impractical, impossible or
+even childish. One engineer, for instance, describes maneuverable manned
+space vehicles as having "no military value," bases on the Moon as
+having no military or communications use, and the idea of high velocity
+photon-power for space travel as "a fantasy strictly for immature
+science fiction." He also characterizes the reconnaissance satellite,
+which U.S. military authorities have long since programmed and even
+launched, as being "definitely submarginal * * *. A fraction of the cost
+of a reconnaissance satellite could accomplish wonders in conventional
+information gathering."[17]
+
+Controversies such as these are difficult for the person who is neither
+a scientist nor a military expert to judge. One is inclined to recall,
+though, the treatment received by General Billy Mitchell for his
+devotion to nonconventional bombing concepts; the fact that the utility
+of the rocket as developed by America's pioneer, Dr. Robert H. Goddard,
+was generally ignored during World War II; the fact that it took a
+personal letter from Albert Einstein to President Roosevelt to get the
+Manhattan Project underway.
+
+Yet today the bomber, the missile, and the nuclear weapon form the
+backbone of our military posture.
+
+In other words, history seems to support the proposition that no matter
+how remote or unlikely new discoveries and approaches may first appear,
+the military eventually finds a way to use them.
+
+Will it be any different with space exploration?
+
+
+OUR POSITION IN THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY
+
+Like the military values of space research, the practical value of space
+exploration in terms of world prestige has also been acknowledged almost
+from the beginning of the satellite era.
+
+The White House, in its initial statement on the national space program,
+declared:
+
+     It is useful to distinguish among (the) factors which give
+     importance, urgency, and inevitability to the advancement of space
+     technology (one of which) is the factor of national prestige. To be
+     strong and bold in space technology will enhance the prestige of
+     the United States among the peoples of the world and create added
+     confidence in our scientific, technological, industrial, and
+     military strength.[18]
+
+Only recently, however, has the full impact and meaning of this phase of
+our national space program come to be widely recognized. It has been
+stated, perhaps in its most forceful and succinct form, by an American
+official in a unique position to know. The Director of the U.S.
+Information Agency, part of whose job is to keep track of the esteem in
+which America is held abroad, has told Congress:
+
+     Our space program may be considered as a measure of our vitality
+     and our ability to compete with a formidable rival and as a
+     criterion of our ability to maintain technological eminence worthy
+     of emulation by other peoples.[19]
+
+This element of space exploration takes on particular significance in
+light of the current international struggle to influence the minds of
+men, in light of the rising tide of nationalism throughout the world,
+and in light of the intensification of the cold war as demonstrated by
+the now-famous U-2 incident and the hardening attitude of oriental
+communism.
+
+In the words of an influential newspaper:
+
+     Wholly apart from the intellectual compulsions that now drive man
+     to move higher and higher into the high heavens, it seems clear
+     that our country can be niggardly in this field only at the risk of
+     being completely and forever outclassed by Russia--a gamble that
+     could have the most fearful political, economic, and military
+     consequences.[20]
+
+Incidentally, there is another prestige factor to be considered. This is
+what might be called the chain-reaction factor: the likelihood that
+technological preeminence in the space field will attract top talent
+from other parts of the world to the banner of the country which
+develops it, and thus constantly nourish and replenish the efforts of
+that country. It is a consideration which has not received general
+attention, although it has been discussed before some of the world's
+leading space scientists.[21]
+
+Here again, as with the military situation, the Soviets are making every
+effort to exploit their dexterity in space. They are pursuing the
+prestige gambit directly and indirectly. In the first category, for
+example, they give top priority to space exhibits in important public
+forums--as their duplicate sputniks strategically placed at the world's
+fair and the United Nations attest. Premier Khrushchev's delight in
+making gifts to foreigners of miniature Soviet pennants similar to that
+carried in Lunik II--which hit the Moon--is another instance.[22]
+
+The indirect drive for prestige via space technology is far more
+important. It has been described by a congressional committee as
+follows:
+
+     It is difficult to escape the conclusion that the Soviet Union in
+     the last several years has demonstrated a great skill in
+     coordinating its progress in missilery, its success in space
+     missions, and its foreign policy and world image. Shots seem to
+     have been timed to maximize the effects of visits of Soviet leaders
+     and to punctuate Soviet statements and positions in international
+     negotiations. This is not to equate their space activities with
+     hollow propaganda. Empty claims do not have a positive effect for
+     long. Nor is there any firm evidence that it has been possible for
+     political policymakers to call their shots at times inconsistent
+     with good scientific and technical needs. The conclusion is rather
+     that the many elements of scientific, technical, military,
+     political, and psychological policy are all weighed, and tests
+     which make a full contribution to such a combined strategy are
+     carried out and supported with appropriate publicity.[23]
+
+There is also evidence that scientific endeavor by the Russians for
+prestige purposes is having repercussions on internal policy. Great
+emphasis is currently being placed on the demonstrable usefulness of
+scientific effort--to the extent that Soviet colleges, research
+institutions, examining boards, and academies of science have been
+directed to be more exacting in conferring scientific degrees and
+titles. Newness and usefulness are requisite, but, at the same time,
+degrees may now be awarded for other than dissertations; inventions and
+textbooks of major importance may also earn a degree for their
+authors.[24]
+
+Within the prestige context, it is true that the United States must
+labor under certain handicaps because of the nature of its democratic
+system.
+
+No effort is made in the American space program to hide the failures
+which result from its highly complex character. Our burnups, misfires,
+explosions, fizzles, and lost or wayward vehicles are well publicized.
+Those of the Soviet Union rarely are. Even though most nations are well
+aware that the Russians must be having their troubles, too, the
+appearance of uniform success fostered by the U.S.S.R. inevitably
+contributes to an image of scientific superiority. In addition, the
+Soviets have developed a habit of striving for spectacular "firsts,"
+most of which undoubtedly are undertaken almost as much for prestige
+reasons as for scientific ones.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 4.--Symbolic of the American effort in
+space is this Thor-Able rocket, shown here launching the Tiros weather
+satellite into a near-perfect orbit. This same vehicle, which launched
+the record-breaking 23 million-mile communication probe--Pioneer V--has
+contributed enormously to U.S. prestige abroad.]
+
+Still, the United States has not done badly from the prestige angle. So
+far as the world's scientific fraternity is concerned, it may even be
+well in the lead.
+
+In the first 30 or so months following the opening of the space age, as
+signaled by the launching of Sputnik I in October 1957, the United
+States put 21 satellites into orbit out of 42 attempts. Two out of five
+deep-space probes were successful. The degree of success for all major
+launchings ran better than 50 percent. The American effort has been
+based on a broad scope of inquiry and includes long-range
+communications, weather reporting, navigation and surveillance vehicles,
+as well as information-gathering satellites.
+
+During the same period the Soviets launched four Earth satellites, one
+deep-space probe, one lunar-impact probe and one satellite into a much
+elongated Earth orbit which circled and photographed the Moon. Most of
+their vehicles have been substantially heavier than those launched by
+the United States, although complete information on their scientific
+purposes and the result obtained has never been disclosed.
+
+The world political value of such programs cannot be discounted. To the
+extent that the welfare of the United States depends upon its stature in
+the eyes of the rest of the world (which is believed considerable) and
+to the extent that the scientific capability of the United States
+influences such stature (which is also believed considerable) our space
+venture has very marked practical utility. It may even mean the
+difference between freedom and dictatorship, between survival and
+oblivion.
+
+
+SPACE AS A SUBSTITUTE FOR WAR
+
+A natural outgrowth of the military and prestige facets of space
+exploration is the question of whether this activity, in time, will
+replace the forces which have historically driven nations into armed
+conflict.
+
+Any number of social scientists and historians have speculated that this
+might occur. The theory is that the conquest of space may prove to be
+the moral equivalent of war by substituting for certain material and
+psychological needs usually supplied through war; that the absorption of
+energies, resources, imagination, and aggressiveness in pursuit of the
+space adventure may become an effective way of maintaining peace.
+
+Put another way, nations might become "extroverted" to the point where
+their urge to overcome the unknown would dwarf their historic desires
+for power, wealth, and recognition--attributes which have so often led
+to war in the past.
+
+The fact that the United Nations, late in 1959, agreed to set up a
+permanent Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space attests to the
+hopes and potential of such a development.
+
+Of course, whether this condition will actually develop is anybody's
+guess. But in a world where brute force is becoming increasingly
+dangerous and catastrophic, the bare possibility of such a result should
+not be ignored by those who may be contemplating the values of space
+exploration. It could be the highest value of them all.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 5.--Today's assembly lines for
+automobiles and aircraft are being supplemented by the growing
+astronautics industry, here shown turning out capsules for manned space
+flight.]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[8] Public Law 85-568, 85th Cong.
+
+[9] H. Rept. 1633, 86th Cong., 2d sess., p. 6.
+
+[10] Speech to the Supreme Soviet, Jan. 14, 1960.
+
+[11] Associated Press dispatch, dateline London, Dec. 2, 1959.
+
+[12] Scott, Brig. Gen. Robert L., USAF (retired), Space Age, February
+1959, p. 63.
+
+[13] Ostrander, Maj. Gen. Don R., USAF, before the American Rocket
+Society, Los Angeles, May 10, 1960.
+
+[14] Cox, Donald and Stoiko, Michael, Spacepower, John C. Winston Co.,
+Philadelphia, 1958, p. 16.
+
+[15] Saenger, Dr. Eugen, New Scientist, Sept. 10, 1959, p. 383.
+
+[16] Boushey, Brig. Gen. H. A., USAF, Hearings before the House Select
+Committee on Astronautics and Space Exploration, Apr. 23, 1958.
+
+[17] Pierce, Dr. J. R., "The Dream World of Space," Industrial Research,
+December 1959, p. 58.
+
+[18] 5 supra.
+
+[19] Allen, George V, testimony before the House Committee on Science
+and Astronautics, Jan. 22, 1960.
+
+[20] Editorial in the Washington Evening Star, Apr. 4, 1960.
+
+[21] Remarks of Hon. Aubrey Jones, Minister of Supply, to the
+International Astronautical Federation, London, Sept. 1, 1959.
+
+[22] Associated Press dispatch, dateline Rangoon, Feb. 18, 1960.
+
+[23] "Space, Missiles, and the Nation," report of the House Committee on
+Science and Astronautics, May 18, 1960, p. 53.
+
+[24] The New Scientist, Mar. 3, 1960, p. 547.
+
+
+
+
+III. THE ECONOMIC VALUES
+
+
+We in the United States believe that we have the world's highest
+standard of living. Our current wealth, prosperity, consumer goods and
+gross national product are at a peak hitherto unreached by any country.
+
+Nevertheless, economists who see the steady preponderant outflow of
+goods and capital from the United States and who study the rising rate
+of economic capability in other countries can find little room for
+complacence in the present status of things. They are also well aware of
+the Soviet Union's announced intent of beating the United States at its
+own game: economic expansion.
+
+Military historians are likewise aware that even strong economies, when
+they become static, do not guarantee safety. On the contrary, they seem
+likely to induce a dangerous national apathy.
+
+     This syndrome is familiar in history. Carthage suffered from it.
+     Carthage enjoyed enormous prosperity and was flourishing when she
+     was destroyed by her Roman competitor. Much later, Rome had a gross
+     national product without precedence. Her wealth and splendor were
+     unsurpassed when the Vandals and Visigoths began their onslaughts.
+     Neither Rome's great engineering skills, its architectural
+     grandeur, its great laws, nor, in the last analysis, its gross
+     national product, could prevail against the barbarians. Their GNP
+     was negligible; nevertheless they ransacked the mighty Roman
+     Empire.
+
+     The gross national product is no insurance of survival. It is not a
+     sign of military strength, and indeed, it may not even be
+     sufficient for the economic battle.[25]
+
+Thus from the point of view of economic stimulus and continued
+commercial dynamism, space exploration should be--and is proving to
+be--a godsend.
+
+
+U.S. EXPENDITURES ON SPACE
+
+It is impossible to arrive at accurate figures which might help indicate
+the extent of this effort in dollars and cents. But we do know that the
+U.S. Government is presently putting about $3.5 billion annually into
+the research and development phases. How much more may be going into the
+purchase of completed space hardware is difficult to say; certainly it
+is a higher figure still. The National Aeronautics and Space
+Administration, in presenting its 10-year plan to Congress recently,
+indicated that this agency alone expects to average between $1.5 and $2
+billion a year during the next decade.
+
+The amount of effort going into space-related programs on the part of
+private industry, measured in dollars, again can only be roughly
+estimated. But it is a sizable figure and is known to be growing. It may
+amount to half the governmental research and development outlay.
+
+These figures add up to a very important segment of the national
+economy, and the fact that they represent a highly active and
+progressive segment is particularly heartening to the economic experts
+of the Nation.
+
+
+THE SPREAD OF ECONOMIC BENEFITS
+
+One of the most useful characteristics of the space program is that its
+needs "spread across the entire industrial spectrum--electronics,
+metals, fuels, ceramics, machinery, plastics, instruments, textiles,
+thermals, cryogenics, and a thousand other areas."[26] The benefits from
+space exploration thus have a way of filtering into almost every area of
+the American economy, either directly or indirectly. "Perhaps the
+greatest economic treasure is the advanced technology required for more
+and more difficult space missions. This new technology is advancing at a
+meteoric rate. Its benefits are spreading throughout our whole
+industrial and economic system."[27]
+
+A graphic example of the manner in which the technological and economic
+benefits from the space program can grow may be seen from the
+development of the X-15. This rocket craft, designed to "fly" beyond the
+Earth's atmosphere at altitudes up to 100 miles, is the product of 400
+different firms and contractors.
+
+Inasmuch as other nations, those which generally have lagged behind the
+United States in technical know-how, are now rapidly bringing their
+technology up to date--this windfall from our space program is
+especially opportune. It is providing the incentive to American industry
+to remain in the world's technological van. And it is emphasizing that
+economic leadership is a dynamic thing, that U.S. mass-production
+techniques which have enabled the Nation to compete so well in foreign
+markets are no longer, of themselves, sufficient guarantee of superior
+economic position.
+
+While America's space exploration program, on a formal basis, came into
+being as recently as October 1958, its impact on the national economy
+has probably been sharper than that of any single new program ever
+conceived. For there are now at least 5,000 companies or research
+organizations engaged in the missile-space industry. And more than 3,200
+different space-related products have been required and are being
+produced to date.[28]
+
+One can only speculate on the economic effect which the space program is
+having on investments or on investors who have no other connection with
+it. It seems significant, however, that the stock market pages in recent
+months have come to devote a good deal of attention to "space issues."
+Financially speaking, space has thus become a major category. That it
+has done so in such a short period would seem to have marked
+implications for the future.
+
+In brief, space exploration is becoming almost an industry in itself,
+and there are those who believe it destined to become the largest
+industrial spur in the Nation before too many years have gone by.
+
+One expert, an experienced hand not only in astronautics but in the
+business world as well, describes the outlook in this fashion: "A great
+industrial change is taking place in the United States. The aircraft
+industry, which long considered missiles as a small department, now
+finds itself becoming a part of the large missile and space flight
+industry. It is an elemental evolution. An industrial change is upon us
+comparable to the advent of mercantilism."[29] He has predicted that
+within a decade or so the astronautics industry will be larger than the
+automotive industry of the entire world.
+
+While such predictions may be overly optimistic, they can scarcely be
+dismissed as irresponsible in the light of what has already happened.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 6.--Booster engines of tomorrow, such as
+this mockup of the 1,500,000 pound thrust single engine, will place
+broad requirements on men and materials.]
+
+
+CREATION OF NEW INDUSTRIES
+
+Whether or not we think of the missile-space business as being a
+self-contained industry, the requirements and exigencies of space
+exploration can be expected to result in the creation of new or greatly
+strengthened industrial branches, for example:
+
+
+_Research_
+
+This phase of the American economy is having a phenomenal growth. Not
+only have many established industries now placed research high on their
+organizational charts, but hundreds, perhaps thousands, of new
+businesses are springing up which are entirely devoted to research and
+development. R. & D., as it is called, is their stock in trade, their
+only product. And space exploration appears to have given them their
+greatest boost.
+
+One recent study on the subject regards research as the fourth major
+industrial revolution to take place in American history, following the
+advents of steam mechanization, steel, electricity-and-internal
+combustion engines.
+
+     The fourth industrial revolution, ours, is unique in the number of
+     people working on it, its complexity, and its power to push the
+     economy at a rate previously impossible.
+
+     Today between 5,000 and 50,000 _technical entrepreneurs_ (top R. &
+     D. engineers, leading scientists, and highly effective technical
+     managers) are directly analogous to an estimated 50 to 500 men in
+     all of the first three periods. Thus about 100 times the effort in
+     terms of qualitative (effective, creative, patent-producing)
+     manpower is being spent on the fourth revolution as on the other
+     three combined.
+
+     Total manpower, of course, is much more than that: there are
+     probably 700,000 engineers and industrially oriented scientists in
+     the United States today, as against 2,000 even as late as Edison's
+     first high voltage light bulb. Whereas Edison worked with 20 to 100
+     scientists in his laboratory, and Fulton labored alone, there are
+     5,000 industrial laboratories today employing from 20 to 7,300
+     technical men each.[30]
+
+
+_New power sources_
+
+One of the greatest demands of spacecraft of the future will be for new
+sources of power. While rocket propulsion power is part of this picture,
+the power needed to operate space vehicles after launching may prove to
+be the larger and more important need. Progress has already been made in
+this direction by use of special kinds of batteries and solar cells
+which convert the sun's rays into electric current. But these will need
+supplementing or replacing eventually as greater power becomes
+necessary.
+
+It would be rash to predict the outcome of this complicated field, but
+certain very promising methods can be listed.
+
+One is the fuel cell, which converts fuel directly into electric power
+without the necessity for machinery or working parts. Much progress has
+been made on the fuel cell in recent months. In England a 40-cell unit
+has been used to drive a forklift truck and to do electric welding. It
+develops up to 5 kilowatts.[31] In the United States a 30-cell portable
+powerplant developing 200 watts has been delivered to the Army and
+Marine Corps,[32] while a 1,000-unit cell has been developed in the
+Midwest which provides 15 kilowatts and drives a tractor.[33]
+
+Another method is plasma power, or power generated through the use of
+hot ionized gas. Such gas acts as a conductor of electricity and when
+employed as a "magnetohydrodynamics" generator it can be used for a
+variety of purposes. It has the advantage of being simple, rugged, and
+efficient. Some day it may also prove very economical. Already 10
+municipal areas along the Mason-Dixon line are preparing to experiment
+with electric power derived from this source.[34] It has been estimated
+that "as much as 1 million watts could be generated by shooting a stream
+of plasma at speeds three times that of sound through a magnetic field
+only 3 feet long and with the magnetic poles 6 inches apart."[35]
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 7.--The possible power source for space
+ships of the future, the ion jet, has significant counterpart uses for
+the commercial world.]
+
+Another possible source is photoelectric power. While a number of very
+difficult problems block the practical generation of this kind of power,
+the astronautics research division of one American company has now
+succeeded in increasing the efficiency of photoelectric cells by a
+factor of more than 300.[36] So the possibilities in this area are
+looking up. As discussed in section II, photon power derived from the
+ejection of electromagnetic rays may someday prove a source for
+accelerating vehicles once they have escaped from Earth's gravity.
+
+Another possibility, of course, is atomic energy about which much has
+been said and written. If, as some scientists believe, extensive space
+exploration by manned crews will depend on harnessing this great source
+of energy--both for booster purposes and for operating spacecraft in the
+distant parts of our interplanetary system--this fact alone may assure
+that the obstacles to practical nuclear energy are overcome faster and
+more completely than would otherwise be the case. It is interesting to
+note that the science of controlling nuclear fusion (as opposed to
+fission) has come so far in the past several years that 11 private power
+companies are pooling their resources to advance this state of the
+art.[37]
+
+
+_New water sources and uses_
+
+A look into the future indicates very strongly that water will become a
+major world problem, possibly by the beginning of the 1970's, which is
+likely to be another "dry" decade. Present water supplies, coupled with
+the increasing population and the many new uses for water, are barely
+adequate now. In another 10 years the situation could be critical.
+
+Part of our national space program includes studies on how to use and
+reuse water to the best advantage of the human in space. A number of
+avenues are being followed, including vaporization of volatiles in
+biological wastes.[38]
+
+From research of this kind it is more than possible that knowledge will
+evolve which will prove useful in the practical production of fresh
+water from other chemical compounds or mixtures, including seawater.
+More than that, it could lead to new ways for extracting much needed
+materials from the sea. Seawater contains 40 basic elements, 19 in
+relatively copious amounts. These elements run from 18,980 parts parts
+per million of chlorine to 0,0000002 part per billion of radium. Yet, so
+far, we have learned to extract only bromine and magnesium in useful
+amounts.[39] Conversely, the study of how marine animals extract rare
+elements from the seawater, such as the extraction of copper compounds
+by the octopus, could provide astronautic researchers with important
+clues for keeping man alive in space.
+
+
+_Noise and human engineering_
+
+This is a field in which research has been going on seriously for only a
+few years. Most of it has developed since World War II. Human
+engineering is involved primarily with the reaction of people to their
+immediate surroundings and how to arrange those surroundings in order to
+permit the most comfortable and efficient functioning within them.
+
+The noise aspect of human engineering, as it may develop from the
+problems of astronauts operating in a silent world, could lead to a
+variety of innovations for improving the performance of workers or even
+the general attitude of people living in urban areas. In today's world,
+where humans are subjected to so many different kinds, degrees, and
+sources of noise, psychologists consider the matter to be of no small
+importance.
+
+
+_High speed-light weight computers_
+
+     Space vehicles now need electronic computers for determining the
+     moment of launch, for fixing orbits, for navigation, and for
+     processing collected data. Computers will precede man into space.
+     They will take over guidance and decision functions beyond limits
+     of human physiology, psychology, versatility, and reaction
+     time.[40]
+
+The trend in this direction is marked and space exploration is
+accelerating it. Because of weight and size limitations, and due to the
+genius of research, the giant electronic brain of today will soon
+disappear and be replaced with an apparatus only a small fraction of its
+present size. The implications for the business and professional world
+are great. And a not inconsiderable side effect, according to many
+modern technicians, will be the flood of brainpower released from
+time-consuming chores and thus made available for more basic, creative
+thought.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 8.--The needs of tomorrow's spacemen will
+lead to marked advances in human engineering and psychology.]
+
+
+_Solid state physics_
+
+Few areas of effort are advancing this extremely promising art faster
+than space exploration, which places a premium on light weight and small
+size. The miniaturization of equipment being placed in U.S. satellites,
+for example, has been one of the contemporary wonders of the world of
+science.
+
+A big part of this march toward tiny equipment is in the field of
+electronics, where the process is called microminiaturization, molecular
+electronics, micromodular engineering or a number of other terms. In
+essence it refers to the greatly reduced size of equipment through
+"integrated circuits," coupled functions, the building of complicated
+components into a single molecular design and so on.
+
+The art has proceeded to the point where complete radios can be reduced
+to the size of a lump of sugar.
+
+Clearly, this trend holds almost unlimited utility for the home, the
+factory, the marketplace, the highway, the hospital or just about any
+other arena one cares to name. So great is the promise that virtually
+every electronics company in the country is undertaking "to take the
+state of the art into fundamentally new areas" and there exploit its
+many possibilities.[41]
+
+
+ECONOMIC ALLIANCES
+
+It may be that our national space exploration program will also result
+in stronger economic alliances, not only within our own national borders
+but on an international basis. Interesting speculation to this effect
+has been advanced by a prominent official of the National Aeronautics
+and Space Administration:
+
+     I think we may expect that the combined influence of jet aircraft
+     and satellite communications systems will enable us to integrate
+     the now somewhat distant States of Hawaii and Alaska with the rest
+     of the States as thoroughly as the East and West are already
+     integrated. Second, and in many ways a more intriguing possibility,
+     is the prospect of developing a truly international economic
+     organization. It is quite apparent that even today a large fraction
+     of the economy of the United States is dependent upon foreign
+     trade. Some nations of the world, such as England or Japan, are
+     almost entirely dependent upon foreign trade for their basic
+     standard of living; however, current foreign trade practices are
+     necessarily based on a somewhat leisurely pattern enforced by our
+     current communications capacity. Whether we will be able to
+     increase the efficiency and effectiveness of our activities in
+     foreign trade through the use of the new communications facilities
+     now foreseen will of course depend upon our political ability to
+     work out viable arrangements for our mutual benefit with our
+     oversea friends.
+
+     One of the lessons of history in the fields of communications is
+     that an increase in capability has never gone unused. The
+     capability of doing new things has always resulted in it being
+     found profitable to use this capability in all fields, both
+     commercial and governmental.[42]
+
+
+PRIVATE ENTERPRISE IN SPACE
+
+Up to now space exploration has been more or less the exclusive domain
+of the Federal Government. It seems likely that this situation will not
+change much in the near future. But the question finally arises: Is the
+nature of space such that the traditional American concept of private
+enterprise can have no place in it?
+
+On this score there is debate. Recently, however, there have been
+indications that businessmen feel they will be able to conduct certain
+business operations and services in space.
+
+     The space frontier will inevitably increase the scale of thinking
+     and risk taking by business. When we are dealing with space, we
+     are dealing with a technology that requires a planetary scale to
+     stage it; decades of time to develop it; and much bigger
+     investments to get across the threshold of economic return than is
+     customary in business today. Business must now think in
+     international terms, and in terms of the next business generation.
+     It must step up to the big risks with the same vision that enabled
+     an earlier generation of builders to push railroad tracks out
+     across the wilderness and lay the foundations of our modern
+     economy.[43]
+
+Incidentally, it should be pointed out that space exploration is already
+encouraging the formation of business of all sizes. Myriads of small
+businesses have sprung up, many of them "suppliers of specialty
+equipment for the larger concerns that have responsibility for major
+components and systems."[44]
+
+To what extent will private enterprise become involved? Here is one
+view:
+
+     As the years pass by, and space apparatus becomes more reliable,
+     and the work of obtaining scientific data from space acquires a
+     more routine character--certainly many of the necessary operating
+     facilities could be put on a self-liquidating, private-industry
+     basis.
+
+     Probably the first opportunities for private investment will come
+     in the commercial use of satellites. Looking even further into the
+     future of space exploration, perhaps there would be economic
+     justification for a privately owned launching service that would
+     put objects into space for the peaceful purposes of friendly
+     governments, international agencies, industry, and the
+     universities.
+
+     The base itself, from which the commercial launching service would
+     operate, might be modeled after a port authority. Such a
+     nonmilitary, international space port could develop as a center for
+     many private enterprises related to space operations. These might
+     include service and maintenance facilities; data-processing
+     services; space communication centers; laboratory facilities;
+     standardized equipment for satellites and other space vehicles;
+     fuel supplies; medical services; biological services; and general
+     supplies.
+
+     Moving away from the idea of a commercial space port, must all
+     future tracking stations, observatories, and data-processing
+     stations be Government owned? How about experimental stations for
+     the simulation of space environments? How about laboratories and
+     stations actually constructed in space? Or will privately owned
+     facilities one day offer these services on an international basis
+     to governments, industries, universities, and international
+     agencies?
+
+     Most likely the first businesses suitable for commercial operation,
+     using space technologies, will be worldwide communication by
+     satellite, private weather forecasting, and high-speed Earth
+     transport by rocket.[45]
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 9.--The electric and electronic needs of
+the space program are requiring more and more skilled labor.]
+
+
+JOBS
+
+There probably is no reliable way to gage the number of Americans who
+are employed today because of the national space effort, nor to estimate
+accurately the number who are likely to be employed in the years ahead.
+
+This much can be said, though. They already number in the tens of
+thousands, probably in the hundreds of thousands.
+
+The Administrator of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration
+has reported that his agency presently employs 18,000 persons. And he
+adds "in spite of the size of this organization, we estimate that
+approximately 75 percent of our budget will be expended through
+contracts with industry, educational institutions, and other
+nongovernmental groups."
+
+Thus the number of persons privately employed who are working on NASA
+projects is, of itself, a high figure. The number employed in, by, or
+for the Department of Defense on missiles or space-related projects is
+undoubtedly higher.
+
+In addition to these must be added the men and women employed by private
+industry in a capacity not directly related to the space program but
+whose jobs have been created nonetheless by its stimulus.
+
+     The fact is that the military and peaceful needs of the space
+     program are already employing a significant percentage of the
+     industrial work force, and will make up an even larger proportion
+     of total employment and production of the country as the years go
+     by. The aircraft industry, for example, is broadening its scope to
+     include missile and space technologies. Much of the electronics
+     industry is devoted to missile and space needs. The communications,
+     chemical, and metallurgical industries are increasingly involved.
+     These industries are already among the largest employers in the
+     United States, and they are the major employers of the Nation's
+     technical manpower. Hence we are not speaking of a minor element in
+     the national economy, but of its leading growth industries.[46]
+
+This phase of the space program's value should not be eyed merely from
+the standpoint of scientists and the labor market. It has major
+significance for the professions--for doctors, lawyers, architects,
+teachers, and engineers. All of these will be vitally concerned with
+space exploration in the future. The doctor with space medicine and its
+results; the lawyer with business relations and a vastly increased need
+for knowledge in international law; the architect with the construction
+of spaceports and data and tracking facilities; the teacher with the
+booming demand for new types of space-engendered curricula.
+
+As for the engineer--
+
+     In this pyramid of scientific and engineering effort there will be
+     found requirements for the services of almost every type of
+     scientist and engineer to a greater or less degree. In the
+     forefront, of course, are the aerospace and astronautical engineers
+     but the development of the Saturn launching vehicle has also
+     enlisted the cooperation of civil, mechanical, electrical,
+     metallurgical, chemical, automotive, structural, radio, and
+     electronics engineers. Much of their work relates to ground
+     handling equipment, special automotive and barge equipment,
+     checkout equipment, and all the other devices needed to support the
+     design, construction, testing, launching, and data gathering.[47]
+
+
+AUTOMATION AND DISARMAMENT
+
+Finally, an economic value of extreme importance could be the ultimate
+role of the space program in modifying the threat to labor which is
+inherent in automation and disarmament. Space exploration, opening up
+new and profitable vistas, could take up much of the slack thus imposed
+and do it at a higher and more intellectual job level.
+
+Automation, as we know, is already in the process. In agriculture alone
+it has bitten deeply into the laboring force and yet produces greater
+crops than ever.[48] It is gathering strength in many other fields.
+
+Disarmament is a long way from being a reality. But all nations of the
+world are striving for it, or at least giving lipservice to its
+principles, so it may one day emerge as a reality. If this happens,
+space exploration again may be a most important element in taking up the
+slack which a prominent reduction in defense activity could not help but
+bring about.
+
+Indeed, there are some who already foresee a complete substitution of
+space for defense, and who prognosticate that in the 1990's "the economy
+of nations is now based on the astronautics industry, instead of
+war."[49] Certainly, some new economic force would be crucial to nations
+deprived of the need for devising and manufacturing weapons.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 10.--A host of new materials, skills, and
+engineering techniques are bound up in the construction of rocket
+engines such as this first stage booster.]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[25] Gavin, James M., address to the International Bankers Association,
+Bal Harbour, Fla., Dec. 2, 1958.
+
+[26] Mitchell, Hon. Erwin, in the House of Representatives, June 2,
+1960.
+
+[27] Dryden, Dr. Hugh L., Deputy Administrator, NASA, Penrose lecture
+before the American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia, Apr. 21, 1960.
+
+[28] Missile-Space Directory, Missiles and Rockets, May 30, 1960, pp.
+86-359.
+
+[29] Haley, Andrew G., general counsel and past president of the
+International Astronautical Federation, "Rocketry and Space
+Exploration." Van Nostrand Co., Princeton, N.J., 1958 p. 156.
+
+[30] Ruzic, Neil P., "The Technical Entrepreneur," Industrial Research,
+May 1980, p.10.
+
+[31] Bacon, F. T., "The Fuel Cell, Power Source of the Future," New
+Scientist, Aug. 17, 1959, p.272.
+
+[32] Science Service dispatch, dateline Lynn, Mass., Apr. 25, 1950.
+
+[33] Sharp, James M., "The Application of Fuel Cells in the Natural Gas
+Industry," Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, Tex., Mar. 4,
+1960, pp. 2-3.
+
+[34] Lear, John, "Towns To Be Lit by Plasma," New Scientist, Nov. 19,
+1959, p. 1006.
+
+[35] Pursglove S. David, Industrial Research, March 1950 p. 19.
+
+[36] Ibid.
+
+[37] Ibid., p. 18.
+
+[38] Space Business Daily, June 13, 1960.
+
+[39] Cox, Dr. R. A., "The Chemistry of Seawater," New Scientist, Sept.
+24, 19459, p. 518.
+
+[40] Hines, L. J., Space Age News, Apr. 25, 1960, p. 4.
+
+[41] Gaertner, W. W., "Functional Microelectronics," Missile Design and
+Development, March 1960, p. 34.
+
+[42] Stewart, Dr. Homer J., address to the American Bar Association,
+Miami Beach, Aug. 25, 1959.
+
+[43] Cordiner, Ralph J., "Competitive Private Enterprise in Space,"
+lecture at U.C.L.A., May 4, 1960
+
+[44] Ibid.
+
+[45] Ibid.
+
+[46] Ibid.
+
+[47] 27 supra.
+
+[48] See "The Problem of Plenty," U.S. News & World Report, Apr. 13,
+1959, p. 97.
+
+[49] Markuwitz, Meyer M., and Gentieu, Norman P., "The Rocket, A Past
+and Future History," Industrial Research, December 1959, p. 78.
+
+
+
+
+IV. VALUES FOR EVERYDAY LIVING
+
+
+The so-called side effects of the space exploration program are showing
+a remarkable ability to produce innovations which, in turn, improve the
+quality of everyday work and everyday living throughout the United
+States.
+
+In setting forth specific ways and means in which the space program is
+producing practical uses, it must be kept in mind that no attempt is
+made here to separate uses resulting from the civil phases of the
+program from those developed by the military phases. Inasmuch as the two
+are closely intertwined, it would seem impractical to do so. And, in
+instances where the same or similar research is being conducted by a
+single contractor on behalf of both phases, it is usually impossible to
+do so.
+
+
+TECHNOLOGICAL BENEFITS
+
+This category of the practical uses of the space program is impressive
+indeed.
+
+Most of us are familiar with the plans which the United States has for
+using artificial satellites in ways which will be beneficial to all
+mankind. These include the satellite used for worldwide communications,
+for global television, for quick and accurate navigation, and for much
+improved weather prediction and weather understanding.
+
+Here, however, is a summary of space-related developments about which
+the American public has heard considerably less:
+
+     First, there is the high-speed computer. Developed initially to
+     meet military demands for faster calculation, the computer is an
+     integral part of American industry, making it possible to do many
+     operations with a high degree of efficiency and accuracy.
+     Thermoelectric devices for heating and cooling, now adapted for
+     commercial applications, were originally designed to provide energy
+     sources for space vehicles. The glass industry, as a result of work
+     done during and after the Second World War on lenses and plastics,
+     promises substantial gains in the consumer fields of optics and
+     foods. Pyroceram, developed for missile radomes, is now being used
+     in the manufacture of pots and pans. Materials suitable for use in
+     the nuclear preservation of food may make us even better fed than
+     we already are.
+
+     Medical research, and our health problems, can use such things as
+     film resistance thermometers. Electronic equipment capable of
+     measuring low-level electrical signals is being adapted to measure
+     body temperature and blood flow. In a dramatic breakthrough,
+     illustrating the unexpected benefits of research, it has been found
+     that a derivative of hydrazine, developed as a liquid missile
+     propellant, is useful in treating certain mental illnesses and
+     tuberculosis.
+
+     Of course, the aeronautics industry has benefited tremendously.
+     Engines, automatic pilots, radar systems, flight equipment, capable
+     of meeting the high standards required by space vehicles represent
+     a great improvement over our already excellent aircraft.
+
+     A plasma arc torch (has been) developed for fabricating ultrahard
+     materials and coatings by mass production methods. The torch, an
+     outgrowth of plasma technology, develops heats of 30,000 degrees
+     and can work within tolerances of two-thousandths of an inch.
+     Another application from the missile field, which shows real
+     possibilities, is a reliable flow meter that has no packings or
+     bearings. This was first developed for measuring liquefied gases
+     and should have a very wide industrial usefulness. It may even lead
+     to improvements in marine devices for measuring distance and
+     velocity.
+
+     Ground-to-air missiles that ride a beam to their targets must
+     measure the distance to the target plane with an accuracy of a few
+     feet in several miles. This principle, now being applied to
+     surveying techniques, has revolutionized the surveying industry.
+
+     The solenoid valve, which seats itself softly enough to eliminate
+     vibration, has been applied very satisfactorily to home-heating
+     systems.
+
+     The use of the jet drilling for mining is another, and worthy of
+     amplification. Missiles are already working the economically
+     unminable taconite ore of the Mesabi Range, have helped build the
+     St. Lawrence Seaway, and are bringing down costs in quarrying.
+
+     It is estimated that taconite will be supplying about a third of
+     our ores in less than 20 years. Until 1947 we were unable to mine
+     this very hard rock, and then suitable rotary and churn drills were
+     produced. Jet drilling, now available, cracks and crumbles stone
+     layers by thermally induced expansion and is somewhere between 3
+     and 5 times faster than rotaries.
+
+     Jet piercing can take us far deeper into the earth than we have
+     been able to go so far, to new sources of ore and hydrocarbons.
+
+     In stone quarrying, jet spalling and channeling are proven
+     techniques. Stone quarrying has been expensive and wasteful
+     heretofore. Rocket flame equipment allows cutting along the natural
+     cleavage planes, or crystal boundaries--hence cuts stone thin
+     without danger of cracking and, in addition, produces a fine finish
+     that cannot be obtained when cutting by steel or abrasive tools.
+
+     Scientific literature is beginning to contain speculations on using
+     the principle of the missile engine to save unstable intermediate
+     products of the chemical processes. The high heats achieved in the
+     rocket engine can, perhaps, be utilized to produce desired products
+     that would be lost by slow cooling. But the high rate of cooling
+     accomplished by expanding gases through the engine nozzle, it is
+     thought, would save these unstable compounds.
+
+     Infrared has come into its own through missile electronics.
+     Infrared--since it cannot be jammed--appears to be challenging
+     radar for use in guidance devices, tracking systems, and
+     reconnaissance vehicles. Infrared is being used industrially to
+     measure the compositions of fluids in complex processes of chemical
+     petroleum refining and distilling. Infrared cameras are used in
+     analyzing metallurgical material processing operations, to aid in
+     accuracy and quality control. The entire infrared field should be
+     significantly assisted in its growth and application through our
+     missile-space programs.
+
+     Another very promising outcome from missile development is a
+     computer converter that can quickly transform analogue
+     signals--such as pressure measurements--into digital form.
+
+     In the near future, when guidance devices permit soft landing,
+     rocket cargo and passenger transport will become feasible. Mail may
+     become almost as swift as telephone.
+
+     We are making rapid progress in the economics of space travel:
+     payload costs for Vanguard were about $1 billion a pound; for the
+     near future launchings, payload cost should be about $1,000 per
+     pound. When payload costs are about a hundred dollars a pound we
+     may expect commercial space flight.[50]
+
+Hundreds of other examples of the space program's value for everyday
+living could be cited.
+
+One with wide possibilities is a new welding process by using a
+high-powered electron beam gun, developed for the fabrication of
+spaceships and other space vehicles. This method permits welding joints
+capable of withstanding temperatures up to 3,000° F.; it can be used on
+metals such as molybdenum and pure tungsten. And, its developers say, it
+results in welded joints that have deep penetration and narrow weld
+beads that are virtually free of contamination.[51]
+
+Another ingenius application, resulting from the Navy's space research
+program, has significant utility for medicine and surgery. This is a
+glass fiber device which, when placed in the mouth during dental work or
+in the area of surgical incision, permits a much magnified televising of
+the operation. It holds considerable promise for teaching techniques in
+many fields.[52]
+
+Another example is a finely woven stainless steel cloth designed for
+parachuting space vehicles back to Earth. The cloth is made of fine wire
+of great strength which can withstand tremendous temperatures and
+chemical contamination. The wire from which the cloth is woven is about
+one-fifth the thickness of a human hair and is believed to have marked
+potential for industry and consumers alike.
+
+Here is an additional list of examples:[53]
+
+     Microminiature transmitters and receivers--used by police and
+     doctors.
+
+     Target drone autopilot--used as an inexpensive pilot assist and
+     safety device for private aircraft.
+
+     Inert thread sealing compound--- used by pump manufacturers serving
+     process industries.
+
+     Satellite scan devices--used in infrared appliances, e.g., lamps,
+     roasters, switches, ovens.
+
+     Automatic control components--used as proximity switches, plugs,
+     valves, cylinders; other components already are an integral part of
+     industrial conveyor systems.
+
+     Missile accelerometers, torquemeters, strain gage equipment--used
+     in auto crash tests, motor testing, shipbuilding and bridge
+     construction.
+
+     Space recording equipment automatically stopped and started by
+     sound of voice--used widely as conference recorder.
+
+     Armalite radar--used as proximity warning device for aircraft.
+
+     Miniature electronics and bearings--used for portable radio and
+     television; excessively small roller, needle and ball bearings used
+     for such equipment as air-turbine dental drills.
+
+     Epoxy missile resin--used for plastic tooling, metal bonding,
+     adhesive, and casting and laminating applications.
+
+     Silicones for motor insulation and subzero lubricants--used in new
+     glassmaking techniques for myriad products.
+
+     Ribbon glass for capacitors--used widely in electronics field.
+
+     Radar bulbs--used in air traffic control equipment.
+
+     Ribbon cable for missiles--used in the communications industry.
+
+     Automatic gun cameras--used in banks, toll booths, etc.
+
+     Fluxless aluminum soldering--used for kitchen utensil repair,
+     gutters, flashings, antennas, electrical joints, auto repairing,
+     farm machinery, etc.
+
+     Lightweight hydraulic pumps--used in automated machinery and
+     pneumatic control systems.
+
+     Voice interruption priority system--used for assembly line
+     production control.
+
+     Examples such as the foregoing, it might be pointed out, do not
+     generally emphasize an area in which space exploration is making
+     one of its greatest contributions. This is the creation of new
+     materials, metals, fabrics, alloys, and compounds that are finding
+     their way rapidly into the commercial market.
+
+     Less demonstrable but equally (and perhaps more) significant areas
+     which may expect to benefit from space exploration are set out
+     beginning on page 35.
+
+[Illustration. FIGURE 11.--Vital information about the forces
+which cause weather can be learned from meteorological satellites such
+as these. Even a slight increase in the accuracy of weather prediction
+will be worth millions of dollars annually.]
+
+
+FOOD AND AGRICULTURE
+
+An extremely difficult problem bound up with space travel of any
+duration is that of food. Astronauts will not be able to take large
+supplies of food on their voyages and probably will have to reuse what
+they do take. Learning how to do this is no easy matter. Some doubt if
+it can be done. Others are optimistic.
+
+     The body of scientists now working directly on space feeding and
+     nutrition is working effectively at a rate only attained by high
+     motivation. But this motivation suffices and their efforts will
+     ultimately provide at least a partially closed space feeding system
+     by the time it is critically needed and, eventually, an ideal one
+     for long voyages of man into the remoter reaches of outer
+     space.[54]
+
+If the optimists are right, it is conceivable that the information gamed
+from this research will have profound influence on food and agricultural
+processes in the future. The use and growth of synthetics or new foods,
+and their effects on the soil, could prove invaluable as the worlds
+population climbs and the demand for food multiplies. Better
+understanding of weather processes, as provided through space
+exploration, will also be valuable in terms of agriculture. Long-range
+accurate weather prediction would be worth millions of dollars in proper
+crops planted and crop damage avoided.
+
+Meanwhile, as in other technological areas, space research is providing
+specific new tools for the food and agriculture industry. Infrared food
+blanching, for instance, is highly effective in preparing foods for
+canning or freezing. The development of a new forage harvester based on
+principles of aerodynamics uncovered by missile engineers is another
+example.
+
+
+COMMUNICATIONS
+
+This is a field of enormous promise, and its practicality has already
+been demonstrated to the extent of placing satellites into precise
+orbits, such as Tiros (weather) and Transit (navigation), and of
+communicating at long distances--23 million miles in the case of Pioneer
+V. As a result:
+
+     Government and industry technicians are rapidly developing new
+     Earth satellites to beam not only television programs but radio
+     broadcasts and phone conversations to every spot on Earth that's
+     equipped to receive them. Thus this space project, far more than
+     most, will touch the ordinary citizen. The goal: a workable,
+     worldwide communications system in space before this decade is
+     over. It will be, declares one researcher, "the ultimate in
+     communications."[55]
+
+Incidentally, the first worldwide communications system of this type,
+and whether it is conducted in English or Russian, may have crucial
+prestige and propaganda ramifications.
+
+Such facilities should be possible through a system of carefully placed
+satellites so that radio signals can be relayed to any part of the globe
+at any time.
+
+Moreover they appear to be essential when one considers that within the
+next 20 years existing techniques are apt to be stretched beyond
+reasonable economic limits by demands for long distance communications.
+It is difficult to see how transoceanic television will otherwise be
+possible when it is realized that there is presently a capacity of less
+than 100 telephone channels across the Atlantic and a single television
+channel is equivalent in band width to 1,000 telephone channels. It
+appears that a system utilizing satellites is the most promising
+solution to this problem.[56]
+
+More esoteric communications systems may also arise from space research.
+
+     In some future year when a cruising space vehicle communicates with
+     another space vehicle or its orbiting station, it may use a beam of
+     light instead of conventional radio. Not that radio will be
+     inoperative under the airless conditions of space--rather the
+     reverse--but there is reason to believe that communication by
+     sunlight not only will be cheaper but will entail carrying much
+     simpler and lighter equipment for certain specialized space
+     applications. (The Air Force) is developing an experimental system
+     that will collect sun rays, run them through a modulator, direct
+     the resultant light wave in a controlled beam to a receiver. There
+     the wave will be put through a detector, transposed into an
+     electrical impulse and be amplified to a speaker. Depending on the
+     type of modulator used, either the digital (dot-dash) message or a
+     voice message can be sent.[57]
+
+Might not such a system find practical usage on Earth, particularly in
+sunny, arid lands?
+
+
+WEATHER PREDICTION AND MODIFICATION
+
+Meteorological satellites should make possible weather observations over
+the entire globe. Today, only 20 percent of the globe is covered by any
+regular observational and reporting systems. If we can solve the
+problems of handling the vast amounts of data that will be received,
+develop methods for timely analysis of the data and the notification of
+weather bureaus throughout the world, we should be able to improve by a
+significant degree the accuracy of weather predictions. An improvement
+of only 10 percent in accuracy could result in savings totaling hundreds
+of millions of dollars annually to farmers, builders, airlines,
+shipping, the tourist trade, and many other enterprises.
+
+Perhaps even greater savings will come from warning systems devised for
+hurricanes and tornadoes.
+
+The slight knowledge which humans actually have of weather forces can be
+seen from the fact that at present we do not even know exactly how rain
+begins.[58] Learning to predict it and to modify it, through space
+application, might help slow down the soil erosion of arable land--that
+"geological inevitability * * * which man can only hasten or
+postpone."[59] It is noteworthy that the two leading nations in space
+research, the United States and the U.S.S.R., are among the most
+affected by soil erosion.
+
+The "leg up" which the United States has in this particular phase of
+space research is illustrated by the acute photographic talents of the
+Tiros satellite and their meaning to weather experts. The following
+description of some of the earliest pictures by the Director of the
+Office of Meteorological Research, U.S. Weather Bureau, is illuminating.
+
+     This picture, labeled "No. 1," was the storm that was picked up in
+     the early orbits of Tiros on the first day of launch, April 1. This
+     shows the storm 120 miles east of Cape Cod, with dry continental
+     air streaming off the United States, not shown by clouds, and off
+     the coast the moist air streaming up to the north, counterclockwise
+     around the center, producing widespread clouds and precipitation as
+     far north as the Gulf of St. Lawrence.
+
+     On that same day mention was made of a storm in the Midwest. That
+     is illustrated by photograph No. 2. This was centered over
+     southeast Nebraska, a rather extensive storm. Again, we have a
+     clear air portion shown by a dark area, the ground underneath,
+     which has less brightness than the clouds, the cold air from Canada
+     streaming into that area, not characterized by clouds, and to the
+     east the moist air from the Gulf of Mexico, in this general
+     neighborhood, streaming around into that center and producing
+     rather widespread rains. In this case near the Gulf of Mexico,
+     where the cloud is extremely bright, indicating that the clouds are
+     very high, thunderstorms were found in that area.
+
+     [Illustration: FIGURE 12.--Storm center over Nebraska
+     photographed by the first U.S. weather satellite, Tiros, on April
+     1, 1960. The extent of the picture can be seen from the
+     accompanying weather map.]
+
+     It is a sort of situation in which tornadoes are to be found in
+     this very bright cloudy area, especially this time of year in the
+     Midwest.
+
+     A third vortex was observed, also April 1, in the Gulf of Alaska,
+     500 miles southeast of Kodiak Island. The vortex circulation is
+     clearly evidenced by the clouds which form in a circular array, and
+     the large clear area in the center of the storm.
+
+     No. 4 picture refers to a very big storm 1,500 miles in diameter
+     located 300 miles west of Ireland on April 2. This is a very old
+     storm which was whirling around, had no fronts associated with it.
+     It has long since wound up around the center. There is a rather
+     well-marked structure to the clouds that you can see. It is quite
+     different from the pictures in the first two. These are storms
+     mostly over the continental area or just off the coast. The storms
+     over the oceans seem to show more of a banded structure. By that I
+     mean circular bands of clouds, of width perhaps ranging from 20
+     miles to a few hundred miles, spiraling around the center in a
+     counterclockwise manner.[60]
+
+
+HEALTH BENEFITS
+
+Of all the problems contingent upon space flight it is doubtful if any
+are more perplexing than the biological ones. In fact, it now appears
+quite likely that the limiting factor on manned space exploration will
+be less the nature of physical laws or the shortcoming of space vehicle
+systems than the vulnerability of the human body.
+
+In order to place humans in space for any extended period, we must solve
+a host of highly complicated biological equations which demand intensive
+basic research. The other side of the coin, however, is that when
+scientific breakthroughs do occur in this area, they will probably be
+among the most beneficial to come from the space program.
+
+An idea of what is going on in the space medicine field can be obtained
+from this summary:
+
+     Engineers already have equipped man with the vehicle for space
+     travel. Medical researchers now are investigating many factors
+     incident to the maintenance of space life--to make possible man's
+     flight into the depths of space. Placing man in a wholly new
+     environment requires knowledge far beyond our current grasp of
+     human biology.
+
+     Here are some of the problems under investigation: The
+     determination of man's reactions; the necessity of operating in a
+     completely closed system compatible with man's physiological
+     requirements (oxygen and carbon dioxide content, food, barometric
+     pressure, humidity and temperature control); explosive
+     decompression; psychophysiological difficulties of spatial
+     disorientation as a result of weightlessness; toxicology of
+     metabolites and propellants; effects of cosmic, solar, and nuclear
+     ionizing radiation and protective shielding and treatment; effects
+     on man's circulatory system from accelerative and decelerative g.
+     forces; the establishment of a thermoneutral range for man to exist
+     through preflight, flight, and reentry; regeneration of water and
+     food.[61]
+
+In addition, intensive efforts are being brought to bear on such
+problems as the effect on humans who are deprived of their sensory
+perceptions, or whose sensory systems are overloaded, or who are exposed
+to excessive boredom or anxiety or sense of unreality, or who must do
+their job under hypnosis or hypothermia (cooling of warm-blooded
+animals).
+
+A recent space medicine symposium heard this theory advanced by a
+prominent medical scholar:
+
+     Attractive, indeed, for the space traveler would be the choice of
+     hibernating during long periods when there was nothing he had to
+     do. With the increase of speeds and the lowering of metabolism,
+     consideration of flights running several hundred or even thousands
+     of years cannot be offhandedly dismissed as mere fantasy. During
+     prolonged flights of many months or years there will be very little
+     to see and that of negligible interest. The most practical way of
+     dealing with the problem might well be to have the pilot sleep 23
+     of the 24 hours.[62]
+
+Lowering the body temperature would be one way of inducing the necessary
+deep sleep.
+
+Another possibility of handling some of the biological problems of space
+flight, suggested by another physician, would be for astronauts to
+discard the 24-hour Earth day and establish a longer rhythm for their
+lives.[63]
+
+At any rate, and while we may not now see just how it will come about,
+knowledge gained from experiments such as these may result in important
+medical and psychological advances.
+
+In the drug and technological area of medicine, concrete benefits have
+already resulted from the national space program. These include, as
+already mentioned, a drug developed from a missile propellant to treat
+mental ills, a means of rapidly lowering blood temperature in
+operations, and a small efficient valve which could replace the valve in
+a human heart.
+
+Particularly gratifying, from the standpoint of medical value is the
+Army's work toward an anti-radiation drug which could be taken before
+exposure to reduce the biological effects of radiation.[64] Such a drug,
+which is of special interest to astronauts who might be required to
+subject themselves to varying belts of radiation, might be of even
+greater use in the cause of civil defense.
+
+A final and far-reaching phase of the health side of space exploration
+deals with the basic nature of biology itself--how and under what
+conditions life grows. Up to now biological science has been largely
+"the rationalization of particular facts and we have had all too limited
+a basis for the construction and testing of meaningful axioms to support
+a theory of life."[65] Through research made possible by the space
+program it may be possible to alter this condition. "The dynamics of
+celestial bodies, as can be observed from the Earth, is the richest
+inspiration for the generalization of our concepts of mass and energy
+throughout the universe. The spectra of the stars likewise testify to
+the universality of our concepts in chemistry. But biology has lacked
+tools of such extension, and life until now has meant only terrestrial
+life."[66]
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 13.--Biological reactions uncovered in
+space medicine studies, such as this centrifuge experiment, may lead to
+important health discoveries.]
+
+The secrets which this research may divulge and their meaning for human
+health can only be imagined. But they certainly would not be minor.
+
+
+EDUCATION BENEFITS
+
+No enterprise has so stirred human imagination as the reach of man
+toward the exploration of space. New worlds to explore. New distances to
+travel--3,680 million miles to Pluto, the outermost planet of our solar
+system, 8 years journey at 50,000 miles per hour when we attain such a
+capability. Innumerable problems ahead. New knowledge needed in almost
+every branch of science and technology from magneto fluid dynamics to
+cosmology, from materials to biology and psychology.[67]
+
+"New knowledge needed" means better and stronger education is essential.
+And not only in the physical sciences. In the social sciences and the
+arts as well.
+
+     Certainly man's space adventure can help profoundly to make a finer
+     creature of him, but only if his adventures on Earth can do so as
+     well. Essentially what this means to a social psychologist is that
+     we must somehow raise our level of education to the point where
+     most men most of the time can appreciate and actively absorb the
+     implications of knowledge and developments in all areas
+     sufficiently to let them enrich their personal philosophies.
+     Obviously this kind of education is only in part a scientific
+     one.[68]
+
+Moreover, the technical and management aspects of the space program
+involve collaboration with nonscientific persons such as businessmen,
+bankers, and public officials in assessing worthwhile objectives and in
+judging the technical and economic feasibility of projects designed to
+accomplish these objectives.[69] Consequently each type must educate the
+other in his own specialty if an effective, stepped-up space program is
+to be achieved.
+
+
+_The demand_
+
+Apparently the demand for specific formal education in the science of
+astronautics is increasing faster than it is being supplied. Although
+many colleges and universities have been setting up courses dealing with
+astronautics, the state of the art does not seem to have crystallized to
+the extent that it permits fashioning a career in the field at the
+educational level. Of course, discontent is created. One publication has
+editorialized:
+
+     We have received a surprising number of letters from young people
+     who actually want to know how and where they can get started in a
+     career in astronautics. These, for the most part, are high school
+     students--and, evidently, they couldn't get the information they
+     wanted from their own school. * * * Isn't the age of space yet
+     important enough for all the high schools to sponsor interest in
+     our space programs and to point out the need for a constant flow of
+     young brains?[70]
+
+The answer undoubtedly is that such grassroots demand will bring about
+increased academic curricula in astronautics in direct proportion to its
+magnitude.
+
+Meanwhile, the availability of work for persons with a background in
+space-related subjects can be gaged to some extent by observing the
+variety of personnel requirements on major space exploration projects.
+
+A single American firm, for example, uses 49 different professional
+specialists in its work for the National Aeronautics and Space
+Administration and in its space work for the Department of Defense.[71]
+Multiplied by the thousands of companies which are doing similar work,
+the list gives an idea of the astronautic demand confronting the
+Nation's educational institutions:
+
+  Acoustician
+  Aerodynamicist
+  Aeronautical engineer
+  Agricultural engineer
+  Astrodynamicist
+  Astronomer
+  Astrophysicist
+  Biochemist
+  Biophysicist
+  Ceramics specialist
+  Chemist
+  Computer specialist
+  Crystallographer
+  Development engineer
+  Doctor of medicine
+  Electrical engineer
+  Electronic engineer
+  Experimental physicist
+  Flight engineer
+  Gyroscopics specialist
+  Hydraulic engineer
+  Information theory analyst
+  Inorganic chemist
+  Logical designer
+  Magnetic device engineer
+  Mathematician
+  Mechanical applications engineer
+  Mechanical engineer
+  Mechanisms specialist
+  Medical electronic engineer
+  Metallurgical engineer
+  Methods engineer
+  Nuclear physicist
+  Oceanographer
+  Organic chemist
+  Physical chemist
+  Pneumatic engineer
+  Process engineer
+  Production engineer
+  Project engineer
+  Psychologist
+  Reliability engineer
+  Sociologist
+  Solid state physicist
+  Structural engineer
+  System analyst
+  Theoretical physicist
+  Thermodynamicist
+  Transducer engineer
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 14.--Exploration within the solar system
+means a wealth of new knowledge which could lead to learning the secrets
+of life.]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[50] 25 supra. See also address to the American Bankers Association,
+Oct. 28, 1958.
+
+[51] Space Business Daily, June 17, 1960.
+
+[52] Feldman, George J., cited in a letter to the House Committee on
+Science and Astronautics, Apr. 29, 1960.
+
+[53] From Michelson, Edward J., "How Missile-Space Spending Enriches the
+Peacetime Economy," Missiles and Rockets, Sept. 14, 1959, pp. 13-17.
+
+[54] Tischer, R. G., "A Search for the Spaceman's Food," Space Journal,
+December 1959, p. 46.
+
+[55] Kraar, Louis, Wall Street Journal, May 4, 1960.
+
+[56] 7 supra.
+
+[57] Release No. 38-60, Air Research and Development Command, May 2,
+1960.
+
+[58] Lear, John, "Where Does Rain Begin?" New Scientist, Mar. 24, 1960,
+p. 724.
+
+[59] "Wind and Soil," New Scientist, May 26, 1960, p. 1327.
+
+[60] Wexler, Dr. Harry. Press conference conducted by the National
+Aeronautics and Space Administration, Apr. 22, 1960.
+
+[61] Lockheed, Missiles and Space Division, medical research, Sunnyvale,
+Calif.
+
+[62] Lewis, Dr. F. J., before the Space Flight Symposium, San Antonio,
+Tex., May 28, 1960.
+
+[63] Kleitman, Prof. Nathaniel, before the Space Flight Symposium, San
+Antonio, Tex., May 26, 1960.
+
+[64] Taylor, Lt. Col. Richard R., USA (MC), testimony before the House
+Committee on Science and Astronautics, June 15, 1960.
+
+[65] Lederberg, Joshua, "Exobiology-Experimental Approaches to Life
+Beyond Earth," Science in Space, ch. IX, National Academy of Sciences,
+Washington, D.C., February 1960.
+
+[66] Ibid.
+
+[67] Dryden, Dr. Hugh L., speech before the Engineering Society of
+Cincinnati, Feb. 18, 1960.
+
+[68] Michael, Donald N., "Space Exploration and the Values of Man,"
+Space Journal, September 1959, p. 15.
+
+[69] 67 supra.
+
+[70] Space Age, August 1959, p. 3.
+
+[71] Minneapolis-Honeywell, Military Products Group.
+
+
+
+
+V. LONG-RANGE VALUES
+
+In assessing the _practical_ values of space exploration it does not
+seem logical to limit considerations to those values which are immediate
+or near-future ones. The worth of a present activity may be doubled or
+trebled because of its long-range potential.
+
+Such values may not be practical within the context of today's usage,
+but they may be extremely practical if we are willing to concede that
+those of us living today have an interest in and a responsibility for
+what happens on Earth in the decades and centuries to come.
+
+
+TROUBLE SPOTS
+
+Thinking along these lines it is not difficult to conjure up a picture
+of some of the difficult physical and social problems which will be
+facing the Earth in the years which stretch ahead. The foregoing
+sections of this report, for example, have already indicated extensive
+difficulties inherent in at least five major categories.
+
+  (1) Bursting population.
+  (2) Acute water shortage.
+  (3) Soil erosion and disappearance.
+  (4) Too much leisure.
+  (5) Intensified nationalism.
+
+In each area it is probable that space exploration will ultimately play
+an important role.
+
+
+_Population_
+
+Social scientists have been warning for years of the drastic social
+upheavals which must inevitably accompany an "exploding" population. It
+is a problem the complexity of which grows in geometric progression as
+time goes on. In the United States nearly 300 years were required to
+produce 90 million people. In the past 60 years this number has doubled.
+The implications are obvious. They are only too plain to urban and
+suburban planners who endeavor to cope with the antlike construction and
+activity of the human race as it burgeons with each succeeding year.
+
+Of course, this is not a domestic matter but a global one. Its
+seriousness has been described as follows: "Projection of the post-World
+War II rate of increase gives a population of 50 billions (the highest
+estimate of the population-carrying capacity of the globe ever
+calculated by a responsible scholar) in less than 200 years."[72] A
+European professor of medicine adds that any surge in human longevity at
+this time is quite undesirable from the standpoint of making elderly
+persons useful or cared for. "The problems posed by the explosive growth
+of populations * * * are so great that it is quite reassuring to know
+that biologists and medical men have so far been unsuccessful in
+increasing the _maximum_ lifespan of the human species * * * and * * *
+it would be a calamity for the social and economic structure of a
+country if the mean lifespan were suddenly to increase from 65 to 85
+years."[73]
+
+Some anthropologists pessimistically wonder if man is going to prove
+like the locust by populating himself into near extinction from time to
+time.
+
+Without subscribing to this view, one must nevertheless take notice of
+the difficulties posed by population increase, not merely those of food,
+shelter, education, and the like but also those resulting from cellular,
+cramped, close living.
+
+Whichever phase of the problem is studied, it seems not unreasonable to
+conclude that space research will help find a solution. New ways to
+produce food, new materials for better shelter, new stimuli for
+education--all of these are coming from our space program. As for the
+matter of adequate living room, space research may result in ways to
+permit an easy and efficient scattering of the population without
+hurting its mobility. This might result from the development of small
+subsidiary types of craft, or "gocarts," originally designed for local
+exploration on other planets. Such craft, whether they operated by air
+cushion, nuclear energy, gravitational force, power cell, or whatever,
+conceivably would permit Earth's population to spread out without the
+need for expensive new roads--which, by the way, take millions of acres
+of land out of productive use.
+
+A development of this sort, together with new power sources to replace
+the fossil fuels on which factory, home, and vehicle now depend, might
+also all but eliminate the growing smog and air-pollution blight.
+
+
+_Water shortage_
+
+A direct result of the population increase, multiplied by the many new
+uses for which water is being used in home appliances, etc., and plus
+the greatly increased demand for standard uses such as indoor plumbing,
+irrigation, and factory processing, is the likelihood that water
+shortage will be high on the list of future problems. Ways to conserve
+and reuse water, together with economical desalting of sea water, will
+be essential in the decades ahead. Space research may provide part of
+the answer here, too. (See New Water Sources and Uses, sec. III.)
+
+
+_Soil erosion_
+
+The Russian steppes of Kazakhstan are providing the world with a great
+contemporary dust bowl, reminiscent of the middle 1930's when dust from
+the Great Plains stretched from Texas to Saskatchewan. Questionable
+agriculture policies, drought, and strong easterly winds are among the
+forces blamed for the trials of southern Russia.[74] So great is the
+extent of this disturbance that the dust cloud has been identified in
+photographs taken by American weather satellites.
+
+Of course, "wind erosion is only one of the processes whereby the
+Earth's arable land is diminishing and the deserts increasing; erosion
+by water can also sweep away the soil."[75] But insofar as the current
+dust bowl of the Soviet steppes has "diminished food resources at a time
+when the number of mouths to feed is increasing so rapidly, the world is
+the poorer."[76]
+
+What can space research do about this vital trend, which again seems
+destined to accelerate in the future?
+
+While we cannot be sure, we can conjecture that improved soil
+conservation might turn out to be the greatest benefit of weather
+understanding and modification. Agriculture policies might be adapted to
+the long-range patterns uncovered by weather satellites and, eventually,
+through better understanding of the making of weather, it may be
+possible to modify weather forces in a manner which will preserve the
+soil.
+
+In a more remote vein, it may be that knowledge gained from a first-hand
+study of the Moon or other planets in the solar system will eventually
+contribute to the conservation of soil on Earth in ways as yet
+unimagined.
+
+
+_Added leisure_
+
+Acquiring more time for leisure sounds good. Very much more leisure than
+most people now have, however, is apt to present trouble in itself.
+Since it appears that the time is not far away when those living in the
+highly developed countries will no longer have to concentrate their
+prime energies on the traditional quest for food, clothing, and shelter,
+a potentially dangerous vacuum may be the result. At least the
+psychologists seem agreed that people must feel a useful purpose in
+their lives and have ways to pursue it.
+
+     Above all, leisure makes a challenge to the human spirit. Athens,
+     in her Golden Age, displayed a genius for the creative use of
+     leisure which can be seen as complementary, and indeed superior, to
+     her genius for military and commercial ventures. There have also
+     been such periods of all-pervasive inspiration in the history of
+     other peoples * * *. The doubling of our standard of living will
+     present a growing challenge to the human spirit and produce graver
+     consequences, should we fail to meet it. We neglect the proper use
+     of leisure at our peril.[77]
+
+In other words, the answer to the problem does not lie solely with the
+golf course, the yacht club, the theater, or the lengthened vacation.
+Much more will be required.
+
+The intellectual stimulus of space exploration and research, which
+undoubtedly will divide into numerous branches like capillary streaks
+from a bolt of lightning, should be markedly useful in helping to fill
+this vacuum. Space research would seem particularly applicable in this
+role since it deals with fundamental knowledge and concepts which are
+satisfying in terms of psychological needs and sense of purpose.
+
+
+_Intensified nationalism_
+
+Ever since World War II the era of colonialism has been on the wane.
+Many nations have proclaimed, won, or wrested their independence during
+that period. Others appear to be on the verge of doing so. At any rate,
+it is clear that in the decades ahead the world is going to see the rise
+of even more independent nations with strong nationalistic feelings.
+
+History implies that developments of this sort are often accompanied by
+international unrest--because of the normal ebullience of national
+adolescence and the desire to be accepted by the world community, as
+well as a variety of concomitant political and economical upheavals.
+
+For whatever trials may lie ahead on this score, space exploration may
+prove to be much needed oil on rough water.
+
+Ambitious, advanced, sophisticated space exploration in the future is
+almost certain to require a high degree of international cooperation and
+perhaps even a pooling of resources and funds to some degree. Already
+America has found it expedient, in some cases mandatory, to depend on
+facilities in other countries for her ventures into space. A good
+example is the close cooperation between the United States and tracking
+bases located in Canada, Australia, South Africa, and elsewhere. An even
+better one is the important part played in U.S. efforts by England's
+giant radio telescope at Jodrell Bank. Most of our launches are followed
+by this equipment and much of the best scientific information gained
+from it. In the case of Pioneer V, Jodrell Bank was essential to keep in
+touch with the satellite at the longer distances and, moreover, was
+actually required to separate the fourth stage of the launch vehicle and
+direct the payload toward its Venus orbit.
+
+Mutual need and cooperation thus fostered by space exploration can be
+expected to siphon off some of the political tensions of the future,
+especially as more and more nations become interested in space and
+inaugurate complex programs of their own.
+
+
+LIMITATIONS ON SPACE RESEARCH
+
+There are some who are convinced that the exploration of space is
+rigidly limited and that the landing of men on extraterrestrial bodies
+other than the Moon is quite improbable. They are sure that extensive
+travel outside the solar system is impossible.
+
+Admittedly, the problems of such travel are enormous. But are they
+incapable of solution?
+
+     Twenty-six million miles to Venus, 49 million miles to Mars, 3,680
+     million miles from the Sun to Pluto at the outer edge of the solar
+     system. The nearest of the stars is 25 million, million miles away,
+     and travel to it at 10 miles per second would require 80,000 years.
+     Is the travel of man to the stars a futile dream? Each generation
+     of man builds on the shoulders of the past. The exploration of
+     space has begun; who now can set limits to its future
+     accomplishments?[78]
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 15.--Need for international cooperation
+in the U.S. space program is illustrated by this map showing the areas
+from which help must be procured for projects already planned or
+underway.]
+
+That is the thought of one of the Nation's most expert space scientists.
+
+
+_"Who now can set limits * * * ?"_
+
+It seems to mesh curiously well with one of the most interesting
+phenomena of our day--the emergence of a breed of engineers,
+technicians, teachers, and scientists who do not recognize limits and
+who refuse to concede that something cannot be so because it fails to
+fit conventional patterns or conform to the physical laws of the
+universe as we now know them. Of this there is growing evidence.
+
+For many years it has been an accepted "fact," for instance, that the
+Moon is a dead world with no life upon it. The suggestion made by the
+great 16th century mathematician, Johannes Kepler, that some life might
+exist on the Moon was debunked into silence long since. Yet today a
+fellow of the British Royal Astronomical Society writes that the first
+men to arrive on the Moon may find not only plant life but possibly
+animal life. "The fact that terrestrial organisms may be unable to
+survive in the surroundings of another planet is by itself no more
+significant than that fishes and other marine animals die when exposed
+to the air. From their point of view air is uninhabitable because they
+have failed to equip themselves with lungs."[79] And he adds that his
+surmise "leaves out of account the possibilities of the Moon's
+underground world, which are incalculable, for there water, the vital
+gases, congenial temperatures, and increased pressures will all be
+present. Only sunlight is absent."
+
+Then there is Project Ozma, the search for life on other planets or in
+other star systems, which began in April 1960 at Green Bank, W. Va. It
+is being undertaken by the National Radio-Astronomy Observatory and
+consists of carefully directed listening by radio-telescope for signs of
+intelligent broadcasts originating outside Earth.
+
+At Stanford University another astronomer is concentrating the efforts
+of part of his laboratory on behalf of a similar idea. The chances are,
+he believes, "that the superior races of other planets in other galaxies
+have already developed a communications network among themselves, and
+have entered a joint program to scan all the other solar systems looking
+for signs of awakening civilization among the backward planets. Each of
+the advanced communities might pick as its probe assignment a single
+other solar system--and one such probe may well be circling our Sun
+right now on a routine check for life."[80] Unexplained delayed echoes
+of earthly radio transmissions received in the past, it is thought,
+could be evidence of such a scheme.
+
+Are goings-on such as these nonsense?
+
+Here is the answer given by one hard-headed science writer:
+
+     Centuries may pass before there is any sign of intelligence outside
+     the Earth. But the advantages of communication with another
+     civilization that has survived our present dilemmas are far too
+     great to permit the experiment to be abandoned.[81]
+
+The results of recent and more orthodox experiments have already done
+much to shake the complacency of scientists in regard to their concepts
+of space. Investigations have disclosed that, far from being a complete
+vacuum, space is relatively full of matter and energy. Hydrogen gas,
+radiation belts, cosmic particles, solar disturbances of unknown nature,
+micrometeorites--and, from Pioneer V, proof of a 5-million ampere
+electromagnetic ring centered about 40,000 miles away.[82] The director
+of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Laboratory in Cambridge, Mass.,[83] has
+said that more and more startling astrophysical information was gathered
+during the first few weeks of the space age than had been accumulated in
+the preceding century.
+
+In brief, it is becoming the vogue in science to refuse to say
+"impossible" to anything. On the contrary, the watchword for tomorrow is
+shaping up as "take _nothing_ for granted."
+
+
+FUNDAMENTAL KNOWLEDGE ABOUT LIFE
+
+Everything learned from space exploration thus far indicates that the
+knowledge lying in wait for those who manage to observe the universe
+from outside Earth's atmosphere will be far grander than anything
+uncovered to date.
+
+We may finally learn the origin of our universe and the method of its
+functioning. A good part of this knowledge may be no farther away than
+the next 3 to 5 years. Satellite telescopes now under construction are
+expected to elicit far more information than even the 200-inch giant at
+Mount Palomar. One such observatory satellite, to be launched in 1963 or
+before, "will permit a telescope of about 10 feet in length to point at
+heavenly bodies within a tenth of a second of arc for periods up to an
+hour. Present plans call for an orbit between 400 and 500 miles, as a
+lifetime of at least 6 months is required to observe the entire
+celestial field."[84]
+
+Perhaps, and sooner than we think, we shall find a clue to the destiny
+of all intelligent life.
+
+Perhaps the theory advanced by a noted eastern astronomer will turn out
+to be true--that biological evolution on the habitable planets of the
+universe may be the result of contamination left by space travelers
+arriving from (and leaving for) other worlds. In other words, the
+fruition of life on the various planets of the millions of solar systems
+might be the product of a wandering group of astronautic Johnny
+Appleseeds who leave the grains of life behind them. "Space travel
+between galaxies has to be possible for this, but of course this needs
+to be only quite a rare event. In a time of about 3.3 billion years, the
+most advanced form of life occurring in a galaxy must be able to reach a
+neighboring one."[85]
+
+The notion seems fantastic.
+
+But when we look clear to the end of Earth's road (and assuming the
+astrophysicists are right in their theories about the evolution and
+ultimate death of our solar system) we know that Earth will one day
+become uninhabitable. Life on Earth must then perish or move elsewhere.
+If we further assume that mankind will not want to die with his planet
+and if we acknowledge that other worlds may have been through this
+entire cycle in eons past--perhaps the notion is not so unreasonable
+after all.
+
+Whatever the truth is on this score, space exploration will certainly be
+of "practical" value to our descendants when that dim, far-off day
+arrives.
+
+
+PSYCHOLOGICAL AND SPIRITUAL VALUES
+
+Long before the arrival of that millennium, however, the knowledge and
+understanding awaiting us through the medium of space exploration is
+certain to have profound effects on the human race psychologically and
+spiritually.
+
+It already has had effects on humans of all ages.
+
+Adults, who are paying the taxes to support the space exploration
+program and reaping its practical values, are also thinking of
+themselves, their country, and their world in broader, more
+knowledgeable terms.
+
+In a sense, children may be even more deeply involved.
+
+     There is a special group which may play a useful role in spreading
+     the new values growing from the exploration of space, and this is
+     the children who play at spaceman today. Whether or not they take
+     this interest with them beyond childhood remains to be seen.
+     However, the unique fact in the present situation is that never
+     before have children rehearsed a role that really will not exist
+     until they are adults. To be sure all of them will not fulfill this
+     childhood role, but the fact that the reality lies ahead rather
+     than in the past (as with cowboys and Indians) may stimulate them
+     to retain a sensitivity for the various meanings man in space can
+     have for our future.[86]
+
+Put it another way--if it is true, as a modern Chinese philosopher has
+said, that the search for knowledge is a form of play, "then the
+spaceship, when it comes, will be the ultimate toy that may lead mankind
+from its cloistered nursery out into the playground of the stars."[87]
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 16.--Space vehicles of the future may
+look like this artist's drawing of an electrical propulsion craft. The
+nuclear reactor is located at the extreme left, followed by a neutron
+shield, heat exchanger, gamma-ray shield and propellant. The center tank
+houses turbogenerating equipment. Excessive heat is dissipated in the
+large radiator. At the extreme right are two crew cabins, landing
+vehicle and a ring-shaped accelerator.]
+
+
+MATURING OF THE RACE
+
+The psychological and spiritual changes necessitated by this evolution
+may be at a cost far beyond dollars--because many of us will be hard put
+to negotiate them, especially if they come too rapidly.
+
+Nevertheless, negotiating them must also be placed in the category of
+"practical" values--for in the long run it seems to be an essential part
+of the maturing of mankind.
+
+     The years ahead will face us with many sputniks and thereby will
+     require of our citizens stern, costly, and imaginative
+     participation in programs to meet and surmount the many complex
+     challenges with which our growing technology confronts us. To
+     succeed in space and to succeed on Earth, we must somehow learn to
+     make the larger world of ideas, so brilliantly exemplified by the
+     satellites, the immediate environment of the individual. There is a
+     race we must run--the race for an enlightened and involved
+     public.[88]
+
+So if we can accept the wrenches which space exploration is apt to apply
+to our time, pocketbook, energy, and thinking, the values and rewards as
+outlined in this report should gather headway and grow continuously
+greater.
+
+     Space technology is probably the fastest moving, typically
+     free-enterprise and democratic industry yet created. It puts a
+     premium not on salesmanship, but on what it needs
+     most--intellectual production, the research payoff. Unlike any
+     other existing industry, space functions on hope and future
+     possibilities, conquest of real estate unseen, of near vacuum
+     unexplored. At once it obliterates the economic reason for war, the
+     threat of overpopulation, or cultural stagnation; it offers to
+     replace guesswork with the scientific method for archeological,
+     philosophical, and religious themes.[89]
+
+Such conclusions seem a bit rosy. But sober study indicates that they
+may not be too "far out" after all.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[72] Hauser, Philip M., "Demographic Dimensions of World Politics,"
+Science, June 3, 1960, p. 1642.
+
+[73] Bacq, Prof. Z. M., "Medicine in the 1960's," New Scientist, Jan.
+21, 1960, p. 130.
+
+[74] 59 supra.
+
+[75] Ibid.
+
+[76] Ibid.
+
+[77] "The Challenge of Leisure," M. G. Scott, Ltd., London, August 1959,
+p. 20.
+
+[78] 27 supra.
+
+[79] Firsoff, Dr. V. A., "The Strange World of the Moon," Basic Books,
+London, 1959.
+
+[80] Reported by David Perlman, San Francisco Chronicle, June 7, 1960.
+
+[81] Lear, John, "Is Anybody There?," New Scientist, Apr. 14, 1960, p.
+933.
+
+[82] Aviation Week, May 9, 1960, p 32.
+
+[83] Whipple, Dr. Fred L.
+
+[84] Western Aviation, June 1960, p. 16.
+
+[85] Gold, Dr. Thomas, "Cosmic Garbage," address to the Space Scientists
+Symposium, Los Angeles, December 1959.
+
+[86] 68 supra, pp. 12, 13.
+
+[87] 6 supra, pp. 3, 4.
+
+[88] Michael, D. N., "Sputniks & Public Opinion," Air Force, June 1960,
+p. 75.
+
+[89] Industrial Research, December 1959, pp. 8, 9.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Practical Values of Space
+Exploration, by Committee on Science and Astronautics
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Practical Values of Space Exploration, by 
+Committee on Science and Astronautics
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Practical Values of Space Exploration
+       Report of the Committee on Science and Astronautics, U.S.
+              House of Representatives, Eighty-Sixth Congress, Second
+              Session
+
+Author: Committee on Science and Astronautics
+
+Release Date: November 24, 2006 [EBook #19911]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SPACE EXPLORATION ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Audrey Longhurst, Janet Blenkinship and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+<blockquote><p><span class="left">&nbsp;</span><span class="right"><b>Union Calendar No. 928</b></span><br /></p>
+
+<p><span class="left"><b>86th Congress, 2d Session</b></span><span class="right"><b>House Report No. 2091</b></span><br /></p>
+</blockquote>
+
+
+<h1>THE PRACTICAL VALUES OF<br />SPACE EXPLORATION</h1>
+
+
+<h2>REPORT</h2>
+
+<h4>OF THE</h4>
+
+<h3>COMMITTEE ON SCIENCE AND ASTRONAUTICS<br />U.S. HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES<br />
+EIGHTY-SIXTH CONGRESS SECOND SESSION</h3>
+
+<h4>PURSUANT TO</h4>
+
+<h2>H. Res. 133</h2>
+
+<h4>[Serial I]</h4>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img001.jpg" alt="logo" title="logo" /></div>
+
+
+<p class='center'>July 5, 1960.&mdash;Committed to the Committee of the Whole House on the
+State of the Union and ordered to be printed</p>
+
+
+<p class='center'>UNITED STATES<br />
+GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE<br />
+58231&deg; WASHINGTON: 1960</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+
+<h4>COMMITTEE ON SCIENCE AND ASTRONAUTICS</h4>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="COMMITTEE ON SCIENCE AND ASTRONAUTICS">
+<tr><td align='left'>OVERTON BROOKS, Louisiana, <i>Chairman</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>John W. McCormack, Massachusetts</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>George P. Miller, California</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Olin E. Teague, Texas</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Victor L. Anfuso, New York</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>B. F. Sisk, California</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Erwin Mitchell, Georgia</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>James M. Quigley, Pennsylvania</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Leonard G. Wolf, Iowa</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Joseph E. Karth, Minnesota</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Ken Hechler, West Virginia</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Emilio Q. Daddario, Connecticut</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Walter H. Moeller, Ohio</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>David S. King, Utah</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>J. Edward Roush, Indiana</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Thomas G. Morris, New Mexico</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Joseph W. Martin, Jr. Massachusetts</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>James G. Fulton, Pennsylvania</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Gordon L. McDonough, California</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>J. Edgar Chenoweth, Colorado</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Frank C. Osmers, Jr. New Jersey</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>William K. Van Pelt, Wisconsin</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>A. D. Baumhart, Jr. Ohio</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Perkins Bass, New Hampshire</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>R. Walter Riehlman, New York</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Charles F. Ducander, <i>Executive Director and Chief Counsel</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Dr. Charles S. Sheldon II, <i>Technical Director</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Spencer M. Beresford, <i>Special Counsel</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Philip B. Yeager, <i>Special Consultant</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>John A. Carstarphen, Jr., <i>Chief Clerk</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Frank R. Hammill, Jr., <i>Counsel</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Raymond Wilcove, <i>Staff Consultant</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Richard P. Hines, <i>Staff Consultant</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Lt. Col. Francis J. Dillon, Jr., <i>Staff Consultant</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Comdr. Howard J. Silberstein, <i>Staff Consultant</i></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><br /></p>
+<blockquote><h3>LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL<br /><br /></h3>
+
+
+<p class='author'>
+<span class="smcap">House of Representatives,</span><br />
+Committee on Science and Astronautics,<br />
+<i>Washington, D.C., July 1, 1960.</i><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Hon. <span class="smcap">Overton Brooks</span>,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>Chairman, Committee on Science and Astronautics.</i></span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Dear Mr. Chairman:</span> I am forwarding herewith for your
+consideration a staff study, "The Practical Values of Space
+Exploration."</p>
+
+<p>This study was undertaken pursuant to your request for information
+covering the various utilities of the national space effort. The study
+has been prepared by Philip B. Yeager and reviewed by other members of
+the professional staff.</p>
+
+<p class='author'>
+<span class="smcap">Charles F. Ducander</span>,<br />
+<i>Executive Director and Chief Counsel.</i>
+</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><br /></p>
+<h3>LETTER OF SUBMITTAL<br /><br /></h3>
+
+
+<p class='author'>
+<span class="smcap">House of Representatives,</span><br />
+Committee on Science and Astronautics,<br />
+<i>Washington, D.C., July 5, 1960.</i><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Hon. <span class="smcap">Sam Rayburn</span>,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>Speaker of the House of Representatives,</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>Washington, D.C.</i></span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Dear Mr. Speaker:</span> By direction of the Committee on Science and
+Astronautics, I submit the following report on "The Practical Values of
+Space Exploration" for the consideration of the 86th Congress.</p>
+
+<p class='author'>
+<span class="smcap">Overton Brooks</span>, <i>Chairman</i>.<br />
+</p></blockquote>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="65%" cellspacing="0" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td align='left'>Introduction</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_1'><b>1</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 1em;">I. The unseen values</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_3'><b>3</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Some examples of the unexpected</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_3'><b>3</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 3em;">The ultimate values</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_5'><b>5</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Steering a middle road</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_6'><b>6</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 3em;">The time for space</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_7'><b>7</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>II. National security values</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_9'><b>9</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 3em;">The military uses</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_9'><b>9</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Our position in the international community</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_12'><b>12</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Space as a substitute for war</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_15'><b>15</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>III. The economic values</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_17'><b>17</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 3em;">U.S. expenditures on space</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_17'><b>17</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 3em;">The spread of economic benefits</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_18'><b>18</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Creation of new industries</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_19'><b>19</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Research</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_19'><b>19</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">New power sources</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_20'><b>20</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">New water sources and uses</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_21'><b>21</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Noise and human engineering</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_22'><b>22</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">High speed-light weight computers</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_22'><b>22</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Solid state physics</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_23'><b>23</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Economic alliances</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_24'><b>24</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Private enterprise in space</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_24'><b>24</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Jobs</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_27'><b>27</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Automation and disarmament</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_28'><b>28</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>IV. Values for everyday living</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_31'><b>31</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Technological benefits</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_31'><b>31</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Food and agriculture</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_35'><b>35</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Communications</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_36'><b>36</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Weather prediction and modification</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_37'><b>37</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Health benefits</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_39'><b>39</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Education benefits</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_42'><b>42</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">The demand</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_42'><b>42</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>V. Long-range values</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_45'><b>45</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Trouble spots</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_45'><b>45</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Population</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_45'><b>45</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Water shortage</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_46'><b>46</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Soil erosion</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_46'><b>46</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Added leisure</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_47'><b>47</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Intensified nationalism</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_48'><b>48</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Limitations on space research</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_48'><b>48</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Fundamental knowledge about life</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_51'><b>51</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Psychological and spiritual values</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_52'><b>52</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Maturing of the race</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_53'><b>53</b></a></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<div class='bd'>
+<blockquote><table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="80%" cellspacing="0" summary="86th Congress">
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">86th Congress<br /><i>2d Session</i></span></td><td align='left'>HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES</td><td align='left'>Report<br />No. 2091</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<h3>THE PRACTICAL VALUES OF SPACE EXPLORATION</h3>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+
+<p class='center'><span class="smcap">July 5, 1960.</span>&mdash;Committed to the Committee of the Whole House on
+the State of the Union and ordered to be printed</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+
+<p class='center'>Mr. <span class="smcap">Brooks</span> of Louisiana, from the Committee on Science and
+Astronautics, submitted the following</p>
+
+<h3>
+REPORT</h3>
+
+
+<p class='center'>[Pursuant to H. Res. 133]
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
+</blockquote></div>
+
+
+
+<p><br /><br /></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><br /><br /></p>
+<h2>THE PRACTICAL VALUES OF SPACE EXPLORATION</h2>
+<p><br /><br /></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><span class="smcap">Introduction</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>This report has been undertaken for a special reason. It is to explain
+to the taxpayer just why so many of his dollars are going into the
+American effort to explore space, and to indicate what he can expect in
+return which is of value to him.</p>
+
+<p>Such an explanation, even after 2 years of relatively high-geared
+activity in the space exploration field, appears to be warranted. There
+is still a segment of the U.S. population which has little, if any,
+notion of the values that the space program has for the average citizen.
+To these people the expenditure of billions of dollars on missiles,
+rockets, satellites, Moon probes, and other space activities remains
+something of a mystery&mdash;particularly when so many other worthy projects
+throughout the land may be slowed or stalled for lack of funds.</p>
+
+<p>If, therefore, the practical value of the American space program is
+being questioned, it is a question which needs to be answered.</p>
+
+<p>It is interesting to note that the problem is not unique to the United
+States. In the Soviet Union, which counts itself as the world's prime
+investigator of space, there is likewise an element of citizenry which
+finds itself puzzled over the U.S.S.R.'s penchant for the interplanetary
+reaches.</p>
+
+<p>"What do sputniks give to a person like me?" a Russian workman
+complained in a letter which <i>Pravda</i> published on its front page. "So
+much money is spent on sputniks it makes people gasp. If there were no
+sputniks the Government could cut the cost of cloth for an overcoat in
+half and put a few electric flatirons in the stores. Rockets, rockets,
+rockets. Who needs them now?"<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
+
+<p>It goes without saying that the workman was severely chastised by the
+Soviet newspaper, but his point was made.</p>
+
+<p>No matter where taxpayers live they want to know&mdash;and are entitled to
+know&mdash;what good a program of space exploration is to them.</p>
+
+<p>During the 1960's it is expected that the U.S. Government will spend
+anywhere from $30 to $50 billion on space exploration for all purposes,
+civilian and military. It is the intent of this report to delineate in
+lay language, and in terms which will be meaningful to those who have
+not followed the American space program closely, the reasons for this
+great investment and the probable returns.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img002.jpg"  width="503" height="550" alt="Figure 1." title="Figure 1." /></div>
+
+
+<blockquote><h4><span class="smcap">Figure</span> 1.&mdash;A single shot of the 8-barreled
+Saturn of the future will cost millions of dollars, maybe tens of
+millions. What makes it worthwhile for the taxpayer?</h4></blockquote>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="I_The_Unseen_Values" id="I_The_Unseen_Values"></a>I. The Unseen Values</h2>
+
+
+<p>The United States has not embarked upon its formidable program of space
+exploration in order to make or perpetuate a gigantic astronautic
+boondoggle. There are good reasons, hard reasons for this program. But,
+in essence, they all boil down to the fact that the program is expected
+to produce a number of highly valuable payoffs. It not only is expected
+to do so, it is doing so right now.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the beneficial results can be identified.</p>
+
+<p>Those already showing up are detailed in the sections of this report
+which follow. They include the most urgent and precious of all
+commodities&mdash;national security. Beyond that, they also include a
+strengthened national economy, new jobs and job categories, better
+living, fresh consumer goods, improved education, increased health,
+stimulated business enterprise and a host of long-range values which may
+ultimately make the immediate benefits pale into relative
+insignificance.</p>
+
+<p>Practical uses such as those just listed mean the taxpayer is more than
+getting his money's worth from American space exploration&mdash;and getting a
+sizable chunk of it today.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, if we can depend on the history of scientific adventure
+and progress, on its consistent tendencies of the past, then we can be
+reasonably sure that the greatest, finest benefits to come from our
+ventures into space are yet unseen.</p>
+
+<p>These are the unpredictable values, the ones which none of us has yet
+thought of.</p>
+
+<p>Inevitably they lag behind the basic research discoveries needed to make
+them possible, and often the discoveries are slow to be put to work
+after they are made. Investors, even governments, are human, and before
+they invest in something they normally want to know: What good is it?</p>
+
+<p>We can be sure that many American taxpayers of the future will be asking
+"what good is it?" in regard to various phases of the space program.</p>
+
+<p>There was an occasion when the great Scottish physicist, James Clerk
+Maxwell, was asked this question concerning one of his classic
+discoveries in electromagnetism. Maxwell replied: "What good is a baby?"</p>
+
+<p>Now, as then, it takes time for new knowledge to develop and become
+useful after its conception and birth.</p>
+
+
+<h3>SOME EXAMPLES OF THE UNEXPECTED</h3>
+
+<p>A graphic illustration of "unseen" benefits in regard to atomic energy
+has been expressed by an experienced researcher in this way:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>I remember a conversation I had with one of our nuclear scientists
+when I was a member of the Weapons Systems Evaluations Group almost
+10 years ago. We were talking about the possible peaceful
+applications of fission. We<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> really could think of little that
+could be done with it other than making fissionable material into a
+form of destructive power. There had been some discussion about
+harnessing the power of fission, but this seemed to us to be quite
+remote. It seemed difficult to conceive of the atomic bomb as
+anything but sheer power used for destructive purposes. Yet today
+the products of fission applied to peaceful uses are many. The use
+of isotopes in industry, medicine, agriculture are well known. Food
+irradiation, nuclear power reactors, now reactors for shipboard
+use, are with us, and it is hardly the beginning. I frequently ask
+myself, of late, what 10 years from now will be the commercial,
+shall we call it, applications of our missile and rocket
+programs.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p></div>
+
+<p>There are innumerable examples of the way in which invention or
+discovery, or sometimes just simple human curiosity, result in useful
+payoff. And frequently no one suspects the direction the payoff finally
+takes. The point, of course, is that <i>any</i> knowledge eventually pays
+dividends. The things we learn from our national space program will
+produce benefits in ways entirely unrelated to missiles or
+interplanetary travel. (See secs. III and IV.) The reverse is also true;
+knowledge gained in areas quite remote from outer space can have genuine
+value for the advance of space exploration.</p>
+
+<p>Investigation into the skin of a fish provides a good case in point.</p>
+
+<p>A German inventor who migrated to California after World War II had long
+been interested in ways to reduce the drag of friction produced by air
+or water on the surface of objects passing through them. One day, while
+watching a group of porpoises cavort past a speeding ship with the
+greatest of ease, it occurred to him that the skin of these animals, if
+closely studied, might shed light on ways of cutting surface friction.
+It was many years before the inventor was able to enlist the aid of
+aquarium managers in securing porpoise skins for study. In 1955,
+however, he obtained the necessary skins and found that dolphins, in
+fact, owe much of their great speed to a unique skin which markedly
+reduces the effect of turbulence against it. From this knowledge has
+come the recent development of a diaphragm-damping fluid surface which
+has real potential not only for underwater high-speed bodies, such as
+submarines, torpedoes and underwater missiles, but for any vehicle where
+fast-moving gases or fluids may cause drag.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p>
+
+<p>The implications of this knowledge for satellites near Earth or for
+reentering spacecraft are obvious.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes a reverse twist in reasoning by a speculative mind will result
+in enormous practical utility.</p>
+
+<p>In Cambridge, Mass., a sanitary engineer teaching at the Massachusetts
+Institute of Technology began to wonder about the principles of
+adhesion&mdash;why things stick to each other. Do they only stick together
+because some sticky substance is holding them, or are there other
+reasons? "If a person is sick," he asked himself, "is it because a cause
+of sickness is present or because a cause of health is absent? We now
+know that in infectious diseases the first alternative is true;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span> the
+patient is ill because he harbors pathogenic germs. The opposite case
+prevails in deficiency diseases, where necessary vitamins are absent
+from food and illness is brought about by this absence. To which of the
+classes does adhesion belong? When we cannot produce a dependable bond,
+are we dealing with the lack of some adhesive force or with existence of
+an obstacle to sticking?"</p>
+
+<p>Operating on the theory that adhesion might result not only from the
+presence of a sticky agent but from the removal of all impediments to
+sticking, this scientist has now managed to produce strong adhesion
+between the least sticky of substances&mdash;polyethylene plastics. He has
+done it by studying the molecular structure of polyethylenes and
+removing all impurities which normally find their way into the
+manufacture of such material. The next step: "We hope to prepare
+adhesive joints in which a noble gas acts as an adhesive. Noble gases
+are the least active substances known to chemistry; if they can adhere,
+it is clear that no specific forces are needed for adhesiveness."<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p>
+
+<p>No great imagination is required to perceive the meaning which this new
+knowledge, if proved out, will have for our everyday lives&mdash;to say
+nothing of its usefulness in the making of astronautic equipment.</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE ULTIMATE VALUES</h3>
+
+<p>In any event, it is apparent that where research is concerned&mdash;and
+especially space research with its broad scale of inquiry&mdash;we cannot
+always see the value of scientific endeavor on the basis of its
+beginning. We cannot always account for what we have purchased with each
+research dollar.</p>
+
+<p>The Government stated this proposition when it first undertook to put
+the space program on a priority basis:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Scientific research has never been amenable to rigorous cost
+accounting in advance. Nor, for that matter, has exploration of any
+sort. But if we have learned one lesson, it is that research and
+exploration have a remarkable way of paying off&mdash;quite apart from
+the fact that they demonstrate that man is alive and insatiably
+curious. And we all feel richer for knowing what explorers and
+scientists have learned about the universe in which we live.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p></div>
+
+<p>In this statement there is political support for what the historian, the
+anthropologist, the psychologist consider to be established fact&mdash;that
+some innate force in the human being makes him <i>know</i>, whatever his
+formal beliefs or whatever his unconscious philosophy, that he <i>must</i>
+progress. Progress is the core of his destiny.</p>
+
+<p>This is a concept which, in connection with space exploration, has been
+recognized for many years. One of the earliest and most perceptive of
+the space "buffs" stated it before the British Interplanetary Society in
+1946 in these words: " * * * our civilization is no more than the sum of
+all the dreams that earlier ages have brought to fulfillment. And so it
+must always be, for if men cease to dream, if they turn their backs upon
+the wonder of the universe, the story of our race will be coming to an
+end".<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span></p>
+<p><br /></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img06.jpg"  width="500" height="361" alt="Figure 2." title="Figure 2." /></div>
+
+
+<blockquote><h4><span class="smcap">Figure</span> 2.&mdash;In the years immediately ahead, the
+orbiting observatory or the manned satellite will uncover crucial
+information about the nature of the universe.</h4></blockquote>
+<p><br /></p>
+
+<h3>STEERING A MIDDLE ROAD</h3>
+
+<p>In any endeavor which is as futuristic as space exploration it is not
+difficult to become lost in the land of the starry-eyed prognosticators.
+Conversely, it is also easy to find oneself lining up with the debunkers
+and the champions of the status quo, for their arguments and views give
+the impression of being hard-headed, sensible.</p>
+
+<p>If one must err in either direction, however, it is probably safer,
+where space is concerned, to err in the direction of the enthusiasts.
+This is because (and subsequent parts of this report will show it) the
+Nation cannot afford not to be in the vanguard of the space explorers.</p>
+
+<p>Events today move with facility and lightning rapidity. Today, more than
+ever, time is on the side of the expeditious. We can no longer take the
+risk of giving much support to the scoffers&mdash;to that breed of
+unimaginative souls who thought Robert Fulton was a fool for harnessing
+a paddlewheel to a boiler, who thought Henry Ford was a fool for putting
+an internal combustion engine on wheels, who thought Samuel Langley was
+a fool for designing a contraption to fly through the air.</p>
+
+<p>There are always those who will say it cannot be done. Even in this era
+of sophisticated flight there have been those who said the sound barrier
+would never be broken. It was. Others said later that space vehicles
+would never get through the heat barrier. They have. Now, some say men
+will never overcome the radiation barrier in space. But we can be sure
+they will.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It is undoubtedly wise for the layman, in terms of the benefits he can
+expect from the space program in the foreseeable future, to steer a
+reasonable course between the two extremes. Yet one cannot help
+remembering that the secret of taking practical energy from the atom, a
+secret which the human race had been trying to learn for thousands of
+years, was accomplished in less than a decade from the moment when men
+first determined that it was possible to split an atom. It is difficult
+to forget that even after World War II some of our most respected
+scientists sold short the idea of developing long-range missiles.
+Impractical, they said; visionary. But 6 years after the United States
+went to work seriously on missiles, an operational ICBM with a
+9,000-mile range was an accomplished fact.</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE TIME FOR SPACE</h3>
+
+<p>All of the glowing predictions being made on behalf of space exploration
+will not be here tomorrow or the next day. Yet this seems less important
+than that we recognize the significance of our moment of history.</p>
+
+<p>We may think of that moment as a new age&mdash;the age of space and the
+atom&mdash;to follow the historic ages of stone, bronze, and iron. We may
+think of it in terms of theories, of succeeding from those of Copernicus
+to those of Newton and thence to Freud and now Einstein. We may think of
+our time as the time of exploiting the new fourth state of matter:
+plasma, or the ion. Or we may think of it in terms of revolutions, as
+passing from the industrial cycle of steam through the railroad-steel
+cycle, through the electricity-automobile cycle, into the burgeoning
+technological revolution of today.</p>
+
+<p>However we think of it, it is a dawning period and one which&mdash;in its
+scope and potential&mdash;promises to dwarf much of what has gone before.
+Those who have given careful thought to the matter are convinced that
+while some caution is in order, the new era is not one to be approached
+with timidity, inhibited imagination or too much convention. Neither is
+there any point in trying to hold off the tempo of this oncoming age or,
+in any other way, to evade it.</p>
+
+<p>Mark Twain once listened to the complaints of an old riverboat pilot who
+was having trouble making the switch from sail to steam. The old pilot
+wanted no part of the newfangled steam contraptions. "Maybe so," replied
+Twain, "but when it's steamboat time, you steam."<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></p>
+
+<p>Today is space time and man is going to explore it.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><br /></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img08.jpg"  width="442" height="550" alt="Figure 3." title="Figure 3." /></div>
+
+<blockquote><h4><span class="smcap">Figure</span> 3.&mdash;The versatile Atlas can be used
+either for launching man into space or to carry a nuclear warhead as far
+as 9,000 miles.</h4></blockquote>
+
+<p><br /></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="II_National_Security_Values" id="II_National_Security_Values"></a>II. <span class="smcap">National Security Values</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>There is no longer doubt that space exploration holds genuine
+significance for the security and well-being of the United States as a
+nation.</p>
+
+<p>It does so in at least three ways. One results from the uses which our
+Armed Forces can make of the knowledge gained from space exploration. A
+second results from the influence and prestige which America can exert
+within the world community because of her prowess in space exploration.
+A third results from the possibility that space exploration, eventually,
+may prove so immense and important a challenge that it will channel the
+prime energies of powerful nations toward its own end and thus reduce
+the current emphasis on developing means of destruction.</p>
+
+<p>The first two values definitely exist. The third seems to be a
+reasonable hope.</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE MILITARY USES</h3>
+
+<p>From the beginning it has been recognized that space exploration, the
+research connected therewith, and the ability to operate therein is of
+more than passing interest to the military.</p>
+
+<p>Congress recognized the fact when it passed the National Aeronautics and
+Space Act of 1958 and directed that "activities peculiar to or primarily
+associated with the development of weapons systems, military operations,
+or the defense of the United States * * * shall be the responsibility
+of, and shall be directed by, the Department of Defense."<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> In the
+amendments to the Space Act proposed in 1960, this directive was
+strengthened: "The Department of Defense shall undertake such activities
+in space, and such research and development connected therewith, as may
+be necessary for the defense of the United States."<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p>
+
+<p>It is possible to argue, and indeed it has been argued, that ballistic
+missiles such as IRBM's and ICBM's are not really "space" weapons, that
+they are simply an extension of the traditional art of artillery. For
+the purposes of this report, however, the argument appears to be largely
+a semantic one. Such missiles do traverse space, they are guided through
+space, and they employ the same engines and principles which are
+presently used for purposes of scientific space exploration. While more
+advanced "space" weapons may evolve in the future, the missile as we
+know it today cannot very well be divorced from our thinking about space
+and its practical uses.</p>
+
+<p>Going on this assumption, and casting an eye in the direction of the
+Iron Curtain, it is obvious that the Soviet Union is going all-out to
+exploit space for military purposes.</p>
+
+<p>Military men have known for years that the tremendously powerful booster
+which the Soviets have been using to launch their massive sputniks was
+originally designed to carry the primitive heavy version of the A-bomb
+across continents.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>If there was ever doubt of the extent to which the Soviets intend to
+make space a selected medium for military purposes it was erased when
+Premier Khrushchev made his address to the Supreme Soviet early in 1960.
+He commented in part:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Our state has at its disposal powerful rocket equipment. The
+military air force and navy have lost their previous importance in
+view of the modern development of military equipment. This type of
+armament is not being reduced but replaced. Almost the entire
+military air force is being replaced by rocket equipment. We have
+by now sharply cut, and it seems will continue sharply to cut and
+even discontinue the manufacture of bombers and other obsolete
+equipment. In the navy, the submarine fleet assumes great
+importance, while surface ships can no longer play the part they
+once did. In our country the armed forces have been to a
+considerable extent transferred to rocket and nuclear arms. These
+arms are being perfected and will continue to be perfected until
+they are banned.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a></p></div>
+
+<p>While it is difficult to assess the actual extent of the Soviet
+preoccupation with missiles, it has been reported that the Russians are
+building upward of 100 IRBM and ICBM bases to be manned by about 200,000
+men. Most of these, at least the intermediate range bases, are said to
+be along Russia's Baltic coast, in East Germany, in the southern Ukraine
+and in the Carpathian Mountains.<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></p>
+
+<p>In any event, the space age is clearly "here" so far as the military are
+concerned, and U.S. forces&mdash;particularly since the development of the
+much lighter atomic warheads&mdash;have been likewise diligent in their space
+efforts. This is because many military minds are now agreed that:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>We are moving inevitably into a time of astropower. We face a
+threat beyond imagination, should events ever lead to open conflict
+in a world of hypersonic velocities and a raging atom chained as
+our slave. We must be strong, we must be able to change to meet
+change. What may come against our beloved America will not be
+signaled by one light from the North Church steeple, if they come
+by land, or two, if they come by sea. Never again. They will come
+through space, and their light of warning will be the blinding
+terror of a thermonuclear fireball.<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></p></div>
+
+<p>It is important to note, in connection with military matters, that pure
+rocket power, is not the only avenue to success in space use. The
+American Atlas missile, for example, which can carry a nuclear warhead
+and which operates on considerably less thrust than the powerful Soviet
+boosters thus far demonstrated, has nevertheless shown the capability of
+negotiating a 9,000-mile trek and landing in the target area. This is
+about 1,500 miles farther than any Soviet shots revealed to the public
+in the 2&frac12;-year period following the first sputnik. It is also a
+sufficient range to permit reaching almost any likely target on the
+globe.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>From the military point of view, the meaning thus brought out is that
+sophistication of missiles together with reliability and ease of
+handling is more important than pure power.</p>
+
+<p>When we begin to consider both the civil and military aspects of space
+use in the decades ahead, however, rocket power acquires fresh
+importance. It is, as one expert says, "the key to space supremacy."<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a>
+Not only is much heavier thrust required for ventures farther out into
+space, but probably thrust developed by different means as well, such as
+atom, ion, or even photon power.</p>
+
+<p>This suggests the possibilities of weapons which today are considered to
+be "way out" or "blue sky"&mdash;in short, farfetched. Yet they include the
+ideas of men with solid scientific training as well as vision. For
+example, Germany's great rocket pioneer, Prof. Hermann Oberth, "has
+proposed that a giant mirror in space (some 60 miles in diameter) could
+be used militarily to burn an enemy country on Earth. For peaceful
+purposes, however, such a space mirror could be used to melt icebergs
+and alter temperatures."<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> Another reputable German scientist who has
+been working for a number of years on photon (electromagnetic ray) power
+as a source of propulsion, declares that if such power is possible so is
+"the idea of a 'death ray,' a weapon beam which burns or melts targets,
+such as enemy missiles, on which it is trained. The idea has been
+familiar in science fiction for a long time and has been scorned often
+enough. Yet, if the photon rocket is possible so is the ray gun."<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p>
+
+<p>Still another proposal, one made to the Congress, involves use of the
+Moon as a military base. "It could, at some future date, be used as a
+secure base to deter aggression. Lunar launching sites, perhaps located
+on the far side of the Moon, which could never be viewed directly from
+the Earth, could launch missiles earthward. They could be guided
+accurately during flight and to impact, and thus might serve peaceful
+ends by deterring any would-be aggressor."<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></p>
+
+<p>In spite of the fact that ideas such as these are being sponsored by
+competent and responsible scientists, other scientists equally competent
+and responsible sometimes cry them down as impractical, impossible or
+even childish. One engineer, for instance, describes maneuverable manned
+space vehicles as having "no military value," bases on the Moon as
+having no military or communications use, and the idea of high velocity
+photon-power for space travel as "a fantasy strictly for immature
+science fiction." He also characterizes the reconnaissance satellite,
+which U.S. military authorities have long since programmed and even
+launched, as being "definitely submarginal * * *. A fraction of the cost
+of a reconnaissance satellite could accomplish wonders in conventional
+information gathering."<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a></p>
+
+<p>Controversies such as these are difficult for the person who is neither
+a scientist nor a military expert to judge. One is inclined to recall,
+though, the treatment received by General Billy Mitchell for his
+devotion to nonconventional bombing concepts; the fact that the utility
+of the rocket as developed by America's pioneer, Dr. Robert H. Goddard,
+was generally ignored during World War II; the fact that it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> took a
+personal letter from Albert Einstein to President Roosevelt to get the
+Manhattan Project underway.</p>
+
+<p>Yet today the bomber, the missile, and the nuclear weapon form the
+backbone of our military posture.</p>
+
+<p>In other words, history seems to support the proposition that no matter
+how remote or unlikely new discoveries and approaches may first appear,
+the military eventually finds a way to use them.</p>
+
+<p>Will it be any different with space exploration?</p>
+
+
+<h3>OUR POSITION IN THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY</h3>
+
+<p>Like the military values of space research, the practical value of space
+exploration in terms of world prestige has also been acknowledged almost
+from the beginning of the satellite era.</p>
+
+<p>The White House, in its initial statement on the national space program,
+declared:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>It is useful to distinguish among (the) factors which give
+importance, urgency, and inevitability to the advancement of space
+technology (one of which) is the factor of national prestige. To be
+strong and bold in space technology will enhance the prestige of
+the United States among the peoples of the world and create added
+confidence in our scientific, technological, industrial, and
+military strength.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a></p></div>
+
+<p>Only recently, however, has the full impact and meaning of this phase of
+our national space program come to be widely recognized. It has been
+stated, perhaps in its most forceful and succinct form, by an American
+official in a unique position to know. The Director of the U.S.
+Information Agency, part of whose job is to keep track of the esteem in
+which America is held abroad, has told Congress:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Our space program may be considered as a measure of our vitality
+and our ability to compete with a formidable rival and as a
+criterion of our ability to maintain technological eminence worthy
+of emulation by other peoples.<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></p></div>
+
+<p>This element of space exploration takes on particular significance in
+light of the current international struggle to influence the minds of
+men, in light of the rising tide of nationalism throughout the world,
+and in light of the intensification of the cold war as demonstrated by
+the now-famous U-2 incident and the hardening attitude of oriental
+communism.</p>
+
+<p>In the words of an influential newspaper:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Wholly apart from the intellectual compulsions that now drive man
+to move higher and higher into the high heavens, it seems clear
+that our country can be niggardly in this field only at the risk of
+being completely and forever outclassed by Russia&mdash;a gamble that
+could have the most fearful political, economic, and military
+consequences.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></p></div>
+
+<p>Incidentally, there is another prestige factor to be considered. This is
+what might be called the chain-reaction factor: the likelihood that
+technological preeminence in the space field will attract top talent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span>
+from other parts of the world to the banner of the country which
+develops it, and thus constantly nourish and replenish the efforts of
+that country. It is a consideration which has not received general
+attention, although it has been discussed before some of the world's
+leading space scientists.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a></p>
+
+<p>Here again, as with the military situation, the Soviets are making every
+effort to exploit their dexterity in space. They are pursuing the
+prestige gambit directly and indirectly. In the first category, for
+example, they give top priority to space exhibits in important public
+forums&mdash;as their duplicate sputniks strategically placed at the world's
+fair and the United Nations attest. Premier Khrushchev's delight in
+making gifts to foreigners of miniature Soviet pennants similar to that
+carried in Lunik II&mdash;which hit the Moon&mdash;is another instance.<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a></p>
+
+<p>The indirect drive for prestige via space technology is far more
+important. It has been described by a congressional committee as
+follows:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>It is difficult to escape the conclusion that the Soviet Union in
+the last several years has demonstrated a great skill in
+coordinating its progress in missilery, its success in space
+missions, and its foreign policy and world image. Shots seem to
+have been timed to maximize the effects of visits of Soviet leaders
+and to punctuate Soviet statements and positions in international
+negotiations. This is not to equate their space activities with
+hollow propaganda. Empty claims do not have a positive effect for
+long. Nor is there any firm evidence that it has been possible for
+political policymakers to call their shots at times inconsistent
+with good scientific and technical needs. The conclusion is rather
+that the many elements of scientific, technical, military,
+political, and psychological policy are all weighed, and tests
+which make a full contribution to such a combined strategy are
+carried out and supported with appropriate publicity.<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></p></div>
+
+<p>There is also evidence that scientific endeavor by the Russians for
+prestige purposes is having repercussions on internal policy. Great
+emphasis is currently being placed on the demonstrable usefulness of
+scientific effort&mdash;to the extent that Soviet colleges, research
+institutions, examining boards, and academies of science have been
+directed to be more exacting in conferring scientific degrees and
+titles. Newness and usefulness are requisite, but, at the same time,
+degrees may now be awarded for other than dissertations; inventions and
+textbooks of major importance may also earn a degree for their
+authors.<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a></p>
+
+<p>Within the prestige context, it is true that the United States must
+labor under certain handicaps because of the nature of its democratic
+system.</p>
+
+<p>No effort is made in the American space program to hide the failures
+which result from its highly complex character. Our burnups, misfires,
+explosions, fizzles, and lost or wayward vehicles are well publicized.
+Those of the Soviet Union rarely are. Even though most nations are well
+aware that the Russians must be having their troubles,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> too, the
+appearance of uniform success fostered by the U.S.S.R. inevitably
+contributes to an image of scientific superiority. In addition, the
+Soviets have developed a habit of striving for spectacular "firsts,"
+most of which undoubtedly are undertaken almost as much for prestige
+reasons as for scientific ones.</p>
+
+<p><br /></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img014.jpg"  width="434" height="550" alt="Figure 4." title="Figure 4." /></div>
+
+
+<blockquote><h4><span class="smcap">Figure</span> 4.&mdash;Symbolic of the American effort in
+space is this Thor-Able rocket, shown here launching the Tiros weather
+satellite into a near-perfect orbit. This same vehicle, which launched
+the record-breaking 23 million-mile communication probe&mdash;Pioneer V&mdash;has
+contributed enormously to U.S. prestige abroad.</h4></blockquote>
+
+<p><br /></p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Still, the United States has not done badly from the prestige angle. So
+far as the world's scientific fraternity is concerned, it may even be
+well in the lead.</p>
+
+<p>In the first 30 or so months following the opening of the space age, as
+signaled by the launching of Sputnik I in October 1957, the United
+States put 21 satellites into orbit out of 42 attempts. Two out of five
+deep-space probes were successful. The degree of success for all major
+launchings ran better than 50 percent. The American effort has been
+based on a broad scope of inquiry and includes long-range
+communications, weather reporting, navigation and surveillance vehicles,
+as well as information-gathering satellites.</p>
+
+<p>During the same period the Soviets launched four Earth satellites, one
+deep-space probe, one lunar-impact probe and one satellite into a much
+elongated Earth orbit which circled and photographed the Moon. Most of
+their vehicles have been substantially heavier than those launched by
+the United States, although complete information on their scientific
+purposes and the result obtained has never been disclosed.</p>
+
+<p>The world political value of such programs cannot be discounted. To the
+extent that the welfare of the United States depends upon its stature in
+the eyes of the rest of the world (which is believed considerable) and
+to the extent that the scientific capability of the United States
+influences such stature (which is also believed considerable) our space
+venture has very marked practical utility. It may even mean the
+difference between freedom and dictatorship, between survival and
+oblivion.</p>
+
+
+<h3>SPACE AS A SUBSTITUTE FOR WAR</h3>
+
+<p>A natural outgrowth of the military and prestige facets of space
+exploration is the question of whether this activity, in time, will
+replace the forces which have historically driven nations into armed
+conflict.</p>
+
+<p>Any number of social scientists and historians have speculated that this
+might occur. The theory is that the conquest of space may prove to be
+the moral equivalent of war by substituting for certain material and
+psychological needs usually supplied through war; that the absorption of
+energies, resources, imagination, and aggressiveness in pursuit of the
+space adventure may become an effective way of maintaining peace.</p>
+
+<p>Put another way, nations might become "extroverted" to the point where
+their urge to overcome the unknown would dwarf their historic desires
+for power, wealth, and recognition&mdash;attributes which have so often led
+to war in the past.</p>
+
+<p>The fact that the United Nations, late in 1959, agreed to set up a
+permanent Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space attests to the
+hopes and potential of such a development.</p>
+
+<p>Of course, whether this condition will actually develop is anybody's
+guess. But in a world where brute force is becoming increasingly
+dangerous and catastrophic, the bare possibility of such a result should
+not be ignored by those who may be contemplating the values of space
+exploration. It could be the highest value of them all.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><br /></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img016.jpg"  width="342" height="500" alt="Figure 5." title="Figure 5." /></div>
+
+
+
+<blockquote><h4><span class="smcap">Figure</span> 5.&mdash;Today's assembly lines for
+automobiles and aircraft are being supplemented by the growing
+astronautics industry, here shown turning out capsules for manned space
+flight.</h4></blockquote>
+
+<p><br /></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>III. <span class="smcap">The Economic Values</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>We in the United States believe that we have the world's highest
+standard of living. Our current wealth, prosperity, consumer goods and
+gross national product are at a peak hitherto unreached by any country.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, economists who see the steady preponderant outflow of
+goods and capital from the United States and who study the rising rate
+of economic capability in other countries can find little room for
+complacence in the present status of things. They are also well aware of
+the Soviet Union's announced intent of beating the United States at its
+own game: economic expansion.</p>
+
+<p>Military historians are likewise aware that even strong economies, when
+they become static, do not guarantee safety. On the contrary, they seem
+likely to induce a dangerous national apathy.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>This syndrome is familiar in history. Carthage suffered from it.
+Carthage enjoyed enormous prosperity and was flourishing when she
+was destroyed by her Roman competitor. Much later, Rome had a gross
+national product without precedence. Her wealth and splendor were
+unsurpassed when the Vandals and Visigoths began their onslaughts.
+Neither Rome's great engineering skills, its architectural
+grandeur, its great laws, nor, in the last analysis, its gross
+national product, could prevail against the barbarians. Their GNP
+was negligible; nevertheless they ransacked the mighty Roman
+Empire.</p>
+
+<p>The gross national product is no insurance of survival. It is not a
+sign of military strength, and indeed, it may not even be
+sufficient for the economic battle.<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a></p></div>
+
+<p>Thus from the point of view of economic stimulus and continued
+commercial dynamism, space exploration should be&mdash;and is proving to
+be&mdash;a godsend.</p>
+
+
+<h3>U.S. EXPENDITURES ON SPACE</h3>
+
+<p>It is impossible to arrive at accurate figures which might help indicate
+the extent of this effort in dollars and cents. But we do know that the
+U.S. Government is presently putting about $3.5 billion annually into
+the research and development phases. How much more may be going into the
+purchase of completed space hardware is difficult to say; certainly it
+is a higher figure still. The National Aeronautics and Space
+Administration, in presenting its 10-year plan to Congress recently,
+indicated that this agency alone expects to average between $1.5 and $2
+billion a year during the next decade.</p>
+
+<p>The amount of effort going into space-related programs on the part of
+private industry, measured in dollars, again can only be roughly
+estimated. But it is a sizable figure and is known to be growing. It may
+amount to half the governmental research and development outlay.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>These figures add up to a very important segment of the national
+economy, and the fact that they represent a highly active and
+progressive segment is particularly heartening to the economic experts
+of the Nation.</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE SPREAD OF ECONOMIC BENEFITS</h3>
+
+<p>One of the most useful characteristics of the space program is that its
+needs "spread across the entire industrial spectrum&mdash;electronics,
+metals, fuels, ceramics, machinery, plastics, instruments, textiles,
+thermals, cryogenics, and a thousand other areas."<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> The benefits from
+space exploration thus have a way of filtering into almost every area of
+the American economy, either directly or indirectly. "Perhaps the
+greatest economic treasure is the advanced technology required for more
+and more difficult space missions. This new technology is advancing at a
+meteoric rate. Its benefits are spreading throughout our whole
+industrial and economic system."<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a></p>
+
+<p>A graphic example of the manner in which the technological and economic
+benefits from the space program can grow may be seen from the
+development of the X-15. This rocket craft, designed to "fly" beyond the
+Earth's atmosphere at altitudes up to 100 miles, is the product of 400
+different firms and contractors.</p>
+
+<p>Inasmuch as other nations, those which generally have lagged behind the
+United States in technical know-how, are now rapidly bringing their
+technology up to date&mdash;this windfall from our space program is
+especially opportune. It is providing the incentive to American industry
+to remain in the world's technological van. And it is emphasizing that
+economic leadership is a dynamic thing, that U.S. mass-production
+techniques which have enabled the Nation to compete so well in foreign
+markets are no longer, of themselves, sufficient guarantee of superior
+economic position.</p>
+
+<p>While America's space exploration program, on a formal basis, came into
+being as recently as October 1958, its impact on the national economy
+has probably been sharper than that of any single new program ever
+conceived. For there are now at least 5,000 companies or research
+organizations engaged in the missile-space industry. And more than 3,200
+different space-related products have been required and are being
+produced to date.<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a></p>
+
+<p>One can only speculate on the economic effect which the space program is
+having on investments or on investors who have no other connection with
+it. It seems significant, however, that the stock market pages in recent
+months have come to devote a good deal of attention to "space issues."
+Financially speaking, space has thus become a major category. That it
+has done so in such a short period would seem to have marked
+implications for the future.</p>
+
+<p>In brief, space exploration is becoming almost an industry in itself,
+and there are those who believe it destined to become the largest
+industrial spur in the Nation before too many years have gone by.</p>
+
+<p>One expert, an experienced hand not only in astronautics but in the
+business world as well, describes the outlook in this fashion: "A great
+industrial change is taking place in the United States. The aircraft
+industry, which long considered missiles as a small department, now
+finds itself becoming a part of the large missile and space<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> flight
+industry. It is an elemental evolution. An industrial change is upon us
+comparable to the advent of mercantilism."<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> He has predicted that
+within a decade or so the astronautics industry will be larger than the
+automotive industry of the entire world.</p>
+
+<p>While such predictions may be overly optimistic, they can scarcely be
+dismissed as irresponsible in the light of what has already happened.</p>
+
+<p><br /></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img019.jpg"  width="500" height="389" alt="Figure 6." title="Figure 6." /></div>
+
+
+<blockquote><h4><span class="smcap">Figure</span> 6.&mdash;Booster engines of tomorrow, such as
+this mockup of the 1,500,000 pound thrust single engine, will place
+broad requirements on men and materials.</h4></blockquote>
+
+<p><br /></p>
+
+<h3>CREATION OF NEW INDUSTRIES</h3>
+
+<p>Whether or not we think of the missile-space business as being a
+self-contained industry, the requirements and exigencies of space
+exploration can be expected to result in the creation of new or greatly
+strengthened industrial branches, for example:</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Research</i></p>
+
+<p>This phase of the American economy is having a phenomenal growth. Not
+only have many established industries now placed research high on their
+organizational charts, but hundreds, perhaps thousands, of new
+businesses are springing up which are entirely devoted to research and
+development. R. &amp; D., as it is called, is their stock in trade, their
+only product. And space exploration appears to have given them their
+greatest boost.</p>
+
+<p>One recent study on the subject regards research as the fourth major
+industrial revolution to take place in American history, following<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> the
+advents of steam mechanization, steel, electricity-and-internal
+combustion engines.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The fourth industrial revolution, ours, is unique in the number of
+people working on it, its complexity, and its power to push the
+economy at a rate previously impossible.</p>
+
+<p>Today between 5,000 and 50,000 <i>technical entrepreneurs</i> (top R. &amp;
+D. engineers, leading scientists, and highly effective technical
+managers) are directly analogous to an estimated 50 to 500 men in
+all of the first three periods. Thus about 100 times the effort in
+terms of qualitative (effective, creative, patent-producing)
+manpower is being spent on the fourth revolution as on the other
+three combined.</p>
+
+<p>Total manpower, of course, is much more than that: there are
+probably 700,000 engineers and industrially oriented scientists in
+the United States today, as against 2,000 even as late as Edison's
+first high voltage light bulb. Whereas Edison worked with 20 to 100
+scientists in his laboratory, and Fulton labored alone, there are
+5,000 industrial laboratories today employing from 20 to 7,300
+technical men each.<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a></p></div>
+
+
+<p><i>New power sources</i></p>
+
+<p>One of the greatest demands of spacecraft of the future will be for new
+sources of power. While rocket propulsion power is part of this picture,
+the power needed to operate space vehicles after launching may prove to
+be the larger and more important need. Progress has already been made in
+this direction by use of special kinds of batteries and solar cells
+which convert the sun's rays into electric current. But these will need
+supplementing or replacing eventually as greater power becomes
+necessary.</p>
+
+<p>It would be rash to predict the outcome of this complicated field, but
+certain very promising methods can be listed.</p>
+
+<p>One is the fuel cell, which converts fuel directly into electric power
+without the necessity for machinery or working parts. Much progress has
+been made on the fuel cell in recent months. In England a 40-cell unit
+has been used to drive a forklift truck and to do electric welding. It
+develops up to 5 kilowatts.<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> In the United States a 30-cell portable
+powerplant developing 200 watts has been delivered to the Army and
+Marine Corps,<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> while a 1,000-unit cell has been developed in the
+Midwest which provides 15 kilowatts and drives a tractor.<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a></p>
+
+<p>Another method is plasma power, or power generated through the use of
+hot ionized gas. Such gas acts as a conductor of electricity and when
+employed as a "magnetohydrodynamics" generator it can be used for a
+variety of purposes. It has the advantage of being simple, rugged, and
+efficient. Some day it may also prove very economical. Already 10
+municipal areas along the Mason-Dixon line are preparing to experiment
+with electric power derived from this source.<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> It has been estimated
+that "as much as 1 million watts could be generated by shooting a stream
+of plasma at speeds three times that of sound through a magnetic field
+only 3 feet long and with the magnetic poles 6 inches apart."<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><br /></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img021.jpg"  width="500" height="313" alt="Figure 7." title="Figure 7." /></div>
+
+
+<blockquote><h4><span class="smcap">Figure</span> 7.&mdash;The possible power source for space
+ships of the future, the ion jet, has significant counterpart uses for
+the commercial world.</h4></blockquote>
+
+<p><br /></p>
+
+<p>Another possible source is photoelectric power. While a number of very
+difficult problems block the practical generation of this kind of power,
+the astronautics research division of one American company has now
+succeeded in increasing the efficiency of photoelectric cells by a
+factor of more than 300.<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> So the possibilities in this area are
+looking up. As discussed in section II, photon power derived from the
+ejection of electromagnetic rays may someday prove a source for
+accelerating vehicles once they have escaped from Earth's gravity.</p>
+
+<p>Another possibility, of course, is atomic energy about which much has
+been said and written. If, as some scientists believe, extensive space
+exploration by manned crews will depend on harnessing this great source
+of energy&mdash;both for booster purposes and for operating spacecraft in the
+distant parts of our interplanetary system&mdash;this fact alone may assure
+that the obstacles to practical nuclear energy are overcome faster and
+more completely than would otherwise be the case. It is interesting to
+note that the science of controlling nuclear fusion (as opposed to
+fission) has come so far in the past several years that 11 private power
+companies are pooling their resources to advance this state of the
+art.<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a></p>
+
+
+<p><i>New water sources and uses</i></p>
+
+<p>A look into the future indicates very strongly that water will become a
+major world problem, possibly by the beginning of the 1970's, which is
+likely to be another "dry" decade. Present water supplies, coupled with
+the increasing population and the many new uses for water, are barely
+adequate now. In another 10 years the situation could be critical.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Part of our national space program includes studies on how to use and
+reuse water to the best advantage of the human in space. A number of
+avenues are being followed, including vaporization of volatiles in
+biological wastes.<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a></p>
+
+<p>From research of this kind it is more than possible that knowledge will
+evolve which will prove useful in the practical production of fresh
+water from other chemical compounds or mixtures, including seawater.
+More than that, it could lead to new ways for extracting much needed
+materials from the sea. Seawater contains 40 basic elements, 19 in
+relatively copious amounts. These elements run from 18,980 parts parts
+per million of chlorine to 0,0000002 part per billion of radium. Yet, so
+far, we have learned to extract only bromine and magnesium in useful
+amounts.<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> Conversely, the study of how marine animals extract rare
+elements from the seawater, such as the extraction of copper compounds
+by the octopus, could provide astronautic researchers with important
+clues for keeping man alive in space.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Noise and human engineering</i></p>
+
+<p>This is a field in which research has been going on seriously for only a
+few years. Most of it has developed since World War II. Human
+engineering is involved primarily with the reaction of people to their
+immediate surroundings and how to arrange those surroundings in order to
+permit the most comfortable and efficient functioning within them.</p>
+
+<p>The noise aspect of human engineering, as it may develop from the
+problems of astronauts operating in a silent world, could lead to a
+variety of innovations for improving the performance of workers or even
+the general attitude of people living in urban areas. In today's world,
+where humans are subjected to so many different kinds, degrees, and
+sources of noise, psychologists consider the matter to be of no small
+importance.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>High speed-light weight computers</i></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Space vehicles now need electronic computers for determining the
+moment of launch, for fixing orbits, for navigation, and for
+processing collected data. Computers will precede man into space.
+They will take over guidance and decision functions beyond limits
+of human physiology, psychology, versatility, and reaction
+time.<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a></p></div>
+
+<p>The trend in this direction is marked and space exploration is
+accelerating it. Because of weight and size limitations, and due to the
+genius of research, the giant electronic brain of today will soon
+disappear and be replaced with an apparatus only a small fraction of its
+present size. The implications for the business and professional world
+are great. And a not inconsiderable side effect, according to many
+modern technicians, will be the flood of brainpower released from
+time-consuming chores and thus made available for more basic, creative
+thought.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><br /></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img023.jpg"  width="451" height="550" alt="Figure 8." title="Figure 8." /></div>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Figure</span> 8.&mdash;The needs of tomorrow's spacemen will
+lead to marked advances in human engineering and psychology.</h4>
+<p><br /></p>
+
+<p><i>Solid state physics</i></p>
+
+<p>Few areas of effort are advancing this extremely promising art faster
+than space exploration, which places a premium on light weight and small
+size. The miniaturization of equipment being placed in U.S. satellites,
+for example, has been one of the contemporary wonders of the world of
+science.</p>
+
+<p>A big part of this march toward tiny equipment is in the field of
+electronics, where the process is called microminiaturization, molecular
+electronics, micromodular engineering or a number of other terms. In
+essence it refers to the greatly reduced size of equipment through
+"integrated circuits," coupled functions, the building of complicated
+components into a single molecular design and so on.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The art has proceeded to the point where complete radios can be reduced
+to the size of a lump of sugar.</p>
+
+<p>Clearly, this trend holds almost unlimited utility for the home, the
+factory, the marketplace, the highway, the hospital or just about any
+other arena one cares to name. So great is the promise that virtually
+every electronics company in the country is undertaking "to take the
+state of the art into fundamentally new areas" and there exploit its
+many possibilities.<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a></p>
+
+
+<h3>ECONOMIC ALLIANCES</h3>
+
+<p>It may be that our national space exploration program will also result
+in stronger economic alliances, not only within our own national borders
+but on an international basis. Interesting speculation to this effect
+has been advanced by a prominent official of the National Aeronautics
+and Space Administration:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>I think we may expect that the combined influence of jet aircraft
+and satellite communications systems will enable us to integrate
+the now somewhat distant States of Hawaii and Alaska with the rest
+of the States as thoroughly as the East and West are already
+integrated. Second, and in many ways a more intriguing possibility,
+is the prospect of developing a truly international economic
+organization. It is quite apparent that even today a large fraction
+of the economy of the United States is dependent upon foreign
+trade. Some nations of the world, such as England or Japan, are
+almost entirely dependent upon foreign trade for their basic
+standard of living; however, current foreign trade practices are
+necessarily based on a somewhat leisurely pattern enforced by our
+current communications capacity. Whether we will be able to
+increase the efficiency and effectiveness of our activities in
+foreign trade through the use of the new communications facilities
+now foreseen will of course depend upon our political ability to
+work out viable arrangements for our mutual benefit with our
+oversea friends.</p>
+
+<p>One of the lessons of history in the fields of communications is
+that an increase in capability has never gone unused. The
+capability of doing new things has always resulted in it being
+found profitable to use this capability in all fields, both
+commercial and governmental.<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a></p></div>
+
+
+<h3>PRIVATE ENTERPRISE IN SPACE</h3>
+
+<p>Up to now space exploration has been more or less the exclusive domain
+of the Federal Government. It seems likely that this situation will not
+change much in the near future. But the question finally arises: Is the
+nature of space such that the traditional American concept of private
+enterprise can have no place in it?</p>
+
+<p>On this score there is debate. Recently, however, there have been
+indications that businessmen feel they will be able to conduct certain
+business operations and services in space.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The space frontier will inevitably increase the scale of thinking
+and risk taking by business. When we are dealing with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> space, we
+are dealing with a technology that requires a planetary scale to
+stage it; decades of time to develop it; and much bigger
+investments to get across the threshold of economic return than is
+customary in business today. Business must now think in
+international terms, and in terms of the next business generation.
+It must step up to the big risks with the same vision that enabled
+an earlier generation of builders to push railroad tracks out
+across the wilderness and lay the foundations of our modern
+economy.<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a></p></div>
+
+<p>Incidentally, it should be pointed out that space exploration is already
+encouraging the formation of business of all sizes. Myriads of small
+businesses have sprung up, many of them "suppliers of specialty
+equipment for the larger concerns that have responsibility for major
+components and systems."<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a></p>
+
+<p>To what extent will private enterprise become involved? Here is one
+view:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>As the years pass by, and space apparatus becomes more reliable,
+and the work of obtaining scientific data from space acquires a
+more routine character&mdash;certainly many of the necessary operating
+facilities could be put on a self-liquidating, private-industry
+basis.</p>
+
+<p>Probably the first opportunities for private investment will come
+in the commercial use of satellites. Looking even further into the
+future of space exploration, perhaps there would be economic
+justification for a privately owned launching service that would
+put objects into space for the peaceful purposes of friendly
+governments, international agencies, industry, and the
+universities.</p>
+
+<p>The base itself, from which the commercial launching service would
+operate, might be modeled after a port authority. Such a
+nonmilitary, international space port could develop as a center for
+many private enterprises related to space operations. These might
+include service and maintenance facilities; data-processing
+services; space communication centers; laboratory facilities;
+standardized equipment for satellites and other space vehicles;
+fuel supplies; medical services; biological services; and general
+supplies.</p>
+
+<p>Moving away from the idea of a commercial space port, must all
+future tracking stations, observatories, and data-processing
+stations be Government owned? How about experimental stations for
+the simulation of space environments? How about laboratories and
+stations actually constructed in space? Or will privately owned
+facilities one day offer these services on an international basis
+to governments, industries, universities, and international
+agencies?</p>
+
+<p>Most likely the first businesses suitable for commercial operation,
+using space technologies, will be worldwide communication by
+satellite, private weather forecasting, and high-speed Earth
+transport by rocket.<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a></p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><br /></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img026.jpg"  width="550" height="355" alt="Figure 9." title="Figure 9." /></div>
+
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Figure</span> 9.&mdash;The electric and electronic needs of
+the space program are requiring more and more skilled labor.</h4>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>JOBS</h3>
+
+<p>There probably is no reliable way to gage the number of Americans who
+are employed today because of the national space effort, nor to estimate
+accurately the number who are likely to be employed in the years ahead.</p>
+
+<p>This much can be said, though. They already number in the tens of
+thousands, probably in the hundreds of thousands.</p>
+
+<p>The Administrator of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration
+has reported that his agency presently employs 18,000 persons. And he
+adds "in spite of the size of this organization, we estimate that
+approximately 75 percent of our budget will be expended through
+contracts with industry, educational institutions, and other
+nongovernmental groups."</p>
+
+<p>Thus the number of persons privately employed who are working on NASA
+projects is, of itself, a high figure. The number employed in, by, or
+for the Department of Defense on missiles or space-related projects is
+undoubtedly higher.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to these must be added the men and women employed by private
+industry in a capacity not directly related to the space program but
+whose jobs have been created nonetheless by its stimulus.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The fact is that the military and peaceful needs of the space
+program are already employing a significant percentage of the
+industrial work force, and will make up an even larger proportion
+of total employment and production of the country as the years go
+by. The aircraft industry, for example, is broadening its scope to
+include missile and space technologies. Much of the electronics
+industry is devoted to missile and space needs. The communications,
+chemical, and metallurgical industries are increasingly involved.
+These industries are already among the largest employers in the
+United States, and they are the major employers of the Nation's
+technical manpower. Hence we are not speaking of a minor element in
+the national economy, but of its leading growth industries.<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a></p></div>
+
+<p>This phase of the space program's value should not be eyed merely from
+the standpoint of scientists and the labor market. It has major
+significance for the professions&mdash;for doctors, lawyers, architects,
+teachers, and engineers. All of these will be vitally concerned with
+space exploration in the future. The doctor with space medicine and its
+results; the lawyer with business relations and a vastly increased need
+for knowledge in international law; the architect with the construction
+of spaceports and data and tracking facilities; the teacher with the
+booming demand for new types of space-engendered curricula.</p>
+
+<p>As for the engineer&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>In this pyramid of scientific and engineering effort there will be
+found requirements for the services of almost every type of
+scientist and engineer to a greater or less degree. In the
+forefront, of course, are the aerospace and astronautical engineers
+but the development of the Saturn<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> launching vehicle has also
+enlisted the cooperation of civil, mechanical, electrical,
+metallurgical, chemical, automotive, structural, radio, and
+electronics engineers. Much of their work relates to ground
+handling equipment, special automotive and barge equipment,
+checkout equipment, and all the other devices needed to support the
+design, construction, testing, launching, and data gathering.<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a></p></div>
+
+
+<h3>AUTOMATION AND DISARMAMENT</h3>
+
+<p>Finally, an economic value of extreme importance could be the ultimate
+role of the space program in modifying the threat to labor which is
+inherent in automation and disarmament. Space exploration, opening up
+new and profitable vistas, could take up much of the slack thus imposed
+and do it at a higher and more intellectual job level.</p>
+
+<p>Automation, as we know, is already in the process. In agriculture alone
+it has bitten deeply into the laboring force and yet produces greater
+crops than ever.<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> It is gathering strength in many other fields.</p>
+
+<p>Disarmament is a long way from being a reality. But all nations of the
+world are striving for it, or at least giving lipservice to its
+principles, so it may one day emerge as a reality. If this happens,
+space exploration again may be a most important element in taking up the
+slack which a prominent reduction in defense activity could not help but
+bring about.</p>
+
+<p>Indeed, there are some who already foresee a complete substitution of
+space for defense, and who prognosticate that in the 1990's "the economy
+of nations is now based on the astronautics industry, instead of
+war."<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> Certainly, some new economic force would be crucial to nations
+deprived of the need for devising and manufacturing weapons.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><br /></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img030.jpg"  width="550" height="433" alt="Figure 10." title="Figure 10." /></div>
+
+<blockquote><h4><span class="smcap">Figure</span> 10.&mdash;A host of new materials, skills, and
+engineering techniques are bound up in the construction of rocket
+engines such as this first stage booster.</h4></blockquote>
+
+<p><br /></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="IV_Values_for_Everyday_Living" id="IV_Values_for_Everyday_Living"></a>IV. <span class="smcap">Values for Everyday Living</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>The so-called side effects of the space exploration program are showing
+a remarkable ability to produce innovations which, in turn, improve the
+quality of everyday work and everyday living throughout the United
+States.</p>
+
+<p>In setting forth specific ways and means in which the space program is
+producing practical uses, it must be kept in mind that no attempt is
+made here to separate uses resulting from the civil phases of the
+program from those developed by the military phases. Inasmuch as the two
+are closely intertwined, it would seem impractical to do so. And, in
+instances where the same or similar research is being conducted by a
+single contractor on behalf of both phases, it is usually impossible to
+do so.</p>
+
+
+<h3>TECHNOLOGICAL BENEFITS</h3>
+
+<p>This category of the practical uses of the space program is impressive
+indeed.</p>
+
+<p>Most of us are familiar with the plans which the United States has for
+using artificial satellites in ways which will be beneficial to all
+mankind. These include the satellite used for worldwide communications,
+for global television, for quick and accurate navigation, and for much
+improved weather prediction and weather understanding.</p>
+
+<p>Here, however, is a summary of space-related developments about which
+the American public has heard considerably less:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>First, there is the high-speed computer. Developed initially to
+meet military demands for faster calculation, the computer is an
+integral part of American industry, making it possible to do many
+operations with a high degree of efficiency and accuracy.
+Thermoelectric devices for heating and cooling, now adapted for
+commercial applications, were originally designed to provide energy
+sources for space vehicles. The glass industry, as a result of work
+done during and after the Second World War on lenses and plastics,
+promises substantial gains in the consumer fields of optics and
+foods. Pyroceram, developed for missile radomes, is now being used
+in the manufacture of pots and pans. Materials suitable for use in
+the nuclear preservation of food may make us even better fed than
+we already are.</p>
+
+<p>Medical research, and our health problems, can use such things as
+film resistance thermometers. Electronic equipment capable of
+measuring low-level electrical signals is being adapted to measure
+body temperature and blood flow. In a dramatic breakthrough,
+illustrating the unexpected benefits of research, it has been found
+that a derivative of hydrazine, developed as a liquid missile
+propellant, is useful in treating certain mental illnesses and
+tuberculosis.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Of course, the aeronautics industry has benefited tremendously.
+Engines, automatic pilots, radar systems, flight equipment, capable
+of meeting the high standards required by space vehicles represent
+a great improvement over our already excellent aircraft.</p>
+
+<p>A plasma arc torch (has been) developed for fabricating ultrahard
+materials and coatings by mass production methods. The torch, an
+outgrowth of plasma technology, develops heats of 30,000 degrees
+and can work within tolerances of two-thousandths of an inch.
+Another application from the missile field, which shows real
+possibilities, is a reliable flow meter that has no packings or
+bearings. This was first developed for measuring liquefied gases
+and should have a very wide industrial usefulness. It may even lead
+to improvements in marine devices for measuring distance and
+velocity.</p>
+
+<p>Ground-to-air missiles that ride a beam to their targets must
+measure the distance to the target plane with an accuracy of a few
+feet in several miles. This principle, now being applied to
+surveying techniques, has revolutionized the surveying industry.</p>
+
+<p>The solenoid valve, which seats itself softly enough to eliminate
+vibration, has been applied very satisfactorily to home-heating
+systems.</p>
+
+<p>The use of the jet drilling for mining is another, and worthy of
+amplification. Missiles are already working the economically
+unminable taconite ore of the Mesabi Range, have helped build the
+St. Lawrence Seaway, and are bringing down costs in quarrying.</p>
+
+<p>It is estimated that taconite will be supplying about a third of
+our ores in less than 20 years. Until 1947 we were unable to mine
+this very hard rock, and then suitable rotary and churn drills were
+produced. Jet drilling, now available, cracks and crumbles stone
+layers by thermally induced expansion and is somewhere between 3
+and 5 times faster than rotaries.</p>
+
+<p>Jet piercing can take us far deeper into the earth than we have
+been able to go so far, to new sources of ore and hydrocarbons.</p>
+
+<p>In stone quarrying, jet spalling and channeling are proven
+techniques. Stone quarrying has been expensive and wasteful
+heretofore. Rocket flame equipment allows cutting along the natural
+cleavage planes, or crystal boundaries&mdash;hence cuts stone thin
+without danger of cracking and, in addition, produces a fine finish
+that cannot be obtained when cutting by steel or abrasive tools.</p>
+
+<p>Scientific literature is beginning to contain speculations on using
+the principle of the missile engine to save unstable intermediate
+products of the chemical processes. The high heats achieved in the
+rocket engine can, perhaps, be utilized to produce desired products
+that would be lost by slow cooling. But the high rate of cooling
+accomplished by expanding gases through the engine nozzle, it is
+thought, would save these unstable compounds.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Infrared has come into its own through missile electronics.
+Infrared&mdash;since it cannot be jammed&mdash;appears to be challenging
+radar for use in guidance devices, tracking systems, and
+reconnaissance vehicles. Infrared is being used industrially to
+measure the compositions of fluids in complex processes of chemical
+petroleum refining and distilling. Infrared cameras are used in
+analyzing metallurgical material processing operations, to aid in
+accuracy and quality control. The entire infrared field should be
+significantly assisted in its growth and application through our
+missile-space programs.</p>
+
+<p>Another very promising outcome from missile development is a
+computer converter that can quickly transform analogue
+signals&mdash;such as pressure measurements&mdash;into digital form.</p>
+
+<p>In the near future, when guidance devices permit soft landing,
+rocket cargo and passenger transport will become feasible. Mail may
+become almost as swift as telephone.</p>
+
+<p>We are making rapid progress in the economics of space travel:
+payload costs for Vanguard were about $1 billion a pound; for the
+near future launchings, payload cost should be about $1,000 per
+pound. When payload costs are about a hundred dollars a pound we
+may expect commercial space flight.<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a></p></div>
+
+<p>Hundreds of other examples of the space program's value for everyday
+living could be cited.</p>
+
+<p>One with wide possibilities is a new welding process by using a
+high-powered electron beam gun, developed for the fabrication of
+spaceships and other space vehicles. This method permits welding joints
+capable of withstanding temperatures up to 3,000&deg; F.; it can be used on
+metals such as molybdenum and pure tungsten. And, its developers say, it
+results in welded joints that have deep penetration and narrow weld
+beads that are virtually free of contamination.<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a></p>
+
+<p>Another ingenius application, resulting from the Navy's space research
+program, has significant utility for medicine and surgery. This is a
+glass fiber device which, when placed in the mouth during dental work or
+in the area of surgical incision, permits a much magnified televising of
+the operation. It holds considerable promise for teaching techniques in
+many fields.<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a></p>
+
+<p>Another example is a finely woven stainless steel cloth designed for
+parachuting space vehicles back to Earth. The cloth is made of fine wire
+of great strength which can withstand tremendous temperatures and
+chemical contamination. The wire from which the cloth is woven is about
+one-fifth the thickness of a human hair and is believed to have marked
+potential for industry and consumers alike.</p>
+
+<p>Here is an additional list of examples:<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a></p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span></p>
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Microminiature transmitters and receivers&mdash;used by police and
+doctors.</p>
+
+<p>Target drone autopilot&mdash;used as an inexpensive pilot assist and
+safety device for private aircraft.</p>
+
+<p>Inert thread sealing compound&mdash;- used by pump manufacturers serving
+process industries.</p>
+
+<p>Satellite scan devices&mdash;used in infrared appliances, e.g., lamps,
+roasters, switches, ovens.</p>
+
+<p>Automatic control components&mdash;used as proximity switches, plugs,
+valves, cylinders; other components already are an integral part of
+industrial conveyor systems.</p>
+
+<p>Missile accelerometers, torquemeters, strain gage equipment&mdash;used
+in auto crash tests, motor testing, shipbuilding and bridge
+construction.</p>
+
+<p>Space recording equipment automatically stopped and started by
+sound of voice&mdash;used widely as conference recorder.</p>
+
+<p>Armalite radar&mdash;used as proximity warning device for aircraft.</p>
+
+<p>Miniature electronics and bearings&mdash;used for portable radio and
+television; excessively small roller, needle and ball bearings used
+for such equipment as air-turbine dental drills.</p>
+
+<p>Epoxy missile resin&mdash;used for plastic tooling, metal bonding,
+adhesive, and casting and laminating applications.</p>
+
+<p>Silicones for motor insulation and subzero lubricants&mdash;used in new
+glassmaking techniques for myriad products.</p>
+
+<p>Ribbon glass for capacitors&mdash;used widely in electronics field.</p>
+
+<p>Radar bulbs&mdash;used in air traffic control equipment.</p>
+
+<p>Ribbon cable for missiles&mdash;used in the communications industry.</p>
+
+<p>Automatic gun cameras&mdash;used in banks, toll booths, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Fluxless aluminum soldering&mdash;used for kitchen utensil repair,
+gutters, flashings, antennas, electrical joints, auto repairing,
+farm machinery, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Lightweight hydraulic pumps&mdash;used in automated machinery and
+pneumatic control systems.</p>
+
+<p>Voice interruption priority system&mdash;used for assembly line
+production control.</p>
+
+<p>Examples such as the foregoing, it might be pointed out, do not
+generally emphasize an area in which space exploration is making
+one of its greatest contributions. This is the creation of new
+materials, metals, fabrics, alloys, and compounds that are finding
+their way rapidly into the commercial market.</p>
+
+<p>Less demonstrable but equally (and perhaps more) significant areas
+which may expect to benefit from space exploration are set out
+beginning on page 35.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><br /></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img035.jpg"  width="500" height="318" alt="Figure 11." title="Figure 11." /></div>
+
+<blockquote><h4><span class="smcap">Figure</span> 11.&mdash;Vital information about the forces
+which cause weather can be learned from meteorological satellites such
+as these. Even a slight increase in the accuracy of weather prediction
+will be worth millions of dollars annually.</h4></blockquote>
+<p><br /></p>
+
+<h3>FOOD AND AGRICULTURE</h3>
+
+<p>An extremely difficult problem bound up with space travel of any
+duration is that of food. Astronauts will not be able to take large
+supplies of food on their voyages and probably will have to reuse what
+they do take. Learning how to do this is no easy matter. Some doubt if
+it can be done. Others are optimistic.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The body of scientists now working directly on space feeding and
+nutrition is working effectively at a rate only attained by high
+motivation. But this motivation suffices and their efforts will
+ultimately provide at least a partially closed space feeding system
+by the time it is critically needed and, eventually, an ideal one
+for long voyages of man into the remoter reaches of outer
+space.<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a></p></div>
+
+<p>If the optimists are right, it is conceivable that the information gamed
+from this research will have profound influence on food and agricultural
+processes in the future. The use and growth of synthetics or new foods,
+and their effects on the soil, could prove invaluable as the worlds
+population climbs and the demand for food multiplies. Better
+understanding of weather processes, as provided through space
+exploration, will also be valuable in terms of agriculture. Long-range
+accurate weather prediction would be worth millions of dollars in proper
+crops planted and crop damage avoided.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, as in other technological areas, space research is providing
+specific new tools for the food and agriculture industry. Infrared food
+blanching, for instance, is highly effective in preparing foods for
+canning or freezing. The development of a new forage harvester based on
+principles of aerodynamics uncovered by missile engineers is another
+example.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>COMMUNICATIONS</h3>
+
+<p>This is a field of enormous promise, and its practicality has already
+been demonstrated to the extent of placing satellites into precise
+orbits, such as Tiros (weather) and Transit (navigation), and of
+communicating at long distances&mdash;23 million miles in the case of Pioneer
+V. As a result:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Government and industry technicians are rapidly developing new
+Earth satellites to beam not only television programs but radio
+broadcasts and phone conversations to every spot on Earth that's
+equipped to receive them. Thus this space project, far more than
+most, will touch the ordinary citizen. The goal: a workable,
+worldwide communications system in space before this decade is
+over. It will be, declares one researcher, "the ultimate in
+communications."<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a></p></div>
+
+<p>Incidentally, the first worldwide communications system of this type,
+and whether it is conducted in English or Russian, may have crucial
+prestige and propaganda ramifications.</p>
+
+<p>Such facilities should be possible through a system of carefully placed
+satellites so that radio signals can be relayed to any part of the globe
+at any time.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover they appear to be essential when one considers that within the
+next 20 years existing techniques are apt to be stretched beyond
+reasonable economic limits by demands for long distance communications.
+It is difficult to see how transoceanic television will otherwise be
+possible when it is realized that there is presently a capacity of less
+than 100 telephone channels across the Atlantic and a single television
+channel is equivalent in band width to 1,000 telephone channels. It
+appears that a system utilizing satellites is the most promising
+solution to this problem.<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a></p>
+
+<p>More esoteric communications systems may also arise from space research.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>In some future year when a cruising space vehicle communicates with
+another space vehicle or its orbiting station, it may use a beam of
+light instead of conventional radio. Not that radio will be
+inoperative under the airless conditions of space&mdash;rather the
+reverse&mdash;but there is reason to believe that communication by
+sunlight not only will be cheaper but will entail carrying much
+simpler and lighter equipment for certain specialized space
+applications. (The Air Force) is developing an experimental system
+that will collect sun rays, run them through a modulator, direct
+the resultant light wave in a controlled beam to a receiver. There
+the wave will be put through a detector, transposed into an
+electrical impulse and be amplified to a speaker. Depending on the
+type of modulator used, either the digital (dot-dash) message or a
+voice message can be sent.<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a></p></div>
+
+<p>Might not such a system find practical usage on Earth, particularly in
+sunny, arid lands?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>WEATHER PREDICTION AND MODIFICATION</h3>
+
+<p>Meteorological satellites should make possible weather observations over
+the entire globe. Today, only 20 percent of the globe is covered by any
+regular observational and reporting systems. If we can solve the
+problems of handling the vast amounts of data that will be received,
+develop methods for timely analysis of the data and the notification of
+weather bureaus throughout the world, we should be able to improve by a
+significant degree the accuracy of weather predictions. An improvement
+of only 10 percent in accuracy could result in savings totaling hundreds
+of millions of dollars annually to farmers, builders, airlines,
+shipping, the tourist trade, and many other enterprises.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps even greater savings will come from warning systems devised for
+hurricanes and tornadoes.</p>
+
+<p>The slight knowledge which humans actually have of weather forces can be
+seen from the fact that at present we do not even know exactly how rain
+begins.<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> Learning to predict it and to modify it, through space
+application, might help slow down the soil erosion of arable land&mdash;that
+"geological inevitability * * * which man can only hasten or
+postpone."<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a> It is noteworthy that the two leading nations in space
+research, the United States and the U.S.S.R., are among the most
+affected by soil erosion.</p>
+
+<p>The "leg up" which the United States has in this particular phase of
+space research is illustrated by the acute photographic talents of the
+Tiros satellite and their meaning to weather experts. The following
+description of some of the earliest pictures by the Director of the
+Office of Meteorological Research, U.S. Weather Bureau, is illuminating.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>This picture, labeled "No. 1," was the storm that was picked up in
+the early orbits of Tiros on the first day of launch, April 1. This
+shows the storm 120 miles east of Cape Cod, with dry continental
+air streaming off the United States, not shown by clouds, and off
+the coast the moist air streaming up to the north, counterclockwise
+around the center, producing widespread clouds and precipitation as
+far north as the Gulf of St. Lawrence.</p>
+
+<p>On that same day mention was made of a storm in the Midwest. That
+is illustrated by photograph No. 2. This was centered over
+southeast Nebraska, a rather extensive storm. Again, we have a
+clear air portion shown by a dark area, the ground underneath,
+which has less brightness than the clouds, the cold air from Canada
+streaming into that area, not characterized by clouds, and to the
+east the moist air from the Gulf of Mexico, in this general
+neighborhood, streaming around into that center and producing
+rather widespread rains. In this case near the Gulf of Mexico,
+where the cloud is extremely bright, indicating that the clouds are
+very high, thunderstorms were found in that area.</p>
+
+<p><br /></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img038.jpg"  width="272" height="500" alt="Figure 12." title="Figure 12." /></div>
+
+<blockquote><h4><span class="smcap">Figure</span> 12.&mdash;Storm center over Nebraska
+photographed by the first U.S. weather satellite, Tiros, on April
+1, 1960. The extent of the picture can be seen from the
+accompanying weather map.</h4></blockquote>
+
+<p><br /></p>
+
+<p>It is a sort of situation in which tornadoes are to be found in
+this very bright cloudy area, especially this time of year in the
+Midwest.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>A third vortex was observed, also April 1, in the Gulf of Alaska,
+500 miles southeast of Kodiak Island. The vortex circulation is
+clearly evidenced by the clouds which form in a circular array, and
+the large clear area in the center of the storm.</p>
+
+<p>No. 4 picture refers to a very big storm 1,500 miles in diameter
+located 300 miles west of Ireland on April 2. This is a very old
+storm which was whirling around, had no fronts associated with it.
+It has long since wound up around the center. There is a rather
+well-marked structure to the clouds that you can see. It is quite
+different from the pictures in the first two. These are storms
+mostly over the continental area or just off the coast. The storms
+over the oceans seem to show more of a banded structure. By that I
+mean circular bands of clouds, of width perhaps ranging from 20
+miles to a few hundred miles, spiraling around the center in a
+counterclockwise manner.<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a></p></div>
+
+
+<h3>HEALTH BENEFITS</h3>
+
+<p>Of all the problems contingent upon space flight it is doubtful if any
+are more perplexing than the biological ones. In fact, it now appears
+quite likely that the limiting factor on manned space exploration will
+be less the nature of physical laws or the shortcoming of space vehicle
+systems than the vulnerability of the human body.</p>
+
+<p>In order to place humans in space for any extended period, we must solve
+a host of highly complicated biological equations which demand intensive
+basic research. The other side of the coin, however, is that when
+scientific breakthroughs do occur in this area, they will probably be
+among the most beneficial to come from the space program.</p>
+
+<p>An idea of what is going on in the space medicine field can be obtained
+from this summary:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Engineers already have equipped man with the vehicle for space
+travel. Medical researchers now are investigating many factors
+incident to the maintenance of space life&mdash;to make possible man's
+flight into the depths of space. Placing man in a wholly new
+environment requires knowledge far beyond our current grasp of
+human biology.</p>
+
+<p>Here are some of the problems under investigation: The
+determination of man's reactions; the necessity of operating in a
+completely closed system compatible with man's physiological
+requirements (oxygen and carbon dioxide content, food, barometric
+pressure, humidity and temperature control); explosive
+decompression; psychophysiological difficulties of spatial
+disorientation as a result of weightlessness; toxicology of
+metabolites and propellants; effects of cosmic, solar, and nuclear
+ionizing radiation and protective shielding and treatment; effects
+on man's circulatory system from accelerative and decelerative g.
+forces; the establishment of a thermoneutral range for man to exist
+through preflight, flight, and reentry; regeneration of water and
+food.<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a></p></div>
+
+<p>In addition, intensive efforts are being brought to bear on such
+problems as the effect on humans who are deprived of their sensory<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span>
+perceptions, or whose sensory systems are overloaded, or who are exposed
+to excessive boredom or anxiety or sense of unreality, or who must do
+their job under hypnosis or hypothermia (cooling of warm-blooded
+animals).</p>
+
+<p>A recent space medicine symposium heard this theory advanced by a
+prominent medical scholar:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Attractive, indeed, for the space traveler would be the choice of
+hibernating during long periods when there was nothing he had to
+do. With the increase of speeds and the lowering of metabolism,
+consideration of flights running several hundred or even thousands
+of years cannot be offhandedly dismissed as mere fantasy. During
+prolonged flights of many months or years there will be very little
+to see and that of negligible interest. The most practical way of
+dealing with the problem might well be to have the pilot sleep 23
+of the 24 hours.<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a></p></div>
+
+<p>Lowering the body temperature would be one way of inducing the necessary
+deep sleep.</p>
+
+<p>Another possibility of handling some of the biological problems of space
+flight, suggested by another physician, would be for astronauts to
+discard the 24-hour Earth day and establish a longer rhythm for their
+lives.<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a></p>
+
+<p>At any rate, and while we may not now see just how it will come about,
+knowledge gained from experiments such as these may result in important
+medical and psychological advances.</p>
+
+<p>In the drug and technological area of medicine, concrete benefits have
+already resulted from the national space program. These include, as
+already mentioned, a drug developed from a missile propellant to treat
+mental ills, a means of rapidly lowering blood temperature in
+operations, and a small efficient valve which could replace the valve in
+a human heart.</p>
+
+<p>Particularly gratifying, from the standpoint of medical value is the
+Army's work toward an anti-radiation drug which could be taken before
+exposure to reduce the biological effects of radiation.<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> Such a drug,
+which is of special interest to astronauts who might be required to
+subject themselves to varying belts of radiation, might be of even
+greater use in the cause of civil defense.</p>
+
+<p>A final and far-reaching phase of the health side of space exploration
+deals with the basic nature of biology itself&mdash;how and under what
+conditions life grows. Up to now biological science has been largely
+"the rationalization of particular facts and we have had all too limited
+a basis for the construction and testing of meaningful axioms to support
+a theory of life."<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a> Through research made possible by the space
+program it may be possible to alter this condition. "The dynamics of
+celestial bodies, as can be observed from the Earth, is the richest
+inspiration for the generalization of our concepts of mass and energy
+throughout the universe. The spectra of the stars likewise testify to
+the universality of our concepts in chemistry. But biology<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> has lacked
+tools of such extension, and life until now has meant only terrestrial
+life."<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a></p>
+
+<p><br /></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img041.jpg"  width="500" height="366" alt="Figure 13." title="Figure 13." /></div>
+
+
+<blockquote><h4><span class="smcap">Figure</span> 13.&mdash;Biological reactions uncovered in
+space medicine studies, such as this centrifuge experiment, may lead to
+important health discoveries.</h4></blockquote>
+<p><br /></p>
+
+<p>The secrets which this research may divulge and their meaning for human
+health can only be imagined. But they certainly would not be minor.</p>
+
+
+<h3>EDUCATION BENEFITS</h3>
+
+<p>No enterprise has so stirred human imagination as the reach of man
+toward the exploration of space. New worlds to explore. New distances to
+travel&mdash;3,680 million miles to Pluto, the outermost planet of our solar
+system, 8 years journey at 50,000 miles per hour when we attain such a
+capability. Innumerable problems ahead. New knowledge needed in almost
+every branch of science and technology from magneto fluid dynamics to
+cosmology, from materials to biology and psychology.<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a></p>
+
+<p>"New knowledge needed" means better and stronger education is essential.
+And not only in the physical sciences. In the social sciences and the
+arts as well.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Certainly man's space adventure can help profoundly to make a finer
+creature of him, but only if his adventures on Earth can do so as
+well. Essentially what this means to a social psychologist is that
+we must somehow raise our level of education to the point where
+most men most of the time can appreciate and actively absorb the
+implications of knowledge and developments in all areas
+sufficiently to let them enrich their personal philosophies.
+Obviously this kind of education is only in part a scientific
+one.<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a></p></div>
+
+<p>Moreover, the technical and management aspects of the space program
+involve collaboration with nonscientific persons such as businessmen,
+bankers, and public officials in assessing worthwhile objectives and in
+judging the technical and economic feasibility of projects designed to
+accomplish these objectives.<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a> Consequently each type must educate the
+other in his own specialty if an effective, stepped-up space program is
+to be achieved.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>The demand</i></p>
+
+<p>Apparently the demand for specific formal education in the science of
+astronautics is increasing faster than it is being supplied. Although
+many colleges and universities have been setting up courses dealing with
+astronautics, the state of the art does not seem to have crystallized to
+the extent that it permits fashioning a career in the field at the
+educational level. Of course, discontent is created. One publication has
+editorialized:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>We have received a surprising number of letters from young people
+who actually want to know how and where they can get started in a
+career in astronautics. These, for the most part, are high school
+students&mdash;and, evidently, they couldn't get the information they
+wanted from their own school. * * * Isn't the age of space yet
+important enough for all the high schools to sponsor interest in
+our space programs and to point out the need for a constant flow of
+young brains?<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a></p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The answer undoubtedly is that such grassroots demand will bring about
+increased academic curricula in astronautics in direct proportion to its
+magnitude.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, the availability of work for persons with a background in
+space-related subjects can be gaged to some extent by observing the
+variety of personnel requirements on major space exploration projects.</p>
+
+<p>A single American firm, for example, uses 49 different professional
+specialists in its work for the National Aeronautics and Space
+Administration and in its space work for the Department of Defense.<a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a>
+Multiplied by the thousands of companies which are doing similar work,
+the list gives an idea of the astronautic demand confronting the
+Nation's educational institutions:</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Acoustician</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Aerodynamicist</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Aeronautical engineer</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Agricultural engineer</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Astrodynamicist</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Astronomer</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Astrophysicist</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Biochemist</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Biophysicist</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ceramics specialist</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chemist</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Computer specialist</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Crystallographer</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Development engineer</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Doctor of medicine</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Electrical engineer</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Electronic engineer</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Experimental physicist</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Flight engineer</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gyroscopics specialist</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hydraulic engineer</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Information theory analyst</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Inorganic chemist</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Logical designer</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Magnetic device engineer</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mathematician</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mechanical applications engineer</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mechanical engineer</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mechanisms specialist</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Medical electronic engineer</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Metallurgical engineer</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Methods engineer</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nuclear physicist</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Oceanographer</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Organic chemist</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Physical chemist</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pneumatic engineer</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Process engineer</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Production engineer</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Project engineer</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Psychologist</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Reliability engineer</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sociologist</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Solid state physicist</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Structural engineer</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">System analyst</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Theoretical physicist</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Thermodynamicist</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Transducer engineer</span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><br /></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img044.jpg"  width="550" height="395" alt="Figure 14." title="Figure 14." /></div>
+
+
+<blockquote><h4><span class="smcap">Figure</span> 14.&mdash;Exploration within the solar system
+means a wealth of new knowledge which could lead to learning the secrets
+of life.</h4></blockquote>
+<p><br /></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="V_Long-Range_Values" id="V_Long-Range_Values"></a>V. <span class="smcap">Long-Range Values</span></h2>
+
+<p>In assessing the <i>practical</i> values of space exploration it does not
+seem logical to limit considerations to those values which are immediate
+or near-future ones. The worth of a present activity may be doubled or
+trebled because of its long-range potential.</p>
+
+<p>Such values may not be practical within the context of today's usage,
+but they may be extremely practical if we are willing to concede that
+those of us living today have an interest in and a responsibility for
+what happens on Earth in the decades and centuries to come.</p>
+
+
+<h3>TROUBLE SPOTS</h3>
+
+<p>Thinking along these lines it is not difficult to conjure up a picture
+of some of the difficult physical and social problems which will be
+facing the Earth in the years which stretch ahead. The foregoing
+sections of this report, for example, have already indicated extensive
+difficulties inherent in at least five major categories.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(1) Bursting population.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(2) Acute water shortage.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(3) Soil erosion and disappearance.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(4) Too much leisure.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(5) Intensified nationalism.</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>In each area it is probable that space exploration will ultimately play
+an important role.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Population</i></p>
+
+<p>Social scientists have been warning for years of the drastic social
+upheavals which must inevitably accompany an "exploding" population. It
+is a problem the complexity of which grows in geometric progression as
+time goes on. In the United States nearly 300 years were required to
+produce 90 million people. In the past 60 years this number has doubled.
+The implications are obvious. They are only too plain to urban and
+suburban planners who endeavor to cope with the antlike construction and
+activity of the human race as it burgeons with each succeeding year.</p>
+
+<p>Of course, this is not a domestic matter but a global one. Its
+seriousness has been described as follows: "Projection of the post-World
+War II rate of increase gives a population of 50 billions (the highest
+estimate of the population-carrying capacity of the globe ever
+calculated by a responsible scholar) in less than 200 years."<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> A
+European professor of medicine adds that any surge in human longevity at
+this time is quite undesirable from the standpoint of making elderly
+persons useful or cared for. "The problems posed by the explosive growth
+of populations * * * are so great that it is quite reassuring to know
+that biologists and medical men have so far been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> unsuccessful in
+increasing the <i>maximum</i> lifespan of the human species * * * and * * *
+it would be a calamity for the social and economic structure of a
+country if the mean lifespan were suddenly to increase from 65 to 85
+years."<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a></p>
+
+<p>Some anthropologists pessimistically wonder if man is going to prove
+like the locust by populating himself into near extinction from time to
+time.</p>
+
+<p>Without subscribing to this view, one must nevertheless take notice of
+the difficulties posed by population increase, not merely those of food,
+shelter, education, and the like but also those resulting from cellular,
+cramped, close living.</p>
+
+<p>Whichever phase of the problem is studied, it seems not unreasonable to
+conclude that space research will help find a solution. New ways to
+produce food, new materials for better shelter, new stimuli for
+education&mdash;all of these are coming from our space program. As for the
+matter of adequate living room, space research may result in ways to
+permit an easy and efficient scattering of the population without
+hurting its mobility. This might result from the development of small
+subsidiary types of craft, or "gocarts," originally designed for local
+exploration on other planets. Such craft, whether they operated by air
+cushion, nuclear energy, gravitational force, power cell, or whatever,
+conceivably would permit Earth's population to spread out without the
+need for expensive new roads&mdash;which, by the way, take millions of acres
+of land out of productive use.</p>
+
+<p>A development of this sort, together with new power sources to replace
+the fossil fuels on which factory, home, and vehicle now depend, might
+also all but eliminate the growing smog and air-pollution blight.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Water shortage</i></p>
+
+<p>A direct result of the population increase, multiplied by the many new
+uses for which water is being used in home appliances, etc., and plus
+the greatly increased demand for standard uses such as indoor plumbing,
+irrigation, and factory processing, is the likelihood that water
+shortage will be high on the list of future problems. Ways to conserve
+and reuse water, together with economical desalting of sea water, will
+be essential in the decades ahead. Space research may provide part of
+the answer here, too. (See New Water Sources and Uses, sec. III.)</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Soil erosion</i></p>
+
+<p>The Russian steppes of Kazakhstan are providing the world with a great
+contemporary dust bowl, reminiscent of the middle 1930's when dust from
+the Great Plains stretched from Texas to Saskatchewan. Questionable
+agriculture policies, drought, and strong easterly winds are among the
+forces blamed for the trials of southern Russia.<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> So great is the
+extent of this disturbance that the dust cloud has been identified in
+photographs taken by American weather satellites.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Of course, "wind erosion is only one of the processes whereby the
+Earth's arable land is diminishing and the deserts increasing; erosion
+by water can also sweep away the soil."<a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> But insofar as the current
+dust bowl of the Soviet steppes has "diminished food resources at a time
+when the number of mouths to feed is increasing so rapidly, the world is
+the poorer."<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a></p>
+
+<p>What can space research do about this vital trend, which again seems
+destined to accelerate in the future?</p>
+
+<p>While we cannot be sure, we can conjecture that improved soil
+conservation might turn out to be the greatest benefit of weather
+understanding and modification. Agriculture policies might be adapted to
+the long-range patterns uncovered by weather satellites and, eventually,
+through better understanding of the making of weather, it may be
+possible to modify weather forces in a manner which will preserve the
+soil.</p>
+
+<p>In a more remote vein, it may be that knowledge gained from a first-hand
+study of the Moon or other planets in the solar system will eventually
+contribute to the conservation of soil on Earth in ways as yet
+unimagined.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Added leisure</i></p>
+
+<p>Acquiring more time for leisure sounds good. Very much more leisure than
+most people now have, however, is apt to present trouble in itself.
+Since it appears that the time is not far away when those living in the
+highly developed countries will no longer have to concentrate their
+prime energies on the traditional quest for food, clothing, and shelter,
+a potentially dangerous vacuum may be the result. At least the
+psychologists seem agreed that people must feel a useful purpose in
+their lives and have ways to pursue it.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Above all, leisure makes a challenge to the human spirit. Athens,
+in her Golden Age, displayed a genius for the creative use of
+leisure which can be seen as complementary, and indeed superior, to
+her genius for military and commercial ventures. There have also
+been such periods of all-pervasive inspiration in the history of
+other peoples * * *. The doubling of our standard of living will
+present a growing challenge to the human spirit and produce graver
+consequences, should we fail to meet it. We neglect the proper use
+of leisure at our peril.<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id="FNanchor_77_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a></p></div>
+
+<p>In other words, the answer to the problem does not lie solely with the
+golf course, the yacht club, the theater, or the lengthened vacation.
+Much more will be required.</p>
+
+<p>The intellectual stimulus of space exploration and research, which
+undoubtedly will divide into numerous branches like capillary streaks
+from a bolt of lightning, should be markedly useful in helping to fill
+this vacuum. Space research would seem particularly applicable in this
+role since it deals with fundamental knowledge and concepts which are
+satisfying in terms of psychological needs and sense of purpose.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p><i>Intensified nationalism</i></p>
+
+<p>Ever since World War II the era of colonialism has been on the wane.
+Many nations have proclaimed, won, or wrested their independence during
+that period. Others appear to be on the verge of doing so. At any rate,
+it is clear that in the decades ahead the world is going to see the rise
+of even more independent nations with strong nationalistic feelings.</p>
+
+<p>History implies that developments of this sort are often accompanied by
+international unrest&mdash;because of the normal ebullience of national
+adolescence and the desire to be accepted by the world community, as
+well as a variety of concomitant political and economical upheavals.</p>
+
+<p>For whatever trials may lie ahead on this score, space exploration may
+prove to be much needed oil on rough water.</p>
+
+<p>Ambitious, advanced, sophisticated space exploration in the future is
+almost certain to require a high degree of international cooperation and
+perhaps even a pooling of resources and funds to some degree. Already
+America has found it expedient, in some cases mandatory, to depend on
+facilities in other countries for her ventures into space. A good
+example is the close cooperation between the United States and tracking
+bases located in Canada, Australia, South Africa, and elsewhere. An even
+better one is the important part played in U.S. efforts by England's
+giant radio telescope at Jodrell Bank. Most of our launches are followed
+by this equipment and much of the best scientific information gained
+from it. In the case of Pioneer V, Jodrell Bank was essential to keep in
+touch with the satellite at the longer distances and, moreover, was
+actually required to separate the fourth stage of the launch vehicle and
+direct the payload toward its Venus orbit.</p>
+
+<p>Mutual need and cooperation thus fostered by space exploration can be
+expected to siphon off some of the political tensions of the future,
+especially as more and more nations become interested in space and
+inaugurate complex programs of their own.</p>
+
+
+<h3>LIMITATIONS ON SPACE RESEARCH</h3>
+
+<p>There are some who are convinced that the exploration of space is
+rigidly limited and that the landing of men on extraterrestrial bodies
+other than the Moon is quite improbable. They are sure that extensive
+travel outside the solar system is impossible.</p>
+
+<p>Admittedly, the problems of such travel are enormous. But are they
+incapable of solution?</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Twenty-six million miles to Venus, 49 million miles to Mars, 3,680
+million miles from the Sun to Pluto at the outer edge of the solar
+system. The nearest of the stars is 25 million, million miles away,
+and travel to it at 10 miles per second would require 80,000 years.
+Is the travel of man to the stars a futile dream? Each generation
+of man builds on the shoulders of the past. The exploration of
+space has begun; who now can set limits to its future
+accomplishments?<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id="FNanchor_78_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a></p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><br /></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img049.jpg"  width="500" height="324" alt="Figure 15." title="Figure 15." /></div>
+
+
+<blockquote><h4><span class="smcap">Figure</span> 15.&mdash;Need for international cooperation
+in the U.S. space program is illustrated by this map showing the areas
+from which help must be procured for projects already planned or
+underway.</h4></blockquote>
+
+<p><br /></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>That is the thought of one of the Nation's most expert space scientists.</p>
+
+
+<p>"<i>Who now can set limits</i> * * * ?"</p>
+
+<p>It seems to mesh curiously well with one of the most interesting
+phenomena of our day&mdash;the emergence of a breed of engineers,
+technicians, teachers, and scientists who do not recognize limits and
+who refuse to concede that something cannot be so because it fails to
+fit conventional patterns or conform to the physical laws of the
+universe as we now know them. Of this there is growing evidence.</p>
+
+<p>For many years it has been an accepted "fact," for instance, that the
+Moon is a dead world with no life upon it. The suggestion made by the
+great 16th century mathematician, Johannes Kepler, that some life might
+exist on the Moon was debunked into silence long since. Yet today a
+fellow of the British Royal Astronomical Society writes that the first
+men to arrive on the Moon may find not only plant life but possibly
+animal life. "The fact that terrestrial organisms may be unable to
+survive in the surroundings of another planet is by itself no more
+significant than that fishes and other marine animals die when exposed
+to the air. From their point of view air is uninhabitable because they
+have failed to equip themselves with lungs."<a name="FNanchor_79_79" id="FNanchor_79_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a> And he adds that his
+surmise "leaves out of account the possibilities of the Moon's
+underground world, which are incalculable, for there water, the vital
+gases, congenial temperatures, and increased pressures will all be
+present. Only sunlight is absent."</p>
+
+<p>Then there is Project Ozma, the search for life on other planets or in
+other star systems, which began in April 1960 at Green Bank, W. Va. It
+is being undertaken by the National Radio-Astronomy Observatory and
+consists of carefully directed listening by radio-telescope for signs of
+intelligent broadcasts originating outside Earth.</p>
+
+<p>At Stanford University another astronomer is concentrating the efforts
+of part of his laboratory on behalf of a similar idea. The chances are,
+he believes, "that the superior races of other planets in other galaxies
+have already developed a communications network among themselves, and
+have entered a joint program to scan all the other solar systems looking
+for signs of awakening civilization among the backward planets. Each of
+the advanced communities might pick as its probe assignment a single
+other solar system&mdash;and one such probe may well be circling our Sun
+right now on a routine check for life."<a name="FNanchor_80_80" id="FNanchor_80_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a> Unexplained delayed echoes
+of earthly radio transmissions received in the past, it is thought,
+could be evidence of such a scheme.</p>
+
+<p>Are goings-on such as these nonsense?</p>
+
+<p>Here is the answer given by one hard-headed science writer:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Centuries may pass before there is any sign of intelligence outside
+the Earth. But the advantages of communication with another
+civilization that has survived our present dilemmas are far too
+great to permit the experiment to be abandoned.<a name="FNanchor_81_81" id="FNanchor_81_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a></p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The results of recent and more orthodox experiments have already done
+much to shake the complacency of scientists in regard to their concepts
+of space. Investigations have disclosed that, far from being a complete
+vacuum, space is relatively full of matter and energy. Hydrogen gas,
+radiation belts, cosmic particles, solar disturbances of unknown nature,
+micrometeorites&mdash;and, from Pioneer V, proof of a 5-million ampere
+electromagnetic ring centered about 40,000 miles away.<a name="FNanchor_82_82" id="FNanchor_82_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a> The director
+of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Laboratory in Cambridge, Mass.,<a name="FNanchor_83_83" id="FNanchor_83_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a> has
+said that more and more startling astrophysical information was gathered
+during the first few weeks of the space age than had been accumulated in
+the preceding century.</p>
+
+<p>In brief, it is becoming the vogue in science to refuse to say
+"impossible" to anything. On the contrary, the watchword for tomorrow is
+shaping up as "take <i>nothing</i> for granted."</p>
+
+
+<h3>FUNDAMENTAL KNOWLEDGE ABOUT LIFE</h3>
+
+<p>Everything learned from space exploration thus far indicates that the
+knowledge lying in wait for those who manage to observe the universe
+from outside Earth's atmosphere will be far grander than anything
+uncovered to date.</p>
+
+<p>We may finally learn the origin of our universe and the method of its
+functioning. A good part of this knowledge may be no farther away than
+the next 3 to 5 years. Satellite telescopes now under construction are
+expected to elicit far more information than even the 200-inch giant at
+Mount Palomar. One such observatory satellite, to be launched in 1963 or
+before, "will permit a telescope of about 10 feet in length to point at
+heavenly bodies within a tenth of a second of arc for periods up to an
+hour. Present plans call for an orbit between 400 and 500 miles, as a
+lifetime of at least 6 months is required to observe the entire
+celestial field."<a name="FNanchor_84_84" id="FNanchor_84_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a></p>
+
+<p>Perhaps, and sooner than we think, we shall find a clue to the destiny
+of all intelligent life.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the theory advanced by a noted eastern astronomer will turn out
+to be true&mdash;that biological evolution on the habitable planets of the
+universe may be the result of contamination left by space travelers
+arriving from (and leaving for) other worlds. In other words, the
+fruition of life on the various planets of the millions of solar systems
+might be the product of a wandering group of astronautic Johnny
+Appleseeds who leave the grains of life behind them. "Space travel
+between galaxies has to be possible for this, but of course this needs
+to be only quite a rare event. In a time of about 3.3 billion years, the
+most advanced form of life occurring in a galaxy must be able to reach a
+neighboring one."<a name="FNanchor_85_85" id="FNanchor_85_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a></p>
+
+<p>The notion seems fantastic.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>But when we look clear to the end of Earth's road (and assuming the
+astrophysicists are right in their theories about the evolution and
+ultimate death of our solar system) we know that Earth will one day
+become uninhabitable. Life on Earth must then perish or move elsewhere.
+If we further assume that mankind will not want to die with his planet
+and if we acknowledge that other worlds may have been through this
+entire cycle in eons past&mdash;perhaps the notion is not so unreasonable
+after all.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever the truth is on this score, space exploration will certainly be
+of "practical" value to our descendants when that dim, far-off day
+arrives.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PSYCHOLOGICAL AND SPIRITUAL VALUES</h3>
+
+<p>Long before the arrival of that millennium, however, the knowledge and
+understanding awaiting us through the medium of space exploration is
+certain to have profound effects on the human race psychologically and
+spiritually.</p>
+
+<p>It already has had effects on humans of all ages.</p>
+
+<p>Adults, who are paying the taxes to support the space exploration
+program and reaping its practical values, are also thinking of
+themselves, their country, and their world in broader, more
+knowledgeable terms.</p>
+
+<p>In a sense, children may be even more deeply involved.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>There is a special group which may play a useful role in spreading
+the new values growing from the exploration of space, and this is
+the children who play at spaceman today. Whether or not they take
+this interest with them beyond childhood remains to be seen.
+However, the unique fact in the present situation is that never
+before have children rehearsed a role that really will not exist
+until they are adults. To be sure all of them will not fulfill this
+childhood role, but the fact that the reality lies ahead rather
+than in the past (as with cowboys and Indians) may stimulate them
+to retain a sensitivity for the various meanings man in space can
+have for our future.<a name="FNanchor_86_86" id="FNanchor_86_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a></p></div>
+
+<p>Put it another way&mdash;if it is true, as a modern Chinese philosopher has
+said, that the search for knowledge is a form of play, "then the
+spaceship, when it comes, will be the ultimate toy that may lead mankind
+from its cloistered nursery out into the playground of the stars."<a name="FNanchor_87_87" id="FNanchor_87_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><br /></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img053.jpg"  width="500" height="324" alt="Figure 16." title="Figure 16." /></div>
+
+<blockquote><h4><span class="smcap">Figure</span> 16.&mdash;Space vehicles of the future may
+look like this artist's drawing of an electrical propulsion craft. The
+nuclear reactor is located at the extreme left, followed by a neutron
+shield, heat exchanger, gamma-ray shield and propellant. The center tank
+houses turbogenerating equipment. Excessive heat is dissipated in the
+large radiator. At the extreme right are two crew cabins, landing
+vehicle and a ring-shaped accelerator.</h4></blockquote>
+
+<p><br /></p>
+
+
+<h3>MATURING OF THE RACE</h3>
+
+<p>The psychological and spiritual changes necessitated by this evolution
+may be at a cost far beyond dollars&mdash;because many of us will be hard put
+to negotiate them, especially if they come too rapidly.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, negotiating them must also be placed in the category of
+"practical" values&mdash;for in the long run it seems to be an essential part
+of the maturing of mankind.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The years ahead will face us with many sputniks and thereby will
+require of our citizens stern, costly, and imaginative
+participation in programs to meet and surmount the many complex
+challenges with which our growing technology confronts us. To
+succeed in space and to succeed on Earth, we must somehow learn to
+make the larger world of ideas, so brilliantly exemplified by the
+satellites, the immediate environment of the individual. There is a
+race we must run&mdash;the race for an enlightened and involved
+public.<a name="FNanchor_88_88" id="FNanchor_88_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a></p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>So if we can accept the wrenches which space exploration is apt to apply
+to our time, pocketbook, energy, and thinking, the values and rewards as
+outlined in this report should gather headway and grow continuously
+greater.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Space technology is probably the fastest moving, typically
+free-enterprise and democratic industry yet created. It puts a
+premium not on salesmanship, but on what it needs
+most&mdash;intellectual production, the research payoff. Unlike any
+other existing industry, space functions on hope and future
+possibilities, conquest of real estate unseen, of near vacuum
+unexplored. At once it obliterates the economic reason for war, the
+threat of overpopulation, or cultural stagnation; it offers to
+replace guesswork with the scientific method for archeological,
+philosophical, and religious themes.<a name="FNanchor_89_89" id="FNanchor_89_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a></p></div>
+
+<p>Such conclusions seem a bit rosy. But sober study indicates that they
+may not be too "far out" after all.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Associated Press dispatch, dateline Moscow, June 12, 1960.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Gavin, Lt. Gen. James M., U.S. Army (retired), speech to
+the American Rocket Society, New York City, Nov. 19, 1958.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Kramer, Max O., "The Dolphins' Secret," New Scientist, May
+5, 1960, pp. 1118-1120.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Bikerman, Dr. Jacob J., reported in New Scientist, Mar. 3,
+1960, p. 535.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> "Introduction to Outer Space," a statement by the
+President, the White House, Mar. 26, 1958.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> Clarke, Arthur C., "The Challenge of the Spaceships,"
+Harper &amp; Bros., New York, 1955, p. 15.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Related by T. Keith Glennan, Administrator, National
+Aeronautics and Space Administration, in an address before the Worcester
+(Mass.) Economic Club, Feb. 15, 1960.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Public Law 85-568, 85th Cong.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> H. Rept. 1633, 86th Cong., 2d sess., p. 6.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Speech to the Supreme Soviet, Jan. 14, 1960.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Associated Press dispatch, dateline London, Dec. 2, 1959.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Scott, Brig. Gen. Robert L., USAF (retired), Space Age,
+February 1959, p. 63.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Ostrander, Maj. Gen. Don R., USAF, before the American
+Rocket Society, Los Angeles, May 10, 1960.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Cox, Donald and Stoiko, Michael, Spacepower, John C.
+Winston Co., Philadelphia, 1958, p. 16.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> Saenger, Dr. Eugen, New Scientist, Sept. 10, 1959, p.
+383.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> Boushey, Brig. Gen. H. A., USAF, Hearings before the House
+Select Committee on Astronautics and Space Exploration, Apr. 23, 1958.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> Pierce, Dr. J. R., "The Dream World of Space," Industrial
+Research, December 1959, p. 58.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> 5 supra.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> Allen, George V, testimony before the House Committee on
+Science and Astronautics, Jan. 22, 1960.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> Editorial in the Washington Evening Star, Apr. 4, 1960.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> Remarks of Hon. Aubrey Jones, Minister of Supply, to the
+International Astronautical Federation, London, Sept. 1, 1959.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> Associated Press dispatch, dateline Rangoon, Feb. 18,
+1960.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> "Space, Missiles, and the Nation," report of the House
+Committee on Science and Astronautics, May 18, 1960, p. 53.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> The New Scientist, Mar. 3, 1960, p. 547.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> Gavin, James M., address to the International Bankers
+Association, Bal Harbour, Fla., Dec. 2, 1958.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> Mitchell, Hon. Erwin, in the House of Representatives,
+June 2, 1960.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> Dryden, Dr. Hugh L., Deputy Administrator, NASA, Penrose
+lecture before the American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia, Apr.
+21, 1960.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> Missile-Space Directory, Missiles and Rockets, May 30,
+1960, pp. 86-359.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> Haley, Andrew G., general counsel and past president of
+the International Astronautical Federation, "Rocketry and Space
+Exploration." Van Nostrand Co., Princeton, N.J., 1958 p. 156.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> Ruzic, Neil P., "The Technical Entrepreneur," Industrial
+Research, May 1980, p.10.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> Bacon, F. T., "The Fuel Cell, Power Source of the Future,"
+New Scientist, Aug. 17, 1959, p.272.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> Science Service dispatch, dateline Lynn, Mass., Apr. 25,
+1950.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> Sharp, James M., "The Application of Fuel Cells in the
+Natural Gas Industry," Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, Tex.,
+Mar. 4, 1960, pp. 2-3.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> Lear, John, "Towns To Be Lit by Plasma," New Scientist,
+Nov. 19, 1959, p. 1006.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> Pursglove S. David, Industrial Research, March 1950 p.
+19.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> Ibid.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> Ibid., p. 18.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> Space Business Daily, June 13, 1960.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> Cox, Dr. R. A., "The Chemistry of Seawater," New
+Scientist, Sept. 24, 19459, p. 518.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> Hines, L. J., Space Age News, Apr. 25, 1960, p. 4.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> Gaertner, W. W., "Functional Microelectronics," Missile
+Design and Development, March 1960, p. 34.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> Stewart, Dr. Homer J., address to the American Bar
+Association, Miami Beach, Aug. 25, 1959.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> Cordiner, Ralph J., "Competitive Private Enterprise in
+Space," lecture at U.C.L.A., May 4, 1960</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> Ibid.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> Ibid.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> Ibid.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> 27 supra.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> See "The Problem of Plenty," U.S. News &amp; World Report,
+Apr. 13, 1959, p. 97.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> Markuwitz, Meyer M., and Gentieu, Norman P., "The Rocket,
+A Past and Future History," Industrial Research, December 1959, p. 78.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> 25 supra. See also address to the American Bankers
+Association, Oct. 28, 1958.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> Space Business Daily, June 17, 1960.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> Feldman, George J., cited in a letter to the House
+Committee on Science and Astronautics, Apr. 29, 1960.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> From Michelson, Edward J., "How Missile-Space Spending
+Enriches the Peacetime Economy," Missiles and Rockets, Sept. 14, 1959,
+pp. 13-17.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> Tischer, R. G., "A Search for the Spaceman's Food," Space
+Journal, December 1959, p. 46.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> Kraar, Louis, Wall Street Journal, May 4, 1960.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> 7 supra.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> Release No. 38-60, Air Research and Development Command,
+May 2, 1960.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> Lear, John, "Where Does Rain Begin?" New Scientist, Mar.
+24, 1960, p. 724.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> "Wind and Soil," New Scientist, May 26, 1960, p. 1327.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> Wexler, Dr. Harry. Press conference conducted by the
+National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Apr. 22, 1960.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> Lockheed, Missiles and Space Division, medical research,
+Sunnyvale, Calif.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> Lewis, Dr. F. J., before the Space Flight Symposium, San
+Antonio, Tex., May 28, 1960.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> Kleitman, Prof. Nathaniel, before the Space Flight
+Symposium, San Antonio, Tex., May 26, 1960.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> Taylor, Lt. Col. Richard R., USA (MC), testimony before
+the House Committee on Science and Astronautics, June 15, 1960.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> Lederberg, Joshua, "Exobiology-Experimental Approaches to
+Life Beyond Earth," Science in Space, ch. IX, National Academy of
+Sciences, Washington, D.C., February 1960.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> Ibid.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> Dryden, Dr. Hugh L., speech before the Engineering Society
+of Cincinnati, Feb. 18, 1960.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> Michael, Donald N., "Space Exploration and the Values of
+Man," Space Journal, September 1959, p. 15.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> 67 supra.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> Space Age, August 1959, p. 3.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> Minneapolis-Honeywell, Military Products Group.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> Hauser, Philip M., "Demographic Dimensions of World
+Politics," Science, June 3, 1960, p. 1642.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> Bacq, Prof. Z. M., "Medicine in the 1960's," New
+Scientist, Jan. 21, 1960, p. 130.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> 59 supra.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> Ibid.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> Ibid.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> "The Challenge of Leisure," M. G. Scott, Ltd., London,
+August 1959, p. 20.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> 27 supra.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> Firsoff, Dr. V. A., "The Strange World of the Moon," Basic
+Books, London, 1959.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_80_80" id="Footnote_80_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> Reported by David Perlman, San Francisco Chronicle, June
+7, 1960.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_81_81" id="Footnote_81_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> Lear, John, "Is Anybody There?," New Scientist, Apr. 14,
+1960, p. 933.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_82_82" id="Footnote_82_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> Aviation Week, May 9, 1960, p 32.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_83_83" id="Footnote_83_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> Whipple, Dr. Fred L.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_84_84" id="Footnote_84_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> Western Aviation, June 1960, p. 16.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_85_85" id="Footnote_85_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> Gold, Dr. Thomas, "Cosmic Garbage," address to the Space
+Scientists Symposium, Los Angeles, December 1959.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_86_86" id="Footnote_86_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> 68 supra, pp. 12, 13.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_87_87" id="Footnote_87_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a> 6 supra, pp. 3, 4.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_88_88" id="Footnote_88_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> Michael, D. N., "Sputniks &amp; Public Opinion," Air Force,
+June 1960, p. 75.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_89_89" id="Footnote_89_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> Industrial Research, December 1959, pp. 8, 9.</p></div>
+
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Practical Values of Space Exploration, by
+Committee on Science and Astronautics
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Practical Values of Space Exploration
+       Report of the Committee on Science and Astronautics, U.S.
+       House of Representatives, Eighty-Sixth Congress, Second
+       Session
+
+Author: Committee on Science and Astronautics
+
+Release Date: November 24, 2006 [EBook #19911]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SPACE EXPLORATION ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Audrey Longhurst, Janet Blenkinship and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Union Calendar No. 928
+
+86th Congress, 2d Session                 House Report No. 2091
+
+
+
+
+THE PRACTICAL VALUES OF SPACE EXPLORATION
+
+
+REPORT
+
+OF THE
+
+COMMITTEE ON SCIENCE AND ASTRONAUTICS U.S. HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES
+EIGHTY-SIXTH CONGRESS SECOND SESSION
+
+PURSUANT TO
+
+H. Res. 133
+
+[Serial I]
+
+July 5, 1960.--Committed to the Committee of the Whole House on the
+State of the Union and ordered to be printed
+
+
+UNITED STATES
+
+GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
+
+58231 deg. WASHINGTON: 1960
+
+
+
+
+
+COMMITTEE ON SCIENCE AND ASTRONAUTICS
+
+
+  OVERTON BROOKS, Louisiana, _Chairman_
+
+  John W. McCormack, Massachusetts
+  George P. Miller, California
+  Olin E. Teague, Texas
+  Victor L. Anfuso, New York
+  B. F. Sisk, California
+  Erwin Mitchell, Georgia
+  James M. Quigley, Pennsylvania
+  Leonard G. Wolf, Iowa
+  Joseph E. Karth, Minnesota
+  Ken Hechler, West Virginia
+  Emilio Q. Daddario, Connecticut
+  Walter H. Moeller, Ohio
+  David S. King, Utah
+  J. Edward Roush, Indiana
+  Thomas G. Morris, New Mexico
+  Joseph W. Martin, JR. Massachusetts
+  James G. Fulton, Pennsylvania
+  Gordon L. McDonough, California
+  J. Edgar Chenoweth, Colorado
+  Frank C. Osmers, JR. New Jersey
+  William K. Van Pelt, Wisconsin
+  A. D. Baumhart, JR. Ohio
+  Perkins Bass, New Hampshire
+  R. Walter Riehlman, New York
+
+  CHARLES F. DUCANDER, _Executive Director and Chief Counsel_
+  DR. CHARLES S. SHELDON II, _Technical Director_
+  SPENCER M. BERESFORD, _Special Counsel_
+  PHILIP B. YEAGER, _Special Consultant_
+  JOHN A. CARSTARPHEN, Jr., _Chief Clerk_
+  FRANK R. HAMMILL, Jr., _Counsel_
+  RAYMOND WILCOVE, _Staff Consultant_
+  RICHARD P. HINES, _Staff Consultant_
+  Lt. Col. FRANCIS J. DILLON, Jr., _Staff Consultant_
+  Comdr. HOWARD J. SILBERSTEIN, _Staff Consultant_
+
+
+
+
+LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
+
+
+  HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES,
+  COMMITTEE ON SCIENCE AND ASTRONAUTICS,
+  _Washington, D.C., July 1, 1960._
+
+  Hon. OVERTON BROOKS,
+  _Chairman, Committee on Science and Astronautics._
+
+DEAR MR. CHAIRMAN: I am forwarding herewith for your
+consideration a staff study, "The Practical Values of Space
+Exploration."
+
+This study was undertaken pursuant to your request for information
+covering the various utilities of the national space effort. The study
+has been prepared by Philip B. Yeager and reviewed by other members of
+the professional staff.
+
+  CHARLES F. DUCANDER,
+  _Executive Director and Chief Counsel._
+
+
+
+
+LETTER OF SUBMITTAL
+
+
+  HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES,
+  COMMITTEE ON SCIENCE AND ASTRONAUTICS,
+  _Washington, D.C., July 5, 1960._
+
+  Hon. SAM RAYBURN,
+  _Speaker of the House of Representatives,
+  Washington, D.C._
+
+DEAR MR. SPEAKER: By direction of the Committee on Science and
+Astronautics, I submit the following report on "The Practical Values of
+Space Exploration" for the consideration of the 86th Congress.
+
+  OVERTON BROOKS, _Chairman_.
+
+
+
+
+  CONTENTS
+
+
+  Introduction                                                         1
+
+  I. The unseen values                                                 3
+    Some examples of the unexpected                                    3
+    The ultimate values                                                5
+    Steering a middle road                                             6
+    The time for space                                                 7
+
+  II. National security values                                         9
+    The military uses                                                  9
+    Our position in the international community                       12
+    Space as a substitute for war                                     15
+
+  III. The economic values                                            17
+    U.S. expenditures on space                                        17
+    The spread of economic benefits                                   18
+    Creation of new industries                                        19
+      Research                                                        19
+      New power sources                                               20
+      New water sources and uses                                      21
+      Noise and human engineering                                     22
+      High speed-light weight computers                               22
+      Solid state physics                                             23
+    Economic alliances                                                24
+    Private enterprise in space                                       24
+    Jobs                                                              27
+    Automation and disarmament                                        28
+
+  IV. Values for everyday living                                      31
+    Technological benefits                                            31
+    Food and agriculture                                              35
+    Communications                                                    36
+    Weather prediction and modification                               37
+    Health benefits                                                   39
+    Education benefits                                                42
+      The demand                                                      42
+
+  V. Long-range values                                                45
+    Trouble spots                                                     45
+      Population                                                      45
+      Water shortage                                                  46
+      Soil erosion                                                    46
+      Added leisure                                                   47
+      Intensified nationalism                                         48
+    Limitations on space research                                     48
+    Fundamental knowledge about life                                  51
+    Psychological and spiritual values                                52
+    Maturing of the race                                              53
+
+
+
+
++---------------------------------------------------------------+
+|  86TH CONGRESS                                                |
+|  _2d Session_                                                 |
+|                                                               |
+|  HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES                                     |
+|                                                               |
+|  REPORT                                                       |
+|  NO. 2091                                                     |
+|                                                               |
+|                                                               |
+|                                                               |
+|                                                               |
+|THE PRACTICAL VALUES OF SPACE EXPLORATION                      |
+|                                                               |
+|       *       *       *       *       *                       |
+|                                                               |
+|JULY 5, 1960.--Committed to the Committee of the Whole House on|
+|the State of the Union and ordered to be printed               |
+|                                                               |
+|       *       *       *       *       *                       |
+|                                                               |
+|Mr. BROOKS of Louisiana, from the Committee on Science and     |
+|Astronautics, submitted the following                          |
+|                                                               |
+|  REPORT                                                       |
+|                                                               |
+|  [Pursuant to H. Res. 133]                                    |
+|                                                               |
++---------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+THE PRACTICAL VALUES OF SPACE EXPLORATION
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+This report has been undertaken for a special reason. It is to explain
+to the taxpayer just why so many of his dollars are going into the
+American effort to explore space, and to indicate what he can expect in
+return which is of value to him.
+
+Such an explanation, even after 2 years of relatively high-geared
+activity in the space exploration field, appears to be warranted. There
+is still a segment of the U.S. population which has little, if any,
+notion of the values that the space program has for the average citizen.
+To these people the expenditure of billions of dollars on missiles,
+rockets, satellites, Moon probes, and other space activities remains
+something of a mystery--particularly when so many other worthy projects
+throughout the land may be slowed or stalled for lack of funds.
+
+If, therefore, the practical value of the American space program is
+being questioned, it is a question which needs to be answered.
+
+It is interesting to note that the problem is not unique to the United
+States. In the Soviet Union, which counts itself as the world's prime
+investigator of space, there is likewise an element of citizenry which
+finds itself puzzled over the U.S.S.R.'s penchant for the interplanetary
+reaches.
+
+"What do sputniks give to a person like me?" a Russian workman
+complained in a letter which _Pravda_ published on its front page. "So
+much money is spent on sputniks it makes people gasp. If there were no
+sputniks the Government could cut the cost of cloth for an overcoat in
+half and put a few electric flatirons in the stores. Rockets, rockets,
+rockets. Who needs them now?"[1]
+
+It goes without saying that the workman was severely chastised by the
+Soviet newspaper, but his point was made.
+
+No matter where taxpayers live they want to know--and are entitled to
+know--what good a program of space exploration is to them.
+
+During the 1960's it is expected that the U.S. Government will spend
+anywhere from $30 to $50 billion on space exploration for all purposes,
+civilian and military. It is the intent of this report to delineate in
+lay language, and in terms which will be meaningful to those who have
+not followed the American space program closely, the reasons for this
+great investment and the probable returns.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 1.--A single shot of the 8-barreled
+Saturn of the future will cost millions of dollars, maybe tens of
+millions. What makes it worthwhile for the taxpayer?]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Associated Press dispatch, dateline Moscow, June 12, 1960.
+
+
+
+
+I. The Unseen Values
+
+
+The United States has not embarked upon its formidable program of space
+exploration in order to make or perpetuate a gigantic astronautic
+boondoggle. There are good reasons, hard reasons for this program. But,
+in essence, they all boil down to the fact that the program is expected
+to produce a number of highly valuable payoffs. It not only is expected
+to do so, it is doing so right now.
+
+Many of the beneficial results can be identified.
+
+Those already showing up are detailed in the sections of this report
+which follow. They include the most urgent and precious of all
+commodities--national security. Beyond that, they also include a
+strengthened national economy, new jobs and job categories, better
+living, fresh consumer goods, improved education, increased health,
+stimulated business enterprise and a host of long-range values which may
+ultimately make the immediate benefits pale into relative
+insignificance.
+
+Practical uses such as those just listed mean the taxpayer is more than
+getting his money's worth from American space exploration--and getting a
+sizable chunk of it today.
+
+Nevertheless, if we can depend on the history of scientific adventure
+and progress, on its consistent tendencies of the past, then we can be
+reasonably sure that the greatest, finest benefits to come from our
+ventures into space are yet unseen.
+
+These are the unpredictable values, the ones which none of us has yet
+thought of.
+
+Inevitably they lag behind the basic research discoveries needed to make
+them possible, and often the discoveries are slow to be put to work
+after they are made. Investors, even governments, are human, and before
+they invest in something they normally want to know: What good is it?
+
+We can be sure that many American taxpayers of the future will be asking
+"what good is it?" in regard to various phases of the space program.
+
+There was an occasion when the great Scottish physicist, James Clerk
+Maxwell, was asked this question concerning one of his classic
+discoveries in electromagnetism. Maxwell replied: "What good is a baby?"
+
+Now, as then, it takes time for new knowledge to develop and become
+useful after its conception and birth.
+
+
+SOME EXAMPLES OF THE UNEXPECTED
+
+A graphic illustration of "unseen" benefits in regard to atomic energy
+has been expressed by an experienced researcher in this way:
+
+     I remember a conversation I had with one of our nuclear scientists
+     when I was a member of the Weapons Systems Evaluations Group almost
+     10 years ago. We were talking about the possible peaceful
+     applications of fission. We really could think of little that
+     could be done with it other than making fissionable material into a
+     form of destructive power. There had been some discussion about
+     harnessing the power of fission, but this seemed to us to be quite
+     remote. It seemed difficult to conceive of the atomic bomb as
+     anything but sheer power used for destructive purposes. Yet today
+     the products of fission applied to peaceful uses are many. The use
+     of isotopes in industry, medicine, agriculture are well known. Food
+     irradiation, nuclear power reactors, now reactors for shipboard
+     use, are with us, and it is hardly the beginning. I frequently ask
+     myself, of late, what 10 years from now will be the commercial,
+     shall we call it, applications of our missile and rocket
+     programs.[2]
+
+There are innumerable examples of the way in which invention or
+discovery, or sometimes just simple human curiosity, result in useful
+payoff. And frequently no one suspects the direction the payoff finally
+takes. The point, of course, is that _any_ knowledge eventually pays
+dividends. The things we learn from our national space program will
+produce benefits in ways entirely unrelated to missiles or
+interplanetary travel. (See secs. III and IV.) The reverse is also true;
+knowledge gained in areas quite remote from outer space can have genuine
+value for the advance of space exploration.
+
+Investigation into the skin of a fish provides a good case in point.
+
+A German inventor who migrated to California after World War II had long
+been interested in ways to reduce the drag of friction produced by air
+or water on the surface of objects passing through them. One day, while
+watching a group of porpoises cavort past a speeding ship with the
+greatest of ease, it occurred to him that the skin of these animals, if
+closely studied, might shed light on ways of cutting surface friction.
+It was many years before the inventor was able to enlist the aid of
+aquarium managers in securing porpoise skins for study. In 1955,
+however, he obtained the necessary skins and found that dolphins, in
+fact, owe much of their great speed to a unique skin which markedly
+reduces the effect of turbulence against it. From this knowledge has
+come the recent development of a diaphragm-damping fluid surface which
+has real potential not only for underwater high-speed bodies, such as
+submarines, torpedoes and underwater missiles, but for any vehicle where
+fast-moving gases or fluids may cause drag.[3]
+
+The implications of this knowledge for satellites near Earth or for
+reentering spacecraft are obvious.
+
+Sometimes a reverse twist in reasoning by a speculative mind will result
+in enormous practical utility.
+
+In Cambridge, Mass., a sanitary engineer teaching at the Massachusetts
+Institute of Technology began to wonder about the principles of
+adhesion--why things stick to each other. Do they only stick together
+because some sticky substance is holding them, or are there other
+reasons? "If a person is sick," he asked himself, "is it because a cause
+of sickness is present or because a cause of health is absent? We now
+know that in infectious diseases the first alternative is true; the
+patient is ill because he harbors pathogenic germs. The opposite case
+prevails in deficiency diseases, where necessary vitamins are absent
+from food and illness is brought about by this absence. To which of the
+classes does adhesion belong? When we cannot produce a dependable bond,
+are we dealing with the lack of some adhesive force or with existence of
+an obstacle to sticking?"
+
+Operating on the theory that adhesion might result not only from the
+presence of a sticky agent but from the removal of all impediments to
+sticking, this scientist has now managed to produce strong adhesion
+between the least sticky of substances--polyethylene plastics. He has
+done it by studying the molecular structure of polyethylenes and
+removing all impurities which normally find their way into the
+manufacture of such material. The next step: "We hope to prepare
+adhesive joints in which a noble gas acts as an adhesive. Noble gases
+are the least active substances known to chemistry; if they can adhere,
+it is clear that no specific forces are needed for adhesiveness."[4]
+
+No great imagination is required to perceive the meaning which this new
+knowledge, if proved out, will have for our everyday lives--to say
+nothing of its usefulness in the making of astronautic equipment.
+
+
+THE ULTIMATE VALUES
+
+In any event, it is apparent that where research is concerned--and
+especially space research with its broad scale of inquiry--we cannot
+always see the value of scientific endeavor on the basis of its
+beginning. We cannot always account for what we have purchased with each
+research dollar.
+
+The Government stated this proposition when it first undertook to put
+the space program on a priority basis:
+
+     Scientific research has never been amenable to rigorous cost
+     accounting in advance. Nor, for that matter, has exploration of any
+     sort. But if we have learned one lesson, it is that research and
+     exploration have a remarkable way of paying off--quite apart from
+     the fact that they demonstrate that man is alive and insatiably
+     curious. And we all feel richer for knowing what explorers and
+     scientists have learned about the universe in which we live.[5]
+
+In this statement there is political support for what the historian, the
+anthropologist, the psychologist consider to be established fact--that
+some innate force in the human being makes him _know_, whatever his
+formal beliefs or whatever his unconscious philosophy, that he _must_
+progress. Progress is the core of his destiny.
+
+This is a concept which, in connection with space exploration, has been
+recognized for many years. One of the earliest and most perceptive of
+the space "buffs" stated it before the British Interplanetary Society in
+1946 in these words: "* * * our civilization is no more than the sum of
+all the dreams that earlier ages have brought to fulfillment. And so it
+must always be, for if men cease to dream, if they turn their backs upon
+the wonder of the universe, the story of our race will be coming to an
+end".[6]
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 2.--In the years immediately ahead, the
+orbiting observatory or the manned satellite will uncover crucial
+information about the nature of the universe.]
+
+
+STEERING A MIDDLE ROAD
+
+In any endeavor which is as futuristic as space exploration it is not
+difficult to become lost in the land of the starry-eyed prognosticators.
+Conversely, it is also easy to find oneself lining up with the debunkers
+and the champions of the status quo, for their arguments and views give
+the impression of being hard-headed, sensible.
+
+If one must err in either direction, however, it is probably safer,
+where space is concerned, to err in the direction of the enthusiasts.
+This is because (and subsequent parts of this report will show it) the
+Nation cannot afford not to be in the vanguard of the space explorers.
+
+Events today move with facility and lightning rapidity. Today, more than
+ever, time is on the side of the expeditious. We can no longer take the
+risk of giving much support to the scoffers--to that breed of
+unimaginative souls who thought Robert Fulton was a fool for harnessing
+a paddlewheel to a boiler, who thought Henry Ford was a fool for putting
+an internal combustion engine on wheels, who thought Samuel Langley was
+a fool for designing a contraption to fly through the air.
+
+There are always those who will say it cannot be done. Even in this era
+of sophisticated flight there have been those who said the sound barrier
+would never be broken. It was. Others said later that space vehicles
+would never get through the heat barrier. They have. Now, some say men
+will never overcome the radiation barrier in space. But we can be sure
+they will.
+
+It is undoubtedly wise for the layman, in terms of the benefits he can
+expect from the space program in the foreseeable future, to steer a
+reasonable course between the two extremes. Yet one cannot help
+remembering that the secret of taking practical energy from the atom, a
+secret which the human race had been trying to learn for thousands of
+years, was accomplished in less than a decade from the moment when men
+first determined that it was possible to split an atom. It is difficult
+to forget that even after World War II some of our most respected
+scientists sold short the idea of developing long-range missiles.
+Impractical, they said; visionary. But 6 years after the United States
+went to work seriously on missiles, an operational ICBM with a
+9,000-mile range was an accomplished fact.
+
+
+THE TIME FOR SPACE
+
+All of the glowing predictions being made on behalf of space exploration
+will not be here tomorrow or the next day. Yet this seems less important
+than that we recognize the significance of our moment of history.
+
+We may think of that moment as a new age--the age of space and the
+atom--to follow the historic ages of stone, bronze, and iron. We may
+think of it in terms of theories, of succeeding from those of Copernicus
+to those of Newton and thence to Freud and now Einstein. We may think of
+our time as the time of exploiting the new fourth state of matter:
+plasma, or the ion. Or we may think of it in terms of revolutions, as
+passing from the industrial cycle of steam through the railroad-steel
+cycle, through the electricity-automobile cycle, into the burgeoning
+technological revolution of today.
+
+However we think of it, it is a dawning period and one which--in its
+scope and potential--promises to dwarf much of what has gone before.
+Those who have given careful thought to the matter are convinced that
+while some caution is in order, the new era is not one to be approached
+with timidity, inhibited imagination or too much convention. Neither is
+there any point in trying to hold off the tempo of this oncoming age or,
+in any other way, to evade it.
+
+Mark Twain once listened to the complaints of an old riverboat pilot who
+was having trouble making the switch from sail to steam. The old pilot
+wanted no part of the newfangled steam contraptions. "Maybe so," replied
+Twain, "but when it's steamboat time, you steam."[7]
+
+Today is space time and man is going to explore it.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 3.--The versatile Atlas can be used
+either for launching man into space or to carry a nuclear warhead as far
+as 9,000 miles.]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[2] Gavin, Lt. Gen. James M., U.S. Army (retired), speech to the
+American Rocket Society, New York City, Nov. 19, 1958.
+
+[3] Kramer, Max O., "The Dolphins' Secret," New Scientist, May 5, 1960,
+pp. 1118-1120.
+
+[4] Bikerman, Dr. Jacob J., reported in New Scientist, Mar. 3, 1960, p.
+535.
+
+[5] "Introduction to Outer Space," a statement by the President, the
+White House, Mar. 26, 1958.
+
+[6] Clarke, Arthur C., "The Challenge of the Spaceships," Harper &
+Bros., New York, 1955, p. 15.
+
+[7] Related by T. Keith Glennan, Administrator, National Aeronautics and
+Space Administration, in an address before the Worcester (Mass.)
+Economic Club, Feb. 15, 1960.
+
+
+
+
+II. NATIONAL SECURITY VALUES
+
+
+There is no longer doubt that space exploration holds genuine
+significance for the security and well-being of the United States as a
+nation.
+
+It does so in at least three ways. One results from the uses which our
+Armed Forces can make of the knowledge gained from space exploration. A
+second results from the influence and prestige which America can exert
+within the world community because of her prowess in space exploration.
+A third results from the possibility that space exploration, eventually,
+may prove so immense and important a challenge that it will channel the
+prime energies of powerful nations toward its own end and thus reduce
+the current emphasis on developing means of destruction.
+
+The first two values definitely exist. The third seems to be a
+reasonable hope.
+
+
+THE MILITARY USES
+
+From the beginning it has been recognized that space exploration, the
+research connected therewith, and the ability to operate therein is of
+more than passing interest to the military.
+
+Congress recognized the fact when it passed the National Aeronautics and
+Space Act of 1958 and directed that "activities peculiar to or primarily
+associated with the development of weapons systems, military operations,
+or the defense of the United States * * * shall be the responsibility
+of, and shall be directed by, the Department of Defense."[8] In the
+amendments to the Space Act proposed in 1960, this directive was
+strengthened: "The Department of Defense shall undertake such activities
+in space, and such research and development connected therewith, as may
+be necessary for the defense of the United States."[9]
+
+It is possible to argue, and indeed it has been argued, that ballistic
+missiles such as IRBM's and ICBM's are not really "space" weapons, that
+they are simply an extension of the traditional art of artillery. For
+the purposes of this report, however, the argument appears to be largely
+a semantic one. Such missiles do traverse space, they are guided through
+space, and they employ the same engines and principles which are
+presently used for purposes of scientific space exploration. While more
+advanced "space" weapons may evolve in the future, the missile as we
+know it today cannot very well be divorced from our thinking about space
+and its practical uses.
+
+Going on this assumption, and casting an eye in the direction of the
+Iron Curtain, it is obvious that the Soviet Union is going all-out to
+exploit space for military purposes.
+
+Military men have known for years that the tremendously powerful booster
+which the Soviets have been using to launch their massive sputniks was
+originally designed to carry the primitive heavy version of the A-bomb
+across continents.
+
+If there was ever doubt of the extent to which the Soviets intend to
+make space a selected medium for military purposes it was erased when
+Premier Khrushchev made his address to the Supreme Soviet early in 1960.
+He commented in part:
+
+     Our state has at its disposal powerful rocket equipment. The
+     military air force and navy have lost their previous importance in
+     view of the modern development of military equipment. This type of
+     armament is not being reduced but replaced. Almost the entire
+     military air force is being replaced by rocket equipment. We have
+     by now sharply cut, and it seems will continue sharply to cut and
+     even discontinue the manufacture of bombers and other obsolete
+     equipment. In the navy, the submarine fleet assumes great
+     importance, while surface ships can no longer play the part they
+     once did. In our country the armed forces have been to a
+     considerable extent transferred to rocket and nuclear arms. These
+     arms are being perfected and will continue to be perfected until
+     they are banned.[10]
+
+While it is difficult to assess the actual extent of the Soviet
+preoccupation with missiles, it has been reported that the Russians are
+building upward of 100 IRBM and ICBM bases to be manned by about 200,000
+men. Most of these, at least the intermediate range bases, are said to
+be along Russia's Baltic coast, in East Germany, in the southern Ukraine
+and in the Carpathian Mountains.[11]
+
+In any event, the space age is clearly "here" so far as the military are
+concerned, and U.S. forces--particularly since the development of the
+much lighter atomic warheads--have been likewise diligent in their space
+efforts. This is because many military minds are now agreed that:
+
+     We are moving inevitably into a time of astropower. We face a
+     threat beyond imagination, should events ever lead to open conflict
+     in a world of hypersonic velocities and a raging atom chained as
+     our slave. We must be strong, we must be able to change to meet
+     change. What may come against our beloved America will not be
+     signaled by one light from the North Church steeple, if they come
+     by land, or two, if they come by sea. Never again. They will come
+     through space, and their light of warning will be the blinding
+     terror of a thermonuclear fireball.[12]
+
+It is important to note, in connection with military matters, that pure
+rocket power, is not the only avenue to success in space use. The
+American Atlas missile, for example, which can carry a nuclear warhead
+and which operates on considerably less thrust than the powerful Soviet
+boosters thus far demonstrated, has nevertheless shown the capability of
+negotiating a 9,000-mile trek and landing in the target area. This is
+about 1,500 miles farther than any Soviet shots revealed to the public
+in the 2-1/2-year period following the first sputnik. It is also a
+sufficient range to permit reaching almost any likely target on the
+globe.
+
+From the military point of view, the meaning thus brought out is that
+sophistication of missiles together with reliability and ease of
+handling is more important than pure power.
+
+When we begin to consider both the civil and military aspects of space
+use in the decades ahead, however, rocket power acquires fresh
+importance. It is, as one expert says, "the key to space supremacy."[13]
+Not only is much heavier thrust required for ventures farther out into
+space, but probably thrust developed by different means as well, such as
+atom, ion, or even photon power.
+
+This suggests the possibilities of weapons which today are considered to
+be "way out" or "blue sky"--in short, farfetched. Yet they include the
+ideas of men with solid scientific training as well as vision. For
+example, Germany's great rocket pioneer, Prof. Hermann Oberth, "has
+proposed that a giant mirror in space (some 60 miles in diameter) could
+be used militarily to burn an enemy country on Earth. For peaceful
+purposes, however, such a space mirror could be used to melt icebergs
+and alter temperatures."[14] Another reputable German scientist who has
+been working for a number of years on photon (electromagnetic ray) power
+as a source of propulsion, declares that if such power is possible so is
+"the idea of a 'death ray,' a weapon beam which burns or melts targets,
+such as enemy missiles, on which it is trained. The idea has been
+familiar in science fiction for a long time and has been scorned often
+enough. Yet, if the photon rocket is possible so is the ray gun."[15]
+
+Still another proposal, one made to the Congress, involves use of the
+Moon as a military base. "It could, at some future date, be used as a
+secure base to deter aggression. Lunar launching sites, perhaps located
+on the far side of the Moon, which could never be viewed directly from
+the Earth, could launch missiles earthward. They could be guided
+accurately during flight and to impact, and thus might serve peaceful
+ends by deterring any would-be aggressor."[16]
+
+In spite of the fact that ideas such as these are being sponsored by
+competent and responsible scientists, other scientists equally competent
+and responsible sometimes cry them down as impractical, impossible or
+even childish. One engineer, for instance, describes maneuverable manned
+space vehicles as having "no military value," bases on the Moon as
+having no military or communications use, and the idea of high velocity
+photon-power for space travel as "a fantasy strictly for immature
+science fiction." He also characterizes the reconnaissance satellite,
+which U.S. military authorities have long since programmed and even
+launched, as being "definitely submarginal * * *. A fraction of the cost
+of a reconnaissance satellite could accomplish wonders in conventional
+information gathering."[17]
+
+Controversies such as these are difficult for the person who is neither
+a scientist nor a military expert to judge. One is inclined to recall,
+though, the treatment received by General Billy Mitchell for his
+devotion to nonconventional bombing concepts; the fact that the utility
+of the rocket as developed by America's pioneer, Dr. Robert H. Goddard,
+was generally ignored during World War II; the fact that it took a
+personal letter from Albert Einstein to President Roosevelt to get the
+Manhattan Project underway.
+
+Yet today the bomber, the missile, and the nuclear weapon form the
+backbone of our military posture.
+
+In other words, history seems to support the proposition that no matter
+how remote or unlikely new discoveries and approaches may first appear,
+the military eventually finds a way to use them.
+
+Will it be any different with space exploration?
+
+
+OUR POSITION IN THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY
+
+Like the military values of space research, the practical value of space
+exploration in terms of world prestige has also been acknowledged almost
+from the beginning of the satellite era.
+
+The White House, in its initial statement on the national space program,
+declared:
+
+     It is useful to distinguish among (the) factors which give
+     importance, urgency, and inevitability to the advancement of space
+     technology (one of which) is the factor of national prestige. To be
+     strong and bold in space technology will enhance the prestige of
+     the United States among the peoples of the world and create added
+     confidence in our scientific, technological, industrial, and
+     military strength.[18]
+
+Only recently, however, has the full impact and meaning of this phase of
+our national space program come to be widely recognized. It has been
+stated, perhaps in its most forceful and succinct form, by an American
+official in a unique position to know. The Director of the U.S.
+Information Agency, part of whose job is to keep track of the esteem in
+which America is held abroad, has told Congress:
+
+     Our space program may be considered as a measure of our vitality
+     and our ability to compete with a formidable rival and as a
+     criterion of our ability to maintain technological eminence worthy
+     of emulation by other peoples.[19]
+
+This element of space exploration takes on particular significance in
+light of the current international struggle to influence the minds of
+men, in light of the rising tide of nationalism throughout the world,
+and in light of the intensification of the cold war as demonstrated by
+the now-famous U-2 incident and the hardening attitude of oriental
+communism.
+
+In the words of an influential newspaper:
+
+     Wholly apart from the intellectual compulsions that now drive man
+     to move higher and higher into the high heavens, it seems clear
+     that our country can be niggardly in this field only at the risk of
+     being completely and forever outclassed by Russia--a gamble that
+     could have the most fearful political, economic, and military
+     consequences.[20]
+
+Incidentally, there is another prestige factor to be considered. This is
+what might be called the chain-reaction factor: the likelihood that
+technological preeminence in the space field will attract top talent
+from other parts of the world to the banner of the country which
+develops it, and thus constantly nourish and replenish the efforts of
+that country. It is a consideration which has not received general
+attention, although it has been discussed before some of the world's
+leading space scientists.[21]
+
+Here again, as with the military situation, the Soviets are making every
+effort to exploit their dexterity in space. They are pursuing the
+prestige gambit directly and indirectly. In the first category, for
+example, they give top priority to space exhibits in important public
+forums--as their duplicate sputniks strategically placed at the world's
+fair and the United Nations attest. Premier Khrushchev's delight in
+making gifts to foreigners of miniature Soviet pennants similar to that
+carried in Lunik II--which hit the Moon--is another instance.[22]
+
+The indirect drive for prestige via space technology is far more
+important. It has been described by a congressional committee as
+follows:
+
+     It is difficult to escape the conclusion that the Soviet Union in
+     the last several years has demonstrated a great skill in
+     coordinating its progress in missilery, its success in space
+     missions, and its foreign policy and world image. Shots seem to
+     have been timed to maximize the effects of visits of Soviet leaders
+     and to punctuate Soviet statements and positions in international
+     negotiations. This is not to equate their space activities with
+     hollow propaganda. Empty claims do not have a positive effect for
+     long. Nor is there any firm evidence that it has been possible for
+     political policymakers to call their shots at times inconsistent
+     with good scientific and technical needs. The conclusion is rather
+     that the many elements of scientific, technical, military,
+     political, and psychological policy are all weighed, and tests
+     which make a full contribution to such a combined strategy are
+     carried out and supported with appropriate publicity.[23]
+
+There is also evidence that scientific endeavor by the Russians for
+prestige purposes is having repercussions on internal policy. Great
+emphasis is currently being placed on the demonstrable usefulness of
+scientific effort--to the extent that Soviet colleges, research
+institutions, examining boards, and academies of science have been
+directed to be more exacting in conferring scientific degrees and
+titles. Newness and usefulness are requisite, but, at the same time,
+degrees may now be awarded for other than dissertations; inventions and
+textbooks of major importance may also earn a degree for their
+authors.[24]
+
+Within the prestige context, it is true that the United States must
+labor under certain handicaps because of the nature of its democratic
+system.
+
+No effort is made in the American space program to hide the failures
+which result from its highly complex character. Our burnups, misfires,
+explosions, fizzles, and lost or wayward vehicles are well publicized.
+Those of the Soviet Union rarely are. Even though most nations are well
+aware that the Russians must be having their troubles, too, the
+appearance of uniform success fostered by the U.S.S.R. inevitably
+contributes to an image of scientific superiority. In addition, the
+Soviets have developed a habit of striving for spectacular "firsts,"
+most of which undoubtedly are undertaken almost as much for prestige
+reasons as for scientific ones.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 4.--Symbolic of the American effort in
+space is this Thor-Able rocket, shown here launching the Tiros weather
+satellite into a near-perfect orbit. This same vehicle, which launched
+the record-breaking 23 million-mile communication probe--Pioneer V--has
+contributed enormously to U.S. prestige abroad.]
+
+Still, the United States has not done badly from the prestige angle. So
+far as the world's scientific fraternity is concerned, it may even be
+well in the lead.
+
+In the first 30 or so months following the opening of the space age, as
+signaled by the launching of Sputnik I in October 1957, the United
+States put 21 satellites into orbit out of 42 attempts. Two out of five
+deep-space probes were successful. The degree of success for all major
+launchings ran better than 50 percent. The American effort has been
+based on a broad scope of inquiry and includes long-range
+communications, weather reporting, navigation and surveillance vehicles,
+as well as information-gathering satellites.
+
+During the same period the Soviets launched four Earth satellites, one
+deep-space probe, one lunar-impact probe and one satellite into a much
+elongated Earth orbit which circled and photographed the Moon. Most of
+their vehicles have been substantially heavier than those launched by
+the United States, although complete information on their scientific
+purposes and the result obtained has never been disclosed.
+
+The world political value of such programs cannot be discounted. To the
+extent that the welfare of the United States depends upon its stature in
+the eyes of the rest of the world (which is believed considerable) and
+to the extent that the scientific capability of the United States
+influences such stature (which is also believed considerable) our space
+venture has very marked practical utility. It may even mean the
+difference between freedom and dictatorship, between survival and
+oblivion.
+
+
+SPACE AS A SUBSTITUTE FOR WAR
+
+A natural outgrowth of the military and prestige facets of space
+exploration is the question of whether this activity, in time, will
+replace the forces which have historically driven nations into armed
+conflict.
+
+Any number of social scientists and historians have speculated that this
+might occur. The theory is that the conquest of space may prove to be
+the moral equivalent of war by substituting for certain material and
+psychological needs usually supplied through war; that the absorption of
+energies, resources, imagination, and aggressiveness in pursuit of the
+space adventure may become an effective way of maintaining peace.
+
+Put another way, nations might become "extroverted" to the point where
+their urge to overcome the unknown would dwarf their historic desires
+for power, wealth, and recognition--attributes which have so often led
+to war in the past.
+
+The fact that the United Nations, late in 1959, agreed to set up a
+permanent Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space attests to the
+hopes and potential of such a development.
+
+Of course, whether this condition will actually develop is anybody's
+guess. But in a world where brute force is becoming increasingly
+dangerous and catastrophic, the bare possibility of such a result should
+not be ignored by those who may be contemplating the values of space
+exploration. It could be the highest value of them all.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 5.--Today's assembly lines for
+automobiles and aircraft are being supplemented by the growing
+astronautics industry, here shown turning out capsules for manned space
+flight.]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[8] Public Law 85-568, 85th Cong.
+
+[9] H. Rept. 1633, 86th Cong., 2d sess., p. 6.
+
+[10] Speech to the Supreme Soviet, Jan. 14, 1960.
+
+[11] Associated Press dispatch, dateline London, Dec. 2, 1959.
+
+[12] Scott, Brig. Gen. Robert L., USAF (retired), Space Age, February
+1959, p. 63.
+
+[13] Ostrander, Maj. Gen. Don R., USAF, before the American Rocket
+Society, Los Angeles, May 10, 1960.
+
+[14] Cox, Donald and Stoiko, Michael, Spacepower, John C. Winston Co.,
+Philadelphia, 1958, p. 16.
+
+[15] Saenger, Dr. Eugen, New Scientist, Sept. 10, 1959, p. 383.
+
+[16] Boushey, Brig. Gen. H. A., USAF, Hearings before the House Select
+Committee on Astronautics and Space Exploration, Apr. 23, 1958.
+
+[17] Pierce, Dr. J. R., "The Dream World of Space," Industrial Research,
+December 1959, p. 58.
+
+[18] 5 supra.
+
+[19] Allen, George V, testimony before the House Committee on Science
+and Astronautics, Jan. 22, 1960.
+
+[20] Editorial in the Washington Evening Star, Apr. 4, 1960.
+
+[21] Remarks of Hon. Aubrey Jones, Minister of Supply, to the
+International Astronautical Federation, London, Sept. 1, 1959.
+
+[22] Associated Press dispatch, dateline Rangoon, Feb. 18, 1960.
+
+[23] "Space, Missiles, and the Nation," report of the House Committee on
+Science and Astronautics, May 18, 1960, p. 53.
+
+[24] The New Scientist, Mar. 3, 1960, p. 547.
+
+
+
+
+III. THE ECONOMIC VALUES
+
+
+We in the United States believe that we have the world's highest
+standard of living. Our current wealth, prosperity, consumer goods and
+gross national product are at a peak hitherto unreached by any country.
+
+Nevertheless, economists who see the steady preponderant outflow of
+goods and capital from the United States and who study the rising rate
+of economic capability in other countries can find little room for
+complacence in the present status of things. They are also well aware of
+the Soviet Union's announced intent of beating the United States at its
+own game: economic expansion.
+
+Military historians are likewise aware that even strong economies, when
+they become static, do not guarantee safety. On the contrary, they seem
+likely to induce a dangerous national apathy.
+
+     This syndrome is familiar in history. Carthage suffered from it.
+     Carthage enjoyed enormous prosperity and was flourishing when she
+     was destroyed by her Roman competitor. Much later, Rome had a gross
+     national product without precedence. Her wealth and splendor were
+     unsurpassed when the Vandals and Visigoths began their onslaughts.
+     Neither Rome's great engineering skills, its architectural
+     grandeur, its great laws, nor, in the last analysis, its gross
+     national product, could prevail against the barbarians. Their GNP
+     was negligible; nevertheless they ransacked the mighty Roman
+     Empire.
+
+     The gross national product is no insurance of survival. It is not a
+     sign of military strength, and indeed, it may not even be
+     sufficient for the economic battle.[25]
+
+Thus from the point of view of economic stimulus and continued
+commercial dynamism, space exploration should be--and is proving to
+be--a godsend.
+
+
+U.S. EXPENDITURES ON SPACE
+
+It is impossible to arrive at accurate figures which might help indicate
+the extent of this effort in dollars and cents. But we do know that the
+U.S. Government is presently putting about $3.5 billion annually into
+the research and development phases. How much more may be going into the
+purchase of completed space hardware is difficult to say; certainly it
+is a higher figure still. The National Aeronautics and Space
+Administration, in presenting its 10-year plan to Congress recently,
+indicated that this agency alone expects to average between $1.5 and $2
+billion a year during the next decade.
+
+The amount of effort going into space-related programs on the part of
+private industry, measured in dollars, again can only be roughly
+estimated. But it is a sizable figure and is known to be growing. It may
+amount to half the governmental research and development outlay.
+
+These figures add up to a very important segment of the national
+economy, and the fact that they represent a highly active and
+progressive segment is particularly heartening to the economic experts
+of the Nation.
+
+
+THE SPREAD OF ECONOMIC BENEFITS
+
+One of the most useful characteristics of the space program is that its
+needs "spread across the entire industrial spectrum--electronics,
+metals, fuels, ceramics, machinery, plastics, instruments, textiles,
+thermals, cryogenics, and a thousand other areas."[26] The benefits from
+space exploration thus have a way of filtering into almost every area of
+the American economy, either directly or indirectly. "Perhaps the
+greatest economic treasure is the advanced technology required for more
+and more difficult space missions. This new technology is advancing at a
+meteoric rate. Its benefits are spreading throughout our whole
+industrial and economic system."[27]
+
+A graphic example of the manner in which the technological and economic
+benefits from the space program can grow may be seen from the
+development of the X-15. This rocket craft, designed to "fly" beyond the
+Earth's atmosphere at altitudes up to 100 miles, is the product of 400
+different firms and contractors.
+
+Inasmuch as other nations, those which generally have lagged behind the
+United States in technical know-how, are now rapidly bringing their
+technology up to date--this windfall from our space program is
+especially opportune. It is providing the incentive to American industry
+to remain in the world's technological van. And it is emphasizing that
+economic leadership is a dynamic thing, that U.S. mass-production
+techniques which have enabled the Nation to compete so well in foreign
+markets are no longer, of themselves, sufficient guarantee of superior
+economic position.
+
+While America's space exploration program, on a formal basis, came into
+being as recently as October 1958, its impact on the national economy
+has probably been sharper than that of any single new program ever
+conceived. For there are now at least 5,000 companies or research
+organizations engaged in the missile-space industry. And more than 3,200
+different space-related products have been required and are being
+produced to date.[28]
+
+One can only speculate on the economic effect which the space program is
+having on investments or on investors who have no other connection with
+it. It seems significant, however, that the stock market pages in recent
+months have come to devote a good deal of attention to "space issues."
+Financially speaking, space has thus become a major category. That it
+has done so in such a short period would seem to have marked
+implications for the future.
+
+In brief, space exploration is becoming almost an industry in itself,
+and there are those who believe it destined to become the largest
+industrial spur in the Nation before too many years have gone by.
+
+One expert, an experienced hand not only in astronautics but in the
+business world as well, describes the outlook in this fashion: "A great
+industrial change is taking place in the United States. The aircraft
+industry, which long considered missiles as a small department, now
+finds itself becoming a part of the large missile and space flight
+industry. It is an elemental evolution. An industrial change is upon us
+comparable to the advent of mercantilism."[29] He has predicted that
+within a decade or so the astronautics industry will be larger than the
+automotive industry of the entire world.
+
+While such predictions may be overly optimistic, they can scarcely be
+dismissed as irresponsible in the light of what has already happened.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 6.--Booster engines of tomorrow, such as
+this mockup of the 1,500,000 pound thrust single engine, will place
+broad requirements on men and materials.]
+
+
+CREATION OF NEW INDUSTRIES
+
+Whether or not we think of the missile-space business as being a
+self-contained industry, the requirements and exigencies of space
+exploration can be expected to result in the creation of new or greatly
+strengthened industrial branches, for example:
+
+
+_Research_
+
+This phase of the American economy is having a phenomenal growth. Not
+only have many established industries now placed research high on their
+organizational charts, but hundreds, perhaps thousands, of new
+businesses are springing up which are entirely devoted to research and
+development. R. & D., as it is called, is their stock in trade, their
+only product. And space exploration appears to have given them their
+greatest boost.
+
+One recent study on the subject regards research as the fourth major
+industrial revolution to take place in American history, following the
+advents of steam mechanization, steel, electricity-and-internal
+combustion engines.
+
+     The fourth industrial revolution, ours, is unique in the number of
+     people working on it, its complexity, and its power to push the
+     economy at a rate previously impossible.
+
+     Today between 5,000 and 50,000 _technical entrepreneurs_ (top R. &
+     D. engineers, leading scientists, and highly effective technical
+     managers) are directly analogous to an estimated 50 to 500 men in
+     all of the first three periods. Thus about 100 times the effort in
+     terms of qualitative (effective, creative, patent-producing)
+     manpower is being spent on the fourth revolution as on the other
+     three combined.
+
+     Total manpower, of course, is much more than that: there are
+     probably 700,000 engineers and industrially oriented scientists in
+     the United States today, as against 2,000 even as late as Edison's
+     first high voltage light bulb. Whereas Edison worked with 20 to 100
+     scientists in his laboratory, and Fulton labored alone, there are
+     5,000 industrial laboratories today employing from 20 to 7,300
+     technical men each.[30]
+
+
+_New power sources_
+
+One of the greatest demands of spacecraft of the future will be for new
+sources of power. While rocket propulsion power is part of this picture,
+the power needed to operate space vehicles after launching may prove to
+be the larger and more important need. Progress has already been made in
+this direction by use of special kinds of batteries and solar cells
+which convert the sun's rays into electric current. But these will need
+supplementing or replacing eventually as greater power becomes
+necessary.
+
+It would be rash to predict the outcome of this complicated field, but
+certain very promising methods can be listed.
+
+One is the fuel cell, which converts fuel directly into electric power
+without the necessity for machinery or working parts. Much progress has
+been made on the fuel cell in recent months. In England a 40-cell unit
+has been used to drive a forklift truck and to do electric welding. It
+develops up to 5 kilowatts.[31] In the United States a 30-cell portable
+powerplant developing 200 watts has been delivered to the Army and
+Marine Corps,[32] while a 1,000-unit cell has been developed in the
+Midwest which provides 15 kilowatts and drives a tractor.[33]
+
+Another method is plasma power, or power generated through the use of
+hot ionized gas. Such gas acts as a conductor of electricity and when
+employed as a "magnetohydrodynamics" generator it can be used for a
+variety of purposes. It has the advantage of being simple, rugged, and
+efficient. Some day it may also prove very economical. Already 10
+municipal areas along the Mason-Dixon line are preparing to experiment
+with electric power derived from this source.[34] It has been estimated
+that "as much as 1 million watts could be generated by shooting a stream
+of plasma at speeds three times that of sound through a magnetic field
+only 3 feet long and with the magnetic poles 6 inches apart."[35]
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 7.--The possible power source for space
+ships of the future, the ion jet, has significant counterpart uses for
+the commercial world.]
+
+Another possible source is photoelectric power. While a number of very
+difficult problems block the practical generation of this kind of power,
+the astronautics research division of one American company has now
+succeeded in increasing the efficiency of photoelectric cells by a
+factor of more than 300.[36] So the possibilities in this area are
+looking up. As discussed in section II, photon power derived from the
+ejection of electromagnetic rays may someday prove a source for
+accelerating vehicles once they have escaped from Earth's gravity.
+
+Another possibility, of course, is atomic energy about which much has
+been said and written. If, as some scientists believe, extensive space
+exploration by manned crews will depend on harnessing this great source
+of energy--both for booster purposes and for operating spacecraft in the
+distant parts of our interplanetary system--this fact alone may assure
+that the obstacles to practical nuclear energy are overcome faster and
+more completely than would otherwise be the case. It is interesting to
+note that the science of controlling nuclear fusion (as opposed to
+fission) has come so far in the past several years that 11 private power
+companies are pooling their resources to advance this state of the
+art.[37]
+
+
+_New water sources and uses_
+
+A look into the future indicates very strongly that water will become a
+major world problem, possibly by the beginning of the 1970's, which is
+likely to be another "dry" decade. Present water supplies, coupled with
+the increasing population and the many new uses for water, are barely
+adequate now. In another 10 years the situation could be critical.
+
+Part of our national space program includes studies on how to use and
+reuse water to the best advantage of the human in space. A number of
+avenues are being followed, including vaporization of volatiles in
+biological wastes.[38]
+
+From research of this kind it is more than possible that knowledge will
+evolve which will prove useful in the practical production of fresh
+water from other chemical compounds or mixtures, including seawater.
+More than that, it could lead to new ways for extracting much needed
+materials from the sea. Seawater contains 40 basic elements, 19 in
+relatively copious amounts. These elements run from 18,980 parts parts
+per million of chlorine to 0,0000002 part per billion of radium. Yet, so
+far, we have learned to extract only bromine and magnesium in useful
+amounts.[39] Conversely, the study of how marine animals extract rare
+elements from the seawater, such as the extraction of copper compounds
+by the octopus, could provide astronautic researchers with important
+clues for keeping man alive in space.
+
+
+_Noise and human engineering_
+
+This is a field in which research has been going on seriously for only a
+few years. Most of it has developed since World War II. Human
+engineering is involved primarily with the reaction of people to their
+immediate surroundings and how to arrange those surroundings in order to
+permit the most comfortable and efficient functioning within them.
+
+The noise aspect of human engineering, as it may develop from the
+problems of astronauts operating in a silent world, could lead to a
+variety of innovations for improving the performance of workers or even
+the general attitude of people living in urban areas. In today's world,
+where humans are subjected to so many different kinds, degrees, and
+sources of noise, psychologists consider the matter to be of no small
+importance.
+
+
+_High speed-light weight computers_
+
+     Space vehicles now need electronic computers for determining the
+     moment of launch, for fixing orbits, for navigation, and for
+     processing collected data. Computers will precede man into space.
+     They will take over guidance and decision functions beyond limits
+     of human physiology, psychology, versatility, and reaction
+     time.[40]
+
+The trend in this direction is marked and space exploration is
+accelerating it. Because of weight and size limitations, and due to the
+genius of research, the giant electronic brain of today will soon
+disappear and be replaced with an apparatus only a small fraction of its
+present size. The implications for the business and professional world
+are great. And a not inconsiderable side effect, according to many
+modern technicians, will be the flood of brainpower released from
+time-consuming chores and thus made available for more basic, creative
+thought.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 8.--The needs of tomorrow's spacemen will
+lead to marked advances in human engineering and psychology.]
+
+
+_Solid state physics_
+
+Few areas of effort are advancing this extremely promising art faster
+than space exploration, which places a premium on light weight and small
+size. The miniaturization of equipment being placed in U.S. satellites,
+for example, has been one of the contemporary wonders of the world of
+science.
+
+A big part of this march toward tiny equipment is in the field of
+electronics, where the process is called microminiaturization, molecular
+electronics, micromodular engineering or a number of other terms. In
+essence it refers to the greatly reduced size of equipment through
+"integrated circuits," coupled functions, the building of complicated
+components into a single molecular design and so on.
+
+The art has proceeded to the point where complete radios can be reduced
+to the size of a lump of sugar.
+
+Clearly, this trend holds almost unlimited utility for the home, the
+factory, the marketplace, the highway, the hospital or just about any
+other arena one cares to name. So great is the promise that virtually
+every electronics company in the country is undertaking "to take the
+state of the art into fundamentally new areas" and there exploit its
+many possibilities.[41]
+
+
+ECONOMIC ALLIANCES
+
+It may be that our national space exploration program will also result
+in stronger economic alliances, not only within our own national borders
+but on an international basis. Interesting speculation to this effect
+has been advanced by a prominent official of the National Aeronautics
+and Space Administration:
+
+     I think we may expect that the combined influence of jet aircraft
+     and satellite communications systems will enable us to integrate
+     the now somewhat distant States of Hawaii and Alaska with the rest
+     of the States as thoroughly as the East and West are already
+     integrated. Second, and in many ways a more intriguing possibility,
+     is the prospect of developing a truly international economic
+     organization. It is quite apparent that even today a large fraction
+     of the economy of the United States is dependent upon foreign
+     trade. Some nations of the world, such as England or Japan, are
+     almost entirely dependent upon foreign trade for their basic
+     standard of living; however, current foreign trade practices are
+     necessarily based on a somewhat leisurely pattern enforced by our
+     current communications capacity. Whether we will be able to
+     increase the efficiency and effectiveness of our activities in
+     foreign trade through the use of the new communications facilities
+     now foreseen will of course depend upon our political ability to
+     work out viable arrangements for our mutual benefit with our
+     oversea friends.
+
+     One of the lessons of history in the fields of communications is
+     that an increase in capability has never gone unused. The
+     capability of doing new things has always resulted in it being
+     found profitable to use this capability in all fields, both
+     commercial and governmental.[42]
+
+
+PRIVATE ENTERPRISE IN SPACE
+
+Up to now space exploration has been more or less the exclusive domain
+of the Federal Government. It seems likely that this situation will not
+change much in the near future. But the question finally arises: Is the
+nature of space such that the traditional American concept of private
+enterprise can have no place in it?
+
+On this score there is debate. Recently, however, there have been
+indications that businessmen feel they will be able to conduct certain
+business operations and services in space.
+
+     The space frontier will inevitably increase the scale of thinking
+     and risk taking by business. When we are dealing with space, we
+     are dealing with a technology that requires a planetary scale to
+     stage it; decades of time to develop it; and much bigger
+     investments to get across the threshold of economic return than is
+     customary in business today. Business must now think in
+     international terms, and in terms of the next business generation.
+     It must step up to the big risks with the same vision that enabled
+     an earlier generation of builders to push railroad tracks out
+     across the wilderness and lay the foundations of our modern
+     economy.[43]
+
+Incidentally, it should be pointed out that space exploration is already
+encouraging the formation of business of all sizes. Myriads of small
+businesses have sprung up, many of them "suppliers of specialty
+equipment for the larger concerns that have responsibility for major
+components and systems."[44]
+
+To what extent will private enterprise become involved? Here is one
+view:
+
+     As the years pass by, and space apparatus becomes more reliable,
+     and the work of obtaining scientific data from space acquires a
+     more routine character--certainly many of the necessary operating
+     facilities could be put on a self-liquidating, private-industry
+     basis.
+
+     Probably the first opportunities for private investment will come
+     in the commercial use of satellites. Looking even further into the
+     future of space exploration, perhaps there would be economic
+     justification for a privately owned launching service that would
+     put objects into space for the peaceful purposes of friendly
+     governments, international agencies, industry, and the
+     universities.
+
+     The base itself, from which the commercial launching service would
+     operate, might be modeled after a port authority. Such a
+     nonmilitary, international space port could develop as a center for
+     many private enterprises related to space operations. These might
+     include service and maintenance facilities; data-processing
+     services; space communication centers; laboratory facilities;
+     standardized equipment for satellites and other space vehicles;
+     fuel supplies; medical services; biological services; and general
+     supplies.
+
+     Moving away from the idea of a commercial space port, must all
+     future tracking stations, observatories, and data-processing
+     stations be Government owned? How about experimental stations for
+     the simulation of space environments? How about laboratories and
+     stations actually constructed in space? Or will privately owned
+     facilities one day offer these services on an international basis
+     to governments, industries, universities, and international
+     agencies?
+
+     Most likely the first businesses suitable for commercial operation,
+     using space technologies, will be worldwide communication by
+     satellite, private weather forecasting, and high-speed Earth
+     transport by rocket.[45]
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 9.--The electric and electronic needs of
+the space program are requiring more and more skilled labor.]
+
+
+JOBS
+
+There probably is no reliable way to gage the number of Americans who
+are employed today because of the national space effort, nor to estimate
+accurately the number who are likely to be employed in the years ahead.
+
+This much can be said, though. They already number in the tens of
+thousands, probably in the hundreds of thousands.
+
+The Administrator of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration
+has reported that his agency presently employs 18,000 persons. And he
+adds "in spite of the size of this organization, we estimate that
+approximately 75 percent of our budget will be expended through
+contracts with industry, educational institutions, and other
+nongovernmental groups."
+
+Thus the number of persons privately employed who are working on NASA
+projects is, of itself, a high figure. The number employed in, by, or
+for the Department of Defense on missiles or space-related projects is
+undoubtedly higher.
+
+In addition to these must be added the men and women employed by private
+industry in a capacity not directly related to the space program but
+whose jobs have been created nonetheless by its stimulus.
+
+     The fact is that the military and peaceful needs of the space
+     program are already employing a significant percentage of the
+     industrial work force, and will make up an even larger proportion
+     of total employment and production of the country as the years go
+     by. The aircraft industry, for example, is broadening its scope to
+     include missile and space technologies. Much of the electronics
+     industry is devoted to missile and space needs. The communications,
+     chemical, and metallurgical industries are increasingly involved.
+     These industries are already among the largest employers in the
+     United States, and they are the major employers of the Nation's
+     technical manpower. Hence we are not speaking of a minor element in
+     the national economy, but of its leading growth industries.[46]
+
+This phase of the space program's value should not be eyed merely from
+the standpoint of scientists and the labor market. It has major
+significance for the professions--for doctors, lawyers, architects,
+teachers, and engineers. All of these will be vitally concerned with
+space exploration in the future. The doctor with space medicine and its
+results; the lawyer with business relations and a vastly increased need
+for knowledge in international law; the architect with the construction
+of spaceports and data and tracking facilities; the teacher with the
+booming demand for new types of space-engendered curricula.
+
+As for the engineer--
+
+     In this pyramid of scientific and engineering effort there will be
+     found requirements for the services of almost every type of
+     scientist and engineer to a greater or less degree. In the
+     forefront, of course, are the aerospace and astronautical engineers
+     but the development of the Saturn launching vehicle has also
+     enlisted the cooperation of civil, mechanical, electrical,
+     metallurgical, chemical, automotive, structural, radio, and
+     electronics engineers. Much of their work relates to ground
+     handling equipment, special automotive and barge equipment,
+     checkout equipment, and all the other devices needed to support the
+     design, construction, testing, launching, and data gathering.[47]
+
+
+AUTOMATION AND DISARMAMENT
+
+Finally, an economic value of extreme importance could be the ultimate
+role of the space program in modifying the threat to labor which is
+inherent in automation and disarmament. Space exploration, opening up
+new and profitable vistas, could take up much of the slack thus imposed
+and do it at a higher and more intellectual job level.
+
+Automation, as we know, is already in the process. In agriculture alone
+it has bitten deeply into the laboring force and yet produces greater
+crops than ever.[48] It is gathering strength in many other fields.
+
+Disarmament is a long way from being a reality. But all nations of the
+world are striving for it, or at least giving lipservice to its
+principles, so it may one day emerge as a reality. If this happens,
+space exploration again may be a most important element in taking up the
+slack which a prominent reduction in defense activity could not help but
+bring about.
+
+Indeed, there are some who already foresee a complete substitution of
+space for defense, and who prognosticate that in the 1990's "the economy
+of nations is now based on the astronautics industry, instead of
+war."[49] Certainly, some new economic force would be crucial to nations
+deprived of the need for devising and manufacturing weapons.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 10.--A host of new materials, skills, and
+engineering techniques are bound up in the construction of rocket
+engines such as this first stage booster.]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[25] Gavin, James M., address to the International Bankers Association,
+Bal Harbour, Fla., Dec. 2, 1958.
+
+[26] Mitchell, Hon. Erwin, in the House of Representatives, June 2,
+1960.
+
+[27] Dryden, Dr. Hugh L., Deputy Administrator, NASA, Penrose lecture
+before the American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia, Apr. 21, 1960.
+
+[28] Missile-Space Directory, Missiles and Rockets, May 30, 1960, pp.
+86-359.
+
+[29] Haley, Andrew G., general counsel and past president of the
+International Astronautical Federation, "Rocketry and Space
+Exploration." Van Nostrand Co., Princeton, N.J., 1958 p. 156.
+
+[30] Ruzic, Neil P., "The Technical Entrepreneur," Industrial Research,
+May 1980, p.10.
+
+[31] Bacon, F. T., "The Fuel Cell, Power Source of the Future," New
+Scientist, Aug. 17, 1959, p.272.
+
+[32] Science Service dispatch, dateline Lynn, Mass., Apr. 25, 1950.
+
+[33] Sharp, James M., "The Application of Fuel Cells in the Natural Gas
+Industry," Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, Tex., Mar. 4,
+1960, pp. 2-3.
+
+[34] Lear, John, "Towns To Be Lit by Plasma," New Scientist, Nov. 19,
+1959, p. 1006.
+
+[35] Pursglove S. David, Industrial Research, March 1950 p. 19.
+
+[36] Ibid.
+
+[37] Ibid., p. 18.
+
+[38] Space Business Daily, June 13, 1960.
+
+[39] Cox, Dr. R. A., "The Chemistry of Seawater," New Scientist, Sept.
+24, 19459, p. 518.
+
+[40] Hines, L. J., Space Age News, Apr. 25, 1960, p. 4.
+
+[41] Gaertner, W. W., "Functional Microelectronics," Missile Design and
+Development, March 1960, p. 34.
+
+[42] Stewart, Dr. Homer J., address to the American Bar Association,
+Miami Beach, Aug. 25, 1959.
+
+[43] Cordiner, Ralph J., "Competitive Private Enterprise in Space,"
+lecture at U.C.L.A., May 4, 1960
+
+[44] Ibid.
+
+[45] Ibid.
+
+[46] Ibid.
+
+[47] 27 supra.
+
+[48] See "The Problem of Plenty," U.S. News & World Report, Apr. 13,
+1959, p. 97.
+
+[49] Markuwitz, Meyer M., and Gentieu, Norman P., "The Rocket, A Past
+and Future History," Industrial Research, December 1959, p. 78.
+
+
+
+
+IV. VALUES FOR EVERYDAY LIVING
+
+
+The so-called side effects of the space exploration program are showing
+a remarkable ability to produce innovations which, in turn, improve the
+quality of everyday work and everyday living throughout the United
+States.
+
+In setting forth specific ways and means in which the space program is
+producing practical uses, it must be kept in mind that no attempt is
+made here to separate uses resulting from the civil phases of the
+program from those developed by the military phases. Inasmuch as the two
+are closely intertwined, it would seem impractical to do so. And, in
+instances where the same or similar research is being conducted by a
+single contractor on behalf of both phases, it is usually impossible to
+do so.
+
+
+TECHNOLOGICAL BENEFITS
+
+This category of the practical uses of the space program is impressive
+indeed.
+
+Most of us are familiar with the plans which the United States has for
+using artificial satellites in ways which will be beneficial to all
+mankind. These include the satellite used for worldwide communications,
+for global television, for quick and accurate navigation, and for much
+improved weather prediction and weather understanding.
+
+Here, however, is a summary of space-related developments about which
+the American public has heard considerably less:
+
+     First, there is the high-speed computer. Developed initially to
+     meet military demands for faster calculation, the computer is an
+     integral part of American industry, making it possible to do many
+     operations with a high degree of efficiency and accuracy.
+     Thermoelectric devices for heating and cooling, now adapted for
+     commercial applications, were originally designed to provide energy
+     sources for space vehicles. The glass industry, as a result of work
+     done during and after the Second World War on lenses and plastics,
+     promises substantial gains in the consumer fields of optics and
+     foods. Pyroceram, developed for missile radomes, is now being used
+     in the manufacture of pots and pans. Materials suitable for use in
+     the nuclear preservation of food may make us even better fed than
+     we already are.
+
+     Medical research, and our health problems, can use such things as
+     film resistance thermometers. Electronic equipment capable of
+     measuring low-level electrical signals is being adapted to measure
+     body temperature and blood flow. In a dramatic breakthrough,
+     illustrating the unexpected benefits of research, it has been found
+     that a derivative of hydrazine, developed as a liquid missile
+     propellant, is useful in treating certain mental illnesses and
+     tuberculosis.
+
+     Of course, the aeronautics industry has benefited tremendously.
+     Engines, automatic pilots, radar systems, flight equipment, capable
+     of meeting the high standards required by space vehicles represent
+     a great improvement over our already excellent aircraft.
+
+     A plasma arc torch (has been) developed for fabricating ultrahard
+     materials and coatings by mass production methods. The torch, an
+     outgrowth of plasma technology, develops heats of 30,000 degrees
+     and can work within tolerances of two-thousandths of an inch.
+     Another application from the missile field, which shows real
+     possibilities, is a reliable flow meter that has no packings or
+     bearings. This was first developed for measuring liquefied gases
+     and should have a very wide industrial usefulness. It may even lead
+     to improvements in marine devices for measuring distance and
+     velocity.
+
+     Ground-to-air missiles that ride a beam to their targets must
+     measure the distance to the target plane with an accuracy of a few
+     feet in several miles. This principle, now being applied to
+     surveying techniques, has revolutionized the surveying industry.
+
+     The solenoid valve, which seats itself softly enough to eliminate
+     vibration, has been applied very satisfactorily to home-heating
+     systems.
+
+     The use of the jet drilling for mining is another, and worthy of
+     amplification. Missiles are already working the economically
+     unminable taconite ore of the Mesabi Range, have helped build the
+     St. Lawrence Seaway, and are bringing down costs in quarrying.
+
+     It is estimated that taconite will be supplying about a third of
+     our ores in less than 20 years. Until 1947 we were unable to mine
+     this very hard rock, and then suitable rotary and churn drills were
+     produced. Jet drilling, now available, cracks and crumbles stone
+     layers by thermally induced expansion and is somewhere between 3
+     and 5 times faster than rotaries.
+
+     Jet piercing can take us far deeper into the earth than we have
+     been able to go so far, to new sources of ore and hydrocarbons.
+
+     In stone quarrying, jet spalling and channeling are proven
+     techniques. Stone quarrying has been expensive and wasteful
+     heretofore. Rocket flame equipment allows cutting along the natural
+     cleavage planes, or crystal boundaries--hence cuts stone thin
+     without danger of cracking and, in addition, produces a fine finish
+     that cannot be obtained when cutting by steel or abrasive tools.
+
+     Scientific literature is beginning to contain speculations on using
+     the principle of the missile engine to save unstable intermediate
+     products of the chemical processes. The high heats achieved in the
+     rocket engine can, perhaps, be utilized to produce desired products
+     that would be lost by slow cooling. But the high rate of cooling
+     accomplished by expanding gases through the engine nozzle, it is
+     thought, would save these unstable compounds.
+
+     Infrared has come into its own through missile electronics.
+     Infrared--since it cannot be jammed--appears to be challenging
+     radar for use in guidance devices, tracking systems, and
+     reconnaissance vehicles. Infrared is being used industrially to
+     measure the compositions of fluids in complex processes of chemical
+     petroleum refining and distilling. Infrared cameras are used in
+     analyzing metallurgical material processing operations, to aid in
+     accuracy and quality control. The entire infrared field should be
+     significantly assisted in its growth and application through our
+     missile-space programs.
+
+     Another very promising outcome from missile development is a
+     computer converter that can quickly transform analogue
+     signals--such as pressure measurements--into digital form.
+
+     In the near future, when guidance devices permit soft landing,
+     rocket cargo and passenger transport will become feasible. Mail may
+     become almost as swift as telephone.
+
+     We are making rapid progress in the economics of space travel:
+     payload costs for Vanguard were about $1 billion a pound; for the
+     near future launchings, payload cost should be about $1,000 per
+     pound. When payload costs are about a hundred dollars a pound we
+     may expect commercial space flight.[50]
+
+Hundreds of other examples of the space program's value for everyday
+living could be cited.
+
+One with wide possibilities is a new welding process by using a
+high-powered electron beam gun, developed for the fabrication of
+spaceships and other space vehicles. This method permits welding joints
+capable of withstanding temperatures up to 3,000 deg. F.; it can be used on
+metals such as molybdenum and pure tungsten. And, its developers say, it
+results in welded joints that have deep penetration and narrow weld
+beads that are virtually free of contamination.[51]
+
+Another ingenius application, resulting from the Navy's space research
+program, has significant utility for medicine and surgery. This is a
+glass fiber device which, when placed in the mouth during dental work or
+in the area of surgical incision, permits a much magnified televising of
+the operation. It holds considerable promise for teaching techniques in
+many fields.[52]
+
+Another example is a finely woven stainless steel cloth designed for
+parachuting space vehicles back to Earth. The cloth is made of fine wire
+of great strength which can withstand tremendous temperatures and
+chemical contamination. The wire from which the cloth is woven is about
+one-fifth the thickness of a human hair and is believed to have marked
+potential for industry and consumers alike.
+
+Here is an additional list of examples:[53]
+
+     Microminiature transmitters and receivers--used by police and
+     doctors.
+
+     Target drone autopilot--used as an inexpensive pilot assist and
+     safety device for private aircraft.
+
+     Inert thread sealing compound--- used by pump manufacturers serving
+     process industries.
+
+     Satellite scan devices--used in infrared appliances, e.g., lamps,
+     roasters, switches, ovens.
+
+     Automatic control components--used as proximity switches, plugs,
+     valves, cylinders; other components already are an integral part of
+     industrial conveyor systems.
+
+     Missile accelerometers, torquemeters, strain gage equipment--used
+     in auto crash tests, motor testing, shipbuilding and bridge
+     construction.
+
+     Space recording equipment automatically stopped and started by
+     sound of voice--used widely as conference recorder.
+
+     Armalite radar--used as proximity warning device for aircraft.
+
+     Miniature electronics and bearings--used for portable radio and
+     television; excessively small roller, needle and ball bearings used
+     for such equipment as air-turbine dental drills.
+
+     Epoxy missile resin--used for plastic tooling, metal bonding,
+     adhesive, and casting and laminating applications.
+
+     Silicones for motor insulation and subzero lubricants--used in new
+     glassmaking techniques for myriad products.
+
+     Ribbon glass for capacitors--used widely in electronics field.
+
+     Radar bulbs--used in air traffic control equipment.
+
+     Ribbon cable for missiles--used in the communications industry.
+
+     Automatic gun cameras--used in banks, toll booths, etc.
+
+     Fluxless aluminum soldering--used for kitchen utensil repair,
+     gutters, flashings, antennas, electrical joints, auto repairing,
+     farm machinery, etc.
+
+     Lightweight hydraulic pumps--used in automated machinery and
+     pneumatic control systems.
+
+     Voice interruption priority system--used for assembly line
+     production control.
+
+     Examples such as the foregoing, it might be pointed out, do not
+     generally emphasize an area in which space exploration is making
+     one of its greatest contributions. This is the creation of new
+     materials, metals, fabrics, alloys, and compounds that are finding
+     their way rapidly into the commercial market.
+
+     Less demonstrable but equally (and perhaps more) significant areas
+     which may expect to benefit from space exploration are set out
+     beginning on page 35.
+
+[Illustration. FIGURE 11.--Vital information about the forces
+which cause weather can be learned from meteorological satellites such
+as these. Even a slight increase in the accuracy of weather prediction
+will be worth millions of dollars annually.]
+
+
+FOOD AND AGRICULTURE
+
+An extremely difficult problem bound up with space travel of any
+duration is that of food. Astronauts will not be able to take large
+supplies of food on their voyages and probably will have to reuse what
+they do take. Learning how to do this is no easy matter. Some doubt if
+it can be done. Others are optimistic.
+
+     The body of scientists now working directly on space feeding and
+     nutrition is working effectively at a rate only attained by high
+     motivation. But this motivation suffices and their efforts will
+     ultimately provide at least a partially closed space feeding system
+     by the time it is critically needed and, eventually, an ideal one
+     for long voyages of man into the remoter reaches of outer
+     space.[54]
+
+If the optimists are right, it is conceivable that the information gamed
+from this research will have profound influence on food and agricultural
+processes in the future. The use and growth of synthetics or new foods,
+and their effects on the soil, could prove invaluable as the worlds
+population climbs and the demand for food multiplies. Better
+understanding of weather processes, as provided through space
+exploration, will also be valuable in terms of agriculture. Long-range
+accurate weather prediction would be worth millions of dollars in proper
+crops planted and crop damage avoided.
+
+Meanwhile, as in other technological areas, space research is providing
+specific new tools for the food and agriculture industry. Infrared food
+blanching, for instance, is highly effective in preparing foods for
+canning or freezing. The development of a new forage harvester based on
+principles of aerodynamics uncovered by missile engineers is another
+example.
+
+
+COMMUNICATIONS
+
+This is a field of enormous promise, and its practicality has already
+been demonstrated to the extent of placing satellites into precise
+orbits, such as Tiros (weather) and Transit (navigation), and of
+communicating at long distances--23 million miles in the case of Pioneer
+V. As a result:
+
+     Government and industry technicians are rapidly developing new
+     Earth satellites to beam not only television programs but radio
+     broadcasts and phone conversations to every spot on Earth that's
+     equipped to receive them. Thus this space project, far more than
+     most, will touch the ordinary citizen. The goal: a workable,
+     worldwide communications system in space before this decade is
+     over. It will be, declares one researcher, "the ultimate in
+     communications."[55]
+
+Incidentally, the first worldwide communications system of this type,
+and whether it is conducted in English or Russian, may have crucial
+prestige and propaganda ramifications.
+
+Such facilities should be possible through a system of carefully placed
+satellites so that radio signals can be relayed to any part of the globe
+at any time.
+
+Moreover they appear to be essential when one considers that within the
+next 20 years existing techniques are apt to be stretched beyond
+reasonable economic limits by demands for long distance communications.
+It is difficult to see how transoceanic television will otherwise be
+possible when it is realized that there is presently a capacity of less
+than 100 telephone channels across the Atlantic and a single television
+channel is equivalent in band width to 1,000 telephone channels. It
+appears that a system utilizing satellites is the most promising
+solution to this problem.[56]
+
+More esoteric communications systems may also arise from space research.
+
+     In some future year when a cruising space vehicle communicates with
+     another space vehicle or its orbiting station, it may use a beam of
+     light instead of conventional radio. Not that radio will be
+     inoperative under the airless conditions of space--rather the
+     reverse--but there is reason to believe that communication by
+     sunlight not only will be cheaper but will entail carrying much
+     simpler and lighter equipment for certain specialized space
+     applications. (The Air Force) is developing an experimental system
+     that will collect sun rays, run them through a modulator, direct
+     the resultant light wave in a controlled beam to a receiver. There
+     the wave will be put through a detector, transposed into an
+     electrical impulse and be amplified to a speaker. Depending on the
+     type of modulator used, either the digital (dot-dash) message or a
+     voice message can be sent.[57]
+
+Might not such a system find practical usage on Earth, particularly in
+sunny, arid lands?
+
+
+WEATHER PREDICTION AND MODIFICATION
+
+Meteorological satellites should make possible weather observations over
+the entire globe. Today, only 20 percent of the globe is covered by any
+regular observational and reporting systems. If we can solve the
+problems of handling the vast amounts of data that will be received,
+develop methods for timely analysis of the data and the notification of
+weather bureaus throughout the world, we should be able to improve by a
+significant degree the accuracy of weather predictions. An improvement
+of only 10 percent in accuracy could result in savings totaling hundreds
+of millions of dollars annually to farmers, builders, airlines,
+shipping, the tourist trade, and many other enterprises.
+
+Perhaps even greater savings will come from warning systems devised for
+hurricanes and tornadoes.
+
+The slight knowledge which humans actually have of weather forces can be
+seen from the fact that at present we do not even know exactly how rain
+begins.[58] Learning to predict it and to modify it, through space
+application, might help slow down the soil erosion of arable land--that
+"geological inevitability * * * which man can only hasten or
+postpone."[59] It is noteworthy that the two leading nations in space
+research, the United States and the U.S.S.R., are among the most
+affected by soil erosion.
+
+The "leg up" which the United States has in this particular phase of
+space research is illustrated by the acute photographic talents of the
+Tiros satellite and their meaning to weather experts. The following
+description of some of the earliest pictures by the Director of the
+Office of Meteorological Research, U.S. Weather Bureau, is illuminating.
+
+     This picture, labeled "No. 1," was the storm that was picked up in
+     the early orbits of Tiros on the first day of launch, April 1. This
+     shows the storm 120 miles east of Cape Cod, with dry continental
+     air streaming off the United States, not shown by clouds, and off
+     the coast the moist air streaming up to the north, counterclockwise
+     around the center, producing widespread clouds and precipitation as
+     far north as the Gulf of St. Lawrence.
+
+     On that same day mention was made of a storm in the Midwest. That
+     is illustrated by photograph No. 2. This was centered over
+     southeast Nebraska, a rather extensive storm. Again, we have a
+     clear air portion shown by a dark area, the ground underneath,
+     which has less brightness than the clouds, the cold air from Canada
+     streaming into that area, not characterized by clouds, and to the
+     east the moist air from the Gulf of Mexico, in this general
+     neighborhood, streaming around into that center and producing
+     rather widespread rains. In this case near the Gulf of Mexico,
+     where the cloud is extremely bright, indicating that the clouds are
+     very high, thunderstorms were found in that area.
+
+     [Illustration: FIGURE 12.--Storm center over Nebraska
+     photographed by the first U.S. weather satellite, Tiros, on April
+     1, 1960. The extent of the picture can be seen from the
+     accompanying weather map.]
+
+     It is a sort of situation in which tornadoes are to be found in
+     this very bright cloudy area, especially this time of year in the
+     Midwest.
+
+     A third vortex was observed, also April 1, in the Gulf of Alaska,
+     500 miles southeast of Kodiak Island. The vortex circulation is
+     clearly evidenced by the clouds which form in a circular array, and
+     the large clear area in the center of the storm.
+
+     No. 4 picture refers to a very big storm 1,500 miles in diameter
+     located 300 miles west of Ireland on April 2. This is a very old
+     storm which was whirling around, had no fronts associated with it.
+     It has long since wound up around the center. There is a rather
+     well-marked structure to the clouds that you can see. It is quite
+     different from the pictures in the first two. These are storms
+     mostly over the continental area or just off the coast. The storms
+     over the oceans seem to show more of a banded structure. By that I
+     mean circular bands of clouds, of width perhaps ranging from 20
+     miles to a few hundred miles, spiraling around the center in a
+     counterclockwise manner.[60]
+
+
+HEALTH BENEFITS
+
+Of all the problems contingent upon space flight it is doubtful if any
+are more perplexing than the biological ones. In fact, it now appears
+quite likely that the limiting factor on manned space exploration will
+be less the nature of physical laws or the shortcoming of space vehicle
+systems than the vulnerability of the human body.
+
+In order to place humans in space for any extended period, we must solve
+a host of highly complicated biological equations which demand intensive
+basic research. The other side of the coin, however, is that when
+scientific breakthroughs do occur in this area, they will probably be
+among the most beneficial to come from the space program.
+
+An idea of what is going on in the space medicine field can be obtained
+from this summary:
+
+     Engineers already have equipped man with the vehicle for space
+     travel. Medical researchers now are investigating many factors
+     incident to the maintenance of space life--to make possible man's
+     flight into the depths of space. Placing man in a wholly new
+     environment requires knowledge far beyond our current grasp of
+     human biology.
+
+     Here are some of the problems under investigation: The
+     determination of man's reactions; the necessity of operating in a
+     completely closed system compatible with man's physiological
+     requirements (oxygen and carbon dioxide content, food, barometric
+     pressure, humidity and temperature control); explosive
+     decompression; psychophysiological difficulties of spatial
+     disorientation as a result of weightlessness; toxicology of
+     metabolites and propellants; effects of cosmic, solar, and nuclear
+     ionizing radiation and protective shielding and treatment; effects
+     on man's circulatory system from accelerative and decelerative g.
+     forces; the establishment of a thermoneutral range for man to exist
+     through preflight, flight, and reentry; regeneration of water and
+     food.[61]
+
+In addition, intensive efforts are being brought to bear on such
+problems as the effect on humans who are deprived of their sensory
+perceptions, or whose sensory systems are overloaded, or who are exposed
+to excessive boredom or anxiety or sense of unreality, or who must do
+their job under hypnosis or hypothermia (cooling of warm-blooded
+animals).
+
+A recent space medicine symposium heard this theory advanced by a
+prominent medical scholar:
+
+     Attractive, indeed, for the space traveler would be the choice of
+     hibernating during long periods when there was nothing he had to
+     do. With the increase of speeds and the lowering of metabolism,
+     consideration of flights running several hundred or even thousands
+     of years cannot be offhandedly dismissed as mere fantasy. During
+     prolonged flights of many months or years there will be very little
+     to see and that of negligible interest. The most practical way of
+     dealing with the problem might well be to have the pilot sleep 23
+     of the 24 hours.[62]
+
+Lowering the body temperature would be one way of inducing the necessary
+deep sleep.
+
+Another possibility of handling some of the biological problems of space
+flight, suggested by another physician, would be for astronauts to
+discard the 24-hour Earth day and establish a longer rhythm for their
+lives.[63]
+
+At any rate, and while we may not now see just how it will come about,
+knowledge gained from experiments such as these may result in important
+medical and psychological advances.
+
+In the drug and technological area of medicine, concrete benefits have
+already resulted from the national space program. These include, as
+already mentioned, a drug developed from a missile propellant to treat
+mental ills, a means of rapidly lowering blood temperature in
+operations, and a small efficient valve which could replace the valve in
+a human heart.
+
+Particularly gratifying, from the standpoint of medical value is the
+Army's work toward an anti-radiation drug which could be taken before
+exposure to reduce the biological effects of radiation.[64] Such a drug,
+which is of special interest to astronauts who might be required to
+subject themselves to varying belts of radiation, might be of even
+greater use in the cause of civil defense.
+
+A final and far-reaching phase of the health side of space exploration
+deals with the basic nature of biology itself--how and under what
+conditions life grows. Up to now biological science has been largely
+"the rationalization of particular facts and we have had all too limited
+a basis for the construction and testing of meaningful axioms to support
+a theory of life."[65] Through research made possible by the space
+program it may be possible to alter this condition. "The dynamics of
+celestial bodies, as can be observed from the Earth, is the richest
+inspiration for the generalization of our concepts of mass and energy
+throughout the universe. The spectra of the stars likewise testify to
+the universality of our concepts in chemistry. But biology has lacked
+tools of such extension, and life until now has meant only terrestrial
+life."[66]
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 13.--Biological reactions uncovered in
+space medicine studies, such as this centrifuge experiment, may lead to
+important health discoveries.]
+
+The secrets which this research may divulge and their meaning for human
+health can only be imagined. But they certainly would not be minor.
+
+
+EDUCATION BENEFITS
+
+No enterprise has so stirred human imagination as the reach of man
+toward the exploration of space. New worlds to explore. New distances to
+travel--3,680 million miles to Pluto, the outermost planet of our solar
+system, 8 years journey at 50,000 miles per hour when we attain such a
+capability. Innumerable problems ahead. New knowledge needed in almost
+every branch of science and technology from magneto fluid dynamics to
+cosmology, from materials to biology and psychology.[67]
+
+"New knowledge needed" means better and stronger education is essential.
+And not only in the physical sciences. In the social sciences and the
+arts as well.
+
+     Certainly man's space adventure can help profoundly to make a finer
+     creature of him, but only if his adventures on Earth can do so as
+     well. Essentially what this means to a social psychologist is that
+     we must somehow raise our level of education to the point where
+     most men most of the time can appreciate and actively absorb the
+     implications of knowledge and developments in all areas
+     sufficiently to let them enrich their personal philosophies.
+     Obviously this kind of education is only in part a scientific
+     one.[68]
+
+Moreover, the technical and management aspects of the space program
+involve collaboration with nonscientific persons such as businessmen,
+bankers, and public officials in assessing worthwhile objectives and in
+judging the technical and economic feasibility of projects designed to
+accomplish these objectives.[69] Consequently each type must educate the
+other in his own specialty if an effective, stepped-up space program is
+to be achieved.
+
+
+_The demand_
+
+Apparently the demand for specific formal education in the science of
+astronautics is increasing faster than it is being supplied. Although
+many colleges and universities have been setting up courses dealing with
+astronautics, the state of the art does not seem to have crystallized to
+the extent that it permits fashioning a career in the field at the
+educational level. Of course, discontent is created. One publication has
+editorialized:
+
+     We have received a surprising number of letters from young people
+     who actually want to know how and where they can get started in a
+     career in astronautics. These, for the most part, are high school
+     students--and, evidently, they couldn't get the information they
+     wanted from their own school. * * * Isn't the age of space yet
+     important enough for all the high schools to sponsor interest in
+     our space programs and to point out the need for a constant flow of
+     young brains?[70]
+
+The answer undoubtedly is that such grassroots demand will bring about
+increased academic curricula in astronautics in direct proportion to its
+magnitude.
+
+Meanwhile, the availability of work for persons with a background in
+space-related subjects can be gaged to some extent by observing the
+variety of personnel requirements on major space exploration projects.
+
+A single American firm, for example, uses 49 different professional
+specialists in its work for the National Aeronautics and Space
+Administration and in its space work for the Department of Defense.[71]
+Multiplied by the thousands of companies which are doing similar work,
+the list gives an idea of the astronautic demand confronting the
+Nation's educational institutions:
+
+  Acoustician
+  Aerodynamicist
+  Aeronautical engineer
+  Agricultural engineer
+  Astrodynamicist
+  Astronomer
+  Astrophysicist
+  Biochemist
+  Biophysicist
+  Ceramics specialist
+  Chemist
+  Computer specialist
+  Crystallographer
+  Development engineer
+  Doctor of medicine
+  Electrical engineer
+  Electronic engineer
+  Experimental physicist
+  Flight engineer
+  Gyroscopics specialist
+  Hydraulic engineer
+  Information theory analyst
+  Inorganic chemist
+  Logical designer
+  Magnetic device engineer
+  Mathematician
+  Mechanical applications engineer
+  Mechanical engineer
+  Mechanisms specialist
+  Medical electronic engineer
+  Metallurgical engineer
+  Methods engineer
+  Nuclear physicist
+  Oceanographer
+  Organic chemist
+  Physical chemist
+  Pneumatic engineer
+  Process engineer
+  Production engineer
+  Project engineer
+  Psychologist
+  Reliability engineer
+  Sociologist
+  Solid state physicist
+  Structural engineer
+  System analyst
+  Theoretical physicist
+  Thermodynamicist
+  Transducer engineer
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 14.--Exploration within the solar system
+means a wealth of new knowledge which could lead to learning the secrets
+of life.]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[50] 25 supra. See also address to the American Bankers Association,
+Oct. 28, 1958.
+
+[51] Space Business Daily, June 17, 1960.
+
+[52] Feldman, George J., cited in a letter to the House Committee on
+Science and Astronautics, Apr. 29, 1960.
+
+[53] From Michelson, Edward J., "How Missile-Space Spending Enriches the
+Peacetime Economy," Missiles and Rockets, Sept. 14, 1959, pp. 13-17.
+
+[54] Tischer, R. G., "A Search for the Spaceman's Food," Space Journal,
+December 1959, p. 46.
+
+[55] Kraar, Louis, Wall Street Journal, May 4, 1960.
+
+[56] 7 supra.
+
+[57] Release No. 38-60, Air Research and Development Command, May 2,
+1960.
+
+[58] Lear, John, "Where Does Rain Begin?" New Scientist, Mar. 24, 1960,
+p. 724.
+
+[59] "Wind and Soil," New Scientist, May 26, 1960, p. 1327.
+
+[60] Wexler, Dr. Harry. Press conference conducted by the National
+Aeronautics and Space Administration, Apr. 22, 1960.
+
+[61] Lockheed, Missiles and Space Division, medical research, Sunnyvale,
+Calif.
+
+[62] Lewis, Dr. F. J., before the Space Flight Symposium, San Antonio,
+Tex., May 28, 1960.
+
+[63] Kleitman, Prof. Nathaniel, before the Space Flight Symposium, San
+Antonio, Tex., May 26, 1960.
+
+[64] Taylor, Lt. Col. Richard R., USA (MC), testimony before the House
+Committee on Science and Astronautics, June 15, 1960.
+
+[65] Lederberg, Joshua, "Exobiology-Experimental Approaches to Life
+Beyond Earth," Science in Space, ch. IX, National Academy of Sciences,
+Washington, D.C., February 1960.
+
+[66] Ibid.
+
+[67] Dryden, Dr. Hugh L., speech before the Engineering Society of
+Cincinnati, Feb. 18, 1960.
+
+[68] Michael, Donald N., "Space Exploration and the Values of Man,"
+Space Journal, September 1959, p. 15.
+
+[69] 67 supra.
+
+[70] Space Age, August 1959, p. 3.
+
+[71] Minneapolis-Honeywell, Military Products Group.
+
+
+
+
+V. LONG-RANGE VALUES
+
+In assessing the _practical_ values of space exploration it does not
+seem logical to limit considerations to those values which are immediate
+or near-future ones. The worth of a present activity may be doubled or
+trebled because of its long-range potential.
+
+Such values may not be practical within the context of today's usage,
+but they may be extremely practical if we are willing to concede that
+those of us living today have an interest in and a responsibility for
+what happens on Earth in the decades and centuries to come.
+
+
+TROUBLE SPOTS
+
+Thinking along these lines it is not difficult to conjure up a picture
+of some of the difficult physical and social problems which will be
+facing the Earth in the years which stretch ahead. The foregoing
+sections of this report, for example, have already indicated extensive
+difficulties inherent in at least five major categories.
+
+  (1) Bursting population.
+  (2) Acute water shortage.
+  (3) Soil erosion and disappearance.
+  (4) Too much leisure.
+  (5) Intensified nationalism.
+
+In each area it is probable that space exploration will ultimately play
+an important role.
+
+
+_Population_
+
+Social scientists have been warning for years of the drastic social
+upheavals which must inevitably accompany an "exploding" population. It
+is a problem the complexity of which grows in geometric progression as
+time goes on. In the United States nearly 300 years were required to
+produce 90 million people. In the past 60 years this number has doubled.
+The implications are obvious. They are only too plain to urban and
+suburban planners who endeavor to cope with the antlike construction and
+activity of the human race as it burgeons with each succeeding year.
+
+Of course, this is not a domestic matter but a global one. Its
+seriousness has been described as follows: "Projection of the post-World
+War II rate of increase gives a population of 50 billions (the highest
+estimate of the population-carrying capacity of the globe ever
+calculated by a responsible scholar) in less than 200 years."[72] A
+European professor of medicine adds that any surge in human longevity at
+this time is quite undesirable from the standpoint of making elderly
+persons useful or cared for. "The problems posed by the explosive growth
+of populations * * * are so great that it is quite reassuring to know
+that biologists and medical men have so far been unsuccessful in
+increasing the _maximum_ lifespan of the human species * * * and * * *
+it would be a calamity for the social and economic structure of a
+country if the mean lifespan were suddenly to increase from 65 to 85
+years."[73]
+
+Some anthropologists pessimistically wonder if man is going to prove
+like the locust by populating himself into near extinction from time to
+time.
+
+Without subscribing to this view, one must nevertheless take notice of
+the difficulties posed by population increase, not merely those of food,
+shelter, education, and the like but also those resulting from cellular,
+cramped, close living.
+
+Whichever phase of the problem is studied, it seems not unreasonable to
+conclude that space research will help find a solution. New ways to
+produce food, new materials for better shelter, new stimuli for
+education--all of these are coming from our space program. As for the
+matter of adequate living room, space research may result in ways to
+permit an easy and efficient scattering of the population without
+hurting its mobility. This might result from the development of small
+subsidiary types of craft, or "gocarts," originally designed for local
+exploration on other planets. Such craft, whether they operated by air
+cushion, nuclear energy, gravitational force, power cell, or whatever,
+conceivably would permit Earth's population to spread out without the
+need for expensive new roads--which, by the way, take millions of acres
+of land out of productive use.
+
+A development of this sort, together with new power sources to replace
+the fossil fuels on which factory, home, and vehicle now depend, might
+also all but eliminate the growing smog and air-pollution blight.
+
+
+_Water shortage_
+
+A direct result of the population increase, multiplied by the many new
+uses for which water is being used in home appliances, etc., and plus
+the greatly increased demand for standard uses such as indoor plumbing,
+irrigation, and factory processing, is the likelihood that water
+shortage will be high on the list of future problems. Ways to conserve
+and reuse water, together with economical desalting of sea water, will
+be essential in the decades ahead. Space research may provide part of
+the answer here, too. (See New Water Sources and Uses, sec. III.)
+
+
+_Soil erosion_
+
+The Russian steppes of Kazakhstan are providing the world with a great
+contemporary dust bowl, reminiscent of the middle 1930's when dust from
+the Great Plains stretched from Texas to Saskatchewan. Questionable
+agriculture policies, drought, and strong easterly winds are among the
+forces blamed for the trials of southern Russia.[74] So great is the
+extent of this disturbance that the dust cloud has been identified in
+photographs taken by American weather satellites.
+
+Of course, "wind erosion is only one of the processes whereby the
+Earth's arable land is diminishing and the deserts increasing; erosion
+by water can also sweep away the soil."[75] But insofar as the current
+dust bowl of the Soviet steppes has "diminished food resources at a time
+when the number of mouths to feed is increasing so rapidly, the world is
+the poorer."[76]
+
+What can space research do about this vital trend, which again seems
+destined to accelerate in the future?
+
+While we cannot be sure, we can conjecture that improved soil
+conservation might turn out to be the greatest benefit of weather
+understanding and modification. Agriculture policies might be adapted to
+the long-range patterns uncovered by weather satellites and, eventually,
+through better understanding of the making of weather, it may be
+possible to modify weather forces in a manner which will preserve the
+soil.
+
+In a more remote vein, it may be that knowledge gained from a first-hand
+study of the Moon or other planets in the solar system will eventually
+contribute to the conservation of soil on Earth in ways as yet
+unimagined.
+
+
+_Added leisure_
+
+Acquiring more time for leisure sounds good. Very much more leisure than
+most people now have, however, is apt to present trouble in itself.
+Since it appears that the time is not far away when those living in the
+highly developed countries will no longer have to concentrate their
+prime energies on the traditional quest for food, clothing, and shelter,
+a potentially dangerous vacuum may be the result. At least the
+psychologists seem agreed that people must feel a useful purpose in
+their lives and have ways to pursue it.
+
+     Above all, leisure makes a challenge to the human spirit. Athens,
+     in her Golden Age, displayed a genius for the creative use of
+     leisure which can be seen as complementary, and indeed superior, to
+     her genius for military and commercial ventures. There have also
+     been such periods of all-pervasive inspiration in the history of
+     other peoples * * *. The doubling of our standard of living will
+     present a growing challenge to the human spirit and produce graver
+     consequences, should we fail to meet it. We neglect the proper use
+     of leisure at our peril.[77]
+
+In other words, the answer to the problem does not lie solely with the
+golf course, the yacht club, the theater, or the lengthened vacation.
+Much more will be required.
+
+The intellectual stimulus of space exploration and research, which
+undoubtedly will divide into numerous branches like capillary streaks
+from a bolt of lightning, should be markedly useful in helping to fill
+this vacuum. Space research would seem particularly applicable in this
+role since it deals with fundamental knowledge and concepts which are
+satisfying in terms of psychological needs and sense of purpose.
+
+
+_Intensified nationalism_
+
+Ever since World War II the era of colonialism has been on the wane.
+Many nations have proclaimed, won, or wrested their independence during
+that period. Others appear to be on the verge of doing so. At any rate,
+it is clear that in the decades ahead the world is going to see the rise
+of even more independent nations with strong nationalistic feelings.
+
+History implies that developments of this sort are often accompanied by
+international unrest--because of the normal ebullience of national
+adolescence and the desire to be accepted by the world community, as
+well as a variety of concomitant political and economical upheavals.
+
+For whatever trials may lie ahead on this score, space exploration may
+prove to be much needed oil on rough water.
+
+Ambitious, advanced, sophisticated space exploration in the future is
+almost certain to require a high degree of international cooperation and
+perhaps even a pooling of resources and funds to some degree. Already
+America has found it expedient, in some cases mandatory, to depend on
+facilities in other countries for her ventures into space. A good
+example is the close cooperation between the United States and tracking
+bases located in Canada, Australia, South Africa, and elsewhere. An even
+better one is the important part played in U.S. efforts by England's
+giant radio telescope at Jodrell Bank. Most of our launches are followed
+by this equipment and much of the best scientific information gained
+from it. In the case of Pioneer V, Jodrell Bank was essential to keep in
+touch with the satellite at the longer distances and, moreover, was
+actually required to separate the fourth stage of the launch vehicle and
+direct the payload toward its Venus orbit.
+
+Mutual need and cooperation thus fostered by space exploration can be
+expected to siphon off some of the political tensions of the future,
+especially as more and more nations become interested in space and
+inaugurate complex programs of their own.
+
+
+LIMITATIONS ON SPACE RESEARCH
+
+There are some who are convinced that the exploration of space is
+rigidly limited and that the landing of men on extraterrestrial bodies
+other than the Moon is quite improbable. They are sure that extensive
+travel outside the solar system is impossible.
+
+Admittedly, the problems of such travel are enormous. But are they
+incapable of solution?
+
+     Twenty-six million miles to Venus, 49 million miles to Mars, 3,680
+     million miles from the Sun to Pluto at the outer edge of the solar
+     system. The nearest of the stars is 25 million, million miles away,
+     and travel to it at 10 miles per second would require 80,000 years.
+     Is the travel of man to the stars a futile dream? Each generation
+     of man builds on the shoulders of the past. The exploration of
+     space has begun; who now can set limits to its future
+     accomplishments?[78]
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 15.--Need for international cooperation
+in the U.S. space program is illustrated by this map showing the areas
+from which help must be procured for projects already planned or
+underway.]
+
+That is the thought of one of the Nation's most expert space scientists.
+
+
+_"Who now can set limits * * * ?"_
+
+It seems to mesh curiously well with one of the most interesting
+phenomena of our day--the emergence of a breed of engineers,
+technicians, teachers, and scientists who do not recognize limits and
+who refuse to concede that something cannot be so because it fails to
+fit conventional patterns or conform to the physical laws of the
+universe as we now know them. Of this there is growing evidence.
+
+For many years it has been an accepted "fact," for instance, that the
+Moon is a dead world with no life upon it. The suggestion made by the
+great 16th century mathematician, Johannes Kepler, that some life might
+exist on the Moon was debunked into silence long since. Yet today a
+fellow of the British Royal Astronomical Society writes that the first
+men to arrive on the Moon may find not only plant life but possibly
+animal life. "The fact that terrestrial organisms may be unable to
+survive in the surroundings of another planet is by itself no more
+significant than that fishes and other marine animals die when exposed
+to the air. From their point of view air is uninhabitable because they
+have failed to equip themselves with lungs."[79] And he adds that his
+surmise "leaves out of account the possibilities of the Moon's
+underground world, which are incalculable, for there water, the vital
+gases, congenial temperatures, and increased pressures will all be
+present. Only sunlight is absent."
+
+Then there is Project Ozma, the search for life on other planets or in
+other star systems, which began in April 1960 at Green Bank, W. Va. It
+is being undertaken by the National Radio-Astronomy Observatory and
+consists of carefully directed listening by radio-telescope for signs of
+intelligent broadcasts originating outside Earth.
+
+At Stanford University another astronomer is concentrating the efforts
+of part of his laboratory on behalf of a similar idea. The chances are,
+he believes, "that the superior races of other planets in other galaxies
+have already developed a communications network among themselves, and
+have entered a joint program to scan all the other solar systems looking
+for signs of awakening civilization among the backward planets. Each of
+the advanced communities might pick as its probe assignment a single
+other solar system--and one such probe may well be circling our Sun
+right now on a routine check for life."[80] Unexplained delayed echoes
+of earthly radio transmissions received in the past, it is thought,
+could be evidence of such a scheme.
+
+Are goings-on such as these nonsense?
+
+Here is the answer given by one hard-headed science writer:
+
+     Centuries may pass before there is any sign of intelligence outside
+     the Earth. But the advantages of communication with another
+     civilization that has survived our present dilemmas are far too
+     great to permit the experiment to be abandoned.[81]
+
+The results of recent and more orthodox experiments have already done
+much to shake the complacency of scientists in regard to their concepts
+of space. Investigations have disclosed that, far from being a complete
+vacuum, space is relatively full of matter and energy. Hydrogen gas,
+radiation belts, cosmic particles, solar disturbances of unknown nature,
+micrometeorites--and, from Pioneer V, proof of a 5-million ampere
+electromagnetic ring centered about 40,000 miles away.[82] The director
+of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Laboratory in Cambridge, Mass.,[83] has
+said that more and more startling astrophysical information was gathered
+during the first few weeks of the space age than had been accumulated in
+the preceding century.
+
+In brief, it is becoming the vogue in science to refuse to say
+"impossible" to anything. On the contrary, the watchword for tomorrow is
+shaping up as "take _nothing_ for granted."
+
+
+FUNDAMENTAL KNOWLEDGE ABOUT LIFE
+
+Everything learned from space exploration thus far indicates that the
+knowledge lying in wait for those who manage to observe the universe
+from outside Earth's atmosphere will be far grander than anything
+uncovered to date.
+
+We may finally learn the origin of our universe and the method of its
+functioning. A good part of this knowledge may be no farther away than
+the next 3 to 5 years. Satellite telescopes now under construction are
+expected to elicit far more information than even the 200-inch giant at
+Mount Palomar. One such observatory satellite, to be launched in 1963 or
+before, "will permit a telescope of about 10 feet in length to point at
+heavenly bodies within a tenth of a second of arc for periods up to an
+hour. Present plans call for an orbit between 400 and 500 miles, as a
+lifetime of at least 6 months is required to observe the entire
+celestial field."[84]
+
+Perhaps, and sooner than we think, we shall find a clue to the destiny
+of all intelligent life.
+
+Perhaps the theory advanced by a noted eastern astronomer will turn out
+to be true--that biological evolution on the habitable planets of the
+universe may be the result of contamination left by space travelers
+arriving from (and leaving for) other worlds. In other words, the
+fruition of life on the various planets of the millions of solar systems
+might be the product of a wandering group of astronautic Johnny
+Appleseeds who leave the grains of life behind them. "Space travel
+between galaxies has to be possible for this, but of course this needs
+to be only quite a rare event. In a time of about 3.3 billion years, the
+most advanced form of life occurring in a galaxy must be able to reach a
+neighboring one."[85]
+
+The notion seems fantastic.
+
+But when we look clear to the end of Earth's road (and assuming the
+astrophysicists are right in their theories about the evolution and
+ultimate death of our solar system) we know that Earth will one day
+become uninhabitable. Life on Earth must then perish or move elsewhere.
+If we further assume that mankind will not want to die with his planet
+and if we acknowledge that other worlds may have been through this
+entire cycle in eons past--perhaps the notion is not so unreasonable
+after all.
+
+Whatever the truth is on this score, space exploration will certainly be
+of "practical" value to our descendants when that dim, far-off day
+arrives.
+
+
+PSYCHOLOGICAL AND SPIRITUAL VALUES
+
+Long before the arrival of that millennium, however, the knowledge and
+understanding awaiting us through the medium of space exploration is
+certain to have profound effects on the human race psychologically and
+spiritually.
+
+It already has had effects on humans of all ages.
+
+Adults, who are paying the taxes to support the space exploration
+program and reaping its practical values, are also thinking of
+themselves, their country, and their world in broader, more
+knowledgeable terms.
+
+In a sense, children may be even more deeply involved.
+
+     There is a special group which may play a useful role in spreading
+     the new values growing from the exploration of space, and this is
+     the children who play at spaceman today. Whether or not they take
+     this interest with them beyond childhood remains to be seen.
+     However, the unique fact in the present situation is that never
+     before have children rehearsed a role that really will not exist
+     until they are adults. To be sure all of them will not fulfill this
+     childhood role, but the fact that the reality lies ahead rather
+     than in the past (as with cowboys and Indians) may stimulate them
+     to retain a sensitivity for the various meanings man in space can
+     have for our future.[86]
+
+Put it another way--if it is true, as a modern Chinese philosopher has
+said, that the search for knowledge is a form of play, "then the
+spaceship, when it comes, will be the ultimate toy that may lead mankind
+from its cloistered nursery out into the playground of the stars."[87]
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 16.--Space vehicles of the future may
+look like this artist's drawing of an electrical propulsion craft. The
+nuclear reactor is located at the extreme left, followed by a neutron
+shield, heat exchanger, gamma-ray shield and propellant. The center tank
+houses turbogenerating equipment. Excessive heat is dissipated in the
+large radiator. At the extreme right are two crew cabins, landing
+vehicle and a ring-shaped accelerator.]
+
+
+MATURING OF THE RACE
+
+The psychological and spiritual changes necessitated by this evolution
+may be at a cost far beyond dollars--because many of us will be hard put
+to negotiate them, especially if they come too rapidly.
+
+Nevertheless, negotiating them must also be placed in the category of
+"practical" values--for in the long run it seems to be an essential part
+of the maturing of mankind.
+
+     The years ahead will face us with many sputniks and thereby will
+     require of our citizens stern, costly, and imaginative
+     participation in programs to meet and surmount the many complex
+     challenges with which our growing technology confronts us. To
+     succeed in space and to succeed on Earth, we must somehow learn to
+     make the larger world of ideas, so brilliantly exemplified by the
+     satellites, the immediate environment of the individual. There is a
+     race we must run--the race for an enlightened and involved
+     public.[88]
+
+So if we can accept the wrenches which space exploration is apt to apply
+to our time, pocketbook, energy, and thinking, the values and rewards as
+outlined in this report should gather headway and grow continuously
+greater.
+
+     Space technology is probably the fastest moving, typically
+     free-enterprise and democratic industry yet created. It puts a
+     premium not on salesmanship, but on what it needs
+     most--intellectual production, the research payoff. Unlike any
+     other existing industry, space functions on hope and future
+     possibilities, conquest of real estate unseen, of near vacuum
+     unexplored. At once it obliterates the economic reason for war, the
+     threat of overpopulation, or cultural stagnation; it offers to
+     replace guesswork with the scientific method for archeological,
+     philosophical, and religious themes.[89]
+
+Such conclusions seem a bit rosy. But sober study indicates that they
+may not be too "far out" after all.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[72] Hauser, Philip M., "Demographic Dimensions of World Politics,"
+Science, June 3, 1960, p. 1642.
+
+[73] Bacq, Prof. Z. M., "Medicine in the 1960's," New Scientist, Jan.
+21, 1960, p. 130.
+
+[74] 59 supra.
+
+[75] Ibid.
+
+[76] Ibid.
+
+[77] "The Challenge of Leisure," M. G. Scott, Ltd., London, August 1959,
+p. 20.
+
+[78] 27 supra.
+
+[79] Firsoff, Dr. V. A., "The Strange World of the Moon," Basic Books,
+London, 1959.
+
+[80] Reported by David Perlman, San Francisco Chronicle, June 7, 1960.
+
+[81] Lear, John, "Is Anybody There?," New Scientist, Apr. 14, 1960, p.
+933.
+
+[82] Aviation Week, May 9, 1960, p 32.
+
+[83] Whipple, Dr. Fred L.
+
+[84] Western Aviation, June 1960, p. 16.
+
+[85] Gold, Dr. Thomas, "Cosmic Garbage," address to the Space Scientists
+Symposium, Los Angeles, December 1959.
+
+[86] 68 supra, pp. 12, 13.
+
+[87] 6 supra, pp. 3, 4.
+
+[88] Michael, D. N., "Sputniks & Public Opinion," Air Force, June 1960,
+p. 75.
+
+[89] Industrial Research, December 1959, pp. 8, 9.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Practical Values of Space
+Exploration, by Committee on Science and Astronautics
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