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diff --git a/19953.txt b/19953.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..aaa3bf2 --- /dev/null +++ b/19953.txt @@ -0,0 +1,1441 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Origin and Development of Form and Ornament +in Ceramic Art., by William Henry Holmes + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Origin and Development of Form and Ornament in Ceramic Art. + Fourth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the + Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1882-1883, + Government Printing Office, Washington, 1886, pages 437-466. + +Author: William Henry Holmes + +Release Date: November 28, 2006 [EBook #19953] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FORM AND ORNAMENT IN CERAMIC ART *** + + + + +Produced by Carlos Traverso, Verity White, and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by the Bibliotheque nationale de France (BnF/Gallica) at +http://gallica.bnf.fr) + + + + + +SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION--BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY. + +ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT + +OF + +FORM AND ORNAMENT IN CERAMIC ART. + +BY + +WILLIAM H. HOLMES. + + +CONTENTS. + + + Page. + +Introductory 443 + Origin of form 445 + By adventition 445 + By imitation 445 + By invention 450 + Modification of form 450 + By adventition 450 + By intention 452 + Origin of ornament 453 + From natural objects 454 + From artificial objects 455 + Functional features 455 + Constructional features 456 + From accidents attending construction 457 + From ideographic and pictorial subjects 457 + Modification of ornament 457 + Through material 458 + Through form 458 + Through methods of realization 459 + + +ILLUSTRATIONS. + + +FIG. 464.--Form derived from a gourd 446 + 465.--Form derived from a conch, shell 447 + 466.--Form derived from a stone pot 448 + 467.--Form derived from a wooden tray 448 + 468.--Form derived from a horn spoon 448 + 469.--Form derived from a bark vessel 446 + 470.--Form derived from basketry 449 + 471.--Form derived from basketry 449 + 472.--Form derived from a wooden vessel 449 + 473.--Coincident forms 451 + 474.--Form produced by accident 451 + 475.--Scroll derived from the spire of a conch shell 454 + 476.--Theoretical development of current scroll 455 + 477.--Ornament derived through modification of handles 455 + 478.--Scroll derived from coil of clay 456 + 479.--Ornamental use of fillets of clay 456 + 480.--Variation through, the influence of form 459 + 481.--Theoretical development of the current scroll 460 + 482.--Forms of the same motive expressed in different arts 461 + 483.--Forms of the same motive expressed in different arts 461 + 484.--Forms of the same motive expressed in different arts 461 + 485.--Geometric form of textile ornament 462 + 486.--Loss of geometric accuracy in painting 462 + 487.--Design painted upon pottery 463 + 488.--Theoretical development of fret work 464 + 489.--Theoretical development of scroll work 465 + + +ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF FORM AND ORNAMENT +IN CERAMIC ART. + +BY WILLIAM H. HOLMES. + + + + +INTRODUCTORY. + +For the investigation of art in its early stages and in its widest +sense--there is probably no fairer field than that afforded by +aboriginal America, ancient and modern. + +At the period of discovery, art at a number of places on the American +continent seems to have been developing surely and steadily, through the +force of the innate genius of the race, and the more advanced nations +were already approaching the threshold of civilization; at the same time +their methods were characterized by great simplicity, and their art +products are, as a consequence, exceptionally homogeneous. + +The advent of European civilization checked the current of growth, and +new and conflicting elements were introduced necessarily disastrous to +the native development. + +There is much, however, in the art of living tribes, especially of those +least influenced by the whites, capable of throwing light upon the +obscure passages of precolumbian art. By supplementing the study of the +prehistoric by that of historic art, which is still in many cases in its +incipient stages, we may hope to penetrate deeply into the secrets of +the past. + +The advantages of this field, as compared with Greece, Egypt, and the +Orient, will be apparent when we remember that the dawn of art in these +countries lies hidden in the shadow of unnumbered ages, while ours +stands out in the light of the very present. This is well illustrated by +a remark of Birch, who, in dwelling upon the antiquity of the fictile +art, says that "the existence of earthen vessels in Egypt was at least +coeval with the formation of a written language."[1] Beyond this there +is acknowledged chaos. In strong contrast with this, is the fact that +all precolumbian American pottery _precedes_ the acquisition of written +language, and this contrast is emphasized by the additional fact that it +also antedates the use of the wheel, that great perverter of the plastic +tendencies of clay. + +[Footnote 1: Birch: History of Ancient Pottery, 1873, p. 8.] + +The material presented in the following notes is derived chiefly from +the native ceramic art of the United States, but the principles involved +are applicable to all times and to all art, as they are based upon the +laws of nature. + +Ceramic art presents two classes of phenomena of importance in the study +of the evolution of aesthetic culture. These relate, first, to _form_, +and second, to _ornament_. + +_Form_, as embodied in clay vessels, embraces, 1st, _useful shapes_, +which may or may not be ornamental, and, 2d, _aesthetic shapes_, which +are ornamental and may be useful. There are also _grotesque_ and +_fanciful shapes_, which may or may not be either useful or ornamental. + +No form or class of forms can be said to characterize a particular age +or stage of culture. In a general way, of course, the vessels of +primitive peoples will be simple in form, while those of more advanced +races will be more varied and highly specialized. + +The shapes first assumed by vessels in clay depend upon the shape of the +vessels employed at the time of the introduction of the art, and these +depend, to a great extent, upon the kind and grade of culture of the +people acquiring the art and upon the resources of the country in which +they live. To illustrate: If, for instance, some of the highly advanced +Alaskan tribes which do not make pottery should migrate to another +habitat, less suitable to the practice of their old arts and well +adapted to art in clay, and should there acquire the art of pottery, +they would doubtless, to a great extent, copy their highly developed +utensils of wood, bone, ivory, and basketry, and thus reach a high grade +of ceramic achievement in the first century of the practice of the art; +but, on the other hand, if certain tribes, very low in intelligence and +having no vessel-making arts, should undergo a corresponding change of +habitat and acquire the art of pottery, they might not reach in a +thousand years, if left to themselves, a grade in the art equal to that +of the hypothetical Alaskan potters in the first decade. It is, +therefore, not the age of the art itself that determines its forms, but +the grade and kind of art with which it originates and coexists. + +_Ornament_ is subject to similar laws. Where pottery is employed by +peoples in very low stages of culture, its ornamentation will be of the +simple archaic kind. Being a conservative art and much hampered by the +restraints of convention, the elementary forms of ornament are carried a +long way into the succeeding periods and have a very decided effect upon +the higher stages. Pottery brought into use for the first time by more +advanced races will never pass through the elementary stage of +decoration, but will take its ornament greatly from existing art and +carry this up in its own peculiar way through succeeding generations. +The character of the ornamentation does not therefore depend upon the +age of the art so much as upon the acquirements of the potter and his +people in other arts. + + + + + +ORIGIN OF FORM + + +In order to convey a clear idea of the bearing of the preceding +statements upon the history of form and ornament, it will be necessary +to present a number of points in greater detail. + +The following synopsis will give a connected view of various possible +origins of form. + + / By adventition. +Origin of form--| By imitation--------/ Of natural models. + \ By invention. \ Of artificial models + + ++FORMS SUGGESTED BY ADVENTITION.+ + +The suggestions of accident, especially in the early stages of art, are +often adopted, and become fruitful sources of improvement and progress. +By such means the use of clay was discovered and the ceramic art came +into existence. The accidental indentation of a mass of clay by the +foot, or hand, or by a fruit-shell, or stone, while serving as an +auxiliary in some simple art, may have suggested the making of a cup, +the simplest form of vessel. + +The use of clay as a cement in repairing utensils, in protecting +combustible vessels from injury by fire, or in building up the walls of +shallow vessels, may also have led to the formation of disks or cups, +afterwards independently constructed. In any case the objects or +utensils with which the clay was associated in its earliest use would +impress their forms upon it. Thus, if clay were used in deepening or +mending vessels of stone by a given people, it would, when used +independently by that people, tend to assume shapes suggested by stone +vessels. The same may be said of its use in connection with wood and +wicker, or with vessels of other materials. Forms of vessels so derived +may be said to have an adventitious origin, yet they are essentially +copies, although not so by design, and may as readily be placed under +the succeeding head. + + ++FORMS DERIVED BY IMITATION.+ + +Clay has no inherent qualities of a nature to impose a given form or +class of forms upon its products, as have wood, bark, bone, or stone. It +is so mobile as to be quite free to take form from surroundings, and +where extensively used will record or echo a vast deal of nature and of +coexistent art. + +In this observation we have a key that will unlock many of the mysteries +of form. + +In the investigation of this point it will be necessary to consider the +processes by which an art inherits or acquires the forms of another art +or of nature, and how one material imposes its peculiarities upon +another material. In early stages of culture the processes of art are +closely akin to those of nature, the human agent hardly ranking as more +than a part of the environment. The primitive artist does not proceed +by methods identical with our own. He does not deliberately and freely +examine all departments of nature or art and select for models those +things most convenient or most agreeable to fancy; neither does he +experiment with the view of inventing new forms. What he attempts +depends almost absolutely upon what happens to be suggested by preceding +forms, and so narrow and so direct are the processes of his mind that, +knowing his resources, we could closely predict his results. + +The range of models in the ceramic art is at first very limited, and +includes only those utensils devoted to the particular use to which the +clay vessels are to be applied; later, closely-associated objects and +utensils are copied. In the first stages of art, when the savage makes a +weapon, he modifies or copies a weapon; when he makes a vessel, he +modifies or copies a vessel. + +This law holds good in an inverse ratio to culture, varying to a certain +extent with the character of the material used. + +_Natural originals_.--Natural originals, both animal and vegetable, +necessarily differ with the country and the climate, thus giving rise to +individual characters in art forms often extremely persistent and +surviving decided changes of environment. + +The gourd is probably the most varied and suggestive natural vessel. We +find that the primitive potter has often copied it in the most literal +manner. One example only, out of the many available ones, is necessary. +This is from a mound in southeastern Missouri. + +In Fig. 464, _a_ illustrates a common form of the gourd, while _b_ +represents the imitation in clay. + +[Illustration: _a_, Gourd. _b_, Clay vessel. FIG. 464.--Form +derived from a gourd.] + +All nations situated upon the sea or upon large rivers use shells of +mollusks, which, without modification, make excellent receptacles for +water and food. Imitations of these are often found among the products +of the potter's art. A good example from the Mississippi Valley is shown +in Fig. 465, _a_ being the original and _b_ the copy in clay. + +In Africa, and in other countries, such natural objects as cocoanut +shells, and ostrich eggs are used in like manner. + +Another class of vessels, those made from the skins, bladders, and +stomachs of animals, should also be mentioned in this connection, as it +is certain that their influence has frequently been felt in the +conformation of earthen utensils. + +In searching nature, therefore, for originals of primitive ceramic forms +we have little need of going outside of objects that in their natural or +slightly altered state are available for vessels. + +[Illustration: _a_, Shell. _b_, Clay. FIG. 465.--Form derived +from a conch shell.] + +True, other objects have been copied. We find a multitude of the higher +natural forms, both animal and vegetable, embodied in vessels of clay, +but their presence is indicative of a somewhat advanced stage of art, +when the copying of vessels that were functionally proper antecedents +had given rise to a familiarity with the use of clay and a capacity in +handling it that, with advancing culture, brought all nature within the +reach of the potter and made it assist in the processes of variation and +development. + +_Artificial originals_.--There is no doubt that among most peoples art +had produced vessels in other materials antecedent to the utilization of +clay. These would be legitimate models for the potter and we may +therefore expect to find them repeated in earthenware. In this way the +art has acquired a multitude of new forms, some of which may be natural +forms at second hand, that is to say, with modifications imposed upon +them by the material in which they were first shaped. But all materials +other than clay are exceedingly intractable, and impress their own +characters so decidedly upon forms produced in them that ultimate +originals, where there are such, cannot often be traced through them. + +It will be most interesting to note the influence of these peculiarities +of originals upon the ceramic art. + +A nation having stone vessels, like those of California, on acquiring +the art of pottery would use the stone vessels as models, and such forms +as that given in Fig. 466 would arise, _a_ being in stone and _b_ in +clay, the former from California and the latter from Arizona. + +Similar forms would just as readily come from gourds, baskets, or other +globular utensils. + +Nations having wooden vessels would copy them in clay on acquiring the +art of pottery. This would give rise to a distinct group of forms, the +result primarily of the peculiarities of the woody structure. Thus in +Fig. 467, _a_, we have a form of wooden vessel, a sort of winged trough +that I have frequently found copied in clay. The earthen vessel given in +Fig. 467, _b_, was obtained from an ancient grave in Arkansas. + +[Illustration: _a_, stone. _b_, clay. FIG. 466.--Form derived +from a stone pot.] + +[Illustration: _a_, wood. _b_, clay. FIG. 467.--Form derived +from a wooden tray.] + +[Illustration: _a_, Horn. _b_, Clay. FIG. 468.--Form derived +from a horn spoon.] + +[Illustration: _a_, Bark. _b_, Clay. FIG. 469.--Form derived +from a bark vessel.] + +The carapace of some species of turtles, and perhaps even the hard case +of the armadillo, could be utilized in a similar way. The shaping of a +knot of wood often gives rise to a dipper-shaped vessel, such as may be +found in use by many tribes, and is as likely an original for the dipper +form in clay as is the gourd or the conch shell; the familiar horn +vessel of the western tribes, Fig. 468, _a_, would have served equally +well. The specimen given in _b_ is from Arkansas. As a rule, however, +such vessels cannot be traced to their originals, since by copying and +recopying they have varied from the parent form, tending always toward +uniform conventional shapes. + +A vessel of rectangular outline might originate in wood or bark. In Fig. +469, _a_, we have a usual form of bark tray, which is possibly the +prototype of the square-rimmed earthen vessel given in _b_. + +[Illustration: _a_, Wicker. _b_, Clay. FIG. 470.--Form +originating in basketry.] + +[Illustration: _a_, Wicker. _b_, Clay. FIG. 471.--Form +originating in basketry.] + +[Illustration: _a_, Net. _b_, Clay. FIG. 472.--Form originating +in basketry.] + +Basketry and other classes of woven vessels take a great variety of +forms and, being generally antecedent to the potter's art and constantly +present with it, have left an indelible impression upon ceramic forms. +This is traceable in the earthenware of nearly all nations. The clay +vessel is an intruder, and usurps the place and appropriates the dress +of its predecessor in wicker. The form illustrated in Fig. 470, _a_, is +a common one with the Pueblo peoples, and their earthen vessels often +resemble it very closely, as shown in _b_. Another variety is given in +Fig. 471, _a_ and _b_. These specimens are from southwestern Utah. Fig. +472, _b_, illustrates a form quite common in the Southern States, a +section in which pouch-like nets and baskets, _a_, were formerly in use +and in which the pots were often modeled. + + ++INVENTION OF FORM.+ + +In the early stages of art, forms are rarely invented outright and I +shall not stop to consider the subject here. + + + + ++MODIFICATION OF FORM.+ + +The acquisition of new materials, the development of new uses, the +employment of new processes of manufacture, and many other agencies lead +to the multiplication of forms through modification. The processes by +which highly differentiated forms are reached are interesting throughout +and repay the closest study. + +A preliminary classification of the various causes that lead to +modification is given in the following synopsis: + + / / /To assume form. + | |Incapacity of material--\To retain form. + | |Incapacity of the artisan. + | |Changes in method of manufacture. + |By adventition--|Changes in environment. + |Changes of use. +Modification of form--| |Lack of use. + | \Influence of new or exotic forms, etc. + | + | /To enhance usefulness. + |By intention--| + | \To please fancy.--/For the beautiful. + \ \For the grotesque. + + ++MODIFICATION BY ADVENTITION.+ + +_Incapacity of material._--It is evident at a glance that clay lacks the +capacity to assume and to retain many of the details of form found in +antecedent vessels. This necessarily results in the alteration or +omission of these features, and hence arise many modifications of +original forms. + +The simple lack of capacity on the part of the potter who undertook to +reproduce a model would lead to the modification of all but the most +simple shapes. + +The acquisition of the art by a superior or an inferior race, or one of +different habits would lead to decided changes. A people accustomed to +carrying objects upon the head, on acquiring earthen vessels would shape +the bases and the handles to facilitate this use. + +Improvements in the methods of manufacture are of the greatest +importance in the progress of an art. The introduction of the lathe, for +example, might almost revolutionize form in clay. + +As arts multiply, clay is applied to new uses. Its employment in the +manufacture of lamps, whistles, or toys would lead to a multitude of +distinct and unique forms. + +The acquisition of a new vessel-making material by a nation of potters +and the association of the forms developed through its inherent +qualities or structure would often lead ceramic shapes into new +channels. + +[Illustration: _a_, wood. _b_, clay. FIG. 473.--Coincident forms.] + +The contact of a nation of potters with a nation of carvers in wood +would tend very decidedly to modify the utensils of the former. One +example may be given which will illustrate the possibilities of such +exotic influences upon form. In Fig. 473, _a_, we have an Alaskan vessel +carved in wood. It represents a beaver grasping a stick in its hands and +teeth. The conception is so unusual and the style of vessel so +characteristic of the people that we should not expect to find it +repeated in other regions; but the ancient graves of the Middle +Mississippi Valley have furnished a number of very similar vessels in +clay, one of which is outlined in _b_. While this remarkable coincidence +is suggestive of ethnic relationships which do not call for attention +here, it serves to illustrate the possibilities of modification by +simple contact. + +[Illustration: _a_ _b_ FIG. 471.--Form resulting from accident.] + +A curious example illustrative of possible transformation by +adventitious circumstances is found in the collection from the province +of ancient Tusayan. A small vessel of sphynx-like appearance, possibly +derived more or less remotely from a skin vessel, has a noticeable +resemblance to some life form, Fig. 474, _a_. The fore-legs are +represented by two large bosses, the wide-open mouth takes the place of +the severed neck, and a handle connects the top of the rim with the back +of the vessel. The handle being broken off and the vessel inverted, +_b_, there is a decided change; we are struck by the resemblance to a +frog or toad. The original legs, having dark concentric lines painted +around them, look like large protruding eyes, and the mouth gapes in the +most realistic manner, while the two short broken ends of the handle +resemble legs and serve to support the vessel in an upright position, +completing the illusion. The fetich-hunting Pueblo Indian, picking up +this little vessel in its mutilated condition, would probably at once +give to it the sacred character of the water animal which it resembles, +and it might readily transmit its peculiarities of form to other +generations of vessels. + +It is not necessary in this study to refer at length to the influence of +metallic vessels upon ceramic forms. They do not usually appear until +the ceramic art is far advanced and often receive a heritage of shape +from earthen forms. Afterwards, when the inherent qualities of the metal +have stamped their individuality upon utensils, the debt is paid back to +clay with interest, as will be seen by reference to later forms in many +parts of the world. + + ++MODIFICATION BY INTENTION.+ + +_To enhance usefulness._--There can be no doubt that the desire upon the +part of the archaic potter to increase the usefulness and convenience of +his utensils has been an important agent in the modification of form. +The earliest vessels employed were often clumsy and difficult to handle. +The favorite conch shell would hold water for him who wished to drink, +but the breaking away of spines and the extraction of the interior whorl +improved it immeasurably. The clumsy mortar of stone, with its thick +walls and great weight, served a useful purpose, but it needed a very +little intelligent thought to show that thin walls and neatly-trimmed +margins were much preferable. + +Vessels of clay, aside from the forms imposed upon, them by their +antecedents and associates, would necessarily be subject to changes +suggested by the growing needs of man. These would be worked out with +ever-increasing ease by his unfolding genius for invention. Further +investigation of this phase of development would carry me beyond the +limits set for this paper. + +_To please fancy._--The skill acquired by the handling of clay in +constructing vessels and in efforts to increase their usefulness would +open an expansive field for the play of fancy. The potter would no +sooner succeed in copying vessels having life form than he would be +placed in a position to realize his capacity to imitate forms not +peculiar to vessels. His ambition would in time lead him even beyond the +limits of nature and he would invade the realm of imagination, embodying +the conceptions of superstition in the plastic clay. This tendency would +be encouraged and perpetuated by the relegation of vessels of particular +forms to particular ceremonies. + + + + + ++ORIGIN OF ORNAMENT.+ + + +The birth of the embellishing art must be sought in that stage of animal +development when instinct began to discover that certain attributes or +adornments increased attractiveness. When art in its human sense came +into existence ideas of embellishment soon extended from the _person_, +with, which they had been associated, to all things with which man had +to deal. The processes of the growth of the aesthetic idea are long and +obscure and cannot be taken up in this place. + +The various elements of embellishment in which the ceramic art is +interested may be assigned to two great classes, based upon the +character of the conceptions associated with them. These are +_ideographic_ and _non-ideographic_. In the present paper I shall treat +chiefly of the non ideographic, reserving the ideographic for a second +paper. + +Elements, non-ideographic from the start, are derived mainly from two +sources: 1st, from objects, natural or artificial, associated with the +arts; and, 2d, from the suggestions of accidents attending construction. +Natural objects abound in features highly suggestive of embellishment +and these are constantly employed in art. Artificial objects have two +classes of features capable of giving rise to ornament: these are +_constructional_ and _functional_. In a late stage of development all +things in nature and in art, however complex or foreign to the art in +its practice, are subject to decorative treatment. This latter is the +realistic pictorial stage, one of which the student of native American +culture needs to take little cognizance. + +Elements of design are not invented outright: man modifies, combines, +and recombines elements or ideas already in existence, but does not +create. + +A classification of the sources of decorative motives employed in the +ceramic art is given in the following diagram: + + /Suggestions of features of natural utensils or objects. + | / + | | /Handles. + | | |Legs + | | Functional|Bands + | | \Perforations, etc. + | | + |Suggestions of features of | + |artificial utensils or objects.| /The coil. + | | |The seam. +Origin of ornament| |Constructional|The stitch. + | | |The plait. + | \ \The twist, etc. + |Suggestions from accidents /Marks of fingers. + | attending construction. |Marks of implements. + | \Marks of molds, etc. + | + | + \Suggestions of ideographic features or pictorial delineations. + ++SUGGESTIONS OF NATURAL FEATURES OF OBJECTS.+ + +The first articles used by men in their simple arts have in many cases +possessed features suggestive of decoration. Shells of mollusks are +exquisitely embellished with ribs, spines, nodes, and colors. The same +is true to a somewhat limited extent of the shells of the turtle and the +armadillo and of the hard cases of fruits. + +These decorative features, though not essential to the utensil, are +nevertheless inseparable parts of it, and are cast or unconsciously +copied by a very primitive people when similar articles are artificially +produced in plastic material. In this way a utensil may acquire +ornamental characters long before the workman has learned to take +pleasure in such details or has conceived an idea beyond that of simple +utility. This may be called unconscious embellishment. In this +fortuitous fashion a ribbed variety of fruit shell would give rise to a +ribbed vessel in clay; one covered with spines would suggest a noded +vessel, etc. When taste came to be exercised upon such objects these +features would be retained and copied for the pleasure they afforded. + +[Illustration: _a._--Shell vessel. _b._--Copy in clay. FIG. 475.--Scroll +derived from the spire of a conch shell.] + +Passing by the many simple elements of decoration that by this +unconscious process could be derived from such sources, let me give a +single example by which it will be seen that not only elementary forms +but even so highly constituted an ornament as the scroll may have been +brought thus naturally into the realm of decorative art. The sea-shell +has always been intimately associated with the arts that utilize clay +and abounds in suggestions of embellishment. The _Busycon_ was almost +universally employed as a vessel by the tribes of the Atlantic drainage +of North America. Usually it was trimmed down and excavated until only +about three-fourths of the outer wall of the shell remained. At one end +was the long spike-like base which served as a handle, and at the other +the flat conical apex, with its very pronounced spiral line or ridge +expanding from the center to the circumference, as seen in Fig. 475 _a_. +This vessel was often copied in clay, as many good examples now in our +museums testify. The notable feature is that the shell has been copied +literally, the spiral appearing in its proper place. A specimen is +illustrated in Fig. 475 _b_ which, although simple and highly +conventionalized, still retains the spiral figure. + +[Illustration: _a_ _b_ _c_ FIG. 476.--Possible derivation of the +current scroll.] + +In another example we have four of the noded apexes placed about the rim +of the vessel, as shown in Fig. 476_a_, the conception being that of +four conch shells united in one vessel, the bases being turned inward +and the apexes outward. Now it is only necessary to suppose the addition +of the spiral lines, always associated with the nodes, to have the +result shown in _b_, and by a still higher degree of convention we have +the classic scroll ornament given in _c_. Of course, no such result as +this could come about adventitiously, as successful combination calls +for the exercise of judgment and taste; but the initiatory steps could +be taken--the motive could enter art--without the conscious supervision +of the human agent. + + ++SUGGESTIONS BY FEATURES OF ARTIFICIAL OBJECTS.+ + +[Illustration: FIG. 477.--Ornament derived through the modification of +handles.] + +_Functional features_.--Functional features of art products liable to +influence ornament comprise handles, legs, feet, rims, bands, and other +peculiarities of shape originating in utility. Handles, for instance, +may have been indigenous to a number of arts; they are coeval and +coextensive with culture. The first load, weapon, or vessel transported +by man may have been suspended by a vine or filament. Such arts as have +fallen heir to handles have used them according to the capacities of the +material employed. Of all the materials stone is probably the least +suited to their successful use, while clay utilizes them in its own +peculiar way, giving to them a great variety of expression. They are +copied in clay from various models, but owing to the inadequate +capacities of the material, often lose their function and degenerate +into mere ornaments, which are modified as such to please the potter's +fancy. Thus, for example, the series of handles placed about the neck of +the vessel become, by modification in frequent copying, a mere band of +ornamental figures in relief, or even finally in engraved, punctured, or +painted lines, in the manner suggested in Fig. 477. Legs, pedestals, +spouts, and other features may in a like manner give rise to decoration. + +[Illustration: _a._--Coiled fillet of clay. _b._--Double coil. +FIG. 478.--Scroll derived from coil of clay.] + + +_Constructional features._-Features of vessels resulting from +construction are infinitely varied and often highly suggestive of +decoration. Constructional peculiarities of the clay utensils themselves +are especially worthy of notice, and on account of their actual presence +in the art itself are more likely to be utilized or copied for ceramic +ornament than those of other materials. The coil, so universally +employed in construction, has had a decided influence upon the ceramic +decoration of certain peoples, as I have shown in a paper on ancient +Pueblo art. From it we have not only a great variety of surface +ornamentation produced by simple treatment of the coil in place, but +probably many forms suggested by the use of the coil in vessel building, +as, for instance, the spiral formed in beginning the base of a coiled +vessel, Fig. 478 _a_, from which the double scroll _b_, as a separate +feature, could readily be derived, and finally the chain of scrolls so +often seen in border and zone decoration. This familiarity with the use +of fillets or ropes of clay would also lead to a great variety of +applied ornament, examples of which, from Pueblo art, are given in Fig. +479. The sinuous forms assumed by a rope of clay so employed would +readily suggest to the Indian the form of the serpent and the means of +representing it, and might thus lead to the introduction of this much +revered creature into art. + +[Illustration: FIG. 479.--Ornamental use of fillets.] + +Of the various classes of utensils associated closely with the ceramic +art, there are none so characteristically marked by constructional +features as nets and wicker baskets. The twisting, interlacing, +knotting, and stitching of filaments give relieved figures that by +contact in manufacture impress themselves upon the plastic clay. Such +impressions come in time to be regarded as pleasing features, and when +free-hand methods of reproducing are finally acquired they and their +derivatives become essentials of decoration. At a later stage these +characters of basketry influence ceramic decoration in a somewhat +different way. By the use of variously-colored fillets the woven surface +displays figures in color corresponding to those in relief and varying +with every new combination. Many striking patterns are thus produced, +and the potter who has learned to decorate his wares by the stylus or +brush reproduces these patterns by free-hand methods. We find pottery in +all countries ornamented with patterns, painted, incised, stamped, and +relieved, certainly derived from this source. So well is this fact known +that I need hardly go into details. + +In the higher stages of art the constructional characters of +architecture give rise to many notions of decoration which afterwards +descend to other arts, taking greatly divergent forms. Aboriginal +architecture in some parts of America had reached a development capable +of wielding a strong influence. This is not true, however, of any part +of the United States. + + ++SUGGESTIONS OF ACCIDENTS.+ + +Besides the suggestions of surface features impressed in manufacture or +intentionally copied as indicated above, we have also those of +accidental imprints of implements or of the fingers in manufacture. From +this source there are necessarily many suggestions of ornament, at first +of indented figures, but later, after long employment, extending to the +other modes of representation. + + ++IDEOGRAPHIC AND PICTORIAL SUBJECTS.+ + +Non-ideographic forms of ornament may originate in ideographic features, +mnemonic, demonstrative, or symbolic. Such significant figures are +borrowed by decorators from other branches of art. As time goes on they +lose their significance and are subsequently treated as purely +decorative elements. Subjects wholly pictorial in character, when such +come to be made, may also be used as simple decoration, and by long +processes of convention become geometric. + +The exact amount of significance still attached to significant figures +after adoption into decoration cannot be determined except in cases of +actual identification by living peoples, and even when the signification +is known by the more learned individuals the decorator may be wholly +without knowledge of it. + + + + + +MODIFICATION OF ORNAMENT. + + +There are comparatively few elementary ideas prominently and generally +employed in primitive decorative art. New ideas are acquired, as already +shown, all along the pathway of progress. None of these ideas retain a +uniform expression, however, as they are subject to modification by +environment just as are the forms of living organisms. A brief +classification of the causes of modification is given in the following +synopsis: + + + /Through material. +Modification of ornament------|Through form. + \Through, methods of realization. + + +_Through material._--It is evident at a glance that _material_ must have +a strong influence upon the forms assumed by the various decorative +motives, however derived. Thus stone, clay, wood, bone, and copper, +although they readily borrow from nature and from each other, +necessarily show different decorative results. Stone is massive and +takes form slowly and by peculiar processes. Clay is more versatile and +decoration may be scratched, incised, painted, or modeled in relief with +equal facility, while wood and metal engender details having characters +peculiar to themselves, producing different results from the same +motives or elements. Much of the diversity displayed by the art products +of different countries and climates is due to this cause. + +Peoples dwelling in arctic climates are limited, by their materials, to +particular modes of expression. Bone and ivory as shaped for use in the +arts of subsistence afford facilities for the employment of a very +restricted class of linear decoration, such chiefly as could be +scratched with a hard point upon small irregular, often cylindrical, +implements. Skins and other animal tissues are not favorable to the +development of ornament, and the textile arts--the greatest agents of +convention--do not readily find suitable materials in which to work. + +Decorative art carried to a high stage under arctic environment would be +more likely to achieve unconventional and realistic forms than if +developed in more highly favored countries. The accurate geometric and +linear patterns would hardly arise. + +_Through form._--Forms of decorated objects exercise a strong influence +upon the decorative designs employed. It would be more difficult to +tattoo the human face or body with straight lines or rectilinear +patterns than with curved ones. An ornament applied originally to a +vessel of a given form would accommodate itself to that form pretty much +as costume becomes adjusted to the individual. When it came to be +required for another form of vessel, very decided changes might be +necessary. + +With the ancient Pueblo peoples rectilinear forms of meander patterns +were very much in favor and many earthen vessels are found in which +bands of beautiful angular geometric figures occupy the peripheral +zone, Fig. 480 _a_, but when the artist takes up a mug having a row of +hemispherical nodes about the body, _b_, he finds it very difficult to +apply his favorite forms and is almost compelled to run spiral curves +about the nodes in order to secure a neat adjustment. + +[Illustration: FIG. 480.--Variations in a motive through the influence +of form.] + +_Through methods of realisation_.--It will readily be seen that the +forms assumed by a motive depend greatly upon the character of the +mechanical devices employed. In the potter's art devices for holding and +turning the vessel under manipulation produce peculiar results. + +In applying a given idea to clay much depends upon the method of +executing it. It will take widely differing forms when executed by +incising, by modeling, by painting, and by stamping. + +Intimately associated with methods of execution are peculiarities of +construction, the two agencies working together in the processes of +modification and development of ornament. + +I have previously shown how our favorite ornament, the scroll, in its +disconnected form may have originated in the copying of natural forms or +through the manipulation of coils of clay. I present here an example of +its possible origin through the modification of forms derived from +constructional features of basketry. An ornament known as the guilloche +is found in many countries. The combination of lines resembles that of +twisted or platted fillets of wood, cane, or rushes, as may be seen at a +glance, Fig. 481 _a_. An incised ornament of this character, possibly +derived from basketry by copying the twisted fillets or their +impressions in the clay, is very common on the pottery of the mounds of +the Mississippi Valley, and its variants form a most interesting study. +In applying this to a vessel the careless artist does not properly +connect the ends of the lines which pass beneath the intersecting +fillets, and the parts become disconnected, _b_. In many cases the ends +are turned in abruptly as seen in _c_, and only a slight further change +is necessary to lead to the result, _d_, the running scroll with +well-developed links. All of these steps may be observed in a single +group of vessels. + +It may be thought by some that the processes of development indicated +above are insufficient and unsatisfactory. There are those who, seeing +these forms already endowed with symbolism, begin at what I conceive to +be the wrong end of the process. They derive the form of symbol directly +from the thing symbolized. Thus the current scroll is, with many races, +found to be a symbol of water, and its origin is attributed to a literal +rendition of the sweep and curl of the waves. It is more probable that +the scroll became the symbol of the sea long after its development +through agencies similar to those described above, and that the +association resulted from the observation of incidental resemblances. +This same figure, in use by the Indians of the interior of the +continent, is regarded as symbolic of the whirlwind, and it is probable +that any symbol-using people will find in the features and phenomena of +their environment, whatever it may be, sufficient resemblance to any of +their decorative devices to lead to a symbolic association. + +[Illustration: FIG. 481.--Theoretical development of the current +scroll.] + +One secret of modification is found in the use of a radical in more than +one art, owing to differences in constructional characters. For example, +the tendency of nearly all woven fabrics is to encourage, even to +compel, the use of straight lines in the decorative designs applied. +Thus the attempt to employ curved lines would lead to stepped or broken +lines. The curvilinear scroll coming from some other art would be forced +by the constructional character of the fabric into square forms, and the +rectilinear meander or fret would result, as shown in. Fig. 482, _a_ +being the plain form, painted, engraved, or in relief, and _b_ the same +idea developed in a woven fabric. Stone or brick-work would lead to like +results, Fig. 483; but the modification could as readily move in the +other direction. If an ornament originating in the constructional +character of a woven fabric, or remodeled by it, and hence rectilinear, +should be desired for a smooth structureless or featureless surface, the +difficulties of drawing the angular forms would lead to the delineation +of curved forms, and we would have exactly the reverse of the order +shown in Figs. 482 and 483. The two forms given in Fig. 484 actually +occur in one and the same design painted upon an ancient Pueblo vase. +The curved form is apparently the result of careless or hurried work, +the original angular form, having come from, a textile source. + +[Illustration: _a_, free-hand form. _b_, form imposed, by fabric. +FIG. 482.--Forms of the same motive expressed in different arts.] + +[Illustration: _a_, free-hand form. _b_, form imposed by masonry. +FIG. 483.--Forms of the same motive expressed in different arts.] + +[Illustration: _a_ _b_ FIG. 484.--Variations resulting from change +of method.] + +Many excellent examples illustrative of this tendency to modification +are found in Pueblo art. Much of the ornament applied to pottery is +derived from the sister art, basketry. In the latter art the forms of +decorative figures are geometric and symmetrical to the highest degree, +as I have frequently pointed out. The rays of a radiating ornament, +worked with the texture of a shallow basket, spring from the center and +take uniform directions toward the margin, as shown in Fig. 485. But +when a similar idea derived from basketry (as it could have no other +origin) is executed in color upon an earthen vessel, we observe a +tendency to depart from symmetry as well as from consistency. I call +attention here to the arrangement of the parts merely, not to the +motives employed, as I happen to have no examples of identical figures +from the two arts. + +[Illustration: FIG. 485.--Geometric form, of textile ornament.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 486.--Loss of geometric accuracy in painting.] + +It will be seen by reference to the design given in Fig. 486, taken from +the upper surface of an ancient vase, that although the spirit of the +decoration is wonderfully well preserved the idea of the origin of all +the rays in the center of the vessel is not kept in view, and that by +carelessness in the drawing two of the rays are crowded out and +terminate against the side of a neighboring ray. In copying and +recopying by free-hand methods, many curious modifications take place in +these designs, as, for example, the unconformity which occurs in one +place in the example given may occur at a number of places, and there +will be a series of independent sections, a small number only of the +bands of devices remaining true rays. + +[Illustration: FIG. 487.--Design painted upon pottery.] + +A characteristic painted design from the interior of an ancient bowl is +shown in Fig. 487, in which merely a suggestion of the radiation is +preserved, although the figure is still decorative and tasteful. This +process of modification goes on without end, and as the true geometric +textile forms recede from view innovation robs the design of all traces +of its original character, producing much that is incongruous and +unsatisfactory. + +The growth of decorative devices from the elementary to the highly +constituted and elegant is owing to a tendency of the human mind to +elaborate because it is pleasant to do so or because pleasure is taken +in the result, but there is still a directing and shaping agency to be +accounted for. + +I have already shown that such figures as the scroll and the guilloche +are not _necessarily_ developed by processes of selection and +combination of simple elements, as many have thought, since they may +have come into art at a very early stage almost full-fledged; but there +is nothing in these facts to throw light upon the processes by which +ornament followed particular lines of development throughout endless +elaboration. In treating of this point, Prof. C.F. Hartt[2] maintained +that the development of ornamental designs took particular and uniform +directions owing to the structure of the eye, certain forms being chosen +and perpetuated because of the pleasure afforded by movements of the eye +in following them. In connection with this hypothesis, for it is nothing +more, Mr. Hartt advanced the additional idea, that in unison with +the general course of nature decorative forms began with simple +elements and developed by systematic methods to complex forms. Take for +example the series of designs shown in Fig. 488. The meander _a_ made up +of simple parts would, according to Mr. Hartt, by further elaboration +under the supervision of the muscles of the eye, develop into _b_. This, +in time, into _c_, and so on until the elegant anthemium was achieved. +The series shown in Fig. 489 would develop in a similar way, or +otherwise would be produced by modification in free-hand copying of the +rectilinear series. The processes here suggested, although to all +appearances reasonable enough, should not be passed over without careful +scrutiny. + +[Illustration: FIG. 488.--Theoretical development of fret-work.] + +[Footnote 2: Hartt: Popular Science Monthly, Vol. VI, p. 266.] + +Taking the first series, we observe that the ornaments are projected in +straight continuous lines or zones, which are filled in with more or +less complex parts, rectilinear and geometrically accurate. Still higher +forms are marvelously intricate and graceful, yet not less geometric and +symmetrical. + +[Illustration: FIG. 489.--Theoretical development of scroll work.] + +Let us turn to the primitive artisan, and observe him at work with rude +brush and stylus upon the rounded and irregular forms of his +utensils and weapons, or upon skins, bark, and rock surfaces. Is it +probable that with his free hand directed by the eye alone he will be +able to achieve these rythmic geometric forms. It seems to me that the +whole tendency is in the opposite direction. I venture to surmise that +if there had been no other resources than those named above the typical +rectilinear fret would never have been known, at least to the primitive +world; for, notwithstanding the contrary statement by Professor Hartt, +the fret is in its more highly-developed forms extremely difficult to +follow with the eye and to delineate with the hand. Until arts, +geometric in their construction, arose to create and to combine +mechanically the necessary elements and motives, and lead the way by a +long series of object-lessons to ideas of geometric combination, our +typical border ornament would not be possible. Such arts are the textile +arts and architecture. These brought into existence forms and ideas not +met with in nature and not primarily thought of by man, and combined +them in defiance of human, conceptions of grace. Geometric ornament is +the offspring of technique. + + +INDEX. + +Acquisition of new material modifies form in pottery 451 +Adventition, a source of form 445, 450 +America as a field for study of art 443 +Basketry copied in pottery 449 +Busycon shell copied as a vessel, The 454 +California, Pottery from 447 +Ceramic art, Origin and development of form and + ornament in, W.H. Holmes 437-465 + form discussed 444 + ornament discussed 444 +Coils suggesting spiral ornament 456 +Decorative motive in pottery, Sources of 453 +European civilization checked aboriginal American art 443 +Fancy modifying form in pottery 452 +Fictile art related to written language 443 +Form modifies ornament in pottery 458 + of pottery modified by certain influences 450-452 +Hartt, Prof. C.F., on form of designs as influenced by + structure of the eye 463-464 +Ideographic elements of decoration 453 +Imitation, A source of form 445 +Improvements in modes of manufacture modify forms in pottery 450 +Intention a modifier of form in pottery 452 +Modification of ornaments in pottery 458 +Non-ideographic elements of decoration 453 +Origin and development of form and ornament in + ceramic art (W.H. Holmes) 437-465 +Origin of ornament in pottery 453 +Ornament in pottery, Origin of 453-457 +Ornamental elements modified by invention 453 +Pottery from California 447 + Tusayan 451 + Utah 449 +Scroll, Possible origin of the 459 +Shells copied in pottery 447 +Skin vessels copied in pottery 447 +Sources of decorative motive in ceramic art 453 +Spiral ornament from coils 456 +Stone vessels copied in pottery 447 +Symbols adopted rather than invented 460 +Utility modifies form in pottery 452 +Wooden vessels copied in pottery 447, 451 +Written language as related to fictile art 443 + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Origin and Development of Form and +Ornament in Ceramic Art., by William Henry Holmes + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FORM AND ORNAMENT IN CERAMIC ART *** + +***** This file should be named 19953.txt or 19953.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/1/9/9/5/19953/ + +Produced by Carlos Traverso, Verity White, and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by the Bibliotheque nationale de France (BnF/Gallica) at +http://gallica.bnf.fr) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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